https://bou.de/u/api.php?action=feedcontributions&feedformat=atom&user=Zhang+YiranChina Studies Wiki - User contributions [en]2026-04-04T09:57:29ZUser contributionsMediaWiki 1.35.14https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20211208_homework&diff=13504620211208 homework2021-12-31T02:50:05Z<p>Zhang Yiran: /* 张怡然 Zhāng Yírán 俄语语言文学 女 202120081552 */</p>
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==陈静 Chén Jìng 国别 女 202020080595==<br />
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说了一会话，临走又送我二两银子。”甄家娘子听了，不觉感伤。一夜无话。<br />
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"We talked for a while and give me two bundles of silver when leaving." Hearing this, Mrs. Zhen feel sad and keep silent the whole night.--[[User:Chen Jing|Chen Jing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jing|talk]]) 07:03, 9 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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“After talking for a while, he gave me two Liang of silver before he left. " The Zhen lady listened and felt sad. I was kept silence all night.<br />
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--[[User:Cai Zhufeng|Cai Zhufeng]] ([[User talk:Cai Zhufeng|talk]]) 07:08, 9 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==蔡珠凤 Cài Zhūfèng 法语语言文学 女 202120081477==<br />
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次日，早有雨村遣人送了两封银子、四匹锦缎，答谢甄家娘子；又一封密书与封肃，托他向甄家娘子要那娇杏作二房。封肃喜得眉开眼笑，巴不得去奉承太爷，便在女儿前一力撺掇。<br />
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The next day, Jia Yucun armer Gelehrter sent two bundles of silver and four brocades to thank the Zhen lady; Another secret letter to Feng Su Bauer asked him to ask the Zhen lady for the delicate HM Lucky as concubine. Feng Su Bauer was so happy that he was eager to flatter the Lord, so he tried his best to encourage his daughter.<br />
--[[User:Cai Zhufeng|Cai Zhufeng]] ([[User talk:Cai Zhufeng|talk]]) 14:01, 4 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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The next day, Yucun sent two bundles of silver and four brocades to thank Zhen lady; He also sent another secret letter to Feng Su, asking him to ask Jiaoxing, the daughter of Zhen Lady, to be his second wife. Feng Su was so happy that he was eager to flatter the Lord, so he tried his best to encourage his daughter.--[[User:Chen Huini|Chen Huini]] ([[User talk:Chen Huini|talk]]) 07:56, 5 December 2021 (UTC)Chen Huini<br />
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==陈惠妮 Chén Huìnī 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081479==<br />
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当夜用一乘小轿，便把娇杏送进衙内去了。雨村欢喜，自不必言；又封百金赠与封肃，又送甄家娘子许多礼物，令其且自过活，以待访寻女儿下落。<br />
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One evening, Jiaoxing was sent to prison by a small sedan carriage. Undoutedbly, Yucun was very pleased and gave hundreds of golds to Fengsu and many gifts to Zhen's wife so that she can live by herself untill her daugther was found.--[[User:Chen Huini|Chen Huini]] ([[User talk:Chen Huini|talk]]) 11:17, 4 December 2021 (UTC)Chen Huini<br />
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At that very night he put Jiaoxing in a small sedan-chair and escorted her to the yamen. We don't need to imagine Yucun's satisfaction.He gave Feng Su a hundred pieces of gold and sent Mrs. Zhen many gifts, telling her to take good care of herself that she can find her daughter.--[[User:Chen Xiangqiong|Chen Xiangqiong]] ([[User talk:Chen Xiangqiong|talk]]) 01:11, 7 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==陈湘琼 Chén Xiāngqióng 外国语言学及应用语言学 女 202120081480==<br />
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却说娇杏那丫头，便是当年回顾雨村的，因偶然一看，便弄出这段奇缘，也是意想不到之事。谁知他命运两济：不承望自到雨村身边只一年，便生一子；又半载，雨村嫡配忽染疾下世，雨村便将他扶作正室夫人。<br />
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Now Jiaoxing was the maid who had looked back at Yucun that year, little dreaming that one casual glance could have such an extraordinary outcome.And so lucky she was that wthin a year of marriage she bore a son; and after another half year Yucun's wife was very ill and died, and then he made Jiaoxing his wife, giving her higher position.<br />
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It was said that the girl Jiaoxing, was the one who looked back on Yucun. Because of of a casual glance, they made this fantastic destiny, which was also an unexpected thing. Who knew that his fate was so unpredictable: she was so lucky that wthin a year of marriage she bore a son; and after another half year Yucun's first wife suddenly died of an illness, and then he took Jiaoxing as his principal wife.--[[User:Chen Xinyi|Chen Xinyi]] ([[User talk:Chen Xinyi|talk]]) 14:16, 12 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==陈心怡 Chén Xīnyí 翻译学 女 202120081481==<br />
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正是：偶因一回顾，便为人上人。原来雨村因那年士隐赠银之后，他于十六日便起身赴京。大比之期，十分得意，中了进士，选入外班，今已升了本县太爷。<br />
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Jiaoxing looked back at Jia Yucun out of curiosity, not out of love. But because of such a chance, from a little girl who was serviced, she became a rich lady who serviced others. It turns out that Yucun because of silver given by Shiyin in that year, he left for Beijing on the 16th. He was lucky enough to won the scholar in the great competition and was selected into the outer class, now has been promoted to the county magistrate. --[[User:Chen Xinyi|Chen Xinyi]] ([[User talk:Chen Xinyi|talk]]) 09:33, 4 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Jiaoxing looked back at Jia Yucun out of curiosity, not out of love. And because of such a chance, from a little girl who was serviced, she became a rich lady who serviced others. It turns out that Yucun because of tael given by Shiyin in that year, he left for Beijing on the 16th. He was lucky enough to won the scholar in the great competition and was selected into the outer class, now has been promoted to the county magistrate.--[[User:Cheng Yang|Cheng Yang]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yang|talk]]) 05:01, 12 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==程杨 Chéng Yáng 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081482==<br />
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虽才干优长，未免贪酷，且恃才侮上，那同寅皆侧目而视。不上一年，便被上司参了一本，说他貌似有才，性实狡猾；又题了一两件徇庇蠹役、交结乡绅之事。<br />
Although he was very capable, he was a bit accustomed to corruption, was too harsh on his subordinates, and relied on his outstanding talents, and showed little respect for his superiors. Those colleagues had deep resentment towards him. In less than a year, he was got goods by his superior and wrote these things into a memorial to the throne, saying that he was cunning by nature, tampering with etiquette privately; and writing down one more things of acting wrongly out of personal considerations of those who harmed the interests of citizens and conluding with the squire.--[[User:Cheng Yang|Cheng Yang]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yang|talk]]) 04:54, 12 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Although capable, he was a bit accustomed to corruption, too harsh on his subordinates, relying on his outstanding talents, showing little respect for his superiors. Those colleagues had deep resentment towards him. In less than a year, he was accused by his superior of his cunning by nature, tampering with etiquette privately and mention of one more things of acting wrongly out of personal considerations of those who harmed the interests of citizens and conluding with the squire.--[[User:Ding Xuan|Ding Xuan]] ([[User talk:Ding Xuan|talk]]) 07:03, 12 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==丁旋 Dīng Xuán 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081483==<br />
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龙颜大怒，即命革职。部文一到，本府各官无不喜悦。那雨村虽十分惭恨，面上却全无一点怨色，仍是嘻笑自若。<br />
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The emperor was extremely irritated and immediately removed him from office. Every official of this department was glad when the dismission information arrived. Though very guilty and regretful, Rainvillage was smiling as often without any complaint complexion.--[[User:Ding Xuan|Ding Xuan]] ([[User talk:Ding Xuan|talk]]) 02:29, 8 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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The emperor was extremely irritated and immediately removed him from office. Every official of this department was glad when the dismission information arrived. Though very guilty and regretful, Rainvillage was still smiling without any complainment on the face.--[[User:Du Lina|Du Lina]] ([[User talk:Du Lina|talk]]) 07:37, 12 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==杜莉娜 Dù Lìnuó 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081484==<br />
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交代过了公事，将历年所积的宦囊，并家属人等，送至原籍，安顿妥当了，却自己担风袖月，游览天下胜迹。那日偶又游至维扬地方，闻得今年盐政点的是林如海。<br />
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After giving official business,leaving the family his accumulated salary for several years and settled them in native home, he had given up high official positions and riches and travelled the famous historical sites everywhere.One day he arrived Weiyang（Yangzhou，Jiangsu Province，China）by accident and heared about the present salt administration officer was Lin Ruhai Salzinspektor.--[[User:Du Lina|Du Lina]] ([[User talk:Du Lina|talk]]) 04:23, 5 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==付红岩 Fù Hóngyán 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081485==<br />
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这林如海姓林名海，表字如海，乃是前科的探花，今已升兰台寺大夫，本贯姑苏人氏，今钦点为巡盐御史，到任未久。<br />
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This Lin Ju-hai's family name was Lin, his name Hai and his style Ju-hai. He had obtained the third place in the previous triennial examination, and had, by this time, already risen to the rank of Director of the Court of Censors. He was a native of Ku Su. He had been recently designated by Imperial appointment as a Censor attached to the Salt Inspectorate, and had arrived at his post only a short time.--[[User:Fu Hongyan|Fu Hongyan]] ([[User talk:Fu Hongyan|talk]]) 15:06, 12 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
This Lin Ju-hai's family name was Lin, his name Hai and his style Ju-hai. He had obtained the third place in the previous triennial examination, and had, by this time, already risen to the rank of Director of the Court of Censors. He was a native of Ku Su. He had been recently named by Imperial appointment a Censor attached to the Salt Inspectorate, and had arrived at his post only a short while back.--[[User:Fu Shiyu|Fu Shiyu]] ([[User talk:Fu Shiyu|talk]]) 13:33, 12 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==付诗雨 Fù Shīyǔ 日语语言文学 女 202120081486==<br />
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原来这林如海之祖，也曾袭过列侯的，今到如海，业经五世。起初只袭三世，因当今隆恩盛德，额外加恩，至如海之父又袭了一代，到了如海便从科第出身。<br />
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In fact, the ancestors of Lin Ju-hai had, from years back, successively inherited the title of Marquis, which rank, by its present descent to Ju-hai, had already been enjoyed by five generations. When first conferred, the hereditary right to the title had been limited to three generations; but of late years, by an act of magnanimous favour and generous beneficence, extraordinary bounty had been superadded; and on the arrival of the succession to the father of Ju-hai, the right had been extended to another degree. It had now descended to Ju-hai, who had, besides this title of nobility, begun his career as a successful graduate. --[[User:Fu Shiyu|Fu Shiyu]] ([[User talk:Fu Shiyu|talk]]) 00:55, 5 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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In fact, one of Lin Ju-hai's ancestors five generations earlier had been ennobled as a marquis. The title was originally limited to three generations, but through an act of magnanimous favour and generous beneficence of the Emperor, it had been extended to Lin Ju-hai’s father. Now Lin Ju-hai himself had been obliged to make his way up through the examination system.--[[User:Gao Mi|Gao Mi]] ([[User talk:Gao Mi|talk]]) 15:21, 5 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==高蜜 Gāo Mì 翻译学 女 202120081487==<br />
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虽系世禄之家，却是书香之族。只可惜这林家支庶不盛，人丁有限，虽有几门，却与如海俱是堂族，没甚亲支嫡派的。今如海年已五十，只有一个三岁之子，又于去岁亡了；<br />
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It was not only a family of hereditary emoluments, but also of scholars. Unfortunately, the family was not prolific despite the fact that several branches existed. And Lin Ju-hai had cousins but no brothers or sisters. He was fifty already, and his only child had died last year at the age of three.--[[User:Gao Mi|Gao Mi]] ([[User talk:Gao Mi|talk]]) 14:53, 5 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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It was not only a family of hereditary emoluments, but also of scholars. Unfortunately, the family was not prolific despite the fact that several branches existed. And Lin Ju-hai had cousins but no brothers or sisters. Now he was fifty years old, and had only a three-year-old son, who died last year.--[[User:Gong Boya|Gong Boya]] ([[User talk:Gong Boya|talk]]) 14:13, 10 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==宫博雅 Gōng Bóyǎ 俄语语言文学 女 202120081488==<br />
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虽有几房姬妾，奈命中无子，亦无可如何之事。只嫡妻贾氏生得一女，乳名黛玉，年方五岁，夫妻爱之如掌上明珠。见他生得聪明俊秀，也欲使他识几个字，不过假充养子，聊解膝下荒凉之叹。<br />
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Although he had several concubines, he was doomed to have no son (to inherit the family line). Only lady Merchant, his legal wife, gave birth to a daughter, Mascara Jade Forest, aged five. The couple doted on their daughter like a pearl on the palm of their eyes. Lin Ruhai wanted to teach him to read, because he was smart and handsome, and Lin Ruhai wanted to ease the loneliness of not having a son by pretending to adopt him.--[[User:Gong Boya|Gong Boya]] ([[User talk:Gong Boya|talk]]) 05:55, 5 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Although he had several concubines, he had no son in his life, and nothing could be done about it. The first wife, Min Merchant, had a daughter named Mascara Jade Forest, who was five years old and loved by the couple as a jewel. Seeing that she looked smart and beautiful, they also wanted to make her literate, but raised her as a son to relieve the sorrow of no son. --[[User:He Qin|He Qin]] ([[User talk:He Qin|talk]]) 13:44, 5 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==何芩 Hé Qín 翻译学 女 202120081489==<br />
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且说贾雨村在旅店偶感风寒，愈后又因盘费不继，正欲得一个居停之所，以为息肩之地。偶遇两个旧友，认得新盐政，知他正要请一西席教训女儿，遂将雨村荐进衙门去。<br />
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The story goes that Rainvillage Merchant caught a cold at the inn and recovered. He wanted to get a place to stay but he could not afford the fee. He met two old friends who got acquainted the new official of salt (Ruhai Forest) and knew that Forest was about to hire a tutor for his daughter, so they recommended Rainvillage to the government office.--[[User:He Qin|He Qin]] ([[User talk:He Qin|talk]]) 13:57, 5 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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The story goes that Jia Yucun caught a cold occasionally at the inn, after recovering his money almost running out. He wanted to get a place to rest himself. He came across two old friends who acquainted with the new official of salt, knowing that he would hire a tutor for his daughter, so they recommended Jia Yucun to the government office.--[[User:Hu Shuqing|Hu Shuqing]] ([[User talk:Hu Shuqing|talk]]) 02:39, 12 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==胡舒情 Hú Shūqíng 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081490==<br />
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这女学生年纪幼小，身体又弱，功课不限多寡，其馀不过两个伴读丫鬟，故雨村十分省力，正好养病。看看又是一载有馀，不料女学生之母贾氏夫人一病而亡。<br />
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The girl student was young and in poor health, the number of her assignments unnessesary with two servant girls, so Yucun needed less effort and could convalesce. Unexpectedly, the girl's mother, Ms.Jia died of illness after nearly a year.--[[User:Hu Shuqing|Hu Shuqing]] ([[User talk:Hu Shuqing|talk]]) 02:06, 12 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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The female pupil was youthful in years and delicate in physique, so that her lessons were irregular. There were only two waiting girls, who remained in attendance during the hours of study, so that Yue-ts'un was spared considerable trouble and had a suitable opportunity to attend to the improvement of his health.--[[User:Huang Jinyun|Huang Jinyun]] ([[User talk:Huang Jinyun|talk]]) 14:50, 12 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==黄锦云 Huáng Jǐnyún 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081491==<br />
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女学生奉侍汤药，守丧尽礼，过于哀痛，素本怯弱，因此旧病复发，有好些时不曾上学。雨村闲居无聊，每当风日晴和，饭后便出来闲步。这一日偶至郊外，意欲赏鉴那村野风光。<br />
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The girl was dutiful in her attendance during her mother's sickness, and prepared the medicines. She went into the deepest mourning for her mother's death. Prescribed by the rites, she gave way to such excess of grief that, naturally delicate as she was, broke out anew. Being unable for a considerable time to prosecute her studies, Yue-ts'un lived at leisure and needn't to attend to. Whenever the wind was genial and the sun mild, he would stroll at random after meals.One day by some accident, walking beyond the suburbs he came up to a spot encircled by luxuriant clumps of trees and thick groves of bamboos.--[[User:Huang Jinyun|Huang Jinyun]] ([[User talk:Huang Jinyun|talk]]) 08:07, 5 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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During her mother's sickness, the girl was dutiful in her attendance and prepared the medicines. She went into the deepest mourning for her mother's death. Prescribed by the rites, she gave way to such excess of grief that, naturally delicate as she was, broke out anew. Unable to prosecute her studies for a considerable time, Rainvillage Merchant lived at leisure and needn't to attend to. Whenever the wind was genial and the sun mild, he would stroll at random after meals. One day by some accident, he walked to the countryside to enjoy the scenery.--[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 15:12, 6 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==黄逸妍 Huáng Yìyán 外国语言学及应用语言学 女 202120081492==<br />
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信步至一山环水漩、茂林修竹之处，隐隐有座庙宇，门巷倾颓，墙垣剥落。有额题曰“智通寺”，门旁又有一副旧破的对联云：身后有馀忘缩手，眼前无路想回头。<br />
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He walked to a place with luxuriant woods and bamboo groves which is surrounded by hill and streams.And there was a temple half hidden among the foliage whose entrance was in ruins and walls were crumbling. There was an inscription above the gate: Zhi tong Temple. And flanking the gate was a couplet: Though plenty was left after death, one forgot to hold his hand back. Only at the end of the road does one think of turning on to the right back.--[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 15:04, 6 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Walking to a place surrounded by mountains, swirling water and lush forests and bamboos, there is a temple. The doors and alleys are falling and the walls are peeling off. There is a forehead titled "Zhitong Temple", and there is an old broken couplet beside the door: I forgot to withdraw my hand behind me, and there is no way to turn back.--[[User:Zeng Junlin|Zeng Junlin]] ([[User talk:Zeng Junlin|talk]]) 02:02, 6 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==曾俊霖 Zēng Jùnlín 国别 男 202120081478==<br />
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雨村看了，因想道：“这两句文虽甚浅，其意则深。也曾游过些名山大刹，倒不曾见过这话头。其中想必有个翻过筋斗来的，也未可知。<br />
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Rainvillage Merchant looked at it and thought, "although these two sentences are very shallow, their meaning is deep. I've also visited some famous mountains and great temples, but I haven't seen this sentence. One of them must have somersaulted, and I don't know.<br />
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Rainvillage Merchant looked at it and thought, "although these two sentences are very shallow, their meaning is deep. I've also visited some famous mountains and great temples, but I haven't seen this sentence. One of them must have somersaulted, and I don't know.--[[User:Huang Zhuliang|Huang Zhuliang]] ([[User talk:Huang Zhuliang|talk]]) 03:22, 6 December 2021 (UTC)Huang Zhuliang<br />
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==黄柱梁 Huáng Zhùliáng 国别 男 202120081493==<br />
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何不进去一访？”走入看时，只有一个龙锺老僧在那里煮粥。雨村见了，却不在意。及至问他两句话，那老僧既聋且昏，又齿落舌钝，所答非所问。雨村不耐烦，仍退出来。When Yu Cun walked in, there was only one old monk cooking porridge there. Yucun saw him, but he didn't care. When he asked him a few words, the old monk was deaf and faint, and his tongue was dull. His answer was not what he asked. Yucun was impatient and still withdrew.<br />
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When Yu Cun walked in, there was only one old monk cooking porridge there. Yucun saw him, but he didn't care about him. When he asked him a few words, the old monk was deaf and faint, and his tongue was dull. His answer was not what he asked. Yucun was impatient and still withdrew.--[[User:Jin Xiaotong|Jin Xiaotong]] ([[User talk:Jin Xiaotong|talk]]) 13:33, 8 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==金晓童 Jīn Xiǎotóng 202120081494==<br />
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意欲到那村肆中沽饮三杯，以助野趣，于是移步行来。刚入肆门，只见座上吃酒之客，有一人起身大笑，接了出来，口内说：“奇遇，奇遇！”<br />
He wanted to go to the village pub for a drink, for the pleasure of nature. So he went on his way. When He entered the pub, he could only see the drinking men in the seats. A man got up and laughed, and then came out, saying repeatedly“What a fortuitous meeting！”<br />
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He wanted to go to the village pub for a drink to take the pleasure of nature. So he went on his way. When He entered the pub, he could only see the drinking men in the seats. A man got up and laughed, and then came out, saying repeatedly“What a fortuitous meeting！”--[[User:Kuang Yanli|Kuang Yanli]] ([[User talk:Kuang Yanli|talk]]) 14:28, 12 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==邝艳丽 Kuàng Yànl 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081495==<br />
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雨村忙看时，此人是都中古董行中贸易，姓冷号子兴的，旧日在都相识。雨村最赞这冷子兴是个有作为大本领的人，这子兴又借雨村斯文之名，故二人最相投契。<br />
Yu Cun was busy looking at this man, who was an antiquary in the city. The man was called Zixing Leng. They met in the city before. Yucun praised him as a competent person, and he borrowed yucun’s name, so these two men are agreeable with each other.--[[User:Kuang Yanli|Kuang Yanli]] ([[User talk:Kuang Yanli|talk]]) 14:25, 12 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Rainvillage Merchant was busy looking at this man, who was an antiquary in the city. The man was called Leng Zixing who he’ve met in the city before. Rainvillage Merchant praised him most as a competent person, and he borrowed Rainvillage Merchant’s name, so these two men are agreeable with each other.--[[User:Li Aixuan|Li Aixuan]] ([[User talk:Li Aixuan|talk]]) 01:34, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==李爱璇 Lǐ Àixuán 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081496==<br />
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雨村忙亦笑问：“老兄何日到此？弟竟不知。今日偶遇，真奇缘也！”子兴道：“去年岁底到家，今因还要入都，从此顺路找个敝友，说一句话。<br />
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"When did you get here?" Rainvillage Merchant eagerly inquired also smilingly. "I wasn't aware of your arrival. This unexpected meeting is positively a strange piece of good fortune." "I went home," Zi Xing replied, "at the end of last year, but now as I return to the capital again, I passed through here on my way to look up a friend of mine and talk some matters over.--[[User:Li Aixuan|Li Aixuan]] ([[User talk:Li Aixuan|talk]]) 01:39, 6 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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"When did you get here?" Rainvillage Merchant eagerly and smilingly inquired. "I wasn't aware of your arrival. This unexpected meeting is a strange piece of good fortune." <br />
"I went home," Tzu-hsing replied, "about the close of last year, but now as I am again bound to the capital, I passed through here on my way to look up a friend and have a chat.--[[User:Li Ruiyang|Li Ruiyang]] ([[User talk:Li Ruiyang|talk]]) 14:20, 8 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:Li Ruiyang|Li Ruiyang]] ([[User talk:Li Ruiyang|talk]]) 13:39, 29 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==李瑞洋 Lǐ Ruìyáng 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081497==<br />
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承他的情，留我多住两日。我也无甚紧事，且盘桓两日，待月半时也就起身了。今日敝友有事，我因闲走到此，不期这样巧遇。”一面说，一面让雨村同席坐了，另整上酒肴来。<br />
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He had the kindness to press me to stay with him for a couple of days longer. As I also have no urgent business to attend to, I am tarrying a few days, but purpose starting about the middle of the moon. My friend is busy today, so I roamed listlessly as far as here, never expecting of such a fortunate meeting." While speaking, he invited Rainvillage Merchant to sit down at the same table, and ordered a fresh supply of wine and eatables. --[[User:Li Ruiyang|Li Ruiyang]] ([[User talk:Li Ruiyang|talk]]) 14:21, 8 December 2021 (UTC)--[[User:Li Ruiyang|Li Ruiyang]] ([[User talk:Li Ruiyang|talk]]) 13:40, 29 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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“He was so kind that he asked me to stay for another couple of days. As I had no other urgencies to attend to, I stayed as he expected. When we chatted til the moon was high above the sky, I got up and left alone. My friend is busy today, so I roamed listlessly as far as here, never expecting such an encounter." While speaking, he invited Rain Village Merchant to sit down with him, and ordered a fresh supply of wine and dishes.--[[User:Li Shan|Li Shan]] ([[User talk:Li Shan|talk]]) 07:52, 11 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==李姗 Lǐ Shān 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081498==<br />
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二人闲谈慢饮，叙些别后之事。雨村因问：“近日都中可有新闻没有？”子兴道：“倒没有什么新闻，倒是老先生的贵同宗家出了一件小小的异事。”<br />
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Over drinking, they two talked about some plans of the near future after the farewell. Then Rain Village Merchant asked: Is there anything new in the capital city? Joker answered，“Nothing new. But in your dignified remote relative's house there is indeed a strange thing.”--[[User:Li Shan|Li Shan]] ([[User talk:Li Shan|talk]]) 14:49, 4 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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They two drank and talked about some plans of the near future after the farewell. Then Rain Village Merchant asked: "Is there anything new in the capital city?" Joker answered，“Nothing new. But there happened a strange thing in your dignified remote relative's family.”--[[User:Li Shuang|Li Shuang]] ([[User talk:Li Shuang|talk]]) 14:25, 12 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==李双 Lǐ Shuāng 翻译学 女 202120081499==<br />
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雨村笑道：“弟族中无人在都，何谈及此？”子兴笑道：“你们同姓，岂非一族？”雨村问：“是谁家？”子兴笑道：“荣国贾府中，可也不玷辱老先生的门楣了。”<br />
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Rain-Village laughed and said: “No one in my family is in the capital. Why are you talking about this?” Zi Xing said: “You have the same surname, are you not a family?” Rain-Village asked: “Who?” Zi Xing answered: “Merchant’s family. I did not slander the family status of the old gentleman.”--[[User:Li Shuang|Li Shuang]] ([[User talk:Li Shuang|talk]]) 14:20, 12 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Rainvillage Merchant laughed and said: “No one in my family is in the capital. Why are you talking about this?” Lëng Dsï-hsing said: “You have the same surname, aren’t you the same family?” Rainvillage Merchant asked: “Who?” Lëng Dsï-hsing answered: “Merchant’s family. I did not slander the family status of the old gentleman.” --[[User:Li Wenxuan|Li Wenxuan]] ([[User talk:Li Wenxuan|talk]]) 23:48, 12 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==李文璇 Lǐ Wénxuán 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081500==<br />
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雨村道：“原来是他家。若论起来，寒族人丁却自不少，东汉贾复以来，支派繁盛，各省皆有，谁能逐细考查？若论荣国一支，却是同谱。但他那等荣耀，我们不便去认他，故越发生疏了。”<br />
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Rainvillage Merchant said: "It's his house. If discussed explicitly, the people of Han's family were of great quantity since the Eastern Han Dynasty of Jiafu. Their branches were numerous in each province, who can examine one by one? If only discussed the branch of Rongguo, they were the same. But the Rongguo were glorious, it was inconvenient for us to make a connection with them, so we were getting more and more unfamiliar. --[[User:Li Wenxuan|Li Wenxuan]] ([[User talk:Li Wenxuan|talk]]) 08:22, 4 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
Yucun said: "It turned out to be his family. If you talk about it, there are many Han people. Since the Eastern Han Dynasty, the tribe has been prosperous and there are all provinces. Who can examine it carefully? . But he is so glorious, it is inconvenient for us to recognize him, so we have become more and more estranged."--[[User:Li Wen|Li Wen]] ([[User talk:Li Wen|talk]]) 10:02, 6 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==李雯 Lǐ Wén 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081501==<br />
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子兴叹道：“老先生休这样说。如今的这荣、宁两府，也都萧索了，不比先时的光景。”雨村道：“当日宁、荣两宅人口也极多，如何便萧索了呢？”子兴道：“正是，说来也话长。”<br />
Zi Xing sighed, "Old Mr. Xiu said this. The Rong and Ning residences are now depressed, not as good as the previous conditions." Rain-Village said: "The Ning and Rong residences had a large population that day. Is it done?" Zi Xing said: "Exactly, it's a long story."--[[User:Li Wen|Li Wen]] ([[User talk:Li Wen|talk]]) 10:01, 6 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
The son sighed: "This is what old Hugh said. The provinces of Rong and Ning are now deserted, not as they were in the past." Rain village way: "that day ning, rong two house population is also very much, how then deserted?" Zi Xing said, "Exactly. It's a long story."--[[User:Li Xinxing|Li Xinxing]] ([[User talk:Li Xinxing|talk]]) 14:33, 7 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==李新星 Lǐ Xīnxīng 亚非语言文学 女 202120081503==<br />
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雨村道：“去岁我到金陵时，因欲游览六朝遗迹，那日进了石头城，从他宅门前经过：街东是宁国府，街西是荣国府，二宅相连，竟将大半条街占了。<br />
Yucun said: "Last year when I went to Jinlin because I wanted to visit The Remaining Vestiges of the Six Dynasties, that day into the Stone city, from the front of his house through: street east is Ningguofu, street west is Rongguofu, two houses connected, unexpectedly occupied half of the street.--[[User:Li Xinxing|Li Xinxing]] ([[User talk:Li Xinxing|talk]]) 14:32, 7 December 2021 (UTC)--[[User:Li Xinxing|Li Xinxing]] ([[User talk:Li Xinxing|talk]]) 13:01, 29 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Yucun said, "when I came to Jinling last year, I wanted to visit the ruins of the Six Dynasties. On that day, I entered the stone city and passed in front of his house: Ningguo house is in the east of the street, Rongguo house is in the west, and the two houses are connected, occupying more than half of the street.--[[User:Li Yi|Li Yi]] ([[User talk:Li Yi|talk]]) 14:35, 7 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==李怡 Lǐ Yí 法语语言文学 女 202120081504==<br />
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大门外虽冷落无人，隔着围墙一望，里面厅殿楼阁，也还都峥嵘轩峻；就是后边一带花园里，树木山石，也都还有葱蔚洇润之气：那里像个衰败之家？”<br />
Although deserted outside the gate, across the wall to see the hall hall pavilions, are also lofty xuan Jun; Even in the garden at the back, the trees and rocks were all luxuriant: it did not look at all like a run-down house--[[User:Li Yi|Li Yi]] ([[User talk:Li Yi|talk]]) 01:57, 5 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Although deserted outside the gate, the hall and pavilions were also lofty and grand seen across the wall.Even in the garden at the back, the trees and rocks were all luxuriant: how did it look like a run-down house?--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 14:14, 7 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==刘沛婷 Liú Pèitíng 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081505==<br />
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子兴笑道：“亏你是进士出身，原来不通。古人有言：‘百足之虫，死而不僵。’如今虽说不似先年那样兴盛，较之平常仕宦人家，到底气象不同。<br />
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Zi Xing laughed and said, "You are a scholar but know nothing about its cause. There is an ancient saying: ‘old institutions die hard'. Now, though not as prosperous as in previous years, the atmosphere is different from that of ordinary officials.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 14:09, 7 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Zi Xing chuckled, "You are a scholar but know nothing about its cause. As a old saying goes, ‘old institutions die hard’. Now, though not as prosperous as before, the splendor is different from that of ordinary officials.--[[User:Liu Shengnan|Liu Shengnan]] ([[User talk:Liu Shengnan|talk]]) 10:51, 8 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==刘胜楠 Liú Shèngnán 翻译学 女 202120081506==<br />
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如今生齿日繁，事务日盛，主仆上下都是安富尊荣，运筹谋画的竟无一个；那日用排场，又不能将就省俭。如今外面的架子虽没很倒，内囊却也尽上来了。这也是小事。<br />
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Their family members are growing, their commitments are increasing, and both masters and servants are used to lavishly controlling it. However no one thinks of the future. They squander money every day and can't save at all. On the surface, they look as noble as before, but their wallets are almost empty. However, this is not their biggest trouble.--[[User:Liu Shengnan|Liu Shengnan]] ([[User talk:Liu Shengnan|talk]]) 10:46, 8 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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In Jia Mansion, there are many people to bring up, and household duties are getting more and more day by day. Masters and servants, from top to bottom, enjoy glory and wealth but no one to plan. They squander money every day and can't save at all. Although they still extravagant on the surface as ever, their wallets are almost empty. and this is not counted the biggest trouble. --[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 12:47, 8 December 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei<br />
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==刘薇 Liú Wēi 国别 女 202120081507==<br />
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更有一件大事：谁知这样钟鸣鼎食的人家儿，如今养的儿孙，竟一代不如一代了。”雨村听说，也道：“这样诗礼之家，岂有不善教育之理？别门不知，只说这宁、荣两宅，是最教子有方的，何至如此？”<br />
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There is one more important event: Who knows that the children of such a luxurious family, the children and grandchildren are not as good as previous generations." When Djia Yü-tsun heard about it, he also said: "Is there any reason for such a family who always study and pay attention to ethics for generations is bad at education? Although I don't know the situation of other families, it is said that Ning-guo-Anwesen and Jung-guo-Anwesen are the most skillful in teaching children. How did they get to such a situation ? " --[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 15:37, 7 December 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei<br />
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That's not the worst thing. Who will know that the children of such a noble clan can be inferior to the last." Hearing about that, Yucun replied:"a family so cultures and versed in etiquette doesn't know the importance of education? Although I don't know other families, I've always heard that these two houses take great efforts to educate their children. How did they fall to such a situation?"--[[User:Liu Xiao|Liu Xiao]] ([[User talk:Liu Xiao|talk]]) 12:45, 8 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==刘晓 Liú Xiǎo 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081508==<br />
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子兴叹道：“正说的是这两门呢！等我告诉你：当日宁国公是一母同胞弟兄两个。宁公居长，生了两个儿子。宁公死后，长子贾代化袭了官，也养了两个儿子：长子贾敷，八九岁上死了；<br />
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"It's these two houses I'm talking about!" Son Prosperity signed, "Just let me tell you: the Duke of Ningguo and the Duke of Rongguo were brothers by the same mother. The Duke of Ningguo, the elder, had two sons, and after his death, his oldest son, Jia daihua, succeeded the title. The elder one of his two sons, Jia Fu, died at the age of eight or nine.--[[User:Liu Xiao|Liu Xiao]] ([[User talk:Liu Xiao|talk]]) 05:14, 6 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Zi Xing sighed, "I was about to say something about these two families! Let me tell you: the Duke of Rongguo, as he is now called, had two brothers from the same mother. Lord Ning was the eldest brother and had two sons，and after his death, his oldest son, Jia daihua, succeeded the title. The elder one of his two sons, Jia Fu, died at the age of eight or nine.--[[User:Liu Yue|Liu Yue]] ([[User talk:Liu Yue|talk]]) 08:32, 10 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==刘越 Liú Yuè 亚非语言文学 女 202120081509==<br />
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只剩了一个次子贾敬，袭了官，如今一味好道，只爱烧丹炼汞，别事一概不管。幸而早年留下一个儿子，名唤贾珍，因他父亲一心想作神仙，把官倒让他袭了。<br />
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Only his second son, Honor Merchant, survived and succeeded to his position. Now he devoted himself only to Taoism and alchemy, and did nothing else. Fortunately, in his early years, he had left a son named Treasure Merchant, for his father had set his heart on becoming a fairy, so he succeeded to the position. --[[User:Liu Yue|Liu Yue]] ([[User talk:Liu Yue|talk]]) 07:30, 4 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Only his second son, Honor Merchant, survived and succeeded to his position. Now Honor Merchant devotes himself entirely to Taoism and alchemy, and does nothing else. Fortunately, in his early years, he had left a son named Treasure Merchant. For his father has set his heart on becoming immortal, Treasure Merchant succeeded to the position. --[[User:Liu Yunxin|Liu Yunxin]] ([[User talk:Liu Yunxin|talk]]) 08:36, 11 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==刘运心 Liú Yùnxīn 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081510==<br />
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他父亲又不肯住在家里，只在都中城外，和那些道士们胡羼。这位珍爷也生了一个儿子，今年才十六岁，名叫贾蓉。如今敬老爷不管事了。<br />
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His father refused to stay at home, but rather preferred to fool around with those Taoist priests. This Master Treasure Merchant also has a son called Prosperity Merchant, who’s only 16 years old. Nowadays Lord Honor Merchant is no longer in charge. --[[User:Liu Yunxin|Liu Yunxin]] ([[User talk:Liu Yunxin|talk]]) 08:27, 11 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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His father is unwilling to live at home, but prefers to wander around the city to fool around with those Taoist priests. Treasure Merchant also has a son named Prosperity Merchant who is 16 years old. Now, Lord Honor Merchant is no longer in charge. --[[User:Luo Anyi|Luo Anyi]] ([[User talk:Luo Anyi|talk]]) 13:42, 12 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==罗安怡 Luó Ānyí 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081511==<br />
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这珍爷那里干正事，只一味高乐不了，把那宁国府竟翻过来了，也没有敢来管他的人。再说荣府你听，方才所说异事就出在这里。<br />
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Treasure Merchant would not do any proper thing but to amuse himself. Even if he turns the Ning-Guo House upside down, no one there dares to stop him. Then I will tell you about Rong House where the strange thing that I just mentioned happened. --[[User:Luo Anyi|Luo Anyi]] ([[User talk:Luo Anyi|talk]]) 13:24, 12 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Mr Zhen would not do any his proper business，but only amuse himself，and though he turned rabbit in Ning Mansion，there is no one who dare to limit him.And I must tell you that some queer things just happen here.--[[User:Luo Xi|Luo Xi]] ([[User talk:Luo Xi|talk]]) 14:04, 12 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==罗曦 Luó Xī 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081512==<br />
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自荣公死后，长子贾代善袭了官，娶的是金陵世家史侯的小姐为妻。生了两个儿子：长名贾赦，次名贾政。如今代善早已去世，太夫人尚在。<br />
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Since the death of Rong Gong, the elder son Jia Daishan inherited the official title and get merried with the daughter of an aristocratic family in Jinling. They have two sons: the elder son is called Jia She, the second son is called Jia Zheng. Now Jia Daishan has already passed away with his wife still alive. --[[User:Luo Xi|Luo Xi]] ([[User talk:Luo Xi|talk]]) 03:06, 9 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Since the death of Lord Rong（Jia Yuan), the elder son Jia Daishan inherited the official title and married Shi Hou’s daughter from an aristocratic family in Gold Mausoleum as his wife. They had two children: the elder son Pardon Merchant, and the second named Master Merchant. Today Daishan has long passed away, and his wife is still alive.--[[User:Ma Xin|Ma Xin]] ([[User talk:Ma Xin|talk]]) 02:02, 8 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==马新 Mǎ Xīn 外国语言学及应用语言学 女 202120081513==<br />
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长子贾赦袭了官，为人却也中平，也不管理家事。惟有次子贾政，自幼酷喜读书，为人端方正直。祖父锺爱，原要他从科甲出身。<br />
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The eldest son Pardon Merchant, inherited the official position from his ancestors but he was not top-notch and did not manage the family affairs as well. Only his second son, Master Merchant, loved to read since childhood and was a man of upright. His grandfather (Jia Yuan) like him the most and originally planed to let him take the imperial examination before becoming an official.--[[User:Ma Xin|Ma Xin]] ([[User talk:Ma Xin|talk]]) 08:02, 4 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Their elder son Pardon Merchant inherited the official title; he was moderate and often remained neutral, and did not manage the family affairs. Only the younger son, Master Merchant, was fond of studying as a child and was a man of upright so that he was his grandfather's (Jia Yuan) favorite, and he hoped to make a career for himself through the imperial examinations. --[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 09:05, 4 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==毛雅文 Máo Yǎwén 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081514==<br />
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不料代善临终遗本一上，皇上怜念先臣，即叫长子袭了官；又问还有几个儿子，立刻引见，又将这政老爷赐了个额外主事职衔，叫他入部习学，如今现已升了员外郎。<br />
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Unexpectedly, when Djia Dai-schan (Jia Daishan) died, he left a valedictory memorial, and the Emperor, out of memory and regard for his former minister, not only conferred the official title on his elder son but also asked what other sons there were and ordered them to be introduced to the palace immediately. The Emperor also bestowed the rank of Assistant Secretary on Master Merchant, and as an additional favor gave him instructions to familiarize himself with affairs in one of the ministries. He has now risen to the rank of Under-Secretary. --[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 08:40, 4 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Unexpectedly, when Jia Daishan died, he left a valedictory memorial, and the Emperor, out of memory and regard for his former minister, not only conferred the official title on his elder son but also asked what other sons he had and ordered his sons to be introduced to the palace immediately. The Emperor also bestowed the rank of Assistant Secretary on Jia Zheng, and as an additional favor gave him instructions to familiarize himself with affairs in one of the ministries. He has now risen to the rank of Under-Secretary.--[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 08:53, 11 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==毛优 Máo Yōu 俄语语言文学 女 202120081515==<br />
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这政老爷的夫人王氏，头胎生的公子名叫贾珠，十四岁进学，后来娶了妻，生了子，不到二十岁，一病就死了。第二胎生了一位小姐，生在大年初一，就奇了。<br />
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Mrs. Wang --- the wife of Lord Zheng. Their first child was a son named Jia Zhu, who entered school at the age of fourteen, then married and gave birth to a son, who died of an illness before the age of twenty. The second child was a young girl, born on the first day of the year. It was very surprising.--[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 08:45, 4 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Mrs. Wang --- the wife of Master Merchant gave birth to her first child a boy named Bead Merchant, who entered school at the age of fourteen, then married and got a son. But Jia Zhu died of an illness before the age of twenty. The couple’s second child was a girl born on the first day of the year, which was surprising.--[[User:Mou Yixin|Mou Yixin]] ([[User talk:Mou Yixin|talk]]) 06:17, 29 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==牟一心 Móu Yīxīn 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081516==<br />
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不想隔了十几年，又生了一位公子，说来更奇：一落胞胎，嘴里便衔下一块五彩晶莹的玉来，还有许多字迹。你道是新闻不是？”<br />
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Surprisingly, Mrs Wang gave birth to a boy after more than ten years and it is even strange that the boy was born with a piece of colorful and sparkling crystal with handwritings in his mouth. Isn’t it news?--[[User:Mou Yixin|Mou Yixin]] ([[User talk:Mou Yixin|talk]]) 06:25, 6 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Surprisingly, after an interval of more than ten years, Mrs Wang gave birth to another male child, and even more miraculously, the boy was born with a piece of colorful and sparkling crystal with handwritings in his mouth. Isn’t it news?--[[User:Peng Ruixue|Peng Ruixue]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruixue|talk]]) 09:22, 6 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==彭瑞雪 Péng Ruìxuě 法语语言文学 女 202120081517==<br />
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雨村笑道：“果然奇异。只怕这人的来历不小。”子兴冷笑道：“万人都这样说，因而他祖母爱如珍宝。那年周岁时，政老爷试他将来的志向，便将世上所有的东西摆了无数叫他抓。<br />
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Rainvillage Merchant laughed, "It's really strange. I'm afraid this man has a lot of history." Leng Zixing laughed coldly and said, "Everyone says so, so his grandmother loves him like a treasure. That year, when he was one year old, Mr. Master Jia tested his future aspirations, so he laid out countless things in the world for him to grab.--[[User:Peng Ruixue|Peng Ruixue]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruixue|talk]]) 09:17, 6 December 2021 (UTC)--[[User:Peng Ruixue|Peng Ruixue]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruixue|talk]]) 12:51, 29 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Yu Cun laughed, "It's really strange. I'm afraid this man has a lot of fame" Zi Xing laughed ruthlessly and said, "Everyone says like this, so his grandmother loves him like a treasure. When Jia Baoyu was one year old, Mr. Zheng wanted to test his future aspirations, so he laid out countless things in the world for him to grab.--[[User:Qing Jianan|Qing Jianan]] ([[User talk:Qing Jianan|talk]]) 09:46, 7 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==秦建安 Qín Jiànān 外国语言学及应用语言学 女 202120081518==<br />
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谁知他一概不取，伸手只把些脂粉钗环抓来玩弄。那政老爷便不喜欢，说将来不过酒色之徒，因此不甚爱惜。独那太君还是命根子一般。说<br />
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But he didn't catch anything, only reach his hand for some powder,hairpin and ring to play. Mr.Zheng was not satisfied with his action,and thought him as a gambler in the future.Therefore, Politic Merchant didn't show his preference toward Precious Jade Merchant,but that Grandma Merchant still regarded him as her treature,and said:--[[User:Qing Jianan|Qing Jianan]] ([[User talk:Qing Jianan|talk]]) 10:01, 7 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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However, he did not take any of them, but only reached his hands out for some powders, hairpins and rings to play with. That action did not please sir Zheng at all, what’s more, sir Zheng said he would be only a voluptuary in the future. Therefore, sir Zheng did not particularly cherish Baoyu, however, lady dowager still loved him as if he was the most preciou treasure.--[[User:Qiu Tingting|Qiu Tingting]] ([[User talk:Qiu Tingting|talk]]) 05:28, 8 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==邱婷婷 Qiū Tíngtíng 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081519==<br />
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说来又奇：如今长了十来岁，虽然淘气异常，但聪明乖觉，百个不及他一个。说起孩子话来也奇，他说：‘女儿是水做的骨肉，男子是泥做的骨肉。我见了女儿便清爽，见了男子便觉浊臭逼人。’<br />
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Strange to say: now he is ten years old, abnormally naughty , but smart and clever, even better than one hundred other children of his age. What he says is also very odd. Once he said, ‘Girls are made of water, men of mud. He will feel debonaire when he see girls, but when he see men, what he can feel is only squalidness.’--[[User:Qiu Tingting|Qiu Tingting]] ([[User talk:Qiu Tingting|talk]]) 02:34, 5 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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It's strange to notice that now he is ten years more older, abnormally naughty , but smart and clever, even better than one hundred other children of his age. What he says is also very odd. Once he said, "Girls are made of water, men of mud. I qwill feel debonaire when I see girls, but when I see men, what I can feel is only squalidness."--[[User:Rao Jinying|Rao Jinying]] ([[User talk:Rao Jinying|talk]]) 13:18, 5 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==饶金盈 Ráo Jīnyíng 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081520==<br />
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你道好笑不好笑？将来色鬼无疑了。”雨村罕然厉色道：“非也。可惜你们不知道这人的来历，大约政老前辈也错以淫魔色鬼看待了。<br />
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"Don't you think it's ridiculous? He or she will be a lecher in the future undoubtedly." Jia Yucun said with a serious look: "Not true. Unfortunately, you do not know the identity of this person, may be the old senior Master Merchant may also wrongly regard him or her as a lewd."--[[User:Rao Jinying|Rao Jinying]] ([[User talk:Rao Jinying|talk]]) 13:14, 5 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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“Have you realized the facetiosity of it? He or she will be beyond all doubt a lecher.” Rain Village Merchant said with stern countenance: “ it is absolutely not the truth. It is a pity that you are insensible of the background of this person and senior Master Merchant may also mistakenly regarded him or her as a lewd demon”.--[[User:Shi Liqing|Shi Liqing]] ([[User talk:Shi Liqing|talk]]) 00:59, 5 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==石丽青 Shí Lìqīng 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081521==<br />
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若非多读书识事，加以致知格物之功、悟道参玄之力者，不能知也。”子兴见他说得这样重大，忙请教其故。雨村道：“天地生人，除大仁大恶，馀者皆无大异。<br />
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If someone was not well-read, knowledge-inquiring and truth-enlightening, he or she would be ignorant of it. Son Prosperity believed that Rain Village Merchant took it so seriously that he was bursting with impatience to make clear the reasons within it. Rain Village Merchant asserted: “the universe gives birth to mankind that boasts no differences except the benevolent and the evil.--[[User:Shi Liqing|Shi Liqing]] ([[User talk:Shi Liqing|talk]]) 00:36, 5 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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If someone was not well-read, knowledge-inquired and truth-enlightened, he or she would be ignorant.After seeing that Yucun took it so seriously, Zixing couldn't wait to ask him the reasons.Yucun asserted: “The universe gives birth to mankind that boasts no differences except the benevolent and the evil."--[[User:Sun Yashi|Sun Yashi]] ([[User talk:Sun Yashi|talk]]) 09:24, 5 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==孙雅诗 Sūn Yǎshī 外国语言学及应用语言学 女 202120081522==<br />
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若大仁者则应运而生，大恶者则应劫而生；运生世治，劫生世危。尧、舜、禹、汤、文、武、周、召、孔、孟、董、韩、周、程、朱、张，皆应运而生者；<br />
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The great benevolence was born in the time of good fortune,the great evil was born in the time of bad fortune. The former was benefit to the world,the latter was harmful to the world.Yao, Shun, Yu, Tang, Wen, Wu, Zhou, Zhao, Kong, Meng, Dong, Han, Zhou, Cheng, Zhu, Zhang, were all born at the historic moment of good fortune；--[[User:Sun Yashi|Sun Yashi]] ([[User talk:Sun Yashi|talk]]) 09:20, 5 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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If the great benevolence emerged as the times demanded, the great evil was born emerged as the calamity demanded. The former was beneficial to the world, while the latter was harmful to the world. Yao, Shun, Yu, Tang, Wen, Wu, Zhou, Zhao, Kong, Meng, Dong, Han, Zhou, Cheng, Zhu, Zhang, all born emerged as the times demanded.--[[User:Wang Lifei|Wang Lifei]] ([[User talk:Wang Lifei|talk]]) 12:57, 5 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==王李菲 Wáng Lǐfēi 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081523==<br />
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蚩尤、共工、桀、纣、始皇、王莽、曹操、桓温、安禄山、秦桧等，皆应劫而生者。大仁者修治天下，大恶者扰乱天下。清明灵秀，天地之正气，仁者之所秉也；残忍乖僻，天地之邪气，恶者之所秉也。<br />
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Chiyou, Gonggong, Jie, Zhou, Shi Huang, Wang Mang, Cao Cao, Huan Wen, An Lushan, and Qin Hui all emerged as the calamity demanded. Great benevolence governs the world, great evil disturbs the world. Be sober-minded and full of ingenuity, absorbing the righteousness of heaven and earth are the characteristics of merciful men; on the contrary, be cruel and eccentric, absorbing the evil of heaven and earth, are the characteristics of wicked men.--[[User:Wang Lifei|Wang Lifei]] ([[User talk:Wang Lifei|talk]]) 12:41, 5 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Chi You, Gong Gong, Jie, Zhou, Shi Huang, Wang Mang, Cao Cao, Huan Wen, An Lushan and Qin Hui were all born in response to the tribulation. Those who are benevolent cultivate and rule the world, while those who are evil disturb the world. The clear, bright, spiritual and beautiful, the righteousness of heaven and earth, is held by the benevolent; the cruel and perverse, the evil of heaven and earth, is held by the evil.--[[User:Wang Yifan21|Wang Yifan21]] ([[User talk:Wang Yifan21|talk]]) 06:46, 8 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==王逸凡 Wáng Yìfán 亚非语言文学 女 202120081524==<br />
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今当祚永运隆之日，太平无为之世，清明灵秀之气所秉者，上自朝廷，下至草野，比比皆是。所馀之秀气漫无所归，遂为甘露，为和风，洽然溉及四海。<br />
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In this day of eternal prosperity and peace and inaction, there are many people from the imperial court to the grasses who have been blessed with a clear, bright and spiritual spirit. The remainder of the spirit has no place to return to, so it has become a sweet dew and a harmonious breeze, which has irrigated the four seas.--[[User:Wang Yifan21|Wang Yifan21]] ([[User talk:Wang Yifan21|talk]]) 13:40, 4 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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In this day of eternal prosperity and peace and inaction, people from the imperial court to the grasses who have been blessed with a clear, bright and spiritual spirit are numberless. The remainder of the spirit has no place to return to, so it has become a sweet dew and a harmonious breeze, which has irrigated the four seas.--[[User:Wang Zhenlong|Wang Zhenlong]] ([[User talk:Wang Zhenlong|talk]]) 06:58, 12 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==王镇隆 Wáng Zhènlóng 英语语言文学（英美文学） 男 202120081525==<br />
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彼残忍乖邪之气，不能荡溢于光天化日之下，遂凝结充塞于深沟大壑之中。偶因风荡，或被云摧，略有摇动感发之意，一丝半缕误而逸出者，值灵秀之气适过，正不容邪，邪复妒正，两不相下；<br />
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His cruel and evil spirit could not overflow in broad daylight, so it condensed and filled deep ditches and gullies. Occasionally, due to the wind, or being destroyed by clouds, it feels slightly shaken, and a trace of half a wisp of error escapes. It is worthy of the beautiful Qi. If it is suitable, right should not be evil, evil should be jealous of right, and the two are not the same;--[[User:Wang Zhenlong|Wang Zhenlong]] ([[User talk:Wang Zhenlong|talk]]) 06:56, 12 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Its cruel and evil spirit could not overflow in the light of the day, so it condensed and filled in deep ditches and gullies. Occasionally, due to the wind, or being destroyed by clouds, it feels slightly shaken, and a trace or half wisp of error escapes. It is worthy of the beautiful Qi. If it is suitable, the right is incompatible with the evil, and the evil should be jealous of the right, and the two are on the opposite sides.--[[User:Wei Yiwen|Wei Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Wei Yiwen|talk]]) 08:59, 12 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==卫怡雯 Wèi Yíwén 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081526==<br />
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如风水雷电地中既遇，既不能消，又不能让，必致搏击掀发。既然发泄，那邪气亦必赋之于人。假使或男或女偶秉此气而生者，上则不能为仁人为君子，下亦不能为大凶大恶。<br />
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Like the wind, water, thunder, lightning meeting each other on the ground, they can neither disappear nor yield, and must fight against and turn over each other. Once it lets off, people will be endowed with evil influence. If men and women were both born on this air by accident, they cannot be up to benevolent gentlemen or down to villains.--[[User:Wei Yiwen|Wei Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Wei Yiwen|talk]]) 12:59, 5 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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If wind, water, thunder, lightning meet each other on the ground, they can neither disappear nor yield, and must fight against and turn over each other. Once the evil air is let off, people will be endowed with it. If men or women are born with this air by accident, they cannot be up to benevolent gentlemen or down to extremely vicious villains.--[[User:Wei Chuxuan|Wei Chuxuan]] ([[User talk:Wei Chuxuan|talk]]) 09:13, 6 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==魏楚璇 Wèi Chǔxuán 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081527==<br />
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置之千万人之中，其聪俊灵秀之气，则在千万人之上；其乖僻邪谬不近人情之态，又在千万人之下。若生于公侯富贵之家，则为情痴情种；若生于诗书清贫之族，则为逸士高人；纵然生于薄祚寒门，甚至为奇优，为名娼，亦断不至为走卒健仆，甘遭庸夫驱制。<br />
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This kind of persons are usually outstanding. Their intelligence and beauty are above thousands of people. And their crankiness and indifference are below them. If they are born in a wealthy royal family, they will be persons of constant love. If they are born in a poor family of intellectual, they will become hermits with extraordinary wisdom. Even though if they are unfortunately born in a humble family, men will be excellent actors and women will be famous prostitutes rather than being servants who have to be used by ordinary people.--[[User:Wei Chuxuan|Wei Chuxuan]] ([[User talk:Wei Chuxuan|talk]]) 09:12, 6 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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This kind of people are usually prominent. Their intelligence and beauty are above millions of people. But their crankiness and indifference are below them. If they are born in a wealthy royal family, they will be people with constant love. If they are born in a poor family of intellectual, they will become hermits with extraordinary wisdom. Even though if they are unfortunately born in a humble family, men will be excellent actors and women will be famous prostitutes rather than being servants who have to be controlled by ordinary people.--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 04:15, 9 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==魏兆妍 Wèi Zhàoyán 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081528==<br />
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如前之许由、陶潜、阮籍、嵇康、刘伶、王谢二族、顾虎头、陈后主、唐明皇、宋徽宗、刘庭芝、温飞卿、米南宫、石曼卿、柳耆卿、秦少游，近日倪云林、唐伯虎、祝枝山，再如李龟年、黄幡绰、敬新磨、卓文君、红拂、薛涛、崔莺、朝云之流：此皆易地则同之人也。”<br />
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Such as the previous generation Xuyou, Taoqian, Ruanji, Jikang, Liuling, the Wang and Xie families, Gu Kaizhi, Chen Shubao, emperor Xuanzong of Tang Dynasty, emperor Huizong of Song Dynasty, Liu Tingzhi, Wen Feiqing, Mi Nangong, Shi Manqing, Liu Qiqing, Qin Shaoyou, and the current generation Ni Yunlin, Tang Bohu, Zhu Zhishan, or the generation like Li Guinian, Huang Fanchuo, Jing Xinmo, Zhuo Wenjun, Hongfu, Xuetao, Cuiying, Zhaoyun: they are the kind of people born when the rectitude and the evil spirits fight each other. This kind of people has both the rectitude and the evil spirits.--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 11:37, 5 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Like the previous generation: Xuyou, Taoqian, Ruanji, Jikang, Liuling, the Wang and Xie families, Gu Kaizhi, Chen Shubao, emperor Xuanzong of Tang Dynasty, emperor Huizong of Song Dynasty, Liu Tingzhi, Wen Feiqing, Mi Nangong, Shi Manqing, Liu Qiqing, Qin Shaoyou, and the current generation Ni Yunlin, Tang Bohu, Zhu Zhishan, or the generation like Li Guinian, Huang Fanchuo, Jing Xinmo, Zhuo Wenjun, Hongfu, Xuetao, Cuiying, Zhaoyun. Though this kind of people didn’t live in the same period of time, didn’t have the same experience, they had the same ambition.--[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:58, 5 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==吴婧悦 Wú Jìngyuè 俄语语言文学 女 202120081529==<br />
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子兴道：“依你说，成则公侯败则贼了？”雨村道：“正是这意。你还不知，我自革职以来，这两年遍游各省，也曾遇见两个异样孩子，所以方才你一说这宝玉，我就猜着了八九也是这一派人物。<br />
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Antiquary said: “ As you said, the winner will be the duke, and the loser will be the traitor?”Rainvillage Merchant said: “ This is what I was talking about. You didn’t know, that since I was removed from the position, I traveled around all the provinces, and also met some unusual boys, so when you just talked about Precious Jade, I guessed that he was such a boy, too.--[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:52, 5 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Zixing said, "according to you, if you become a duke, if you lose, you will become a thief." Yucun said, "that's exactly what you mean. You don't know that I have traveled all over the provinces in the past two years since I was dismissed. I have met two different children, so I guessed that 89 is also a figure of this school.<br />
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==吴映红 Wú Yìnghóng 日语语言文学 女 202120081530==<br />
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不用远说，只这金陵城内钦差金陵省体仁院总裁甄家，你可知道？”子兴道：“谁人不知，这甄府就是贾府老亲，他们两家来往极亲热的。就是我也和他家往来非止一日了。”<br />
Needless to say, it's only House of Merchant, President of Nanjing Institute of physical benevolence, who is an imperial envoy in Jinling City. Do you know? " Antiquary, "no one knows that House of Merchant is the old relative of preasure's house. Their two families are very friendly. Even I have been with him for a long time."<br />
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Do you know zhen Jia, president of Qinchai Tiren Academy of Jinling Province in Jinling City?" Zi Xing said, "Who knows? Zhen Fu is jia fu's old man, and the two families are very close to each other. Even I have been with them a long time."--[[User:Xiao Yiyao|Xiao Yiyao]] ([[User talk:Xiao Yiyao|talk]]) 11:00, 12 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==肖毅瑶 Xiāo Yìyáo 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081531==<br />
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雨村笑道：“去岁我在金陵，也曾有人荐我到甄府处馆。我进去看其光景，谁知他家那等荣贵，却是个富而好礼之家，倒是个难得之馆。但是这个学生虽是启蒙，却比一个举业的还劳神。<br />
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Rain village Merchant smiled and said:”When I was in Nanjing last year, someone recommended me to teach in the House of Merchant. After I went there, I realized that his family is so prosperous and rich, but they also advocate etiquette, which is very rare. Although this student is a beginner, he is more serious than the examinee who wants to take the scientific examination.”--[[User:Xiao Yiyao|Xiao Yiyao]] ([[User talk:Xiao Yiyao|talk]]) 06:45, 8 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Yu Cun smiled and said:”When I was in Jinling last year, someone recommended me to teach at Zhen Mansion. After I went there, I realized that his family is so prosperous and rich, but they also advocate etiquette, which is very rare. Although this student is a beginner, he is more serious than the examinee who wants to take the imperial examination.”--[[User:Xie Jiafen|Xie Jiafen]] ([[User talk:Xie Jiafen|talk]]) 07:15, 12 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==谢佳芬 Xiè Jiāfēn 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081532==<br />
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说起来更可笑，他说：‘必得两个女儿陪着我读书，我方能认得字，心上也明白；不然，我心里自己糊涂。’又常对着跟他的小厮们说：‘这“女儿”两个字极尊贵极清净的，比那瑞兽珍禽、奇花异草更觉稀罕尊贵呢。<br />
Even it is more ridiculous when he said: "I must have two daughters to accompany me to study, so that I can recognize words and understand them in my heart; Otherwise, I will be confused. " He often said to his pageboys: "the word" daughter "is very noble and pure, which is more rare and noble than the auspicious animals, rare birds and exotic flowers and plants.--[[User:Xie Jiafen|Xie Jiafen]] ([[User talk:Xie Jiafen|talk]]) 11:18, 29 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Even it is more ridiculous when he said: "I must have two daughters to accompany me to study, so that I can recognize words and understand them in my heart; Otherwise, I will be confused. " He often said to his pageboys: "the word" daughter "is very noble and pure, which is more rare and noble than the auspicious animals, rare birds and exotic flowers and plants.--[[User:Xie Qinglin|Xie Qinglin]] ([[User talk:Xie Qinglin|talk]]) 02:56, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==谢庆琳 Xiè Qìnglín 俄语语言文学 女 202120081533==<br />
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你们这种浊口臭舌，万万不可唐突了这两个字，要紧，要紧！但凡要说的时节，必用净水香茶漱了口方可；设若失错，便要凿牙穿眼的。’其暴虐顽劣，种种异常。<br />
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You have such a foul mouth and stinky tongue, you must not be abrupt these two words, important, important! But whenever you say something, you must rinse your mouth with clean water and fragrant tea; if you make a mistake, you will have to cut your teeth through your eyes.' The tyrannical and stubborn, all kinds of abnormalities.--[[User:Xie Qinglin|Xie Qinglin]] ([[User talk:Xie Qinglin|talk]]) 02:55, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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You have such a foul mouth and stinky tongue, you must not be abrupt these two words, important, important! But whenever you say something, you must rinse your mouth with clean water and fragrant tea; if you make a mistake, you will have to cut your teeth through your eyes.' The tyrannical and stubborn, all kinds of abnormalities.--[[User:Xiong Min|Xiong Min]] ([[User talk:Xiong Min|talk]]) 03:15, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==熊敏 Xióng Mǐn 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081534==<br />
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只放了学进去，见了那些女儿们，其温厚和平，聪敏文雅，竟变了一个样子。因此，他令尊也曾下死笞楚过几次，竟不能改。每打的吃疼不过时，他便姐姐妹妹的乱叫起来。<br />
After class, he saw those daughters, who were gentle, tranquil and clever looking different. Therefore, his father was also beaten for several times. Everytime he was beaten to death, he screamed sisters' names.<br />
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After class, he went in and met those daughters changed, who were gentle, peaceful, intelligent and elegant. Therefore, his father was also beaten for several times. Everytime he was beaten to death, he screamed sisters' names.--[[User:Xu Minyun|Xu Minyun]] ([[User talk:Xu Minyun|talk]]) 14:07, 12 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==徐敏赟 Xú Mǐnyūn 语言智能与跨文化传播研究 男 202120081535==<br />
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后来听得里面女儿们拿他取笑：‘因何打急了，只管叫姐妹作什么？莫不叫姐妹们去讨情讨饶？你岂不愧些？’他回答的最妙，他说：‘急痛之时，只叫姐姐妹妹字样，或可解疼，也未可知，因叫了一声，果觉疼得好些。<br />
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Then he heard his daughters make fun of him: "Why do you call sisters when you are in pain? Why not let them beg for forgiveness? Aren't you ashamed?" He answered it best, saying, ‘In a time of acute pain, if I call the sisters, which may relieve the pain or not. However, I do felt the pain lessened a little when I called them'.--[[User:Xu Minyun|Xu Minyun]] ([[User talk:Xu Minyun|talk]]) 13:45, 5 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Then he heard his daughters make fun of him: "Why do you call sisters when you are in pain? Do you want to let them beg for forgiveness? Aren't you ashamed?" He answered it best, saying, "In a time of acute pain, if I call the sisters, which may relieve the pain or not. However, I do felt the pain lessened a little when I called them".--[[User:Yan Jing|Yan Jing]] ([[User talk:Yan Jing|talk]]) 00:34, 6 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==颜静 Yán Jìng 语言智能与跨文化传播研究 女 202120081536==<br />
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遂得了秘法，每疼痛之极，便连叫姐妹起来了。’你说可笑不可笑？为他祖母溺爱不明，每因孙辱师责子，我所以辞了馆出来的。这等子弟，必不能守祖、父基业，从师友规劝的。只可惜他家几个好姊妹都是少有的。”<br />
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So he got the secret method, and every time he felt the pain, he called his sisters. " Do you also feel ridiculous? And his grandmother doted on him so deeply that I as his teacher was usually insulted and blamed. So I resigned from there. The children like him would not be able to keep the inheritance of their ancestors and follow the advice of their teachers and friends. But it's a pity becasue several sisters in his family are rarely good. "--[[User:Yan Jing|Yan Jing]] ([[User talk:Yan Jing|talk]]) 00:52, 6 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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And his grandmother doted on him so deeply that I was usually insulted and blamed as his teacher. Such child like him would not be able to keep the inheritance of their ancestors and follow the advice of their teachers and friends.--[[User:Yan Lili|Yan Lili]] ([[User talk:Yan Lili|talk]]) 13:54, 12 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==颜莉莉 Yán Lìlì 国别 女 202120081537==<br />
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子兴道：“便是贾府中现在三个也不错。政老爷的长女名元春，因贤孝才德，选入宫作女史去了。二小姐乃是赦老爷姨娘所出，名迎春；三小姐政老爷庶出，名探春；四小姐乃宁府珍爷的胞妹，名惜春：<br />
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Zixing said, "The three girls in Jia's mansion are not bad either. Master Merchant's eldest daughter was named First Spring Merchant. Because of her virtue and filial piety, she was chosen to be a female historian in the court. The second lady was born to Pardon Merchant'concubine, her name was Spring Pleasure Merchant; The third lady was born to Master Merchant's concubine and was named Seeking-Spring Merchant. The fourth lady is the sister of Treasure Merchant in Ning' mansion, named Cherishing Spring Merchant:<br />
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“ The three girls in the Jia's mansion aren ’ t bad either ,” rejoined Zixing .“ Master Merchant ’s eldest daughter First Spring Merchant was chosen to be a Lady － Clerk in the palace of the heir apparent because of her goodness , filial piety and talents . The second , Spring Pleasure Merchant, is Pardon Merchant’s daughter by a concubine . The third Seeking-Spring Merchant , is Master Merchant ’ s daughter a concubine . The fourth , Cherishing Spring Merchant , is the younger sister of Treasure Merchant of the Ning Mansion .--[[User:Yan Zihan|Yan Zihan]] ([[User talk:Yan Zihan|talk]]) 09:43, 12 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==颜子涵 Yán Zǐhán 国别 女 202120081538==<br />
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因史老夫人极爱孙女，都跟在祖母这边，一处读书，听得个个不错。”雨村道：“更妙在甄家风俗：女儿之名，亦皆从男子之名；不似别人家里，另外用这些‘春’、‘红’、‘香’、‘玉’等艳字。<br />
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As Grandma History is so fondly attached to her granddaughters , they come , for the most part , over to their grandmother ’s place to prosecute their studies together , and each one of these girls is , I hear , without a fault .Rainvillage Merchant said, “I prefer the Zhen family ’s way of giving their daughters the same sort of names as boys instead of choosing flowery names meaning Spring , Red , Fragrant or Jade .” --[[User:Yan Zihan|Yan Zihan]] ([[User talk:Yan Zihan|talk]]) 09:37, 12 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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“As Grandma History is so attached to these grand-daughters that she makes them study in the Rong Mansion near her, and I hear good reports of them all.” Rainvillage Merchant said, “I prefer the Zhen family ’s way of giving their daughters the same sort of names as boys instead of choosing flowery names meaning Spring , Red , Fragrant or Jade .” --[[User:Yang Jiaying|Yang Jiaying]] ([[User talk:Yang Jiaying|talk]]) 16:12, 12 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==阳佳颖 Yáng Jiāyǐng 国别 女 202120081540==<br />
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何得贾府亦落此俗套？”子兴道：“不然。只因现今大小姐是正月初一所生，故名元春，馀者都从了‘春’字；上一排的却也是从弟兄而来的。现有对证：目今你贵东家林公的夫人，即荣府中赦、政二公的胞妹，在家时名字唤贾敏。<br />
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But how is it that the Family Merchant have likewise fallen into this convention？"<br />
"Not so！" said Zixing. "It is simply because the eldest daughter was born on the first day of the first month，that she was called First Spring Merchant；And the rest followed Spring in their names. But the names of the last generation are adopted from those of their brothers；and there is at present an instance in support of this. The wife of your respected employer，Mr. Forest，is the sister of Mr.Pardon Merchant and Mr.Master Merchant，and while at home,she was named Clever Merchant. --[[User:Yang Jiaying|Yang Jiaying]] ([[User talk:Yang Jiaying|talk]]) 15:54, 5 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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But how could that the Family Merchant have also become so vulgar in terms of the name of the daughters？"<br />
"It’s not what you think" said Zixing. "It is simply because the eldest daughter was born on the first day of the first month in the lunar year, that she was called First Spring Merchant；And then the rest had Spring in their names too. But all the names of the girls of the last generation are adopted from those of their brothers；and there is at present an instance in support of this. The wife of your respected employer，Mr. Forest，is the sister of Mr.Pardon Merchant and Mr.Master Merchant，and while at home,she was named Clever Merchant.--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 03:49, 11 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==杨爱江 Yáng Àijiāng 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081541==<br />
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不信时你回去细访可知。”雨村拍手笑道：“是极。我这女学生名叫黛玉，他读书凡‘敏’字，他皆念作‘密’字；写字遇着‘敏’字，亦减一二笔。我心中每每疑惑，今听你说，是为此无疑矣。<br />
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If you don’t believe me, check up carefully when you go back. Rainvillage pounded the table with a laugh. That’s right. The name of my girl student is Mascara Jade. She always pronounces min as mi and misses one or two strokes when writing. That puzzled me every time. Now I finally understand the reason behind it after hearing your words. --[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 03:30, 11 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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If you don’t believe me, inquire carefully when you go back. Rainvillage pounded the table and smiled :”That's right. The name of my girl student is Mascara Jade. She always pronounces ‘Min’ as ‘Mi’ and misses one or two strokes when writing. That puzzled me every time. Now I finally understand the reason behind it after hearing your words. “--[[User:Yang Kun|Yang Kun]] ([[User talk:Yang Kun|talk]]) 03:39, 12 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==杨堃 Yáng Kūn 法语语言文学 女 202120081542==<br />
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怪道我这女学生言语举止另是一样，不与凡女子相同，度其母不凡，故生此女。今知为荣府之外孙，又不足罕矣。可惜上月其母竟亡故了。”子兴叹道：“老姊妹三个，这是极小的，又没了；<br />
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It's strange that my female student's speech and behavior are different. She is not the same as other ordinary ladies. Hence,I guess that her mother is extraordinary and so is she. Since I know that she is the granddaughter of the Mansion of Rongguo,it is not strange that she is such a girl. Unfortunately, her mother died last month. Zixing sighed, "Among the three sisters, she is the youngest and she's also dead."--[[User:Yang Kun|Yang Kun]] ([[User talk:Yang Kun|talk]]) 02:30, 11 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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No wonder that my female student's speech and behavior are unique and she is not the same as other ordinary ladies. That's because her mother is extraordinary and so is she. Since I know that she is the granddaughter of the Mansion of Rongguo,it is not suprising that she is such a girl. Unfortunately, her mother died last month. Zixing sighed, "Among the three sisters, she is the youngest and she's also dead."--[[User:Yang Liuqing|Yang Liuqing]] ([[User talk:Yang Liuqing|talk]]) 10:43, 12 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==杨柳青 Yáng Liǔqīng 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081543==<br />
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长一辈的姊妹，一个也没了。只看这小一辈的将来的东床何如呢。”雨村道：“正是。方才说政公已有一个衔玉之子，又有长子所遗弱孙，这赦老竟无一个不成？”<br />
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There are no elder sisters. Then we just look forward to the younger generation's son-in-laws. Jia Yucun says: That's it. I have just heard that Jia Zheng has a son, Prescious Jade Merchant who is born with a jade. And he has a grandson who is his eldest son's child. Doesn't Jia She have any children?--[[User:Yang Liuqing|Yang Liuqing]] ([[User talk:Yang Liuqing|talk]]) 07:09, 6 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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“No one's left in the elder sisters, Let's just see what will happen to the younger generation's sons-in-law.” “Exactly.”Jia Yucun says:“I've just heard that Master Zheng's got a another son, and his eldest son had given him a grandson. What's the matter with Master Xie? He hasn't had one yet!”--[[User:Ye Weijie|Ye Weijie]] ([[User talk:Ye Weijie|talk]]) 02:40, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==叶维杰 Yè Wéijié 国别 男 202120081544==<br />
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子兴道：“政公既有玉儿之后，其妾又生了一个，倒不知其好歹。只眼前现有二子一孙，却不知将来何如。若问那赦老爷，也有一子，名叫贾琏，今已二十多岁了，亲上做亲，娶的是政老爷夫人王氏内侄女，今已娶了四五年。<br />
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Zi Xing says:“After Master Zheng had Yu er, his concubine gave birth to another child, don't know whether it is good or bad. Right now they already have two children and a grandson, but not knowing what should do in the future. Master Xie also has a son named Jia Lian, who is about 20 years old now. Jia Lian married Master Zheng's wife Wang's niece, it was an intermarry between their families, and it's been five years now.”<br />
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Zi Xing said:" Master Merchant's concubine had given birth to another kid for him after having the son named Precious Jade, and didn't know the kid good or bad. So he only had two sons and a grandson at that time and didn't know the future held. Pardon Merchant also had a son named Romance Merchant, who was about 20 years old. Romance Merchant married Master Merchant's wife Lady King's niece, it was an intermarry between their families, and it's been five years now.”--[[User:Yi Yangfan|Yi Yangfan]] ([[User talk:Yi Yangfan|talk]]) 06:35, 12 December 2021 (UTC)Yi Yangfan<br />
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==易扬帆 Yì Yángfān 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081545==<br />
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这位琏爷身上现捐了个同知，也是不喜正务的；于世路上好机变，言谈去得，所以目今只在乃叔政老爷家住，帮着料理家务。谁知自娶了这位奶奶之后，倒上下无人不称颂他的夫人，琏爷倒退了一舍之地：模样又极标致，言谈又爽利，心机又极深细，竟是个男人万不及一的。”<br />
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Romance Merchant had now paid for an official, but he was also uncomfortable with formal affairs; he was so clever and well-spoken in his career that he was currently living in the house of Master Merchant, Romance Merchant's uncle, and helping with the household chores. There is no idea that since marrying this difficult girl, no one in the house would not praise his wife, and that Romance Merchant would not be able to match her: she is so good-looking, so sharp-tongued, and so deep-witted that she is a man's equal."--[[User:Yi Yangfan|Yi Yangfan]] ([[User talk:Yi Yangfan|talk]]) 06:11, 12 December 2021 (UTC)Yi Yangfan<br />
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Romance Merchant had now bought a title as an official, but he was also uncomfortable with formal affairs. He was so clever and well-spoken in his career that he was currently living in the house of Maister Merchant, Romance Merchant's uncle, and helping with the household chores. After he married his wife, everyone praised her, and that made Romance Merchant less popular: she is so good-looking, so sharp-tongued, and so deep-witted that she is a man's equal."--[[User:Yin Huizhen|Yin Huizhen]] ([[User talk:Yin Huizhen|talk]]) 10:49, 12 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==殷慧珍 Yīn Huìzhēn 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081546==<br />
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雨村听了，笑道：“可知我言不谬了。你我方才所说的这几个人，只怕都是那正邪两赋而来一路之人，未可知也。”子兴道：“正也罢，邪也罢，只顾算别人家的账，你也吃杯酒才好。”<br />
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After hearing this, Yucun smiled and said, “now you know what I said is true. I’m afraid these people we just talked about are probably those who have the temperament of justice and evil.” Zixing said: “whether these people are just or evil, don't just talk about other people's gossip, and also remember to drink more.” --[[User:Yin Huizhen|Yin Huizhen]] ([[User talk:Yin Huizhen|talk]]) 08:36, 6 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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After hearing this, Rain Village laughed and said, “now you know what I said is true. I’m afraid these people we just talked about are probably those who have both good and evil temperament.” Son Happy said: “It doesn't matter whether these people are good or evil, you should also take a drink rather than only talking about other people's gossip.”--[[User:Yin Meida|Yin Meida]] ([[User talk:Yin Meida|talk]]) 09:12, 12 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==殷美达 Yīn Měidá 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081547==<br />
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雨村道：“只顾说话，就多吃了几杯。”子兴笑道：“说着别人家的闲话，正好下酒，即多吃几杯何妨？”雨村向窗外看道：“天也晚了，仔细关了城，我们慢慢进城再谈，未为不可。”<br />
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Rain Village said: "I have to drink a few more cups of alcohol because I kept talking all the time". Son Happy said while laughing: " Help yourself! Gossip goes well with alcohol". Rain Village looked out the window and said:" It's getting dark. We'd better continue our talk after entering the city in case the gate is shut." --[[User:Yin Meida|Yin Meida]] ([[User talk:Yin Meida|talk]]) 09:28, 12 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Rainvillage Merchant said: "I accidentally drink a few more cups of alcohol because I kept talking all the time". Zixing said while laughing: " Enjoy yourself! Gossip goes well with alcohol". Yucun looked out the window and said:" It has been dark. We'd better continue our talk after entering the city in case the gate shuts."--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 09:39, 12 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==尹媛 Yǐn Yuán 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081548==<br />
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于是二人起身，算还酒钱。方欲走时，忽听得后面有人叫道：“雨村兄恭喜了！特来报个喜信的。”雨村忙回头看时……要知是谁，且听下回分解。<br />
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So they got up and paid for the wine. When they was leaving, he heard someone calling behind: "Congratulations! My friend Rainvillage Merchant. Someone brings a lucky message to you." Rainvillage Merchant looks back at once... Who is it? Please expect the next chapter--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 05:03, 5 December 2021 (UTC).<br />
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So they got up and paid for the wine. When they was leaving, he heard someone calling behind: "Congratulations! My friend Yucun. Someone brings a lucky message to you." Yucun looked back at once... Who was it? Please expect the next chapter.--[[User:Zhan Ruoxuan|Zhan Ruoxuan]] ([[User talk:Zhan Ruoxuan|talk]]) 14:19, 12 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==詹若萱 Zhān Ruòxuān 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081549==<br />
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外班──清代会试考取进士后，留在朝中任官者称“京官”，分发外地任地方官者称“外班”。因新官分发到地方后要候补，按班次任官，故称“外班”。同寅皆侧目而视──同寅：即同僚。<br />
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"Wai Ban"(Foreign class) -- After passing the highest imperial examinations in Qing Dynasty, those who stayed in the court as officials were called "jingguan", while those who were dispatched to other places as local officials were called "foreign class". Because the new officers who were distributed to the local needed wait for the appointment, according to the official appointment system established in Qing Dynasty.so it was called "outside the shift". Yin(colleagues)all sidelong glance ── with Yin: namely colleague.--[[User:Zhan Ruoxuan|Zhan Ruoxuan]] ([[User talk:Zhan Ruoxuan|talk]]) 14:17, 12 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Foreign class -- After the qing dynasty imperial examinations, those who stayed in the court as officials were called "jingguan", and those who were dispatched to other places as local officials were called "foreign class". Because the new officer distribution to the local to wait for the officer, according to the shift, so called "outside the shift". With Yin all sidelong eyes and look ── with Yin: namely colleague.--[[User:Zhang Qiuyi|Zhang Qiuyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Qiuyi|talk]]) 13:56, 12 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==张秋怡 Zhāng Qiūyí 亚非语言文学 女 202120081550==<br />
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典出《尚书·虞书·皋陶谟》：“百僚师师，百工惟时……同寅协恭，和衷哉。”寅时是朝臣上朝之时，故称。 侧目而视：斜着眼看。语出《战国策·秦策一》：“(苏秦)将说楚王，路过洛阳。<br />
Code out of "Shang Shu · Yu Shu · Gao Tao Mo" : "100 liao division division, 100 work but time...... Cooperate with Yin and be respectful and sincere." Yin shi is the court when the court, so called. Sidelong: to look sideways. Su Qin will say that the king of Chu is passing by Luoyang.--[[User:Zhang Qiuyi|Zhang Qiuyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Qiuyi|talk]]) 13:12, 5 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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The code is out of ''Shang Shu · Yu Shu · Gao Tao Mo'' : Numerous bureaucrats and teachers work only a hundred hours...... Cooperate with Yin and be respectful and sincere." The Yin time is the court when raised, so it's called. Sidelook: to look sideways. From ''Warring States policy · Qin policy I'':" Su Qin will say that the king of Chu is passing by Luoyang."--[[User:Zhang Yang|Zhang Yang]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yang|talk]]) 06:57, 6 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==张扬 Zhāng Yáng 国别 男 202120081551==<br />
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父母闻之，清宫除道，张乐设饮，郊迎三十里；妻侧目而视，倾耳而听；嫂蛇行匍伏，四拜自跪而谢。”原表示敬畏。引申以表示愤怒或不齿。<br />
When his parents heard of it, they cleared the palace and cleaned the road. Zhang Le set up a repast and welcomed thirty miles away far from home. His wife looked sideways and listened attentively, and his sister-in-law crawled on her knees for thanks." Originally it expressed awe. Extended to express anger or disdain.--[[User:Zhang Yang|Zhang Yang]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yang|talk]]) 06:53, 6 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
When his parents heard of this, they cleared the palace and Zhang Le set up music and drinks to welcome him to the countryside for thirty miles. His wife looked sideways and listened attentively, and his sister-in-law crawled on her knees for thanks." Originally it expressed awe. Extended to express anger or disdain.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 04:30, 10 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==张怡然 Zhāng Yírán 俄语语言文学 女 202120081552==<br />
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维扬──扬州(在今江苏省)的别称。大禹所划分的“九州”之一。典出《尚书·夏书·禹贡》：“淮海惟扬州。”“惟”通“维”。<br />
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Dimension Poplar- an alternative name for Yangzhou (Jiangsu province). It was one of the "nine states" delineated by the Great Yu. The name is derived from ''Shang Shu - Xia Shu - Yu Gong'': "The Huaihai Sea is only Yangzhou." The word "but" is synonymous with "wei".--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 04:27, 10 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Dimension Poplar - another name of Yangzhou (in today's Jiangsu Province) which is one of the "Kyushu" divided by Dayu. From the book Shangshu· Xiashu · Yugong "the Huaihai sea Wei Yangzhou” "Wei" is "wei”--[[User:Zhong Yifei|Zhong Yifei]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yifei|talk]]) 06:08, 9 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==钟义菲 Zhōng Yìfēi 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081553==<br />
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后人从“惟扬州”截取“惟扬”，又以“维”代“惟”，遂成“维扬”。如北朝周·庾信《哀江南赋》：“淮海维扬，三千馀里。”探花──科举考试中殿试(最高一级考试)一甲第三名(第一名为状元，第二名为榜眼)。<br />
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Later generations intercepted "Weiyang" from "weiyangzhou" and replaced "Weiyang" with "Wei", so it became "Weiyang". For example, Yuxin's Fu on mourning the south of the Yangtze River in the Northern Dynasty said, "the Huaihai sea is vast, more than 3000 miles." Tanhua—the third place in the first grade of the palace examination (the highest level examination) (the first place is called Zhuangyuan and the second place is called Bangyan）--[[User:Zhong Yifei|Zhong Yifei]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yifei|talk]]) 09:04, 4 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Later generations intercepted "Weiyang" from "weiyangzhou" and replaced "Weiyang" with "Wei", so it became "Weiyang". For example, Yuxin's Poetic essay on mourning the south of the Yangtze River in the Northern Dynasty said, "the Weiyang city is vast, more than 3000 miles." Tanhua—the third place in the first grade of the palace examination (the highest level examination) (the first place is called Zhuangyuan and the second place is called Bangyan)--[[User:Zhong Yulu|Zhong Yulu]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yulu|talk]]) 09:15, 5 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==钟雨露 Zhōng Yǔlù 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081554==<br />
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本于唐代的“探花使”，亦称“探花郎”。唐·李淖《秦中岁时记》：“进士杏园初宴，谓之探花宴。差少俊二人为探花使，遍游名园，若它人先折花，二使皆被罚。”<br />
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“Tan Huashi” in Tang Dynasty is also called “Tan Hualang”. Li Nao once wrote: “ The newly crowned scholars met in the Apricot Garden to feast with their peers who had been crowned in the same year. This banquet was known as the Flower Search Banquet. Two young and good-looking candidates were chosen to be the flower scouts, and they were asked to visit all the famous gardens and scout for flowers. If someone else took the flowers first, the two flower scouts would be punished with a drink.”--[[User:Zhong Yulu|Zhong Yulu]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yulu|talk]]) 09:06, 5 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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“Tan Huashi” in Tang Dynasty is also called “Tan Hualang”. Li Nao who lived in Tang Dynasty once wrote: “ The newly crowned scholars met in the Apricot Garden to feast with their peers who had been crowned in the same year. This banquet was known as the Flower Search Banquet. Two young and good-looking candidates were chosen to be the flower scouts, and they were asked to visit all the famous gardens and scout for flowers. If someone else took the flowers first, the two flower scouts would be punished with a drink.”--[[User:Zhou Jiu|Zhou Jiu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Jiu|talk]]) 01:09, 8 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==周玖 Zhōu Jiǔ 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081555==<br />
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又宋·魏泰《东轩笔录》卷六：“进士及第后，例期集一月……又选最年少者二人为探花使，赋诗，世谓之探花郎。”<br />
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Wei Tai in Song Dynasty wrote that in his Dongxuan Bilu (Volume Six): “ In the imperial examination, after winning the imperial examination…… Two young scholars at the celebration were elected as Tanhua. And people named them Tanhua boy .”--[[User:Zhou Jiu|Zhou Jiu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Jiu|talk]]) 09:19, 5 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Wei Tai wrote in his ''Dongxuan Transcript'' (Volume Six) in Song Dynasty : “Participated in and passed the highest imperial examinations ... then the first two youngest scholars at the examination were chosen as Tanhua. And people named them Tanhua boy.”--[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 13:55, 6 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==周俊辉 Zhōu Jùnhuī 法语语言文学 女 202120081556==<br />
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兰台寺大夫──指专管弹劾的御史。兰台是汉朝宫内藏书之所，由御史大夫主管，故后世将御史台别称“兰台”，将御史府别称“兰台寺”，将御史别称“兰台寺大夫”。<br />
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Censor of LanTai - refers to imperial historian who is in charge of impeachment. LanTai was the place where the books were stored in the Palace of the Han Dynasty, and was in charge of the imperial historian. The institution where the imperial historian was later called “LanTai”, the palace where the imperial historian lived was called “ LanTai Temple”, and the imperial historian was called “censor of LanTai” by later generations.--[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 13:41, 6 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Censor of LanTai - refers to imperial historian who is in charge of impeachment. LanTai was the place where the books were stored in the Palace of the Han Dynasty, and was in charge of the imperial historian. Accordimgly, the institution where the imperial historian was later called “LanTai” the palace where the imperial historian lived was called “ LanTai Temple”, and the imperial historian was called “censor of LanTai” by later generations.--[[User:Zhou Qiao1|Zhou Qiao1]] ([[User talk:Zhou Qiao1|talk]]) 06:46, 8 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==周巧 Zhōu Qiǎo 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081557==<br />
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列侯──古代爵名。在秦称“彻侯”，为二十四级爵位中的最高一级。至汉代为避汉武帝刘彻之讳，改为“通侯”。“通”与“彻”同义，是改名不改义。“通侯”之意是表示受爵者功勋通于王室。<br />
Marquis - Ancient Baron name. In Qin Dynasty, it was called "chehou", which was the highest among twenty-four levels. In the Han Dynasty, in order to avoid the taboo of Liu Che, Emperor of the Han Dynasty, it was changed to "tonghou". "Tong" is synonymous with "Che" in Chinese, in this way changing the name without changing the meaning. "Tong Hou" means that the recipient has done meritorious services to the royal family.--[[User:Zhou Qiao1|Zhou Qiao1]] ([[User talk:Zhou Qiao1|talk]]) 09:17, 4 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Marquis──Ancient noble name. In Qin Dynasty, it was called "Che Hou", and it was the highest rank among the twenty-four ranks. In the Han Dynasty, it was changed to "Tonghou" to avoid the taboo of Han Wudi Liu Che. "Tong" and "Che" are synonymous, which means changing the name without changing the meaning. "Tong Hou" means that the meritorious deeds of the nobility are passed to the royal family.--[[User:Zhou Qing|Zhou Qing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Qing|talk]]) 15:25, 11 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==周清 Zhōu Qīng 法语语言文学 女 202120081558==<br />
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后又改为“列侯”，表示序列之意。见《汉书·高帝纪下》颜师古注。清代并无此爵，只是借指侯爵。清代爵位分公、侯、伯、子、男，侯爵为第二等。<br />
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Later it was changed to "Liehou", which means sequence. See Yan Shigu's Note in "The Book of Han·Gao Di Jixia". There was no such nobility in the Qing Dynasty, but a reference to the marquis. In the Qing Dynasty, the titles were divided into Gong, Marquis, Bo, Zi, and Male, and Marquis was the second class.<br />
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Later it was changed to "Liehou", which means sequence. See Yan Shigu's Note in "Book of Han• Han Gaozu ( the first emperor of Han dynasty)". There was no such nobility in the Qing Dynasty, but a reference to the marquess. In the Qing Dynasty, the titles were divided into Duck,Marquess, Earl, Viscount, Baron and Marquess was the second class.--[[User:Zhou Xiaoxue|Zhou Xiaoxue]] ([[User talk:Zhou Xiaoxue|talk]]) 16:03, 11 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==周小雪 Zhōu Xiǎoxuě 日语语言文学 女 202120081559==<br />
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膝下荒凉──意谓子女稀少，尤无儿子。 膝下：这里指子女。因幼儿多倚偎于父母膝旁，故称。《孝经·圣治》：“故亲生之膝下，以养父母日严。”唐玄宗注：“亲犹爱也，膝下谓孩童之时也。”<br />
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Desolate at the knees means that there are few children, especially no sons. Under the Knee: it means children. The reason why children are called knee is that children often nestle to their parents' knees.''The Classic of Filial Piety·Shengzhi'' says "the feeling of affection grows up at parents’ knees. As children grow up, they become more and more respectful of their parents." Emperor Xuanzong of Tang Dynasty noted: "Be close to your parents and love them. Under the knees is the time of a child.--[[User:Zhou Xiaoxue|Zhou Xiaoxue]] ([[User talk:Zhou Xiaoxue|talk]]) 05:48, 8 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Desolate below the knee means that there are few children, especially no sons. Knee: it refers to children. The reason why children are called knee is that children mostly lean on their parents' knees. "The Book of Filial Piety·Shengzhi": "Therefore, the days of adoptive parents are strict under the knees of one's own birth." Tang Xuanzong's note: "You are still in love with you, and under your knees is the time of a child."--[[User:Zhu Suzhen|Zhu Suzhen]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suzhen|talk]]) 13:29, 6 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==朱素珍 Zhū Sùzhēn 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081561==<br />
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荒凉：形容因子女稀少而家庭显得清冷凄凉。西席──古人座次以右(西)为尊，故右席为宾客和塾师之位，坐西面东，故称幕宾和塾师为“西席”或“西宾”。<br />
Desolate: It can be used to describe such a situation: a family becomes desolate because of the small number of children. West Seat ─ ─ the right seat was preferred by the ancients, therefore the right seat belonged to the guests and tutors. Besides, because they sit in the derection of west and face the direcyion of east, so the guests and tutors were called "west seats" or "west guests".<br />
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Desolation: it describes the desolation of the family due to the scarcity of children. West Seat -- the ancients took the right (West) seat as the priority, so the right seat was the seat for guests and school teachers.and because they sit in the derection of west and face the direcyion of east.Therefore, it was called "west seats" or "West guests" for the guests and tutors.--[[User:Zou Yueli|Zou Yueli]] ([[User talk:Zou Yueli|talk]]) 02:19, 7 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==邹岳丽 Zōu Yuèlí 日语语言文学 女 202120081562==<br />
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清·梁章钜《称谓录》卷八：“汉明帝尊桓荣以师礼，上幸太常府，令荣坐东面(坐西面东)，设几。故师曰西席。”这里指家庭教师。“身后”一联──身后有馀：是说馀年还很长(“身后”不可解作死后)。<br />
Liang Zhangju, Qing Dynasty, wrote in Volume VIII of 《Appellation records》: "Emperor Mingdi After respected Huan Rong and treated him with teacher courtesy. He once visited Taichang mansion in person, asked Huan Rong to sit in the East, set a table and a walking stick。Therefore, master said it was a seat in the West." Here refers to a tutor.A couplet of "behind you" - there is surplus behind you: it means that the remaining years are still very long ("behind you" cannot be interpreted as after death).--[[User:Zou Yueli|Zou Yueli]] ([[User talk:Zou Yueli|talk]]) 14:23, 4 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==Nadia 202011080004==<br />
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忘缩手：是说不肯收手，还要争名夺利。 <br />
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==Mahzad Heydarian 玛莎 202021080004==<br />
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无路：走投无路。此联是说世人大多只顾眼前，不顾将来，等到走投无路，后悔无及。<br />
No way: desperate. This association means that most people in the world only care about the present, regardless of the future, and wait until they are desperate and regret it. <br />
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==Mariam toure 2020GBJ002301==<br />
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刹──梵语音译省称，意译为佛塔的柱形尖顶，故又称“佛柱”。<br />
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Sha-Sanskrit transliteration provincial name, free translation is the columnar spire of the stupa, so it is also called "Buddha column<br />
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==Rouabah Soumaya 202121080001==<br />
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引申为佛寺。贾复──东汉南阳冠军(今河南邓州市西北)人，累官至左将军，并封胶东侯。<br />
Extended to Buddhist temple. HiJia Fu——A native of Nanyang Champion of the Eastern Han Dynasty (now northwest of Dengzhou City, Henan Province),he was tired from general to the left and sealed Donghou in Jiao.<br />
--[[User:Muhammad Numan|Muhammad Numan]] ([[User talk:Muhammad Numan|talk]]) 15:54, 5 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==Muhammad Numan 202121080002==<br />
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《后汉书》有传。姓贾的成千上万，贾雨村却只拉千年前的贾复为一家，足见其拉大旗作虎皮之势利小人肺肝。There is a biography in the Book of the Later Han Dynasty. There are thousands of people surnamed Jia, but Jia Yucun only manages Jia Fu from a thousand years ago. This shows that the Qiraji banner is a tiger skin.<br />
--[[User:Atta Ur Rahman|Atta Ur Rahman]] ([[User talk:Atta Ur Rahman|talk]]) 14:18, 6 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==Atta Ur Rahman 202121080003==<br />
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百足之虫，死而不僵——典出三国魏·曹冏《六代论》：<br />
A hundred-footed worm does not die - an allusion to Cao Jon's "Six Dynasties" in the Three Kingdoms.<br />
Note:百足之虫，至死不僵，读作 bǎi zú zhī chóng，zhì sǐ bù jiāng 。 It is used as a metaphor for a group or individual with strong power that will not easily collapse for a while. 百足：The name of a worm with a twenty-sectioned torso that can still wriggle after being severed.<br />
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==Muhammad Saqib Mehran 202121080004==<br />
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“故语曰：‘百足之虫，死而不僵。’扶之者众也。”<br />
The old saying goes:'Hundred-legged worms die but are not stiff.' There are many who support them."<br />
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[[File:Example.jpg]]==Zohaib Chand 202121080005==<br />
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比喻世家大族虽然衰败，因家底雄厚，依傍众多，表面上仍能维持繁荣景象。<br />
It is a metaphor that despite the decline of the aristocratic family, because of the strong family background and numerous support, it can still maintain its prosperity on the surface.<br />
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==Jawad Ahmad 202121080006==<br />
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百足：虫名，即马陆。长约一寸，躯干由多节构成，每节有足一对或二对，切断后仍能蠕动。<br />
English: Centipede, Insect name, arthropods. Length, around an inch, Body is composed of multiple sections, each section has one or two pairs of feet, after cutting still can squirm.<br />
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==Nizam Uddin 202121080007==<br />
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僵：倒下。安富尊荣──语出《孟子·尽心上》：<br />
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Stiff: fall down. Safety, wealth and honour──From the words "Mencius·All Your Heart":<br />
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==Öncü 202121080008==<br />
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“君子居是国也，其君用之，则安富尊荣。”<br />
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A gentleman can make people transform their morals, change their customs, Safeguard the country and protect its honor. --[[User:AkiraJantarat|AkiraJantarat]] ([[User talk:AkiraJantarat|talk]]) 13:55, 5 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==Akira Jantarat 202121080009==<br />
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原意是君子因辅佐国君功勋卓著而享受荣华富贵。<br />
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Agree to be a gentleman，because of the outstanding merits of supporting the monarch and enjoying the glory and wealth.--[[User:AkiraJantarat|AkiraJantarat]] ([[User talk:AkiraJantarat|talk]]) 13:58, 5 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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The original meaning was that gentlemen who made outstanding contributions to assist the monarch enjoyed glory and wealth. --[[User:Benjamin Wellsand|Benjamin Wellsand]] ([[User talk:Benjamin Wellsand|talk]]) 20:06, 5 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==Benjamin Wellsand 202111080118==<br />
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这里反用其意，意谓不劳而获，安享荣华富贵。<br />
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The meaning is the opposite here, that for nothing one can enjoy prosperity and wealth.--[[User:Benjamin Wellsand|Benjamin Wellsand]] ([[User talk:Benjamin Wellsand|talk]]) 20:02, 5 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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The meaning is reversed here, which means to enjoy prosperity and wealth for nothing. --[[User:Asep Budiman|Asep Budiman]] ([[User talk:Asep Budiman|talk]]) 07:22, 7 December 2021 (UTC) <br />
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==Asep Budiman 202111080020==<br />
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钟鸣鼎食——语出唐·王勃《滕王阁序》：“闾阎扑地，钟鸣鼎食之家。”<br />
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Zhongming Ding Shi-Quoting Tang Wang Bo's "Preface to the Pavilion of the King of Teng": "Lu Yan, the home of Zhong Ming Ding Shi." --[[User:Asep Budiman|Asep Budiman]] ([[User talk:Asep Budiman|talk]]) 07:24, 7 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Zhongming Ding Shi-Speech by Tang Wang Bo "Preface to the Pavilion of the King of Teng": "Lu Yan rushes to the ground, the home of Zhongming Ding Shi." -Ei Mon Kyaw-[[User:EIMONKYAW|EIMONKYAW]] ([[User talk:EIMONKYAW|talk]]) 09:47, 7 December 2021 (UTC)--[[User:EIMONKYAW|EIMONKYAW]] ([[User talk:EIMONKYAW|talk]]) 09:47, 7 December 2021 (UTC)Ei Mon Kyaw<br />
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==Ei Mon Kyaw 202111080021==<br />
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古代贵族鸣钟列鼎而食。这里借以形容富贵豪华。<br />
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The nobles in ancient times sang bells and set out to eat. Here it is used to describe the wealth and luxury.--[[User:EIMONKYAW|EIMONKYAW]] ([[User talk:EIMONKYAW|talk]]) 09:56, 7 December 2021 (UTC)Ei Mon Kyaw--------Ei Mon Kyaw-[[User:EIMONKYAW|EIMONKYAW]] ([[User talk:EIMONKYAW|talk]]) 09:56, 7 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
The ancient nobles rang the bells and set out to eat. To describe wealth and luxury. --[[User:Mahzad Heydarian|Mahzad Heydarian]] ([[User talk:Mahzad Heydarian|talk]]) 07:09, 8 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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The ancient nobility enjoy their meal with tripod as cookware and the bell set as background music, which indicates occupying high positions and great wealth.--[[User:Chen Jing|Chen Jing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jing|talk]]) 14:33, 12 December 2021 (UTC)</div>Zhang Yiranhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20211124_homework&diff=13504420211124 homework2021-12-31T02:47:15Z<p>Zhang Yiran: /* 张扬 Zhāng Yáng 国别 男 202120081551 */</p>
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==陈静 Chén Jìng 国别 女 202020080595==<br />
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我很纳闷：《不自弃文》是篇名，《姬子》是书名，应该同等对待，要么都予注释，要么都不注释，为什么一注一不注呢？难道前者生僻而需要注释，后者人所共知而不必注释吗？显然不是，只能说是避难就易，这与注释的宗旨完全背道而驰。<br />
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I wonder that since No Self-surrender is the title of the passage and Jizi is the title of the book, which should be treated equally, why did the situation happened that one annotated while one did not? Did the former need to be annotated while the latter is known to all without having to be annotated? Obviously, it is for choosing the easier way, which is completely contrary to the purpose of the annotation.--[[User:Chen Jing|Chen Jing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jing|talk]]) 08:22, 30 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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I wonder: "don't abandon yourself" is the title, and "Ji Zi" is the title of the book. It should be treated equally, either annotated or not annotated. Why not annotate one note at a time? Is it true that the former is remote and needs annotation, while the latter is well known and does not need annotation? Obviously not, it can only be said that it is easy to avoid difficulties, which is completely contrary to the purpose of the notes. <br />
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--[[User:Cai Zhufeng|Cai Zhufeng]] ([[User talk:Cai Zhufeng|talk]]) 07:01, 24 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==蔡珠凤 Cài Zhūfèng 法语语言文学 女 202120081477==<br />
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那怕注为“《姬子》不详”，也还不失为态度诚实。老实说，起初我对《姬子》也一头雾水，因为见所未见，闻所未闻。但根据我自定的注释原则，我不能回避。<br />
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Even if it is noted as "Ji Zi" unknown ", it can be regarded as an honest attitude. To be honest, at first I was confused about Ji Zi, because I had never seen or heard of it. But according to my own annotation principle, I can't avoid it.<br />
--[[User:Cai Zhufeng|Cai Zhufeng]] ([[User talk:Cai Zhufeng|talk]]) 11:20, 21 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Even if it is noted as "unknown Ji Zi" , it can still be regarded as an honest attitude. To be honest, at first I was confused about ''Ji Zi'', because I had never seen or heard of it. But according to my own annotation principle, I can't avoid it.--[[User:Chen Huini|Chen Huini]] ([[User talk:Chen Huini|talk]]) 14:36, 22 November 2021 (UTC)Chen Huini<br />
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==陈惠妮 Chén Huìnī 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081479==<br />
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于是我首先求助于《中国古典数字工程》，肯定了中国根本不存在《姬子》这么一本书，完全是曹雪芹所杜撰，正如《古今人物通考》、《中国历代文选》都是曹雪芹杜撰一样。其次，我记得俞平伯先生有一篇专门解释《姬子》的文章，但文章的题目、发表时间以及文章内容却不记得了。经过两天的翻箱倒柜，我终于找到了这篇文章，它的题目是《读〈红楼梦〉随笔》第九节《姬子》，初载于《文汇报》1954年1月25日；又收入《红楼梦研究参考资料选辑》第二辑，人民文学出版社1973年11月出版。<br />
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Therefore, I first made reference htiw "Chinese Classical Digital Engineering" and confirmed that there was no such a book called "Ji Zi" in China, which was completely written by Cao Xueqin, just as Cao Xueqin wrote "General Examination of Ancient and Modern Characters" and "Selected Chinese Writings in Past Dynasties". Secondly, I remember that Mr. Yu Pingbo had a special article explaining ''JiZi'', but I do not remember the title, publication time and content of the article. After two days of searching, I finally found this article. Its title is ''Ji Zi'', section 9 of Essays on Reading ''A Dream of Red Mansion''. It was first published in Wenhui Daily on January 25, 1954. It was also included in the second series of ''Selected Research Reference Materials on A Dream of Red Mansion'', published by People's Literature Publishing House in November 1973.--[[User:Chen Huini|Chen Huini]] ([[User talk:Chen Huini|talk]]) 14:46, 22 November 2021 (UTC)Chen Huini<br />
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So, I firstly searched ''Chinese Classical Digital Engineering'' and confirmed there was no such a book called "Ji Zi" in China. This book was completely made up by Cao Xueqin like the same thing he did to ''General Examination of Ancient and Modern Characters'' and ''Selected Chinese Writings in Past Dynasties''.Then, I recalled that Mr. Yu Pingbo especially wrote an article to explain ''Ji Zi'', but I didn't remember the title, publication time and content.After two days of searching, I finally found it. The title of it was ''Ji Zi'', section 9 of Essays on Reading ''A Dream of Red Mansion'' which was first published in Wenhui Daily on January 25, 1954. and then was included in the second series of ''Selected Research Reference Materials on A Dream of Red Mansion'', published by People's Literature Publishing House in November 1973.--[[User:Chen Xiangqiong|Chen Xiangqiong]] ([[User talk:Chen Xiangqiong|talk]]) 00:20, 24 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==陈湘琼 Chén Xiāngqióng 外国语言学及应用语言学 女 202120081480==<br />
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据俞先生在文章中说：姬子书到底是部什么书呢，谁也说不上来。特别前些日子把这一回书选为高中国文的教材，教员讲解时碰到问题，每来信相询，我亦不能对。但经过研究，他还是写了这篇文章，作为回答。<br />
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According to Mr.Yu in his article: nobody can tell what book ''Ji Zi'' really is. Moreover, this chapter of ''A Dream in Red Mansions'' with the name ''Ji Zhi'' has been selected as the reading material of the high school,and I can't say anything when the teacher who failed to explain it in the classroom come to me.But after careful research, he still write an article to reply this question.<br />
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According to Mr. Yu in his article: nobody can tell what book ''Ji Zi'' really is. In particular, this chapter was selected as a reading material for the Chinese language in high school some days ago, the teachers encountered problems when explaining it, and they wrote to me every time to ask about it, but I couldn't get it right. But after researching, he wrote this article as an answer.--[[User:Chen Xinyi|Chen Xinyi]] ([[User talk:Chen Xinyi|talk]]) 05:37, 23 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==陈心怡 Chén Xīnyí 翻译学 女 202120081481==<br />
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他的结论有三点：其一，《姬子》是“作者杜撰”，并以第三回的《古今人物通考》也是杜撰而作为佐证。其二，“这原来是一个笑话”，是探春“拿姬子来抵制”宝钗用以压人的朱子和孔子，而“比朱子孔子再大，只好是姬子了。殆以周公姓姬，作为顽笑”。<br />
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There are three points in his conclusion: one, ''Ji Zi'' is "the author fabricated", and to the third round of " the general examination of ancient and modern characters" is also fabricated and as proof. Second, "this turns out to be a joke", is Tanchun " take ''Ji Zi'' to resist" Baochai and used to press people by citing Zhu Zi and Confucius, and "higher level than Zhu Zi and Confucius can only be ''Ji Zi''. Probably Zhou Gong was surnamed Ji as a joke.--[[User:Chen Xinyi|Chen Xinyi]] ([[User talk:Chen Xinyi|talk]]) 05:35, 23 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
There are three points in his conclusion: first, ''Ji Zi'' is "fabricated by the author", and can be proved by the fabrication of the third round of " the general examination of ancient and modern characters". Second, "this turns out to be a joke", which Tanchun " held ''Ji Zi'' to resist” Baochai who used to press her by citing Zhu Zi and Confucius, but “requiring higher level than Zhu Zi and Confucius, there’s only be ''Ji Zi''. Probably Zhou Gong was surnamed Ji as a joke.”--[[User:Cheng Yang|Cheng Yang]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yang|talk]]) 12:25, 23 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==程杨 Chéng Yáng 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081482==<br />
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其三，“有人或者要问为什么净瞎捣乱，造书名？我回答：这是小说。”《中国古典数字工程》可以证明俞先生的“杜撰说”是正确的，因此我把俞先生的意见用以注释《姬子》。<br />
Thirdly, "Someone may ask why messing around and making a title? I replied: This is a novel. "It can be proved by ''The Chinese Classical Digital Engineering'' that Mr. Yu’s “theory of fabrication” is correct. Therefore, I applied Mr. Gong's opinion to annotate ''Jizi''.--[[User:Cheng Yang|Cheng Yang]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yang|talk]]) 04:56, 23 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Thirdly, "Someone may ask why to mess around and make a title? I replied: This is a novel. "It can be proved by ''The Chinese Classical Digital Engineering'' that Mr. Yu’s ''Theory of Fabrication'' is correct. Therefore, I applied Mr. Gong's opinion to annotate ''Ji Tzu''.--[[User:Ding Xuan|Ding Xuan]] ([[User talk:Ding Xuan|talk]]) 11:01, 26 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==丁旋 Dīng Xuán 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081483==<br />
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据我所知，现在有人搜集了周公的几篇佚文，将其编为集子，按照《老子》、《庄子》、《孟子》之类的惯例，即命名为《姬子》，但这与曹雪芹毫不相干，《红楼梦》中的《姬子》书名绝对是杜撰。此外，有的注本虽然对《不自弃文》作了注释，却只是简述该文的大意，而没有注出曹雪芹的深刻用意。原来朱熹的徒子徒孙认为此文格调低下，有失朱夫子的身份，故将此文排除在众多朱熹文集之外，只有明·朱培编《文公大全集补遗》卷八从抄本《朱熹家谱》中引录，另有《朱子文集大全类编·卷二一·庭训》亦予收录。<br />
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As far as I know, someone collected several lost articles of Duke of Zhou, edited them into an anthology and named it ''Ji Tzu'' according to the routine of ''Lao Tzu'', ''Chang Tzu'' and ''Mencius'' and so on. However, this thing is irrelevant to Cao Xueqin, so the title of ''Ji Tzu'' in ''A Dream in Red Mansions'' is absolutely fabricated. Besides, although some books with annotations made interpretation to ''No Self-surrender'', they just told the main idea of this article rather than annotating the deep meaning made by Cao Xueqin. In fact, disciples and followers of Zhu Xi thought the style of this passage beneath his dignity is very low, so they excluded it out of many anthologies of Zhu Xi. Only when Zhu Pei(Ming dynasty) edited the eighth roll of ''Supplement to Collected Works of Duke Wen'', he incited it from transcript of ''Zhu Xi’s Genealogy''. In addition, it is also included in ''Complete Works of Zhu Tzua•Roll Twenty-one•Home Hearing''.--[[User:Ding Xuan|Ding Xuan]] ([[User talk:Ding Xuan|talk]]) 03:47, 21 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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As far as I know, now someone collected several lost articles of Duke of Zhou and edited them into a collection that was named ''Ji Tzu'' according to the routine of ''Lao Tzu'', ''Chang Tzu'' and ''Mencius'' and so on. However, this thing is irrelevant to Cao Xueqin, so the title of ''Ji Tzu'' in ''A Dream in Red Mansions'' is absolutely fabricated. Besides, although some books with annotations made interpretations to ''No Self-surrender'', they just briefly described the main idea of this article rather than annotating the deep meaning of Cao Xueqin. In fact, disciples and followers of Zhu Xi thought this passage was low in style and demeaned Zhu Xi, so they excluded it out of many anthologies of Zhu Xi. Only when Zhu Pei(Ming dynasty) edited the Book Eight of ''Supplement to Collected Works of Duke Wen'', he incited it from transcript of Zhu Xi’s Genealogy. In addition, ''Complete Works of Zhu Tzua• Book Twenty-one•Home Hearing'' was also included.--[[User:Du Lina|Du Lina]] ([[User talk:Du Lina|talk]]) 03:07, 22 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==杜莉娜 Dù Lìna 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081484==<br />
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曹雪芹借宝钗之口说出这篇少见的文章，一则以显示宝钗无书不读，再者也暗示自己博览群籍，同时也对那些自封的朱熹卫士予以调侃。可见曹雪芹即使开玩笑，也非闲笔，总有一定的用意。（详见注释）鉴于所要注释的词语性质不同，因此对注文的要求也有所不同。<br />
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Saying this rare writing through Precious Hairpin Marshgrass, on the one hand Cao Xueqin showed her strong love of reading as well as implied own extensive reading, and on the other, he played off those self-appointed guards of Zhu Xi. Obviously, his joking is not casual but absolutely with some profound meaning.(see annotations) The nature of words annotated is different, so the requirements for explanatory notes are different as well.--[[User:Du Lina|Du Lina]] ([[User talk:Du Lina|talk]]) 02:41, 22 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==付红岩 Fù Hóngyán 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081485==<br />
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其一，对于一般的疑难词语，重在疏通文意，多不引经据典，追根溯源。其二，对于成语、典故，则既要注明其出典，又要解释其本义，还要说明其引申义或比喻义。其三，对于各种名物（如建筑、服饰、官署、官职、琴棋书画、医卜星相等），则力求变专门术语为通俗语言，以利读者理解。<br />
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Firstly, as for normally confusing words, the emphasis is on clearing up the meaning of the text, as much quoting scripture and tracing the roots as possible. Secondly, for idioms and allusions, it is necessary to indicate their origins, explain their original meanings, and also include their derivative meanings or metaphorical meanings. Thirdly, for all kinds of physical objects (such as architecture, costumes, official offices, official positions, Four Arts( qin, chess, calligraphy and painting), medicine, divination and astrology, etc.), the attempt is to turn specialized terms into common language in order to facilitate readers’ understanding.--[[User:Fu Hongyan|Fu Hongyan]] ([[User talk:Fu Hongyan|talk]]) 11:24, 24 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Firstly, as for common confusing words, it should emphasize on clearing up the meaning of the text, as much quoting scripture and tracing the roots as possible. Secondly, for idioms and allusions, it is necessary to indicate their origins, explain their original meanings, and also include their derivative meanings or metaphorical meanings. Thirdly, for various technical terms of objects (such as architecture, costumes, official offices, official positions, Four Arts( qin, chess, calligraphy and painting), medicine, divination and astrology, etc.), the attempt is to turn specialized terms into common language in order to facilitate readers’ understanding.--[[User:Fu Shiyu|Fu Shiyu]] ([[User talk:Fu Shiyu|talk]]) 12:17, 28 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==付诗雨 Fù Shīyǔ 日语语言文学 女 202120081486==<br />
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其四，对于历史名人，则注明其所在朝代、简历及突出事迹。对于传说人物，则注明其出处及相关故事。其五，对于珍禽异兽、奇花异卉等，则注明其出处来历、奇异之处及相关故事。<br />
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Fourthly, as for historical celebrities, their dynasties, resumes and outstanding deeds should be indicated. As for legendary figures, their sources and related stories should be indicated. Fifthly, as for rare birds and animals, unusual flowers and different plants, etc., their origins and histories, peculiar places and related stories should be indicated.--[[User:Fu Shiyu|Fu Shiyu]] ([[User talk:Fu Shiyu|talk]]) 14:36, 23 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Fourthly, as for historical celebrities, their dynasties, resumes and outstanding deeds should be indicated. As for legendary figures, their sources and related stories should be indicated. Fifthly, as for rare birds and fabulous beasts, unusual flowers and different plants, etc., their origins and histories, peculiarities and related stories should be indicated.--[[User:Gao Mi|Gao Mi]] ([[User talk:Gao Mi|talk]]) 15:50, 23 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==高蜜 Gāo Mì 翻译学 女 202120081487==<br />
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其六，对于风俗、礼仪、节气等，则注明其形成沿革、具体内容。其七，对于谜语，则既要揭出谜底，又要解释谜语中的疑难词语、成语典故，还要说明谜底的根据。对于酒令，则要参照令谱，详述酒令的玩法及过程。<br />
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Sixthly, in terms of customs, etiquette and solar terms, its formation, development and content should be indicated. Seventhly, in terms of riddles, answers should be uncovered and an explanation is expected to be given to the answer as well as to difficult words, idioms and allusions in the riddle. Finally, in terms of drinking games, elaboration should be given on the rules and the process according to the instruction manual.--[[User:Gao Mi|Gao Mi]] ([[User talk:Gao Mi|talk]]) 15:51, 23 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Sixthly, in terms of customs, etiquette and solar terms, its formation, development and content should be indicated. Seventhly, in terms of riddles, answers should be uncovered and it is necessary to explain the difficult words and idioms in the riddle, and to explain the basis of the answer.Finally, in terms of drinking games, elaboration should be given on the rules and the process according to the instruction manual.--[[User:Gong Boya|Gong Boya]] ([[User talk:Gong Boya|talk]]) 05:45, 27 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==宫博雅 Gōng Bóyǎ 俄语语言文学 女 202120081488==<br />
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其八，对于所引前人诗、词、曲、文等，皆要注明出处；诗、词、曲照录全文，文则节录相关的文字。其九，对于具有隐寓或暗示意味的诗、词、曲、文、成语、典故、谜语、酒令等，因其关系到故事情节的发展和人物性格、运命的描写，故除了作注释之外，还要揭示其隐藏的含义。总而言之，注文以释难为易、释疑为明为宗旨，以释义准确、释文简炼为目标。<br />
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Eighthly, reference to predecessors' poems, Ci, Qu, essay, etc., must indicate the source; Poems, Ci, Qu are transcribed without changing the original words, and the essay takes the relevant words. Ninthly, for poems, Ci, Qu, essay, idioms, allusions, riddles, drinkers’ wager game and so on with implicit or suggestive meaning, because they are related to the development of the story plot and the description of the character and fate, so in addition to making annotations, but also to reveal his hidden meaning. In a word, the annotations aim to explain the difficulty as easy, to explain the doubt as clear. Aim to explain the meaning accurately and explain the text concisely.--[[User:Gong Boya|Gong Boya]] ([[User talk:Gong Boya|talk]]) 05:32, 27 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Eight, all quotations from poems, lyrics, songs and essays should be attributed to the source; the poems, lyrics and songs should be reproduced in their entirety, while the essays should be excerpted from the relevant texts. Nine, for poems, lyrics, songs, texts, idioms, allusions, riddles, wine orders, etc., which have an implicit or suggestive meaning, as they relate to the development of the storyline and the description of the characters' personalities and fortunes. The commentary should reveal their hidden meanings in addition to annotations. All in all, the aim of the commentary is to explain the difficult for the easy and the doubtful for the clear, and to explain the meaning accurately and to explain the text concisely.--[[User:He Qin|He Qin]] ([[User talk:He Qin|talk]]) 12:32, 28 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==何芩 Hé Qín 翻译学 女 202120081489==<br />
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愿望虽然如此，但学力有限，经验欠缺，愿望能否实现，毫无把握。诚望方家指教，读者检验。<br />
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第一回 甄士隐梦幻识通灵 贾雨村风尘怀闺秀<br />
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Although I wish to do so, I am not sure whether my wish can be realized because of my limited learning and lack of experience.I hope that the readers will test it.<br />
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Chapter 1 Hidden Turth--[[User:He Qin|He Qin]] ([[User talk:He Qin|talk]]) 12:33, 28 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Although I wish to do so, I am not sure whether the wish can come true with my limited ability and experience. Sincerely hope that other authors teach something and readers check it.<br />
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Chapter 1 Zhen Shiyin, in a vision, apprehends spirituality. Jia Yucun, in the windy and dusty world, cherishes fond thoughts of a beautiful maiden. --[[User:Hu Shuqing|Hu Shuqing]] ([[User talk:Hu Shuqing|talk]]) 07:21, 24 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==胡舒情 Hú Shūqíng 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081490==<br />
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此开卷第一回也。作者自云：曾历过一番梦幻之后，故将真事隐去，而借“通灵”之说，撰此《石头记》一书也，故曰“甄士隐”云云。但书中所记何事何人<br />
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This is the first chapter of the book. The author said that after going through the illusion, he prefered covering some truth and in virtue of mysticism wrote the novel ''The Story of the Stone''，so instead he used the name of Zhen Shiyin as a major speaker. But things and people noted in it--[[User:Hu Shuqing|Hu Shuqing]] ([[User talk:Hu Shuqing|talk]]) 03:59, 23 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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This is the first chapter of the book.Subsequent to the visions of a dream which he had，on some previous occasion，experienced，the writer personally relates，he designedly concealed the true circumstances，and borrowed the attributes of perception and spirituality to relate this story of the Record of the Stone. With this purpose，he made use of such designations as Chen Shih-yin and the like. What are，however，the events recorded in this work？--[[User:Huang Jinyun|Huang Jinyun]] ([[User talk:Huang Jinyun|talk]]) 10:19, 24 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==黄锦云 Huáng Jǐnyún 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081491==<br />
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自己又云：“今风尘碌碌，一事无成。忽念及当日所有之女子，一一细考较去，觉其行止见识，皆出我之上；我堂堂须眉，诚不若彼裙钗：我实愧则有馀，悔又无益，大无可如何之日也。当此日，欲将已往所赖天恩祖德，锦衣纨袴之时，饫甘餍肥之日，背父兄教育之恩，负师友规训之德，以致今日一技无成、半生潦倒之罪，编述一集，以告天下：知我之负罪固多，然闺阁中历历有人，万不可因我之不肖，自护己短，一并使其泯灭也。<br />
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The author speaking for himself, goes on to explain, with the lack of success which attended every single concern, I suddenly bethought myself of the womankind of past ages. Passing one by one under a minute scrutiny, I felt that in action and in lore, one and all were far above me; that in spite of the majesty of my manliness, I could not, in point of fact, compare with these characters of the gentle sex. And my shame forsooth then knew no bounds; while regret, on the other hand, was of no avail, as there was not even a remote possibility of a day of remedy.On this very day it was that I became desirous to compile, in a connected form, for publication throughout the world, with a view to (universal) information, how that I bear inexorable and manifold retribution; inasmuch as what time, by the sustenance of the benevolence of Heaven, and the virtue of my ancestors, my apparel was rich and fine, and as what days my fare was savory and sumptuous, I disregarded the bounty of education and nurture of father and mother, and paid no heed to the virtue of precept and injunction of teachers and friends, with the result that I incurred the punishment, of failure recently in the least trifle, and the reckless waste of half my lifetime. There have been meanwhile, generation after generation, those in the inner chambers, the whole mass of whom could not, on any account, be, through my influence, allowed to fall into extinction, in order that I, unfilial as I have been, may have the means to screen my own shortcomings.--[[User:Huang Jinyun|Huang Jinyun]] ([[User talk:Huang Jinyun|talk]]) 12:42, 22 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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The author goes on to explain, with the lack of success which attended every single concern, I suddenly bethought myself of the womankind of past ages. Thinking of them one by one under a minute scrutiny, I felt that in action and in lore, one and all were far above me; that in spite of the majesty of my manliness, I could not, in point of fact, compare with these characters of the gentle sex. And my shame forsooth then knew no bounds; while regret, on the other hand, was of no avail, as there was not even a remote possibility of a day of remedy.On this very day it was that I became desirous to compile, in a connected form, for publication throughout the world, with a view to (universal) information, how that I bear inexorable and manifold retribution; inasmuch as what time, by the sustenance of the benevolence of Heaven, and the virtue of my ancestors, my apparel was rich and fine, and as what days my fare was savory and sumptuous, I disregarded the bounty of education and nurture of father and mother, and paid no heed to the virtue of precept and injunction of teachers and friends, with the result that I incurred the punishment, of failure recently in the least trifle, and the reckless waste of half my lifetime. There had been meanwhile, generation after generation, those in the inner chambers, the whole mass of whom could not, on any account, be, through my influence, allowed to fall into extinction, in order that I, unfilial as I have been, may have the means to hide my own shortcomings.--[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 14:34, 22 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==黄逸妍 Huáng Yìyán 外国语言学及应用语言学 女 202120081492==<br />
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所以蓬牖茅椽，绳床瓦灶，并不足妨我襟怀；况那晨风夕月，阶柳庭花，更觉得润人笔墨。我虽不学无文，又何妨用假语村言敷演出来，亦可使闺阁昭传，复可破一时之闷，醒同人之目，不亦宜乎？”故曰“贾雨村”云云。<br />
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"Though my home is now a thatched cottage in which there are shabby windows, bed made of rope and earthen stove, all of these can not change my being broad and level. Besides, the morning breeze, the dew of night, the willows by me steps and the flowers in the yard inspired me to wield my pen. Though I have little learning and literary talent, it doesn't matter if I tell a tale in rustic language to record those lovely girls. This should help readers distract them from their worries. And that's the reason why I use the name Rainvillage Merchant."--[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 13:27, 21 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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"Though my home is now a thatched cottage in which there are shabby windows, bed made of rope and earthen stove, all of these can not change my being broad and level. Besides, the morning breeze, the dew of night, the willows by me steps and the flowers in the yard inspired me to wield my pen. Though I have little learning and literary talent, it doesn't matter if I tell a tale in rustic language to record those lovely girls. This should help readers distract them from their worries. And that's the reason why I use the name Jia Yucun."--[[User:Zeng Junlin|Zeng Junlin]] ([[User talk:Zeng Junlin|talk]]) 14:19, 23 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==曾俊霖 Zēng Jùnlín 国别 男 202120081478==<br />
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更于篇中间用“梦”、“幻”等字，却是此书本旨，兼寓提醒阅者之意。看官：你道此书从何而起？说来虽近荒唐，细玩颇有趣味。<br />
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In the middle of the article, the words "dream" and "fantasy" are the purpose of the book and the meaning of reminding readers. Reader: where did you start this book? Although it's absurd, it's fun to play.--[[User:Zeng Junlin|Zeng Junlin]] ([[User talk:Zeng Junlin|talk]]) 13:21, 23 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
In the middle of the article, the words "dream" and "fantasy" are the purpose of the book and the meaning of reminding readers. Reader: where did you start this book? Although it's absurd, it's fun to play.--[[User:Huang Zhuliang|Huang Zhuliang]] ([[User talk:Huang Zhuliang|talk]]) 13:33, 24 November 2021 (UTC)Huang Zhuliang<br />
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==黄柱梁 Huáng Zhùliáng 国别 男 202120081493==<br />
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却说那女娲氏炼石补天之时，于大荒山无稽崖，炼成高十二丈、见方二十四丈大的顽石三万六千五百零一块，那娲皇只用了三万六千五百块，单单剩下一块未用，弃在青埂峰下。谁知此石自经锻炼之后，灵性已通，自去自来，可大可小。因见众石俱得补天，独自己无才，不得入选，遂自怨自愧，日夜悲哀。一日，正当嗟悼之际，俄见一僧一道远远而来，生得骨格不凡，丰神迥异，来到这青埂峰下，席地坐谈。It is said that, once upon a time, when Nuwa was refining stones to mend the sky, she refined them into 36,501 pieces of hard stones 12-feet high and 24-feet square on the Wuji Cliff of the Da Huangshan Mountain. Numa, the creator of human beings in Chinese myth, only used 36,500 pieces, leaving only one unused and abandoned it under the Qinggeng Peak.Who knows, after the stone has been refined and created, its spirit has been passed. It can be big or small.Seeing that all the stones were able to mend the sky, he had no talent and could not be selected, so he complained and felt ashamed and mourned day and night. One day, at the time of mourning, he suddenly saw a monk and a Taoism priest with extraordinary personality coming from afar. They came to the Qinggeng Peak and sat on the ground to talk.--[[User:Huang Zhuliang|Huang Zhuliang]] ([[User talk:Huang Zhuliang|talk]]) 13:34, 24 November 2021 (UTC)Huang Zhuliang<br />
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It is said that, once upon a time, when Nuwa(Goddesses of Sky-patching) was refining stones to mend the sky, she refined them into 36,501 pieces of hard stones 12-feet high and 24-feet square on the Wuji Cliff of the Da Huangshan Mountain. Numa, the creator of human beings in Chinese myth, only used 36,500 pieces, leaving only one unused and abandoned it under the Qinggeng Peak.Who knows, after the stone has been refined and created, it had its spirit, it moved freely and could be big or small.Seeing that all the stones were able to mend the sky, he had no talent and could not be selected, so he complained and felt ashamed and mourned day and night. One day, at the time of mourning, he suddenly saw a monk and a Taoism priest with extraordinary personality coming from afar. They came to the Qinggeng Peak and sat on the ground to talk.--[[User:Jin Xiaotong|Jin Xiaotong]] ([[User talk:Jin Xiaotong|talk]]) 05:57, 26 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==金晓童 Jīn Xiǎotóng 202120081494==<br />
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见着这块鲜莹明洁的石头，且又缩成扇坠一般，甚属可爱。那僧托于掌上，笑道：“形体倒也是个灵物了，只是没有实在的好处。须得再镌上几个字，使人人见了，便知你是件奇物。<br />
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It was lovely to see this bright and clean stone shrinking like a fan. Resting on his palm, the monk smiled and said, "The body is a spiritual being, but it has no real benefit. Words had to be engraved so that everyone could see you and know that you were a wonder.--[[User:Jin Xiaotong|Jin Xiaotong]] ([[User talk:Jin Xiaotong|talk]]) 15:01, 20 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
Looking at this bright and clean stone shrinking like a fan, which is so lovely, with the stone on his palm the monk smiled and said, "Your body is a spiritual being, but ihas no real benefits. Words should be engraved so that everyone could see you and know that you are a wonder.--[[User:Kuang Yanli|Kuang Yanli]] ([[User talk:Kuang Yanli|talk]]) 11:42, 24 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==邝艳丽 Kuàng Yànl 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081495==<br />
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然后携你到那昌明隆盛之邦、诗礼簪缨之族、花柳繁华地、温柔富贵乡那里去走一遭。”石头听了大喜，因问：“不知可镌何字？携到何方？望乞明示。”那僧笑道：“你且莫问，日后自然明白。”<br />
Then take you there, a city-state of prosperity, a family of scholar, a place of flowers and willows. After listening, Stone asked rejoicingly: “I do not know what word I can write? Where I will be taken to? I hope get your instruction.” The monk smiled, “You do not rush into answer, and you will know it some day.”--[[User:Kuang Yanli|Kuang Yanli]] ([[User talk:Kuang Yanli|talk]]) 11:24, 24 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Then I'll take you for a walk to the prosperous country, the family of poems, gifts and tassels, the prosperous place of flowers and willows, and the gentle and rich township. " The stone was overjoyed when he asked, "I don't know what word to engrave? Where to carry it? I hope to beg clearly." the monk smiled and said, “You do not rush into answer, and you will know it some day.”--[[User:Li Aixuan|Li Aixuan]] ([[User talk:Li Aixuan|talk]]) 14:54, 28 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==李爱璇 Lǐ Àixuán 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081496==<br />
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说毕，便袖了，同那道人飘然而去，竟不知投向何方。又不知过了几世几劫，因有个空空道人访道求仙，从这大荒山无稽崖青埂峰下经过，忽见一块大石，上面字迹分明，编述历历。空空道人乃从头一看，原来是无才补天，幻形入世，被那茫茫大士、渺渺真人携入红尘、引登彼岸的一块顽石：上面叙着堕落之乡、投胎之处，以及家庭琐事、闺阁闲情、诗词谜语，倒还全备。<br />
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Having concluded these words, he put the stone in his sleeve, and proceeded on his journey, in company with the Taoist priest. No one knows where he took the stone. Nor can it be known how many centuries and ages elapsed, before a Taoist priest, named K'ung K'ung, passed, during his researches after the eternal reason and his quest after immortality, by these Ta Huang Hills, Wu Ch'i cave and Ch'ing Keng Peak. Suddenly seeing a large stone, on the surface of which the handwriting on it is clear and the calendar is compiled, K'ung K'ung examined them from first to last. They, in fact, explained how that this stone had originally been devoid of the properties essential for the repairs to the heavens, how it would be transmuted into human form and introduced by Mang Mang the High Lord, and Miao Miao, the Divine, into the world of mortals, and how it would be led over the other bank (across the San Sara). On the surface, it describes the land of degeneration, the place of reincarnation, as well as family trivia, boudoir leisure, poetry, riddles, which could not be ascertained.--[[User:Li Aixuan|Li Aixuan]] ([[User talk:Li Aixuan|talk]]) 04:54, 24 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Having concluded these words, he put the stone in his sleeve, and proceeded leisurely on his journey, in company with the Taoist. However, no one knew where he went. Nor can it be known how many centuries and ages elapsed, before a Taoist priest, Kongkong daoren Dauist by name, passed, during his researches after the eternal reason and his quest after immortality, by these Da Huang Hills, Wu Ch'i cave and Ch'ing Keng Peak. Suddenly perceiving a large block of stone, on the surface of which the traces of characters giving in a connected form, the various incidents of its fate could be clearly predicted. Kongkong daoren Dauist examined them from beginning to end. In fact, they explained how this block of worthless stone which had originally been devoid of the properties essential for the mending to the heavens, would be transmuted into human form and introduced by Mang Mang the High Lord, and Miao Miao, the Divine, into the world of mortals, and how it would be led over the other world (across the San Sara). On the surface, it recorded the spot of its degeneration and the place of its birth. The complete recording also included various family trifles, trivial affairs of young ladies, verses and riddles.--[[User:Li Ruiyang|Li Ruiyang]] ([[User talk:Li Ruiyang|talk]]) 06:17, 28 November 2021 (UTC)--[[User:Li Ruiyang|Li Ruiyang]] ([[User talk:Li Ruiyang|talk]]) 12:02, 29 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==李瑞洋 Lǐ Ruìyáng 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081497==<br />
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只是朝代年纪，失落无考。后面又有一偈云：无才可去补苍天，枉入红尘若许年。此系身前身后事，倩谁记去作奇传？<br />
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But the name of the dynasty and the year of the reign were obliterated and could not be confirmed. There was also a Buddhist verse following behind:<br />
Lacking in virtues to mend the azure skies, <br />
in vain I have been into the mortal world for many years. <br />
These facts are of a former and after life,<br />
but who will record a strange legend for me?--[[User:Li Ruiyang|Li Ruiyang]] ([[User talk:Li Ruiyang|talk]]) 03:57, 24 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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But the name of the dynasty and the year of the reign were obliterated and could not be confirmed. There was also a Buddhist verse following behind:<br />
Lacking in virtues to mend the azure sky, nothing have I gained within the years spent in the secular world. All of these about my present life and afterlife, who would record them for me?--[[User:Li Shan|Li Shan]] ([[User talk:Li Shan|talk]]) 14:59, 26 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==李姗 Lǐ Shān 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081498==<br />
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空空道人看了一回，晓得这石头有些来历，遂向石头说道：“石兄，你这一段故事，据你自己说来，有些趣味，故镌写在此，意欲闻世传奇。据我看来：第一件，无朝代年纪可考；第二件，并无大贤大忠理朝廷、治风俗的善政，其中只不过几个异样女子，或情或痴，或小才微善。我纵然抄去，也算不得一种奇书。”<br />
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As the Taoist priest named Kongkong once has examined the stone, he had some idea about the story on it, and then said to the stone, "Brother, maybe in your opinion, the story inscribed on you is of some interest so as to be kept here to win a fame throughout the world. But to my mind, it is far from a legend book to be transcribed. Firstly, there are hardly any clues about the time period of the background; secondly, no outstanding governance regarding politics and costumes has been achieved by great talents or loyal officials, and what it mainly narrates are merely several unusual women, some stuck in love, some boasting subtle intelligence and benevolence."--[[User:Li Shan|Li Shan]] ([[User talk:Li Shan|talk]]) 09:02, 21 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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As the Taoist priest named Kongkong once has examined the stone, he knew that the stone had some history, and then said to the stone, "Brother, maybe in your opinion, the story inscribed on you is of some interest so as to be kept here to win a fame throughout the world. But to my mind, it is far from a legend book to be transcribed. Firstly, there are hardly any clues about the time period of the background; secondly, no outstanding governance regarding politics and costumes has been achieved by great talents or loyal officials, and what it mainly narrates are merely several unusual women, some stuck in love, some boasting subtle intelligence and benevolence."--[[User:Li Shuang|Li Shuang]] ([[User talk:Li Shuang|talk]]) 03:05, 27 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==李双 Lǐ Shuāng 翻译学 女 202120081499==<br />
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石头果然答道：“我师何必太痴？我想历来野史的朝代，无非假借汉、唐的名色；莫如我这石头所记，不借此套，只按自己的事体情理，反倒新鲜别致。况且那野史中，或讪谤君相，或贬人妻女，奸淫凶恶，不可胜数；更有一种风月笔墨，其淫秽污臭，最易坏人子弟。<br />
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The stone answered: “Why are you so stubborn? I think the dynasties of unofficial history are nothing more than under the guise of Han, Tang. They are not as good as the stories recorded by me, a stone, which don’t follow the convention but according to the real facts and therefore are more novel on the contrary. Moreover, those unofficial histories are either slandering the emperor and his subjects, or belittling other people’s wives and children. There are countless descriptions of ferocity and adultery which are the most likely to have a bad influence on the younger generation.”--[[User:Li Shuang|Li Shuang]] ([[User talk:Li Shuang|talk]]) 10:54, 24 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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The stone answered: “Why are you so stubborn? I think the dynasties recorded in the unofficial histories are nothing more than under the guise of Han and Tang Dynasty. They are not as good as the stories recorded by me, a stone, which don’t follow the convention but according to the real facts and therefore are more novel on the contrary. Besides, those unofficial histories are either slandering the emperor and his subjects, or belittling other people’s wives and children. There are countless descriptions of ferocity and adultery which are most likely to have a bad influence on the younger generation.” --[[User:Li Wenxuan|Li Wenxuan]] ([[User talk:Li Wenxuan|talk]]) 11:10, 24 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==李文璇 Lǐ Wénxuán 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081500==<br />
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至于才子佳人等书，则又开口文君，满篇子建，千部一腔，千人一面，且终不能不涉淫滥。在作者不过要写出自己的两首情诗艳赋来，故假捏出男女二人名姓；又必旁添一小人拨乱其间，如戏中小丑一般。更可厌者，之乎者也，非理即文，大不近情，自相矛盾。<br />
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As for the books about the talented and the beauties, they talked about Wen and Jun, the pages were also full of Zi and Jian. A thousand volumes present the same thing, and a thousand person are also in the same character. Moreover, they cannot avoid to some licentious things. The authors, who had to write several sentimental odes and elegant ballads, had falsely invented the names of both men and women, and also some bad guys who like a clown in a play made some troubles in there. As for the annoying men, they had nothing in their minds and talked about Li and Wen, which had no link with the targeted things and paradoxical in the whole.--[[User:Li Wenxuan|Li Wenxuan]] ([[User talk:Li Wenxuan|talk]]) 00:53, 22 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
As for books related to talented scholars and beautiful ladies, he also talked about Wenjun, who is good at articles and is capricious, but he could not avoid prostitution in the end. The author just wants to write two of his own love poems, so he falsely pinches out the names of men and women; he must add a little person to make trouble in the meantime, like a clown in a play. The more annoying, the more it is, the unreasonable is the literary, the most unkind, self-contradictory.--[[User:Li Wen|Li Wen]] ([[User talk:Li Wen|talk]]) 03:24, 24 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==李雯 Lǐ Wén 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081501==<br />
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竟不如我这半世亲见亲闻的几个女子，虽不敢说强似前代书中所有之人，但观其事迹原委，亦可消愁破闷；至于几首歪诗，也可以喷饭供酒。其间离合悲欢，兴衰际遇，俱是按迹循踪，不敢稍加穿凿，至失其真。只愿世人当那醉馀睡醒之时，或避事消愁之际，把此一玩，不但是洗旧翻新，却也省了些寿命筋力，不更去谋虚逐妄了。<br />
It’s not as good as the few women I’ve seen and heard about in this half of my life. Although I dare not say that she is better than all the people in the books of the previous generations. Looking at their deeds, you can also relieve your sorrow and boredom. As for a few poor poems, you can also taste them while eating and drinking.The joys and sorrows, the ups and downs all follow the traces, daring not to lose the truth. I only hope that when the world is awake, or when avoiding troubles and sorrows ,they can enjoy it, not only to renovate, but also to save some lifespan and energy, not to seek falsehood.--[[User:Li Wen|Li Wen]] ([[User talk:Li Wen|talk]]) 03:15, 24 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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I am not as good as the women I have seen and heard in my life. Though I cannot say that they are as good as all the people in the books of previous generations, I can relieve my sorrow and despair by watching their deeds. As for a few crooked poems, you can also spray rice for wine. During the separation of joys and sorrows, ups and downs, are all traced, dare not slightly cut, to lose its true. I only hope that when people wake up from their drunkenness, or when they are relieved of their sorrow, they will not only wash the old and renew it, but also save some strength of life, so as not to seek for false things.--[[User:Li Xinxing|Li Xinxing]] ([[User talk:Li Xinxing|talk]]) 04:39, 24 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==李新星 Lǐ Xīnxīng 亚非语言文学 女 202120081503==<br />
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我师意为如何？”空空道人听如此说，思忖半晌，将这《石头记》再检阅一遍。因见上面大旨不过谈情，亦只是实录其事，绝无伤时诲淫之病，方从头至尾抄写回来，闻世传奇。<br />
What does my master think?" Empty Taoist listen to say so, ponder a long time, will this "stone" review again. Seeing that the message above was only a talk of love, and only a record of it, without suffering from the disease of lewdness, I copied it back from beginning to end and heard the legend of the world.--[[User:Li Xinxing|Li Xinxing]] ([[User talk:Li Xinxing|talk]]) 04:38, 24 November 2021 (UTC)--[[User:Li Xinxing|Li Xinxing]] ([[User talk:Li Xinxing|talk]]) 13:10, 29 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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What do I mean? " After hearing this, Taoist Kongkong thought for a long time and reviewed the stone story again. Seeing that the above general purpose is nothing but romance, it is only a factual record of its affairs, and there is no disease of obscenity at the time of injury, so I copied it back from beginning to end and heard the legend of the world.--[[User:Li Yi|Li Yi]] ([[User talk:Li Yi|talk]]) 04:35, 24 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==李怡 Lǐ Yí 法语语言文学 女 202120081504==<br />
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从此空空道人因空见色，由色生情，传情入色，自色悟空，遂改名情僧，改《石头记》为《情僧录》。东鲁孔梅溪题曰《风月宝鉴》。后因曹雪芹于悼红轩中披阅十载，增删五次，纂成目录，分出章回，又题曰《金陵十二钗》，并题一绝。<br />
Since then empty Taoist empty because of empty see color, from color feeling, feeling into color, since color wukong, he then changed his epithet into Monk in Love, and changed ''The story of the Stone'' into ''Record of Monk in Love''. Kong Meixi of The Eastern Lu dynasty wrote the book ''Catalogue of Chinese Ancient Romance''.After cao Xueqin in mourning red xuan read ten years, add and delete five times, compiled into a directory, a chapter back, and the title yue ''The Twelve Flowers of Gold Mausoleum '', and a must.--[[User:Li Yi|Li Yi]] ([[User talk:Li Yi|talk]]) 04:31, 24 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Since then Empty Taoist saw form through emptiness, generated emotions due to form, into which emptiness was stilled and epiphany was revealed, he then changed his epithet into Monk in Love, and changed ''The story of the Stone'' into ''Record of Monk in Love'', which was called ''Catalogue of Chinese Ancient Romance'' by Kong Meixi of The Eastern Lu dynasty. Afterwards Cao Xueqin read and amended it for ten years, revised and polished it for five times, and then compiled it into a directory with chapters and sections. Finally he entitled it ''The Twelve Flowers of Gold Mausoleum'' attached with a Chinese quatrain.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 04:55, 24 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==刘沛婷 Liú Pèitíng 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081505==<br />
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即此便是《石头记》的缘起。诗云：满纸荒唐言，一把辛酸泪。都云作者痴，谁解其中味?<br />
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This was the origin of ''The Story of The Stone''. A poem once said, “the whole novel is full of absurd words, as well as bitter tears. People all consider the author crazy, but is there anyone who knows its true meaning？--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 07:22, 23 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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This is the origin of ''The Story of the Stone''. The poem says: The pages were full of idle words which was penned with hot and bitter tears; All men call the author fool, but no one understood his secret message.--[[User:Liu Shengnan|Liu Shengnan]] ([[User talk:Liu Shengnan|talk]]) 08:25, 23 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==刘胜楠 Liú Shèngnán 翻译学 女 202120081506==<br />
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《石头记》缘起既明，正不知那石头上面记着何人何事？看官请听。按那石上书云：当日地陷东南，这东南有个姑苏城，城中阊门最是红尘中一二等富贵风流之地。<br />
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Now that the origin of ''The Story of the Stone'' is clear, let us see what was written on the stone. Dear readers, please listen. Long ago, the earth dipped downwards in the southeast where there was a city named Gusu; and the quarter around Changmen Gate of Gusu was one of the most fashionable centres of wealth and nobility in the world of men. --[[User:Liu Shengnan|Liu Shengnan]] ([[User talk:Liu Shengnan|talk]]) 02:10, 23 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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The origin of "The Story of the Stone" was clear, but did you know who or what was written on the stone? Please listen to me and go on. According to the record on the stone: One day, there was a subsidence in southeast and there was Gusu city. In the city, the quarter around Brothel Gate was one of the most fashionable centres of wealth and nobility in the world of men. --[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 03:13, 23 November 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei<br />
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==刘薇 Liú Wēi 国别 女 202120081507==<br />
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这阊门外有个十里街，街内有个仁清巷，巷内有个古庙，因地方狭窄，人皆呼作“葫芦庙”。庙旁住着一家乡宦，姓甄名费，字士隐；嫡妻封氏，性情贤淑，深明礼义。家中虽不甚富贵，然本地也推他为望族了。<br />
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Outside the city of Brothel Gate, there was a Worldly Way and a Carnal Line was on the street. In the Carnal Line, there was an ancient temple called "Gourd Temple" owing to it`s narrow location. Next to the temple lived a hometown official named Fei Potterymaker, courtesy named Hidden; his legal wife, surnamed Feng, was a virtuous person with a deep sense of courtesy and righteousness. Although the family was not very rich, the local people also thought that he was a prominent family. --[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 14:02, 21 November 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei<br />
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Outside the Changmen gate was the Shili street and the Renqing lane, inside which was an ancient temple, called the "Gourd temple" for its narrow space. Next to the temple lived a retired official named Zhen Fei, whose courtesy name was Shi Yin; his legal wife Mrs. Feng was a virtuous person with a deep awareness of courtesy and righteousness. Although the family was not very rich, the locals also regarded him as a noble man.--[[User:Liu Xiao|Liu Xiao]] ([[User talk:Liu Xiao|talk]]) 15:19, 22 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==刘晓 Liú Xiǎo 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081508==<br />
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因这甄士隐禀性恬淡，不以功名为念，每日只以观花种竹、酌酒吟诗为乐，倒是神仙一流人物。只是一件不足：年过半百，膝下无儿；只有一女，乳名英莲，年方三岁。一日炎夏永昼，士隐于书房闲坐，手倦抛书，伏几盹睡，不觉矇眬中走至一处，不辨是何地方。<br />
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Hidden Truth had a tranquil mind, indifferent to fame or gain. The only fun in every day life was enjoying beautiful flowers and planting bamboo, drinking nectared wine and reciting poetry. What a fairy-like figure! There was only one pity, that is, though in his fifty years old, he had no son nut only one three-year-old daughter, named Pity Zhen. One day in the hot summer, Hidden Truth was sitting idly in his study. Tired, he threw away his book and fell asleep at his desk, drifting to a place he could not tell.--[[User:Liu Xiao|Liu Xiao]] ([[User talk:Liu Xiao|talk]]) 03:19, 21 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Zhen Shiyin had a tranquil mind, indifferent to fame or gain. The only fun in every day life was enjoying beautiful flowers and planting bamboo, drinking nectared wine and reciting poetry. What a fairy-like figure! But there was one pity, that is, though in his fifty years old, he had no son nut only one three-year-old daughter, named Yinglian. One day in the hot summer, Shenyin was sitting idly in his study. He was so tired that he threw away his book and fell asleep at his desk, drifting to a place he could not tell.--[[User:Liu Yue|Liu Yue]] ([[User talk:Liu Yue|talk]]) 05:12, 23 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==刘越 Liú Yuè 亚非语言文学 女 202120081509==<br />
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忽见那厢来了一僧一道，且行且谈。只听道人问道：“你携了此物，意欲何往？”那僧笑道：“你放心。如今现有一段风流公案，正该了结，这一干风流冤家，尚未投胎人世。<br />
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Unexpectedly he espied， in the opposite direction， two priests coming towards him： the one a Buddhist， the other a Taoist. As they advanced they kept up the conversation in which they were engaged. "Whither do you purpose taking the object you have brought away？" he heard the Taoist inquire. To this question the Buddhist replied with a smile： "Set your mind at ease，" he said； "there's now in maturity a plot of a general character involving mundane pleasures， which will presently come to a denouement. The whole number of the votaries of voluptuousness have， as yet， not been quickened or entered the world.--[[User:Liu Yue|Liu Yue]] ([[User talk:Liu Yue|talk]]) 05:07, 23 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Unexpectedly he espied, from the opposite direction, A monk and a Taoist coming up to him. As they advanced, they kept up the conversation in which they were engaged. "Whither do you purpose taking the thing you have brought away？" He heard the Taoist inquire. The Buddhist replied with a smile: "Set your mind at ease. There's now a case of romantic affairs, which should presently come to a denouement. The whole number of the votaries of voluptuousness involved in have not been reincarnated.--[[User:Liu Yunxin|Liu Yunxin]] ([[User talk:Liu Yunxin|talk]]) 12:31, 24 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==刘运心 Liú Yùnxīn 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081510==<br />
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趁此机会，就将此物夹带于中，使他去经历经历。”那道人道：“原来近日风流冤家又将造劫历世，但不知起于何处，落于何方？”那僧道：“此事说来好笑。<br />
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Taking this opportunity, we can mingle it in them and let it experience the life on earth." The Taoist said: "So those debtors of love affairs will be reincarnated and then suffer on earth. But from which place will the reincarnation start and in which direction will them be placed still remain unsettled." The monk said: "It's a funny story. --[[User:Liu Yunxin|Liu Yunxin]] ([[User talk:Liu Yunxin|talk]]) 12:28, 24 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Taking this opportunity, we can carry it away and let it experience the life on earth. ”The Taoist priest said: "The debtors of love affairs will be reincarnated and then suffer on earth recently. But it' s unknown that from when the story started and to where will it go.“ The monk said: "It's a funny story....-- --[[User:Luo Anyi|Luo Anyi]] ([[User talk:Luo Anyi|talk]]) 08:23, 28 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==罗安怡 Luó Ānyí 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081511==<br />
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只因当年这个石头，娲皇未用，自己却也落得逍遥自在，各处去游玩。一日来到警幻仙子处，那仙子知他有些来历，因留他在赤霞宫中，名他为赤霞宫神瑛侍者。他却常在西方灵河岸上行走，看见那灵河岸上三生石畔有棵绛珠仙草，十分娇娜可爱，遂日以甘露灌溉，这绛珠草始得久延岁月。<br />
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This stone have not been used by The Empress Nu Wo. Thus It used to be free to roam on the heavens until one day he came to the Fairy of Wonders, who knew his special background. So she kept him in her palace and gave him the name by the Divine Eunuch of the Cabernet Palace. He often walked along the bank of West Sacred River where he saw a delicate and lovely Red Bead flower on the bank of the Three Living Stones. Being struck with the great beauty of this flower, the stone remained there, tending its protegee with the most loving care, and daily moistening its roots with the choicest nectar of the sky. Yielding to the influence of disinterested love, the Red Bead flower lived a longer life. --[[User:Luo Anyi|Luo Anyi]] ([[User talk:Luo Anyi|talk]]) 07:32, 28 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Because this stone in that age hasn‘t been used by a goddess in Chinese mythology，he could be careless and can go to visit many places for fun. One day，he come to the Fairy of Wonders who knew his special background. So she kept him in her palace and gave him the name by the Divine Eunuch of the Cabernet Palace.But he always walks by the bank of the West Sacred River. One day，he saw a fairy grass beside the Three Living Stones on the bank of the river，which is cute and delicate，so he irrigated it day by day，making it living longer.--[[User:Luo Xi|Luo Xi]] ([[User talk:Luo Xi|talk]]) 15:31, 28 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==罗曦 Luó Xī 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081512==<br />
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后来既受天地精华，复得甘露滋养，遂脱了草木之胎，幻化人形，仅仅修成女体，终日游于离恨天外，饥餐秘情果，渴饮灌愁水。只因尚未酬报灌溉之德，故甚至五内郁结着一段缠绵不尽之意。常说：‘自己受了他雨露之惠，我并无此水可还。<br />
Afterwards，because of the essence of the nature and the nutrients of the dew，it gradually got rid of itself from the trees and become a human-being，but only can become a female，meandering outside all day long，when feeling hungry，she would eat fruits，and when feeling thirsty，she would drink water.The reason for her lingering emotions is that she haven‘t showed her gratitude to her benefactors.She always said that：“I was benefited from his dew，but I can‘t bring back a report.”--[[User:Luo Xi|Luo Xi]] ([[User talk:Luo Xi|talk]]) 15:21, 28 November 2021 (UTC)--[[User:Luo Xi|Luo Xi]] ([[User talk:Luo Xi|talk]]) 15:21, 28 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==马新 Mǎ Xīn 外国语言学及应用语言学 女 202120081513==<br />
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他若下世为人，我也同去走一遭，但把我一生所有的眼泪还他，也还得过了。’因此一事，就勾出多少风流冤家都要下凡，造历幻缘，那绛珠仙草也在其中。今日这石正该下世，我来特地将他仍带到警幻仙子案前，给他挂了号，同这些情鬼下凡，一了此案。”<br />
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If he could be reincarnated as human in the next life, I would also go with him but only in this time return all the sorrows to him, which can let me go through the life. “For this reason, how many pretty teases have to descend to the world suffering the illusory fates, and the Crimson Pearl Flower is also among them. Today, this stone is about to be born, so I comes here specially to bring him to the court of Fairy Maiden Jinhuan, registering him and letting him go down to the earth with ghosts in order to settle the case.”--[[User:Ma Xin|Ma Xin]] ([[User talk:Ma Xin|talk]]) 12:37, 24 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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If he could be reincarnated as human in the next life, I would go with him, but I should also return all the sorrows in this time to him, which can enable me to go through the life. "For this reason, lots of pretty teases have to descend to the world suffering the illusory destiny, and that Red Bead Flower is also amomg them. Today this jade is about to be born, so I come here specially to take him to the court of the fairy Disenchantment, endowing him with a registration and letting him go down to the earth with those sentimental ghosts so as to settle the case.--[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 15:16, 27 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==毛雅文 Máo Yǎwén 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081514==<br />
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那道人道：“果是好笑，从来不闻有‘还泪’之说。趁此，你我何不也下世度脱几个，岂不是一场功德？”那僧道：“正合吾意。你且同我到警幻仙子宫中，将这蠢物交割清楚，待这一干风流孽鬼下世，你我再去。如今有一半落尘，然犹未全集。”<br />
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The Taoist priest says:"It's really ridiculous. I have never heard of the saying of 'returning tears'. We can also take this opportunity to release several souls from purgatory (help several souls of the decease get rid of worldly sufferings). Isn't it a merit?" The monk replies:"It's exactly what I am hoping for. You and I are going to the palace of the fairy Disenchantment, and to deliver such a jade and figure it out. When these dissolute and sinful evils all pass away, we will go to the afterlife. Half of them have fallen into the earthly world, but they have not yet gathered completely."--[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 15:04, 27 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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The Taoist priest says:"It's really ridiculous. I have never heard of the saying of 'returning tears'. We can also take this opportunity to release several souls from purgatory (help several souls of the decease get rid of worldly sufferings). Isn't it a merit?" The monk replies:"It's exactly what I am hoping for. You and I will go the palace of the fairy maiden Jing Huan, and to deliver such a jade and figure it out. When these dissolute and sinful evils all pass away, we will go to the afterlife. Half of them have fallen into the earthly world, but they have not yet gathered completely."--[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 06:56, 23 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==毛优 Máo Yōu 俄语语言文学 女 202120081515==<br />
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道人道：“既如此，便随你去来。”却说甄士隐俱听得明白，遂不禁上前施礼，笑问道：“二位仙师请了。”那僧、道也忙答礼相问。<br />
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The Taoist said, "In that case, let's go with you." Then Hidden Truth heard and understood, so he could not help but go forward to salute, smiling and saying, " Please, distinguished masters." The monk and the Taoist also replied with manners.<br />
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The Taoist said, "In that case, let's go with you." Then Hidden Truth heard and understood, so he could not help but go forward to salute, smiling and saying, " Please, distinguished masters." The monk and the Taoist also immediately replied with manners.--[[User:Mou Yixin|Mou Yixin]] ([[User talk:Mou Yixin|talk]]) 10:50, 24 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==牟一心 Móu Yīxīn 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081516==<br />
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士隐因说道：“适闻仙师所谈因果，实人世罕闻者。但弟子愚拙，不能洞悉明白。若蒙大开痴顽，备细一闻，弟子洗耳谛听，稍能警省，亦可免沉沦之苦了。”<br />
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Hidden Truth said: "What you master talked about the cause and effect is definitely rare in the world. But I am stupid and can't fully understand it. If you can explain it for me to get rid of infatuation and stubbornness, I will listen to you carefully and then take warning from it, avoiding the suffering of enthrallment."--[[User:Mou Yixin|Mou Yixin]] ([[User talk:Mou Yixin|talk]]) 08:01, 21 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Hidden Truth then said, "I have just heard you master's words about karma, a truly rare insight in the world. But I am too ignorant to understand it. If I could be enlightened by you two to get rid of infatuation and stubbornness, I would certainly listen carefully to all that you say and then take warning from it, avoiding the suffering of enthrallment."--[[User:Peng Ruixue|Peng Ruixue]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruixue|talk]]) 07:54, 22 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==彭瑞雪 Péng Ruìxuě 法语语言文学 女 202120081517==<br />
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二仙笑道：“此乃玄机，不可预泄。到那时只不要忘了我二人，便可跳出火坑矣。”士隐听了，不便再问，因笑道：“玄机固不可泄露，但适云‘蠢物’，不知为何？或可得见否？”那僧说：“若问此物，倒有一面之缘。”<br />
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The two immortals laughed and said, "It is something metaphysical and cannot be divulged in advance. At that time, just don't forget the two of us, and you will be free from your predicament." When Hidden Truth heard this, he stopped pursuing the matter. He laughed and said, "Of course the mystery must not be divulged, but I don't quite understand what the 'stupid thing' is that you just mentioned. Perhaps I have a chance to see it?" The monk said, "This thing you are asking about, you do have the fortune to see it.--[[User:Peng Ruixue|Peng Ruixue]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruixue|talk]]) 07:39, 22 November 2021 (UTC)--[[User:Peng Ruixue|Peng Ruixue]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruixue|talk]]) 12:48, 29 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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The two immortals laughed and said, "It is metaphysical and cannot be divulged in advance. At that time, if you don't forget two of us, and you will be free from your predicament." When Shi Yin heard this, he stopped pursuing the matter. He laughed and said, "Of course the mystery must not be divulged, but I don't quite understand what the 'stupid thing' is that you just mentioned. Perhaps I have a chance to see it?" The monk said, "This thing you are asking about, you do have the fortune to see it.--[[User:Qing Jianan|Qing Jianan]] ([[User talk:Qing Jianan|talk]]) 06:17, 29 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==秦建安 Qín Jiànān 外国语言学及应用语言学 女 202120081518==<br />
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说着取出，递与士隐。士隐接了看时，原来是块鲜明美玉，上面字迹分明，镌着“通灵宝玉”四字，后面还有几行小字。正欲细看时，那僧便说已到幻境，就强从手中夺了去。<br />
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He said and took it out to Hidden Truth. ShiYin received it and found it a bright beautiful jade in which there were four clear characters:Tong Ling Bao Yu followes by several lines of words.When Hidden Truth craved for a careful look, that monk said that he had reached the illusion, so he snatched it from ShiYin's hand.--[[User:Qing Jianan|Qing Jianan]] ([[User talk:Qing Jianan|talk]]) 02:57, 21 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Then he said as he took it out and handed it to Hidden Truth. Hidden Truth took a look, and it turned out to be a piece of bright beautiful jade, with clear writing above, engraved with the “Tongling jade”. There were a few lines of small characters behind. When he was about to take a closer look, the monk said he had reached the Illusory Land and snatched the jade from his hands.--[[User:Qiu Tingting|Qiu Tingting]] ([[User talk:Qiu Tingting|talk]]) 01:47, 22 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==邱婷婷 Qiū Tíngtíng 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081519==<br />
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和那道人竟过了一座大石牌坊，上面大书四字，乃是“太虚幻境”。两边又有一副对联道：假作真时真亦假，无为有处有还无。士隐意欲也跟着过去，方举步时，忽听一声霹雳，若山崩地陷。<br />
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And with that Taoist priest actually passed a large stone archway, above which was engraved four big words, is “ Illusory Land of Great Void ”.On both sides there was a pair of couplets: If false is taken as the truth, then truth is said to be lieing , when nothing is taken as being, then being itself is turned into nothing. Hidden Truth also wanted to pass the big stone archway, but the moment he was about to raise his foot, he heard a crack of thunder which sounded as if the hills were rending asunder and the earth falling in.--[[User:Qiu Tingting|Qiu Tingting]] ([[User talk:Qiu Tingting|talk]]) 02:52, 21 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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And that Taoist passed a large stone pagoda, written on it four big words, is "Taixu fantasy realm". On both sides, there is a couplet saying: "Falsehood is true when it is true, and there is nothing where there is nothing". Hidden Truth also wanted to follow, when just ready to raise his feet, he heard a thunderbolt all of a sudden, as if a landslide happened.--[[User:Rao Jinying|Rao Jinying]] ([[User talk:Rao Jinying|talk]]) 02:48, 21 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==饶金盈 Ráo Jīnyíng 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081520==<br />
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士隐大叫一声，定睛看时，只见烈日炎炎，芭蕉冉冉，梦中之事便忘了一半。又见奶母抱了英莲走来。士隐见女儿越发生得粉装玉琢，乖觉可喜，便伸手接来，抱在怀中，斗他玩耍一会。<br />
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Hidden Truth cried out, and when he fixed his eyes, only seeing the sun is shining, the weather is bright, and the plantains are flourishing, and then he forgot half of his dream. Later, the lactating mother coming with Pity Zhen in her arms. When Hidden Truth noted that his daughter was becoming more and more beautiful and cute, he reached out and took her in his arms, and teased her for a while.--[[User:Rao Jinying|Rao Jinying]] ([[User talk:Rao Jinying|talk]]) 02:43, 21 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Hidden Truth cried out, fixing his eyes on the blazing sun and supplely drooping banana leaves, only to be oblivious to half of his dream. Then the wet nurse came over with Pity Zhen in her arms. Hidden Truth perceived that his daughter became so fair and lovely that he couldn’t wait to cradle her in his arms to amuse her.--[[User:Shi Liqing|Shi Liqing]] ([[User talk:Shi Liqing|talk]]) 05:48, 21 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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== Headline text ==<br />
==石丽青 Shí Lìqīng 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081521==<br />
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又带至街前，看那过会的热闹。方欲进来时，只见从那边来了一僧一道：那僧癞头跣足，那道跛足蓬头，疯疯癫癫，挥霍谈笑而至。及到了他门前，看见士隐抱着英莲，那僧便大哭起来，又向士隐道：“施主，你把这有命无运、累及爹娘之物抱在怀内作甚？”<br />
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Hidden Truth then took his lovely daughter out into the street to see the lively meeting. When he was about to enter the door, he saw a monk and a Taoist coming from the other side: the monk had ringworm on his head and no shoes or socks on his feet; the Taoist priest was characterized by lameness and untidy hair. They came over, crazy, talking and laughing. When they got to Hidden Truth’s door, seeing him holding Pity Zhen in his arms. The monk began to cry and said to Hidden Truth, “ Benefactor, why did you cradle such an ill-fated and encumbering child in your arms？”--[[User:Shi Liqing|Shi Liqing]] ([[User talk:Shi Liqing|talk]]) 01:35, 21 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Hidden Truth then took his lovely daughter to the street to see the lively agora. When he was about to enter the door, he saw a monk and a Taoist priest coming from the other side: the monk had ringworm on his head and no shoes or socks on his feet; the Taoist priest was characterized by lameness and untidy hair. They acted like a lunatic and came over,talking and laughing. When they got to Shiyin’s door, seeing him holding Pity Zhen in his arms. The monk began to cry and said to Hidden Truth, “ Benefactor, why did you cradle such an ill-fated and encumbering child in your arms？”--[[User:Sun Yashi|Sun Yashi]] ([[User talk:Sun Yashi|talk]]) 06:06, 21 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==孙雅诗 Sūn Yǎshī 外国语言学及应用语言学 女 202120081522==<br />
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士隐听了，知是疯话，也不睬他。那僧还说：“舍我罢，舍我罢。”士隐不耐烦，便抱着女儿转身。<br />
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After listening to him,Hidden Truth knew that it's crazy words and ignored him.But the monk also said:"Give her to me,give her to me." Hidden Truth was impatient,so he held his daughter and turned to leave.--[[User:Sun Yashi|Sun Yashi]] ([[User talk:Sun Yashi|talk]]) 05:59, 21 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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After listening to him, Hidden Truth knew that it was lunatic ravings and ignored him. But the monk complemented:"Give her to me, give her to me." Hidden Truth got impatient, so he embraced his daughter and turned around. --[[User:Wang Lifei|Wang Lifei]] ([[User talk:Wang Lifei|talk]]) 12:14, 23 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==王李菲 Wáng Lǐfēi 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081523==<br />
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才要进去，那僧乃指着他大笑，口内念了四句言词，道是：惯养娇生笑你痴，菱花空对雪澌澌。好防佳节元宵后，便是烟消火灭时。<br />
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When he was about to get in, the monk pointed at him and laughed, mumbling four sentences, which mean “how crazy that you pamper your daughter like this, (see you embrace Yinglian), just like the summer lotus are exposed to the winter snow. Beware of the days after the Lantern Festival, then there is a fire to vanish everything.”--[[User:Wang Lifei|Wang Lifei]] ([[User talk:Wang Lifei|talk]]) 03:03, 21 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
When he wanted to go in, the monk pointed at him and laughed, saying…--[[User:Wang Yifan21|Wang Yifan21]] ([[User talk:Wang Yifan21|talk]]) 06:56, 24 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==王逸凡 Wáng Yìfán 亚非语言文学 女 202120081524==<br />
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士隐听得明白，心下犹豫，意欲问他来历，只听道人说道：“你我不必同行，就此分手，各干营生去罢。三劫后，我在北邙山等你，会齐了，同往太虚幻境销号。”那僧道：“最妙，最妙。”<br />
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Hidden Truth understood and hesitated, intending to ask him where he came from. The Taoist said, "You and I don't need to go together. Three days later, I wait for you in Beimangshan Berg, meet together, with Dimness sales number." The monk said, "The best, the best."--[[User:Wang Yifan21|Wang Yifan21]] ([[User talk:Wang Yifan21|talk]]) 06:44, 24 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Shiyin understood,hesitated in his heart,and wanted to ask him where he came from.He only heard the Taoist say: "You and I don't have to go together, just break up and go to work. After the Three Tribulations, I will wait for you in Beimanshan,nnd go to the Tai Unreal Realm to sell the number." The monk said: "The most wonderful, the most wonderful."--[[User:Wang Zhenlong|Wang Zhenlong]] ([[User talk:Wang Zhenlong|talk]]) 13:40, 28 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==王镇隆 Wáng Zhènlóng 英语语言文学（英美文学） 男 202120081525==<br />
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说毕，二人一去，再不见个踪影了。士隐心中此时自忖：“这两个人必有来历，很该问他一问，如今后悔却已晚了。”这士隐正在痴想，忽见隔壁葫芦庙内寄居的一个穷儒，姓贾名化、表字时飞、别号雨村的走来。<br />
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After that,the two went away,and they were nowhere to be seen.Shiyin thought to himself at this moment: "These two people must have a history.It's time to ask him,but now it's too late to regret." Shiyin was thinking about it,but suddenly saw a poor scholar living in the Hulu temple next door whose first name is Jia,last name hua,Courtesy name Shifei,and another name Yucun came.--[[User:Wang Zhenlong|Wang Zhenlong]] ([[User talk:Wang Zhenlong|talk]]) 13:37, 28 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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After saying that, the two went away, and there was no sign of them anymore. Shiyin thought to himself at this moment: "These two people surely had some backgrounds. I should have asked him, but it was too late to regret now." Shiyin was daydreaming, but suddenly saw a poor scholar living in the Hulu temple next door coming up. His first name is hua, last name is jia, secondary personal name is Shifei, and another name is Rainvillage Merchant.--[[User:Wei Yiwen|Wei Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Wei Yiwen|talk]]) 14:46, 28 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==卫怡雯 Wèi Yíwén 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081526==<br />
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这贾雨村原系湖州人氏，也是诗书仕宦之族。因他生于末世，父母祖宗根基已尽，人口衰丧，只剩得他一身一口。在家乡无益，因进京求取功名，再整基业。<br />
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Rainvillage Merchant was born in Huzhou and came from a family of Confucian scholars and officials. Because he was born in last phase of age, the roots of his ancestors had died out. Family declined, and left him alone. He found no benefit in hometown, so he went to Beijing to strive for fame and tried to make another solid foundation for family.--[[User:Wei Yiwen|Wei Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Wei Yiwen|talk]]) 03:10, 21 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Jia Yucun came from Huzhou and was born in a family of scholars and officials. However, because he was born in the last phase of the age, the root of his ancestors had died out and family declined, leaving him alone in the world. He found no benefit in hometown, so he went to Beijing to strive for success and fame and tried to make the revitalization of his family.--[[User:Wei Chuxuan|Wei Chuxuan]] ([[User talk:Wei Chuxuan|talk]]) 04:46, 21 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==魏楚璇 Wèi Chǔxuán 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081527==<br />
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自前岁来此，又淹蹇住了，暂寄庙中安身，每日卖文作字为生，故士隐常与他交接。当下雨村见了士隐，忙施礼陪笑道：“老先生倚门伫望，敢街市上有甚新闻么？”士隐笑道：“非也。适因小女啼哭，引他出来作耍。正是无聊的很，贾兄来得正好，请入小斋，彼此俱可消此永昼。” <br />
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Since arriving in Beijing the year before last, Jia Yuchun had led a hard life, living only in a temple. He wrote poems and articles in exchange for money every day, so Shiyin often often met with him. Once Yucun saw Shiyin, hurriedly saluted and said with a smile, " Sir, you are leaning on the door and looking at something. Is there any news in the market?" Shiyin smiled and said, "No. Just because my little girl cried, so I took her out to play. I am so bored now and you are so nice to appear in time. Please come into my study with me, so that we can both kill the boring time." --[[User:Wei Chuxuan|Wei Chuxuan]] ([[User talk:Wei Chuxuan|talk]]) 03:35, 21 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Since arriving in Beijing the year before last, Rainvillage Merchant found himself in difficult conditions and desperate straits. He lived only in a temple and made a living by writing in exchange for money every day, so Hidden Truth often met with him. At that moment, Rainvillage Merchant saw Hidden Truth, hurriedly saluted and said with smile, " An old gentleman as you, leaning on the door and looking at something, I wander that is there any news in the street?" Hidden Truth smiled and said, "Hardly, just because my little girl cried, so I take her out to play. I am so bored now and you‘ve come just at the right moment. Please come into my small studio, so that we can spend the long day together."--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 14:13, 23 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==魏兆妍 Wèi Zhàoyán 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081528==<br />
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说着，便令人送女儿进去。自携了雨村来至书房中，小童献茶。方谈得三五句话，忽家人飞报：“严老爷来拜。”<br />
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While he was talking, he asked someone to take his daughter back to her room. Then he took Rainvillage Merchant to his study, and a child offered a cup of tea for each of them. But just said a few words, suddenly the family member came quickly to say that "Master Yan came to visit."--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 07:30, 23 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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While talking, he asked someone to take his daughter back to her room. Then he took Rainvillage Merchant to his study, and a child offered a cup of tea for each of them. But just said a few words, suddenly the family member came quickly to say that "Master Yan came to visit." --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 14:01, 24 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==吴婧悦 Wú Jìngyuè 俄语语言文学 女 202120081529==<br />
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士隐慌忙起身谢道：“恕诓驾之罪。且请略坐，弟即来奉陪。”雨村起身也让道：“老先生请便。晚生乃常造之客，稍候何妨！”说着，士隐已出前厅去了。<br />
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HiddenTruth stood up hurriedly and said, " Excuse me.Please sit for a moment first, and I will entertain you at once."Rainvillage Merchant also stood up and answered:" Old gentleman, you go. I often come to you here as a guest, wait a little while is not the matter!" Said, Hidden Truth had walked out of the guest room.--[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 02:51, 21 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Shiyin hurriedly got up and thanked, "excuse the crime of cheating driving. Please sit down and my brother will accompany you." Yucun got up and said, "please help yourself, sir. My late life is a regular guest. Why not wait a minute!" said Shiyin, who had left the front hall.--[[User:Wu Yinghong|Wu Yinghong]] ([[User talk:Wu Yinghong|talk]]) 13:44, 22 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==吴映红 Wú Yìnghóng 日语语言文学 女 202120081530==<br />
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这里雨村且翻弄诗籍解闷，忽听得窗外有女子嗽声。雨村遂起身往外一看，原来是一个丫鬟在那里掐花儿：生的仪容不俗，眉目清秀，虽无十分姿色，却也有动人之处。雨村不觉看得呆了。那甄家丫鬟掐了花儿，方欲走时，猛抬头见窗内有人：敝巾旧服，虽是贫窘，然生得腰圆背厚，面阔口方，更兼剑眉星眼，直鼻方腮。<br />
Here in the rain village, I turned to poetry books to relieve my boredom. Suddenly I heard a woman coughing outside the window. Rain Village Merchant then got up and looked out. It turned out that it was a servant girl pinching flowers there: appearance was not vulgar and his eyebrows were beautiful. Although he was not very beautiful, he was also moving. Yucun was stunned. The Zhen servant girl pinched the flowers. When leaving, she suddenly looked up and saw someone in the window: Although I was poor and embarrassed, I had a round waist, thick back, wide face and square mouth. I also had sword eyebrows, star eyes, straight nose and square cheeks.<br />
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Rain Village Merchant was reading poems to relieve his boredom, suddenly hearing a girl outside the window coughing. Yucun stood up and found a housemaid picking flowers: she was of good appearance and pretty features. Although she was not perfect, she had something touching. Yucun felt stunned. The girl had pinched the flowers and was about to leave when she suddenly raised her head and saw someone in the window. In rags, he had a round waist and a thick back, a wide face and a square mouth, with a sword eyebrow and star eyes, a straight nose and a square cheek.--[[User:Xiao Yiyao|Xiao Yiyao]] ([[User talk:Xiao Yiyao|talk]]) 10:14, 24 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==肖毅瑶 Xiāo Yìyáo 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081531==<br />
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这丫鬟忙转身回避，心下自想：“这人生的这样雄壮，却又这样褴褛。我家并无这样贫窘亲友，想他定是主人常说的什么贾雨村了。怪道又说他必非久困之人，每每有意帮助周济他，只是没什么机会。”如此一想，不免又回头一两次。雨村见他回头，便以为这女子心中有意于他，遂狂喜不禁，自谓此女子必是个巨眼英豪，风尘中之知己。<br />
The housemaid turned away quickly and said to herself:” the man is so grand and ragged. I don’t have such deprived friends and relatives, thus he must be Rain Village Merchant that the master has mentioned frequently. It’s said that he will not be trapped in poverty for a long time. The master has meant to help him but doesn’t find a proper chance.” At the thought of this, she looked back for several times, which misled Rian Village to think the girl was attracted by him and felt very excited. He believed that the girl must have a pair of wisdom eye and was his true friend in difficulty.--[[User:Xiao Yiyao|Xiao Yiyao]] ([[User talk:Xiao Yiyao|talk]]) 02:16, 24 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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The housemaid turned away hurriedly and thought to herself:” the man is so strong, but his clothes are shabby. I don’t have such deprived friends and relatives, thus he must be Jia Yucun that the master has mentioned frequently. It’s said that he will not be trapped in poverty for a long time. The master has always meant to help him but doesn’t find a proper chance.” At the thought of this, she looked back for several times, which misled Yu Cun to think the girl was attracted by him and felt very excited. He believed that the girl must have a good taste and was his true friend in difficulty.--[[User:Xie Jiafen|Xie Jiafen]] ([[User talk:Xie Jiafen|talk]]) 11:27, 24 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==谢佳芬 Xiè Jiāfēn 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081532==<br />
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一时小童进来，雨村打听得前面留饭，不可久待，遂从夹道中，自便门出去了。士隐待客既散，知雨村已去，便也不去再邀。一日，到了中秋佳节。<br />
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When a child came in, Rainvillage heard that the host entertained the guests meal. Therefore, he knew that he couldn't stay long, so he went out through the lane and went out by himself. Later, Hidden Truth had already served guests, knowing that Rainvillage had gone, so he didn't invite again. One day, it was the Mid Autumn Festival.<br />
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When a child came in, Rainvillage heard that the host entertained the guests meal. Therefore, he knew that he couldn't stay long, so he went out through the lane and went out by himself. Later, Hidden Truth had already served guests, knowing that Rainvillage had gone, so he didn't invite again. One day, it was the Mid Autumn Festival.--[[User:Xie Qinglin|Xie Qinglin]] ([[User talk:Xie Qinglin|talk]]) 07:53, 26 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==谢庆琳 Xiè Qìnglín 俄语语言文学 女 202120081533==<br />
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士隐家宴已毕，又另具一席于书房，自己步至庙中来邀雨村。原来雨村自那日见了甄家丫鬟曾回顾他两次，自谓是个知己，便时刻放在心上。今又正值中秋，不免对月有怀，因而口占五言一律云：<br />
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Shiiyin‘s family banquet has been completed, and another seat in the study, he came to the temple to invite Yucun. It turns out that since that day Yucun saw the Zhen family maid had looked back at him twice, since he said he was a confidant, so he always put on his heart. Now it was the mid-autumn festival, so I couldn't help but feel nostalgic for the moon, so I took five words from the mouth and said.--[[User:Xie Qinglin|Xie Qinglin]] ([[User talk:Xie Qinglin|talk]]) 07:51, 26 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Hidden Truth's family banquet has been completed, and another seat in the study, he came to the temple to invite Rainvillage Merchant. It turns out that since that day Yucun saw the Family of Zhen maid had looked back at him twice, since he said he was a confidant, so he always put on his heart. Now it was the mid-autumn festival, so I couldn't help but feel nostalgic for the moon, so I took five words from the mouth and said.--[[User:Xiong Min|Xiong Min]] ([[User talk:Xiong Min|talk]]) 11:23, 29 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==熊敏 Xióng Mǐn 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081534==<br />
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未卜三生愿，频添一段愁。闷来时敛额，行去几回头。自顾风前影，谁堪月下俦？蟾光如有意，先上玉人楼。<br />
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I haven’t realized my dream yet, but had sorrowful experience. I often frown when I feel depressed and look back repeatedly when I farewell. With the wind blowing, I look at my shadow. Who can be my partner? If the moon helps,please shed light on the girl’s window and show her my love.<br />
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I haven’t realized my dream yet, but had sorrowful experience. I often frown when I feel depressed and look back repeatedly when I farewell. With the wind blowing, I look at my shadow. Who can be my partner? If the moon helps,please shed light on the girl’s window and show her my love.--[[User:Xu Minyun|Xu Minyun]] ([[User talk:Xu Minyun|talk]]) 12:02, 28 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==徐敏赟 Xú Mǐnyūn 语言智能与跨文化传播研究 男 202120081535==<br />
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雨村吟罢，因又思及平生抱负，苦未逢时，乃又搔首对天长叹，复高吟一联云：玉在椟中求善价，钗于奁内待时飞。恰值士隐走来听见，笑道：“雨村兄真抱负不凡也！”<br />
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After Rainvillage Merchant finished reciting the love poems of Lucky, he thought of his great ambitions and thought that he had not met a good time, so he recited a pair of couplets that he created aloud: "Jade and hairpin are all placed in the box, hoping that one day it can realize its value and play its role." Just when Hidden Truth came to hear it, Shiyin smiled and said, "Brother Rainvillage Merchant is really ambitious!"--[[User:Xu Minyun|Xu Minyun]] ([[User talk:Xu Minyun|talk]]) 11:38, 24 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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After Rainvillage Merchant finished reciting the love poems of Lucky, he thought of his great ambitions and thought that he had not met a good time, so he recited aloud a pair of couplets that he created: "Jade and hairpin are all placed in the box, hoping that one day it can realize its value and play its role." Just when Hidden Truth came to hear it, Shiyin smiled and said, "Rainvillage Merchant is really ambitious!"--[[User:Yan Jing|Yan Jing]] ([[User talk:Yan Jing|talk]]) 16:53, 28 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==颜静 Yán Jìng 语言智能与跨文化传播研究 女 202120081536==<br />
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雨村忙笑道：“不敢。不过偶吟前人之句，何期过誉如此！”因问：“老先生何兴至此？”士隐笑道：“今夜中秋，俗谓团圆之节。想尊兄旅寄僧房，不无寂寥之感。故特具小酌，邀兄到敝斋一饮。不知可纳芹意否？”<br />
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Rainvillage Merchant laughed and hurriedly said, "No no, I just recite the words of the predecessors. You speak too highly of me!" he asked, "Why did you come here, sir?" Hidden Truth smiled, "Tonight is the reunion time of Mid Autumn Festival. You lodged with a monk's room alone. So I come to invite you to have a drink with me. What do you think?"--[[User:Yan Jing|Yan Jing]] ([[User talk:Yan Jing|talk]]) 10:51, 21 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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"Why did you come here, master?"<br />
You are lodged with a monk's room alone. --[[User:Yan Lili|Yan Lili]] ([[User talk:Yan Lili|talk]]) 02:18, 29 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==颜莉莉 Yán Lìlì 国别 女 202120081537==<br />
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雨村听了，并不推辞，便笑道：“既蒙谬爱，何敢拂此盛情！”说着，便同士隐复过这边书院中来了。须臾茶毕，早已设下杯盘，那美酒佳肴，自不必说。<br />
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Hearing this, Rainvillage Merchant did not refuse, but said with a smile: "Since I am indebted to you, I dare not live up to this feeling." Then he and Hidden Truth came to the academy here. In a moment they had finished their tea, and a feast had already been set up, with wine and food, in which the delicacy was all.<br />
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They went to the court in front of Hidden Truth 's study. Soon they had fin rished their tea and sat down to a collation of choice wine and delicacies.--[[User:Yan Zihan|Yan Zihan]] ([[User talk:Yan Zihan|talk]]) 11:36, 28 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==颜子涵 Yán Zǐhán 国别 女 202120081538==<br />
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二人归坐，先是款酌慢饮；渐次谈至兴浓，不觉飞觥献斝起来。当时街坊上家家箫管，户户笙歌；当头一轮明月，飞彩凝辉。二人愈添豪兴，酒到杯干。<br />
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At first, they drank slowly,but their spirits rose as they talked and they began to drink more recklessly. At that time, Flutes and strings can be heard everywhere and every family in the neighborhood was singing; When a bright moon rises, The two became more and more cheerful, and the wine dried cup up.--[[User:Yan Zihan|Yan Zihan]] ([[User talk:Yan Zihan|talk]]) 14:26, 27 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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At first, they drank slowly,but their spirits rose as they talked in depth， they began to drink more recklessly. At that time, the sound of flutes and strings can be heard everywhere and every family in the neighborhood was playing and singing; When a bright moon rises, The two became more and more cheerful and drained cup after cup.--[[User:Yang Jiaying|Yang Jiaying]] ([[User talk:Yang Jiaying|talk]]) 11:39, 28 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==阳佳颖 Yáng Jiāyǐng 国别 女 202120081540==<br />
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雨村此时已有七八分酒意，狂兴不禁，乃对月寓怀，口占一绝云：时逢三五便团圆，满把清光护玉栏。天上一轮才捧出，人间万姓仰头看。士隐听了，大叫：“妙极！弟每谓兄必非久居人下者，今所吟之句，飞腾之兆已现，不日可接履于云霄之上了。可贺，可贺！”<br />
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Rainvillage Merchant, eight-tenths drunk, cannot suppress his high spirits. As he gazed at the moon, he fostered thoughts, to which he gave vent by the recital of a double couplet.<br />
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"On the fifteenth the moon is full, Her pure rays fill the court; As her bright orb sails up the sky, All men on earth gaze upwards at the sight." <br />
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"Excellent!" cried Hidden Truth with a loud voice, after he had heard these lines; "I have repeatedly maintained that it was impossible for you to remain in a subordinate position for a long period, and now the verses are a prognostic of your rapid advancement. In a few days you will extend your footsteps far above the clouds! Let me congratulate you."！<br />
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Rainvillage Merchant, eight-tenths drunk, cannot suppress his elation. As he gazed at the moon, he improvised a poetry to the moon and declaimed it:<br />
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"On the fifteenth the moon is full, Her pure rays fill the court; As her bright orb sails up the sky, All men on earth gaze upwards at the sight." <br />
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"Excellent!" cried Hidden Truth with a loud voice, after he had heard these lines; "I have repeatedly maintained that it was impossible for you to remain in a subordinate position for a long period, and now the verses reveals your rapid advancement. In a few days you will extend your footsteps far above the clouds! Let me congratulate you."！--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 04:36, 28 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==杨爱江 Yáng Àijiāng 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081541==<br />
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乃亲斟一斗为贺。雨村饮干，忽叹道：“非晚生酒后狂言，若论时尚之学，晚生也或可去充数挂名。只是如今行李路费，一概无措，神京路远，非赖卖字撰文，即能到得。”士隐不待说完，便道：“兄何不早言？弟已久有此意，但每遇兄时，并未谈及，故未敢唐突。今既如此，弟虽不才，‘义利’二字，却还识得。且喜明岁正当大比，兄宜作速入都，春闱一捷，方不负兄之所学。其盘费馀事，弟自代为处置，亦不枉兄之谬识矣。”<br />
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Hidden Truth filled another large cup of alcohol. Rainvillage Merchant tossed it off and then signed. "Don't think this is just a talk after being drunk," he said, "I'm sure I could acquit myself quite creditably in the examinations, but I have no money in my wallet for my travelling expenses and the capital is far away. I can't raise enough money by selling my words and articles ...." "Why didn't you say so before?" interjected Shiyin. "I've always thought about this, but since you never mentioned it it is inappropriate for me to mention this subject. If that's how things are, dull as I am at least I know what's due to a firend. Luckily the Metropolitan Examinations are coming up next year. You must go as fast as you can to the capital and prove your learning in the Spring Test. I shall take it an honor to take care of the travelling expenses and other business for you."--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 04:28, 28 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Hidden Truth filled another large cup of alcohol for congratulation. Rainvillage Merchant tossed it off and then sighed: "Don't think this is just a talk after drinking. I'm sure I could acquit myself quite creditably in the examinations, but I have no money in my wallet for my travelling expenses and the capital is far away. I can't raise enough money only by selling my words and articles ...." "Why didn't you say that before?" interjected Hidden Truth. "I've always thought about this, but since you never mentioned it.It is inappropriate for me to mention this subject. If that's how things are, dull as I am at least I know what's due to a real friend. Luckily the Metropolitan Examinations are coming up next year. You must go as fast as you can to the capital and prove your learning in the Spring Test. I shall take it an honor to take care of the travelling expenses and other business for you."--[[User:Yang Kun|Yang Kun]] ([[User talk:Yang Kun|talk]]) 11:43, 28 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==杨堃 Yáng Kūn 法语语言文学 女 202120081542==<br />
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当下即命小童进去，速封五十两白银并两套冬衣。又云：“十九日乃黄道之期，兄可即买舟西上。待雄飞高举，明冬再晤，岂非大快之事！”雨村收了银、衣，不过略谢一语，并不介意，仍是吃酒谈笑。<br />
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Hidden Truth immediately ordered the child to go in and quickly seal fifty liang silver and two sets of winter clothes. And he also said, "the 19th of March is the time of the zodiac, and you can buy a boat to the west. Isn't it a great pleasure to wait for triumph of the war[1] and meet again the next winter?" Rainvillage Merchant received the silver and clothes, but he thanked Hidden Truth a little. He didn't mind and was still drinking wine, talking and laughing.<br />
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[1]The war between Li Zicheng and the emperor Chongzhen. On March 19 of the lunar calendar in 1644, Emperor Chongzhen of the Ming Dynasty hanged himself. Then, Li Zicheng entered Beijing to overthrow the Ming Dynasty.--[[User:Yang Kun|Yang Kun]] ([[User talk:Yang Kun|talk]]) 03:23, 21 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Shiyin immediately ordered the child in and seal fifty liang silver and two suits of winter clothes quickly. Then he said, "the 19th of March is favorable time, and you can buy a boat to the west. Isn't it a great pleasure to wait for triumph of the war[1] and meet again the next winter?" Yucun received the silver and clothes, but he thanked Shiyin a little. He didn't mind and was still drinking wine, talking and laughing.<br />
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[1]The war between Li Zicheng and the emperor Chongzhen. On March 19 of the lunar calendar in 1644, Emperor Chongzhen of the Ming Dynasty hanged himself. Then, Li Zicheng entered Beijing to overthrow the Ming Dynasty.--[[User:Yang Liuqing|Yang Liuqing]] ([[User talk:Yang Liuqing|talk]]) 12:15, 23 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==杨柳青 Yáng Liǔqīng 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081543==<br />
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那天已交三鼓，二人方散。士隐送雨村去后，回房一觉，直至红日三竿方醒。因思昨夜之事，意欲写荐书两封与雨村，带至都中去，使雨村投谒个仕宦之家，为寄身之地。<br />
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Jia Yunchun and Zhen Shiyin drank until midnight and then dispersed. Zhen Shiyin sent Jia Yuchun bedchamber and went back his room to sleep. He didn't wake up until the late morning. Considering Zhen Shiyin's bad conditions, Zhen Shiyin intended to write two recommendation letters for Jia Yuchun, so Jia Yuchun could take and deliver it to a family of dignities in Qi Zhou city to find a place to stay.--[[User:Yang Liuqing|Yang Liuqing]] ([[User talk:Yang Liuqing|talk]]) 06:10, 25 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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These two friends drank until midnight and then left. Zhen Shiyin sent Jia Yuchun back to his bedchamber and headed back to sleep. He didn't wake up until the noon time. Zhen Shiyin intended to write two recommendation letters for Jia Yuchun considering his bad condition, so Jia Yuchun could take and deliver it to some family of dignities in Qi Zhou city to find a fine place to settle.--[[User:Ye Weijie|Ye Weijie]] ([[User talk:Ye Weijie|talk]]) 05:11, 29 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==叶维杰 Yè Wéijié 国别 男 202120081544==<br />
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因使人过去请时，那家人回来说：“和尚说：贾爷今日五鼓已进京去了，也曾留下话与和尚转达老爷，说：‘读书人不在黄道黑道，总以事理为要，不及面辞了。’”士隐听了，也只得罢了。真是闲处光阴易过，倏忽又是元宵佳节。<br />
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The family came back and said, “The monk said: The Five Drums of Master Jia has entered Beijing today, and he also left a message with the monk to convey to the master, saying:'The scholar is not in the zodiacal and underworld, and he always takes affair as the priority. , It's too late to resign.'" Shiyin listened and had no choice but to leave. It's really easy to spend leisure time, and suddenly it is the Lantern Festival.--[[User:Ye Weijie|Ye Weijie]] ([[User talk:Ye Weijie|talk]]) 13:21, 28 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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When the family came back, they said, "The monk said that Master Merchant had gone to the capital between three and five o'clock today, and had left a message for the monk to convey to you, saying, 'No matter what the background of a scholar is, it is always important to take care of things, so it is too late to say goodbye.'" When Hidden Truth heard this, he had no choice but to do nothing. It was easy to spend time at leisure, and suddenly it was the Lantern Festival again.--[[User:Yi Yangfan|Yi Yangfan]] ([[User talk:Yi Yangfan|talk]]) 13:36, 28 November 2021 (UTC)Yi Yangfan<br />
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==易扬帆 Yì Yángfān 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081545==<br />
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士隐令家人霍启抱了英莲，去看社火花灯。半夜中霍启因要小解，便将英莲放在一家门槛上坐着。待他小解完了来抱时，那有英莲的踪影。<br />
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Zhen Shiyin asked his family member Huo Qi to carry Yinglian and go to see the lanterns. In the middle of the night, Huo Qi had to take a piss, so he left Yinglian sitting on the threshold of a door. When he came to carry her after taking a piss, there was no sign of Yinglian.<br />
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Hidden Truth asked his family member trouble beginner to carry Pity Zhen and go to see the lanterns. In the middle of the night, trouble beginner left Pity Zhen alone sitting on the threshold of a door because of the urgency of urinating. When he came back, Pity Zhen disappeared.--[[User:Yin Huizhen|Yin Huizhen]] ([[User talk:Yin Huizhen|talk]]) 09:11, 27 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==殷慧珍 Yīn Huìzhēn 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081546==<br />
<br />
急的霍启直寻了半夜，至天明不见。那霍启也不敢回来见主人，便逃往他乡去了。那士隐夫妇见女儿一夜不归，便知有些不好。再使几人去找寻，回来皆云影响全无。<br />
<br />
Huo Qi was so anxious that he looked for her all night and did not find her by dawn. So he did not dare to return to meet the host and he fled to his hometown. Hidden Truth and his wife felt something is about to go wrong when they found their daughter didn't go home all night. They sent more people to look for her, but when they came back they said they didn't have any trace of her.--[[User:Yin Huizhen|Yin Huizhen]] ([[User talk:Yin Huizhen|talk]]) 14:22, 21 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Being so anxious, Inspire Huo looked for her all night but in vain till dawn. Dare not to return to his master, he fled to another place. Hidden Truth and his wife felt something wrong when their daughter didn't go home all night. More people were sent to look for her, but only to find no trace of her.--[[User:Yin Meida|Yin Meida]] ([[User talk:Yin Meida|talk]]) 14:11, 22 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==殷美达 Yīn Měidá 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081547==<br />
<br />
夫妻二人半世只生此女，一旦失去，何等烦恼，因此昼夜啼哭，几乎不顾性命。看看一月，士隐已先得病，夫人封氏也因思女搆疾，日日请医问卦。不想这日三月十五，葫芦庙中炸供，那和尚不小心，油锅火逸，便烧着窗纸。<br />
<br />
The couple, having spent half of their lifetime, couldn't bear the thought of losing their only child. They wept day and night, almost risking their lives. In January, Hidden Truth was already sick, and his wife Feng also fell ill for missing her daughter excessively and had to see doctors and fortunetellers everyday. Unfortunately, on March 15, when frying tributes in the calabash Temple, the careless monk let the fire escape from the oil boiler, which set the window paper on fire.--[[User:Yin Meida|Yin Meida]] ([[User talk:Yin Meida|talk]]) 14:57, 22 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The couple, having spent half of their lifetime, couldn't bear the annoyance of losing their only daughter. They wept all days and nights, almost risking their lives. In January, Hidden Truth was already sick, and his wife Feng also got ill for missing her daughter excessively and had to call the doctors and fortunetellers everyday. Unfortunately, on March 15, when frying tributes in the calabash Temple, the careless monk let the fire escape from the oil boiler, which set the window paper on fire.--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 12:11, 28 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==尹媛 Yǐn Yuán 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081548==<br />
<br />
此方人家俱用竹篱木壁，也是劫数应当如此，于是接二连三，牵五挂四，将一条街烧得如火焰山一般。彼时虽有军民来救，那火已成了势了，如何救得下，直烧了一夜方熄，也不知烧了多少人家。只可怜甄家在隔壁，早成了一堆瓦砾场了，只有他夫妇并几个家人的性命不曾伤了，急的士隐惟跌足长叹而已。<br />
<br />
This family deserves this fate for using bamboos and wood as hedge. One by one, the whole street burnt like the Mountain of Flames. At that time, though the army and people came for rescue, the fire had already been too large to put out. It didn't burn until the morning. It cannot be estimated that how many houses had been destroyed. Poor Hiden Truth's house next door had turned into a pile of rubble, only the couple and the families unhurt, which made Hidden Truth anxious and sigh deeply.--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 14:44, 22 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This family deserved this fate for using bamboos and wood as hedge. One house by one house, the whole street burnt like the Mountain of Flames. At that time, though the army and people came for rescue, the fire had already been too large to put out. It didn't burn until the morning. It cannot be estimated that how many houses had been destroyed. The fire had turned Poor Zhen's house next door into a pile of rubble, only the couple and several families unhurt, which made Zhen Shiyin anxious and sigh deeply.--[[User:Zhan Ruoxuan|Zhan Ruoxuan]] ([[User talk:Zhan Ruoxuan|talk]]) 10:47, 24 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==詹若萱 Zhān Ruòxuān 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081549==<br />
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与妻子商议，且到田庄上去住。偏值近年水旱不收，贼盗蜂起，官兵剿捕，田庄上又难以安身。只得将田地都折变了，携了妻子与两个丫鬟，投他岳丈家去。<br />
<br />
He discussed with his wife, and went to live on the farm. However, in recent years, harvests have been ruined by flood and drought, and thieves and robbers have been rising. It was difficult to settle down on the farm. He had to sell his lands at a discount and took his wife and two maids to seek his father-in-law's help.--[[User:Zhan Ruoxuan|Zhan Ruoxuan]] ([[User talk:Zhan Ruoxuan|talk]]) 10:42, 24 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
Take counsel with his wife, and come to live at the Grange. Partial value in recent years flood and drought do not harvest, thieves bee, officers and soldiers suppression, the grange and difficult to live. He had to change the land and went to his husband's house with his wife and two maids.--[[User:Zhang Qiuyi|Zhang Qiuyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Qiuyi|talk]]) 12:22, 28 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==张秋怡 Zhāng Qiūyí 亚非语言文学 女 202120081550==<br />
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他岳丈名唤封肃，本贯大如州人氏，虽是务农，家中却还殷实。今见女婿这等狼狈而来，心中便有些不乐。幸而士隐还有折变田产的银子在身边，拿出来托他随便置买些房地，以为后日衣食之计。<br />
<br />
His father-in-law's name was Feng Su. His native place was Such State. Although he was a farmer, his family was well off. Now, seeing her son-in-law come in such a discomfiture, I felt unhappy. Fortunately, there are hidden converted field of silver in the side, took out to entrust him to buy some premises, that the day after the means of food and clothing.--[[User:Zhang Qiuyi|Zhang Qiuyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Qiuyi|talk]]) 10:19, 21 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
His father-in-law's name was Feng Su, who was originally from Daru State. Although he was a farmer, his family was well off. Now, seeing his son-in-law come in such a discomfiture, he felt unpleasant inside. Fortunately, there are hidden silver of converted field by his side, so he took it out to entrust him to purchase some premises for buying food and clothing in the future.--[[User:Zhang Yang|Zhang Yang]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yang|talk]]) 11:40, 28 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==张扬 Zhāng Yáng 国别 男 202120081551==<br />
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那封肃便半用半赚的，略与他些薄田破屋。士隐乃读书之人，不惯生理稼穑等事，勉强支持了一二年，越发穷了。封肃见面时，便说些现成话儿；且人前人后，又怨他不会过，只一味好吃懒做。<br />
<br />
Feng Su made money while using some of it, and provided small fields and a shabby house with him. Shi Yin was a scholar and was not used to farming and other handworks. He reluctantly struggled for a year or two and became poorer and poorer. When Feng Su met him, he said something ready-made. But behind Shiyin's back, he complained that he couldn't live his life well by just being lazy.--[[User:Zhang Yang|Zhang Yang]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yang|talk]]) 11:34, 28 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Seal Silence made money while using some of it, and provided small fields and a shabby house with him. Hidden Truth was a scholar and was not used to farming and other handworks. He reluctantly struggled for a year or two and became poorer and poorer. When Seal Silence met him, he said something ready-made. But behind Shiyin's back, he complained that he couldn't live his life well by just being lazy.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 12:15, 28 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==张怡然 Zhāng Yírán 俄语语言文学 女 202120081552==<br />
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士隐知道了，心中未免悔恨；再兼上年惊唬，急忿怨痛：暮年之人，那禁得贫病交攻，竟渐渐的露出那下世的光景来。可巧这日拄了拐，扎挣到街前散散心时，忽见那边来了一个跛足道人，疯狂落拓，麻鞋鹑衣，口内念着几句言词道：<br />
<br />
When Hidden Truth found out about this, he felt remorse in his heart; he was also frightened of the previous year, and he felt angry and resentful: a man in his twilight years, who could not help being attacked by poverty and illness, was gradually revealing the scene of his next life. It happened that when he was on crutches, he went to the street for a walk, and suddenly he saw a crippled Taoist, crazy and untidy, with sackcloth shoes and quails, reciting a few words under his breath.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 02:26, 22 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
When Hidden Truth found out this, he felt remorse in his heart; he was also frightened of the previous year, angry and resentful: a man in his twilight， who could not be able to be attacked by poverty and illness, was gradually revealing the scene of his next life. It happened that when he was on crutches, he went to the street for a walk, and suddenly he saw a crippled Taoist, crazy and untidy, with ragged shoes and clothes，reciting a few words under his breath.--[[User:Zhong Yifei|Zhong Yifei]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yifei|talk]]) 07:00, 22 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==钟义菲 Zhōng Yìfēi 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081553==<br />
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世人都晓神仙好，惟有功名忘不了。古今将相在何方？荒冢一堆草没了。世人都晓神仙好，只有金银忘不了。终朝只恨聚无多，及到多时眼闭了。<br />
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The common people know that immortals are good, but they can't forget their achievements and fame. Where are the generals and prime ministers from ancient times to the present？What we can see are just deserted graves full of grass. The common people know that immortals are good, but they can‘t forget gold and silver. Till the end of life，they would regret their inability to create as much wealth as possible when they are alive and regret they are going to the heaven after they have accumulated plenty of wealth.--[[User:Zhong Yifei|Zhong Yifei]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yifei|talk]]) 02:42, 21 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
All the common people know that immortals are good, but they can't forget their achievements and ambitions. Where are the great ones of old？They are just deserted graves full of grass. All the common people know that immortals are good, but they can‘t forget gold and silver. They grub for money all their lives until death seals up their eyes.--[[User:Zhong Yulu|Zhong Yulu]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yulu|talk]]) 07:24, 21 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==钟雨露 Zhōng Yǔlù 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081554==<br />
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世人都晓神仙好，只有姣妻忘不了。君生日日说恩情，君死又随人去了。世人都晓神仙好，只有儿孙忘不了。痴心父母古来多，孝顺子孙谁见了？<br />
<br />
All men want to be immortals, but dote on the wives they’ve married. Those who swear to love their husband forever, but remarry as soon as he’s dead. All men want to be immortals, but dote on the sons they’ve gotten. Although infatuated parents are numerous, who ever saw really filial sons or daughters?--[[User:Zhong Yulu|Zhong Yulu]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yulu|talk]]) 02:05, 21 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Everyone in the world knows that the gods are good, but only the pretty wife can't forget. You swear to remember your husband’s kindness, but when your husband die, you go away with others. Everyone knows that the gods are good, but only the children and grandchildren cannot be forgotten. There are many loving parents in the past, but who has seen the filial children?--[[User:Zhou Jiu|Zhou Jiu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Jiu|talk]]) 09:04, 22 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==周玖 Zhōu Jiǔ 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081555==<br />
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士隐听了，便迎上来道：“你满口说些什么？只听见些‘好’、‘了’，‘好’、‘了’。”那道人笑道：“你若果听见‘好’、‘了’二字，还算你明白。可知世上万般，好便是了，了便是好：若不了，便不好；若要好，须是了。我这歌儿便叫《好了歌》。<br />
When the hermit heard it, he came up and said, "What are you talking about ?" I just hear 'Hao’ (means good), 'Liao' (means end) 'Hao’, ‘Liao'. The man laughed, "If you hear the words 'Hao' and 'Liao', you understand it. In this world, good is end, and the end is good. If there is no end, there is no good, and vice versa. My song is called ‘The Song of ‘Hao’ and ‘ Liao’. ”--[[User:Zhou Jiu|Zhou Jiu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Jiu|talk]]) 08:54, 22 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Hidden Truth came over after heard this and said: “ What are you talking about? I just hear the words ‘good’ and ‘end’.” That man laughed, “ You heard the words ‘good’ and ‘end’, that means you got a few things going for you. In this world, good is end, and end is good. If there is no end, there is no good, and vice versa. My song is called ''All Dood Things Must End''.”--[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 12:19, 22 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==周俊辉 Zhōu Jùnhuī 法语语言文学 女 202120081556==<br />
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士隐本是有夙慧的，一闻此言，心中早已悟彻，因笑道：“且住，待我将你这《好了歌》注解出来何如？”道人笑道：“你就请解。”士隐乃说道：陋室空堂，当年笏满床。<br />
<br />
So intelligent, Hidden Truth understood the essence of the song entirely in his head as soon as he heard it, and said: “ Wait a minute. How about I explain your song ''All Good Things Must End'' ？” The Taoist priest said, laughing : “ Would you please explain.” Hidden Truth then explain: “ The empty and dilapidated rattraps we see today, were the grand mansions full of beds and boards used by dignitaries at that time.”--[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 08:01, 22 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So intelligent as Hidden Truth is, he understood the essence of the song entirely in his head as soon as once hearing it, and said: “ Wait a minute. How about I explain your song ''All Good Things Must End'' ？” The Taoist priest said, laughing : “ Would you please explain.” Hidden Truth then explain: “ The empty and dilapidated rattraps we see today, were the grand mansions full of boards used by courtiers at that time.”--[[User:Zhou Qiao1|Zhou Qiao1]] ([[User talk:Zhou Qiao1|talk]]) 13:23, 23 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==周巧 Zhōu Qiǎo 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081557==<br />
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衰草枯杨，曾为歌舞场。蛛丝儿结满雕梁，绿纱今又在蓬窗上。说甚么脂正浓，粉正香，如何两鬓又成霜？<br />
Humble hovels and abandoned halls where courtiers once paid daily calls；Bleak places where weeds and trees scarcely thrive<br />
were once with a show of peace and prosperity．When cobwebs cover the mansion’s gilded beams，and collage casement with choice muslin gleams．Would you of perfumed elegance recite? Even as you speak, the raven locks turn white．--[[User:Zhou Qiao1|Zhou Qiao1]] ([[User talk:Zhou Qiao1|talk]]) 13:06, 23 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Withered grass and withered poplar, This used to be a place where people sang and danced. The spider silk is full of carved beams, but the green gauze is on the simple window. The fat is thick and the powder is fragrant, how the temples become the color of frost?--[[User:Zhou Qing|Zhou Qing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Qing|talk]]) 15:20, 25 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==周清 Zhōu Qīng 法语语言文学 女 202120081558==<br />
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昨日黄土陇头埋白骨，今宵红绡帐底卧鸳鸯。金满箱，银满箱，转眼乞丐人皆谤。正叹他人命不长，那知自己归来丧。<br />
<br />
Yesterday the bones were buried in the loess, and the mandarin ducks(allusions to couples) lie under the red silk tent tonight. Boxes full of gold, boxes full of silver, everyone yelled and insulted beggars in a blink of an eye. I'm sighing that the lives of others are not long, and I know I'm back to be mourned.<br />
<br />
Yesterday the bones were buried in the loess, then tonight it is the time for a newly married couple to sleep behind bed curtains with burning red candle lights.Boxes full of gold, boxes full of silver, everyone yelled and insulted beggars in a blink of an eye. I'm sighed that the lives of others are not long, but failed to predict my own future after return from the funeral.--[[User:Zhou Xiaoxue|Zhou Xiaoxue]] ([[User talk:Zhou Xiaoxue|talk]]) 11:36, 28 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==周小雪 Zhōu Xiǎoxuě 日语语言文学 女 202120081559==<br />
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训有方，保不定日后作强梁；择膏粱，谁承望流落在烟花巷。因嫌纱帽小，致使锁枷扛；昨怜破袄寒，今嫌紫蟒长。乱烘烘，你方唱罢我登场，反认他乡是故乡。<br />
<br />
Though she was well educated according to her parent's plan, one can become a bandit later. She tried her best to marry into a rich family. However, she ended up in a (red-light)? district beyond everyone's expectation. People who are not satisfied with their positions have to spend the rest of their life in a prison in chains. People who used to be very poor and used worn coats to resist the cold were not satisfied with fancy clothes after they became rich. I come on the stage as soon as you have finished your singing in a chaotic manner. Taking other's hometown as my own. --[[User:Zhou Xiaoxue|Zhou Xiaoxue]] ([[User talk:Zhou Xiaoxue|talk]]) 11:42, 22 November 2021 (UTC)--[[User:Mahzad Heydarian|Mahzad Heydarian]] ([[User talk:Mahzad Heydarian|talk]]) 16:56, 23 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
If properly educated under parents' guidance, one can probabaly become a bandit later. Although trying her best to marry a rich man, she ends up with a driftage in the red-light district beyond everyone's expectation. People's unsatisfication with their positions leads to their miserable life in prison with chains on their bodies. People who used to be very poor and used worn coats to resist the cold were not satisfied with gorgeous clothes any more when they became rich. In noisy disorder, you just finished and I come on the scene.Instead, taking other's hometown as my own.--[[User:Zhu Suzhen|Zhu Suzhen]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suzhen|talk]]) 15:17, 25 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==朱素珍 Zhū Sùzhēn 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081561==<br />
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甚荒唐，到头来，都是为他人作嫁衣裳。那疯跛道人听了，拍掌大笑道：“解得切，解得切！”士隐便说一声：“走罢。”<br />
<br />
It's so ridiculous. In the end, they made wedding clothes for others. Hearing this, the crazy lame Taoist clapped his hands and laughed, saying "All right, all right !" Then Hidden Truth said, "let's go."<br />
<br />
<br />
It's ridiculous. In the end, they make wedding clothes for others. The crazy lame Taoist listened, clapped his hands and laughed and said, "it's right, it's right!" Shiyin said, "let's go."--[[User:Zou Yueli|Zou Yueli]] ([[User talk:Zou Yueli|talk]]) 11:43, 21 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
== Headline text ==<br />
==邹岳丽 Zōu Yuèlí 日语语言文学 女 202120081562==<br />
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将道人肩上的搭裢抢过来背上，竟不回家，同着疯道人飘飘而去。当下哄动街坊，众人当作一件新闻传说。封氏闻知此信，哭个死去活来。<br />
<br />
He grabbed the lap on the Taoist's shoulder and carried it on his back. He didn't go home and floated away with the crazy Taoist. At that moment, the neighborhood was stirred up and everyone regarded it as a news legend. When Feng heard this letter, he cried to death.--[[User:Zou Yueli|Zou Yueli]] ([[User talk:Zou Yueli|talk]]) 11:34, 21 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==Nadia 202011080004==<br />
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只得与父亲商议，遣人各处访寻，那讨音信。<br />
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==Mahzad Heydarian 玛莎 202021080004==<br />
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无奈何，只得依靠着他父母度日。<br />
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He was so helpless that he had to rely on his parents to survive.<br />
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==Mariam toure 2020GBJ002301==<br />
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幸而身边还有两个旧日的丫鬟伏侍，主仆三人，日夜作些针线，帮着父亲用度。<br />
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==Rouabah Soumaya 202121080001==<br />
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那封肃虽然每日抱怨，也无可奈何了。<br />
Although Feng Su complained every day, he was helpless<br />
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==Muhammad Numan 202121080002==<br />
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这日那甄家的大丫鬟在门前买线，忽听得街上喝道之声。<br />
The other day, the eldest maid of the Chen family was buying thread at the door when she heard a shout from the street.--[[User:Atta Ur Rahman|Atta Ur Rahman]] ([[User talk:Atta Ur Rahman|talk]]) 14:50, 23 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==Atta Ur Rahman 202121080003==<br />
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众人都说：“新太爷到任了。”<br />
Everyone said: "The new grandfather has arrived"<br />
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==Muhammad Saqib Mehran 202121080004==<br />
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丫鬟隐在门内看时，只见军牢、快手一对一对过去，俄而大轿内抬着一个乌帽猩袍的官府来了。<br />
When the maid concealed in the door, she saw the military jail and quick hands passing one by one, and the official mansion carrying a black hat and ape robe came in the big sedan chair.<br />
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==Zohaib Chand 202121080005==<br />
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那丫鬟倒发了个怔，自思：“这官儿好面善，倒像在那里见过的。”<br />
<br />
<nowiki>Insert non-formatted text here</nowiki><br />
The maid was startled, and thought to herself: "This official is so good-natured, but it looks like someone I've seen there."<br />
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==Jawad Ahmad 202121080006==<br />
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于是进入房中，也就丢过，不在心上。<br />
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Then she went into the room and laid the matter aside ，without taking it to heart.<br />
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==Nizam Uddin 202121080007==<br />
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至晚间正待歇息之时，忽听一片声打的门响，许多人乱嚷，说：“本县太爷的差人来传人问话！”<br />
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English:<br />
When I was about to rest in the evening, I heard a bang on the door suddenly, and many people shouted in disorder, saying, "The county's grandfather's messenger is here for questioning!"<br />
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==Öncü 202121080008==<br />
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封肃听了，唬得目瞪口呆。<br />
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<br />
<br />
Fengsu hear it,he gaped in consternation --[[User:AkiraJantarat|AkiraJantarat]] ([[User talk:AkiraJantarat|talk]]) 13:28, 22 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Akira Jantarat 202121080009==<br />
<br />
不知有何祸事，且听下回分解。<br />
<br />
Don't know something calamity happened, will describe in the ensuing chapter.--[[User:AkiraJantarat|AkiraJantarat]] ([[User talk:AkiraJantarat|talk]]) 06:36, 21 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
If you don't know what calamity took place, listen to the break down given in the next chapter.--[[User:Benjamin Wellsand|Benjamin Wellsand]] ([[User talk:Benjamin Wellsand|talk]]) 12:54, 21 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Benjamin Wellsand 202111080118==<br />
<br />
通灵──“通灵宝玉”的简称。Psychic--short for ''Psychic Treasure.--[[User:Benjamin Wellsand|Benjamin Wellsand]] ([[User talk:Benjamin Wellsand|talk]]) 12:48, 21 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Psychic -- the abbreviation for "Psychic Treasure". --[[User:Asep Budiman|Asep Budiman]] ([[User talk:Asep Budiman|talk]]) 03:35, 24 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Asep Budiman 202111080020==<br />
<br />
亦即下文所说女娲炼石补天所剩的那块“顽石”，因其历经锻炼而“灵性已通”，并能幻化为贾宝玉，故称。<br />
<br />
That is to say, the "stubborn stone" left by Nüwa's refining stone to replenish the sky. As it has undergone training, it has "spiritual achievement" and can be transformed into Jia Baoyu, so it is called. --[[User:Asep Budiman|Asep Budiman]] ([[User talk:Asep Budiman|talk]]) 03:48, 24 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
That is to say, the "stubborn stone" left by Nüwa's refining stone to replenish the sky, because it has undergone training, has "spiritually achieved" and can be transformed into Jia Baoyu, so it is called.--[[User:EIMONKYAW|EIMONKYAW]] ([[User talk:EIMONKYAW|talk]]) 06:10, 24 November 2021 (UTC)Ei Mon Kyaw<br />
<br />
==Ei Mon Kyaw 202111080021==<br />
<br />
《石头记》──此书的本名。<br />
"Story of the Stone" - the original name of the book. --[[User:EIMONKYAW|EIMONKYAW]] ([[User talk:EIMONKYAW|talk]]) 06:26, 24 November 2021 (UTC)Ei Mon Kyaw<br />
<br />
''The Story of the Stone'' is the name of the book.--[[User:Chen Jing|Chen Jing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jing|talk]]) 08:23, 30 December 2021 (UTC)</div>Zhang Yiranhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=Joint_translation_terms&diff=135043Joint translation terms2021-12-31T02:46:24Z<p>Zhang Yiran: /* 五、其他 */</p>
<hr />
<div>Quicklinks: [[Foundations_of_Chinese_Cultures_2021|Course Homepage]]. [[Joint_translation_terms|Joint translation terms (this page)]] Homework [[20210303_culture|1, Mar 3 Chapters 1-4]], [[20210310_culture|2, Mar 10 Chapters 6-7]], [[20210317_culture|3, Mar 17 Chapters 11-13]], [[20210324_culture|4, Mar 24 Chapters 15-17]], [[20210331_culture|5, Mar 31 Chapters 4-7]], [[20210407_culture|6, Apr 7 Chapters 8-10]], [[20210414_culture|7, Apr 14 Chapters 13-15]] , [[20210421_culture|8, Apr 21 Chapters 17-19]]etc.<br />
<br />
How to translate terms and names in the Honglou meng consistently?<br />
<br />
Use '''《红楼梦大辞典》'''. [[Media:hlm_da_cidian_new.doc]] (1st edition pp. 1-889, 2nd edition 1980 pp. 990-ca. 1513).<br />
<br />
Let's agree upon the translation<br />
<br />
为确保翻译质量，本次为小组作业，小组长为每组第一名同学<br />
==place names translation(5.8作业）==<br />
<br />
===(以下地名由学号1-5的同学翻译并修正同学们的翻译）===<br />
第一回<br />
大荒山、无稽崖、姑苏城(Gusu City)、阊门(Brothel Gate)、十里街（Worldly Way）、仁清巷(Carnal Line)、葫芦庙（Gourd Temple)、西方灵河（West Sacred River）、赤霞宫（Cabernet Palace）、离恨天（Hate-free Sky）、太虚幻境（Illusory Land of Great Void）、北邙山、湖州、神京（Nanjing）、火焰山(Flaming Mountain)、大如州(Such State)、<br />
第四回<br />
梨香院(Pear Fragrance Court)<br />
第八回<br />
青埂峰(Loveroot Peak)、绛芸轩(Red Rue Studio)<br />
<br />
===(以下地名由学号26-30号的同学翻译并修正同学们的翻译）===<br />
第十七回<br />
蓬莱仙境(Paradise, Fairy Tale Land)、蔷薇院(Rose Courtyard)、翼然(Extended Wings)、泻玉(Flowing Jades)、沁芳（Penetrating Fragrance）、淇水遗风（The Bequeathed Aspect of the River Qi）、有凤来仪(A Phoenix Comes With Grace to Rest)、睢园遗迹（The Remaining Vestiges of the Chue Garden）、杏花村(Apricot Blossom Village)、杏帘在望（waterloo）、稻香村（Rice Garden）、花度柳(Flower Willow)、石依泉(Spring Stone )、荼蘸架(Dipped–in–Roseleaf Shelf)、木香棚(Rosewood Shed)、牡丹亭(Peony Pavilion)、芍药圃(Peony Nursery)、蔷薇院（Rose Courtyard）、芭蕉坞（Banana Cove）、武陵源(Military Hill Origin)、秦人旧舍(Ancient Refuge for Qin People)、蓼汀花溆(Bottom Land with Flowers)、兰风蕙露(Orchids' Dew)、蘅芷清芬(Pure Scent of Alpinia and Iris)、蓬莱仙境(Fairy Tale Land)、沁芳闸(Seeping Fragrance Lock)、红香绿玉(Red Fragrance and Green Jade)、<br />
<br />
===(以下地名由学号6-10号的同学翻译并修正同学们的翻译）===<br />
第十八回<br />
“省亲别墅” "House of Reunion"、怡红院 Happy Red Court、潇湘馆 Bamboo Lodge（“湘妃竹”的典故）、蘅芜苑 Asarum Garden 、浣葛山庄Hemp- Washing Cottage缀锦楼Variegated Splendor Tower含芳阁、蓼风轩”Smartweed Breeze Cot、“藕香榭”Pavilion of Lotus Fragrance、“紫菱洲”Violet Island、“荇叶渚”Water Leaves Isle、稻香村Paddy- Sweet Cottage 牟尼院（Muny yard）<br />
第二十七回<br />
滴翠亭<br />
Dicui Court<br />
第三十七回<br />
秋爽斋The Studio of Autumn Freshness<br />
第四十一回<br />
栊翠庵<br />
Green Lattice Nunnery <br />
第六十二回<br />
红香圃<br />
Red Incense Garden<br />
第七十五回<br />
凸碧山庄<br />
Convex Garden Villa<br />
<br />
===(以下地名由学号11-15号的同学翻译并修正同学们的翻译）===<br />
尚未明确第几回<br />
维扬、金陵、应天府、南省、阿房宫、长安城、长安府、长安县、长安都中、水月庵、爪洼国、扬州、铁网山、江南、江宁府、江宁县、四大部州、苏州、五台山、韶州、黄梅<br />
<br />
维扬 Dimension Poplar ( It has the same meaning with Yang Zhou)<br />
金陵 Gold Mausoleum<br />
应天府 God Promise Mansion<br />
南省 South Cloud Province<br />
阿旁宫 Epang Palace<br />
长安城 Forever Peaceful City<br />
长安府 Forever Peaceful Mansion<br />
长安县 Forever Peaceful County<br />
长安都中 Forever Peaceful Capital<br />
水月庵 Water Moon Nunnery<br />
爪洼国 Claw Depression<br />
扬州 Dimension Poplar <br />
铁网山 Iron Net Mountain<br />
江南 South River<br />
江宁府 River Peace Mansion<br />
江宁县 River Peace County<br />
四大部州 Four Great Departments Of County<br />
苏州 Soochow<br />
五台山 Five Mountains<br />
韶州 Beauty County<br />
黄梅 Yellow Plum<br />
<br />
===(以下地名由学号16-20号的同学翻译并修正同学们的翻译）===<br />
西廊下（The West Porch)、玉皇阁(Jade Emperor Pavilion)、暹罗(Siam)、茜香国(Qianxiang Country)、清虚观、洒泪亭、东山、西洋、都门（Capital Gate）、玄墓（Mysterious Tomb）、南京（Nanjing）、关厢（Dense Wing-room）、关夫子的坟（Guan yu's Grave)、西海沿子(countries along the West Far)、真真国( Truth Kingdom)、中国(China)、哦罗斯(Russia)、匡(Kuang)、省(Provience) 、鼓楼西大街(West Street of Gulou)、孝慈县(Xiaoci County)、波斯(Bosi)、<br />
<br />
===(以下地名由学号21-25号的同学翻译并修正同学们的翻译）===<br />
武陵Military Hill、福朗思牙France、小花枝巷Small Flower Branch Alley、平安州 Peace State、虎丘Tiger Mound<br />
--[[User:Wang Chuyi|Wang Chuyi]] ([[User talk:Wang Chuyi|talk]]) 15:51, 11 May 2021 (UTC)<br />
京口Mouth of Peak、海南The Southernmost of China、王昭君冢Brightness king`s Tomb、大同府Harmonious Mansion、太平县PeaceFul County--[[User:Teng Bixia|Teng Bixia]] ([[User talk:Teng Bixia|talk]]) 15:45, 11 May 2021 (UTC)<br />
广寒Moon Palace、天齐庙Sky-reached Temple、月宫Moon Palace、西京West Capital、二十四桥Twenty-four Bridge、六朝遗迹the ruins of the Six Dynasties、--[[User:Huang Xiaolan|Huang Xiaolan]] ([[User talk:Huang Xiaolan|talk]]) 11:29, 16 May 2021 (UTC)<br />
湖州府Lake Government Office、海门Sea Gate、西天大树国The Great Tree Kingdom in Western Heaven、京兆府Central Government Office、--[[User:Su Xiao|Su Xiao]] ([[User talk:Su Xiao|talk]]) 06:30, 12 May 2021 (UTC)<br />
桃花庙Peach Blossom Temple、知机县 Secret-revealing County、急流津 Rapids Ferry、越 Yue、毗陵驿 Near Immortality Post、觉迷渡口 Awakening Ferry--[[User:Liu Zhuofan|Liu Zhuofan]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhuofan|talk]]) 13:12, 11 May 2021 (UTC)<br />
沁芳闸 QinFang Gate 沁芳闸桥Qinfang Gate Brige 沁芳溪Qinfang brook<br />
<br />
=Abbreviations=<br />
*HM David Hawkes and John Minford 大卫·霍克斯<br />
*YY Gladys Yang and Yang Xianyi 杨宪益、戴乃迭夫妇<br />
<br />
=Terms and Names=<br />
<br />
==一、贾家==<br />
<br />
===1、宁国府===<br />
1.贾珍 Treasure Merchant<br />
<br />
尤氏 Madam Outstanding<br />
<br />
茄官 Entertainer<br />
<br />
银蝶儿 Silver Butterfly<br />
<br />
万儿 Endless Pattern<br />
<br />
2.来升 Advancement <br />
<br />
喜儿 Joy<br />
<br />
寿儿 Longevity <br />
<br />
栓儿 Plug<br />
<br />
贾惜春 Spring-cherish Merchant <br />
<br />
3.入画 Painting<br />
<br />
彩屏 Colored Screen<br />
<br />
彩儿 Color<br />
<br />
贾蓉 Prosperity Merchant<br />
<br />
秦可卿 Frivolity Grain<br />
<br />
4.瑞珠 Auspicious Pearl<br />
<br />
宝珠 Jewel<br />
<br />
焦大 Big Coke<br />
<br />
王兴 Rising King<br />
<br />
潘又安 Foreign Pieceful Waters<br />
<br />
===2、荣国府===<br />
5.贾母 Grandma Merchant<br />
<br />
鸳鸯 Mandarin Duck<br />
<br />
文官 Literal Official<br />
<br />
琥珀 Amber<br />
<br />
蕊珠 Pistil Ovule<br />
<br />
蕙香 Rolfe Fragnance(Cymbidium faberi Rolfe) <br />
<br />
芸香（蕙香曾用名）Ruta Fragnance(Ruta graveolens L)<br />
<br />
花姐 Sister Flower<br />
<br />
6.翡翠 Jadeite<br />
<br />
玻璃 Glass<br />
<br />
傻大姐 Silly Sister<br />
<br />
鹦鹉 Parrot<br />
<br />
贾赦 Pardon Merchant<br />
<br />
7.邢夫人 Lady City<br />
<br />
秋桐 Autumn <br />
<br />
费婆子 Granny Pay<br />
<br />
王善保家的（陪房）Preserving Kindness King Family (Servants)<br />
<br />
贾政 Master Merchant<br />
<br />
8.王夫人 Lady King<br />
<br />
金钏 Golden Bracelet<br />
<br />
玉钏 Jade Bracelet<br />
<br />
彩霞 Suncloud<br />
<br />
彩云 Sunset<br />
<br />
9.彩鸾 Colorful Bluebird<br />
<br />
绣鸾 Embroidered Bluebird<br />
<br />
绣凤 Embroidered Phoenix<br />
<br />
小霞 Sunset<br />
<br />
周瑞 Auspicious Surrounding<br />
<br />
10.周瑞家的（陪房）Family (Servants) of Auspicious Surrounding<br />
<br />
贾宝玉 Precious Jade Merchant<br />
<br />
袭人（蕊珠）Aroma<br />
<br />
晴雯 Sunny Cloud Formation<br />
<br />
麝月 Musk Deer Month<br />
<br />
11.秋纹 Autumn Vein<br />
<br />
碧痕 Turquoise Mark<br />
<br />
春燕 Spring Swallow<br />
<br />
四儿 Fourth<br />
<br />
芳官 Fragrant Official<br />
<br />
12.茜雪 Snow Alizarin<br />
<br />
佳蕙 Good Orchid<br />
<br />
坠儿 Lassock Drop<br />
<br />
檀云 Sandalwood Cloud<br />
<br />
绮霰 Beautiful Frost<br />
<br />
13.良儿 Kindhearted<br />
<br />
媚人 Charming<br />
<br />
墨雨 Inky<br />
<br />
紫绡 Purple Gauze<br />
<br />
李嬷嬷（奶母）Nanny Plum（Wet Nurse)<br />
<br />
14.宋嬷嬷 Nanny Woodhouse<br />
<br />
茗烟 Tealeaf<br />
<br />
扫红 Sweep Red<br />
<br />
锄药 Ploughboy<br />
<br />
伴鹤 Companion Crane<br />
<br />
15.李贵 Expensive Gift<br />
<br />
扫花 Flower Sweeper<br />
<br />
引泉 Fountain Lead<br />
<br />
挑云 Cloudpicker<br />
<br />
双瑞 Auspicious Double<br />
<br />
双寿 Double Life<br />
<br />
贾琏 Romance Merchant<br />
<br />
王熙凤 Splendid Phoenix King<br />
<br />
平儿Patience <br />
<br />
小红 Little Red <br />
<br />
丰儿 Abundance <br />
<br />
彩明 Colorful Light<br />
<br />
彩哥 Colorful Boy<br />
<br />
来旺妇（凤姐陪房）Prosperity’s Wife (Sister Phoenix' Servant)<br />
<br />
昭儿 Lucency <br />
<br />
旺儿 Vigor<br />
<br />
隆儿 Flourish<br />
<br />
兴儿 Thrive<br />
<br />
庆儿 Gala<br />
<br />
善姐 Sister Mercy<br />
<br />
王信 Credit King<br />
<br />
林之孝 Filial Piety Forest<br />
<br />
林之孝家的 Filial Piety Forest's Wife<br />
<br />
赵嬷嬷（贾琏奶母） Nanny Walk (Romance Merchant's wet nurse)<br />
<br />
贾元春 First Spring Merchant<br />
<br />
抱琴 Hold Harp<br />
<br />
青芸 Green Rape<br />
<br />
琴韵 Harp Rhythm <br />
<br />
贾迎春 Spring Pleasure Merchant<br />
<br />
司棋 Controlling Board<br />
<br />
绣橘 Embroidered Orange<br />
<br />
莲花儿 Lotus<br />
<br />
柱儿妈（奶母） Post's Granny (Wet Nurse)<br />
<br />
柱儿媳妇 Post's Wife<br />
<br />
王善保家的（司棋姥姥） wife of Preserving Kindness King (Grandma of the Controlling Board)<br />
<br />
贾探春 Seeking-Spring Merchant<br />
<br />
侍书 Book Server<br />
<br />
艾官 Chinese Mugwort<br />
<br />
翠墨 Bright Ink<br />
<br />
小蝉 Little Beauty<br />
<br />
贾惜春 Cherishing Spring Merchant<br />
<br />
入画 Beautiful Senery<br />
<br />
彩屏 Colorful Screen<br />
<br />
彩儿 Colorful<br />
<br />
李纨 Silk Plum<br />
<br />
素云 Candida <br />
<br />
碧月 Greenmoon<br />
<br />
林黛玉 Mascara Jade Forest<br />
<br />
雪雁 Snowgoose<br />
<br />
紫鹃（鹦哥）Nightingale<br />
<br />
春纤 Fiber Spring<br />
<br />
藕官 Actress Lotus-root<br />
<br />
王妈妈（奶母） Nanny King (Wet Nurse)<br />
<br />
==二、王家==<br />
王子腾。 Soar King<br />
==三、史家==<br />
史湘云 Fragrant-cloud History<br />
翠缕（缕儿）Kingfisher<br />
葵官 Sunflower<br />
周奶妈 Nanny Surrounding<br />
==四、薛家==<br />
薛姨妈 Aunt Marshgrass<br />
同喜 Maid Happiness<br />
同贵 Maid Wealth<br />
薛宝钗 Precious Hairpin Marshgrass<br />
莺儿(Maid Oriole)<br />
文杏(Maid Apricot)<br />
蕊官(Actress Pistil)<br />
薛蟠—夏金桂 - Dragon Marshgrass–Goldish Osmanthus<br />
宝蟾 Precious Toad<br />
小舍儿 The Abandoned<br />
香菱（甄英莲) Wiselotus Potterymaker<br />
臻儿 Perfect<br />
薛蝌—邢岫烟 Tadpole Marshgrass — Cave Cloud Marshgrass<br />
篆儿 Seal<br />
薛宝琴 Precious Strings Marshgrass<br />
小螺 Little Spiral<br />
豆官（豆童）Bean<br />
==补充==<br />
抱琴Musical Instrument Carrier<br />
茜雪Dasey Snow<br />
惠能Wit Ability<br />
宏忍Hung-jen<br />
神秀Miracle<br />
巧姐儿Sister Ingenious<br />
多姑娘 Miss Multi--[[User:Bao Qinwen|Bao Qinwen]] ([[User talk:Bao Qinwen|talk]]) 11:54, 4 June 2021 (UTC)<br />
[[File:Example.jpg]]<br />
<br />
==五、其他==<br />
<br />
贾瑞 Omen Merchant<br />
贾蔷 Rose Merchant<br />
山子野 Gardener Wild<br />
秦钟 Clock Grain<br />
詹光 Light Zhan<br />
吴新登 Ascend Proper Wu<br />
程日兴 Daily Proper Cheng<br />
赖大 Big Rely<br />
来升 Come Rise<br />
金荣 Honor Gold<br />
贾蓝 Blue Merchant<br />
贾菌 Mushroom Merchant<br />
刘老老 Granny Liu<br />
净虚 Abbess Emptiness Quiet<br />
智善 Kindness<br />
智能 Sapientia<br />
甄英莲 Pity Zhen<br />
贾代儒 Confucianism Jia<br />
道人 the Taoist<br />
僧人 the monk<br />
甄士隐 Hidden Truth<br />
秦太虚 Dimness<br />
板儿 Ban-er<br />
大观园Grand View Garden<br />
玉皇庙Jade Emperor Temple<br />
贾菖Gladiolus Merchant<br />
贾菱Caltrop Merchant<br />
达摩庵Dharma Convent<br />
贾芹Celery Merchant<br />
贾萍Lemna Merchant<br />
绛珠 Red Bead<br />
戴权 Power Advacocy<br />
贾敬 Honor Merchant<br />
贾兰 Cymbidium Merchant<br />
贾环 Ring Merchant<br />
昭容 Braw Appearance<br />
彩嫔 Colorful Concubine<br />
贾妃 Princess Merchant<br />
贾赦 Pardon Merchant<br />
贾珠 Bead Merchant<br />
李守中 Midfielder Plum<br />
净虚 Pure Modest<br />
秦业 Business Grain<br />
妙玉 Wonderful Jade<br />
多官 Multi Office<br />
赵飞燕 Zhao Flying Swallow<br />
赵合德 Zhao Virtue<br />
武则天 Empress Wu Zetian<br />
杨贵妃 the Imperial Concubine Yang<br />
封肃 Seal Silence<br />
<br />
=Translation Terms of the German edition=<br />
This list may be used to identify further terms, especially of place names.<br />
<br />
Name Kap. Zeichen <br />
Pinyin Erläuterung <br />
Ban-hë 24 伴鹤 Banhe Sklavenjunge/junger Dienstbote <br />
<br />
Bau-tschan 80 宝蟾 Baochan Dienstmagd von Djin-guee <br />
<br />
Bee-mang-schan 16 北邙山 Beimangshan Berg <br />
<br />
Bee-ming 24 焙茗 Beiming Sklavenjunge/junger Dienstbote <br />
<br />
Begonienbund 37 海棠社 Haitangshe <br />
<br />
Bergdorf, wo man Bohnenfasern wäscht 17 浣葛山庄 Huangeshanzhuang Bezeichnung für ein Gebäude im Garten des Großen Anblicks, vorheriger Name 杏帘在望„Zwischen Aprikosen eine Weinflagge sich zeigt“ <br />
<br />
Bi Dschï-an 98 毕知庵Bi Zhian Arzt <br />
<br />
Bi-yüä 29 碧月 Biyue Dienstmagd von Li Wan <br />
<br />
Brokatbestückter Turm 17 缀锦阁 Östliches Nebengebäude des Gartens des Großen Anblicks <br />
<br />
Dai-schu 7 待书 Daishu Dienstmagd von Tan-tschun <br />
<br />
Djia Bau-yü 2 贾宝玉Jia Baoyu Jüngster Sohn von Djia Dschëng, mit Jadestein im Mund geboren, „klüger als 100 andere“, Hauptheld (identisch mit dem Pagen Geisterjade und dem Stein aus der Rahmenhandlung) <br />
<br />
Djia Dai-hua 2 贾代化 Jia Daihua Ältester Sohn von Herzog Ning-guo <br />
<br />
Djia Dai-ju 8 贾代儒 Djia Dairu Schulleiter <br />
<br />
Djia Dai-schan 2 贾代善 Jia Daishan Sohn von Jung-guo <br />
<br />
Djia Djing 2 贾敬 Jia Jing Zweitältester Sohn von Djia Daihua, treibt sich außerhalb der Hauptstadt mit Dauisten herum <br />
<br />
Djia Dschën 2 贾珍 Jia Zhen Sohn von Djia Djing, hatte keine Lust am Lernen, wird im Lauf der Geschichte Hausvorstand. <br />
<br />
Djia Dschëng 2 贾政 Jia Zheng jüngerer Sohn von Djia Dai-schan , von klein auf größte Freude am Lernen, Ministerialsekretär <br />
<br />
Djia Dschu 2 贾珠 Jia Zhu ältester Sohn von Djia Dschëng, mit 14 Hsiutsai, mit 19 geheiratet und 1 Sohn, wurde krank und starb <br />
<br />
Djia Fu 2 贾复 Jia Fu Urahn der Djia-Sippe in der östlichen Han-Dynastie, Umschrift des Namens schreibt sich wie die des ältesten Sohnes von Ning-guo <br />
<br />
Djia Fu 2 贾敷 Jia Fu Ältester Sohn von Djia Daihua, starb mit 8-9 Jahren <br />
<br />
Djia Hsi-tschun 2 贾惜春 Jia Xichun Jüngere Tochter von Djia Djing <br />
<br />
Djia Juee 9 贾瑞 Jia Rui Nichtsnütziger Enkel von Djia Dai-ju. <br />
<br />
Djia Jung 2 贾蓉 Jia Rong Sohn von Djia Dschën, zu Beginn des Romans 16 Jahre alt, lernfaul. <br />
<br />
Djia Liän 2 贾琏 Jia Lian Sohn von Djia Schë, ist zu Beginn des Romans um die 20, hat 2 Jahre vor Beginn der Erzählung eine Nichte der Dame Wang geheiratet, den Titel eines Unterpräfekten erkauft, keine Lust zu lernen, wohnt bei seinem Onkel Djia Dschëng <br />
<br />
Djia Min 2 贾敏 Jia Min Tochter von Djia Dai-schan, Frau von Lin Ju-hai <br />
<br />
Djia Schë 2 贾赦 Jia She älterer Sohn von Djia Dai-schan <br />
<br />
Djia Tan-tschun 2 贾探春 Jia Tanchun Tochter einer Nebenfrau von Djia Dschëng <br />
<br />
Djia Ying-tschun 2 贾迎春 Jia Yingchun Tochter einer Nebenfrau von Djia Schë <br />
<br />
Djia Yüan-tschun 2 贾元春 Jia Yuanchun Älteste Tochter von Djia Dschëng, tugendreich und begabt, Hoffräulein für den Kaiserpalast <br />
<br />
Djia Yü-tsun 2 贾雨村Jia Yucun armer Gelehrter, der im Flaschenkürbistempel haust = Familienname war Djia, sein Rufname Hua, sein Ehrenname Schï-fee und sein Beiname Yü-tsun <br />
<br />
Djiau-hsing 2 娇杏 Jiaoxing Dienstmagd <br />
<br />
Djin-ling = Nanking 1 金陵 Jinling = Nanjing Stadt <br />
<br />
Djin-tschuan 7 金钏 Jinchuan Dienstmagd der Dame Wang <br />
<br />
Dschang Ju-guee 3 张如圭 Zhang Rugui Amtsgefährte von Djia Yü-tsun <br />
<br />
Dschën Schï-yin = Dschën Fee 1 甄士隐 Zhen Shiyin = Zhen Fei Vater von Ying-liän <br />
<br />
Dschën Ying-liän 1 甄英莲 Zhen Yinglian Tochter von Dschën Schï-yin <br />
<br />
Dschën-dschu 3 花珍珠Hua Zhenzhu Dienstmagd der Herzoginmutter, nach dem Wechsel als Dienstmagd zu Bau-yü umbenannt in Hsi-jën <br />
<br />
Dschën-örl 29 臻儿 Zhen’er Dienstmagd von Hsiang-ling <br />
<br />
Dsï-djüan 8 紫鹃 Zijuan Dienstmagd von Lin Dai-yü <br />
<br />
Duftgetränkter Pavillon 26 沁芳亭 Qinfangting Gebäude im Garten des Großen Anblicks <br />
<br />
Duftgetränkter Turm 17 含芳阁 Hanfangge Westliches Nebengebäude des Gartens des Großen Anblicks <br />
<br />
Duftreisdorf 17 稻香村 Daoxiangcun Ort im Garten des Großen Anblicks <br />
<br />
Fang-guan 54 芳官Fang-guan Schauspielerin <br />
<br />
Fee Warnendes Trugbild 13 警幻仙子 Jinghuanxianzi Mystische Figur in der Rahmenhandlung. <br />
<br />
Felsen der Dreimaligen Wiedergeburt 1 三生石畔Sanshengshipan Mystischer Ort in der Rahmenhandlung. <br />
<br />
Felswand Grüne Erhebung 2 青埂 Qinggeng Mystischer Ort in der Rahmenhandlung. <br />
<br />
Fëng Su 1 封肃 Feng Su Bauer, Vater von Frau Fëng, Schwiegervater von Dschën <br />
<br />
Fëng, Frau 1 封 Feng Frau von Dschën, Mutter von Ying-liän <br />
<br />
Fëng-örl 7 丰儿 Feng’er Dienstmagd von Hsi-fëng <br />
<br />
Flaschenkürbistempel 1 葫芦庙 Hulumiao Ort <br />
<br />
Garten des Großen Anblicks 17 大观园 Daguanyuan Künstlich angelegter <br />
Wohngarten auf den Gütern des Djia-Clans. <br />
<br />
Gasse der Menschlichkeit und der Reinheit 1 仁清巷Renqinggang Gasse, Ort <br />
<br />
Großen Wüsten Gebirge 1 大荒山 Damangshan Mystischer Ort in der Rahmenhandlung <br />
<br />
Halle des Blühenden Glücks 3 荣禧堂 Rongxitang Haupthalle des Jung-guo-Anwesens. <br />
<br />
Haselwurzpark 17 蘅芜苑 Hengwuyuan Ort im Garten des Großen Anblicks, vorheriger Name蘅芷清芬„Reiner Duft von Haselwurz und Bärenklau“ <br />
<br />
He-hsiän 93 鹤仙 Hexian buddhistische Novizin <br />
<br />
Heiteres Herbstatelier 101 秋爽 Qiushuang Ort im Garten des Großen Anblicks <br />
<br />
Herberge am Hsiau-hsiang-Fluß 17 潇湘馆 Xiaoxiangguan Dai-yüs Hof, vorheriger Name有凤来仪„Ein Phönix kommt zu Besuch“ <br />
<br />
Herzoginmutter 3 贾母 Djia Mu, Frau Shï Weiblicher Hausvorstand und gute Seele der Familie <br />
<br />
Hof der Düfte 81 蘅芜院 Suwuyuan Ort im Garten des Großen Anblicks <br />
<br />
Hof der Freude am Roten 17 怡红院 Yihongyuan Bau-yüs Hof im Garten des Großen Anblicks <br />
<br />
Hsiang-ling 7 香菱 Xiangling <br />
<br />
Hsiau-hung 24 小红 Xiaohong Dienstmagd von Hsi-fëng <br />
<br />
Hsiau-schë 80 小舍儿 Xiao Sheer Dienstmagd, wörtlich: „Kleine Verlassene“ <br />
<br />
Hsi-jën 3 袭人 Xiren Sklavenmädchen/Dienstmagd von Bau-yü <br />
<br />
Hsing Hsiu-yän 49 邢岫烟 Xing Xiuyan <br />
<br />
Hsin-hsiang 93 沁香 Xinxiang buddhistische Novizin <br />
<br />
Hsiu-djü 29 绣桔 Xiuju Dienstmagd von Ying-tschun <br />
<br />
Hsüä Bau-tschai 4 薛宝钗 Xue Baochai (Spätere) Frau von Djia Bau-yü. <br />
<br />
Hsüä Pan 4 薛蟠 Xue Pan <br />
<br />
Hsüä-yän 3 雪雁 Xueyan Dienstmagd von Lin Dai-yü, wörtlich: Schneegans <br />
<br />
Huan-örl 25 环儿 Huan’er <br />
<br />
Hu-po 20 琥珀 Hupo Dienstmagd der Herzoginmutter <br />
<br />
Insel der violetten Wassernüsse 17 紫菱洲 Zilingzhou Ort im Garten des Großen Anblicks <br />
<br />
Inselchen der Seekannenblätter 17 荇叶渚 Xingyezhu Ort im Garten des Großen Anblicks <br />
Ju-hua 7 入画 Ruhua Dienstmagd von Hsi-tschun <br />
<br />
Jung-guo-Anwesen 2 荣国府 Rongguofu Herzögliche Residenz der Djias westlich der Straße <br />
<br />
Kiosk des Lotoswurzelduftes 17 藕香榭 Ouxiangxie Gebäude im Garten des Großen Anblicks<br />
<br />
Klippe Unerforschlich 1 无稽崖 Wujiya Mythischer Ort in der Rahmenhandlung <br />
<br />
Kloster des Weisen Durchdringens 2 智通寺 Zhitongsi Mythischer Ort in der Rahmenhandlung <br />
<br />
Kloster Eiserne Schwelle 12 铁槛寺 Tiekansi Kloster <br />
<br />
Kloster Gefangenes Grün 41 栊翠庵 Longcuian Kloster von Miau-yü <br />
<br />
Konvent der Verstreuten Blumen 101 散花寺Sanhuasi Konvent <br />
<br />
Kung-kung, Dauist = Tjing-sëng 1 空空道人 Kongkong daoren Dauist <br />
<br />
Laube des Knöterichwindes 17 蓼风轩 Liaofengxuan Gebäude im Garten des Großen Anblicks <br />
<br />
Lëng Dsï-hsing 2 冷子兴Leng Zixing Antiquitätenhändler <br />
<br />
Li Wan 4 李纨 Li Wan Djia Dschus Witwe <br />
<br />
Lin Dai-yü 2 林黛玉 Lin Daiyu Tochter von Lin Ju-hai, Herzensdame von Djia Bau-yü, in der Rahmenhandlung identisch mit Purpurperle <br />
<br />
Lin Ju-hai 2 林如海 Lin Ruhai Salzinspektor, Vater von Lin Dai-yü, seine Frau ist zu Beginn des Romans schon ein Jahr tot <br />
<br />
Li-tji 81 李绮Li Qi Kusine von Li-wën <br />
<br />
Liu Wu-örl 60 柳五儿 Liu Wuer Tochter der Küchenangestellten Liu, sechzehn Jahre alt, konnte sich „an Schönheit mit Ping-örl, Hsi-jën, Dsï-djüan und Yüan-yang messen“, vorgesehen als Dienstmagd für Bau-yü <br />
<br />
Li-wën 81 李纹 Li Wen Kusine von Li-tji <br />
<br />
Mang-mang 2 茫茫大士 Mangmang dashi buddhistischer Mönch, Heiliger <br />
<br />
Mee-jën 5 媚人 Meiren Sklavenmädchen/Dienstmädchen <br />
<br />
Miau-miau 2 渺渺真人 Miaomiao zhenren Erleuchteter, dauistischer Priester, wird auch als 僧道 seng Dao bezeichnet <br />
<br />
Miau-yü 17 妙玉 Miaoyu Adamatina/Adamantina, Nonne <br />
<br />
Nebenfrau Dschau 20 赵姨娘 Zhao yiniang <br />
<br />
Ning-guo-Anwesen 2 宁国府Ningguofu Herzögliche Residenz der Djias östlich der Straße <br />
<br />
Nü-wa 1 女娲Nüwa Göttin, die in der mystischen Rahmenerzählung das Himmelszelt repariert <br />
<br />
Oma Liu 6 刘姥姥 Liu laolao bodenständige, herzensgute Figur vom Lande <br />
<br />
Page Geisterjade 1 神瑛侍者 Shenyingshizhe Page, Figur aus mythischer Vorgeschichte (wird wiedergeboren als Djia Bau-yü) <br />
<br />
Pan San-bau 81 潘三保 Pan Sanbao zwielichtige Gestalt, heuerte Hexe an <br />
<br />
Pei-fëng 106 佩凤 Peifeng Konkubine Djia Dschëns <br />
<br />
Ping-örl 6 平儿 Ping’er Dienstmagd von Hsi-fëng <br />
<br />
Prinz von Bee-djing 11 北静王Beijing wang Prinz von Bee-djing <br />
<br />
Prinz von Hsi-ning 11 西宁郡王 Xining jun wang wörtlich: König der Präfektur Xining <br />
<br />
Purpurperle 1 绛珠草 Jiangzhucao Pflanze, Figur aus mythischer Vorgeschichte (wird wiedergeboren als Lin Dai-yü) <br />
<br />
Rotjadepalast 1 赤瑕宫 Chixiagong Ort <br />
<br />
Sau-hua 24 扫花Saohua Sklavenjunge/junger Dienstbote <br />
<br />
Scha, das Dummerchen 96 傻大姐儿Sha dajier Dienstmagd, Schwester von Dschën-dschu <br />
<br />
Schë-yüä 5 麝月 Sheyue Sklavenmädchen/Dienstmädchen <br />
<br />
Schï Hsiang-yün 20 史湘云Shi Xiangyun<br />
entfernte Kusine von Djia Bau-yü <br />
<br />
Schï-schu 89 侍书Shi Shu Dienstmagd von Tan-tschun <br />
<br />
Shakyamuni Kloster 18 牟尼院Mouni yuan Kloster vor dem Westtor der Hauptstadt <br />
<br />
Shuai-örl 102 拴儿 Shuan’er älterer Bediensteter <br />
<br />
Sï-tji 7 司棋 Siqi Dienstmagd von Ying-tschun <br />
<br />
Steinerne Mauer 2 石头城 Shitoucheng Ort <br />
<br />
Su-yün 81 素云 Suyun Dienstmagd von Li Wan <br />
<br />
Tchiu-tung 88 秋桐 Qiutong Dienstmagd von Hsi-fëng <br />
<br />
Tiau-yün 24 挑云 Tiaoyun Sklavenjunge/junger Dienstbote <br />
<br />
Tjin-hsiang 93 沁香 Qinxiang Buddhistische Novizin <br />
<br />
Tjing-wën 5 晴雯 Qingwen Sklavenmädchen/Dienstmädchen <br />
<br />
Tjiu-wën 19 秋纹Qiuwen Dienstmagd von Bau-yü <br />
<br />
Trauer um das Rote 1 悼红轩 Dao hong xuan Studierstube von Tsau Hsüä-tjin <br />
<br />
Tsai-ming 7 彩明 Caiming Dienstmagd von Hsi-fëng <br />
<br />
Tsai-ping 29 彩屏 Caiping Dienstmagd von Hsi-tschun <br />
<br />
Tsai-yün 23 彩云 Caiyun Dienstmagd der Dame Wang <br />
<br />
Tsau Hsüä-tjin 1 曹雪芹 Cao Xueqin Autor, zugleich Figur in der Rahmenhandlung <br />
<br />
Tschun-hsiän 29 春纤 Chunxian Dienstmagd von Lin Dai-yü <br />
<br />
Tschu-yau 24 锄药 Chuyao Sklavenjunge/junger Dienstbote <br />
<br />
Tsuee-mo 29 翠墨 Cuimo Dienstmagd von Tan-tschun <br />
<br />
Tsuee-lou 17 翠缕 Cuilou Dienstmagd <br />
<br />
Tung-guee 29 同贵Tonggui Dienstmagd von Frau Hsüä <br />
<br />
Tung-hsi 29 同喜 Tongxi Dienstmagd von Frau Hsüä <br />
<br />
Turm des Großen Anblicks 17 大观楼 Daguanlou Hauptgebäude des Gartens des Großen Anblicks <br />
<br />
Ufer des Seelenflusses 1 灵河岸 Linghean Mystischer Ort in der Rahmenhandlung <br />
<br />
Wahngefilde der Großen Leere 15 幻境 Huanjing Himmelsähnliche Vorstellung, mystischer Ort, an dem man nach buddhistischem Glauben auf seine Wiedergeburt wartet <br />
<br />
Wang Hsi-fëng 2 王熙凤 Wang Xifeng =凤姐 Feng jie Frau von Djia Liän, bildschön und dabei redegewandt und außerordentlich einfallsreich, „von tausend Männern kommt nicht einer ihr gleich“ <br />
<br />
Wang Örl-tiau 84 王尔调 Wang Ertiao Heiratsvermittler <br />
<br />
Wang Schï, Frau 2 王氏Wang Shi Frau von Djia Dschëng <br />
<br />
Wassermondkloster 7 水月庵 Shuiyueyan Kloster <br />
<br />
Wee-yang = Yang-dschou 2 维扬 Weiyang Ort <br />
<br />
Wën-hsing 29 文杏 Wenxing Dienstmagd von Hsüä Bau-tschai <br />
<br />
Yang Guee-fee 23 杨贵妃 Yang Guifei Nebenfrau von Tang-Kaiser Ming-huang, eigentlich Hsüan-dsung (685 – 762, Kaiser von 712 bis 756). Bau-tschai wird mit ihr verglichen. <br />
<br />
Ying-ge 97 鹦哥 Yingge Dienstmagd von Lin Dai-yü <br />
<br />
Ying-örl 7 莺儿 Ying’er Dienstmagd von Hsüä Bau-tschai <br />
<br />
Ying-wu 29 鹦鹉 Yingwu Dienstmagd der Herzoginmutter <br />
<br />
Yin-tjüan 24 引泉 Yinquan Sklavenjunge/junger Dienstbote <br />
<br />
You-schï 5 尤氏 Youshi Ehefrau von Djia Dschën <br />
<br />
Yüan-yang 20 鸳鸯 Yuanyang Dienstmagd der Herzoginmutter <br />
<br />
Yü-tschuan 25 玉钏 Yuchuan Dienstmagd von Djia Huan <br />
<br />
Zehn-Li-Straße 12 十里街 Shilijie Ort<br />
<br />
=Old List=<br />
<br />
人名 HM译名 大意 WE译名<br />
<br />
迎春 Welcome Spring<br />
<br />
詹光 Advantage Seeker<br />
<br />
单聘仁 Sophisticated liar<br />
<br />
宝钗 Precious hairpin<br />
<br />
贾政 Master Jia<br />
<br />
刑夫人 Lady Xing(刑好像没有啥含义，直接音译？）<br />
<br />
王夫人 Lady King<br />
<br />
警幻仙姑 the fairy Disenchantment 觉醒仙姑 Fairy ...<br />
<br />
晴雯 Skybright 天晴<br />
<br />
袭人 Aroma 芳香, 香味<br />
<br />
麝月 Musk 麝香（让我联想到风湿膏之类的东西）<br />
<br />
秋纹 Ripple 波浪, 涟漪<br />
<br />
茜雪 Snowpink 雪粉红<br />
<br />
芸香/蕙香/四儿 Soldanella/Citronella/Number Four 高山钟花/亚香茅/四号<br />
<br />
碧痕 Emerald 祖母绿,翠绿色<br />
<br />
小红 Crimson 深红色（乍一看还以为和crime什么的相关）<br />
<br />
佳蕙 Melilot 草木樨<br />
<br />
坠儿 Trinket 小装饰物<br />
<br />
春燕 Swallow 吞<br />
<br />
柳五儿 Fivey 老五<br />
<br />
茗烟 Tealeaf 茶叶<br />
<br />
雪雁 Snowgoose 雪雁,雪鹅<br />
<br />
紫鹃 Nightingale 夜莺,歌鸲<br />
<br />
香菱 Caltrop 蒺藜,矢车菊<br />
<br />
莺儿 Oriole 黄鹂,金莺<br />
<br />
宝蟾 Moonbeam 月光<br />
<br />
靛儿 Prettikins ？<br />
<br />
翠缕 Kingfisher 翠鸟<br />
<br />
素云 Candida （英语词典中找不到对应的。拉丁语candidus白,纯洁）<br />
<br />
妙玉 Adamantina 金刚（妙姐就是与众不同）<br />
<br />
鸳鸯 Faithful 忠诚的<br />
<br />
琥珀 Amber 琥珀<br />
<br />
傻大姐 Simple 愚蠢的？<br />
<br />
云光 Cloudlight<br />
<br />
平儿 Patience 容忍,耐心（夹缝中生存）<br />
<br />
丰儿 Felicity 巨大幸福<br />
<br />
兴儿 Joker （的确很逗乐）<br />
<br />
旺儿 Brightie 聪明<br />
<br />
彩明 Sunshine 阳光<br />
<br />
秋桐 Autumn 秋<br />
<br />
善姐 Mercy 怜悯<br />
<br />
彩云 Suncloud 太阳云<br />
<br />
彩霞 Sunset 日落,晚霞<br />
<br />
金钏 Golden 黄金的<br />
<br />
玉钏 Silver 银的（为什么不是玉的）<br />
<br />
抱琴 Lutany ？（lute鲁特琴）<br />
<br />
司棋 Chess 象棋<br />
<br />
侍书 Scribe 抄写员<br />
<br />
入画 Picture <br />
<br />
绣桔 Tangerine 柑橘<br />
<br />
翠墨 Ebony 乌黑色<br />
<br />
琪官 Bijou 珠宝首饰（这些X官的名字好像都是法语词）<br />
<br />
文官 Elegante 优雅<br />
<br />
宝官 Trésor 保险箱（法语来的）<br />
<br />
玉官 Topaze 黄玉<br />
<br />
龄官 Charmante 迷人<br />
<br />
芳官/耶律雄奴/温都里纳/玻璃 Parfumée/Yelu Hunni/Aventurin/Glassy or Glass-eyes 香/耶律匈奴/金星玻璃/玻璃<br />
<br />
蕊官 Etamine 纱罗<br />
<br />
藕官 Nenuphar 睡莲<br />
<br />
葵官/大英 Althee/Valiant 蜀葵属？/英勇的<br />
<br />
荳官 Cardamome 豆蔻<br />
<br />
艾官 Artemisie 蒿属植物？<br />
<br />
茄官 Aubergine 紫茄子<br />
<br />
菂官 Pivoine 牡丹？（“菂”是莲子的意思）<br />
<br />
卍儿 Swastika 卍字符<br />
<br />
瑞珠 Gem 宝石<br />
<br />
宝珠 Jewel 宝石<br />
<br />
云儿 Nuageuse 云（法语）<br />
<br />
娇杏 HM Lucky 侥幸<br />
<br />
智能 Sapientia 智慧？<br />
<br />
多浑虫 "Droopy Duo" 萎靡多？<br />
<br />
多姑娘 "the Mattress" 床垫（这个真邪恶）<br />
<br />
甄士隐 Zhen Shiyin = HM Zhen Shiyin = YY Zhen Shiyin = WE Hidden Truth<br />
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贾雨村 Jia Yucun WE Rainvillage Merchant<br />
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女娲 Nüwa Nvwa, WE Goddess <br />
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贾母 Dowager Lady Jia => Granny Merchant<br />
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賈寶玉 贾宝玉 Jia Baoyu WE Precious Jade<br />
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王熙凤 WE Phoenix King = 凤姐 Sister Phoenix<br />
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贾瑞 WE Omen Jia<br />
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贾珍 Jia Zhen= Cousin Zhen<br />
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尤夫人 Madam You = Mrs. You<br />
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尤氏母亲 old Mrs You = Madam You’s mother<br />
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山子野 Gardener Ye<br />
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=Hidden/double meanings=<br />
甄士隐——真事隐（去） 甄英莲——真应怜 霍启——祸起 贾雨村——假语村（言） 姣杏——侥幸 冯渊——逢冤 秦可卿——情可亲 秦钟——情种 詹光——沾光 卜固修——不顾羞 卜世仁——不是人 石呆子——实呆子 元春、迎春、探春、惜春——原应叹息 贾、史、王、薛——假史枉雪 贾雨村(假语村) 甄士隐(真事隐) 甄英莲(真应怜) 甄应嘉(真应假) 张友士(张有事) 秦可卿(情可亲) 元迎探惜(原应叹息) 千红一窟（哭） 万艳同杯（悲） 卜世仁(不是人) 葫芦(糊涂) 荔枝(离枝) 玉带林(林黛玉) 圆(缘) 蘅芜院(恨无缘) 青埂(情根) 十里街(势利街) 仁清巷(人情巷) 胡州(胡诌) 贾化(假话) 时飞(实非) 严老爷(炎老爷) 娇杏(侥幸) 霍启(祸起) 封肃(风俗) 张如圭(张如鬼) 冯渊(逢冤) 于老爷(愚老爷) 余信(愚性) 秦钟(情种) 詹光(沾光) 单聘仁(擅骗人) 吴新登(无星戥) 戴良(大量) 钱华(钱花) 秦业(情孽) 戴权(大权) 卜固修(不顾羞) 坠儿(赘儿) 宋嬷嬷(送嬷嬷) 贾蔷（假强）</div>Zhang Yiranhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20211103_homework&diff=13504220211103 homework2021-12-31T02:40:27Z<p>Zhang Yiran: /* 张扬 Zhāng Yáng 国别 男 202120081551 */</p>
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<div>Quicklinks: [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021|Back to course homepage]] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal#Frequently_asked_questions_FAQ FAQ] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal Manual] [[20210926_homework|Back to all homework webpages overview]] [[20220112_final_exam|final exam page]]<br />
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==陈静 Chén Jìng 国别 女 202020080595==<br />
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由于八旗官学中向来有习清书、习汉书之分的传统，礼部遂奏请采用不同方式，对应试者分别考试翻译或清字文，无论乡试、会试，皆是如此，而区别只在于会试时针对应试者学习语言的不同背景，各自增加了一道题量，即，习汉字者除了考试汉字文翻译，另考试文章一篇，习清文者则在乡试的基础上，增试清字文一篇。这一规定既针对八旗满洲，也针对八旗蒙古，但不针对八旗汉军，后者的考试内容与普通汉族士子相同。同时，礼部也奏请对笔帖式和他赤哈哈番、哈番（即，笔帖式哈番）参加乡、会试进行规定，其中前者参加乡试，后二者参加会试。<br />
Since there has always been a tradition of learning the Books of Qing style and the Book of Han style in the Eight Banners Official Schools, the Ministry of Rites adopted different ways to test translation or the article forming in the style of Qing Dynasty for the candidates, regardless of the rural test and the meeting test. The difference is that only the number of questions was increased according to the different backgrounds of the candidates’ language learning in the meeting test. That is to say, in addition to the translation of the language of Han, the Chinese learners of Han Style also had one test article. On the basis of the rural test, the Qing learners added one test article of its language. This regulation is for the Eight Banners of Man Region and Men’gu, but not for the Eight Banners of Han Army. The test content of the latter is the same as that of the ordinary Han scholars. At the same time, the Ministry of Rites also invited two region that besides the Eight Banners to participate in the rural and meeting examinations. The former participated in the rural examination, and the latter two participated in the meeting examination.--[[User:Chen Jing|Chen Jing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jing|talk]]) 15:20, 30 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Since there has always been a tradition of learning Qing books and Han books in the Eight Banners official school, the Ritual Department asked to use different methods. The corresponding subjects were tested for translation or Qing characters, both in the provincial examination and the joint examination. The only difference is that when the joint examination was held, one question was added to the corresponding subjects' different backgrounds of learning the language, that is, in addition to testing the translation of Chinese characters, Another examination article was given, while those who studied Qing characters added one article written by Qing characters on the basis of the township examination. This provision is not only for Manchuria of the Eight Banners, but also for Mongolia of the Eight Banners, but not for the Han army of the Eight Banners. The examination content of the latter is the same as that of ordinary Han scholars. At the same time, the Ministry of rites also asked for regulations on the participation of pen style and his Chi ha fan and ha fan (i.e. pen style ha fan) in the township and joint examination, in which the former participated in the township examination and the latter two participated in the joint examination.<br />
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--[[User:Cai Zhufeng|Cai Zhufeng]] ([[User talk:Cai Zhufeng|talk]]) 15:40, 30 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==蔡珠凤 Cài Zhūfèng 日语语言文学 女 202120081477==<br />
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上文引用的内容也出现在《雍正会典》（又称《（雍正）大清会典》），以及两部《钦定大清会典事例》（嘉庆、光绪）中，三者都明确提到停止（八旗）考试的具体时间，即顺治十四年（1657年），而且三者中都加有“按语”，进一步说明此事。其中，《雍正会典》中的说法是“此后复行考试，与汉人一体。停止翻译”，《钦定大清会典事例》中的说法则是“康熙二年（1663）谕：满洲、蒙古、汉军生员俱准乡试。此后惟翻译未经举行。”<br />
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The content quoted above also appears in the Yong Zheng canon . (also known as the (Yong Zheng) Qing Dynasty canon ) and the two cases of imperial Qing canon (Jia Qing and Guang Xu). The three all clearly mentioned the specific time to stop the (eight banners) examination, that is, the 14th year of Shun Zhi (1657), and "notes" were added to further explain the matter. Among them, the statement in the Yong Zheng canon is that "after that, the examination will be resumed and integrate with the Han people.Stop translation". The statement in the case of the imperial Qing canon is that "in the second year of Kang Xi (1663), the Manchurian, Mongolian and Han Army students will be allowed to take the provincial examination. Since then, only the translation has not been held."<br />
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--[[User:Cai Zhufeng|Cai Zhufeng]] ([[User talk:Cai Zhufeng|talk]]) 02:20, 28 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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The content quoted above also appears in the Code of Yongzheng . (also known as the (Yong Zheng) Code of Great Qing Dynasty) and the two cases of Regulations on Code of Great Qing Dynasty (Jia Qing and Guang Xu). The three all clearly mentioned the specific time to stop the (eight banners) examination, that is, the 14th year of Shun Zhi (1657), and "notes" were added to further explain the matter. Among them, the statement in the Code of Yongzheng is that "after that, the examination will be resumed and integrate with the Han people.Stop translation". The statement in the case of the Regulations on Code of Great Qing Dynasty is that "in the second year of Kang Xi (1663), the Manchurian, Mongolian and Han Army students will be allowed to take the provincial examination. Since then, only the translation has not been held."--[[User:Zeng Junlin|Zeng Junlin]] ([[User talk:Zeng Junlin|talk]]) 11:39, 5 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==曾俊霖 Zēng Jùnlín 国别 男 202120081478==<br />
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（允禄等，1995：4619-4620；托津等，1991：2659-2662；昆冈等，1963：657）从《雍正会典》的记载及其“按语”看，至少可以推导出两点：其一，八旗科举考试始于顺治十四年前，但十四年即停办；其二，顺治十四年前，翻译科便已存在。顺治十四年以后，八旗科举考试得以恢复，但翻译科举仍被停止。<br />
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(Yunlu et al., 1995: 4619-4620; Tojin et al., 1991: 2659-2662; Kungang et al., 1963: 657) From the records of the "Code of Yongzheng" and its "notes", at least two points can be deduced : First, the Eight Banners imperial examination began 14 years ago in Shunzhi, but it was suspended after 14 years; second, the translation department already existed 14 years ago in Shunzhi. Fourteen years after Shunzhi, the Eight Banners imperial examination was resumed, but the translation of the imperial examination was still suspended.--[[User:Zeng Junlin|Zeng Junlin]] ([[User talk:Zeng Junlin|talk]]) 11:44, 5 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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(Yunlu et al., 1995: 4619-4620; Tojin et al., 1991: 2659-2662; Kungang et al., 1963: 657) From the records of the "Code of Yongzheng" and its "notes", at least two points can be infered: First, the Eight Banners imperial examination began 14 years ago in Shunzhi, but it was suspended in the 14th year; second, the translation department has already existed 14 years ago in Shunzhi. Fourteen years after Shunzhi, the Eight Banners imperial examination was reheld, but the translation of the imperial examination was still suspended.--[[User:Chen Huini|Chen Huini]] ([[User talk:Chen Huini|talk]]) 13:23, 7 November 2021 (UTC)Chen Huini<br />
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==陈惠妮 Chén Huìnī 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081479==<br />
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《雍正会典》中的这一记载与两部《钦定大清会典事例》中的说法如出一辙，后二者也将顺治八年的八旗科举考试视作翻译科的第一事例。而且，三种文献均提到了停办翻译科的事，即“停止翻译”和“此后惟翻译未经举行”。固然，无论是天聪八年的八旗乡试，还是顺治八年礼部研议的八旗科举，二者皆与翻译考试有关，但就性质与意义而言，它们都不是翻译科之缘起。<br />
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This record in ''The Yongzheng Ceremony'' is the same as that in ''The Two Imperial Examinations'' of the Qing Dynasty, which also regarded the Eight Banners imperial examination in the eighth year of Shunzhi as the first example of translation. Moreover, the closure of the translation section is mentioned in all three documents, namely, "the cessation of translation" and "only translation has not been held since then". Of course, both the Eight Banners township examination held in the eighth year of Tiancong and the Eight Banners examination discussed by the Ministry of Rites in the eighth year of Shunzhi are related to translation examination, but in terms of nature and significance, they are not the origin of translation study.--[[User:Chen Huini|Chen Huini]] ([[User talk:Chen Huini|talk]]) 06:25, 30 October 2021 (UTC)Chen Huini<br />
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This record in ''The Yongzheng Ceremony'' is the same as that in ''The Two Imperial Examinations'' of the Qing Dynasty, which also sees the Eight Banners imperial examination in the eighth year of Shunzhi as the first example of translation. Moreover, the closure of the translation section is mentioned in all three documents, namely, "the cessation of translation" and "only translation has not been held since then". Of course, both the Eight Banners township examination held in the eighth year of Tiancong and the Eight Banners examination discussed by the Ministry of Rites in the eighth year of Shunzhi are related to translation examination, but with regard to essence and significance, they are not the origins of translation study.--[[User:Chen Xiangqiong|Chen Xiangqiong]] ([[User talk:Chen Xiangqiong|talk]]) 11:21, 3 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==陈湘琼 Chén Xiāngqióng 外国语言学及应用语言学 女 202120081480==<br />
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《清实录·世祖章皇帝实录》和《八旗通志·初集》中，均将顺治八年的旗人考试称为“八旗科举”或“八旗考试”，而没有将其称作“翻译科举”或“翻译考试”，由此可知二者之区别。《钦定八旗通志》中，虽然用了“翻译考试”或“考试翻译”等字眼描述顺治时期的八旗科举，并将其视作翻译科举之源，且《清实录·圣祖仁皇帝实录》中也有康熙二年“复行满洲、蒙古、汉军翻译乡试”的记载，但上述记录实为误记的可能性较大，不排除系实录馆馆臣或编纂者依据雍正年间的情形误植所致。（叶高树，2013：52）<br />
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In ''Veritable Records of Qing Dynasty ·Veritable Records of Shunzhi Emperor'' and ''The General Annals of the Eight Banners '' , in stead of "translation imperial examination" or "translation exam", Qi's selection in 1651 were all called "Eight Banners imperial examination" or "Eight Banners exam"， which showed the difference between those two exams.In ''The General Annals of the Eight Banners Dedicated to the Emperor''，though “translation examination” and “test for translation ability” were used to describe Eight Banners imperial examination during Shunzhi's period and researchers took it as the origin of translation imperial examination as well as a record in ''Veritable Records of Qing Dynasty ·Veritable Records of Kangxi Emperor'' of reinstating translation exam in rural areas of Man,Meng and Han places in 1662. But it is possibly wrong information and can not exclude the situation that officials were mistaken by records of Yongzheng Emperor.--[[User:Chen Xiangqiong|Chen Xiangqiong]] ([[User talk:Chen Xiangqiong|talk]]) 07:49, 29 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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In Qing Record and Record of Shunzhi Emperor and The General Annals of the Eight Banners , in stead of "translation imperial examination" or "translation exam", Qi's selection in 1651 were all called "Eight Banners imperial examination" or "Eight Banners exam", which showed the difference between those two exams.In The General Annals of the Eight Banners Dedicated to the Emperor, though “translation examination” and “test for translation ability” were used to describe Eight Banners imperial examination during the period of Shunzhi and were regarded as the origin of translation imperial examination. And in Qing Record and Record of Kangxi Emperor also had the record of resuming the Manchurian, Mongolian, Chinese army translation Provincial Examination" in 1662, but the above record is actually a greater possibility of misinformation, do not exclude the fact that the Museum of factual records or compilers based on the Yongzheng years of the situation misplanted. (Ye Gaoshu, 2013: 52) --[[User:Chen Xinyi|Chen Xinyi]] ([[User talk:Chen Xinyi|talk]]) 04:03, 1 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==陈心怡 Chén Xīnyí 翻译学 女 202120081481==<br />
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有清一代，以“翻译”之名选拔八旗士子的科目很多，如庶吉士、翻译庶吉士、笔帖式等，但这些考试属于各部院衙门自行选用人才的方式，均未形成独立建制，与文科举并行。所谓顺治时期八旗考试中的“翻译考试”或“考试翻译”，也只是一种考试的内容或形式，并非是一种科考制度。<br />
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三、《八旗通志》等关于翻译科创建时间的订正。<br />
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In Qing dynasty, there were many subjects to select scholars of the eight banners in the name of "translation", such as the Hanlin Bachelor, Hanlin Bachelor of translation, and Clerk etc. But these examinations belonged to the various ministries and agencies to choose their own way of talent, had not formed an independent establishment. They were held in parallel with arts. The so-called eight banners in the Shunzhi period examination "translation examination" or "examination of translation" was only a test content or form, not a system of the imperial civil examination. <br />
Third, The General Annals of the Eight Banners and other revisions on the creation of the examination of translation. --[[User:Chen Xinyi|Chen Xinyi]] ([[User talk:Chen Xinyi|talk]]) 07:06, 28 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
In Qing dynasty, there were many subjects to select scholars of the Eight Banners in the name of "translation", such as the Hanlin Bachelor, Hanlin Bachelor of translation, and Clerk etc. But these examinations belonged to various ministries and agencies to choose their own ways of selecting talents, had not formed an independent establishment, which were held in parallel with arts. The so-called “translation examination" or "examination of translation" of Eight Banners in Shunzhi period was only a content or form of it, not a system of the imperial civil examination. <br />
Third, ''The General Annals of the Eight Banners'' and other revisions on the creation of the examination of translation.--[[User:Cheng Yang|Cheng Yang]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yang|talk]]) 13:28, 2 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==程杨 Chéng Yáng 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081482==<br />
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如前所述，天聪八年的八旗考试虽然有着不同类型之分，如满洲习满书、满洲习汉书等，本质上却是“语文测验”，而非翻译科考。同理，顺治八年的八旗科举虽然包含翻译考试的项目，但所谓翻译考试也只是八旗文科举的附设环节，尚未独立成科。凡此二者，皆与雍正元年研拟并于翌年首次开科，且具有独立、自主的制度设计的翻译科明显不同。<br />
As mentioned above, although the examinations of the Eight Banners had different types during the eighth year of Tian Cong, the reign title of Qing Dynasty, such as learning Manchurian books in Manchu, learning Han books in Manchu, etc.,which were essentially a “language test” rather than a translation examination. Similarly, although the imperial examination of Eight Banners in the eighth year of Shun Zhi, a reign title of Qing Dynasty, included the translation examination, the so-called translation examination was only an ancillation of it, which had not become an independent subject. Both of them were significantly different from the examination of translation, which was discussed and formulated in the first year of Yong Zheng, a reign title of Qing Dynasty, and opened the following year, having an independent and autonomous system designation.--[[User:Cheng Yang|Cheng Yang]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yang|talk]]) 13:54, 2 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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As it mentioned above, although the examinations of the Eight Banners had different types during the eighth year of Tian Cong, such as learning Manchurian books in Manchu and learning Han books in Manchu etc, they were essentially a “language test” rather than a translation examination. Similarly, although the imperial examination of Eight Banners in the eighth year of Emperor Shun Zhi included the translation examination, the so-called translation examination was only an ancillation of it, which had not become an independent subject. Both of them were significantly different from the examination of translation, which was discussed and formulated in the first year of Emperor Yong Zheng, a reign title of Qing Dynasty, and opened the following year, having an independent and autonomous system designation.--[[User:Ding Xuan|Ding Xuan]] ([[User talk:Ding Xuan|talk]]) 10:59, 3 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==丁旋 Dīng Xuán 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081483==<br />
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《雍正会典》与两部《钦定大清会典事例》中，关于翻译科创设的说法不仅与《清实录·世祖章皇帝实录》冲突，也与《八旗通志》等存在较大出入。《八旗通志》和《钦定八旗通志》中，也将顺治八年、十一年两榜满、蒙举人和进士，归于“文举人”和“文进士”之列，而不是“翻译举人”和“翻译进士”之列，并把首科翻译举人归为雍正二年甲辰科，而将首科翻译进士归为乾隆四年己未科。（鄂尔泰等，1985：3393-3396、3419-3422；铁保等，1968：811-813、828-830）<br />
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The record of the foundation of translation subject in ''Record of Laws and System of Yongzheng Dynasty'' and ''Authorized Record of Laws and System of Qing Dynasty'' is in conflict with even largely different from that in ''Qing Record and Record of Shi Zuzhang Emperor'' and ''Eight Banners Annals''. In ''Eight Banners Annals'' and ''Authorized Eight Banners Annals'', two lists of Manchu and Mongolian candidates in the imperial examinations at the provincial level and the highest imperial examinations were enrolled to the field of literature rather than translation in the eighth and eleventh years of Shunzhi emperor. Besides, the translation candidates from provincial level of the initial subject were enrolled to Jiachen subject in the second year of Yongzheng emperor and the translation candidates in the highest imperial examinations were distributed to Jiwei subject in the fourth year of Qianlong emperor. (Ertai etc, 1985: 3393-3396、3419-3422；Tie Bao etc，1968：811-813、828-830)--[[User:Ding Xuan|Ding Xuan]] ([[User talk:Ding Xuan|talk]]) 09:58, 29 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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The record of the foundation of translation subject in ''Record of Laws and System of Yongzheng Dynasty'' and ''Authorized Record of Laws and System of Qing Dynasty'' is in conflict with even largely different from that in ''Qing Record and Record of Shi Zuzhang Emperor'' and ''Eight Banners Annals''. In ''Eight Banners Annals'' and ''Authorized Eight Banners Annals'', two lists of Manchu and Mongolian candidates in the imperial examinations at the provincial level and the highest imperial examinations were enrolled to the field of literature rather than the translation in the eighth and eleventh years of Shunzhi emperor. Besides, the translation candidates from provincial level of the initial subject were enrolled to Jiachen subject in the second year of Yongzheng emperor and the translation candidates in the highest imperial examinations were enrolled to Jiwei subject in the fourth year of Qianlong emperor. (Ertai etc, 1985: 3393-3396、3419-3422；Tie Bao etc，1968：811-813、828-830)--[[User:Du Lina|Du Lina]] ([[User talk:Du Lina|talk]]) 04:21, 3 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==杜莉娜 Dù Lìnà英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081484==<br />
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显然，在《八旗通志》和《钦定八旗通志》的编纂者看来，顺治八年、十一年的两科举人与进士均不是出自翻译科举，而是出自八旗文科举。从清代进士题名碑的情况看，也可知翻译科并非始设于顺治年间。例如，在由北京图书馆金石组编写出版的《中国历代石刻拓本汇编》（1990）一书中，收录了顺治九年、十二年两榜进士的题名碑，但题名碑的书写与文进士题名碑并无不同，碑头和碑文中都没有出现“翻译”字样。<br />
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Obviously, in the opinions of editors of ''The General Annals of the Eight Banners'' and ''The General Annals of the Eight Banners Dedicated to the Emperor'', both Ju ren and Xiu cai of two subjects in the eighth year and eleventh year of Shunzhi were not from the imperial examinations of translation but from liberal arts. According to the name of Jin shi inscribed on the stones in Qing dynasty, the imperial examinations of translation did not start with the period of Shunzhi. For instance, edited and published by Jin Shi of National Library of China, ''The Collection of Stone Inscriptions and Rubbings in Past Chinese Dynasties'' (1990)includes the inscription stones in the ninth year and twelfth year of Shunzhi. But there is no difference in the description on the stone compared with the stone of Jin shi of liberal arts, and the word “translation” do not appear no matter in the beginning or the text.--[[User:Du Lina|Du Lina]] ([[User talk:Du Lina|talk]]) 06:20, 28 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Obviously, in the opinions of editors of ''The General Annals of the Eight Banners'' and ''The General Annals of the Eight Banners Dedicated to the Emperor'', both Ju ren and Xiu cai of two subjects in the eighth year and eleventh year of Shunzhi were not from the imperial examinations of translation but from liberal arts. According to the name of Jin shi inscribed on the stones in Qing dynasty, the imperial examinations of translation did not start with the period of Shunzhi. For instance, edited and published by Jin Shi of National Library of China, ''The Collection of Stone Inscriptions and Rubbings in Past Chinese Dynasties'' (1990)includes the inscription stones in the ninth year and twelfth year of Shunzhi. But there is no difference in the description on the stone compared with the stone of Jin shi of liberal arts, and the word “translation” do not appear either in the beginning or the text.--[[User:Fu Hongyan|Fu Hongyan]] ([[User talk:Fu Hongyan|talk]]) 03:08, 5 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==付红岩 Fù Hóngyán 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081485==<br />
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而同书在处理乾隆年间的四科翻译会试（即四年己未科、十年乙丑科、十三年戊辰科，以及十六年辛未科）时，碑头和碑文中却明确标注“翻译进士”，或“翻译会试”字样。（北京图书馆金石组，1990：52、169；24、146）同样的情况也见于《国朝历科题名碑录初集》，本书中关于顺治期间两榜进士（九年壬辰科、十二年乙未科）的称呼也只是“满洲进士”，而不是“翻译进士”，而且该书收录的题名中皆为文进士，未见有翻译进士。<br />
However, when it comes to the collected works related imperial translation examination (the fourth, tenth, thirteenth and sixteenth years of Qianlong period) in the book mentioned above, there was clear inscription of “translation scholar or translation imperial examination” on the tablet head and inscription (Jin Shizu, Beijing Library, 1990: 52、169; 24、146). It’s true of A preliminary collection of inscriptions and stele of calendar subjects in the national Dynasty, in which the title of two Jinshi (the ninth year and twelfth of Shunzhi ) was just Manchu Jinshi, rather than translation Jinshi. Furthermore, the book included not translation Jinshi, but literal Jinshi. --[[User:Fu Hongyan|Fu Hongyan]] ([[User talk:Fu Hongyan|talk]]) 03:00, 5 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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However, when it comes to the collected works related the imperial examinations of translation (namely, the fourth, tenth, thirteenth and sixteenth years of Qianlong period) in the book mentioned above, there was clear indication of “Jinshi (''a successful candidate in the highest imperial examinations'') of translation or imperial examination of translation” on the tablet head and inscription (''Jin Shi of National Library of China'' , 1990: 52、169; 24、146). It’s true of ''The Preliminary Collection of The Inscriptions of Passers Lists in Past Chinese Dynasties'', in which the name of the two Jinshi lists in the ninth year and twelfth of Shunzhi period was just Manchu Jinshi, rather than translation Jinshi. Furthermore, the book included not “Jinshi of translation”, but “Jinshi of liberal arts”.--[[User:Fu Shiyu|Fu Shiyu]] ([[User talk:Fu Shiyu|talk]]) 04:03, 5 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==付诗雨 Fù Shīyǔ 日语语言文学 女 202120081486==<br />
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由此可知，《雍正会典》和两部《会典事例》将顺治八年看作翻译科之起点确系误记。值得注意的是，《（康熙）大清会典》中，并没有录入“翻译科”的条目，这一点表明编纂者或许已对翻译科有了重新认识。《清实录·世祖章皇帝实录》中说，顺治十四年正月，世祖降旨吏、礼、兵三部，要求“今后限年定额考取生童，乡会两试，俱着停止，各部院衙门取用人员不必分别满汉文学”，但此处诏令停办的乡、会试同样只是八旗科举文试，而不是翻译考试。<br />
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From this, it can be seen that ''Record of Laws and System of Yongzheng Dynasty'' and the two ''Authorized Record of Laws and System of Qing Dynasty'' actually mistook the eighth year of Shunzhi for the starting point of the imperial translation examination. It is worth noting that in the "''Record of Laws and System of Kangxi Dynasty''", there is no entry for a item of "the imperial translation examination", which indicates that the editor may have a re-understanding of it. According to the "''Qing Record and Record of Shi Zuzhang Emperor and Eight Banners Annals''", in the first month of the fourteenth year of Shunzhi, Shizu issued an edict to ministries of Administration, Rites, and Military Affairs , demanding that "From now on, there would be limitations on the participant numbers and the years of the imperial examination to admit scholars. The county examination and the metropolitan examination would be also suspended. And it would be not necessary for every ministry to separate Manchu and Chinese literature when hiring officials." However, the two examinations that were suspended here were also the Manchu’s Imperial Examination, not the translation examination.--[[User:Fu Shiyu|Fu Shiyu]] ([[User talk:Fu Shiyu|talk]]) 10:15, 30 October 2021 (UTC)--[[User:Fu Shiyu|Fu Shiyu]] ([[User talk:Fu Shiyu|talk]]) 10:15, 30 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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From this, it can be seen that the ''Yongzheng Huidian'' and the two ''Huidian Shili'' actually mistook the eighth year of Shunzhi for the starting point of the imperial translation examination. It is worth noting that in the ''Da Qing Huidian'' (Kangxi edition), there is no such entry as "the imperial translation examination", which indicates that the editor may have a re-understanding of it. According to the "Factual Record of Qing Dynasty: Actual Record Of Shizu", in the first month of the fourteenth year of Shunzhi, Shizu issued an edict demanding that, “from now on, ministries of Administration, Rites, and Military Affairs, admit a limited number of students and only in designated years, suspend the county examination and the metropolitan examination, and stop separating Manchu and Chinese literature when selecting officials.” However, the two examinations that were suspended here were also the Manchu’s Imperial Examination, not the translation examination.--[[User:Gao Mi|Gao Mi]] ([[User talk:Gao Mi|talk]]) 14:39, 30 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==高蜜 Gāo Mì 翻译学 女 202120081487==<br />
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（鄂尔泰等，1985：831-832）事实上，早在顺治朝以前，也曾有开科取士的情况，如天聪八年太宗皇太极命刚林、恩国泰等十六人“俱赐为举人”，崇德三年、六年又取中两榜举人，但上述三科同样并非翻译科。（铁保等，1968：780-781）毫无疑问，顺治时期的八旗科举和雍正元年初设的翻译科考之间有着渊源关系。<br />
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（E Ertai, etc., 1985:831-832）In fact, long before the reign of Emperor Shunzhi, there had been cases of selecting scholars through examinations. For example, in 1634, the eighth year of Tiancong, Hong Taiji issued a dree that granted sixteen candidates the title of Juren, including Gang Lin, En Guotai, etc. Again, in the third and the sixth years of Chongde respectively, Juren was selected through the county examination and the palace examination (Tie Bao, etc., 1968:780-781). There is no doubt that the imperial translation examination established in the first year of Emperor Yongzheng is related to the Eight Banners' Imperial Examination during Emperor Shunzhi's reign. --[[User:Gao Mi|Gao Mi]] ([[User talk:Gao Mi|talk]]) 14:43, 30 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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（E Ertai, etc., 1985:831-832）In fact, long before the reign of Emperor Shunzhi, there had enlisted talents through the old civil service examination system. For example, in 1634, the eighth year of Tiancong, Hong Taiji issued a dree that granted sixteen candidates the title of Juren, including Gang Lin, En Guotai, etc. Again, in the third and the sixth years of Chongde respectively, Juren was selected through the county examination and the palace examination (Tie Bao, etc., 1968:780-781). There is no doubt that the imperial translation examination established in the first year of Emperor Yongzheng is related to the Eight Banners' Imperial Examination during Emperor Shunzhi's reign. --[[User:Gong Boya|Gong Boya]] ([[User talk:Gong Boya|talk]]) 10:57, 3 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==宫博雅 Gōng Bóyǎ 俄语语言文学 女 202120081488==<br />
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首先，顺治朝的八旗科举与翻译科考一样，都有为旗人开设专科的倾向，只不过在前者中满洲和蒙古合为一榜，汉军与汉人合为另一榜，而翻译科考则容括了汉军。其次，就考试内容而言，顺治年间的翻译考试只针对识汉字者，翻译并非考试的全部内容，而翻译科考则主要考察应试者的翻译能力，以实现满、蒙、汉等多种语言融通。雍正朝以后，虽然历代统治者对翻译科考进行了这样或那样的调整与改革，但翻译科考的制度雏形却在顺治朝时已然形成。<br />
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First of all, the eight Banners imperial examination system of Shunzhi Dynasty had the same tendency to set up special subjects for Bannermen as the translation imperial examination system, but in the former, Manchuria and Mongolia were combined into one ranking list, and the Han banner and the Han people were combined into another ranking list, while the translation imperial examination included the Han banner. Secondly, as far as the test content is concerned, the translation imperial examination in Shunzhi period was only for those who knew Chinese characters, and translation was not the whole content of the test, while the translation imperial examination mainly examined the translation ability of those who took the test, so as to achieve mastery of manchu, Mongolian, Chinese and other languages. After the Yongzheng Dynasty, although successive rulers made some adjustments and reforms, the embryonic form of translation imperial examination system had been formed in the Shunzhi Dynasty. --[[User:Gong Boya|Gong Boya]] ([[User talk:Gong Boya|talk]]) 14:58, 30 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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First of all, the Eight Banners imperial examination and translation examination in Emperor Shunzhi’s reign tended to be exclusive to the Eight Banners. But in the former, Manchuria and Mongolia were included on one ranking list; the Han armies and the Han people were included on another ranking list, while in the later the Han armies were included. Secondly, in terms of test content, the translation imperial examination in Shunzhi’s reign was only for those who knew Chinese characters, and translation was not the whole content of the test, while the translation imperial examination mainly examined the translation ability of participants, so as to achieve communication of Manchu, Mongolian, Chinese and other languages. Since the Emperor Yongzheng’s reign, although successive emperors made some adjustments and reforms, the original form of translation imperial examination had been formed in Emperor Shunzhi’s reign. --[[User:He Qin|He Qin]] ([[User talk:He Qin|talk]]) 11:41, 3 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==何芩 Hé Qín 翻译学 女 202120081489==<br />
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可以认为，顺治朝时期的翻译考试为雍正帝创设翻译科考，以及日后各朝的修订与完善，打下了良好基础。<br />
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四、《钦定国子监志》对于翻译科缘起的补正<br />
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与《八旗通志》、《钦定八旗通志》和《国朝历科题名碑录初集》等不同，清代历史文献中，也有将顺治八年、十一年两榜举人与进士称作翻译举人与翻译进士的情况。<br />
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It is fair to say that the translation examination set up in Emperor Shunzhi’s reign has established a solid foundation for Emperor Yongzheng to include it into the Imperial Examination and for future revisions in the following dynasties.<br />
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4. ''The Imperial Academy Journal Dedicated to the Emperor''——supplement to the Translation Examination in the Imperial Examination<br />
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Different from ''General Annals of the Eight Banners'', ''General Annals of the Eight Banners Dedicated to the Emperor'' and ''National Collection of Stele Inscriptions'', some historical documents refer the Jin shi and Juren in 8th and 11th year of Emperor Shunzhi’s reign as Jinshi in translation and Juren in translation.--[[User:He Qin|He Qin]] ([[User talk:He Qin|talk]]) 11:42, 3 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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It can be considered that the translation examination in the Shunzhi period laid a good foundation for the establishment of the translation examination by Emperor Yongzheng, as well as the revision and improvement of the dynasties in the future.<br />
Ⅳ. Regarding the supplements and corrections of the origin of the translation department, "Imperial College Annal" was different from ''General Annals of the Eight Banners'', ''General Annals of the Eight Banners Dedicated to the Emperor'' and ''National Collection of Stele Inscriptions''. In the historical documents of the Qing Dynasty, there were cases in which provincial graduates and metropolitan graduates during the eighth year of Shunzhi and the eleventh year of Shunzhi were referred to as provincial graduates of translation and metropolitan graduates of translation.--[[User:Hu Shuqing|Hu Shuqing]] ([[User talk:Hu Shuqing|talk]]) 13:43, 5 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==胡舒情 Hú Shūqíng 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081490==<br />
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例如，在沈廷芳辑注的《馆选录》和朱汝珍辑注的《词林辑略》中，顺治年间识汉字且通过考试翻译中式举人和进士者，往往被称为翻译举人、翻译进士。如满洲正白旗人达哈塔于顺治九年壬辰科中进士，被称为翻译进士，并分派至内院学习，正白旗人玛尔汉，则被称作“顺治甲午翻译举人”。（邹长清，2011：357）然而，据前文关于顺治年间八旗科举考试的分析可知，这样的称呼与事实不符。<br />
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For example, in Shen Tingfang's ''Collections of Officials' Candidates'' and Zhu Ruzhen's ''Abstracts of Officials’ Names of Literati House'', in the Shunzhi period, those people, who knew Chinese characters and passed the test translation to be provincial graduates and metropolitan graduates, were usually called provincial graduates of translation and metropolitan graduates of translation. For instance, Dahata, a man from the White Banner of Manchuria, was a metropolitan graduate in the ninth year of Shunzhi, called a metropolitan graduate of translation and assigned to study at adytum. Malhan, the White Banner people, was called “the Shunzhi Jiawu provincial graduate of translation" (Zou Changqing, 2011: 357). However, according to the previous analysis of the Eight Banners imperial examinations during the Shunzhi period, such titles did not match the facts.--[[User:Hu Shuqing|Hu Shuqing]] ([[User talk:Hu Shuqing|talk]]) 13:36, 5 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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For example, during the reign of Emperor Shunzhi the Chinese learners who passed the translation examination and become provincal graduates or metropolitan graduates were called provincial graduates of translation and metropolitan graduates of translation according to the edition and annotation of Shen Tingfang's Collections of Officials and Zhu Ruzhen's Abstracts of Officials. So Dahata, a man from the White Banner of Manchuria, was a metropolitan graduate in the ninth year of the reign of Shunzhi. He was regarded as metropolitan graduate of translation and appointed to work at adytum. And Malhan,a White Banner, was viewed as "provincial graduate of translation in Shunzhi Jiawu period" (Zou Changqing, 2011: 357). However, according to the previous analysis of the Eight Banners imperial examinations during the Shunzhi period, such titles did not match the facts.--[[User:Huang Jinyun|Huang Jinyun]] ([[User talk:Huang Jinyun|talk]]) 00:46, 6 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==黄锦云 Huáng Jǐnyún 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081491==<br />
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顺治年间的八旗士子，无论习清语，还是习汉语，都是一体考试。只不过，对于识汉字者而言，考试中增加了翻译的环节（内容），但考试本身仍归属文科举范畴。然而，由于编纂者的误解或误记，致使讹错流传。<br />
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During the reign of Emperor Shunzhi, students from the eight banners took the same examination no matter what language they used. Though a translation part was added for Chinese learner, the examination itself belonged to liberal studies. Unfortunately, with the misunderstanding or negligence of the editors it was mistakenly recorded and spread to the descendants.--[[User:Huang Jinyun|Huang Jinyun]] ([[User talk:Huang Jinyun|talk]]) 14:43, 29 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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During the reign of Emperor Shunzhi, all the candidates from the eight banners took the same examination no matter what language they used. Though a translation part was added for Chinese learner, the examination itself belonged to liberal arts. Unfortunately, with the misunderstanding and misdescription of the editors, it was mistakenly recorded and passed on to the descendants.--[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 11:52, 1 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==黄逸妍 Huáng Yìyán 外国语言学及应用语言学 女 202120081492==<br />
如《国子监志》卷四八《金石三》中，便将顺治九年、十二年两科及第者俱称“翻译进士”：九年壬辰科，赐邹忠倚等三百九十七名及第出身题名碑，又赐翻译进士麻勒吉等五十名及第出身题名碑。以上五碑在大成门外之东南向。<br />
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In the 48th volume of the Record of Imperial College, candidates who have passed the imperial examination were called "Translation Scholars" in the 9th year and 12the year during the reign of emperor Shunzhi. It was recorded that in the 9th year during the governance of emperor Shunzhi, the names of South Zhongyi and other 397 successful candidates in the highest imperial examination and Majile and other 50 Translation Scholars are inscribed on the stone tablet. And the five carved stone tablets were located southeast to the Dacheng Doors.--[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 11:44, 1 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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In the 48th volume of the Record of Imperial College, candidates who have passed the imperial examination were called "Translation Scholars" in the 9th year and 12th year during the reign of Emperor Shunzhi. It was recorded that in the 9th year during the governance of emperor Shunzhi, the names of South Zhongyi and other 397 successful candidates in the highest imperial examination and Majile and other 50 Translation Scholars are inscribed on the stone tablet. And the five carved stone tablets were located southeast to the Dacheng Doors.--[[User:Huang Zhuliang|Huang Zhuliang]] ([[User talk:Huang Zhuliang|talk]]) 09:28, 7 November 2021 (UTC)Huang Zhuliang<br />
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==黄柱梁 Huáng Zhùliáng 国别 男 202120081493==<br />
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十二年乙未科，赐史大成等三百九十七名及第出身题名碑，又赐翻译进士图尔宸等五十名及第出身题名碑。以上五碑在大成门外之东南向。（梁国治，1986：527）《国子监志》由乾隆十三年进士梁国治奉敕纂辑，全书共六十二卷，分圣谕和御制诗文等，后者依类分载于各“志”。In the Imperial Competitive Examination in the 12th year of Emperor Shunzhi's ruling(lunar ca;endar the Year of Goat[Yi Wei], 397 members such as Shi Dacheng and 50 members of Translation Jinshi such as Tu Erchen were all given a great honor that their name will appear in the monument which only the names of Jinshi can be engraved. The above five monuments are southeast of Dacheng Gate. (Liang Guozhi, 1986:527) ''The Records of the Imperial Academy'' was compiled by Liang Guozhi under the order of Emperor Qian'long in the 13th year of his ruling. The whole book has 62 volumes, including holy edicts and emperor's-- poems. The latter is contained in various "records" according to categories.--[[User:Huang Zhuliang|Huang Zhuliang]] ([[User talk:Huang Zhuliang|talk]]) 07:52, 29 October 2021 (UTC)Huang Zhuliang<br />
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In the Imperial Competitive Examination in the 12th year of Emperor Shunzhi's ruling(lunar ca;endar the Year of Goat[Yi Wei], 397 members such as Shi Dacheng and 50 members of Translation Jinshi such as Tu Erchen were all given the birth inscription Jinshi monument by the emperor. The whole book has 62 volumes, including holy edicts and emperor's-- poems. The latter is contained in various "records" according to categories. The above five monuments are southeast of Dacheng Gate. (Liang Guozhi, 1986:527) ''The Records of the Imperial Academy'' was compiled by Liang Guozhi under the order of Emperor Qian'long in the 13th year of his ruling. The whole book has 62 volumes, including holy edicts and emperor's articles and poems. The latter is contained in various "records" according to categories.--[[User:Jin Xiaotong|Jin Xiaotong]] ([[User talk:Jin Xiaotong|talk]]) 14:46, 2 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==金晓童 Jīn Xiǎotóng 202120081494==<br />
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按照上述记载，麻勒吉、图尔宸等都被称作翻译进士，由皇帝赐及第出身题名碑。顺治九年，朝廷决定以满、汉分科的形式开科取士，麻勒吉于同年壬辰科考取会试第一，殿试一甲第一，一甲其余二人为折库纳与巴海，俱赐进士及第出身。然而，尽管麻勒吉后来授封教习庶吉士，但其本人并非翻译进士，这一点从《题名碑录》、《进士题名碑录》以及《八旗通志》等文献中均可得到应证。<br />
According to the above records, Maleji, Turchen etc,their were all called translator Jinshi(the successful candidates in the highest imperial examinations) and were given the birth inscription Jinshi monument by the emperor.In the 9th year of emperor Shunzhi, the imperial court decided to establish a division of Manchu and Han disciples to select scholars. In the same year, Maleji won the first place in the general examination,and the first in the imperial examination, the other two people were Zhekuna and Bahai, both of whom were given the birth inscription of Jinshi.However, although Maleji later was conferred the title of Hanlin Bachelor, he himself was not a translator Jinshi, which can be proved by many documents such as Block-printed copy of the inscribing on the stone,Block-printed copy of the inscribing of Jinshi on the stone, General Annals of Eight Banners.--[[User:Jin Xiaotong|Jin Xiaotong]] ([[User talk:Jin Xiaotong|talk]]) 13:52, 28 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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According to the above records, Maleji, Turchen etc,their were all called translator Jinshi(the successful candidates in the highest imperial examinations) and were given the birth inscription Jinshi monument by the emperor.In the 9th year of emperor Shunzhi, the imperial court decided to establish a division of Manchu and Han disciples to select scholars. In the same year, Maleji won the first place in the general examination,and the first in the imperial examination, the other two people were Zhekuna and Bahai, both of whom were given the birth inscription of Jinshi.However, although Maleji later was conferred the title of Hanlin Bachelor, he himself was not a translator Jinshi, which can be proved by many documents such as ''Block-printed copy of the inscribing on the stone'',''Block-printed copy of the inscribing of Jinshi on the stone'', ''General Annals of Eight Banners''.<br />
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==邝''Italic text''艳丽 Kuàng Yànl 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081495==<br />
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《国子监志》于乾隆四十三年奉敕纂辑，并被收入《四库全书》之后，又于道光年间经监臣李宗昉等奏请，开馆增辑刊印。道光十四年，文庆、李宗昉等完成增辑，共八十二卷，取名《钦定国子监志》。然而，与梁国治版《国子监志》不同，《钦定国子监志》中，并没有将麻勒吉和图尔宸等人称作翻译进士，这一点也许是文庆、李宗昉等编纂者基于历史事实而做出的修正<br />
''The Record of the Imperial Academy'' was edited in the 43th year of Qianlong, then was added edition and published for the petition of Warden Li Zongfang in the reign of Daoguang after it was included in the Si Ku Quan Shu. In the 14th year of Daoguang, the edition of ''The Record of the Imperial Academy'' was finished by Wenqing and Li Zongfang, which had 82 chapters in all and was named ''The Record of Imperial Academy Made by Imperial Order''. However, what was different from ''The Record of the Imperial Academy'' by Laing Guozhi is that Ma Leji and Tu Erchen and others were not called Tien Si of Translation in ''The Record of the Imperial Academy Made By Imperial Order'', which may be the correction made by such editors as Wen Qing and Li Zongfang on the basis of historical facts.--[[User:Kuang Yanli|Kuang Yanli]] ([[User talk:Kuang Yanli|talk]]) 00:52, 3 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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The Record of the Imperial Academy was edited in the 43th year during the period of Qianlong, then was added edition and published for the petition of Warden Li Zongfang in the Reign of Daoguang after it was included in the Si Ku Quan Shu. In the 14th year during the period of Daoguang, the edition of The Record of the Imperial Academy, which had 82 chapters in all and was named The Record of Imperial Academy Made by Imperial Order, was finished by Wenqing and Li Zongfang. However, what was different from The Record of the Imperial Academy by Laing Guozhi is that Ma Leji and Turchen and others were not called Tien Si of Translation in The Record of the Imperial Academy Made By Imperial Order, which may be the correction made by such editors as Wen Qing and Li Zongfang on the basis of historical facts.--[[User:Li Aixuan|Li Aixuan]] ([[User talk:Li Aixuan|talk]]) 11:24, 3 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==李爱璇 Lǐ Àixuán 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081496==<br />
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与此同时，该书在乾隆四年翻译进士题名碑之后，也增加“按语”如下，可作为考证麻勒吉、图尔宸等人翻译进士身份的重要线索：翻译乡会试，自雍正元年，定于子、午、卯、酉年二月乡试，辰、戌、丑、未年八月会试。嗣后或举或停，或止准乡试而停会试。<br />
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At the same time, after the translation of the inscription of scholars monument in the fourth year during the period of Qianlong, the book also was added following "notes", which can be used as an important clue to verify the identity of translation scholars such as Ma Leji and Turchen: since the first year during the period of Yongzheng, provincial examination of translation has been scheduled in February of Zi, Wu, Mao and You year, and metropolitan examination of translation has been held scheduled in August of Chen, Xu, Chou and Wei year. Hereafter, the examination was either held or cancered, or the provincial examination held and metropolitan examination cancered.--[[User:Li Aixuan|Li Aixuan]] ([[User talk:Li Aixuan|talk]]) 11:15, 3 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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At the same time, after the inscription of scholars was translated in the fourth year of the reign Emperor Qianlong, and notes were added to the book, which could be used as important textual researches to identify translation scholars such as Maleji and Tuerchen: since the first year during the reign of Emperor Yongzheng, provincial examination of translation has been scheduled in February of Zi, Wu, Mao and You year, and metropolitan examination has been held scheduled in August of Chen, Xu, Chou and Wei year. After then, the examination was held or canceled from time to time. Sometimes the provincial examination was held, but metropolitan examination was canceled.--[[User:Li Ruiyang|Li Ruiyang]] ([[User talk:Li Ruiyang|talk]]) 12:49, 3 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==李瑞洋 Lǐ Ruìyáng 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081497==<br />
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至乾隆四年八月，复举行会试。题名之有碑刻，自是科始。二十二年，仍议停止会试。<br />
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By August in the fourth year of the reign of Emperor Qianlong, the provincial examination had been held. Since the beginning of imperial examination, names of successful candidates would be inscribed. However, in the twenty-second year, the court still decided to stop it after discussion.--[[User:Li Ruiyang|Li Ruiyang]] ([[User talk:Li Ruiyang|talk]]) 10:21, 29 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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By August in the fourth year of Emperor Qianlong's reign, the provincial examination had been resumed. Since the beginning of imperial examination, names of successful candidates would be inscribed on steles. However, in the twenty-second year, once again, the court decided to stop it after discussion.--[[User:Li Shan|Li Shan]] ([[User talk:Li Shan|talk]]) 08:37, 6 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==李姗 Lǐ Shān 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081498==<br />
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四十四年，照旧举行，并奏准赐进士出身。停其殿试。又奏准停止建立碑记。<br />
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In the 44th year of Emperor Qianlong's reign, the metropolitan examination was resumed. And those who passed the examination were bestowed as Chin-Shih (excellent candidates in the highest imperial examinations). And then the final imperial examination presided over by the emperor was suspended. Later, proposal was approved not to keep inscriptional record.--[[User:Li Shan|Li Shan]] ([[User talk:Li Shan|talk]]) 02:47, 28 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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In the 44th year of Emperor Qianlong's reign, the metropolitan examination was resumed. And those who passed the examination were bestowed as Chin-Shih (successful candidates in the highest imperial examinations). But the final imperial examination presided over by the emperor was suspended. The emperor gave orders to stop the construcion of inscriptions.--[[User:Li Shuang|Li Shuang]] ([[User talk:Li Shuang|talk]]) 09:46, 3 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==李双 Lǐ Shuāng 翻译学 女 202120081499==<br />
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今翻译进士题名，故仅止四碑。详识于此。（文庆、李宗昉等，2000：1106）根上文所载，至少可以明确以下四点：首先，翻译乡会试始于雍正年间。<br />
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As a result, there were only four steles that record successful candidates in the highest imperial examinations of translation. (Wen qin, Li Zongfang etc. 2000:1106) According to the previous records, at least the following four points can be made clear: First of all, the translation provincial and metropolitan examinations began in the reign of Yongzheng.--[[User:Li Shuang|Li Shuang]] ([[User talk:Li Shuang|talk]]) 02:35, 3 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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As a result, there were only four steles that recorded successful candidates in the highest imperial examinations of translation. (Wen qin, Li Zongfang etc. 2000:1106) According to the previous records, at least the following four points can be made clear: First of all, the translation provincial and metropolitan examinations began in the reign of Emperor Yongzheng.--[[User:Li Wenxuan|Li Wenxuan]] ([[User talk:Li Wenxuan|talk]]) 11:09, 4 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==李文璇 Lǐ Wénxuán 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081500==<br />
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雍正朝期间，原定举办四科翻译乡试，即四年（午）、七年（酉）、十年（子）、十三年（卯），四科翻译会试，即二年（辰）、五年（未）、八年（戌）、十一年（丑），但其间时停时举，或仅举办翻译乡试而停办翻译会试，并不规律。其次，乾隆四年八年办理乙未科时，回复办理翻译会试，中式者赐进士出身，有碑刻。再次，乾隆二十二年，停办翻译会试，四十四年恢复，中式者仍赐进士出身。<br />
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During the reign of Yongzheng, the government conducted four subjects of translation provincial examination, including 1726, 1729, 1732, 1735, and four subjects of translation metropolitan examination, including 1724, 1727, 1730, 1733. But during this period, some examination had been canceled and some held, or the government only held the provincial examination and canceled the metropolitan examination, which was not order. Next, in 1739 and 1743, it was going to hold the second examination, however, the government decided to hold the translation metropolitan examination, and the winner can get the title of Jinshi, which also had the inscriptions recorded. Then, in 1757, the translation metropolitan examination had been suspended, and recovered in 1779, the winner also can get the title of Jinshi. --[[User:Li Wenxuan|Li Wenxuan]] ([[User talk:Li Wenxuan|talk]]) 01:37, 31 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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During the reign of Yongzheng, the government conducted four translation subjects as provincial examination, including 1726, 1729, 1732, 1735, and four translation subjects as metropolitan examination, including 1724, 1727, 1730, 1733. But during this period, some examination had been canceled and some held, or the government only held the provincial examination and canceled the metropolitan examination, which was irregular.Besides, in 1739 and 1743, it was going to hold the second examination, however, the government decided to hold the translation metropolitan examination, and the winner can get the title of Jinshi, which also had the inscriptions recorded. Then, in 1757, the translation metropolitan examination had been suspended, and recovered in 1779, the winner also can get the title of Jinshi.--[[User:Li Wen|Li Wen]] ([[User talk:Li Wen|talk]]) 09:06, 1 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==李雯 Lǐ Wén 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081501==<br />
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最后，翻译殿试一直处于停办状态。因而，翻译进士题名碑仅有四科，分别是乾隆四年己未科、十年乙丑科、十三年戊辰科，以及十六年辛未科。如果《钦定国子监志》中的上述记载属实，则可知《国子监志》中将麻勒吉、图尔宸等称作翻译进士，并由此认定顺治八年即为翻译科之起始年的观点并不可取。<br />
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Finally, the translation test has been suspended. As a result, there are only four in the history of translation test, which are jiwei in the fourth year of qianlong, Yichou in the tenth year, Wuchen in the thirteenth year, and Xinwei in the sixteenth year. If the records in The Imperial Records are true, it can be seen that maleji and Tulchen were called talents of translation in the Imperial Records, and the views in the eighth year of Shunzhi( the beginning year of translation )is not desirable.--[[User:Li Wen|Li Wen]] ([[User talk:Li Wen|talk]]) 09:02, 1 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Finally, the translation temple has been suspended. As a result, there are only four branches on the translated Jinshi inscription tablets, which are jiwei in the fourth year of qianlong, Yichou in the tenth year, Wuchen in the thirteenth year, and Xinwei in the sixteenth year. If the above records in The Imperial Imperial Records are true, it can be seen that maleji and Tulchen were called jinshi of translation in the Imperial Imperial Records, and the view that the eighth year of Shunzhi was the beginning year of translation is not desirable.--[[User:Li Xinxing|Li Xinxing]] ([[User talk:Li Xinxing|talk]]) 12:21, 3 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==李新星 Lǐ Xīnxīng 亚非语言文学 女 202120081503==<br />
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事实上，《国子监志》不仅误记了顺治九年、十二年两榜进士（满洲、蒙古）题名碑，而且在乾隆年间的两科翻译进士题名碑问题上，也发生了讹错与遗漏。具体而言便是，《国子监志》中仅记载了两碑乾隆年间的翻译进士，分别是乾隆十三年的戊辰科和十六年的辛未科，颁赐对象分别是武进、武立等四十二人。至于乾隆四年己未科和十年乙丑科，其中未见有记录，此事令《国子监志》的可信度受损。（梁国治，1986：530）<br />
As a matter of fact, in the Annals of the Imperial College, there are not only errors in the inscription tablets of the ninth and twelfth year of Shunzhi, but also errors and omissions in the translation of the inscription tablets of the jinshi in the qianlong period. Specifically, in the Annals of imperial College, there are only two steles of translated Jinshi during the Reign of Emperor Qianlong, namely wuchenke in the thirteenth year of Emperor Qianlong and Xinweike in the sixteenth year of Emperor Qianlong, which were awarded to 42 people, including Wu Jin and Wu Li. As for the jiwei section in the fourth year and yichou Section in the tenth year of the Reign of Emperor Qianlong, there were no records, which damaged the credibility of the Annals of the Imperial Academy. (Liang Guozhi, 1986:530)--[[User:Li Xinxing|Li Xinxing]] ([[User talk:Li Xinxing|talk]]) 12:19, 3 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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In fact, in the ''Annals of the Imperial College'',it misremembered two-listed inscribed (Manchuria, Mongolia) scholars in Shunji nine years and twelve years , but also in Qianlong years, it had also mistakes and omissions in the two sections of translation scholars inscription tablet problem. Specifically, the ''Annals of the Imperial College'' only records the two monuments Qianlong years of translation, respectively, Qianlong 13 years of Thechenke and 16 years of Xin Weike, awarded to the object of Wujin, Wu Li and other forty-two people. As for Qianlong's four-year absence and ten-year B-Ugly Section, which has not been recorded, the credibility of the ''Annals of the Imperial College'' has been undermined. (Liang Guozhi, 1986:530)--[[User:Li Yi|Li Yi]] ([[User talk:Li Yi|talk]]) 12:46, 3 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==李怡 Lǐ Yí 法语语言文学 女 202120081504==<br />
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结语：翻译科的创设始于雍正年间，而非顺治年间，这一点毋庸置疑。顺治时期，八旗科举考试中虽然已有了翻译考试的内容，但此时的翻译考试并非独立建制，而是隶属于八旗文科举，为后者考试中的一个环节，或者说为其考试内容的一个部分。<br />
Conclusion: There is no doubt that the establishment of translation department began in the Qing Yongzheng, not in the Qing Shunzhi. During the Shunzhi period, there was a content of translation examination in the eight Banners imperial examination, but the translation examination was not an independent institution, but a part of the eight banners liberal arts examination, or a part of the examination content.<br />
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Conclusion: There is no doubt that the establishment of translation subject began in the reign of Yongzheng rather than Shunzhi. During the Shunzhi period, although there was translation exercises in examination in the eight Banners imperial examination, it was not an independent subject but a part of the eight banners liberal arts examination, or a part of the examination content.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 01:32, 30 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==刘沛婷 Liú Pèitíng 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081505==<br />
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雍正年间，世宗为了整饬八旗“废弛陋习”，奖励清语学习，因而创制翻译科，将其视作方法与工具，鼓舞八旗满洲与蒙古奋勉向学，以图进取。翻译科的创设带有明确、强烈的政治、文化意涵，是为了维护“国语骑射”的满洲根本，以及满族文化特征。这么做，一方面是为了维护满洲祖制，避免满族固有文化被汉族同化；另一方面则是想通过传承自身文化，实现全国政权的长远统治。<br />
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During the reign of Emperor Yongzheng, emperor Shizong established the subject of Translation as a means and tool to encourage the Eight Banners in Manchuria and Mongolia to learn Chinese and make progress with the hope to rectify the "bad habits" of the eight banners and reward Chinese learning. The establishment of the Translation subject has clear and strong political and cultural implications, that is, to maintain the manchu roots of "mandarin horsemanship" and the characteristics of Manchu culture. This act, on the one hand, is to maintain the manchu ancestor system and avoid the inherent culture of Manchu being assimilated by the ethnic Han. On the other hand, it aims to realize the long-term rule of the national regime through inheriting their own culture.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 01:09, 30 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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During the reign of Emperor Yongzheng, the Emperor established the subject of translation in order to rectify outmoded conventions and reward Chinese learning. It was regarded as a means and tool to encourage the Eight Banners in Manchuria and Mongolia to learn Chinese in an effort to forge ahead. The establishment of the translation subject had clear and strong political and cultural implications, that is, to maintain the manchu roots of "National language and ride" and the characteristics of Manchu culture. On the one hand, this practice was to maintain the manchu ancestor system and avoid the inherent culture of Manchu being assimilated by the ethnic Han. On the other hand, it aimed to realize the long-term rule of the national regime through inheriting their own culture.--[[User:Liu Shengnan|Liu Shengnan]] ([[User talk:Liu Shengnan|talk]]) 11:28, 3 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==刘胜楠 Liú Shèngnán 翻译学 女 202120081506==<br />
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毫无疑问，作为清代八旗科举制度的重要成分，翻译科的创设自有其积极意义，它不仅使旗人获得了进身机会，缓解了八旗生计的困难，而且也为朝廷遴选了大量翻译专才，促进了国家治理。然而，翻译科自身也有缺陷与不足，这一点主要体现在“首崇满洲”的基本原则上，它是维护满洲特权与旗人利益的集中体现，对于我们研究清代的政治、文化发展与变化，以及有清一代的民族关系与民族政策等，都具有重要的学术价值与社会意义。<br />
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There was no doubt that as an important component of the imperial examination system of the Eight Banners in Qing Dynasty, the establishment of the translation department had its own positive significance. It not only provided opportunities for the people of the Eight Banners and alleviated the difficulties of making a living, but also selected a large number of translation professionals for the imperial court and promoted national governance. However, the translation department also had its own defects and deficiencies, which was mainly reflected in the basic principle of "first advocating Manchuria". It was a concentrated embodiment of safeguarding Manchuria's privileges and Eight Banners people's interests. It had important academic value and social significance for us to study the political and cultural development and changes of Qing Dynasty, as well as the ethnic relations and ethnic policies of Qing Dynasty.--[[User:Liu Shengnan|Liu Shengnan]] ([[User talk:Liu Shengnan|talk]]) 13:52, 30 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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There is no doubt that as an important component of the imperial examination system of the Eight Banners in the Qing Dynasty, the creation of the translation subject has its own positive significance. It not only provided promotion opportunities for the people of the Eight banners and alleviated the difficulty of making a living, but also selected a large number of translation professionals for the imperial court and promoted national managemant. However, the translation subject also has its own defects and deficiencies, which is mainly reflected in the basic principle of “first advocate Manchuria”. It is a concentrated embodiment of safeguarding Manchuria's privileges and the Eight Banners people's interests.Which has important academic value and social significance for us to study the political and cultural development and changes of the Qing Dynasty, as well as the ethnic relations and ethnic policies of the Qing Dynasty. --[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 14:11, 30 October 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei<br />
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==刘薇 Liú Wēi 国别 女 202120081507==<br />
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《金瓶梅》满文翻译考释<br />
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摘要：淫词小说的禁毁系清代长期的文化政策。然而，社会历史阶段不同，政府对该政策的推进与执行也不尽同。<br />
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A textual criticism research on the Manchu translation of ''The Golden Lotus''<br />
Abstract: The prohibition and damage of pornographic novels was due to the long-term cultural policies of the Qing Dynasty. However, on account of different social and historical periods, the government's promotion and implementation of this policy are also different. --[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 02:59, 30 October 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei<br />
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A Textual Criticism Research on the Manchu Translation of ''The Golden Lotus''<br />
Abstract: Banning and destroying pornographic novels was a long-term cultural policy in the Qing Dynasty. However, the government's promotion and implementation of this policy were quite different in different social and historical periods.--[[User:Liu Xiao|Liu Xiao]] ([[User talk:Liu Xiao|talk]]) 07:49, 30 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==刘晓 Liú Xiǎo 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081508==<br />
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清初，统治者的政策重心在于武力征伐与国家统一，文禁的重点在于政治倾向显著的作品。因而，为了笼络人心，政府对汉族小说及其翻译的偏见并不显著，对《金瓶梅》等淫词类小说的禁毁与惩处也影响较小。康熙中期以后，政府强化了思想控制，加强了小说翻译与小说创作的管制，《金瓶梅》的审查亦在其中。<br />
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In the early Qing Dynasty, the policies enacted by the emperor focused on military expeditions and national unification, that of literary persecution focusing on works with prominent political tendencies. Therefore, in order to win people's support, the government's prejudice against Chinese novels and their translation was not significant, and little influence had been brought by the prohibition and punishment of erotic novels such as the '' Golden Lotus''. After the middle period of emperor Kangxi's reign, the government strengthened the control of thought, as well as the control of novel translation and novel creation, including the review of the ''Golden Lotus''.--[[User:Liu Xiao|Liu Xiao]] ([[User talk:Liu Xiao|talk]]) 13:17, 28 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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In the early Qing Dynasty, the rulers' policy focused on military expedition and national unity, and the cultural prohibition focused on works with significant political tendency. Therefore, in order to win the hearts of the people, the government's prejudice against Chinese novels and their translation was not significant, and little influence had been brought by the prohibition and punishment of erotic novels such as the '' Golden Lotus''. . After the middle period of Kangxi, the government strengthened the ideological control, as well as the control of novel translation and novel creation, including the review of the ''Golden Lotus''.--[[User:Liu Yue|Liu Yue]] ([[User talk:Liu Yue|talk]]) 00:42, 30 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==刘越 Liú Yuè 亚非语言文学 女 202120081509==<br />
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《金瓶梅》的翻译有别于“四书”、“五经”，它既不能塑造道德，又不能规范秩序，其翻译与刊刻遭到限制在所难免。然而，《金瓶梅》译本最终得以成书，与统治者的支持或默认不无关联。<br />
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关键词：《金瓶梅》；满文翻译；和素；文化政策；审查<br />
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The translation of Golden Lotus is different from the "Four Books" and "Five Classics". It can neither shape morality nor regulate order. It is inevitable that its translation and publication will be restricted. However, it is related to the support or acquiescence of the rulers that the translation of Golden Lotus was finally completed. <br />
Key words: Golden Lotus; Manchu translation; He Su; Cultural policy; examination--[[User:Liu Yue|Liu Yue]] ([[User talk:Liu Yue|talk]]) 00:35, 30 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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The translation of Golden Lotus was different from The Four Books and Five Classics. It could neither contribute in instilling morals nor keeping order, and thus the restriction on its translation and publication were inevitable. However, the completion of the translation of Golden Lotus is related to the support or acquiescence of the rulers. <br />
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Keywords: Golden Lotus; Manchu translation; He Su; cultural policy; censorship--[[User:Liu Yunxin|Liu Yunxin]] ([[User talk:Liu Yunxin|talk]]) 12:40, 7 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==刘运心 Liú Yùnxīn 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081510==<br />
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清代的官方文献中，并未明确出现“文化政策”字样，而是代之以“文教”、“教化”等概念，但这并不能说明清代的文化建设缺乏既定的政策理念与行为准则。恰恰相反，自顺治十年起，清廷即制订了“崇儒重道”的文化政策，将中国传统的文化概念融入政治实践，并在嗣后各朝逐渐形成“兴文教”、“崇经术”的治国方针。如康熙九年提出的“圣训十六条”、乾隆年间修纂的《四库全书》等，都是“崇儒重道”的重要实践。<br />
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In the official documents, the exact term “cultural policy” did not appear, instead, the terms of “culture and education” and “moral teaching” were used. This finding did not mean that the cultural development of Qing dynasty lacked of established policy ideas or code of conduct. On the contrary, since the tenth year of the reign of Shunzhi, the cultural policy of “advocating Confucianism and adhering to Confucian doctrine” which incorporated the traditional Chinese cultural concepts into political practices has been established by Qing government. Later on, the ruling principle of “promoting the development of culture and education” and “advocating Confucianism” gradually came into being under the administrations of the following emperors. For instance, The Sixteen Rules by the Emperor issued in the ninth year of Kangxi's reign and The Siku Quanshu edited in Qianlong's age were all important practices of “advocating Confucianism and adhering to Confucian doctrine”.--[[User:Liu Yunxin|Liu Yunxin]] ([[User talk:Liu Yunxin|talk]]) 05:07, 2 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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The words "cultural policy" did not explicitly appear in official documents of the Qing dynasty, but were replaced by concepts such as "culture and education' and 'moral teaching". This does not mean that there was a lack of established policy concepts and codes of conduct in cultural construction. On the contrary, since the tenth year of the reign of Shunzhi, the Qing court formulated a cultural policy of "advocating Confucianism and adhering to Confucian doctrine", incorporating traditional Chinese cultural concepts into political practice, and gradually forming the policy of 'promoting culture and education' and 'revering scripture and art' in subsequent dynasties. For instance, in the ninth year of the Kangxi reign，"The Sixteen Rules by the Emperor“ and the compilation of the ''Siku Quanshu'' during the Qianlong reign were all important practice of "advocating Confucianism and adhering to Confucian doctrine". --[[User:Luo Anyi|Luo Anyi]] ([[User talk:Luo Anyi|talk]]) 10:45, 5 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==罗安怡 Luó Ānyí 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081511==<br />
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在文化政策的范畴中，“崇儒重道”有其衍生物，如科举取士、博学鸿词等，而访求、编纂书籍，以及翻译汉文典籍等也是其重要内容。清代的汉籍（书）翻译既面对“四书”、“五经”等儒学典籍，也面对《金瓶梅》、《西厢记》等通俗作品。清代的汉籍（书）翻译系清代政治、文化事业的重要组成部分。<br />
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In the realm of cultural policy, the principle of “Reverence to Confucianism” had its derivatives, for instance, the imperial examination and the Boxue hongci section. The collection and compilation of books, as well as the translation of Chinese classics, were also important parts of cultural policies. The translation of Han books in the Qing dynasty dealt with both Confucian texts, such as ''the Four Books'' and ''the Five Classics'', and popular works, such as ''The Golden Lotus'' and ''The Western Chamber''. Thus the translation of Han books was an important part of the political and cultural undertakings of the Qing dynasty. --[[User:Luo Anyi|Luo Anyi]] ([[User talk:Luo Anyi|talk]]) 10:47, 5 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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In the field of cultural policies，there are some things derived from the principle of “Reverence to Confucianism”，like imperial examination ， the Boxue hongci section and so on，while the collection and compilation of books, as well as the translation of Chinese classics, were also important parts of cultural policies. The translation of Han books in the Qing dynasty not only include the Confucian texts，such as ''the Four Books'' and ''the Five Classics''，but also involve those secular works such as 'The Golden Lotus'' and ''The Western Chamber'' and so on.The translation of the Han books in Qing dynasty is an important part to consist the political and cultural undertakings of Qing dynasty.--[[User:Luo Xi|Luo Xi]] ([[User talk:Luo Xi|talk]]) 09:08, 10 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==罗曦 Luó Xī 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081512==<br />
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从背景上看，汉籍（书）的翻译一方面得益于统治者反复提倡“国语骑射”的基本国策，以维护满洲根本于不坠，另一方面则得益于文化整合的需要，即，统治者通过翻译学习汉族文化，汲取汉人的治国理政经验，建构政权稳定和国家长治久安所需的“治统”与“道统”。通过引导与规范汉籍（书）的翻译，统治者不仅使满、汉文化互通有无，阐明法度，维护正统，端正满洲的人心风俗，而且以译书作为临政规范，撷取帝王为政之道，完善国家治理理念与模式。<br />
From the perspective of its background，the translation of the books of Han dynasty，from the one hand，was benefited from the basic recurrent national policy of “National language and ride” to prevent Manchu from falling，from the other hand，it was benefited from the necessity of culture unification，that is to say，the ruler learns Han’s culture，absorbs Han’s ruling experience and build the “ruling rule” and “moral rule” in need for the stabilization of the policy and safety from translation.Through leading and controlling the translation of Han books，the ruler not only connects Man and Han ’s culture，protects the royalty，corrects the customs of Man，but also perfects the national ruling modes by learning the ruling methods of the ruler under the control of translation.--[[User:Luo Xi|Luo Xi]] ([[User talk:Luo Xi|talk]]) 12:22, 9 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==马新 Mǎ Xīn 外国语言学及应用语言学 女 202120081513==<br />
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藉由汉籍（书）的翻译，统治者既能成功了解汉族文化，又能以思想为治术，建构政权的合法性，实现满洲政权向中原政权的历史转化，并在接触和学习汉文化中获得“统制”汉民的重要经验，实现“治统”与“道统”的和谐统一，最大限度地保障统治集团的既得利益。一、《金瓶梅》的创作题材与历史地位。中国古典小说中，有“四大奇书”之称。<br />
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Through translating the classical books from Han people, the ruler of Qing government could not only understand their culture successfully, but also validate the legitimacy of Manchu regime via the thoughts of governance arts in order to realize the historical transformation from Manchu regime into the Central Plains regimes, gain important experience to "rule" Han people in the process of contacting and learning from their culture, achieve the harmonious uniformity between "Zhi Tong" (rule the country by traced to the same origin) and "Dao Tong" (rule the country by Confucianism) as well as safeguard the vested interest in Manchu ruling clique to the greatest extent. 1. the creative theme and historical status of ''The Golden Lotus''. In Chinese classical novels, it was known as "the Four Marvelous Books".<br />
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Through the translation of the classical books in Han (the Central Plains) language, the rulers in Qing Dynasty could not only gain deep insight into their culture, but also validate the legitimacy of the Manchu regime via taking advantage of thoughts to govern the country, so as to realize the historical transition from Manchu regime to the Central Plains regime, to obtain important experience of "ruling" Han (Central Plains) people, to achieve the harmonious unity of "Zhi Tong" (to rule the country by tough measures) and "Dao Tong" (to govern the country by ethics and Confucianism), as well as to proetct the vested interest of ruling regime to the highest degree. 1. The Creative Themes and Historical Status of ''The Golden Lotus''. In Chinese classical novels, there are the so-called "Four Marvelous Books".--[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 14:59, 2 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==毛雅文 Máo Yǎwén 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081514==<br />
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所谓“四大奇书”，按照李渔、周永保等人的说法，是指《金瓶梅》、《三国演义》、《水浒传》、《西游记》等四部明代小说作品，这些作品皆成书于明代年间，代表的是中国古典小说的四种不同形态，即历史类、传奇类、神魔类，以及世情类。作为“四大奇书”之首，《金瓶梅》究竟成书于何时，学界尚有不同说法。有人认为是明代嘉靖年间，如屠本畯的《山林经济籍》，也有人认为是万历年间，如郑振铎的《谈金瓶梅词话》、车锡伦的《<金瓶梅词话>中的宣卷》，以及黄霖的《<金瓶梅>漫话》等。<br />
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According to scholars like Li Yu and Zhou Yongbao, the so-called "Four Marvelous Books" refer to the four novels in Ming Dynasty, including ''The Golden Lotus'', ''The Romance of the Three Kingdoms'', ''Outlaws of the Marsh'', and ''Journey to the West''. These works were finished in Ming Dynasty and represent the four different forms of Chinese classical novels, namely, the historical, the legendary, the supernatural evil-spirit, and the realistic (or human-feelings). However, there are still various views in the academic circle on the completing time of ''The Golden Lotus'' which has been considered as the first of the "Four Marvelous Books". Some think that it was written in Ming Dynasty under the reign of Emperor Jiajing when Tu Benjun's ''Guide to Live in Seclusion'', for example, was also finished; while others believe that it was the period during the reign of Emperor Wanli that witnessed the completion of ''The Golden Lotus'', with the subsequent advent of ''Notes and Comments on The Golden Lotus'' created by Zheng Zhenduo, ''Xuan Juan (Precious Scroll for Propaganda) in Notes and Comments on The Golden Lotus'' by Che Xilun, as well as ''Informal Discussion on The Golden Lotus'' by Huang Lin, and etc. --[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 23:58, 31 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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According to scholars like Li Yu and Zhou Yongbao, the so-called "Four Marvelous Books" refer to the four novels in Ming Dynasty, including ''The Golden Lotus'', ''The Romance of the Three Kingdoms'', ''Outlaws of the Marsh'', and ''Journey to the West''. These works were finished in Ming Dynasty and represented the four different forms of Chinese classical novels, namely, the historical, the legendary, the supernatural evil-spirit, and the realistic (or human-feelings). However, there are still various views in the academic circle on the completing time of ''The Golden Lotus'' which has been considered as the first of the "Four Marvelous Books". Some think that it was written in Ming Dynasty under the reign of Emperor Jiajing when Tu Benjun's ''Guide to Live in Seclusion'', for example, was also finished; while others believe that it was the period during the reign of Emperor Wanli that witnessed the completion of ''The Golden Lotus'', with the subsequent advent of ''Notes and Comments on The Golden Lotus'' created by Zheng Zhenduo, ''Xuan Juan (Precious Scroll for Propaganda) in Notes and Comments on The Golden Lotus'' by Che Xilun, as well as ''Informal Discussion on The Golden Lotus'' by Huang Lin, and etc.--[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 15:50, 2 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==毛优 Máo Yōu 俄语语言文学 女 202120081515==<br />
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无论是何种观点，都不可否认《金瓶梅》在中国古典小说中的历史地位。《金瓶梅》无疑是中国古典小说发展史上的经典之作，不仅在创作题材上突破了传统模式，将叙述的焦点从豪杰和妖魔转移至市井人物，人物塑造上也出现了从单色调向多色调、平面化向立体化的转变。同时，创作主旨上也有重要突破，即不再专注于歌颂理想，而是通过写尽世情之恶、生活之丑，暴露社会的黑暗与不公，现实主义特征极其明显。<br />
Whatever the viewpoint, there is no denying the historical status of The Golden Lotus in classical Chinese fiction. The Golden Lotus is undoubtedly a classic in the history of classical Chinese fiction, not only in terms of its subject matter, which broke away from the traditional model, shifting the focus of the narrative from the heroes and demons to the characters in the marketplace, but also in terms of characterization, which changed from monochromatic to multi-colored and from flat to three-dimensional. At the same time, there is also an important breakthrough in the creative theme, that is, it no longer focuses on glorifying ideals, but exposes the darkness and injustice of society by writing about the evils of the world and the ugliness of life, and the characteristics of realism are extremely obvious.--[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 15:46, 2 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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From every viewpoint, in classical Chinese fictions, the historical status of The Golden Lotus is apodeictic, not only in terms of its subject matter, which broke the traditional model, shifting the focus of the narrative from the heroes and demons to the common people, but also in terms of characterization, which changed from monochromatic to multi-colored and from flat to three-dimensional. At the same time, there is also an important breakthrough on the theme, namely, that it no longer focused on glorifying ideals, but exposed the darkness and injustice of society by writing about the evils of the world and the ugliness of life, through which the characteristics of realism are extremely obvious. --[[User:Mou Yixin|Mou Yixin]] ([[User talk:Mou Yixin|talk]]) 06:32, 3 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==牟一心 Móu Yīxīn 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081516==<br />
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刘廷玑认为，《金瓶梅》之所以称为奇书，是因为它深切人情要务。鲁迅在对“世情小说”进行界定时，曾指出《金瓶梅》描摹世态，见其炎凉，骂尽诸色，它虽然描写情色，却是要“以淫说法”，虽然结构铺张，但却是“引迷入悟”，既然是描写世情，便要“尽其情伪”，所谓刻露而尽相，或幽伏或含讥，诚极洞达而已。《金瓶梅》所描写的虽然是市井常谈、闺房碎语，但它寄意于时俗，极富感染力。<br />
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Liu Tingji believes that the reason The Golden Lotus is called a fantastic book is that it is deeply mundane. When Lu Xun defined the “worldly novel”, he pointed out that The Golden Lotus described worldly affairs, manifesting elusiveness of people and cursing all kinds of ugliness. Although it described eroticism, it was meant to “speak out as lewdness”. Although the structure is extravagant, it is “leading confusion into realization”. Since it is a description of the worldly affairs, it must be “full of sentiment and hypocrisy”. It is said that boldness results in completeness, which is sincere and insightful whether in a humorous or sarcastic way. Although The Golden Lotus is all about the commonplaces in the markets and boudoirs, it is greatly contagious because of its connotations behind the times and customs.--[[User:Mou Yixin|Mou Yixin]] ([[User talk:Mou Yixin|talk]]) 12:54, 30 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Liu Tingji believes that the reason ''The Golden Lotus'' is called a fantastic book is its profound insight into the human condition. When Lu Xun defined the “secular novel”, he pointed out that ''The Golden Lotus'' described secular affairs, with a revelation of the indifference of people and an accusation of the eroticism. Although it describes erotic scenes, it is meant to “making sense with lust”. Although the structure is extravagant, it “leads confusion into realization”. Since descriptions in the book relate to secular affairs, they must be “full of sentiment and hypocrisy”, which means uncovering the essence and revealing its full complexity, with either insinuation or innuendo, just for achieving a precise communication of insights. Even though ''The Golden Lotus'' is all about the commonplaces in the markets and boudoirs, it is greatly contagious because of its connotations behind the times and customs.--[[User:Peng Ruixue|Peng Ruixue]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruixue|talk]]) 16:14, 2 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==彭瑞雪 Péng Ruìxuě 法语语言文学 女 202120081517==<br />
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明、清之际，虽然《金瓶梅》向被列为禁书，但时人对其的艺术手法和思想内容等，却评价甚高，甚至不乏将其与《左传》、《史记》、《汉书》等并列者，认为这些作品都是“以其文皆为写生者也”的杰出代表。明代博物学家谢肇淛（zhè）曾向人借抄《金瓶梅》，并为此书撰写序跋，其中详细论及此书所具有的广泛的揭示性，认为它描写的是一个丑陋、黑暗的世情社会，既有“市里之猥谈”，又有“狎客之从臾逢迎”，所谓“穷极境象，駴（hài）意快心。”无论如何，都不能将《金瓶梅》视作“秽书”，而枉顾其对于炎凉情态的纤毫毕现，既看不到它的一腔愤懑，又看不到它的刺世与劝戒之意。<br />
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During the Ming and Qing dynasties, although ''the Golden Lotus'' was always banned, its artistic approach and ideological content were highly regarded by the people of the time, and there was even no shortage of people who ranked it alongside ''the Zuo Tradition'', ''the Records of the Grand Historian'' and ''the Book of Han'', considering these works to be outstanding representatives of "those whose texts are all written for the purpose of writing life". Xie Zhaozhe, a Ming dynasty naturalist, once borrowed ''The Golden Lotus'' from others and copied it. He wrote a preface to the book, in which he discussed in detail the book's broad scope of revelation, arguing that it depicted an ugly, dark society, with both "the obscene words of marketplace villains" and "the flattery of treacherous people". It is a 'straightforward and unadorned account of all life'. In any case, ''the Golden Lotus'' should not be regarded as an 'obscene book', and its subtle expression of the inconstancy of human relationships should not be taken in vain, nor its indignation, nor its stinging and admonishing intentions.--[[User:Peng Ruixue|Peng Ruixue]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruixue|talk]]) 02:46, 30 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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During the Ming and Qing dynasties, although ''The Plum in the Golden Vase'' was always banned, its artistic approaches and ideological contents were highly regarded by the people of that time, and there was even no shortage of people who ranked it alongside ''the Zuo Tradition'', ''the Records of the Grand Historian'' and ''the Book of Han'', considering these works to be outstanding representatives of "those whose texts were all written for the purpose of writer’s life". Xie Zhaozhe, a Ming dynasty naturalist, once borrowed ''The Plum in the Golden Vase'' from others and transcribed it. He also wrote a preface for this book, in which he discussed in detail the book's broad scope of revelation, arguing that it depicted an ugly, dark society, with both "the obscene words of marketplace villains" and "the flattery of treacherous people". It was a 'straightforward and unadorned account of all life'. In any case, ''The Plum in the Golden Vase'' should not be viewed as an 'obscene book', its subtle expression of the inconstancy of human relationships should not be taken in vain, nor its indignation, nor its stinging and admonishing intentions.--[[User:Qing Jianan|Qing Jianan]] ([[User talk:Qing Jianan|talk]]) 06:56, 30 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==秦建安 Qín Jiànān 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081518==<br />
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有人说，《金瓶梅》是《红楼梦》之祖，其题材主旨、人物刻画、情节结构等均为后者所继承，它虽然以家庭为中心，却又与天下、国家紧密相连，虽然恣意描写原始欲望，却又同时拷问人性的本质，其作为白话世情小说之首，可谓实至名归。一代伟人毛泽东也说，《金瓶梅》是《红楼梦》的祖宗，没有前者，就写不出后者，充分肯定了《金瓶梅》在中国古典文学中的历史地位。《金瓶梅》具有劝戒意涵，而不是或者不仅仅是淫词小说，这一点对于清代文士而言，亦是人所共知之事。<br />
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It is said that ''The Plum in the Golden Vase'' is the ancestor of ''A Dream in Red Mansions'', because the latter inherited all from the first in the perspective of selecting materials, themes, characterization and plot structure. Although ''The Plum in the Golden Vase'' was centralized on family, it also nearly attached to the world and country. Ranking on top of vernacular love novels, this book was haphazardly described with original desire but it also put questions on the essence of the nature of human beings which lived up to its name. Mao Zedong, a great man of a generation, also said, “''The Plum in the Golden Vase'' is the ancestor of ''A Dream in Red Mansions''. Without the former, the latter couldn’t be written.”which fully affirmed its historical position in Chinese classical literature. ''The Plum in the Golden Vase'' ,not or not just a pornographic novel, was replete with exhortation meaning which was known by all common people from the perspective of literati of Qing dynasty.--[[User:Qing Jianan|Qing Jianan]] ([[User talk:Qing Jianan|talk]]) 08:12, 28 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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It is said that ''The Plum in the Golden Vase'' is the ancestor of ''A Dream in Red Mansions'', because the latter inherited all from the first in the perspective of selecting materials, themes, characterization and plot structure. Although ''The Plum in the Golden Vase'' was centralized on family, it also nearly attached to the world and country. Ranking on top of vernacular love novels, this book was haphazardly described with original desire but it also put questions on the essence of human nature which lived up to its name. Mao Zedong, a great man of a generation, also said, “ ''The Plum in the Golden Vase'' is the ancestor of ''A Dream in Red Mansions''. Without the former, the latter couldn’t be written.”which fully affirmed its historical position in Chinese classical literature. ''The Plum in the Golden Vase'' full of persuation meaning was not or not just a pornographic novelwas which was known by all the literati of Qing dynasty.--[[User:Qiu Tingting|Qiu Tingting]] ([[User talk:Qiu Tingting|talk]]) 02:55, 30 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==邱婷婷 Qiū Tíngtíng 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081519==<br />
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如欣欣子在《金瓶梅词话序》中所说，《金瓶梅》一书不同于《三国演义》，它不是从正面塑造人物形象，使其合乎传统人伦道德，实现教化目的，而是通过对酒色财气的重墨渲染，警戒世人远离情色，其目的同样在于“明人伦，戒淫奔，分淑慝（tè），化善恶”，这一点与《三国演义》殊途而同归。而在《金瓶梅·序》中，作者亦明确指出该书的“劝戒”之意，所谓“一回一戒”，因而“百回中以为百劝”。<br />
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As Xin Xinzi said in the series of notes and comments of ''The Plum in the Golden Vase'', this novel was different from the ''The Romance of the Three Kingdoms'', it was not from the positive view to shape the character image, so that it would conform to the traditional ethics and morality, and then achieved the goal of indoctrination. But through the heavy playing up of wine , women , avarice and pride to warn human beings away from eroticism, its purpose was also “correcting human relations, dropping elopement, distinguishing the good and evil”, which reached the same goal by different ways as ''The Romance of the Three Kingdoms''. While in the series of ''The Plum in the Golden Vase'', the author also clearly pointed out the book’s “persuasion” meaning, the so-called “one chapter once again exhorting”，and therefore “one hundred times in the hundreds of persuasion.”--[[User:Qiu Tingting|Qiu Tingting]] ([[User talk:Qiu Tingting|talk]]) 02:51, 30 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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As Xin Xinzi mentioned in the series of notes and comments of ''The Plum in the Golden Vase'', this novel was different from the ''The Romance of the Three Kingdoms'', it did not shape the character image from the positive view, so that it would conform to the traditional ethics and morality, and then achieve the goal of indoctrination, but warn human beings away from eroticism through the heavy playing up of wine , women , avarice and pride, its purpose was also “correcting human relations, dropping elopement, distinguishing the good and evil”, which reached the same goal by different ways as ''The Romance of the Three Kingdoms''. While in the series of ''The Plum in the Golden Vase'', the author also clearly pointed out the book’s “persuasion” meaning, the so-called “one chapter once again exhorting”，and therefore “one hundred times in the hundreds of persuasion.”--[[User:Rao Jinying|Rao Jinying]] ([[User talk:Rao Jinying|talk]]) 14:12, 30 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==饶金盈 Ráo Jīnyíng 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081520==<br />
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清人中，对于《金瓶梅》进行诋毁、谩骂者，亦有之。如蒲松龄称其为“淫史”，邹弢称其为“淫书”，邱炜萲（xuān）则认为其“淫媟（xiè）荡志”，无论在内容上，还是在文笔上，都不足以“负此重名”。《蕉轩随录》中，方浚师甚至将《金瓶梅》和《水浒传》看作无用之书，认为二者之中一个倡盗，一个诲淫，有害于世道人心。<br />
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In the Qing Dynasty, there were also people who slandered and criticized ''Gold Vase Plum''. For instance, Pu Songling regarded it as a ''History of obscenity'', Zou Tao thought it a pornographic book, and Qiu Weixuan held that it is full of debauchery which indicate that it is not worth bearing such a great reputation no matter in content or style of writing. In ''Records of Jiaoxuan'', Fang Junshi even regarded ''Gold Vase Plum'' and ''Water Margin''as useless books, and the former is story of furious robbers while the latter is a story inciting pornography, so both of them would do harm to the people in the world.<br />
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In the Qing Dynasty, there were also people who slandered and criticized “Gold Vase Plum”. For instance, Pu Songling regarded it as “History of Obscenity “, Zou Tao thought it a pornographic book, and Qiu Weixuan held that it was full of debauchery. “Gold Vase Plum” was not worthy of bearing such a great stigma either in content or in style. In “Records of Jiao Xuan”, Fang Junshi even regarded “Gold Vase Plum” and “Water Margin” as useless books, one of which was about stories of advocating the theft while the other of which was related to plots inciting pornography, so both of them would do harm for enlightening the people in the world. --[[User:Shi Liqing|Shi Liqing]] ([[User talk:Shi Liqing|talk]]) 07:47, 28 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==石丽青 Shí Lìqīng 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081521==<br />
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而晴川居士、申涵光、李绿园等亦持论相似，认为《金瓶梅》丧心败德，它对于幼学者的影响如同疫病，其害甚大。沈德符、徐谦、林昌彝等更是主张禁毁此书，认为此书有如毒草和毒酒，贻害无穷。清初以来，朝廷对于淫词小说的禁毁从未间断。<br />
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And Qingchuan Lay Buddhist, Shen Hanguang, Li Luyuan, etc. held similar viewpoints, believing that “Gold Vase Plum”, infecting people’s pure soul and moral integrity, played an ill impact on young scholars. Shen Defu, Xu Qian, Lin Changyi, etc. even advocated banning and destroying this book, holding that it was parallel with poisonous weeds and wine which would cause endless harm.Since the early Qing Dynasty, the imperial court had never stopped the prohibition and destruction of obscene novels. --[[User:Shi Liqing|Shi Liqing]] ([[User talk:Shi Liqing|talk]]) 08:08, 28 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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And Qingchuan Lay Buddhist, Shen Hanguang, Li Luyuan, etc. held the similar viewpoints that ''Gold Vase Plum'' infected people’s pure soul and moral integrity and played an ill impact on young scholars,which is very harmful. Shen Defu, Xu Qian, Lin Changyi, etc. even advocated banning and destroying this book, holding that it was parallel with poisonous weeds and wine which would cause endless harm.Since the early Qing Dynasty, the imperial court had never stopped the prohibition and destruction of obscene novels.--[[User:Sun Yashi|Sun Yashi]] ([[User talk:Sun Yashi|talk]]) 06:49, 2 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==孙雅诗 Sūn Yǎshī 外国语言学及应用语言学 女 202120081522==<br />
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仅顺治至嘉庆年间，禁毁次数便超过十次，其中顺治朝一次（顺治九年）、康熙朝六次（康熙二年、二十六年、四十年、四十八年两次、五十三年）、雍正朝一次（雍正二年）、乾隆朝一次（乾隆三年），以及嘉庆朝二次（嘉庆十五年、十八年）等。康熙年间，清廷关于淫词小说的禁毁极其严格，既有法令可依，又有专门管理，惩处明确。如康熙二年议准，规定嗣后若有翻刻琐语淫词，有伤风化者，由科道、督抚查明实情，交部议处。<br />
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The obsecene novels had been destroyed for more than ten times just from the Shunzhi Dynasty to the Jiaqing Dynasty.Among them,there was one time in the Shunzhi Dynasty (the 9th year of Shunzhi) , six times in Kangxi Dynasty (the 2nd, 26th,40th,48th and 53rd year of Kangxi),one time in Yongzheng Dynasty(the 2nd year of Yongzheng),one time in Qianlong Dynasty(the 3rd year of Qianlong) and two times in Jiaqing Dynasty(the 15th,18th year of Jiaqing)，ect.During the Kangxi Dynasty,the goveronment was very strict with the prohibition and destruction of obscene novels,which was based on the decrees and was managed specially,and the published was clear.For example,there was an announcement in the 2nd year of Kangxi,which claimed that if there was someone who translated or carved the gossips and obscene words which was destructive to the morals,it would be examined by the department and governor and be submitted to the ministry.--[[User:Sun Yashi|Sun Yashi]] ([[User talk:Sun Yashi|talk]]) 06:43, 2 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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The obsecene novels have been destroyed and banned for more than ten times just from Shunzhi to Jiaqing years. Among them, there was one time in Shunzhi Dynasty(the 9th year) , six times in Kangxi Dynasty (one time in the 2nd, 26th, 40th and 53rd year, two times in the 48th year), one time in Yongzheng Dynasty(the 2nd year), one time in Qianlong Dynasty(the 3rd year) and two times in Jiaqing Dynasty(the 15th,18th year), etc. During the reign of Kangxi, the goveronment was very strict with the prohibition and destruction of obscene novels, with both laws to follow and special management, as well as the clear punishment. For example, there was an announcement in the 2nd year of Kangxi, which claimed that if someone translated or carved the gossips and obscene words which was harmful to morals, the case would be examined by the supervising officials and governors, then submitted to the ministry. --[[User:Wang Lifei|Wang Lifei]] ([[User talk:Wang Lifei|talk]]) 15:03, 2 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==王李菲 Wáng Lǐfēi 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081523==<br />
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乾隆三年，吏部议定“文禁”条例，对于坊间内小说淫辞，也一并严行禁绝，并根据买卖双方是否具有官方身份给予不同处罚。与此同时，《买看例》、《市卖例》、《禁止邪教不能察辑例》等法令的通过，也给淫词小说的翻刻与兜售等，提供了治罪依据。而以江苏、浙江为代表的地方官府，也相继出台法令，对淫词小说的编次、刊刻、贩卖等一并加以规定，照例治罪。<br />
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In the third year of Emperor Qianlong’s reign, Board of Civil Office agreed on the regulation of “prohibition of literature”, and strictly forbade the obscene fictions in the street, giving different punishments according to whether the buyers and sellers had official identities. At the same time, the passage of decrees such as ''Rules of Buying and Reading'', ''Rules of Selling'' and ''Rule of Banning Cults from Collecting'' also provided a criminal basis for the reproduction and peddling of obscene novels. Local governments represented by Jiangsu and Zhejiang also issued decrees one after another, stipulating the compilation, printing and selling of fictions and convicting them according to the rules. --[[User:Wang Lifei|Wang Lifei]] ([[User talk:Wang Lifei|talk]]) 10:55, 28 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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In the third year of Emperor Qianlong's reign, the Ministry of Civil Affairs agreed on the regulation of "prohibition of literature", and strictly prohibited the fictions in the street, and gave different punishments according to whether the buyers and sellers had official identities. At the same time, the passage of laws such as "Buying and watching", "Selling" and "Banning Cults from Observing and collecting" also provided a criminal basis for the reproduction and peddling of erotic ci novels. Local governments represented by Jiangsu and Zhejiang also issued decrees one after another, stipulating the compilation, printing and selling of fictions with lewd words, as usual--[[User:Wang Yifan21|Wang Yifan21]] ([[User talk:Wang Yifan21|talk]]) 08:08, 3 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==王逸凡 Wáng Yìfán 亚非语言文学 女 202120081524==<br />
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根据上述法令，《金瓶梅》曾多次入列禁毁书单，如《劝毁淫书征信录》、《得一录》中，便均见此书。<br />
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二、《金瓶梅》译者考辨<br />
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然而，政府法令对淫词小说的禁毁并没有阻绝《金瓶梅》的翻刻与行销。<br />
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According to the above decree, "Jin Ping Mei" has been listed on the list of forbidden books, such as "persuade the destruction of obscene books zhengxin Lu", "de Yi Lu", will see this book.<br />
Two, the translation of Jin Ping Mei<br />
However, the prohibition of erotic novels by government decrees did not stop the reproduction and marketing of Jin Ping Mei--[[User:Wang Yifan21|Wang Yifan21]] ([[User talk:Wang Yifan21|talk]]) 08:00, 3 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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According to the above laws and regulations, "Jin Ping Mei" has been included in the list of forbidden books for many times, such as persuade the destruction of obscene books zhengxin Lu", "de Yi Lu".<br />
2、 On the translators of Jin Ping Mei<br />
However, the prohibition of pornographic novels by government laws and regulations did not prevent the reproduction and marketing of Jin Ping Mei.--[[User:Wang Zhenlong|Wang Zhenlong]] ([[User talk:Wang Zhenlong|talk]]) 12:40, 7 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==王镇隆 Wáng Zhènlóng 英语语言文学（英美文学） 男 202120081525==<br />
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有人说，《金瓶梅》的名声是被“禁”出来的，这种观点是否合理姑且不论，不过《金瓶梅》之所以能有不同版本流传至今，本身就说明其禁毁政策的失败。而且，清代关于《金瓶梅》的禁毁有其虚伪性：一方面，政府对于此书严行禁毁；另一方面，却将其译成满文，供统治阶级自己阅读。正如马丁·吉姆指出的那样，有清一代，汉文小说被译成满文者，至少在七十二种以上，其中便包括《金瓶梅》、《西厢记》、《三国演义》等，这些小说的翻译显然无法离开统治者的支持，或者至少无法离开其默认。<br />
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Some people say that the reputation of Jin Ping Mei is from its prohibition. Whether this view is reasonable or not, but the reason why different versions of Jin Ping Mei have been circulated so far shows the failure of its prohibition policy. Moreover, the prohibition and destruction of Jin Ping Mei in the Qing Dynasty had its hypocrisy: on the one hand, the government strictly prohibited the destruction of the book; On the other hand, it was translated into Manchu for the ruling class to read. As Martin Jim pointed out, there were at least 72 kinds of Chinese novels translated into Manchu in the Qing Dynasty, including Jin Ping Mei, The Romance of The West Chamber, The Romance of The Three Kingdoms, etc. Obviously, the translation of these novels could not leave the support of the rulers, or at least its acquiescence.--[[User:Wang Zhenlong|Wang Zhenlong]] ([[User talk:Wang Zhenlong|talk]]) 12:39, 7 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Some people say that the reputation of ''Gold Vase Plum'' is from its prohibition. Whether this view is reasonable or not, the reason why different versions of ''Gold Vase Plum'' have been circulated so far shows the failure of its prohibition policy. Moreover, the prohibition and destruction of ''Gold Vase Plum'' in the Qing Dynasty had its hypocrisy: On the one hand, the government strictly prohibited the destruction of the book; On the other hand, it was translated into Manchu for the ruling class to read. As Martin Jim pointed out, there were at least 72 kinds of Chinese novels translated into Manchu in the Qing Dynasty, including ''Gold Vase Plum'', ''The Romance of The West Chamber'', ''The Romance of The Three Kingdoms'', etc. Obviously, the translation of these novels could not leave the support of the rulers, or at least its tacitly approval. --[[User:Wei Yiwen|Wei Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Wei Yiwen|talk]]) 02:30, 3 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==卫怡雯 Wèi Yíwén 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081526==<br />
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除《三国演义》（1650年刊印）之外，满译本《金瓶梅》是清初唯一得到刊印的汉文小说。由于译文自然流畅，对于生活的描述真实贴切，该译本被公认为满语文学的杰出代表之一。然而，《金瓶梅》的满文翻译究竟源自什么样的背景，其通行译本的底本究竟是哪种版本或刻本，该译本到底有几个译者，以及该译本为何能在禁令颁行之后的短短数年之内便能刊行于世等，皆存疑问与争议。<br />
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Besides ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' (composed and printed in 1650), Manchu translation of ''Gold Vase Plum'' was the only composed and printed Chinese novel in the early Qing Dynasty. Because of the natural and frequent translation as well as real and proper description of life, this kind of version was widely acknowledged as one of the outstanding representatives of Manchu literature. However, it was still doubtful and controversial about the background of the Manchu translation of ''Gold Vase Plum'', how many translators it had, and why it was composed and printed soon after the bans were published. --[[User:Wei Yiwen|Wei Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Wei Yiwen|talk]]) 12:29, 29 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Besides ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' (printed in 1650), the Manchu translation of ''The Golden Lotus'' is the only Chinese novel that got printed in the early Qing Dynasty. Because of the natural and fluent translation as well as the real and proper description of life, this translation is widely acknowledged as one of the outstanding representatives of Manchu literature. However, there are still doubts and controversy about these questions：What is the background of the Manchu translation of ''The Golden Lotus''? Which version is the original source for the translation? How many translators does the translation have? Why the translation was printed soon after it was banned?--[[User:Wei Chuxuan|Wei Chuxuan]] ([[User talk:Wei Chuxuan|talk]]) 03:16, 4 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==魏楚璇 Wèi Chǔxuán 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081527==<br />
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根据昭梿在《啸亭续录》中的说法，《金瓶梅》的满文翻译系出自户曹郎中和素之手，后者谙习清文，兼通汉文，他所翻译的汉文书籍达到了绝精的程度，而《西厢记》、《金瓶梅》等书的译本也是“疏栉字句，咸中綮（qǐ）肯”，人人争相诵读。和素为满洲镶黄旗人士，曾充任皇子师傅和翻书房总裁，系顺治年间满文翻译家阿什坦次子。作为满洲汉书翻译事业高潮中的重要人物，和素一生著译甚多，其中有名者如《左传》、《菜根谭》、《黄石公素经》等，而相传《金瓶梅》亦出自其手，主要原因有二。<br />
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According to the content of Zhaolian' s ''Continuation of Xiaoting'', the Manchu translation of ''The Golden Lotus'' was made by Hesu who was the chief official in Hucao. Hesu not only mastered Manchu language but also possessed the knowledge of Chinese. His translation of Chinese books attained a really high level. His translations of ''Romance of the Western Chamber'' and ''The Golden Lotus'' were so faithful that people read them competitively. Hesu, who was from Bordered Yellow Banner in Manchuria, once took the official position of teacher for royal children and president of Fanshu house. In addition, he was the little son of Ashtan who was a Manchu translator in Shunzhi years. As an important figure in the climax of the cause of translating Chinese books in Manchuria, Hesu translated a lot of books including famous works such as ''Legend of Spring and Autumn Century by Zuo Qiuming''，''Roots of Wisdom'', ''Huang Shigong Scripture'' and so on. It is said that the translation of ''The Golden Lotus'' was also made by him. Here are two main reasons.--[[User:Wei Chuxuan|Wei Chuxuan]] ([[User talk:Wei Chuxuan|talk]]) 02:03, 4 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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According to the statements in Zhaolian' s ''Continuation of Xiaoting'', ''The Golden Lotus'' in Manchu was translated by Hesu who was the official office in charge of people's households, ancestral temples, agriculture, mulberry and also was the chief imperial chamberlain. Hesu was not only skilful at the Qing language but also proficient in Chinese. His translation of Chinese books has reached the point of absolute perfection. Besides, in his translations of ''The Romance of Western Chamber'' and ''The Golden Lotus'', he also trimmed the words, sentences and got to the main point so that everyone strived to read and recite these works. Hesu, a Bordered Yellow Banner in Manchu, was once in the position of the master of the emperor's son and the president of the Translation Study. In addition, he was the second son of Ashtan who was a Manchu translator during the years of Shunzhi. As an important figure of the climax in the course of translating Chinese books into Manchu, Hesu translated a great number of books including some famous works such as ''Zuozhuan''，''Tan Roots'', ''Huangshi Gongsu Meridian'' and so on. What's more, it was said ''The Golden Lotus'' was also translated by him. There were two main reasons.--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 03:04, 5 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==魏兆妍 Wèi Zhàoyán 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081528==<br />
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其一，便是和素兼通满、汉，其本人确系康熙朝的著名翻译家，曾亲自组织、参与诸多汉籍的翻译；其二，如上述昭梿的《啸亭续录》一样，清初档案文献中确有不少将满译《金瓶梅》归于和素者。《啸亭杂录》和《清稗类钞》中，也称赞和素翻译的《金瓶梅》和《西厢记》等“极其出色”。然而，也有持论不同者。如《批本随园诗话》“批语”中说：“翻译《金瓶梅》，即出徐蝶园手。”<br />
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Firstly, it was because Hesu was proficient in both Manchu and Chinese, he himself was indeed a famous translator of the Kangxi Dynasty. Besides, he has personally organized and participated in the translation of many Chinese books. Secondly, just like Zhaolian’s ''Continuation of Xiaoting'' above, in the archives and documents of the early Qing Dynasty, quite a few people owed the translation of ''The Golden Lotus'' in Manchu to Hesu. In ''Miscellaneous Records of Xiaoting'' and ''Clean Barnyard Class Notes'', the author also praised Hesu’s translations of ''The Golden Lotus'' and ''Romance of the Western Chamber'' as “excellent”. However, there were people who held different views. Like the “remarks” in ''Essays of Suiyuan on Poetry'' which said that ''The Golden Lotus'' was translated by Xu Dieyuan.--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 06:44, 1 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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First of all, it was because Hesu was proficient in both Manchu and Chinese, and at the same time participated in lots of translations. He himself was indeed a famous translator of the Kangxi Dynasty. Besides, he has personally organized and participated in the translation of many Chinese books. Secondly, just like Zhaolian’s ''Continuation of Xiaoting'' above, in the archives and documents of the early Qing Dynasty, quite a few people owed the translation of ''The Golden Lotus'' in Manchu to Hesu. In ''Miscellaneous Records of Xiaoting'' and ''Clean Barnyard Class Notes'', the author also praised Hesu’s translations of ''The Golden Lotus'' and ''Romance of the Western Chamber'' as “excellent”. However, there were people who held different ideas. Like the “remarks” in ''Essays of Suiyuan on Poetry'' which said that the translator of ''The Golden Lotus'' was Xu Dieyuan.--[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 11:43, 1 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==吴婧悦 Wú Jìngyuè 俄语语言文学 女 202120081529==<br />
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徐蝶园即徐元梦，满洲正白旗人，康熙朝重臣，康熙十二年进士，选授庶吉士，先后于雍正、乾隆两朝充任《明史》总裁，以及《清世宗实录》副总裁。徐蝶园精研满汉文，曾于康熙年间署大学士，充起居注讲官，但正史中对于徐氏的译书活动记载较少，而且往往语焉不详，因此难以判断其译者身份。叶德均在《戏曲小说丛考》中，也援引伍子舒（闽浙总督伍拉纳之子）所撰《随园诗话》点校本中的说法，指出《金瓶梅》的满文译者即是徐蝶园，但这一观点始终不如前一种通行。<br />
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Xu Dieyuan was Xu Yuanmeng, a native of the Manchu flag, a high-ranking official of Kangxi, and was Scholars in the twelfth year of Kangxi. He was appointed the president of the ''Ming Dynasty'' in Yongzheng and Qianlong and the vice president of the ''Records of the Qing Dynasty''. Xu Dieyuan studied Chinese literature. He worked as a college scholar during the reign of Kangxi and made charge of daily life. However, the translation activities of Xu in official history are few, and often vague, so it is difficult to judge the identity of the translator. In the ''Cong Examination of Opera Novels'', Ye Dejun also quoted Wu Zishu (the son of Wu Lana, governor of Fujian and Zhejiang) in the ''Poetry of the Garden'', pointing out that the Manchu translator of ''The Golden Lotus'' is Xu Dieyuan, but this view is always not as popular as the previous one. --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 11:44, 1 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
Xu dieyuan, namely Xu Yuanmeng, a native of Manchuria's Zhengbai banner, was an important Minister of the Kangxi Dynasty. He was elected as a scholar in the 12th year of the Kangxi Dynasty and was awarded to Shu Jishi. He successively served as president of the history of the Ming Dynasty and vice president of the records of emperor Shizong of the Qing Dynasty in the Yongzheng and Qianlong dynasties. Xu dieyuan is a master of Chinese. He once served as a bachelor and a lecturer during the reign of Kangxi. However, there are few records of Xu's book translation activities in official history, and they are often vague, so it is difficult to judge his translator's identity. Ye Dejun also quoted the view in the school edition of Suiyuan poetry written by Wu Zishu (the son of Wu Lana, governor of Fujian and Zhejiang) in his collection of opera novels, pointing out that the Manchu translator of Jin Ping Mei is Xu dieyuan, but this view is not as popular as the former.--[[User:Wu Yinghong|Wu Yinghong]] ([[User talk:Wu Yinghong|talk]]) 12:07, 1 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==吴映红 Wú Yìnghóng 日语语言文学 女 202120081530==<br />
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徐蝶园晚年的确参与过翻译之事，但满译本《金瓶梅·序》的署理日期为康熙四十八年，而徐蝶园此前曾经两度被诏罪入狱，因而由他翻译此书，条件上似乎不大成立。而且，徐蝶园虽然精研满汉双语，但其中年后精研理学，这一点与《金瓶梅》的题材内容和思想旨趣，以及序言中对于该书的积极评价等，也不尽符合。与此同时，更有认为满译本《金瓶梅》系出自皇族成员者，这种观点主要见于西方学者，又分成两派。<br />
Xu dieyuan did participate in translation in his later years, but the acting date of the Manchu translation of Jin Ping Mei · preface is the 48th year of Kangxi. Xu dieyuan had been jailed for imperial edicts twice before, so it seems that the conditions for him to translate the book are not tenable. Moreover, although Xu dieyuan studied both Manchu and Chinese, he studied Neo Confucianism in his middle age, which is not consistent with the theme, content and ideological purport of Jin Ping Mei, as well as the positive evaluation of the book in the preface. At the same time, it is also believed that the Manchu version of Jin Ping Mei comes from members of the royal family. This view is mainly seen in western scholars and divided into two schools.<br />
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Xu Dieyuan did participate in the translation in his later years, but the full translation of Jin Ping Mei · Preface was written in the 48th year of The Kangxi Dynasty, and Xu Dieyuan had been sentenced to prison twice before, so it seems unlikely that he could translate this book. Moreover, although Xu Dieyuan concentrates on studying Both Manchu and Chinese, he concentrates on neo-confucianism in the second half of the year, which is not in accordance with the subject matter and ideological purview of Jin Ping Mei, as well as the positive evaluation of the book in the preface. At the same time, there are more people who believe that the full version of Jin Ping Mei is from the royal family, which is mainly seen in western scholars and divided into two schools.--[[User:Xiao Yiyao|Xiao Yiyao]] ([[User talk:Xiao Yiyao|talk]]) 12:39, 7 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==肖毅瑶 Xiāo Yìyáo 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081531==<br />
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其中，一派认为是出自康熙皇帝的兄弟，如黎马苏（1833：182-183）、克拉普罗特（1633：61）、怀利（1855：XLIII）、加伯连茨（1862：543）、圣德尼斯和赫维侯爵（1894：17）、格鲁伯（1909：431）、劳弗尔（1908：32）、耶格尔（1935：539），以及鲍威尔（1974：1940-1941）等；另一派则认为是出自乾隆皇帝的某个兄弟，如加伯连茨（1879：171）、格列宾西科夫（1879：171）、莫连道尔夫（1890：235）、扎查（1905：130），以及李福廷和西蒙诺夫（1981：259）等。上述两派观点多次出现在欧洲的文学作品中，但二者都缺乏史料考证，至少未能获得中国学界的重视与认可。<br />
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Among them, one group attributed it to the brothers of Kangxi Emperor, such as Li Masu (1833:182-183), Clavprot (1633:61), Wylie (1855: XLIII), Gabelenz (1862:543), Saint Denis and the Marquis of Herve (1894:17), Gruberb (1909:431), Lauffer (1908:32), Yeager (1935:539), and Powell (1974:1940 -- 1941); while the other attributed it to the brothers of the Qianlong Emperor, such as Gabrenz (1879:171), Grebinshikov (1879:171), Mollendolf (1890:235), Zacha (195:130), and Li Futing and Simonov (1981:259).These two different viewpoints have appeared many times in European literary works, but both of them lacked historical evidence which failed to win the attention and recognition of Chinese scholars.--[[User:Xiao Yiyao|Xiao Yiyao]] ([[User talk:Xiao Yiyao|talk]]) 12:11, 1 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Among them, one group thought it was from the brothers of Kangxi Emperor, such as Li Masu (1833:182-183), Clavprot (1633:61), Wylie (1855: XLIII), Gabelenz (1862:543), Saint Denis and the Marquis of Herve (1894:17), Gruberb (1909:431), Lauffer (1908:32), Yeager (1935:539), and Powell (1974:1940 -- 1941); while the other thought it was from one of the brothers of the Qianlong Emperor, such as Gabrenz (1879:171), Grebinshikov (1879:171), Mollendolf (1890:235), Zacha (195:130), and Li Futing and Simonov (1981:259).These two different viewpoints have appeared many times in European literary works, but both of them lacked historical evidence which failed to win the attention and recognition of Chinese scholars.--[[User:Xie Jiafen|Xie Jiafen]] ([[User talk:Xie Jiafen|talk]]) 00:38, 2 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==谢佳芬 Xiè Jiāfēn 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081532==<br />
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考虑到康、雍以来的历代君主对于淫词小说一直采取禁毁态度，而在此情形下竟有皇族成员翻译《金瓶梅》这样的禁毁小说，其荒唐之程度，难以想象。但不论实际情形如何，《金瓶梅》最终还是译成付梓，这一事实只能说明两点：其一，清代的所谓书禁或禁译只是针对民间，对统治者尤其是君主而言则可能是“无禁”；其二，翻书房的设立固然是为了翻译汉族经典和汉文书籍，但也不能排除翻译禁毁书籍，专供皇帝御览。总之，《金瓶梅》的满文翻译与刊刻，不可能游走在政府禁令之外，而不得到政治力的审查、默认或者首肯。<br />
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Considering that the monarchs of Qing dynasties since Kangxi and Qianlong have always adopted the attitude of banning and destroying pornographic novels, and in this case, it is unimaginable that royal family members translate forbidden novels such as The Golden Lotus. However, regardless of the actual situation, the fact that The Golden Lotus was finally translated and published can only explain two points: firstly, the so-called prohibition of some books or translation in the Qing Dynasty was only aimed at the folk, and it may be "no prohibition" for the rulers, especially the monarchs; Secondly, although the establishment of the translation study is to translate Han classics and Chinese books, it can not rule out the prohibition of the translation of books for the emperor's viewing. In a word, the Manchu translation and publication of The Golden Lotus can not walk outside the government ban without political review, acquiescence or approval.--[[User:Xie Jiafen|Xie Jiafen]] ([[User talk:Xie Jiafen|talk]]) 13:26, 29 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Considering that the monarchs of Qing dynasties since Kangxi and Qianlong have always adopted the attitude of banning and destroying pornographic novels, and in this case, it is unimaginable that royal family members translate forbidden novels such as The Golden Lotus. However, regardless of the actual situation, the fact that The Golden Lotus was finally translated and published can only explain two points: firstly, the so-called prohibition of some books or translation in the Qing Dynasty was only aimed at the folk, and it may be "no prohibition" for the rulers, especially the monarchs; Secondly, although the establishment of the translation study is to translate Han classics and Chinese books, it can not rule out the prohibition of the translation of books for the emperor's viewing. In a word, the Manchu translation and publication of The Golden Lotus can not walk outside the government ban without political review, acquiescence or approval.--[[User:Xie Qinglin|Xie Qinglin]] ([[User talk:Xie Qinglin|talk]]) 11:09, 30 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==谢庆琳 Xiè Qìnglín 俄语语言文学 女 202120081533==<br />
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特别是在康熙朝以后皇权至上的集权政治中，离开了最高统治者的支持，任何汉籍的翻译恐怕都无法成行。事实上，虽然淫词小说的禁毁乃是清代长期的文化政策，但政府在推进、执行这一政策的过程中，也存在不作为或者消极作为的情况。正如余治在《得一录》中所说，清廷对于淫词戏曲，虽有禁毁之条，而当政者中视其为一纸空文，坐视不管者，亦大有人在。<br />
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Especially in the centralized politics where imperial power reigned supreme after the Kangxi dynasty, I am afraid that no translation of Chinese books could be made possible without the support of the supreme ruler. In fact, although the prohibition of obscene novels was a long-standing cultural policy of the Qing Dynasty, there were cases of government inaction or passive action in promoting and implementing this policy. As Yu Zhizhi says in "The Record of the First", although the Qing court had a prohibition on the destruction of obscene words and operas, there were many people in power who regarded it as a piece of paper and sat on it.--[[User:Xie Qinglin|Xie Qinglin]] ([[User talk:Xie Qinglin|talk]]) 11:07, 30 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Especially in the centralized politics where imperial power reigned supreme after the Kangxi’s reign, I am afraid that no translation of Chinese works could be come out without the support of the supreme ruler. In fact, although the prohibition of obscene novels was a long-standing cultural policy of the Qing Dynasty, there were cases of government inaction or passive action in promoting and implementing this policy. As Yu Zhi says in "The Record of the First", although the Qing court had a prohibition on the destruction of obscene poems and operas, there were many people in power who regarded it as a piece of paper and sat by and did nothing.--[[User:Xiong Min|Xiong Min]] ([[User talk:Xiong Min|talk]]) 07:11, 1 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==熊敏 Xióng Mǐn 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081534==<br />
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乾隆三年，朝廷在颁布禁毁之令时，即关注到了地方官府执行不力的情况，认为这是导致禁毁失败的主要原因。而政府的消极作为主要来自两方面的原因，其一是所谓“人情”，即人之本性，其二是小说本身的应世性，即有助于市民在长期遭受禁欲主义后宣泄情绪。正是由于人心、人情难禁，因而《金瓶梅》的翻译与刊刻便有了生存空间。<br />
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In the third year of Qianlong’s reign, the court issued the restraining order and noticed the inefficiency of local governments, which was believed as the main cause of failure. The government’s working inefficiency resulted from two reasons. One was “renqing” which is human nature. The other was the practicality of novel, which did help citizens alleviate pressure after being depressed for a long time. It was human nature that made the translation and publication of “The plum in the Golden Vase” possible.<br />
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In the third year of Qianlong’s reign, the court issued the restraining order and noticed the inefficiency of local governments which was believed as the main cause of failure. The government’s working inefficiency resulted from two reasons. One was “RenQing” which is represent human nature. The other was the practicality of novel, which did help citizens alleviate pressure after being depressed for a long time. It was human nature that made the translation and publication of ''The plum in the Golden Vase'' has room for survival.--[[User:Xu Minyun|Xu Minyun]] ([[User talk:Xu Minyun|talk]]) 11:50, 4 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==徐敏赟 Xú Mǐnyūn 语言智能与跨文化传播研究 男 202120081535==<br />
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正如王汝梅先生所说，康熙年间政府一再严谨淫词小说，而以满文翻译《金瓶梅》，其工程可谓浩大，因而该书的翻译不可能只是民间行为。恰恰相反，《金瓶梅》的翻译势必是得到了康熙帝御准的，由翻书房具体策划和实施的“计划内工程”。《金瓶梅》的满文译本成书于康熙四十七年，全书共计四十卷一百回，其存本与抄本被分别收藏于国家图书馆、中央民族大学图书馆、中国社科院民族研究所、北京民族文化宫、大连图书馆、吉林大学图书馆，并另有赵则诚先生藏本一部。<br />
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As Mr. Wang Rumei said, during the Kangxi period, the government repeatedly banned pornographic novels, and the task of translating Jin Ping Mei into Manchu was huge. Therefore, the translation of jin Ping Mei could not be just a folk act. On the contrary, the translation of Jin Ping Mei must have been approved by Emperor Kangxi and specifically planned and implemented by Fanshufang. The Manchu translation of Jin Ping Mei was completed in the 47th year of Kangxi, with a total of 40 volumes and 100 chapters. Its deposits and transcripts are collected in the National Library, the Central University for Nationalities Library, the Institute of Ethnic Studies of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Beijing National Culture Palace, Dalian Library, and Jilin University Library, and one copy in the collection of Mr. Zhao Zecheng.--[[User:Xu Minyun|Xu Minyun]] ([[User talk:Xu Minyun|talk]]) 06:20, 28 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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As Mr. Wang Rumei said, during the Kangxi period, the government repeatedly banned pornographic novels, and the task of translating ''The Plum in the Golden Vase'' into Manchu was huge. Therefore, the translation of ''The Plum in the Golden Vase'' could not be just completed by the folks. On the contrary, it must have been approved by Emperor Kangxi and specifically planned and implemented by Translation Office. The Manchu translation of ''The Plum in the Golden Vase'' was completed in the 47th year of Kangxi, with a total of 40 volumes and 100 chapters. Its deposits and transcripts are collected in the National Library, the Central University for Nationalities Library, the Institute of Ethnic Studies of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Beijing National Culture Palace, Dalian Library, and Jilin University Library, and one copy in the collection of Mr. Zhao Zecheng.--[[User:Yan Jing|Yan Jing]] ([[User talk:Yan Jing|talk]]) 03:41, 2 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==颜静 Yán Jìng 语言智能与跨文化传播研究 女 202120081536==<br />
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上述藏本中，既有刊本，又有抄本，其中多数又为残本。如前所述，关于《金瓶梅》满文译本到底出自何人之手，学界长期存在争议，其中原因无疑与译本序言中并未明确译者姓名有关。同时，译本序言本身又缺乏作者，使得译本的归属如同原著的作者一样更加扑素迷离。<br />
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Among the above collections, there are both printed and copied edition, most of which are fragmentary. As mentioned above, there has been a long-standing controversy in the academic circles about who wrote the Manchu translation of ''The Plum in the Golden Vase'', which is undoubtedly related to the fact that the name of the translator is not clear in the preface of the translation. At the same time, the preface itself lacks the author, which makes the ownership of the translation more blurred like the author of the original.<br />
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which is undoubtedly connected with the fact that the name of the translator is not clear in the preface of the translation.<br />
--[[User:Yan Lili|Yan Lili]] ([[User talk:Yan Lili|talk]]) 12:48, 7 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==颜莉莉 Yán Lìlì 国别 女 202120081537==<br />
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虽然如此，一般仍认为和素即是该书的译者，一则是因为昭梿的《啸亭杂录》和《啸亭续录》中均提及此事，且昭梿本人又是皇族之后，其所言所记当属可信。另一方面，康熙四十七年，和素曾奉敕纂成《清文鉴》一书，而《金瓶梅》的满文译本刊印于康熙四十五年，其序言的刊行时间则与《清文鉴》的成书时间相同，二者的编纂和翻译时间相距较短，期间必有关联。王汝梅先生在和候忠义先生合编《金瓶梅资料汇编》一书时，曾经从赵则诚先生处借得满文本《金瓶梅》，并请刘厚生先生将满文序文译成汉语，认为该序言表明译者即是和素。<br />
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However, it is still generally believed that He Su was the translator of the book, partly because Zhaofan's "Xiao Ting Miscellaneous Records " and "Xiao Ting Miscellaneous Records·Sequel" are mentioned in this matter, and Zhaofan himself is a descendant of the royal family, what he said should be credible. On the other hand, in the 47th year of the Kangxi dynasty, He Su was ordered by the Emperor to write the ''Imperial Code of Qing Wen Jian'', and the Manchu version of Jin Ping Mei was published in the 45th year of the Kangxi dynasty. The publishing time of its preface was the same as that of the ''Imperial Code of Qing Wen Jian''. The compilation and translation time of the two is relatively short, so there must be a correlation between them. When Mr. Wang Rumei and Mr. Hou Zhongyi were co-editing the ''Jin Ping Mei Data Collection'', he borrowed the full text of ''Jin Ping Mei'' from Mr. Zhao Zecheng and asked Mr. Liu Housheng to translate the Manchu preface into Chinese, believing that the preface indicated that the translator was He Su.<br />
--[[User:Yan Lili|Yan Lili]] ([[User talk:Yan Lili|talk]]) 08:31, 30 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Nevertheless, it is generally believed that Hesu is the translator of the book. On the one hand, it is mentioned in Zhaohe's miscellaneous records of Xiaoting and continuation of Xiaoting, and after Zhaohe himself is a royal family, his words and records are credible. On the other hand, in the 47th year of Kangxi, Hesu was compiled into qingwenjian by imperial edict, while the Manchu translation of Jin Ping Mei was published in the 45th year of Kangxi. The publication time of its preface is the same as that of qingwenjian. The compilation and translation time between them is short, and the period must be related. When Mr. Wang Rumei and Mr. Hou Zhongyi jointly compiled the compilation of Jin Ping Mei materials, he once borrowed the full text of Jin Ping Mei from Mr. Zhao Zecheng and asked Mr. Liu housheng to translate the Manchu preface into Chinese. He believed that the preface showed that the translator was a harmony element.--[[User:Yan Zihan|Yan Zihan]] ([[User talk:Yan Zihan|talk]]) 07:09, 7 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==颜子涵 Yán Zǐhán 国别 女 202120081538==<br />
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但满文本《金瓶梅》序言中，介绍的主要是该书的故事梗概，明确指出了该书的劝戒之意，并有“是以令其译之”，以及“余趁闲暇之时作了修订”等语，但由于序言本身缺乏作者，因而此处所说的“其”（即译者）系指谁，且该译者又是受“令”于谁等，皆成疑问。然而，满文本《金瓶梅》确系译自崇祯本《金瓶梅词话》，同时参照了张竹坡的《金瓶梅》点评本，这一点已成共识。众所周知，张评本《金瓶梅》刊刻于康熙三十四年，其底本同样是崇祯本《金瓶梅词话》，而满译本《金瓶梅》成书于康熙四十五年，前后相距十三年。<br />
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However, the preface of the Manchu text ''The Plum in the Golden Vase'' mainly introduces the story outline of the book, It clearly points out the meaning of the book's admonition, and has the words "to make it translated" and "I revised it in my spare time". But due to the lack of author in the preamble, It is doubtful who is the "Qi" (the translator) refers to here, and whose "command" the translator has received. However, the Manchu text ''The Plum in the Golden Vase'' is indeed translated from Chongzhen's ''Jin Ping Mei CI Hua'', and also refers to Zhang Zhupo's comment on ''The Plum in the Golden Vase'', which has become a consensus. As we all know, Zhang Ping's ''The Plum in the Golden Vase'' was published and engraved in the 34th year of Kangxi, and its base copy is also Chongzhen's ''Jin Ping Mei CI Hua'', while the Manchu translation of ''The Plum in the Golden Vase'' was completed in the 45th year of Kangxi, 13 years apart.--[[User:Yan Zihan|Yan Zihan]] ([[User talk:Yan Zihan|talk]]) 02:31, 29 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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However, the preface of ''The Plum in the Golden Vase'' in the Manchu translation mainly introduces the outline of the book, explicitly points out that the meaning of the book's admonition and that has the words "to make it translated" and "to revise it in spare time". But due to the lack of author in the preface, It is doubtful who is the translator in it, and whom "command" the translator. However, However, it has become a consensus that the Manchu version of ''The Plum in the Golden Vase'' is indeed translated from Chongzhen edition of ''Ci hua of Jin Ping Mei'', with reference to zhang Zhupo's commentary edition of ''The Plum in the Golden Vase''. As is known to all, Zhang's ''The Plum in the Golden Vase'' was printed in the 34th year of the Reign of Emperor Kangxi, and its original version is also the Edition of ''The Plum in the Golden Vase'' in the period of Emperor Chongzhen, while the Manchu version of ''The Plum in the Golden Vase'' was completed in the 45th year of the Reign of Emperor Kangxi, 13 years apart.--[[User:Yang Jiaying|Yang Jiaying]] ([[User talk:Yang Jiaying|talk]]) 12:17, 7 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==阳佳颖 Yáng Jiāyǐng 国别 女 202120081540==<br />
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在此期间，虽然该书的满文翻译到底缘起于何时，仍不得而知，但考虑到译者对于底本的比堪与研究，其翻译的过程势必绵长。三、《金瓶梅》翻译中的意识形态审查。不同于《三国演义》中“文不甚深，言不甚俗”的语言特点，《金瓶梅》中充斥着大量情色描写。<br />
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During this period, although the exact origin of the Manchu translation of this book remains to be find, considering the translator’s comparison and research on the original, the process of translation is bound to be long. Third, the ideological review in the translation of ''The Plum in the Golden Vase''. Different from ''the Romance of The Three Kingdoms'', in which the writing is not too abstruse and the words are not vulgar, ''The Plum in the Golden Vase'' is flooded with erotic descriptions.--[[User:Yang Jiaying|Yang Jiaying]] ([[User talk:Yang Jiaying|talk]]) 02:39, 29 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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During this period, although the exact time of the Manchu translation of "The Plum in the Golden Vase" is still unknown, considering the translator's comparison and research on the original text, the translation process is bound to be a long period. Third, The ideological review in the translation of "The Plum in the Golden Vase". Different from the linguistic characteristics of "The Romance of the Three Kingdoms", in which the writing is not too abstruse and the words are not vulgar", "The Plum in the Golden Vase" is full of erotic descriptions., --[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 01:47, 6 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==杨爱江 Yáng Àijiāng 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081541==<br />
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同时，虽然《金瓶梅》的满文译本最终成书于康熙年间，但统治者对于此书的翻译讳莫如深，这一点也明显不同于《清实录》等文献中关于清初诸帝好读《三国演义》，并敕译此书的历史现实。态度上的前后转变，其中必有起因。正如丁原基在《清代康雍乾三朝禁书原因之研究》中所说，清代各朝之所以频兴文字狱，其中原因虽不尽相同，但亦必有之。例如，康熙初年，明朝遗老怀故国之思者甚多，其所撰作品自然入禁毁之列。<br />
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At the same time, although the Manchu translation of "The Plum in the Golden Vase" was finally written in the Kangxi period, the rulers were extremely reticent about the translation of this book. It is also obviously different from the fact stated in "Factual Record of Qing Dynasty" and other documents that the rulers in the early Qing Dynasty were fond of reading "The Romance of the Three Kingdoms" and they ordered their ministers to translate the historical reality of this book. There must be a cause for the change in attitude. As Ding Yuanji said in "Research on the Reasons for the Officially Banned Books in the Three Periods of Kang, Yong and Qian in Qing Dynasty", the reasons for the frequent rise of literary inquisition in various periods of Qing Dynasty were a little bit different, but still there were some reasons behind it. For example, in the early years of Kangxi, there were many old adherents of the Ming dynasty who missed their country.As a result, their works were forbidden and destroyed.--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 01:31, 6 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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At the same time, although the Manchu translation of "The Plum in the Golden Vase" was finally completed in the Kangxi period, the rulers were extremely reticent about the translation of this book,which is also obviously different from the fact stated in "Factual Record of Qing Dynasty" and other documents that the rulers in the early Qing Dynasty were fond of reading "The Romance of the Three Kingdoms" and they ordered their ministers to translate the historical reality of this book. There must be a cause for the change in attitude. As Ding Yuanji said in "Research on the Reasons for the Officially Banned Books in the Three Periods of Kang, Yong and Qian in Qing Dynasty", the reasons for the high frequency of literary inquisition in various periods of Qing Dynasty were a little bit different, but still there were some reasons behind it. For example, in the early years of Kangxi, there were many old adherents of the Ming dynasty who missed their country.As a result, their works were forbidden and destroyed.--[[User:Yang Kun|Yang Kun]] ([[User talk:Yang Kun|talk]]) 02:43, 6 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==杨堃 Yáng Kūn 法语语言文学 女 202120081542==<br />
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康熙仙逝，雍正得其帝位，然而由于朝野疑窦重重，政权未稳，朝廷对于舆论也倍加留心。乾隆年间，虽然朝廷奉敕开设四库馆，博取奖励学术的美名，但禁书之苛刻同样无出其右。如康熙朝初期，由于圣祖表彰理学，故而御纂朱子全书，以及群经性理诸编。<br />
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Kangxi passed away and Yongzheng won his throne. However, due to the doubts of the royal court and the instability of his regime, the court paid more attention to public opinion. During the period of Qianlong, although the royal court set up Four Storehouses, which won the reputation of rewarding scholarship, the harshness of banned books was also unparalleled. For example, in the early period of the Kangxi, because Kangxi commended Neo-Confucianism, Qianlong ordered to compile the complete books of Zhu Zi and the Confucian classics.--[[User:Yang Kun|Yang Kun]] ([[User talk:Yang Kun|talk]]) 12:53, 29 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Kangxi passed away and Yongzheng succeeded to the throne. However, due to the doubts of the royal court and the instability of his regime, the court paid more attention to public opinions. During the reign of Qianlong, although the royal court set up Four Storehouses, which won the reputation of rewarding scholarship, the harshness of banned books was still incomparable. For example, in the early period of Kangxi Dynasty, the emperor ordered to compile the complete books of Zhu Zi and the Confucian classics because the founding emperor commended Neo-Confucianism.--[[User:Yang Liuqing|Yang Liuqing]] ([[User talk:Yang Liuqing|talk]]) 03:26, 3 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==杨柳青 Yáng Liǔqīng 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081543==<br />
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康熙二十五年，上谕礼部及翰林院，指出经学史乘务必以“修齐治平，助成德化者方为有用”，而“有乖经术，异端邪说”，则概不准录。即是在此背景下，南怀仁的《穷理学》译本因为实属“诡言邪说”、“语既不经”，也遭到禁毁。此次遭到禁毁的《穷理学》二书译成于康熙二十二年，共六十卷，由南怀仁于同年八月进呈御览。<br />
In the 25th year of the Reign of Emperor Kangxi,the Ministry of Rites and Literati House have been ordered that Confucian classics and books about official history "cannot be called useful unless they are for the purpose of improving self-cultivation and governance of country and helping people to become virtuous"; "those deviated from Confucian classics and those heresies" will not be embodied. It was in such an background that the translation of "Philosophy of pursuing truth" by Nan Huairen was banned and destroyed because it was regarded as "paradoxical, heretical and unorthodox". The books of "Philosophy of pursuing truth" which were banned and destroyed had been translated in the 26th year of the reign of Kangxi Dynasty,consisting of 60 volumes, which Nan Huairen submitted to the imperial review in August of the same year.--[[User:Yang Liuqing|Yang Liuqing]] ([[User talk:Yang Liuqing|talk]]) 03:02, 3 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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In the 25th year of the Reign of Emperor Kangxi,the Ministry of Rites and Literati House have been ordered that the Confucian classics and historical books "must be useful for the purpose of improving self-cultivation, of the stable governance of country and of helping people to be virtuous"; "those deviated from Confucian classics and those heresies" can not be included. It was exactly in such background that the translation of "Philosophy of pursuing truth" by Nan Huairen was banned and destroyed for it was regarded as "paradoxical, heretical and unorthodox". The two books of "Philosophy of pursuing truth" banned and destroyed were translated in the 26th year of the reign of Kangxi Dynasty,consisting of 60 volumes, which Nan Huairen later submitted to the imperial review in august of the same year.--[[User:Ye Weijie|Ye Weijie]] ([[User talk:Ye Weijie|talk]]) 14:16, 6 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==叶维杰 Yè Wéijié 国别 男 202120081544==<br />
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所谓《穷理学》，用徐宗泽的话说，便是“论理学”，该书或译自亚里士多德哲学中的某一部分，或续译傅汎际（Francois Furtado）、李之藻合译的《名理探》。南怀仁在进呈此书译本的奏折中指出：进穷理学之书，以明历理，以广开百学之门，永垂万世事。窃惟治历明时，为帝王之首务；今我皇上治历明时，超越百代，如太阳之光，超越诸星之光。<br />
The so-called ''Qiongli Xue'' is considered “views about science ” in Xu Zongze's opinion. The book Qiongli Xue is either translated from a certain part of Aristotle's philosophy, or a continuation of the translation of "Ming Li Tan" by Francois Furtado and Li Zhizao. Nan Huairen pointed out in the memorial to the translation of this book: By the thorough studying of the books of science, from the understanding of all the science theory in the past, with the establishment of every subject, to the reigning in forever time. Maintaining the stability of society is emperor's first task. Now our reignment is stable and prosperous, no dynasty else could compete, as every star dims before the glory of great sun.--[[User:Ye Weijie|Ye Weijie]] ([[User talk:Ye Weijie|talk]]) 13:59, 6 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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The so-called "QiongLiXue ", in the words of Xu Zongze, is the "theory of science", the book is either translated from a part of Aristotle's philosophy, or continue to translate the translation of Francois Furtado, Li Zhizao's translation of the "name and theory of exploration". Nan Huairen in the submission of the translation of this book, pointed out: into the book of poor science, in order to understand the calendar, in order to widely open the door of a hundred studies, eternal things. The emperor's first task is to rule the calendar and to understand the time; now our emperor rules the calendar and understands the time, beyond a hundred generations, like the light of the sun, beyond the light of the stars.--[[User:Yi Yangfan|Yi Yangfan]] ([[User talk:Yi Yangfan|talk]]) 12:44, 7 November 2021 (UTC)Yi Yangfan<br />
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==易扬帆 Yì Yángfān 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081545==<br />
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然盖历法有属法之数，有立法之理，设惟有其法之数，而无其法之理，即如人惟有形体，而无灵性，亦如诸天惟有定所，而无运动之照临焉。夫历理为诸星恒动定规之所由，如泉源为水流之之所自也。……今我皇上之治历，已为全备，其书则有永年历表，有灵台仪象志，有诸历之理指一百五十余卷。<br />
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However, the calendar has the number and theory of the law. If there is only the number of the law, but don’t have the theory, that is, as a person only has a body without spirituality, and as the sky only has a fixed place, but no movement of the illumination. The calendar for the constant movement as the stars move the rules of the origin, or as the water flow from the source...Nowadays, our emperor's calendar has been fully prepared, and its books include the calendar of eternal years, the spiritual platform, and more than one hundred and fifty volumes of the calendar.--[[User:Yi Yangfan|Yi Yangfan]] ([[User talk:Yi Yangfan|talk]]) 07:22, 3 November 2021 (UTC)Yi Yangfan<br />
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However, the calendar has both the number and theory of the law. If there is only the number of the law, but don’t have the theory, that is, as if a person only has a body without spirituality, and as if the sky only has a fixed place, but no movement of the illumination. The design for calendar is because of the constant movement of the stars, just as the water flow from the source...Nowadays, our emperor's calendar has been fully prepared, and its books include the calendar of eternal years, the spiritual platform, and more than one hundred and fifty volumes of the calendar.--[[User:Yin Huizhen|Yin Huizhen]] ([[User talk:Yin Huizhen|talk]]) 08:34, 3 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==殷慧珍 Yīn Huìzhēn 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081546==<br />
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历典光明，可谓极矣。然臣犹有请者，非为加历理之内光，惟加历理之外光，将所载诸书之历理，开穷理之学，以发明之，使习历者知其数，并知其理，而后其光发见于外也。《穷理学》虽然翻译了亚里士多德的演绎推理等理论，但它也翻译了古希腊的自然哲学内容，以及近代西方的科学知识，因而并非专门的逻辑学译著。<br />
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The compilation of the calendar has reached its peak in this dynasty. However, I still have something to present, not aiming to complement the calendar but to further promote it. I will record books on calendar theory and create a study of calendar theory, so as to create new methods on it, so that people who study calendar can know the number of calendar and its principle, and then carry forward the calendar.<br />
Although ''Thorough Iquiry into Physics'' translated Aristotle's theories like deductive reasoning, it also translated the natural philosophy of ancient Greece and modern western scientific knowledge, so it is not a special translation for logic.--[[User:Yin Huizhen|Yin Huizhen]] ([[User talk:Yin Huizhen|talk]]) 02:24, 3 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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The grandness of the compilation of the calendar is unparalled. However, I still have something to present, aiming not to complement the calendar but to further promote it. I will record books on calendar theory and create a study of it, so that people who study calendar can know both the number and principles of the calender, and then carry it forward .<br />
Although the translation of Aristotle's theories like deductive reasoning were included in ''Thorough Inquiry into Physics'', so were the natural philosophy of ancient Greece and modern western scientific knowledge. Therefore it is by no means a mere translation for logic.--[[User:Yin Meida|Yin Meida]] ([[User talk:Yin Meida|talk]]) 01:43, 5 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==殷美达 Yīn Měidá 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081547==<br />
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《影响中国近代社会的一百种译著》中，曾有人将《穷理学》看作《名理探》的补译，认为南怀仁翻译此书，只是为了证明“目的论”这一经院哲学中的基本概念，这一观点显然值得商榷。《穷理学》译本中，固然摄入了逻辑学、方法论等形而上学的内容，但同时也摄入了力学、数学等自然科学知识。上文中，南怀仁借进呈《穷理学》译本之际，极力宣陈修历的重要性，并将“穷理学”看作“百学之宗”，认为它有如砺石，可以之试真；有如蘑堪，可以之订非；有如眼目，可以之明悟。<br />
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In the book ''One Hundred Translations that influenced Modern Chinese Society'', some people viewed ''Thorough Inquiry into Physics'' as a supplementary translation of ''Dialectic'', and that Nan Huairen's purpose of translating the book was to prove Skopos Theory, a basic concept in Scholasticism, which is obviously worth discussing. It's true that contents of metaphysics like logic and methodology were included in the translation of ''Thorough Inquiry into Physics'' ,but so were knowledge of natural sciences like mechanics and mathematics alike. In the above article, Nan Huairen made an utmost effort to claim the importance of revising calendar. He regarded ''Thorough Inquiry into Physics'' as " the center of one hundred schools" ,which is like a burr that could distinguish the genuine from the fake, an exam that could tell problems and the eyes that could see things through.--[[User:Yin Meida|Yin Meida]] ([[User talk:Yin Meida|talk]]) 00:54, 5 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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In ''One Hundred Translations that influenced Modern Chinese Society'', some people regarded ''Thorough Inquiry into Physics'' as a supplementary translation of ''Dialectic'', and that Nan Huairen's purpose of translating the book was to prove Skopos Theory, a basic concept in Scholasticism, which is obviously worth discussing. It's true that the contents of metaphysics like logic and methodology were included in the translation of ''Thorough Inquiry into Physics'' ,but so were knowledge of natural sciences like mechanics and mathematics alike. Above the content, Nan Huairen made an great effort to stress the importance of revising calendar and regarded ''Thorough Inquiry into Physics'' as " the center of one hundred schools" ,which is like a burr that could distinguish the genuine from the fake, an exam that could correct wrongs and the eyes that could see through things.--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 12:37, 7 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==尹媛 Yǐn Yuán 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081548==<br />
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概言之，便是“诸学之首需者”。康熙二十二年，《穷理学》完成编译，同年八月二十六日进呈康熙皇帝。康熙帝御览此书后，曾降旨礼部和翰林院，敕令其“会同详看议奏”，但士大夫们经过议复之后，不少人对此抱持异议，其中甚至有强烈抵触者，因而康熙帝只能将此书译本退还南怀仁。<br />
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In a word, what is needed is what should be learning first. In the twenty-second year of Kangxi, the complication of ''Through Inquiry into Physics'' was finished and submitted to the Emperor Kangxi on the August 26th the same year. After reading this book, the Emperor Kangxi had ordered the Ministry of Rites and the Imperial Academy to gather to read and discuss in detail. But after the discussion of scholar-bureaucrats, many people agreed, even some of them had strong resistance about it. Therefore, the Emperor Kangxi had to return this complication to Nan Huairen.<br />
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In a word, what is needed is what should be learning first. In the twenty-second year of Kangxi, the compilation of ''Through Inquiry into Physics'' was finished and submitted to the Emperor Kangxi on the August 26th the same year. After reading this book, the Emperor Kangxi had issued a imperial decree gathering the Ministry of Rites and the Imperial Academy to read and discuss in detail. But after the discussion of scholar-bureaucrats, many people disagreed, even some of them had strong resistance about it. Therefore, the Emperor Kangxi had to return this compilation to Nan Huairen.--[[User:Zhan Ruoxuan|Zhan Ruoxuan]] ([[User talk:Zhan Ruoxuan|talk]]) 09:37, 3 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==詹若萱 Zhān Ruòxuān 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081549==<br />
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格物致知的书籍尚且如此，诲淫诲盗的小说更不用说。仍以《金瓶梅》的满文翻译与传播接受为例，即可知此。众所周知，大清立国之后，虽然制度上有不少因袭明代之处，但文化政策整体偏紧。<br />
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This was the case with books which studied phenomena to acquire knowledge , not to mention novels on prostitution and piracy. Still taking the translation and dissemination of "Jin Ping Mei" in Manchu as an example, we can know that. As we all know, after the establishment of the Qing Dynasty, although the system had inherited from that of the Ming Dynasty a lot, but the overall cultural policies were a little bit tight.--[[User:Zhan Ruoxuan|Zhan Ruoxuan]] ([[User talk:Zhan Ruoxuan|talk]]) 09:27, 3 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
The same is true of books about physical knowledge, not to mention novels about obscene deeds. --[[User:Zhang Qiuyi|Zhang Qiuyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Qiuyi|talk]]) 15:01, 4 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==张秋怡 Zhāng Qiūyí 亚非语言文学 女 202120081550==<br />
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康熙年间，由于皇帝热衷儒学，后又在汉官劝谏下将兴趣引导至理学方向，因而对君德圣学、政教纪纲等，尤为重视。康熙九年，圣祖颁布《圣训十六条》，强调教化为先，而非法令为亟，其中便对所谓“近见风俗日敝，人心不古”的情形进行训斥。为此，康熙帝敕令内、外文武各官，务必“敦孝弟以重人伦”，“黜异端以崇正学”，“明礼让以厚风俗”，要求他们“督率举行”。<br />
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During the reign of Kangxi, because the emperor was keen on Confucianism, he later guided his interest to the direction of Neo Confucianism under the advice of Han officials, so he paid special attention to the study of Jun De Sheng and the discipline of politics and religion. In the ninth year of Kangxi's reign, the emperor Shengzu promulgated the sixteen articles of the holy sermon, which emphasized the importance of education rather than laws and regulations. Among them, he reprimanded the so-called situation of "seeing that the customs are getting worse and the people's hearts are not ancient". Therefore, Emperor Kangxi decreed that civil and military officials at home and abroad must "respect human relations", "dethrone heretics to uphold righteousness", "Ming rites and concessions to thick customs", and asked them to "supervise the holding of meetings".--[[User:Zhang Qiuyi|Zhang Qiuyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Qiuyi|talk]]) 08:15, 3 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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During the reign of Kangxi, as the emperor was keen on Confucianism, he later guided his interest to the direction of Neo Confucianism under the admonish of Han officials, so he paid special attention to the study of Jun De Sheng and the discipline of politics and religion. Under the ninth year of Kangxi's reign, the emperor Shengzu promulgated ''the sixteen articles of the holy sermon'', which emphasized the importance of education rather than laws and regulations. Among them, he reprimanded the so-called situation of "seeing that the customs are getting worse and the people's hearts are not conventional anymore". Therefore, Emperor Kangxi decreed that civil and military officials at home and abroad must "respect human relations", "dethrone heretics to uphold righteousness", "learn rites and concessions to enrich customs", and asked them to "supervise and take the lead".--[[User:Zhang Yang|Zhang Yang]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yang|talk]]) 14:41, 5 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==张扬 Zhāng Yáng 国别 男 202120081551==<br />
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康熙三十九年，圣祖亲征塑漠蒙古凯旋，并在太学立碑，其中又强调“以文德化成天下”的重要。康熙四十一年，圣祖颁布《训饬士子文》，再次声明“隆重师儒”、“厘剔弊端”、“务期风教修明”。上述谕令皆发生在满译本《金瓶梅》成书之前，无疑会对后者产生重要影响。<br />
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In the 39th year under the reign of Kangxi, Shengzu went on an expedition to Mongolian desert by himself and made a triumphant return, erecting a monument in the Imperial College, on which also emphasized the importance of "conquering the world with cultural and moral uprightness". In year 41, Shengzu the emperor promulgated ''Xunchi Shiziwen'', declaring that "to grandly teach Confucianism", "to eliminate malpractices" and "to cultivate morality and wisdom". All the above decrees took place before the completion of the full translation of ''Jin Ping Mei'', which will undoubtedly have an important impact on the latter. --[[User:Zhang Yang|Zhang Yang]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yang|talk]]) 13:46, 2 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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In the 39th year under the reign of Kangxi, Shengzu went on an expedition to Mongolian desert by himself and made a triumphant return, erecting a monument in the Imperial College, on which also emphasized the importance of "conquering the world with cultural and moral uprightness". In the 41th year under the reign of Kangxi, Shengzu the emperor promulgated ''A Text for the Discipline of the Scholar'', declaring that "to grandly teach Confucianism", "to eliminate malpractices" and "to cultivate morality and wisdom". All the above decrees took place before the completion of the full translation of ''The Golden Lotus'' which will undoubtedly have an important impact on the latter.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 07:17, 3 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==张怡然 Zhāng Yírán 俄语语言文学 女 202120081552==<br />
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康熙五十三年，上谕诸臣，指出“正人心”、“厚风俗”与“治天下”之间的关系，要求崇尚经学，严禁小说淫词。为此，朝臣奉旨议定条例，规定坊间一切小说淫词，务必悉数查绝，并将板片书籍予以销毁，违者从重治罪。在清廷严厉的禁书背景下，《金瓶梅》及其满文译本将会遭受何种命运，便不得而知。<br />
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In the fifty-third year of the Kangxi reign,an oracle was issued to all ministers，pointing out the relationship between “correcting the hearts of the people”，“thickening custom”and “ruling the world”，demanding that scripture be revered and that novels and obscene words be strictly forbidden. To this end,the imperial ministers were instructed to agree on regulations that all novels and obscene words must be eliminated from the streets and taht the books must be destroyed,and that offenders should be punished severely. Against the backdrop of the Qing court’s strict ban on books, it is not known what fate would befall ''The Golden Lotus'' and its Manchu translation.<br />
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In the fifty-third year of the Kangxi reign,an oracle was issued to all ministers，pointing out the relationship between “correcting people‘s minds”，“strengthening custom”and “ruling the empire”，demanding that scripture should be revered and novels and obscene words be strictly forbidden. So the imperial ministers were instructed to stipulate regulations that all novels and obscene words must be eliminated. And the books must be destroyed. All offenders should be punished severely. Against the backdrop of the Qing court’s strict ban on books, it is not known what fate would befall ''The Golden Lotus'' and its Manchu translation.--[[User:Zhong Yifei|Zhong Yifei]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yifei|talk]]) 14:56, 1 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==钟义菲 Zhōng Yìfēi 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081553==<br />
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自太祖朝以来，清初翻译汉文古典小说，皆以教化为主，而以文学性为次。统治者寄望于翻译的不是文学的审美作用，而是正确的价值观念和人伦纲纪思想。换言之，通过翻译，塑造道德，规范秩序，实现向善求真。<br />
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Since the Taizu Dynasty, the translation of Chinese classical novels in the early Qing Dynasty has mainly focused on enlightenment, partially on literariness. The rulers think that the purpose of translation is not for literary aesthetic，but for the establishing of correct values and ethics. In other words, through translation, we can shape morality, standardize order and realize the pursuit of goodness and truth.--[[User:Zhong Yifei|Zhong Yifei]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yifei|talk]]) 02:56, 28 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Since the Taizu Dynasty, the translation of Chinese classical novels in the early Qing Dynasty has mainly focused on moralization, partially on literariness. The rulers hope that the purpose of translation is not for literary aesthetic，but for the establishment of correct values and ethics. In other words, through translation, we can shape morality, standardize order and realize the pursuit of goodness and truth.--[[User:Zhong Yulu|Zhong Yulu]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yulu|talk]]) 01:52, 30 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==钟雨露 Zhōng Yǔlù 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081554==<br />
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而《金瓶梅》的翻译显然不具备以上作用，它既不像《四书》、《五经》的翻译那样能够启迪心性，荡涤灵魂，又不像《三国演义》般能够探求兵略，维护社会稳定。虽然《金瓶梅》中过于露骨的文字描述使得它不适合翻刻、刊行，但其满文译本最终仍得以成书，并流传于世，其中原因固然有多种可能，但统治者的首肯或默许必是其中之一。如黄润华在《满文翻译小说述略》中所说，满译本《金瓶梅》的问世，不论其译者为谁，或和素，或徐元梦，必定是获得了特别的许可，因而才能译成满文并刊刻行世。<br />
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But the translation of Jin Ping Mei obviously does not have the above functions. It is not like the translation of the Four Books and the Five Classics that can enlighten people’s mind, or like the Romance of the Three Kingdoms that can explore strategies and maintain social stability. Although the explicit description of Jin Ping Mei makes it not suitable for translation or publication, its Manchu translation is eventually translated into a book and has spread throughout the world. There are many possible reasons for it, but the consent or acquiescence of the ruler must be one of them. As Huang Runhua said in A Brief Review of Manchu Translated Novels, the publication of the Manchu version of Jin Ping Mei, no matter who the translator is, He Su or Xu Yuanmeng, must have obtained special permission to be translated into Manchu and published in the world.--[[User:Zhong Yulu|Zhong Yulu]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yulu|talk]]) 01:42, 30 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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But the translation of Jin Ping Mei obviously does not have the above functions. It is not like the translation of the Four Books and the Five Classics that can enlighten people’s mind and purify their souls, or like the Romance of the Three Kingdoms that can explore strategies and maintain social stability. Although the obscene description of Jin Ping Mei makes it not suitable for translation or publication, its Manchu translation is eventually translated into a book and has spread throughout the world. There are many possible reasons for it, but the consent or acquiescence of the ruler must be one of them. As Huang Runhua said in A Brief Review of Manchu Translated Novels, the publication of the Manchu version of Jin Ping Mei, no matter who the translator is, He Su or Xu Yuanmeng, must have obtained special permission to be translated into Manchu and published in the world.--[[User:Zhou Jiu|Zhou Jiu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Jiu|talk]]) 01:00, 31 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==周玖 Zhōu Jiǔ 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081555==<br />
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也只有得到最高统治者的默允，才不致因为擅自翻译刊印而受到惩处。事实上，早在顺治九年，清廷即出台明令，严禁翻刻琐语淫词。康熙二年，圣祖重申此禁，对淫词小说的利害关系晓之以理。<br />
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Only being granted the permission of the supreme ruler, can they free away from punishment for translating and printing obscene novel without authorization. In fact, in the ninth year of the Sun Zhi Period, Qing government issued public proclamation to prohibit translating obscene words. In the second year of Kang Xi Period, the emperor Kang Xi reaffirmed this order, which enabled the public to know the dangers of obscene novels.--[[User:Zhou Jiu|Zhou Jiu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Jiu|talk]]) 05:24, 28 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Only being granted the permission of the supreme ruler, can they free away from punishment for translating and printing obscene novel without authorization. In fact, in the ninth year of the Shun Zhi Period, Qing government issued public proclamation to prohibit translating risque book. In the second year of Kang Xi Period, the emperor Kang Xi reaffirmed this injunction, which enabled the public to know the dangers of obscene novels.--[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 07:24, 29 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==周俊辉 Zhōu Jùnhuī 法语语言文学 女 202120081556==<br />
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然而，由于大清入关之初，全国尚未完成一统，统治者的政策重心在于武力征伐和国家统一，为此便需要笼络人心，因而朝廷对于汉族小说及其翻译并未有多大偏见。昭梿在《啸亭杂录》中说，和素翻译绝精，由他所翻译的《金瓶梅》、《西厢记》等书广受好评，所谓“人皆争诵”，即可说明此点。康熙年间，虽然朝廷加大了对于淫词小说的禁毁，但大体而言，自顺治元年至康熙二十二年之间，由于朝廷文禁的重点在于政治倾向显著的作品，因而对于琐语淫词类小说的禁毁和惩处，影响较小。据石昌渝考证，清初小说中被朝廷查处论罪者，仅有两部，即《无声戏二集》和《续金瓶梅》。<br />
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However, at the time of the Qing dynasty's invasion, the whole country had not yet been unified, and the ruler's policy focus on military conquest and national unification, so the ruler needed to win the love of people. Therefore, the court did not have much prejudice against Han novels and their version of translation. In ''You pavilion miscellanea'' Zhao Lian said ''The Plum in the Golden Vase'','' Western chamber'' and other books translated by He’su were widely praised, reached the level of "everyone rushed to read", which can show Hesu’s superb translation level. During Kang-hee’s reign, the government strengthened the prohibition and destruction of the risque novel, but overall, from the first year of Shunzhi to Kangxi twenty-two years, due to the ban of imperial court was focused on political leanings remarkable work, the denial and punishment for the risque novel were mild. According to the Shi Changyu textual research, only two novels were prohibited and punished in early Qing Dynasty, which were ''Silent Drama 2'' and ''Sequel to the Plum in the Golden Vase''.--[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 07:23, 29 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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However, at the beginning of Manchu entered the Shanhaiguan Pass, the unification of the whole country had not been completed, and the emperor focused on military expedition and national reunification. Therefore, the government did not have much prejudice against Han novels and their translation in order to win the supports of the people. In the The Miscellaneous Records of Xiaoting, Zhao zhe said that He Su was proficient in translation. His translations of Jin Ping Mei and the story of The West Chamber were widely praised. The so-called "everyone competes for recitation" can illustrate this point. During the Kangxi period, although the imperial court increased the prohibition and destruction of pornographic novels, generally speaking, from the first year of Shunzhi to the 22nd year of Kangxi, the imperial court focused on works with salient political tendencies. Accordingly, it had little impact on the prohibition and punishment of pornographic novels. According to Shi Changyu's research, there were only two novels in the early Qing Dynasty that were investigated and punished by the imperial court, namely, Silent Drama II and The Sequel to Jin Ping Mei.--[[User:Zhou Qiao1|Zhou Qiao1]] ([[User talk:Zhou Qiao1|talk]]) 00:05, 31 October 2021 (UTC)--[[User:Zhou Qiao1|Zhou Qiao1]] ([[User talk:Zhou Qiao1|talk]]) 00:05, 31 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==周巧 Zhōu Qiǎo 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081557==<br />
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但需要指出的是，《续金瓶梅》之所以获罪，其原因不在于它续写《金瓶梅》人物在所谓“后世”中的混乱生活，而是因为它将满族的发祥地描写为人、兽同居同食的野蛮地。因而，清初之际，朝廷对于淫词小说的接受，以及对于小说创作的限制，整体上仍然较为宽松。而《金瓶梅》的翻译、成书乃是康熙朝中后期的事，此时的朝廷对于“端风俗、正人心”有了日益深刻的认识，因而不仅强化了思想控制，而且加强了对于小说翻译与小说创作的管制。<br />
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But what needs to be pointed out is that the reason why The Sequel of Jin Ping Mei was convicted is not because it continues the chaotic life of the characters in Jin Ping Mei in the so-called "later generations", but because it describes the birthplace of the Manchu as a barbaric place where people and animals live and eat together. However, at the beginning of the Qing Dynasty, the government 's acceptance of pornographic novels was relatively high and the restrictions on novel creation was still relatively loose on the whole. While the translation and completion of Jin Ping Mei was in the middle and late reign of Kangxi. At that time, the imperial court had an increasingly profound understanding of "stick to the customs and purify people's hearts", which not only strengthened the ideological control but the regulation of novel translation and creation.--[[User:Zhou Qiao1|Zhou Qiao1]] ([[User talk:Zhou Qiao1|talk]]) 11:50, 28 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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However, it should be pointed out that the reason why "Continued Jin Ping Mei" was convicted was not because it continued the chaotic life of the characters in "Jin Ping Mei" in the so-called "post generations", but because it described the birthplace of Manchu as the cohabitation of man and beast. The barbaric place of food. Therefore, at the beginning of the Qing Dynasty, the court's acceptance of pornographic novels and restrictions on novel creation were still relatively loose. The translation and completion of "Jin Ping Mei" was a matter of the middle and late Kangxi dynasty. At this time, the imperial court had a deeper and deeper understanding of "customs and morals", which not only strengthened ideological control, but also strengthened the translation and interpretation of novels. The control of novel creation.--[[User:Zhou Qing|Zhou Qing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Qing|talk]]) 07:21, 1 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==周清 Zhōu Qīng 法语语言文学 女 202120081558==<br />
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至乾隆初年，《金瓶梅》与《水浒传》等书因为诲淫诲盗的原因，又被“久干例禁”。满洲政权兴起于白山黑水之间，在其一路开疆辟土，驰骋向前的过程中，虽然统治者反复高唱“满汉一体”，但相关的政治、文化实践表明，这一说法不过是政治口号。作为满清政权恪守不变的政策，“首崇满洲”既是统治者立法、行政的基本原则，又是统治者处理民族关系、民族事务的圭臬。<br />
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In the early years of Qianlong, books such as "Jin Ping Mei" and "Water Margin" were again banned for a long time, because of their Obscene. The Manchurian regime emerged between the white mountains and black waters. In the process of pioneering territory and galloping forward, although the rulers repeatedly sang "Man and Han as one unit", relevant political and cultural practices have shown that this statement is nothing more than a political slogan. As a policy that the Manchu government adhered to unchanged, "first advocating Manchuria" was not only the basic principle of the ruler's legislation and administration, but also the ruler's standard for handling ethnic relations and ethnic affairs.<br />
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In the early years of Qianlong, books such as "Jin Ping Mei" and "Water Margin" were again banned for a long time, because of their obscene and illegal content . The Manchurian regime emerged between the white mountains and black waters-- the landscape of northeast China. In the process of pioneering territory and galloping forward, although the rulers repeated"Man and Han as one unit", relevant political and cultural practices have shown that it was nothing more than a political slogan. As the policy that the Manchu government stick "Manchuria First " was not only the fundamental principle of the ruler's legislation and administration, but also the standard for handling ethnic relations and affairs.--[[User:Zhou Xiaoxue|Zhou Xiaoxue]] ([[User talk:Zhou Xiaoxue|talk]]) 09:12, 1 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==周小雪 Zhōu Xiǎoxuě 日语语言文学 女 202120081559==<br />
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终清一朝，统治者始终坚持满洲之道，固守满洲本位，崇尚满族特权，维护满洲的典章制度和文化特征。对统治者而言，传承与发展民族文化的重要性不言而喻，它不仅关系到国家政权的性质和满族民族的凝聚力与向心力，而且关系到满族统治集团的优势地位、特殊利益，乃至满族作为民族共同体的生死存亡。为此，满清政府不仅长期坚持“国语骑射”的基本国策，而且通过书籍的审查与禁毁等极端措施，确保满族文化符号和思想传统的专制。<br />
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In the Qing Dynasty, the rulers always adhered to the way of Manchu, insisted on Manchu standards, advocated Manchu privileges, and maintained Manchu institutions and cultural characteristics. For the rulers, the importance of inheriting and developing national culture was self-evident,which not only related to the Political Nature and the cohesion and solidarity of Manchu nation, but also related to the dominant position and special interests of Manchu ruling group, and even the survival of Manchu as a national community. Therefore, the Manchu government not only adhered to the basic state policy of "national language and ride" for a long time, but also ensured the despotism of Manchu cultural and ideological traditions by taking extreme measures such as censorship and prohibition of books.--[[User:Zhou Xiaoxue|Zhou Xiaoxue]] ([[User talk:Zhou Xiaoxue|talk]]) 03:13, 29 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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In the Qing Dynasty, the rulers always adhered to the way of Manchu, insisted on Manchu standards, advocated Manchu privileges,maintained Manchu ancient laws and regulations as well as cultural characteristics. For the rulers, the importance of inheriting and developing national culture was an understood thing,which not only related to the nature of the state power, the cohesion and solidarity of Manchu nation, but also related to the dominant position and special interests of Manchu ruling group, and even the survival of Manchu as a national community. Therefore, the Manchu government not only adhered to the basic state policy of "Mandarin Riding and Shooting" for a long time, but also ensured the despotism of Manchu culture symbol and ideological traditions by taking extreme measures such as censorship and prohibition of books.--[[User:Zhu Suzhen|Zhu Suzhen]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suzhen|talk]]) 10:25, 5 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==朱素珍 Zhū Sùzhēn 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081561==<br />
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与此同时，统治者积极敕撰、敕译汉族书籍，虽然客观上吸收了汉族文化，但这些书籍的编纂与翻译亦如满洲文化的维护一样，只是满洲权贵巩固政权统治的策略与手段，一旦书籍的翻译与编纂有悖于统治者的主观期待，亦或是国家的统治之需，其审查与禁毁即在所难免。结语。作为除《三国演义》之外清初唯一刊印的汉文小说，《金瓶梅》的翻译与传播无疑离不开统治阶级的支持或者默认。<br />
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At the same time, the rulers actively wrote and translated Han books. Although objectively absorbing Han culture, the compilation and translation of these books are just like the maintenance of Manchu culture. They are only the strategies and means for Manchu dignitaries to consolidate their reign of power. Once the translation and compilation of books go against the subjective expectations of the rulers or the needs of the country's rule, its censorship and prohibition are inevitable. Conclusion. As the only Chinese novel published in the early Qing Dynasty, except ''The Romance of the Three Kingdoms'', the translation and dissemination of ''The Golden Lotus'' are undoubtedly inseparable from the support or acquiescence of the ruling class.<br />
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At the same time, the rulers actively wrote and translated Han books. Although objectively absorbing Han culture, the compilation and translation of these books are just like the maintenance of Manchu culture. They are only the strategies and means for Manchu dignitaries to consolidate their political power. Once the translation and compilation of books go against the subjective expectations of the rulers or the needs of the country's rule, Its review and prohibition are inevitable. Conclusion. As the only Chinese novel published in the early Qing Dynasty except the romance of the Three Kingdoms, the translation and dissemination of JinPingMei is undoubtedly inseparable from the support or acquiescence of the ruling class.--[[User:Zou Yueli|Zou Yueli]] ([[User talk:Zou Yueli|talk]]) 04:49, 7 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==邹岳丽 Zōu Yuèlí 日语语言文学 女 202120081562==<br />
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《金瓶梅》满文译本的印行不仅说明清代禁书政策的失败，而且说明该政策的虚伪。一方面，所谓汉书的禁毁往往只是针对民间，而统治者尤其是国家君主则往往享有豁免。正如其它汉籍汉书的翻译一样，《金瓶梅》的翻译与刊刻不可能游走在国家法律和政府禁令之外。<br />
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The printing of the Manchu translation of 《JinPingMei》 not only shows the failure of the book ban policy in the Qing Dynasty, but also shows the hypocrisy of the policy. On the one hand, the so-called prohibition and destruction of the Han Dynasty is often only aimed at the people, while the rulers, especially the national monarchs, often enjoy immunity. Just like the translation of other Chinese books, the translation and publication of 《JinPingMei》 can not go beyond the national laws and government prohibitions.--[[User:Zou Yueli|Zou Yueli]] ([[User talk:Zou Yueli|talk]]) 02:00, 7 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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The publication of Manchu translation of ''The Golden Lotus'' indicates not only the failure of the Policy of Banned Books in the Qing Dynasty, but also the hypocrisy of the policy. On the one hand, the ban on Han Books is often only aimed at the people, while the rulers, especially the monarchs of the country, often enjoy immunity. Same as the translation of other Chinese books, the translation and publication of ''The Golden Lotus'' cannot exist outside national laws and government bans.--[[User:Chen Jing|Chen Jing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jing|talk]]) 08:05, 30 December 2021 (UTC)</div>Zhang Yiranhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20210929_homework&diff=13504120210929 homework2021-12-31T02:35:51Z<p>Zhang Yiran: /* 俄语语言文学 202120081552 张怡然 女 */</p>
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<div>Quicklinks: [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021|Back to course homepage]] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal#Frequently_asked_questions_FAQ FAQ] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal Manual] [[20210926_homework|Back to all homework webpages overview]] [[20220112_final_exam|final exam page]]<br />
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[[20210929_homework|homework of session 1 for session 2 Sep 29]]<br />
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IN PREPARATION<br />
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专业班级名称 学号 姓 名 性别<br />
==语言智能与跨文化传播研究 202120081535 徐敏赟 男==<br />
This is the homework of 徐敏赟.--[[User:Root|Root]] ([[User talk:Root|talk]]) 12:41, 26 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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清初时期的汉籍（书）翻译及其文化沟通意涵<br />
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摘要：清初之际，统治者虽以武力立国，但社会的主导意识形态尚未形成，国家的“治统”与“道统”尚未确立。为了匡扶社稷，教化臣民，探求君主治术，建构符合国家需求的集体价值观，统治者积极组织汉书翻译，促进文化交流，增进民族和解。<br />
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The Translation of Chinese Books in the Early Qing Dynasty and its Cultural Communication Implications<br />
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Abstract: At the beginning of the Qing Dynasty, the ruler established the country by force, but the dominant social ideology has not yet been formed. Besides, the country's "ruling" and "moral orthodox" have not yet been established either. In order to help the community, educate the people, explore the rules of the monarchy, and construct collective values that meet the needs of the country, the ruler organized the translation of Chinese books actively, which helped promote cultural exchanges and enhance national reconciliation.<br />
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The Translation of the Han Classics in Early Qing Dynasty and its Implications for Cultural Communication<br />
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Abstract: At the beginning of Qing Dynasty, the ruler established the country by force, but the dominant social ideology has not yet been formed. Besides, the country's "governance" and "moral orthodoxy" have not yet been established neither. In order to help the community, educate the people, explore the rules of the monarchy, and construct collective values that meet the needs of the country, the ruler organized the translation of Chinese books actively, which helped promote cultural exchanges and enhance national reconciliation.--[[User:Root|Root]] ([[User talk:Root|talk]]) 12:44, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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The Translation of the Han Classics in Early Qing Dynasty and its Implications for Cultural Communication<br />
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Abstract: At the beginning of the Qing Dynasty, the ruler established the country by force, but the dominant social ideology has not yet been formed. Besides, the country's "governance" and "moral orthodox" have not yet been established either. In order to rectify and sustain the society, educate the subjects, explore the rules of the monarchy, and construct collective values that meet the needs of the country, the ruler organized the translation of Han Classics actively, which helped promote cultural exchanges and enhance national reconciliation.--[[User:Yan Jing|Yan Jing]] ([[User talk:Yan Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 8 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==语言智能与跨文化传播研究 202120081536 颜静 女==<br />
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作为清初文化事业的重要组成部分，汉书翻译有着明确的选择标准，实用主义色彩浓厚，主要关注汉族的文治教化与典章制度，将翻译与政要相关联，反对浮华藻饰的翻译。组织上，汉书翻译以官方为主，以民间为辅，译书者既有兼通满、汉双语之旗人，又有八旗科举考试之及第者，这些人既是文化交流的管理者，又是实践者，代表了统治阶级意欲沟通满汉的主观愿望。成效上，汉书翻译不仅促进了新生政权的制度建设，而且为统治者建构政权合法性做出了贡献。<br />
As an important part of cutural undertakings in early Qing dynasty, the translation of Han Shu had clear selection criteria and strong pragmatism. It focused on cultural education and institutions of Han nationality, associated the translation with politics and opposed flashly one. Organizationally,Han Shu was translated mainly by officials, and then public people. The translators contained not only the Eight Banners' People who mastered both Manchu and Chinese language, but also those who passed the Eight Banners imperial examination. These people were administrators of cultural exchanges, and also practicers, representing that the ruling class was willing to communicate the Manchu and Han people. In effect, the translating of Han Shu promoted the institutional construction of new regime, and also contributed to the rulers for constructing the regime legitimacy.<br />
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As an important part of cutural undertakings in early Qing dynasty, the translation of Han Shu had clear selection criteria and strong pragmatism. It (mainly) focused on cultural education and institutions of Han nationality, associated the translation with politics and opposed flashly one(embellishments). Organizationally,Han Shu was translated mainly by officials, and then (by) public people. The translators contained not only the Eight Banners' People who mastered both Manchu and Chinese language, but also those who passed the Eight Banners imperial examination. These people were administrators of cultural exchanges, and also practicers, representing that the ruling class was willing to (intended to) communicate the Manchu and Han people. In effect(As a result), the translating of Han Shu promoted the institutional construction of new regime, and also contributed to the rulers for constructing the regime legitimacy.--[[User:Du Lina|Du Lina]] ([[User talk:Du Lina|talk]]) 07:06, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==英语语言文学（语言学） 202120081484 杜莉娜 女==<br />
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导论：凡国家之建立，必有立国精神和主导意识形态，以及相应之文化政策。<br />
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早在天聪年间，清太宗便为新政权提出文武并用的战略构想，既强调以武功勘祸乱，又主张以文教佐太平，提出了文化统制与文化建设的独到见解。顺治十年，世祖章皇帝订定崇儒重道之政策，并以此为基础构建了兴文教、崇经术的治国理念。<br />
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Introduction: The establishment of any countries must need the national spirit ,dominant ideology and appropriate cultural policies.<br />
As early as the year of Tiancong, Hong Taiji put forward the strategy of combining education and force for the new regime. He emphasized to calm down the chaos by force and to keep the peace by civilian. And he came up with unique insights into cultural unification and cultural development as well. During the first decade of Shunzhi, the emperor made the policies of respecting Confucianism and Taoism, and from this the concepts of governing like prospering education and worshipping scriptures were built.<br />
--[[User:Du Lina|Du Lina]] ([[User talk:Du Lina|talk]]) 16:07, 28 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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1、“文武并用”应该更侧重于“文化”，译为culture；<br />
2、“以文教佐太平”中的文教可译为cultural education；<br />
3、“and from this the concepts of governing like prospering education and worshipping scriptures were built.”此句可用定从，which served as a basis of …<br />
--[[User:Hu Shuqing|Hu Shuqing]] ([[User talk:Hu Shuqing|talk]]) 02:25, 30 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==英语语言文学（语言学） 202120081490 胡舒情 女==<br />
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自此以后，虽然清代历朝统治者在关注满、汉文化交流时，不免对汉人进行打压，但也同时对汉族文化进行宣扬与推广。<br />
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清初统治者在构建“治统”与“道统”的过程中，围绕“崇儒重道”，衍生出众多文化政策实举，如科举取士、博学鸿词等，而汉籍经史的翻译与编纂也是其中重要内容。汉籍翻译是清代文化事业的重要组成部分，是清代民族关系与文化政策的重要载体，它和满清政权的其它文化活动一样，在功能上相互关联，彼此补充，为促进民族之间的相互了解，维护王朝体系的稳定发展，做出了重要贡献。<br />
Since then, although all the dominators of Qing dynasty would squash the Han people when focusing on cultural exchange between Manchu and Han, they also propagated and promoted the Han culture at the same time. The dominators of early Qing dynasty implemented numerous cultural policies around the idea of “respecting and emphasizing Confucianism” during the progress of constructing Monarchism and statesmanship, which included imperial examinations, erudite and an important part - compilation and translation of Han classics and history. Its translation formed Qing’s cultural undertakings as necessary parts and served as a carrier of Qing’s ethnic relations and cultural policies. It was the same as other cultural activities of Qing dynasty. They related to and complemented each other, which made a contribution to promoting mutual understanding among peoples and maintaining the stable development of the dynastic system.<br />
--[[User:Hu Shuqing|Hu Shuqing]] ([[User talk:Hu Shuqing|talk]]) 02:26, 30 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Since then when it comes to Man and Han culture communication, all the dominants of Qing dynasty would freeze Han people but also promoted their culture at the same time.<br />
During the process of constructing Monarchism and statesmanship, the dominators of early Qing dynasty implemented numerous cultural policies around the idea of “respecting and emphasizing Confucianism”,which included imperial examinations, erudite etc. and also compilation and translation of Han classics and history as an important content. Translating Han classic is an important part of Qing culture and the critical carrier of its ethnic relationship and cultural policies. Like other cultural activities it related to each other functionally and made great contributions to ethnic communication and the solid development of Qing dynasty.--[[User:Huang Jinyun|Huang Jinyun]] ([[User talk:Huang Jinyun|talk]]) 13:18, 11 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==英语语言文学（语言学） 202120081491 黄锦云 女==<br />
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作为汉籍翻译的管理者和实践者，译者们承担了沟通满、汉文化的历史使命，其所翻译的汉族书籍不仅有效增进了旗人对于汉文化的了解，而且为新生政权进行制度建设，以及合法性的建构发挥了历史性作用。<br />
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一 满洲前身时期的汉籍翻译<br />
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满洲的前身系女真，语言文字上属阿尔泰语系。<br />
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As the manager and practicer of translating Han's books, translators take charge of the historial mission to combine Manchu cultrue and Han cultrue. Their translations not only enhance the Bannermen to know Han cultrue, but also play a historical role in forming a new regime and conlidating its validity.--Translation of Han's books before Manchu period<br />
Manchurians originates from Nvzhen race, and their language and character belongs to Altaic languages.<br />
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As managers and practitioners of translation of Han's books, the translators undertake the historical mission of cultural communication between the Manchu nationality and the Han nationality. Their translations of Han's books not only efficiently improve the Manchu's understanding of Han culture, but also play a historical role in system construction for new regime and legal construction. <br />
-- Translation of Han's books before the Manchu period<br />
Manchurians originate from Nvzhen race, and their language belongs to Altaic language.--[[User:Kuang Yanli|Kuang Yanli]] ([[User talk:Kuang Yanli|talk]]) 14:11, 9 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==英语语言文学（语言学） 202120081495 邝艳丽 女==<br />
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满族和历史上的女真族一样，原本没有自己的语言，记事时需要借用其他民族文字。《金史》中说：“初无文字，国势日强，与邻国交好，迺用契丹字。”[ 杨家骆：《金史》，台北：鼎文书局，1985年，第1684页。] 金朝立国后，初期的内、外公文几乎都用契丹文书写，金太祖本人也擅长契丹语。<br />
As Jurchen in the history, the Manchu nationality did not have its own language, and they needed to use other national characters when making a memorandum. "The Jin dynasty did not have their own characters, but with its increasing development and its need to deal with the relation with neighbouring country, then used Khitan characters" said in ''The History of Jin Dynasty''[Yang Jialuo: ''The History of Jin Dynasty'',Taipei: Dingwen Publishing House, 1985, p.16884] After Jin Dynasty was established, the official documents inside and outside the court were nearly written with Khitan characters, even the Emperor Taizu of Jin Dynasty was skilled in using Khitan language.--[[User:Kuang Yanli|Kuang Yanli]] ([[User talk:Li Aixuan|talk]])09:41, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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As Jurchen in the history, the Manchu nationality did not have its own language. Therefore, keeping a record of events depended on the characters of other nation. Said in The History of Jin Dynasty, "the Jin dynasty did not have their own characters, but with its increasing development and its need to deal with the relation with neighbouring country, then used Khitan characters". [Yang Jialuo: The History of Jin Dynasty,Taipei: Dingwen Publishing House, 1985, p.16884] After the establishment of Jin Dynasty, the official documents at home and abroad were nearly written in Khitan characters, even the Emperor Taizu of Jin was skilled in using Khitan characters.--[[User:Li Aixuan|Li Aixuan]] ([[User talk:Li Aixuan|talk]]) 13:34, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==英语语言文学（语言学） 202120081496 李爱璇 女==<br />
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然而，契丹语与金人女真语差距较大，因而金太祖命完颜希尹、叶鲁依据汉人楷字，并参照契丹字制度，创制适合本族的语言文字“女直文”。天辅（金太祖年号）三年，女直文依诏令颁行，称“女直大字”。二十年后，即1138年，金熙宗完颜亶又命人参照契丹字，创制并颁布另一种女直文字，即“女直小字”。<br />
However, there was a huge gap between the Khitan language and the Jurchen language. Therefore, the Emperor Taizu of Jin ordered Wanyan Xiyin and Ye Lu to create a language suitable for their own people, Jurchen script, based on the Han regular script and referring to the Khitan script system. In the third year of the period of Tianfu (the reign title of Emperor Taizu of Jin), according to the edict, the Jurchen script was enacted as "Jurchen Large Script". In 1138, twenty years later, Wanyan Dan, the Emperor of Xizong, ordered someone to create and enact another kind of Jurchen script, namely "Jurchen Little Script", referring to the Khitan script system.--[[User:Li Aixuan|Li Aixuan]] ([[User talk:Li Aixuan|talk]]) 01:15, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
However, there was a big gap between Khitan language and Jin Nuzhen language. Therefore, Jin Taizu ordered Wanyan Xiyin and Ye Lu to create a language suitable for their own nationality "Jurchen script", according to the regular script of Han people and with reference to the Khitan character system. In the third year of Tianfu (the year of emperor Taizu of Jin Dynasty), Jurchen script was issued in accordance with the imperial edict, known as "Jurchen Large Script". Twenty years later, in 1138, Jin Xizong, Wanyan Dan ordered people to create and promulgate another Jurchen script, namely “Jurchen Little Script", according to the Khitan character.— Li Xichang<br />
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==英语语言文学（语言学） 202120081502 李习长 男==<br />
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金世宗继位后，在推动女直文字的使用上，力度更大，举措更丰。如大定（金世宗年号）四年，金世宗令翰林侍讲学士徒单子温等用女直大、小字，翻译经书。女直文字的创制，对金朝翻译汉书影响巨大，而汉书翻译又影响了金朝的政治制度与国家治理。<br />
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After Jin Shizong succeeded to the throne, he made greater efforts and took more measures to promote the use of nvzhi characters. For example, in the fourth year of Dading (the year of Jin Shizong), Jin Shizong ordered the Imperial College to teach the bachelor's Apprentice Shan Ziwen to translate scriptures in large and small characters. The creation of nvzhi characters had a great impact on the translation of Chinese books in the Jin Dynasty, which in turn affected the political system and national governance of the Jin Dynasty.<br />
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After Jin Shizong succeeded to the throne, he made greater efforts and took more measures to promote the use of nvzhi characters. For example, in the fourth year of Dading (the year of the region of emperor Jin Shizong), he ordered his disciple Shan Ziwen and other Shijiang academicians of Hanlin to translate Confucian Classics in Jurchen large and small scripts. the creation of Jurchen script had a great impact on the translation of Chinese books in the Jin Dynasty, and that, in turn, the Chinese books affected the political system and national governance of the Jin Dynasty.—[[User:Qiu Tingting|Qiu Tingting]] ([[User talk:Qiu Tingting|talk]]) 03:39, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==英语语言文学（语言学） 202120081519 邱婷婷 女==<br />
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如大定五年，金世宗命徒单镒翻译《贞观政要》和《白氏策林》等书，次年徒单子温将译本进呈皇帝。大定七年，《史记》和《西汉书》等翻译成书，金世宗敕令刊刻颁行。大定十五年，金世宗再令翻译各部经书，由温迪罕缔达（著作佐郎）、宗璧（编修官）、阿鲁（尚书省译史）、杨克忠（史部令史）等负责对译本进行注解。<br />
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For example, in the fifth year of Dading (the year of the region of emperor Jin Shizong), the emperor ordered his disciple Shan Yi to translate The Political Program of Zhen Guan and Bai Shi Ce Lin, etc. Then emperor Shizong received the translations submitted by another disciple named Shan Ziwen in the next year. In the seventh year of Dading, the Records of the Grand Historian and the book of the Western Han Dynasty were translated into books, which were printed and issued by the royal decree of emperor Shizong. What’s more, he released an order again translating several Confucian classics which were annotated by Wendihan Dida （assistant of Zhu Zuolang）， Zong Bi（ BianxiuOfficer), A Lu( translator of history of Department of State Affairs ), Yang Kezhong( Lingshi of the Ministry of Official Personnel Affairs ) etc.<br />
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Annotation:<br />
1.Zhu Zuolang: A person whose responsibility is to compile historical works.<br />
2.Bianxiu: The official name, first placed in the Song Dynasty, is mainly responsible for the revision and compilation of documents.<br />
3.Lingshi: Official name; the general name of petty officials in the government since the song and Yuan Dynasties.—[[User:Qiu Tingting|Qiu Tingting]] ([[User talk:Qiu Tingting|talk]]) 16:58, 28 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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For example, in the fifth year of Dading (the year of the region of emperor Jin Shizong), the emperor ordered his disciple Shan Yi to translate ''The Political Program of Zhen Guan'' and ''Bai Shi Ce Lin'', etc. Then emperor Shizong received the translations submitted by another disciple named Shan Ziwen in the next year. One year later,''the Records of the Grand Historian'' and ''the book of the Western Han Dynasty'' were translated into books, which were printed and issued under the royal decree of emperor Shizong. What’s more, he released an order again translating various kinds of Confucian classics, and put Wendihan Dida （assistant of Zhu Zuolang）， Zong Bi（ BianxiuOfficer), A Lu( translator of history of Department of State Affairs ), Yang Kezhong( Lingshi of the Ministry of Official Personnel Affairs ) etc.in chagrge of the annotation of the translations of these books.<br />
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Annotation:<br />
1.Zhu Zuolang: A person whose responsibility is to compile historical works.<br />
2.Bianxiu: The official name, first placed in the Song Dynasty, is mainly responsible for the revision and compilation of documents.<br />
3.Lingshi: Official name; the general name of petty officials in the government since the song and Yuan Dynasties.--[[User:Rao Jinying|Rao Jinying]] ([[User talk:Rao Jinying|talk]]) 13:00, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==英语语言文学（语言学） 202120081520 饶金盈 女==<br />
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金世宗在位期间，朝廷设立译经所，专司汉文经史的翻译。期间，所译汉书除上述几种之外，另有《易》、《书》、《论语》、《老子》、《孟子》、《扬子》、《文中子》、《刘子》以及《新唐书》等。之所以翻译这些书籍，是因为金世宗希望女直人了解汉人的仁义道德，以利于治国安邦。<br />
During the reign of Wan Yanyong, the fifth emperor of the Jin Dynasty, the imperial court set up a sutra translation office to specialize in the translation of scriptures and historical materials written in classical Chinese. Meantime, in addition to the above-mentioned Chinese books, there were also ''Yi'', ''Shu'', ''the Analects of Confucius'', ''the Laozi'', ''the Mencius'', ''the Yangzi'', ''the Wenzhongzi'', ''the Liuzi'' and ''the New Book of Tang Dynasty''. The reason why these books were translated was that Wan Yanyong hoped that the Jurchen people would get some knowledge of the humanity, justice, and morality of Han people by reading these books, so as to develop a prosperous and stable country.--[[User:Rao Jinying|Rao Jinying]] ([[User talk:Rao Jinying|talk]]) 13:05, 28 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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During the reign of Emperor Jin Shizong,the imperial court set up a classics translation office concentrating on the translation of Chinese classics. During this period,apart from translating the above-mentioned Chinese classics, they also translated " Yi", "Shu", "the Analects of Confucius", "Laozi", "Mencius", "Yangzi", "Wenzhongzi", "Liuzi" and "New Book of Tang", etc. The reason why Jin Shizong chose these classics was that he hoped that Nuzhi people could know the virtue and morality of Chinese by reading these classics. And then he could rule the nation better and build a stable society. -- Yang Aijiang (talk) 21.57. 11 October 2021<br />
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==英语语言文学（语言学） 202120081541 杨爱江 女==<br />
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然而，当时的女直字与汉字不能直接对译，中间需要经过转译为契丹字。为解决这一问题，金章宗在位期间，诏设弘文院，命人译写儒家经典并讲解。旋即，又废止契丹字，要求嗣后汉文典籍直接译为女直字，以省去须经契丹字转译的中间环节。<br />
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However, it was not feasible to translate Nvzhi characters into Chinese characters at that time. And it needed to be translated into Khitan characters first. During the reign of Emperor Jin Zhangzong, he set up Hongwen Academy and commanded his ministers to translate and explain Confucian classics in order to figure out the language problem. Besides, Jin Zhangzong abolished its use of Khitan characters and demanded that the Chinese classics should be translated in Nvzhi characters directly, omitting taking advantage of the translation of Khitan characters as a bridge.<br />
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However, Nvzhi characters could not be directly translated into Chinese without being rendered into Khitan ones first. During the reign of Emperor Jin Zhangzong, he set up Hongwen Academy and commanded his ministers to translate and explain Confucian classics in order to figure out the language problem. Soon after, Jin Zhangzong abolished the use of Khitan characters and demanded that the Chinese classics should be translated into Nvzhi characters directly, avoiding the intermediate step of using Khitan characters.--[[User:Yin Meida|Yin Meida]] ([[User talk:Yin Meida|talk]]) 13:37, 11 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==英语语言文学（语言学） 202120081547 殷美达 女==<br />
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金朝政权覆灭之后，虽然留居东北故地的少数女直上层人士尚能娴习女直文，但女直字作为一种语言逐渐失传。明朝政府设置“四夷馆”后，又延人专习女直字，以应付中央与地方政府，或中央与藩属地之间的通译需要。虽然如此，女直语的凋落已成定势。<br />
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二 太祖时期汉籍（书）翻译之“始”<br />
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After the collapse of Jin Dynasty, a small number of upper class Nuzhen people who still lived in northeastern China were proficient in Nuzhen language, but its words were being lost gradually. The Ming Dynasty, when setting up "Academy of Eastern Minorities ", hired particular people to study Nuzhen language to meet the needs of communication and translation between the central and local governments or its dependent territories. Nevertheless, the decline of Nuzhen language had become a foregone conclusion. <br />
Second, the initial translation of Chinese books during the reign of the first emperor of Qing Dynasty.--[[User:Yin Meida|Yin Meida]] ([[User talk:Yin Meida|talk]]) 09:46, 30 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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After the collapse of the Jin Dynasty, although a small number of Nuzhen upper class people living in Northeast China were very proficient in Nuzhen language, Nuzhen characters have been gradually lost. Having set up the Si-yi-guan, the Ming Dynasty hired people to specially learn Nuzhen characters to meet the needs of translation between the central government and local governments or its affiliated places. Nevertheless, the decline of Nuzhen language is inevitable.--[[User:Zhou Qiao1|Zhou Qiao1]] ([[User talk:Zhou Qiao1|talk]]) 01:18, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==英语语言文学（语言学） 202120081557 周巧 女==<br />
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明朝万历年间，努尔哈赤率部崛起之时，作为女直后裔的满族并无文字。那时，文移往来必须靠蒙古语的学习与翻译才能完成。为满足文移往来，记注政事的需要，并解决“今我国之语，必译为蒙古语读之，则未习蒙古语者，不能知也”的问题，清太祖努尔哈赤于明万历二十七年，命额尔德尼、噶（gá）盖等改制国书（即，国家的语言文字），以改变满人说女真语却写蒙古字的尴尬局面。[ 明珠等奉敕修：《清实录·太祖高皇帝实录》，北京：中华书局，1986年，第2页。]<br />
In the wanli period of Ming Dynasty, when Nurhachi led the rise of the Manchu, as a straight descendant of Jurchen, it had no written words. At that time, the exchange of letters had to rely on Mongolian learning and translation to complete. For recording the political affairs and solving the problem that "Nowadays, the language of our country have to be translated into Mongolian to read, otherwise people can’t understand it without the learning of it. In the wanli 27 years of Ming Dynasty, Emperor Nurhachi（the first founder of Ming Dynasty） ordered Erdeni, Gagai and etc to reform credentials (namely the national language), which is to change the embarrassing situation of Manchu speaking Jurchen language while writing Mongolian. Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1986, p. 2.<br />
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During the Wanli period of Ming Dynasty, when Nurhachi led the rise of the Manchu, the Manchu, as the straight descendant of Jurchen, had no written words . At that time, the exchange of letters had to rely on Mongolian learning and translation. In order to meet the need of exchange of letters, recording and annotating the political affairs as well as solving the problem that "Nowadays, the language of our country have to be translated into Mongolian to read, and the people who do not learn Mobolian can't understand it.", in the Wanli 27 years of Ming Dynasty, Emperor Nurhachi（the first founder of Ming Dynasty） ordered Erdeni, Gagai and etc to reform credentials (namely the national language), which aimed to change the embarrassing situation that Manchu speaking Jurchen language while writing in Mongolian. Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1986, p. 2.--[[User:Zhu Suzhen|Zhu Suzhen]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suzhen|talk]]) 06:16, 30 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==英语语言文学（语言学） 202120081561 朱素珍 女==<br />
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自此，满洲的语言和文字渐趋一致。然而问题在于，此时创制的满洲语言（老满文）系参照畏兀儿体老蒙文字母，而蒙古与女真语音原本存在差异，借用的蒙文字母未必能充分传达女真语言的意义。如太宗皇太极在评价老满文时所说，“书中寻常语言，视其文义，易于通晓”，但“至于人名、地名，必致错误。”[ 中国第一历史档案馆、中国社科院历史研究所译注：《满文老档》，北京：中华书局，1990年，第1196页。]<br />
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From then on, the languange and the forms in Manchurian language are gradually consistant. However, the problem is that the Manchurian language(Old Manchu) was created with the guidance of Uighur Old Mongolia alphabets, and there exist original difference between Mongolia and Jurchen pronunciation. Therefore, the borrowed Mongolian alphabets could not explicitly express the meaning of Jurchen language. Just as what the great emperor Taizong Hoang Taiji said when he evaluated Old Manchu: "You can easily understand the meaning of the ordinary language in a book written in Old Manchu. However, in terms of the name of people and places, the Old Manchu would lead you to misunderstanding without any doubt." (Translated by The First Historical Archives of China and Institute of Chinese Social History :''Manchu Old File'',Peking:Zhonghua Book Company,1990, page 1196.) <br />
Annotation:<br />
1. Jurchen: an ancient nationality in China<br />
2.Uighur(畏兀儿体/古维吾尔语): the earliest Mongolian Chinese characters<br />
3. Old Manchu:the language used by ancient Machurian<br />
4. Manchurian: the founder of Qing Dynasty<br />
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From then on, the languange and the characters in Manchurian language are gradually consistant. However, the problem is that the Manchurian language(Old Manchu) was created with the guidance of Uighur Old Mongolia alphabets, and there existed original difference between Mongolia and Jurchen pronunciation. Therefore, the borrowed Mongolian alphabets could not explicitly express the true meaning of Jurchen language. Just as what the great emperor Taizong Hoang Taiji said when he evaluated Old Manchu: "You can easily understand the meaning of the ordinary language in a book written in Old Manchu. However, in terms of the name of people and places, the Old Manchu would lead you to misunderstanding without any doubt." (Translated by The First Historical Archives of China and Institute of Chinese Social History :“Manchu Old File'',Peking:Zhonghua Book Company,1990, page 1196.) --[[User:Chen Huini|Chen Huini]] ([[User talk:Chen Huini|talk]]) 05:10, 3 October 2021 (UTC)Chen Huini<br />
Annotation:<br />
1. Jurchen: an ancient nationality in China<br />
2.Uighur(畏兀儿体/古维吾尔语): the earliest Mongolian Chinese characters<br />
3. Old Manchu:the language used by ancient Machurian<br />
4. Manchurian: the founder of Qing Dynasty<br />
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==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081479 陈惠妮 女==<br />
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为此，皇太极命“巴克什”达海对老满文加以改进，使其音、义明晓，有助于学习，形成了所谓“新满文”。[ 鄂尔泰等奉敕修：《清实录·太宗文皇帝实录》，北京：中华书局，1985年，第13页。]文字虽已形成，但满人一时间几乎无书可读，原因有二：其一，此时的满文尚属草创，旗人尚不能以满语编纂书籍；其二，汉字书籍的获取极为不易。<br />
面对上述情况，太祖努尔哈赤敕令在旗人中延请师傅，教子弟读书，并令达海等人以满文翻译汉文典籍。<br />
Therefore, the King asked Baks Dahai to develop the Old Manchu to make its sound and meaning more clear, which maked it easier to learn. It is in this way that the so-called New Manchu was formed. [E'ertai et al. Fengxiu: "Records of the Qing Dynasty·Records of Emperor Taizongwen", Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1985, p. 13. ] Although the characters and words have been developed, the Manchu can hardly find bookes to read for two reasons. One is that the Manchu language at that time is still an initial creation. The other is that it's so hard to get the books in Chineses charaters.On the face of this situation, Taizu Nurha Chi invited masters among the bannermen to teach children to read, and ordered Dahai and others to translate Chinese classics in Manchu. --[[User:Chen Huini|Chen Huini]] ([[User talk:Chen Huini|talk]]) 07:59, 29 December 2021 (UTC)Chen Huini<br />
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Therefore, Huang Taiji (an emperor of Qing Dynasty) instructed "Bakshi (a title of a scholar of Qing Dynasty)" Da Hai to develop the Old Manchu to the so-called "New Manchu", which made the sound and meaning more clear and then make it easier to learn. [E'ertai et al.: Factual Record of Qing Dynasty·Factual Records of Emperor Taizongwen, Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1985, p. 13. ] Although the characters and words have been formed, the Manchu for a time almost no books to read for two reasons. One is that the Manchu language at that time was still an initial creation, and the Bannermen couldn't compile with it. The other was that the acquisition of books in Chineses charaters was extremely hard.On the face of this situation, Taizu Nurha Chi invited masters among the bannermen to teach children to read, and ordered Dahai and others to translate Chinese classics into Manchu.--[[User:Cheng Yang|Cheng Yang]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yang|talk]]) 10:16, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081482 程杨 女==<br />
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《清史列传》中对此的记载如下：弱冠，太祖高皇帝召直文馆，凡国家与明及蒙古、朝鲜词命，悉出其手。有诏旨应兼汉文者，亦承命传宣，悉当上意。旋奉命译《明会典》及《素书》、《三略》。[ 王钟翰点校：《清史列传》，北京：中华书局，1987年，第187页。]<br />
The records of Da Hai in ''the Biographies of the Qing Dynasty'' as follows: at the age of twenty, he was called into the imperial palace and served in Wen Guan (the bureaucratic ministry for translating Chinese books in the early Qing Dynasty). The naming of new words that related to the Ming Dynasty, Mongolia and North Korea were all by him to complete. He was also instructed to convey some of the Chainese-related orders totally reflecting the will of the emperor. Soon, he was asked to translate ''the Code of Ming Dynasty'', ''Su Shu''(written in Qing Dynasty), and ''San Lue''(written by Huang Shigong).[''The Biographies of the Qing Dynasty'', edited by Wang Zhonghan, Zhong Hua Book Company, 1987, pp.187.]--[[User:Cheng Yang|Cheng Yang]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yang|talk]]) 03:52, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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The records of Da Hai in ''the Biographies of Qing Dynasty'' as follows: at the age of twenty, he was appointed by Nurhachi①as a translator in Wen Guan②. The naming of new words that related to Ming Dynasty, Mongolia and North Korea were all by him to complete. He was also instructed to convey some of the Han's language-related orders totally reflecting the will of the emperor. Soon, he was asked to translate ''the Code of Ming Dynasty'', ''Su Shu''③, and ''San Lue''④.[''The Biographies of the Qing Dynasty'', edited by Wang Zhonghan, Zhong Hua Book Company, 1987, pp.187.<br />
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Annotation:①Nurhachi:the founder of Qing Dynasty, 1559–1626. ②Wen Guan: the bureaucratic ministry for translating Chinese books in the early Qing Dynasty. ③''Su Shu'': moral principles written in Western Han Dynasty by Huang Shigong. ④''San Lue'':military monograph written in Western Han Dynasty by Huang Shigong.--[[User:Ding Xuan|Ding Xuan]] ([[User talk:Ding Xuan|talk]]) 13:10, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081483 丁旋 女==<br />
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上文中所谓《明会典》，又称《大明会典》，系明代典章制度史书，内容涉及汉族文教、历法、习俗等。与《明会典》不同，《素书》成书于西汉，并非典章著作，而是哲理之学，道家思想的智慧之作。《三略》又名《黄石公三略》，既是军事战略专论，又糅合了诸子百家思想。<br />
''Code of Ming Dynasty''① mentioned above, also known as ''Code of Great Ming Dynasty'', is one historical book about laws and regulations in the Ming Dynasty, covering Education of Han②, the Chinese calendar, and custom and so on. Different from Code of Ming Dynasty, ''Su Shu''③ written in the Western Han Dynasty is a wisdom work full of philosophy and Taoism rather than law and regulations. ''Sun-Lue''④, also called Sun-Lue of Huang Shigong, is not only a military strategy monograph but a mixture of the hundred schools of thought. <br />
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Annotation: <br />
①''Code of Ming Dynasty'': One code about Ming’s laws and regulations in many aspects started to write in 1393 and finished in 1578.<br />
②Education of Han: The education policy initiated by emperors of Ming Dynasty in order to transmit Confucianism thoughts and consolidate their reign.<br />
③''Su Shu'': It is one book full of principles and truth written by Huang Shigong in the western Han Dynasty. It is used for the reign of country because of its instructive and moral function.<br />
④''Sun-Lue'': It is one famous ancient military book including three parts written by Huang Shigong in the Western Han Dynasty. The military thoughts in it are critically useful and different from others because it discusses military strategies from political perspective.--[[User:Ding Xuan|Ding Xuan]] ([[User talk:Ding Xuan|talk]]) 06:43, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
''Code of Ming Dynasty''① mentioned above, also known as ''Code of Great Ming Dynasty'', is one historical book about laws and regulations in the Ming Dynasty, covering the range of Education of Han②, the Chinese calendar, and customs and so on. Different from Code of Ming Dynasty, ''Su Shu''③ written in the Western Han Dynasty is a work full of philosophical wisdom and Taoism rather than law and regulations. ''Sun-Lue''④, also called Sun-Lue of Huang Shigong, is not only a military strategy monograph but a mixture of the hundred schools of thought.<br />
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==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081485 付红岩 女==<br />
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以上三者皆是重要的汉文典籍，清太祖令达海翻译它们，开启了清代翻译汉籍（书）之先河，其政治策略上的深刻用意不言而喻。<br />
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三 太宗时期汉籍（书）翻译之“兴”<br />
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太宗皇太极即位后，为鼓励旗人读书，多措并举：一方面，要求“十五岁以下，八岁以上者，俱令读书”，惩处不愿教子读书者；另一方面，为改善“无书可读”的情况，又致函朝鲜，索求汉文典籍。<br />
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Since the three ancient books just mentioned above were all significant Chinese classics, Nurhaci, the Emperor in Qing Dynasty requested Dahai, the official should translate the classics into the mongolian, whose profound meaning in the aspect of political layout was very explicit.<br />
Third, the interest of translating Chinese classics has reached its climax during the power of Nurhaci.<br />
After NUrhaci’s coming into the power, many decrees has been enacted in attempt to encourage the people to read. On the one hand, the teenagers between 8 and 15 were allowed to read. In addition , the parents who were reluctant to support their offspring to read would be punished. On the other hand, Qing Dynasty sent a letter to Korea, in which the former asked the later to denote more Chinese classics in order to improve the predicament that the books were not enough to read.<br />
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批改：译者译文总体流畅，对原文理解总体得当。以下为细节处理上的建议 <br />
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1.“清太祖”一词为中国专有名词，应先查后译。清太祖指的是努尔哈赤（1616-1626），是后金第一位大汗，清朝的奠基者，太祖在位时，“大清国”还没有定鼎中原，故此时的“清”并不能算是中国的一个朝代。译者将其处理为“the Emperor in Qing Dynasty”不够严谨。<br />
建议改为：Nurhaci, the Founder of Qing Dynasty<br />
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2.“三 太宗时期汉籍（书）翻译之‘兴’”此处为论文小标题，首先，应当注意标题格式。结构上，原文为名词短语，译者翻译时使用英语句子的SVO（A）结构，虽然意思完整，但失去了原文的简洁。<br />
词语上，“兴”强调翻译之风的兴起、盛行，译者将其处理为“reached its climax”缺乏严谨性，太宗时期不一定是汉籍翻译的高潮时期。<br />
建议改为：Third The Prosperity of Chinese Classics Translation During the Power of Nurhaci<br />
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3.“十五岁以下，八岁以上者，俱令读书”<br />
词语上，“令”是主动要求的意思，译者将其处理为“be allowed”，即被允许读书的可能性，读与不读似乎都是可以接受的。结合后文“惩处不愿教子读书者”，说明“令”是强制的。“be allowed”不能精准传达出原文清政府对旗人读书的鼓励与强制性。<br />
结构上，原句省略了主语（清政府），原意为：清政府要求十五岁以下，八岁以上的人都得读书。译者将主动结构改为了被动结构，突出强调了实施对象。<br />
建议改为：The teenagers between 8 and 15 were asked to read.--[[User:Li Ruiyang|Li Ruiyang]] ([[User talk:Li Ruiyang|talk]]) 04:20, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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All the above three were important Han classics, so Nurhaci, the founder of Qing Dynasty, commanded Dahai to translate them into Manchu language, which opened the floodgates to the large-scale translations of Han classics and its profound political meaning was explicit.<br />
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Third The Prosperity of Chinese Classics Translation During the Power of Nurhaci<br />
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After Abahai, the son of Nurhaci, coming into power, many decrees has been issued to encourage people to read and study. On the one hand, hand, teenagers between 8 and 15 were asked to study, and their parents would be punished if they were unwilling to educate their children; On the other hand, in order to avoid the scarcity of Han classics, Qing Dynasty sent a written request to Korea for a generous lending.--[[User:Li Ruiyang|Li Ruiyang]] ([[User talk:Li Ruiyang|talk]]) 14:43, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081497 李瑞洋 女==<br />
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《朝鲜王朝实录·仁祖实录》中写道：“闻贵国有金、元所译《书》、《诗》等经及《四书》，敬求一览，惟冀慨然。”[ 国史编纂委员会：《朝鲜王朝实录》，汉城：国史编纂委员会，1973年，第38页。]可见，皇太极此时想要借阅的并非汉文原书，而是汉籍的金、元译本，即女真语和蒙古文译本。对此，朝鲜政府方面虽然进行了回应，但态度并不热忱：见索《诗》、《书》、《四书》等书籍，此意甚善，深嘉贵国尊信圣贤，慕悦礼义之盛意。<br />
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As mentioned in ''King Injo the Great'', one of the volumes in ''Annals of the Korean Dynasty'' “We heard your country have ''the Four Books'' and other classics including ''The Book of Poetry'' and T''he Book of History'', which were translated in Jin Dynasty and Yuan Dynasty, so we sincerely hope your generous lending of these books.” [National History Compilation Committee: ''Annals of the Korean Dynasty'', Seoul: National History Compilation Committee, 1973,P38] Obviously, at this time what Huang Taiji wanted to borrow was not the original Chinese book, but the Jin and Yuan translations, namely the Jurchen and Mongolian versions. Although Korean officials responded to this request, they were not very willing: It is very nice of you to ask for the Four Books and other classics including ''The Book of Poetry'' and ''The Book of History'', and we really appreciate your country’s popularity of respecting men of virtue and advocating courtesy and justice.--[[User:Li Ruiyang|Li Ruiyang]] ([[User talk:Li Ruiyang|talk]]) 02:19, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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It was recorded in ''King Injo the Great'', a volume of ''Annals of the Korean Dynasty'', that “We have heard your country have classics like ''The Book of Songs'', ''The Book of History'' and ''the Four Books'' , which were translated in Jin and Yuan Dynasties, so we sincerely hope for your generous lending of these books to us.” [National History Compilation Committee: ''Annals of the Korean Dynasty'', Seoul: National History Compilation Committee, 1973, 38.]<br />
Obviously, what Huang Taiji wanted to borrow at that time were not the original Chinese books, but the translated versions of Jin and Yuan periods, namely the Jurchen and Mongolian versions. Although Korean officials respondedt, they didn't give a active response: It is glad to receive your borrowing request of these books, and we do appreciate your country’s deeds of respecting men of virtues and advocating courtesy and justice.--[[User:Li Shan|Li Shan]] ([[User talk:Li Shan|talk]]) 01:28, 30 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081498 李姗 女==<br />
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第国中所有，只是天下通行本，而金、元所译，则曾未得见，兹未能奉副，无任愧歉。[ 国史编纂委员会：《朝鲜王朝实录》，汉城：国史编纂委员会，1973年，第62页。]<br />
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由于未能索得属意书籍，皇太极遂令达海继续翻译，后者于天聪六年开始翻译《通鉴》、《六韬》、《孟子》、《三国志（通俗演义）》，以及《大乘经》等。只可惜，由于达海英年早逝，上述书籍未能译竟。<br />
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The one that existed in the great empire was just a general version that circulated all over the country.（* But the one that existed in the whole country was just a general version.--[[User:Li Wenxuan|Li Wenxuan]] ([[User talk:Li Wenxuan|talk]]) 02:37, 29 September 2021 (UTC)） As the translating versions of Jin and Yuan were not publicized yet, it's a pity that their works were not able to be offered to the emperor.（* However, the translated versions in Jing Dynasty and Yuan Dynasty hadn't published yet.It's a pity that their works were not able to be offered to the emperor.--[[User:Li Wenxuan|Li Wenxuan]] ([[User talk:Li Wenxuan|talk]]) 02:37, 29 September 2021 (UTC)) [National History Compilation Committee: ''Records of the Korean Dynasty'', Seoul: National History Compilation Committee, 1973, 63.]<br />
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Failing to obtain desired translation versions,the first emperor of Qing dynasty, ordered Dahai to continue his translation work. And in the sixth year of Huangtaiji's rule (the year of 1632), Dahai began to translate ''History as a Mirror'', ''The Six Arts of War'', ''The Records of Three Kingdoms'' as well as ''Mahayana Sutra'' and so forth. [* ''Tong Jian'' ( a history book), ''Liu Tao'' ( a military book), ''Mencius''，''Records of the Three Kingdoms'' and ''Dacheng Jing'' ( a book about Buddhism) --[[User:Li Wenxuan|Li Wenxuan]] ([[User talk:Li Wenxuan|talk]]) 02:37, 29 September 2021 (UTC)] Unfortunately, the translation of these books was not finished as a result of Dahai's early death.--[[User:Li Shan|Li Shan]] ([[User talk:Li Shan|talk]]) 12:46, 11 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081500 李文璇 女==<br />
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清初之际，达海被满洲“群推为圣人”，他翻译的汉文书籍对于拓展满族的知识范围，甚为关键。[ 叶高树：《清朝前期的文化政策》，台北：稻乡出版社，2002年，第58页。]《清实录·太宗文皇帝实录》中说：其平日所译汉书，有《刑部会典》、《素书》、《三略》、《万宝全书》俱成帙。（天聪六年）时方译《通鉴》、《六韬》、《孟子》、《三国志（通俗演义）》及《大乘经》，未竣而卒。<br />
In the early Qing Dynasty, Dahai was regarded as a sage by the people of Manchuria. The Chinese books translated by him was significant for extending the knowledge. In the book ''Memoir of the Qing Dynasty'' for the Emperor Taizong, it recorded that the books Dahai had translated, including ''Records of Ministry of Punishment'', ''Su Shu'' ( a book about Taoism), ''San Lue'' ( a military book), ''Wan Bao Quan Shu'' ( a book about daily life), all of which had been compiled into volumes. In 1632, he translated ''Tong Jian'' ( a history book), ''Liu Tao'' ( a military book), ''Mencius''，''Records of the Three Kingdoms'' and ''Dacheng Jing'' ( a book about Buddhism). However, he died without finishing these books. --[[User:Li Wenxuan|Li Wenxuan]] ([[User talk:Li Wenxuan|talk]]) 23:26, 28 September 2021 (UTC)--[[User:Li Wen|Li Wen]] ([[User talk:Li Wen|talk]]) 02:38, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081501 李雯 女==<br />
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初我国未深谙典故，诸事皆以意创行，达海始用满文，译历代史书，颁行国中，人尽通晓。惟我太祖天纵聪明，因心肇造，所行皆与古圣贤同符默契。达海与额尔德尼应运而生，实佐一代文明之治云。[ 鄂尔泰等奉敕修：《清实录·太宗文皇帝实录》，北京：中华书局，1985年，第10页。]<br />
In the beginning, our country was not familiar with the ancient books and stories, so everything began by "thoughts". Since Dai Hai began to use Man Character to translate historical books of the past dynasties and promulgated it in our country, it has become universal among public. Only my great Grandfather, gifted and wise, created from the heart, and acted in accordance with the ancient sages. So the Dai Hai and E Erdeni came into being following the tendecy, who help to create this generation of civilization.[E ertai,ect compiling by order of the Emperor;The record of Emperor Taizong in Qing Danasty,Beijing,Zhonghua Book Company,1985,Page 10.--[[User:Li Wen|Li Wen]] ([[User talk:Li Wen|talk]]) 02:36, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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In the beginning, our country established things at will without the study of ancient classics. They were not well-known to the public until Da Hai translated historical books of the past dynasties in Manchu and promulated them in the country. Only the Emperor Taizu, who founded the dynasty on his own way, was so gifted and wise that what he had done was exactly accordance with the ancient sages.In reasponse to the call of the times, Da Hai and Erdeni came into being and helped to create this generation of civilization.[E ertai,ect compiling by order of the Emperor;''The Record of Emperor Taizong in Qing Danasty'',Beijing,Zhonghua Book Company,1985,Page 10.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 04:49, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081505 刘沛婷 女==<br />
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如前所述，《明会典》、《素书》、《三略》等书的翻译始于太祖时期，但成书于天聪四年，其余书籍的翻译则为时稍晚。综观达海译书，既有《孟子》之类所谓“知正心、修身、齐家、治国”者，又有《素书》、《三略》和《六韬》等“益聪明智识，选练战攻的机权”者，以及《通鉴》等“知古来兴废事迹”者，他的翻译“实佐一代文明之治”。<br />
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以《刑部会典》（又称《明会典》）为例，达海译本既是天聪年间国家创制法律的依据，也是太宗推行政治改革的蓝本。<br />
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As mentioned above, the translation of ''Code of Great Ming Dynasty'', ''Su Shu'' and ''Three Policies'' began in the reign of Taizu but was completed in 1630. The other books were translated a little later. Da Hai's translations covered abundant eminent men, such as those in ''Mencius'' who make their minds just, morality cultivated, families regulated and the country governed orderly, and those with extrodinary intelligence and knowledge of training and combat in ''Su Shu'', ''Three Policies'' and ''Six Strategies'', as well as the men knowing the rise and fall of ancient times in ''Comprehensive Mirror for Aid in Government''. Therefore, his translations did promote the rule of civilization.<br />
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Taking ''Code of Ministry of Penalty'' (also called ''Code of Great Ming Dynasty'')as an example,Da Hai's translations were not only the basis for establishing laws during the period of Tiancong, but also the blueprint for the political reforms carried out by Taizong.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 15:25, 28 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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As mentioned above, the translating of ''Code of Great Ming Dynasty'', ''Su Shu'' and ''Three Policies'' began during the reign of Taizu but was completed in 1630, the fourth year under the reign of Taizong. Other books were translated at a later time. Given that in Da Hai's translations exist abundant eminent men, such as those in ''Mencius'' who make their minds just, morality cultivated, families regulated and the country governed orderly, and those with extrodinary intelligence and knowledge of training the military in ''Su Shu'', ''Three Policies'' and ''Six Strategies'', as well as the men comprehending the ups and downs experienced by dynasties in the past in ''Comprehensive Mirror for Aid in Government'', his translations did promote the governance under civilization.<br />
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Taking ''Code of Ministry of Penalty'' (also called ''Code of Great Ming Dynasty'')as an example,Da Hai's translations were not only the basis for establishing laws during the period of Tiancong, but also the blueprint for the political reform carried out by Taizong.--[[User:Liu Xiao|Liu Xiao]] ([[User talk:Liu Xiao|talk]]) 02:46, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081508 刘晓 女==<br />
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太宗素有“振兴文治”的愿望，不仅创制了作为清代考试制度之滥觞的生员和举人考试，而且使巴克什、笔帖式制度臻于成熟，二者合力使得汉籍翻译的风气渐开：一方面，作为“巴克什”或“笔帖式”，希福、尼堪、刚林、苏开等人先后奉敕“（翻）译汉字书籍”或“记注国政”；另一方面，太宗以自古国家“以文教佐太平”为由，令满人争相读书，从生员中选取“文艺明通者优奖之”。[ 鄂尔泰等奉敕修：《清实录·太宗文皇帝实录》，北京：中华书局，1985年，第14页。]<br />
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在对待前朝即明代的问题上，太宗采取“讲和”与“自固”并行的政策，但其本人向往中原汉族文化，所谓“性嗜典籍，披览弗卷”即是这一情况的体现。<br />
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Holding the idea to "revitalize the administration by education and culture", Taizong not only created examinations from which the examination system of Qing Dynasty originated, for xiucai and juren, those who have passed in the exam at the county and provincial level respectively, but also made the Baksh and Bithesi system reach a mature state. Together, the two measures promoted the translation of books written in Chinese. On one hand, Xifu, Nikan, Ganglin and Su Kai, as "Bakshs" or"Bithesis", successively "translated Chinese books" or "annotated state affairs" by the order of the emperor. On the other hand, by saying that countries applied the education and culture to safeguarding the stablization since ancient times, Taizong urged people to scramble to study, and then awarded those from xiucai "who mastered literature and arts". (''Records of Qing Dynasty· Emperor Taizong'', edited by Ertai, officials in the Qing Dynasty, Beijing: China Publishing House, 1985, P14.)<br />
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In dealing with the treatment of the previous dynasty, that is Ming Dynasty, Taizong adopted the policy of "settling a dispute" and "self-consolidation". But he himself yearned for the Chinese culture of the Central Plains, which is embodied by the so called expression "Loving Chinese works and reading Buddha volumes."<br />
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Revised version：<br />
Holding to the idea of "revitalizing the empire by education and cultural development", Taizong not only established shengyuan and juren exams（exams at the county and provincial level perspectively） initiating the imperial examination system of Qing Dynasty, but also brought the Baksh and Bithesi system to a mature state. Together, the two measures brought about the upsurge in translation of Han books. On the one hand, Xifu, Nikan, Ganglin and Su Kai, as "Bakshs" or"Bithesis", successively "translated Han books" or "annotated state affairs" by the order of the emperor. On the other hand, in the name of the national tradition of ensuring stabilization by education and cultural development, Taizong urged Man people to read and those shengyuan who stands out for their familiarity with literature and arts were awarded. (The Memoir of Qing Dynasty· Emperor Taizong, edited by Ertai, officials in the Qing Dynasty, Beijing: China Publishing House, 1985, P14.)<br />
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In dealing with the treatment of the former dynasty, namely Ming Dynasty, Taizong resorted to the policy of “peace negotiation” and " self-consolidation" in parallel. However, Taizong himself yearned for the Central Plains culture of Han, and the expression “a voracious reader of Han and Buddhist classics” can properly manifests it. --[[User:Liu Yunxin|Liu Yunxin]] ([[User talk:Liu Yunxin|talk]]) 07:53, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081510 刘运心 女==<br />
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于是，太宗诏令儒臣翻译汉书，并命金、汉之人阅读。[ 同上，第2页。]太宗深知，汉文典籍言微而义大，其精要者不仅涉及帝王治平之道，而且涉及正心、修身、齐家之理。但汉文典籍数量庞杂，翻译时必须有所选择。<br />
Therefore, Taizong issued an order asking the civilian official to translate Han books and all the Han and Jin people are required read those. (Ibid., p.2) Taizong knew well how brief and profound Han classics were. Their essence not only involves the governess of the country and its people, but also discusses inner integrity, decent behavior and family harmony. Nevertheless, a great number and variety of Han classics means what to be translated needs selection.<br />
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Therefore, Taizong ordered Confucian officials to translate Han books, while all the Han and Jin people were required to read those. (Ibid., p.2) Taizong knew well that Han classics were sublime works with deep meaning, whose essentials included not only the method of statecraft, but also self-cultivation and family regulation. Nevertheless, among a great number of Han classics, there must be an extraction.<br />
--[[User:Luo Anyi|Luo Anyi]] ([[User talk:Luo Anyi|talk]]) 02:14, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081511 罗安怡 女==<br />
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如天聪六年九月，王文奎奏请从读书笔帖式内，选取“伶俐通文者”一、二人，并从秀才内选取“老成明察者”一、二人，令其“讲解翻写”。天聪九年三月二十一日，仇震向太宗谏言，要求从汉人中选取精通经、史者二、三人，并从金人中选取熟悉字法者三、四人，将各经史典籍及《通鉴》（即《资治通鉴》）中“有裨君道”的精要部分“集为一部”，日日讲解，以便统治者在翻译、日讲中学习汉族文化，以及治世之道。[ 罗振玉：《天聪朝臣工奏议》，北京：中国人民大学出版社，1989年，第24-25、115页。]固然，对于汉文典籍与汉族文化，太宗并非全盘接受，而是辩证地加以吸收。<br />
For instance, in September, 1632, the sixth year of T'ien-ts'ung (the first reign title of Emperor Taizong of Qing Dynasty), Wang Wenkui wrote to His Majesty, advising that they should elect one or two "literates who were skilled at writing and translation" from the bithesi, and one or two "scholars who were learned and perspicacious", for "teaching, interpretation, and translation" of Han classics. On March 21st, 1635, the ninth year of T’ien-ts'ung, Chou Zhen advised Emperor Taizong to elect two or three Han people who were proficient in lections and historical records, and three or four Jin people who were familiar with 字法. These scholars should choose essentials from classics and ''The Zizhi'' (''The Zizhi Tongjian'') , which benefits the ideas of ruling power of feudal emperors, and compile them into one book. Also they should discourse the compiled thoughts frequently, in which the ruler could learn the Han culture and method of statecraft. [Zhenyu, Luo .(罗振玉),《天聪朝臣工奏议》，Beijing：China Renmin University Press, 1989, P24-25, P115.] Of course, Taizong did accepted Chinese classics and han culture critically and dialectically.<br />
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For instance, in September, the sixth year of Tian Cong(the first reign title of Emperor Taizong of Qing Dynasty), Wang Wenkui wrote to His Majesty to pick up one or two who are "talented in literature” and pick up one or two who are "sophisticated and insightful"from the scholars for " interpretation, and translation" of Han classics. On March 21st, 1635, the ninth year of T’ien-ts'ung,Qiu Zhen advised Emperor Taizong to pick up two or three Han people who were proficient in lections and historical records, and three or four Jin people who were familiar with grammer to let them choose the essence which are benefical to the reign from classics and ''The Zizhi'' (''The Zizhi Tongjian'') and compile them into one book.After that,they should illuminate the compiled thoughts every day, which is beneficial to the study of the ruler about the Han culture and ruling ways. [Zhenyu, Luo .(罗振玉),《天聪朝臣工奏议》，Beijing：China Renmin University Press, 1989, P24-25, P115.] Definitely speaking, Taizong did accepted Chinese classics and han culture critically and dialectically.--[[User:Luo Xi|Luo Xi]] ([[User talk:Luo Xi|talk]]) 03:24, 29 September 2021 (UTC)(Luo Xi罗曦）<br />
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==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081512 罗曦 女==<br />
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如天聪九年五月，上谕文馆诸臣：朕观汉文史书，殊多饰辞，虽全览无益也。今宜于《辽》、《宋》、《金》、《元》四史内，择其勤于求治而国祚昌隆，或所行悖道而统绪废坠，与夫用兵行师之方略，以及佐理之忠良、乱国之奸佞，有关政要者，汇纂翻译成书，用备观览。至汉文正史之外，野史所载，如交战几合，逞施法术之语，皆系妄诞，此等书籍，传之国中，恐无知之人信以为真，当停其翻译。[ 鄂尔泰等奉敕修：《清实录·太宗文皇帝实录》，北京：中华书局，1985年，第9页。]<br />
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For instance，in May，the ninth year of Tian Cong，the emperor informed all the offcials in the cultural center that：I have read all those historical records in Han Dynasty filled with various ornaments，only to find that I have gotten nothing。Now you had better to pick up some references among <Liao>、<Song>、<Jin>、<Yuan> about some cases like dilligence making a prosperous country or idleness making a weak one,also,you can pick up some military stratedies,and some information about those noble and talented citizens or traitors,and than you ought to translate all those relevence and compile them into a book prepared to be read.As for those unofficial history in Han excluded,like how many rounds did soldiers battle or the spell spoken by wizards,are all the nonsense,which will bewilder the ignorant,deserving to be prohibited from translation.{E Ertai：《清实录、太宗文皇帝实录》，Beijing：Chinese bookstore，1985，p9.}<br />
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A modified version: For instance, in May 1653, the Emperor said to the ministers in Literature Institution(that is, the later Cabinet in Qing Dynasty), "I have leafed through the historical works in Chinese language with various ornamental rhetorics, but the complete reading of them is not beneficial. Now it is appropriate to select salient examples referred from the four historical recrods of ''Liao'', ''Song'', ''Jin'' and ''Yuan'', which will be compiled into books for later reading. These examples include those who were dedicated in governing the country thereby with a promising national development, or those who deviated from the correct path with weak administration, and the generals adept at warfare, loyal and honest servants assisting the sovereign to handle state affairs, the treacherous ones rendering the nation disorderly and chaotic as well as other relevant political workers. Meanwhile, apart from the official history, the unofficial historical works that record untrue events, like the conditions of battles, are all fabricated. If those unfavorable books are spread to the mainland, they may bewilder the ignorant and gullible individuals, thus deserving to be prohibited from translation. (E Eratai: ''Records of Qing Dynasty·Emperor Taizong'', Beijing: China Publishing House, 1985, Page9.)--[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 04:47, 29 September 2021 (UTC)毛雅文<br />
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==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081514 毛雅文 女==<br />
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由上可知，在汉籍翻译的问题上，太宗讲求的是实用，希望将翻译与政要相关联，反对翻译浮华藻饰的汉文书籍，或者野史中所载不足为信者。以《刑部会典》的翻译为例，该译本的刊刻与颁行逐渐成为太宗朝的临政规范。《天聪朝臣工奏议》中说：“近奉上谕，凡事都照《大明会典》行，极为得策。”[ 罗振玉：《天聪朝臣工奏议》，北京：中国人民大学出版社，1989年，第2页。]<br />
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From here it can be seen that the Emperor Taizong put an emphasis on practicality with regard to the translation of Chinese works, hoping to associate translation with politics. He objected to the translation of Chinese books with flashy embellishments, or that of unofficial historical works recording unconvincing events. Take the translation of ''The Code of the Ministry of Penalty'' as an example. After its publication and promulgation, the tranlation of this code gradually became the norm of handling state affairs. ''The Petition of Ministers during the Reign of Tiancong'' states, "Recently, by the order of the Emperor, everything should be conducted in accordance with ''The Code of Ming Dynasty'', which is a desirable policy." (Luo Zhenyu: ''The Petition of Ministers during the Reign of Tiancong'', Beijing: China Remin University Press, 1989, Page2.)<br />
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From above it can be seen that the Emperor Taizong put an emphasis on practicality with regard to the translation of Chinese works, hoping to associate translation with politics. He objected to the translation of Chinese books with flashy embellishments, or that of unofficial historical works recording unconvincing events. Take the translation of The Code of the Ministry of Penalty as an example. After its publication and promulgation, the tranlation of this code gradually became the norm of handling state affairs. The Petition of Ministers during the Reign of Tiancong states, "Recently, by the order of the Emperor, everything has been conducted in accordance with The Code of Ming Dynasty, which is a desirable policy." (Luo Zhenyu: The Petition of Ministers during the Reign of Tiancong, Beijing: China Renmin University Press, 1989, Page2.)--[[User:Mou Yixin|Mou Yixin]] ([[User talk:Mou Yixin|talk]]) 10:19, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081516 牟一心 女==<br />
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宁完我也说，我国六部的设立原是照“蛮子家立的”，因而金官对于部中当举事宜原本并不知情，而今翻译《会典》（即《明会典》），参汉酌金，加以“打动”，必将使其“去因循之习”而“渐就中国之制”。[ 同上，第82页。]<br />
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四 世祖时期汉籍（书）翻译之发展<br />
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清初儒臣中，除额尔德尼、噶盖和达海之外，通满、蒙、汉字者不乏他人，如伊成额、希福、刚林等，便是其中姣姣者。<br />
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Ning Wanwo also said that the establishment of the six ministries in feudal China was based “on that of minority nationalities”, so the officers of Jin Dynasty had no idea about the affairs in the ministries. Now the translation of Code(a record of laws and systems of a dynasty)(namely, Code of Great Ming Dynasty) must refer to both the precedents of Central China and Jin Dynasty and amend them to make it get rid of rigid traditions and turn to the conventions of Central China.[ibidem, Page 82]<br />
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FOURTH The development of Chinese literature (books) in Qing Dynasty Shunzhi period<br />
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Among the civilian officials in the early Qing Dynasty, besides Erdeni, Gagai, Daher, there is no lack of masters of Manchu language, Mongolian and Chinese, such as Icher, Hifo, Galin, who were the strong performers among them.<br />
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Ning Wanwo also said that the establishment of the six ministries of feudal China was based on “that of the southerners”, so Jin Guan had no knowledge of the affairs concerning the appointment in the ministries. Now the translation of Code( a record of laws and systems of a dynasty)( namely, Code of Great Ming Dynasty) must refer to both the precedents of Han and Jin Dynasty and then amend them to make it get rid of rigid traditions and gradually conform to the conventions of Central China. [ibidem, Page 82.]<br />
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FOURTH The development of Chinese literature (books) in Shizu Period <br />
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Among the civilian officials in the early Qing Dynasty, besides Erdeni, Gagai, Daher, there is no lack of masters of Manchu language, Mongolian and Chinese, such as Icher, Hifo, Galin, who were the best performers of them.--[[User:Shi Liqing|Shi Liqing]] ([[User talk:Shi Liqing|talk]]) 12:58, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081521 石丽青 女==<br />
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据传，伊成额不仅将《太祖高皇帝实录》译成汉文，而且翻译了朝鲜所奏表章，以及《礼部会典》等书。[ 清高宗敕纂：《八旗满洲氏族通谱》，沈阳：辽沈书社，1989年，第10页。]希福兼通满、蒙、汉三种语言，他的翻译有别于伊成额，不是将满文译成汉语，也不是将朝鲜文译成满语，而是主要翻译汉书、汉典，所翻译的汉文书籍包括《辽》、《金》、《元》三史等。希福的上述译书于顺治元年进呈皇帝，获世祖恩赉。<br />
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It is said that Yi Cheng'e translated not only the Annals of Emperor Taizu Gao into Chinese, but also the seals played by North Korea and the Book of the Ministry of Ceremonies. [ Qing Gaozong's Royal Compilation: "Eight Banners Manzhou Clan Genealogy", Shenyang: Liaoshen Publishing House, 1989, page10.] Xifu was fluent in Manchu, Mongolian and Chinese. His translation was different from Yicheng'e. He did not translate Manchu into Chinese or Korean into Manchu, but mainly translated Chinese books and Chinese classics, including Liao, Jin and Yuan. Xifu's translation was presented to the emperor in the first year of Shunzhi and won the honor of Shizu. --[[User:Shi Liqing|Shi Liqing]] ([[User talk:Shi Liqing|talk]]) 05:50, 29 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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It is said that Yi Cheng'e translated not only the Factual Record of Taizu, but also the memorials presented to the emperor by North Korea, Records of the Board of Rites, and other books. [ Qing Gaozong's Royal Compilation: "Eight Banners Manzhou Clan Genealogy", Shenyang: Liaoshen Publishing House, 1989, page10.] Xi Fu was proficient in Manchu, Mongolian and Chinese, whose translation was different from Yi Cheng’e’s. Neither did he translate Manchu into Chineses nor Korean into Manchu, he mainly translated Chinese books and classics, including Liao, Jin and Yuan. Xi Fu’s translation was presented to the emperor in the first year of Shunzhi and won the honor of Shizu.--[[User:Wang Lifei|Wang Lifei]] ([[User talk:Wang Lifei|talk]]) 02:14, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081523 王李菲 女==<br />
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《清实录·世祖章皇帝实录》中，曾详细记载了希福进呈译本时的情形：窃稽自古史册所载，政治之得失，民生之休戚，国家之治乱，无不详悉具备，其事虽往，而可以诏今；其人虽亡，而足以镜世。故《语》云：“善者吾师，不善者亦吾师。”从来嬗继之圣王，未有不法此而行者也。<br />
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In the “Records of Qing Dynasty· Emperor Fu Lin”, there was a detailed record of the situation when Xi Fu presented the translation: in the ancient records, whatever gain and loss in politics, weal and woe of people’s livelihood, or governance and chaos of countries, they’ve all been documented in detail. Although things have passed, they can still enlighten us. The ancestors have passed away, they can also provide references. Therefore, the “Language” said, “The heroes are my teacher, and so are the villains .” Virtuous emperors from ancient times to present have all followed this rule.--[[User:Wang Lifei|Wang Lifei]] ([[User talk:Wang Lifei|talk]]) 16:01, 28 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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The “Records of Qing Dynasty· Emperor Fu Lin”, which once recorded in detail the situation when Xi Fu presented the translation: As far as I am concerned, from the ancient records, the gains and losses of politics, the welfare and woe of people’s livelihood, and the governance and chaos in the country, all of which have been documented in detail. Although things have passed, they can still enlighten us. Although the ancestors passed away, they are enough to mirror the world. Therefore, the “Language” says, “The success is my teacher, and so is the failure.” Virtuous emperors from ancient times have all followed this rule.--[[User:Wang Lifei|Wang Lifei]] ([[User talk:Wang Lifei|talk]]) 16:01, 28 September 2021 (UTC) Edited by Wang Zhenlong.<br />
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==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081525 王镇隆 男==<br />
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辽、金虽未混一，而辽已得天下之半，金亦得天下之大半，至元则混一寰区，奄有天下，其法令政教皆有可观者焉。我先帝鉴古之心，永怀不释，特命臣等将《辽》、《金》、《元》三史，芟（shān）削繁冗，惟取其善足为法，恶足为戒，及征伐畋（tián）猎之事，译以满语，缮写呈书。臣等敬奉纶音，将《辽史》自高祖至西辽耶律大石末年，凡十四帝，共三百七年；《金》凡九帝，共一百十九年；《元》凡十四帝，共一百六十二年，详录其有裨益者，……伏乞皇上万几之暇，时赐省览，懋稽古之德，弘无前之烈，臣等不胜幸甚。[ 鄂尔泰等奉敕修：《清实录·世祖章皇帝实录》，北京：中华书局，1985年，第15-16页。]<br />
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Although Liao and Jin did not mix together, Liao had already won half of the world, and Jin had also won the other half. Until the Yuan Dynasty, they were combined into one whole world,and there were considerable and available laws, politics and religions. My first emperor’s desire to learn from the ancients will never be released. I and other ministers were ordered to edit and slash the three histories of "Liao", "Jin" and "Yuan", but take the good part as the law, and the evil part as the precepts. And the matters of conquering and hunting, were translated into Manchu,written and presented in a book. I and others followed respectfully my Lord ‘s orders,took the history of Liao from Gaozu to the last year of Yelu Dashi of Xi Liao, where there were 14 emperors, a total of 370 years; Jin, the nine Emperors, lasted one hundred and nineteen years;Yuan recorded all the fourteen emperors for 162 years, and had careful records of those who have benefited us, ... I beg my Lord to have occasional reviews when my Lord is not dealing with country’s affairs,and to encourage your people to live up to ancient virtues and promote the unparalleled huge achievement. I and other would greatly appreciate it. [E'ertai et al. revised with imperial edict "Records of the Qing Dynasty·Records of Emperor Shizuzhang", Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1985, pp. 15-16. ]<br />
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Although Liao and Jin did not unite, Liao had already occupied half of the world, so had Jin. Until Yuan Dynasty, they combined and occupied the whole country, and there were considerable and available laws, politics and religions. My previous emperor’s desire to learn from the ancients will never be released. Other ministers and I were ordered to edit and slash ''the History of Liao, Jin and Yuan Dynasty'', take merits as the principle, and learn lessons from demerits. And the matters of conquering and hunting, were translated into Manchu, written and presented in a book. We followed respectfully my Majesty ‘s orders, took ''The History of Liao Dynasty'' from Gaozu to the last year of Yelu Dashi of Xi Liao, where there were 14 emperors, a total of 370 years; ''Jin'', nine Emperors, lasted one hundred and nineteen years; ''Yuan'' recorded all the fourteen emperors for 162 years, and had careful records of those who have benefited us, ... I beg my Majesty to have occasional reviews when he is not dealing with country’s affairs, and to encourage people to observe traditional virtues and advocate the unprecedent huge achievement. We all would greatly appreciate it. [E'ertai et al. revised with imperial edict ''Records of Emperor Shizuzhang in the Qing Dynasty'', Beijing: China Book Company, 1985, pp. 15-16. ]--[[User:Wei Yiwen|Wei Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Wei Yiwen|talk]]) 09:35, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081526 卫怡雯 女==<br />
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上文中，不仅明确论及汉文典籍的历史作用，而且阐述了翻译这些典籍的必要性、作用与目的等，其总目标是“懋稽古之德”，以翻译佐文教，治太平。换言之，希福希望通过翻译《辽》、《金》、《元》三史等，从中原汉族王朝中借鉴国家治理经验，以接续太宗皇太极以来以经世致用为核心的翻译思想，并为嗣后翻译汉籍树立原则与典范。据《国立故宫博物院善本旧籍总目》、《世界满文文献目录》、《全国满文图书资料联合目录》，以及《清代内府刻书目录解题》等综合统计，顺治年间，由官方刊刻的汉书满文译本共九种，分别是《辽史》、《金史》、《元史》、《洪武要训》、《三国志（通俗演义）》、《诗经》、《表忠录》、《孝经》（阿什坦译）和《六韬三略》。其中，顺治七年译成的《三国志（通俗演义）》既有满文本，又有满汉合璧本。<br />
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As described in the above, it not only discussed the historical role of Chinese classics, but also illustrated the necessity, the function and the goal of translating these ancient books and records. The overall goal is to encourage people to observe traditional virtues, using translation to assist the country to develop culture and education. In other words, Xifu wanted to draw on the experience of state governance from Han Dynasty in the central China through translating the history of Liao, Jin, and Yuan Dynasty in order to succeed the thought of translation of administering state affairs and applying theory to practice as the core since the emperor Taizong Huangtaiji, and set up the principle and model of translating Chinese books for later generation. According to general statistics of The General Catalogue of The Best Edition and the Ancient Books and Records of Taipei's National Palace Museum, The Catalogue of World’s Manchu Literature and The Union Directory of National Manchu Books and Materials and Solving Problems in the Catalogue of Engraved Books in the Qing Dynasty, during the period of Tongzhi, there are nine Manchu translated versions of the official published Chinese books by blocking print, they are: The History of Liao Dynasty, The History of Jin Dynasty, The History of Yuan Dynasty, Hongwu Yaoxun, The Romance of Three Kingdoms, Book of Songs, The Record of Loyalty, Classic of Filial Piety(translated by Ashtan), Liu Tao and San Lue. Among them, The Romance of Three Kingdoms translated in the seventh year of Tongzhi had both Manchu version and the combined one of Chinese and Manchu.--[[User:Wei Yiwen|Wei Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Wei Yiwen|talk]]) 03:23, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Thereinbefore, it not only discussed the historic role of Chinese classics, but also illustrated the necessity, the function and the goal of translating these books. The overall goal is to encourage people to observe traditional virtues, using translation to develop culture and education and bring social prosperity. In other words, Xifu wanted to draw on the experience of state governance from Chinese dynasty in the central plains through translating the histories of ''Liao'', ''Jin'', and ''Yuan''. In this way, the translation idea originated from the dynasty of Huangtaiji that knowledge should benefit national affairs can be succeeded and set up the principle and model of translating Chinese books for later generation. According to the general statistics of ''The General Catalogue of the Publications and Classics of National Palace Museum'', ''The Catalogue of World’s Manchu Literature'' and ''The Union Catalogue of National Manchu Books and Materials'' and ''Solving Problems in the Catalogue of Engraved Books in Qing Dynasty'', during the period of Shunzhi dynasty, there are nine official Manchu translations of Chinese books.They are ''History of Liao Dynasty'', ''History of Jin Dynasty'', ''History of Yuan Dynasty'', ''Hongwuyaoxun'', ''Records of the Three Kingdoms'', ''Classic of Poetry'', ''Record of Loyalty'', ''Classic of Filial Piety''(translated by Ashtan), ''Liutaosanlue''. Among them, ''Records of the Three Kingdoms'' translated in the seventh year of Shunzhi dynasty has both Manchu version and the combined one of Chinese and Manchu.(revised by Wei Chuxuan)--[[User:Wei Chuxuan|Wei Chuxuan]] ([[User talk:Wei Chuxuan|talk]]) 07:11, 29 September 2021 (UTC)--[[User:Wei Chuxuan|Wei Chuxuan]] ([[User talk:Wei Chuxuan|talk]]) 08:59, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081527 魏楚璇 女==<br />
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另外，《孝经》曾于顺治、康熙、雍正朝刊刻三次，但版本明显不同：顺治年间的刊行本为阿什坦译本，康熙年间的刊行本为和素译校本，雍正时期的版本则译者未明，仅注明“雍正皇帝敕译”。令人好奇的是，虽然世祖笃信佛教，论佛谈法，但从相关文献看，未见有顺治朝翻译的汉文经书，其中原因，不得而知。<br />
What's more, ''Filial Piety'' has different publications of translation in different dynasties. In Shunzhi dynasty, the publication is Ashtan's translation. In Kangxi dynasty, the publication is Hesu's translation. In Yongzheng dynasty, the translator is unknown. It is only indicated in the publication that the translation is asked by Yongzheng emperor. Curiously according to relevant literature though Shunzhi emperor believed in Buddhism, there is no translation of Buddhist classics made in his dynasty. And the reason of this remains a mystery.--[[User:Wei Chuxuan|Wei Chuxuan]] ([[User talk:Wei Chuxuan|talk]]) 02:12, 29 September 2021 (UTC)--[[User:Wei Chuxuan|Wei Chuxuan]] ([[User talk:Wei Chuxuan|talk]]) 09:05, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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What's more, ''Filial Piety'' has been published and printed three times in the dynasty of Shunzhi, Kangxi and Yongzheng respectively but with three obvious different versions. During the Shunzhi dynasty was the translation of Ashtan, during the dynasty of Kangxi was of Hesu and during the Yongzheng dynasty was of the unknown writer, only indicating "translating under the order of the emperor Yongzheng". What made people curious was that although Shizu sincerely believed in Buddhism, talking about Buddhism and Buddhist doctrine, there was no Chinese Confucian classics translated during the Shunzhi Dynasty according to the relevant references. And the reason of this remains unknown.--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 08:14, 29 September 2021 (UTC)(Wei Zhaoyan 魏兆妍）<br />
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==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081528 魏兆妍 女==<br />
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世祖年间翻译刊行的九种汉文书籍中，《六韬》、《三国志（通俗演义）》和《大乘经》等三种原系达海于天聪六年开始翻译，但由于达海早逝未能译成。三部作品中，尤以《三国志（通俗演义）》的翻译所获世祖认可为甚。《清实录·世祖章皇帝实录》中说：<br />
以翻译《三国志（通俗演义）》告成，赏大学士范文程、刚林、祁充格、宁完我、洪承畴、冯铨、宋权、学士查布海、苏纳海、王文奎、伊图、胡理、刘清泰、来袞（gǔn）、马尔笃、蒋赫德等鞍马、银两有差。[ 鄂尔泰等奉敕修：《清实录·世祖章皇帝实录》，北京：中华书局，1985年，第13页。]<br />
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Nine kinds of Chinese literary books has been translated and published during the year of Shizu, among which Da Hai began translating three kinds of the original system of ''Liu Tao'', ''The Popular Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' and ''Mahayana Sutra'' during the sixth year of Tian Cong. However, Da Hai failed to translate them all successfully due to his early death. Among these three works, especially the translation of ''The Popular Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' has received the most approval of Shizu. Said in ''The Real Record of the Qing Dynasty · Real Record of the Emperor Shizu Zhang'': With the completed translation of ''The Popular Romance of the Three Kingdoms'', Shizu would award some side horses and silver to the Grand Master Fan Wenching, Gang Lin, Qi Chongge, Ning Wanwo, Hong Chengchou, Feng Quan, Song Quan and Bachelor Zha Buhai, Su Nahai, Wang Wenkui, Yi Tu, Hu Li, Liu Qingtai, Lai Gun, Ma Erdu, Jiang Hede. [ Ertai and others were ordered by the emperor to modify: ''The Real Record of Qing Dynasty · Real Record of the Emperor Shizu Zhang'', Beijing: China Publishing House, 1985, Page 13. ]--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 07:52, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Among the nine kinds of Chinese books translated and published during the reign of Shizu emperor , three were first translated by Da Hai in 1632, including "Liu Tao", “The Popular Romance of the Three Kingdoms" and "Mahayana Sutra”. Yet they failed to be finished due to his early death. Of the three works, the translation of "The Popular Romance of the Three Kingdoms" received the most recognition of Shizu emperor. According to "The Real Record of the Qing Dynasty · Real Record of the Emperor Shizu Zhang": Given the successful translation of "The Popular Romance of the Three Kingdoms", Shizu emperor awarded some side horses and silver to the Grand Master Fan Wenching, Gang Lin, Qi Chongge, Ning Wanwo, Hong Chengchou, Feng Quan, Song Quan and Bachelor Zha Buhai, Su Nahai, Wang Wenkui, Yi Tu, Hu Li, Liu Qingtai, Lai Gun, Ma Erdu, Jiang Hede, and the amount of awards depended on their position.[ Ertai and others ordered by the emperor to modify: ''The Real Record of Qing Dynasty · Real Record of the Emperor Shizu Zhang'', Beijing: China Publishing House, 1985, Page 13. ]--[[User:Xiao Yiyao|Xiao Yiyao]] ([[User talk:Xiao Yiyao|talk]]) 07:32, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081531 肖毅瑶 女==<br />
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此次获得赏赐者共计十六人，从大学士到学士不等，既赏鞍马，又赏银两，可见其对于该书翻译的重视。值得特别注意的是，关于《三国志（通俗演义）》一书的翻译，《清初内国史院满文档案译编》中也有记载，不仅更加详实，而且内容上也与《清实录》中的记载有较大出入。为便于比较，现一并摘录如下：<br />
A total number of 16 officers, varying from Grand Masters to Bachelors, were awarded saddled horses and silver, which indicated that the emperor had attached great importance to the translation of this book. Besides, what deserves a speacial attention was that ''Translation and Compilation of Manchu Archives of the National Institute of History in the Early Qing Dynasty'' also documented some facts about the translation of the ''Romance of Three Kingdoms''. The records were not only more detailed but also quite different from that of the ''Factual Record of Qing dynasty''. For the convenience of comparison, both were excerpted as follows:<br />
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A total number of 16 officers, varying from Grand Academcians to Bachelors, were awarded saddled horses and silver, which indicated that the emperor had attached great importance to the translation of this book. Besides, it is worth paying speacial attention that ''Translation and Compilation of Manchu Archives of the National Institute of History in the Early Qing Dynasty'' also documented some facts about the translation of the ''Romance of Three Kingdoms''. The records were not only more detailed but also quite different from that of the ''Factual Record of Qing dynasty''. For the convenience of comparison, both were excerpted as follows:----[[User:Xie Jiafen|Xie Jiafen]] ([[User talk:Xie Jiafen|talk]]) 13:33, 11 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081532 谢佳芬 女==<br />
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以翻译《三国志（通俗演义）》告成，赏赐内翰林院大臣。赏予大学士范文程巴克什、刚林巴克什、祁充格、宁完我、洪承畴、冯铨、宋权七大臣彩鞍、雕辔（pèi）、……头等马各一匹、银各五十两。赏学士查布海、苏纳海、王文奎、伊图、胡理、清泰、来袞、马迩都、赫德九人无鞍二等马各一匹、银各四十两。<br />
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When ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms’’ having been completed，all the ministers in Hanlin Academcian were awarded. The grand secretaries Fan Wencheng, Gang Lin, Qi Chongge, Ning Wanwo, Hong Chengchou, Feng Quan, Song Quan were rewarded color saddle, bridle, one first-class horse and fifty liang of silver respectively. The nine scholars, Cha Buhai, Su Nahai, Wang Wenkui, Yitu, Huli, Qingtai, laigon, Ma Youdu and Hede, each have one second-class bareback horse and forty liang of silver<br />
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After the completion of “Records of the Three Kingdoms”, ministers of Hanlin Academy were awarded. Maesters including Fan Wencheng, Gang Lin, Qi Chongge, Ning Wanwo, Hong Chengchou, Feng Quan, Song Quan were awarded with colorized saddle, bridle, a first-class horse and fifty Liang of silver respectively. Nine scholars like Cha Buhai, Su Nahai, Wang Wenkui, Yitu, Huli, Qingtai, laigon, Ma Youdu and Hede, each of them has one second-class bareback horse and forty liang of silver respectively.--[[User:Xiong Min|Xiong Min]] ([[User talk:Xiong Min|talk]]) 13:45, 11 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081534 熊敏 女==<br />
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赏内弘文院主事能图、叶成格、曹皮、铿特依、杜当、布尔凯、侍讲学士吕宗烈、侍读学士张皮机、典籍官王丛庞九人银各四十两。赏博士科尔科岱、霍斯霍利、尼曼、苏和、奇同格、芒色、霍托、穆成格、周有德、必利科图、国史院博士图巴海、秘书院秦达浑臣十二人银各二十两。赏笔帖式翁国顺、额斯黑、高利、马齐蘭、乌勒扈、穆成格、必利科图、严楚蘭、阿希图、国史院笔帖式朱臣十人银各二十两。<br />
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Chiefs of Hongwen Academy like Neng Tu,Ye Chengge,Cao Pi,Qiang Teyi,Du Dang, But Erkai,teacher like Lv Zonglie, attendant like Zhang Piji, manager of ancient books like Wang Congpang were rewarded forty pounds of silver respectively.Doctor Me Erkedai, Huh Sihuoli,Niman,Su He,Qi Tongge, Mang Se, Huo Tuo,Mu Chengge,Zhou Youde, Bi Liketu,Tu Bahai,Qin Dahun were all awarded 20 pounds of silver. Weng Guoshun,E Sihei,Golly, Ma Qilan,Wu Leba,Mu Chengge, Bi Liketu,Yan Chulan,A Xitu,Zhu Chen were all rewarded with 20 pounds of silver.<br />
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Chief cadres of Hongwen Academy including Neng Tu,Ye Chengge,Cao Pi,Qiang Teyi,Du Dang,Bu Erkai,Teacher like Lv Zonglie, Attendant like Zhang Piji, Manager of ancient books Wang Congpang were rewarded forty silver pounds respectively. Doctor Me Erkedai, Huh Sihuoli,Niman,Su He,Qi Tongge, Mang Se, Huo Tuo,Mu Chengge,Zhou Youde, Bi Liketu,Tu Bahai,Qin Dahun were all awarded 20 silver pounds. Weng Guoshun,E Sihei,Golly, Ma Qilan,Wu Leba,Mu Chengge, Bi Liketu,Yan Chulan,A Xitu,Zhu Chen were all rewarded with 20 silver pounds.--[[User:Yang Ye|Yang Ye]] ([[User talk:Yang Ye|talk]]) 12:23, 30 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081539 羊叶 女==<br />
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以上送礼部一一宣名，跪受赏。[ 中国第一历史档案馆编：《清初内国史院满文档案译编·顺治朝》，北京：光明日报出版社，1989年，第80页。]<br />
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显然，上述两种文献提到的系同一件事情，但内容上有明显出入：首先，封赏的人数不同。<br />
The officials above give gifts to the Ministry of Rites one by one, being declared the name, and kneeling to be rewarded. [Editor of China's First Historical Archives: Translation of manchu archives of the National Historical Institute of the early Qing Dynasty, Shunzhi Dynasty, Beijing: Guangming Daily Press, 1989, p. 80.] Obviously,the two documents mention the same thing, but there are obvious differences in content: first, the number of people who are rewarded is quite different.<br />
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All these officials on the list will be named in recognition and rewarded on their knees at the Ministry of Rites. [ Edited by the First Historical Archive of China: "Translation and compilation of Manchu archives in the Early Qing Dynasty•Shunzhi Dynasty", GuangMing Daily Press, 1989, P80]<br />
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Appartently, the two literatures mentioned above refer to the same thing, but they differ in content: Firstly, the number of rewarded people is different. --[[User:Yang Liuqing|Yang Liuqing]] ([[User talk:Yang Liuqing|talk]]) 03:34, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081543 杨柳青 女==<br />
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例如，《清实录》中只有十六人，《清初内国史院满文档案译编》则多达四十七人，二者之间的出入主要在于弘文院主事、侍讲与侍读学士、典籍官、博士，以及笔帖式等职官群体名单。其次，在赏赐的物件问题上，《清初内国史院满文档案译编》的记载较之《清实录》明显更加详实、具体，可信度更高。再次，在个别封赏对象的称呼上，两种文献之间也有差异。<br />
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For example, only 16 civil officials are rewarded according to the "Records of the Qing Dynasty" while officials who are rewarded according to the "Translation and Compilation of Manchu Archives of the Chinese Academy in the Early Qing Dynasty" are as many as over 40. This difference mainly lies in the list of official groups such as the director of the Hong Arts Institute, official bachelors, classics officers, learned scholars and clerks handling paperwork. Secondly, the records about rewarded items in the "Translation of Manchu Archives of the Chinese Academy in the Early Qing Dynasty" are obviously more detailed, accurate and credible than those in the "Records of the Qing Dynasty". Thirdly, there are also some differences between the two literatures in terms of the appellation of the rewarded officials.--[[User:Yang Liuqing|Yang Liuqing]] ([[User talk:Yang Liuqing|talk]]) 03:30, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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For example, only 16 civil officials were rewarded in the The Records of the Qing Dynasty while officials rewarded in the Manchu Archives Translation and Compilation of the Inner State History Academy in the Early Qing Dynasty were as many as over 40. This difference mainly lay in the list of official groups such as the director of the Hong Arts Institute, official bachelors, classics officers, learned scholars and clerks handling paperwork. Secondly, the records about rewarded items in the Manchu Archives Translation and Compilation of the Inner State History Academy in the Early Qing Dynasty were obviously more detailed, accurate and credible than those in the The Records of the Qing Dynasty. Thirdly, there were also some differences between the two literatures in terms of the appellation of the rewarded officials.--[[User:Yi Yangfan|Yi Yangfan]] ([[User talk:Yi Yangfan|talk]]) 05:11, 29 September 2021 (UTC)--[[User:Yi Yangfan|Yi Yangfan]] ([[User talk:Yi Yangfan|talk]]) 05:11, 29 September 2021 (UTC)Yi Yangfan<br />
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==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081545 易扬帆 女==<br />
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例如，《清实录》中的“刘清泰”被写作《清初内国史院满文档案译编》中的“清泰”，“马尔笃”被写作“马迩都”，“蒋赫德”被写作“赫德”，等等。<br />
世祖年间翻译的汉文书籍中，《洪武宝训》、《表忠录》、《诗经》与《孝经》等也各具代表性。《洪武宝训》系明朝皇权政治的象征，反映了明太祖朱元璋治国理政的理念和方针政策。<br />
For example, Liu Qingtai in Factual Record of Qing Dynasty was written as Qingtai in Manchu Archives Translation and Compilation of the Inner State History Academy in the Early Qing Dynasty, Mar Du was written as Ma Erdu, and Jiang Hede was written as Hurd, etc.<br />
The translated Chinese books in the certain era of Fulin years, such as HongWu Baoxun, The Record of Loyalty, Books of Songs and Classic of Filial Piety have had their own representatives. HongWu Baoxun was a symbol of the imperial power politics of Ming Dynasty, which reflected the ideas and policies of Zhu Yuanzhang, the emperor Taizu of Ming Dynasty.--[[User:Yi Yangfan|Yi Yangfan]] ([[User talk:Yi Yangfan|talk]]) 16:03, 28 September 2021 (UTC)Yi Yangfan<br />
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For example, “Liu Qingtai” in Factual Record of Qing Dynasty was written as “Qingtai” in Manchu Archives Translation and Compilation of the Inner State History Academy in the Early Qing Dynasty, "Mar Du" was written as "Ma Erdu", "Jiang Hede" was written as "Hede", and so on. The translated Chinese books in Fulin years, such as HongWu Baoxun, The Record of Loyalty, Books of Songs and Classic of Filial Piety all were of representative. Hongwu Baoxun was a symbol of imperial power politics in the Ming Dynasty and reflected the ideas and policies of Zhu Yuanzhang, the emperor of the Ming Dynasty.--[[User:Yin Huizhen|Yin Huizhen]] ([[User talk:Yin Huizhen|talk]]) 02:46, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081546 殷慧珍 女==<br />
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顺治三年三月，《洪武宝训》的满文翻译完成，成为清朝入关后的首部汉籍译作。世祖对于该部译作极为重视，不仅赏赐了刚林、宁完我、范文程等译者，而且由摄政王多尔衮钦命汉官代笔，以世祖名义为译作制作序文，颁行全国。世祖对明太祖推崇备至，尤其是后者制定的条例章程，认为历代贤君莫如洪武，因而本书的翻译目的性极强。<br />
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In the March of the third year of Shunzhi, the Manchu translation of Hongwu Baoxun was completed, becoming the first translation written by Chinese writer after the Qing Dynasty was in power. The emperor Shizu attached great importance to this translation. He not only rewarded the translators such as Gang Lin,Ning Wanwo, and Fan Wencheng, ect., but also the regent Dorgon appointed Han officals to write a preface in the name of Shizu, which was issued throughout the country. The emperor Shizu revered the emperor Taizu of Ming Dynasty, especially the regulations and articles he formulated, and believed that there were no virtuous monarchs of all dynasties like Hongwu, so the translation purpose of this book was very strong.--[[User:Yin Huizhen|Yin Huizhen]] ([[User talk:Yin Huizhen|talk]]) 01:17, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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In the March of the third year of Shunzhi, the Manchu translation of Hongwu Baoxun was completed, becoming the first translation done by Chinese translators since the Qing Dynasty was established. The Emperor Shizu attached great importance to this translation. Not only he rewarded the translators such as Gang Lin,Ning Wanwo, and Fan Wencheng, ect., but also the regent Dorgon appointed the officals of Han Dynasty to write a preface, which was issued throughout the country, in the name of Shizu. The Emperor Shizu praised the emperor Taizu of Ming Dynasty highly, especially the regulations and articles he formulated, and he believed that there were no more virtuous monarchs of all dynasties than Hongwu, so the translation purpose of this book was very strong.--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 02:21, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081548 尹媛 女==<br />
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换言之，世祖希望借由此书的翻译，以中原汉族王朝的所谓“正统”巩固满清统治，粉饰民族征服和民族压迫。事实上，以翻译汉书，尤其是汉文典章制度书籍的翻译，作为统治的工具和手段，这一点在太宗时期即已存在。作为国家治理的重要手段，太宗不仅令达海改进老满文，而且钦定翻译了不少汉文书籍，如明太祖颁发的《大诰三编》和《三国演义》等，用作出谋划策和军事征讨的参考。<br />
In other words, Shizu hoped to consolidate the rule of Qing Dynasty with the so-called "orthodox" of Han Dynasty in the Central Plains to deny national conquest and oppression by translating this book. Actually, in the reign of Emperor Taizong, it had existed that the translation of Chinese books, especially the translation of Chinese laws and regulations, was regarded as the tools and means of ruling. As the important mean of national governance, the old manchu scripts were developed by Da Hai and not a few Chinese books, such as ''The third Edition of Penal Code'' and ''The Romance of the Three Kingdoms''issued by Emperor Hongwu were translated under the decree of Emperor Taizong, which were used as a reference for planning and advising and military campaigns.--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 15:44, 28 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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In other words, Shizu hoped to consolidate the rule of Qing Dynasty with the so-called "orthodox" of Han Dynasty in the Central Plains to whitewash national conquests and oppressions by translating this book. Actually, in the reign of Emperor Taizong, it had existed that the translation of Chinese books, especially the translation of Chinese laws and regulations, was regarded as the tools and means of ruling. As an important mean of national governance, the old manchu scripts were developed by Da Hai and not a few Chinese books, such as ''The third Edition of Penal Code'' and ''The Romance of the Three Kingdoms''issued by Emperor Hongwu were translated under the decree of Emperor Taizong, which were used as a reference for planning and military campaigns.--[[User:Zhan Ruoxuan|Zhan Ruoxuan]] ([[User talk:Zhan Ruoxuan|talk]]) 03:01, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081549 詹若萱 女==<br />
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《表忠录》同样辑自明朝嘉靖年间，实为杨继盛的两部奏疏，即《请诛贼臣疏》和《请罢马市疏》，由汪宗伊撰于明朝万历年间，属吏部传记类。顺治十三年前后，世祖降旨将杨继盛事迹写成《忠愍记》。所谓“忠愍”，即明穆宗因念及杨继盛参劾严嵩之功，誉其为“直谏诸臣之首”，而追赠给后者的谥号。<br />
The Record of Loyalty was also written from the JiaJing peroid of Ming Dynasty. It was actually consisted of two memorials to throne of Yang JIsheng, namely memorial on killing traitors and memorial on closing the horse market written by Wang Zongyi during the Wanli period of Ming Dynasty. It belonged to official biography. About ShunZhi 13 years, the Emperor Shizu made a decree to write Yang Jisheng’s good deeds into The Record of Zhong Min. The so-called “Zhong Min” referred to the posthumous title given to Yang Jisheng after his death, because Emperor Muzong praised him as “the head of the ministers” for his contribution to impeaching Yan Song.--[[User:Zhan Ruoxuan|Zhan Ruoxuan]] ([[User talk:Zhan Ruoxuan|talk]]) 02:27, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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The Record of Loyalty was also written in the JiaJing peroid of Ming Dynasty. It was actually consisted of two memorials to throne of Yang JIsheng, namely memorial on killing traitors and memorial on closing the horse market written by Wang Zongyi during the Wanli period of Ming Dynasty. It is a kind of official biography. About ShunZhi 13 years, the Emperor Shizu made a decree to write Yang Jisheng’s good deeds into The Record of Zhong Min. The so-called “Zhong Min” referred to the posthumous title given to Yang Jisheng after his death, because Emperor Muzong praised him as “the head of the ministers” for his contribution to impeaching Yan Song.--[[User:Zhong Yifei|Zhong Yifei]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yifei|talk]]) 13:16, 11 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081553 钟义菲 女==<br />
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《忠愍记》成书后，世祖御制《表忠录·序》以表彰杨继盛，其中写道：自古贤臣正士效力王家，率授命致身，捐生赴义。迹其所遭，若无厚幸然。<br />
After the record of Zhong Min was written, the emperor Shizu personally wrote a preface to the record of loyalty to commend Yang Jisheng, which wrote: since ancient times, virtuous officials have devotedly served the emperor family, sacrificing their lives for justice. From what happened, there was no luck.<br />
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After the Record of Zhong Min was finished, the emperor Shizu personally wrote the Preface to the Record of Loyalty to commend Yang Jisheng, which wrote: since ancient times, virtuous officials and soldiers have devotedly served the loyal family, sacrificing their lives for justice. From what happened to them, there was no luck.--[[User:Zhong Yulu|Zhong Yulu]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yulu|talk]]) 12:40, 1 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081554 钟雨露 女==<br />
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而时过论定，声称振杨，及于代远风遥，流徽弥茂，留连曩迹，如遘其人。是以孟轲有言：“奋乎百世之上，百世之下闻者莫不兴起也”。……顾竭志尽忠者，人臣之谊；善善恶恶者，大道之公。<br />
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But as time went by, the verdict on Yang Jisheng’s exploits had been reached and he gained considerable fame. When the years have passed, the fame of him spread all around. When people recalled his deeds, it was like meeting him in person. Just as Mencius said, “Those who made themselves distinguished a hundred generations before, and after a hundred generations, some people who heard of them are all aroused in this manner.” ……..Those who were intensely loyal could be harmonious with the ministers; And it was fair to punish the bad and to be kind to the good. --[[User:Zhong Yulu|Zhong Yulu]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yulu|talk]]) 01:33, 2 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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But as time went by, Yang Jisheng’s exploits have been recognized, and he gained considerable fame. The older the years, the more his fame spread. When people recalled his deeds, it was like meeting him in person. Just as Mencius said, “Those who made themselves distinguished a hundred generations before, and after a hundred generations, some people who heard of them are all aroused in this manner.” ……..Those who were intensely loyal could be harmonious with the ministers. And it was fair to punish the bad and to be kind to the good. --[[User:Zhou Jiu|Zhou Jiu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Jiu|talk]]) 13:09, 11 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==英语语言文学（英美文学） 202120081555 周玖 女==<br />
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循省往哲，爱结于中，诚有不能自己者也。朕万机之暇，绎载籍，每览忠孝节义之事，未尝不反复三致意焉。[ 阎崇年校注：《康熙顺天府志》，北京：中华书局，2009年，第482页。]<br />
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一方面，世祖赞誉杨继盛为忠臣之典范；另一方面，世祖又斥责严嵩为逆臣，认为正是严嵩父子威福专擅，浊乱王家，致使纪纲废断。<br />
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Reflecting on predecessors, despite the disloyal, the love to nation was condensed together. I was bombarded with numerous affairs. But in my spare time, I translated and recorded many books through dictation. When I read books about loyalty, I often analyzed them repeatedly to express my regard. [ Yan Chongnian: Kang Xi Shun Tianfu, Beijing: China Publishing House, 2009, Page 482. ]--[[User:Zhou Jiu|Zhou Jiu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Jiu|talk]]) 13:12, 11 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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On the one hand, the emperor Shizu acclaimed Yang Jisheng as the paragon of loyal minister. On the other hand, he denounced Yan Song as a traitor, and believing（believed--Chen Xiangqiong(talk) )the fact that Yan Song and his son misused their authorities to domineer and disturb the loyal family so that the law and regulations became slacked.（were broken--Chen Xiangqiong(talk)）<br />
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==外国语言学及应用语言学 202120081480 陈湘琼 女==<br />
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世祖敕令翻译此书，目的是为了激励官员学做忠谏之臣，劝勉意味浓厚。毋庸置疑，世祖时期的汉籍翻译秉承的原则也是“实用主义”原则，这一点太祖、太宗时期的汉籍翻译并无本质区别。例如，世祖敕译《诗经》，即有显著的现实意义与政治考量。<br />
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The Emperor Shunzhi commanded to translate this book for the purpose that officials could be encouraged to become people who dare to tell the truth and give right suggestions to the emperor, which had persuasive and warning meanings by itself. In this period, translation of books from Han dynasty was in fact abiding to the “utilization” principle, which had no difference to translations in the period of Qianlong Emperor and Huang Taiji Emperor. For example , practical significance and political meditation had been considered for Emperor Shunzhi commanding the translation of “Book of Songs”.<br />
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The Emperor Shunzhi commanded to translate this book to encourage officials to tell the truth and put forward reasonable suggestions, which was of great persuasive meaning.In this period, translation of canons from Han dynasty actually followed the “utilitarianism” principle, which had no difference to those during the reign of Qianlong Emperor and Huang Taiji Emperor. For example , practical significance and political meditation had been considered for Emperor Shunzhi commanding the translation of “Book of Songs”. --[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 14:00, 30 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==外国语言学及应用语言学 202120081492 黄逸妍 女==<br />
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《清实录·世祖章皇帝实录》中说，顺治十年二月，“上幸内院，披阅翻译《五经》，谕诸臣曰：‘天德王道，备载于书，真万世不易之理也’”。[ 鄂尔泰等奉敕修：《清实录·世祖章皇帝实录》，北京：中华书局，1985年，第9页。]可见，世祖饬令翻译《诗经》之时，其它各经的翻译也在进行，但《五经》中仅有《诗经》一部付梓。《诗经》译毕，世祖也为其御制序文，认为该部作品能使人明性意，崇礼义，“其言之深者，可用于庙堂；言之浅者，可用于身家。以之事君，必忠；以之事父，必孝。<br />
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According to Records of Qing Dynasty •Records of the Emperor Shizu, in February of the tenth year during the reign of the emperor Shunzhi, "After reading the Five Classics in palace, the emperor contended that morals and natural laws are recorded in these books in extenso, which are tough to reach." [Revised by Eertai: Records of Qing Dynasty •Records of the Emperor Shizu, Beijing: Zhonghua Publishing House, 1985:9 ] It was clear that the translating of other classics was also proceeding when the emperor Shizu commanded the translation of The Book of Songs while only the latter had been finished among the five classics. When the translation of The Book of Songs came to an end, the emperor Shizu wrote the preface to it himself and remained steadfast in the belief that that work helped to behave with propriety and righteousness. "The book can be used in imperial court from its profound aspect and in average families from its unadorned aspect. Instilled with the belief, the officials would be faithful and the children filial.<br />
--[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 00:44, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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According to Records of Qing Dynasty •Records of the Emperor Shizu, in February of the tenth year during the reign of the emperor Shunzhi, "After having a careful perusal of the Five Classics in adytum, the emperor proclaimed all ministers that morals and natural laws are recorded in these books in extenso, which are tough to reach for all ages." [Revised by Eertai et al: Records of Qing Dynasty •Records of the Emperor Shizu, Beijing: Zhonghua Publishing House, 1985:9 ] It could be seen that the translating of other classics was also proceeding when the emperor Shizu commanded to translate The Book of Songs, while only the latter had been finished among the five classics. When the translation of The Book of Songs came to an end, the emperor Shizu wrote the preface to it himself and believed that reading this work would help us to behave with propriety and righteousness. "It can be used in imperial court from its profound aspect and in average families from its unadorned aspect. Instilled with the belief, the officials would be faithful and the children filial.edit--[[User:Ma Xin|Ma Xin]] ([[User talk:Ma Xin|talk]]) 14:12, 30 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==外国语言学及应用语言学 202120081513 马新 女==<br />
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更可以敦厚人伦，端正教化。”[ 叶高树：《清朝前期的文化政策》，台北：稻乡出版社，2002年，第72-73页。]<br />
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从“教化”的角度思考《诗经》的翻译，既是世祖本人的自觉认识，也是以他为首的统治者在面对稗（bài）官小说盛行，而满洲人竞相翻译时所做的一种调整。正如顺治九年进士、刑科给事中阿什坦指出的那样：学者立志，宜以圣贤为期，读书务以经史为中。<br />
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"It could also give depth to moral relations, straighten out educational ideas and transform people." [Ye Shugao: Cultural Policy in the Early Qing Dynasty, Taipei: Daoxiang Publishing House, 2002: 72-73.]<br />
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It is not only the conscious understanding of Qingshizhu Emperor himself to think about the translation of The Book of Songs from an "Enlightenment" perspective, but also an adjustment made by the rulers at his head faced with the prevalence of Bai-guan novels and Manchurians competing for translation. As pointed out by Ashtan, an advanced scholar in the ninth year of Shunzhi and a supervising censor of Justice, scholars should aspire to be saints and their reading must focus on classical and historical books. --[[User:Ma Xin|Ma Xin]] ([[User talk:Ma Xin|talk]]) 13:11, 30 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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It could also give depth to moral relations, straighten out educational ideas and transform people." [Ye Shugao: Cultural Policy in the Early Qing Dynasty, Taipei: Daoxiang Publishing House, 2002: 72-73.]<br />
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Thinking about the translation of The Book of Songs from the "Teaching" perspectives is not only the personal understanding of Qingshizhu Emperor himself but also an adjustment made by the rulers at his head faced with the prevalence of Bai-guan novels and Manchurians competing for translation. As pointed out by Ashtan, an advanced scholar in the ninth year of Shunzhi and a supervising censor of Justice, the scholars should aspire to be saints and focus on classical and historical books.--[[User:Qing Jianan|Qing Jianan]] ([[User talk:Qing Jianan|talk]]) 15:38, 30 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==外国语言学及应用语言学 202120081518 秦建安 女==<br />
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此外杂书无益之言，必概废之而不睹。则庶乎学业日隆，而邪慝（tè）之心无由而入。近见满洲译书内，多有小说秽言，非惟无益，恐流行渐染，则人心易致于邪慝 。<br />
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Besides, there is no beneficial words in assorted books which should not be allowed to be published and be viewed.(So they shouldn't be allowed to be published and viewed--[[User:Sun Yashi|Sun Yashi]] ([[User talk:Sun Yashi|talk]]) 07:26, 29 September 2021 (UTC)) Then the level of study approximately can be uplifted day by day. Meanwhile, the minds of people will also not be degenerate. Recently I found that the translation of some Manchurian books was full of obscene words which personally was of futility. I am afraid that such transition will be so popular that easily erode people’s thoughts.<br />
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Revised version:--[[User:Sun Yashi|Sun Yashi]] ([[User talk:Sun Yashi|talk]]) 13:08, 11 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
Besides, there is no beneficial words in assorted books.So they shouldn't be allowed to be published and viewed.Then the level of study approximately can be uplifted day by day. Meanwhile, the minds of people will also not be degenerate. Recently I found that the translation of some Manchurian books was full of obscene words which personally was of futility. I am afraid that such transition will be so popular that easily erode people’s thoughts.<br />
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==外国语言学及应用语言学 202120081522 孙雅诗 女==<br />
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况圣贤古训，日详究之，犹恐不及，何暇费日时于无用之地？[ 鄂尔泰等修，李洵、赵德贵等点校：《八旗通志·初集》，长春：东北师范大学出版社，1989年，第5339页。]<br />
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阿什坦的奏章开宗明义，指出读书必以经史为要，必须摒弃杂书，尤其是污言秽语之书，以免贾祸人心。为此，他奏请皇帝对旗人读书严加限制，要求嗣后翻译书籍也应针对“关圣贤义理，古今治乱之书”，对于其它书籍则“概为禁饬，不许翻译”。[ 同上。]<br />
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What's more,there are many sages and wisdom need to be researched.We are afraid that we don't have enough time to do it in details day by day.So why do we waste our time translating those things?[Revised by Eertai ect.,proofread by Li Xun，Zhao De ect.:''Baqitongzhi·chuji'',Changchun:Northeast Normal University Press,1989,p.5339.]<br />
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The advice of Ashitan is very clear from the very begining--[[User:Wu Yinghong|Wu Yinghong]] ([[User talk:Wu Yinghong|talk]]) 15:33, 28 September 2021 (UTC),which points that reading should focus on the Confusion classic and history --[[User:Wu Yinghong|Wu Yinghong]] ([[User talk:Wu Yinghong|talk]]) 15:39, 28 September 2021 (UTC)and abandon those irrelevant books,especially those of dirty words,to get people rid of the obscene thoughts.In order to do this,he advised the emperor be more strict with the Qi people's readings.flag people's learning.--[[User:Wu Yinghong|Wu Yinghong]] ([[User talk:Wu Yinghong|talk]]) 15:30, 28 September 2021 (UTC)And he also required his offspring translate books about sages,principles and those can help to govern the society.Besides these books,other books are all forbidden and mustn't be translated.--[[User:Sun Yashi|Sun Yashi]] ([[User talk:Sun Yashi|talk]]) 11:44, 28 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==日语语言文学 202120081530 吴映红 女==<br />
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这一观点既是他翻译《大学》、《中庸》、《孝经》、《潘氏（通鉴）总论》、《太公家教》的原则与标准，也是太祖朝以来一以贯之的译书宗旨。<br />
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五 汉籍（书）翻译的文化沟通意涵<br />
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清初的汉书翻译主要由两部分人员构成：兼通满、汉的旗人（满洲、蒙古、汉军），以及八旗文科举中的举人、进士及第者，特别是顺治朝以来从新科进士中拣选出来学习满文的汉籍士子。<br />
The opinion is not only the principle and standard of his translation about ‘’University‘’, ‘’the doctrine of the mean‘’,‘ ‘’ the book of filial piety‘’, ‘’the general theory of pan (Tongjian) ‘’and ‘’Taigong family education‘’, but also the consistent purpose of translation from the Taizu Dynasty. <br />
FIFTH Cultural communication of Han nationality.<br />
《大学》''The Great Learning'' --[[User:He Qin|He Qin]] ([[User talk:He Qin|talk]]) 14:01, 28 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
In the early Qing Dynasty, the translation of Chinese traditional book was mostly composed of two parts: the flag people who knew Manchu and Han (Manchuria, Mongolia and Han Army), as well as the candidates, Jinshi and others in the eight flag liberal arts test, especially the Chinese bechelors who was selected from the new Jinshi to study Manchu from the Shunzhi Dynasty.<br />
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The opinion is not only the principle and standard of his translation about ‘’Daxue‘’, ‘’Zhongyong‘’,‘ ‘’ Xiaojing‘’, ‘’Genneral Theory(Tongjian) of Pan's Family ‘’and ‘’Taigong Family Education‘’, but also the consistent purpose of translation from the Taizu Dynasty. <br />
FIFTH Cultural communication of Han nationality.<br />
《大学》''The Great Learning'' --[[User:He Qin|He Qin]] ([[User talk:He Qin|talk]]) 14:01, 28 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
In the early Qing Dynasty, the translation of Chinese traditional book was mostly composed of two parts: the flag people who knew Manchu and Han (Manchuria, Mongolia and Han Army), as well as the candidates, Jinshi and others in the eight flag liberal arts test, especially the Chinese bechelors who was selected from the new Jinshi to study Manchu from the Shunzhi Dynasty.<br />
--[[User:Zhu Renduo|Zhu Renduo]] ([[User talk:Zhu Renduo|talk]]) 12:51, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==日语语言文学 202120081560 朱壬铎 男==<br />
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这些人员既是翻译专才，又是文化接触与交流的实践者，代表了满洲统治阶级想要与汉族之间进行文化沟通的意愿。如顺治六年四月，礼科给事中姚文然以“以满汉同心合力为念。窃思满汉一家，咸思报主”为由，奏请从新科进士内广选庶吉士，令其肄习清书，待精熟之后即授以科、道等官。[ 鄂尔泰等奉敕修：《清实录·世祖章皇帝实录》，北京：中华书局，1985年，第11页。]顺治十年，世祖降旨，对此前所选三科庶吉士进行考试，从中选取“通满洲文义者三人”，“以应升之缺用”，并选取“其次可造者十二人”，“仍照原衔，责令勉力学习，俟再试分别。”[ 同上，第7-8页。]<br />
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These persons are not only experts in translation,but also practicer in cultral contact and communication,which represented the will,which is to cultrally communicate with the Han people,of the ruling class of Manchu.<br />
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For example,in April of the sixth year of Shunzhi,Yao Wenran,the inspectorof the department of rites,with the reason that "with the purpose that is combining the Man ethnic and the Han ethnic,I secretly came up with an idea about the Man-Han family but with my whole life for the emperor",made a request that is to widely select Shujishi from newly selected Jinshi and order them to sutdy the books of Qing Dynasty to get well-learned then teach the bureaucrats from other departments and circuits.[E Ertai et al.write by imperial command:Veritable Records of Qing Dynasty-Records of Shizu Zhang Emperor,Beijing,China Book Bureau,1985,p.11]<br />
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In the tenth year of Shunzhi,Shizong emperor declared an imperial order about examining the selected Shujishi from all three subjects,from which select three persons who are "familiar with the texts of Manchu",to"fill the vacancy caused by the former Jinshi selection",and select "another 12 gifted persons""remain the former title,make them study hard for the further tests and selection."[E Ertai et al.write by imperial command:Veritable Records of Qing Dynasty-Records of Shizu Zhang Emperor,Beijing,China Book Bureau,1985,p.7-8]<br />
--[[User:Zhu Renduo|Zhu Renduo]] ([[User talk:Zhu Renduo|talk]]) 02:47, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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These person are not only experts in translation,but also practicers in cultural contact and communication. They represent the will to culturally communicate with the Han people,of the ruling class of Manchu.<br />
For example,in April of the sixth year of Shunzhi,Yao Wenran,the inspector of the Department of Rites,with the reason that "with the purpose that is combining the Manchu and the Han ethnic,I think both Manchu and Han should hold the thought to requite favours to the emperor,made a request to widely select Hanlin bachelor from newly selected Jinshi(a successful candidate in the highest imperial examinations) and order them to sutdy the books of Qing Dynasty to get well-learned then grant them official positions.[E Ertai et al.write by imperial command:Veritable Records of <br />
Qing Dynasty-Records of Shizu Zhang Emperor,Beijing,China Book Bureau,1985,p.11]<br />
In the tenth year of Shunzhi, the emperor declared an imperial order about examining the selected Han bachelor of all three subjects,from which select three persons who are "familiar with the texts of Manchu",to"fill the vacancy caused by the former Jinshi selection",and select "another 12 gifted persons""remain the former title,make them study hard for the further tests and selection."[Idem, p.7-8]<br />
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--[[User:Cai Zhufeng|Cai Zhufeng]] ([[User talk:Cai Zhufeng|talk]]) 06:10, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==日语语言文学 202120081477 蔡珠凤 女==<br />
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雍、乾、嘉年间，从新科进士中选取习满文者的做法得到延续，但每次选取者人数不一，整体上渐呈下降之势，至道光二十年前后废止，为汉书的满文翻译提供了人力来源，同时也为沟通满、汉两族文化提供了桥梁。<br />
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事实上，早在太宗时期，由于满人尚居关外，不识汉字，又罔知政体，遂敕达海等翻译汉书，使“满洲臣民未习汉文者，亦能兼通汉书”，而太宗自己也以它们作为“临政规范”，学习汉族的国家治理模式。[ 鄂尔泰等修，李洵、赵德贵等点校：《八旗通志·初集》，长春：东北师范大学出版社，1989年，第5325页。]顺治年间，阿什坦译成《大学》、《中庸》等书后，世祖又以它们作为倡导礼义教化的工具，希望通过此举使“满洲人知崇正学、尚经术”，令“邪说不得行”，而“风俗丕变”。[ 同上。]<br />
In the years of Yong Zheng , Qian Long and Jia Qing , the practice of selecting Manchu scholars from new scholars continued, but the number of candidates selected each time varied, and the overall trend gradually decreased. It was abolished around the 20th year of Dao Guang, which not only provided a source of manpower resources for Manchu translation of Hanshu, but also provided a bridge for communication between Manchu and Han cultures.<br />
In fact, as early as the Taizong period, because the Manchus still lived outside the frontier fortress, did not know Chinese characters and did not know about the regime, they ordered Dahai and other people to translate Chinese books, so that "Manchus who did not learn Chinese could also understand the contents of Chinese books", and Taizong himself used them as "administration norms" to learn the national governance model of the Han nationality. [Writed by Ertai etc.Checked by Li Xun, Zhao Degui etc.:"Ba Qi Tong Zhi I", Changchun: Northeast Normal University Press, 1989, P. 5325.] during the reign of Shunzhi, after Ashitan translated the 《University》《Moderate》and other books, Shizu used them as a tool to advocate etiquette and righteousness education, hoping to make "Manchus know and worship orthodox learning and classics" and "heresy can not be carried out" And "Customs change". [ibid.]<br />
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In the years of Yong Zheng , Qian Long and Jia Qing , the practice of selecting Manchu scholars from new scholars was continued, but the number of candidates selected each time varied, and the overall trend gradually tended to decrease. It was abolished around the second decade of Dao Guang, which not only provided human resources for Manchu translation of the Han books, but also builded the bridge of cultural communication between Manchu and Han.<br />
In fact, as early as the the Emperor Taizong period, because the Manchu who still lived outside shanhaiguan pass, did not know Chinese characters and the regime,Taizong ordered Dahai and others to translate the Han books, so that "Manchus who did not learn Chinese could also understand the Han books", and Taizong himself also used them as " the administration norms" to learn the national governance model of the Han nationality. [Written by Ertai etc.Checked by Li Xun, Zhao Degui etc.:"Ba Qi Tong Zhi I", Changchun: Northeast Normal University Press, 1989, P. 5325.] During the reign of Shunzhi, after Ashitan translated the "University""Moderate"and other books,Hong Taiji used them as the tool to advocate confucian code of ethics , hoping to make "Manchus know and worship orthodox learning and classics" and "heresy can not be carried out" and "Customs change". [ibid.]--[[User:Fu Shiyu|Fu Shiyu]] ([[User talk:Fu Shiyu|talk]]) 02:40, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==日语语言文学 202120081486 付诗雨 女==<br />
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显然，汉文经、史的译印有助于端正满洲的人心风俗，使满、汉文化互通有无，即便是《诗经》中提到的各种花草树木、鸟兽虫鱼，也对拓展满人见闻甚有助益。[ 叶高树：《<诗经>满文译本比较研究——以<周南>、<召南>为例》，《国立台湾师范大学历史学报》1992年第20期。]有清一代，并非只有官方组织汉书的翻译，私人译书也很盛行。但官方译书与私人译书不同，无论是在译书的取材上，还是在译书的组织管理上，抑或是译书的颁行上，都有其特殊的考量。<br />
Obviously,the translation and printing of the classics and history of Han are conductive to correcting the humanity and customs of Manchuria,and exchanging of needed culture between Manchu and Han.Even different kinds of flowers and trees, insects and fish, which were mentioned in ''the Book of Songs'', also contribute to enrich their knowledge.[Ye Gaoshu:"''Comparative Study of the Manchu translation for 'the book of songs'--Taking 'Zhounan' 'Shannan' as example","The Histotrical Journal of National Taiwan Normal University''<br />
"1992;No.20.]In the Qing Dynasty, not only the official organization of the Han Books' translation, private translation was also very popular. However, unlike the private translation, the official translation was considered specially, whether in the materials of translation, the organization and management of the translation, or the publishment of the translation.--[[User:Fu Shiyu|Fu Shiyu]] ([[User talk:Fu Shiyu|talk]]) 15:16, 28 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
Obviously,the translation and printing of the classics and history of chinese are conductive to correcting the morality and customs of Manchuria,and exchanging of needed culture between Manchu and Han.Even different kinds of flowers and trees, insects and fish, which were mentioned in "the Book of Songs", also contribute to enrich their knowledge.[Ye Gaoshu:"Comparative Study of the Manchu translation for 'the book of songs'--Taking 'Zhounan' 'Shannan' as the example","The Histotrical Journal of National Taiwan Normal University "1992;No.20.]In the Qing Dynasty, not only the official organization of the Han Books' translation, private translation was also very popular. However, unlike the private translation, the official translation was considered specially, whether in the materials,the organization,the management or the publishment of the translation.--[[User:Zhou Xiaoxue|Zhou Xiaoxue]] ([[User talk:Zhou Xiaoxue|talk]]) 14:05, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==日语语言文学 202120081559 周小雪 女==<br />
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即便是《三国志（通俗演义）》这样的通俗文学作品，译成满文后也被赋予了严肃的兵法与战略意义。以满文遍译汉书，尤其是经、史、子、集等书，并不是为了显示满语语文系统的优越性，所谓“精微巧妙，实小学家所未有”，而是为了“表章经学，天下从风”，通过汉籍的翻译“研究微言，讲求古义”，进行文化沟通。[ 叶高树：《清朝前期的文化政策》，台北：稻乡出版社，2002年，第91页。]藉由汉文典籍的翻译，满洲统治者不仅了解了汉族文化，而且在接触与学习中获得了“统制”汉民的重要经验，使满洲政权在性质上逐渐向“中原政权”转化，并实现“治统”与“道统”的和谐统一。<br />
Even popular literature such as The History of the Three Kingdoms was given serious military and strategic significance when translated into Manchu script. The purpose of translating Chinese books with Manchu script ,especially Canon ,History,Philosophy and Literature such book is not to show the superiority of the Manchu language system,but to show the confucian classics。Through the translation of Chinese classics ,study small points ,emphasize the ancient significance and carry out cultural communication.Ye Gaoshu.Cultural Policy in the early Qing Dynasty.Taipei:Rice Village Press,2002,p.91.Through the translation of Chinese classics,Manchu rulers not only understood the Han culture,but also gained important experience of controlling the Han people in the process of contact and learning,so that Manchu regime gradually transformed into central plains regime in nature and realized the unity of regnant orthodoxy and confucian orthodoxy.--[[User:Zhou Xiaoxue|Zhou Xiaoxue]] ([[User talk:Zhou Xiaoxue|talk]]) 14:08, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Modifying canon, history, philosophy and literature to Confusion classics, history, pre Qin hundred works, religion and classical writings.因为经：经书，是指儒家经典著作；史：史书，即正史；子：先秦百家著作，宗教；集：文集，即诗词汇编。泛指我国古代典籍。Canon, history, philosophy and literature did not express the exact meaning.<br />
--[[User:Zou Yueli|Zou Yueli]] ([[User talk:Zou Yueli|talk]]) 01:41, 29 September 2021 (UTC)"表章经学，天下从风”The first half of the sentence is not translated accuratelyand the second half of the sentence has not been translated，so I think it should be translated into "Commend Confucian classics and let people all over the world follow"<br />
<br />
==日语语言文学 202120081562 邹岳丽 女==<br />
<br />
结语<br />
清初之际，虽然国家尚未实现从“征服王朝”向“中原王朝”的转变，但统治者在致力于武力开拓的同时，也开始关注文化活动。一方面，统治者念念不忘“国语骑射”的满洲旧制，将其视作立国精神；另一方面，又积极组织汉书翻译，倡导汉文化精神，从中原儒学中探求君主治术，构建国家的治统与道统。汉书翻译不仅让统治者得以接触汉族思想精粹和政治观念，而且让其在了解汉文经典与汉族文化的过程中，学习历代帝王的执政得失，以及古往今来的兴废事迹，从中汲取治国经验。<br />
<br />
Conclusion At the beginning of the Qing Dynasty, although the country has not yet realized the transformation from "conquering Dynasty" to "Central Plains Dynasty"，however, while the rulers were committed to the development of force, they also began to pay attention to cultural activities. On the one hand, the rulers never forget the old Manchu system of "national language riding and shooting" and regarded it as the spirit of founding the country;On the other hand, --[[User:Zhu Suzhen|Zhu Suzhen]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suzhen|talk]]) 06:46, 28 September 2021 (UTC)he actively organized the translation of Chinese calligraphy, advocated the spirit of Chinese culture, explored the rule of monarchy from the Confucianism of the Central Plains, and constructed the rule and orthodoxy of the country.Chinese translation not only allows the rulers to get in touch with the <br />
ideological essence and political concepts of the Han nationality, but also allows them to learn from the ruling gains and losses of emperors and the rise and fall deeds from ancient to modern times in the process of understanding Chinese classics and Han<br />
culture, so as to learn from the experience of governing the country. --[[User:Zhu Suzhen|Zhu Suzhen]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suzhen|talk]]) 06:46, 28 September 2021 (UTC)from the experience of governing the country. “here the preposition from should be deleted--[[User:Zhu Suzhen|Zhu Suzhen]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suzhen|talk]]) 06:46, 28 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
however, while the rulers were committed to expansion by military force.<br />
国语骑射：Manchu language, horse-riding and archery--[[User:Zeng Junlin|Zeng Junlin]] ([[User talk:Zeng Junlin|talk]]) 01:49, 3 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhu Suzhen|Zhu Suzhen]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suzhen|talk]]) 06:46, 28 September 2021 (UTC) ( here "he" is not consistant with the subjective "the rulers", so "he" should be changed in to "they" )<br />
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==国别 202120081478 曾俊霖 男==<br />
<br />
概言之，汉书的翻译既匡扶了社稷，又教化了臣民，令满、汉文化之间的交流得以开启并加深。虽然清初三朝期间，汉书翻译的规模不一，统治者对于汉族文化的具体态度存在差异，但翻译的原则与标准基本未变，那便是以文治教化和典章制度为主，通过翻译汉族典籍，凝聚符合国家需求的集体价值观，并将汉族传统文化落实为国家治理的大政方针，实现兴文教、崇经术、开太平的治国理念。<br />
<br />
In short, the translation of books of Han nationality not only helped the whole country, but also educated his people so that the cultural exchange between Manchu and Han can be opened and deepened. During the three dynasties of the early Qing Dynasty, the scale of books of Han nationality translation was different, and the rulers' specific attitudes towards Han culture were different, but the principles and standards of translation remained basically unchanged, which focused on cultural education and the system of laws and regulations, condensed the collective values in line with the national needs through the translation of Han classics, and implemened the Han traditional culture as the major policy of national governance, realized the governing concept of promoting culture and education, advocating studies of Confucian classics and opening up peace.<br />
<br />
In short, the translation of Books of Han not only gave great help to the whole country, but also educated its(the Qing Dynasty) people so that it began and then deepened the cultural exchange between Manchu and Han. During the first three emperors' rulings of the early Qing Dynasty, though the scales of translation was different, and the rulers' specific attitudes towards Han culture differed from each other, the principles and standards of translation remained basically unchanged, that is to say, it will focus on cultural education and the system of laws and regulations, condense the collective values in line with the national needs through the translation of Han classics, and implement the Han traditional culture as the major policy of national governance to realize the governing concept of promoting culture and education, advocating studies of Confucian classics and opening up peace.<br />
--[[User:Huang Zhuliang|Huang Zhuliang]] ([[User talk:Huang Zhuliang|talk]]) 08:19, 29 September 2021 (UTC)Huang Zhuliang<br />
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==国别 202120081493 黄柱梁 男==<br />
Footnotes and References<br />
<br />
1 杨家骆：《金史》，台北：鼎文书局，1985年，第1684页。<br />
<br />
2 明珠等奉敕修：《清实录·太祖高皇帝实录》，北京：中华书局，1986年，第2页。<br />
<br />
3 中国第一历史档案馆、中国社科院历史研究所译注：《满文老档》，北京：中华书局，1990年，第1196页。<br />
<br />
4 鄂尔泰等奉敕修：《清实录·太宗文皇帝实录》，北京：中华书局，1985年，第13页。<br />
<br />
5 王钟翰点校：《清史列传》，北京：中华书局，1987年，第187页。<br />
<br />
6 国史编纂委员会：《朝鲜王朝实录》，汉城：国史编纂委员会，1973年，第38页。<br />
<br />
1. Yang Jialuo, ''History of the Jin Dynasty''(1115-1234), Taipei, Dingwen Book Company, 1985, pp.1684.<br />
<br />
2. Ming Zhu et al. (compiled under the order of Emperor Kangxi ), ''the Imperial Archives of Emperor Taichu(1559-1626, posthumous titled Gao Huang Di) of the Qing Dynasty'', Peking, Zhonghua Book Company, 1986, pp.2. <br />
<br />
3. The First Historical Archives of China, Translated and Noted by the Institute of History in Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, ''Old Documents of Manchu Script'', Peking, Zhonghua Book Company, 1990, pp.1196.<br />
<br />
4. E Ertai et al. (compiled under the order of Emperor Yongzheng ), ''the Imperial Archives of Emperor Taizong(1592-1643, posthumous titled Wen Huang Di) of the Qing Dynasty'', Peking, Zhonghua Book Company, 1985, pp.13.<br />
<br />
5. Proofread by Wang Zhongshan, ''Biographies of the Qing Dynasty'', Peking, Zhonghua Book Company, 1987, pp.187.<br />
<br />
6. Committee of National History Compilation, ''the Imperial Archives of Joseon Dynasty'', Seoul, Committee of National History Compilation, 1973, pp.38.<br />
--[[User:Huang Zhuliang|Huang Zhuliang]] ([[User talk:Huang Zhuliang|talk]]) 08:18, 29 September 2021 (UTC)Huang Zhuliang<br />
<br />
1 页码标记应为p.1684.<br />
<br />
2 posthumous titled Gao Huang Di应改为posthumously titled Gao Huang Di,页码标记为p.2.<br />
<br />
3“老满文”指的是清太祖努尔哈赤时期创制的满文，以文字中没有圈和点为特点。《满文老档》即是用老满文写成的档案汇编 ，所以《满文老档》应为 ''Manchu Archives written in Fore Manwen'',页码标记为p.1196.<br />
<br />
4 同第二句，posthumous titled Wen Huang Di改为posthumously titled Wen Huang Di, 页码标记为p.13.<br />
<br />
5 页码标记为p.187.<br />
<br />
6 页码标记为p.38.<br />
--[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 05:20, 1 October 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei<br />
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==国别 202120081507 刘薇 女==<br />
7 国史编纂委员会：《朝鲜王朝实录》，汉城：国史编纂委员会，1973年，第62页。<br />
<br />
8 叶高树：《清朝前期的文化政策》，台北：稻乡出版社，2002年，第58页。<br />
<br />
9 鄂尔泰等奉敕修：《清实录·太宗文皇帝实录》，北京：中华书局，1985年，第10页。<br />
<br />
10 罗振玉：《天聪朝臣工奏议》，北京：中国人民大学出版社，1989年，第2页。<br />
<br />
11 鄂尔泰等奉敕修：《清实录·太宗文皇帝实录》，北京：中华书局，1985年，第14页。<br />
<br />
12 同上，第2页。<br />
<br />
7 National History Compilation Committee, ''Records of the Korean Dynasty'', Seoul: National History Compilation Committee, 1973, p.62.<br />
<br />
8 Ye Gaoshu,'' Cultural policise in the early Qing Dynasty'', Taipei: Daoxiang press, 2002, p.58.<br />
<br />
9 E Ertai et al.(compiled by order of the emperor),''Record of the Emperor Taizong Wen in the Qing Dynasty'', Beijing: Zhonghua press, 1985,p.10.<br />
<br />
10 Luo Zhenyu, ''Collections of secretary's memorial to the throne during the reign of Tencong'', Beijing: Renmin University of China Press, 1989, p.2.<br />
<br />
11 E Ertai et al.(compiled by order of the emperor),''Record of the Emperor Taizong Wen in the Qing Dynasty'', Beijing: Zhonghua press, 1985,p.14.<br />
<br />
12 Ertai et al.(compiled by order of the emperor),''Record of the Emperor Taizong Wen in the Qing Dynasty'', Beijing: Zhonghua press, 1985,p.2. <br />
--[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 15:23, 28 September 2021 (UTC)Liu wei<br />
<br />
7 National Institute of Korean History, ''Records of the Korean Dynasty'', Seoul: National Institute of Korean History, 1973, p.62.--[[User:Yan Lili|Yan Lili]] ([[User talk:Yan Lili|talk]]) 13:30, 11 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==国别 202120081537 颜莉莉 女==<br />
13 罗振玉：《天聪朝臣工奏议》，北京：中国人民大学出版社，1989年，第24-25、115页。<br />
<br />
14 鄂尔泰等奉敕修：《清实录·太宗文皇帝实录》，北京：中华书局，1985年，第9页。<br />
<br />
15 罗振玉：《天聪朝臣工奏议》，北京：中国人民大学出版社，1989年，第2页。<br />
<br />
16 同上，第82页。<br />
<br />
17 清高宗敕纂：《八旗满洲氏族通谱》，沈阳：辽沈书社，1989年，第10页。<br />
<br />
18 鄂尔泰等奉敕修：《清实录·世祖章皇帝实录》，北京：中华书局，1985年，第15-16页。<br />
<br />
13th. Lou Zhenyu: ''Tiancongchao Chengong Zouyi'' , Beijing: China People's University Press, 1989, pp.24-25,115.<br />
<br />
14th. E Ertai eat al revised under order of emperor: ''Factual Record Of Qing Dynasty• Actual Record Of TaiZu'', Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1985, p.9<br />
<br />
15th. Lou Zhenyu: ''Tiancongchao Chengong Zouyi'' , Beijing: China People's University Press, 1989, p.2<br />
<br />
16th. Idem<br />
<br />
17th. Qing emperor Gaozong ordered to write: ''General spectrum of Manchu clan in eight banners'', Shenyang: Liaoshen Book Company, 1989,p.10<br />
<br />
18th. E Ertai eat al revised under order of emperor: ''Factual Record Of Qing Dynasty• Actual Record Of TaiZu'', Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1985, pp.15-16<br />
<br />
<br />
14. E Ertai eat al （eds. on the order of emperor): ''Factual Record Of Qing Dynasty• Actual Record Of TaiZu'', Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1985, p.9<br />
<br />
16. Idem, p.82<br />
<br />
17. Qing emperor Gaozong ordered to write: ''Genealogy of Manchu clan in eight banners'', Shenyang: Liaoshen Book Company, 1989,p.10<br />
<br />
18. E Ertai eat al （eds. on the order of emperor): ''Factual Record Of Qing Dynasty• Actual Record Of TaiZu'', Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1985, pp.15-16<br />
<br />
==国别 202120081538 颜子涵 女==<br />
19 鄂尔泰等奉敕修：《清实录·世祖章皇帝实录》，北京：中华书局，1985年，第13页。<br />
<br />
20 中国第一历史档案馆编：《清初内国史院满文档案译编·顺治朝》，北京：光明日报出版社，1989年，第80页。<br />
<br />
21 阎崇年校注：《康熙顺天府志》，北京：中华书局，2009年，第482页。<br />
<br />
22 鄂尔泰等奉敕修：《清实录·世祖章皇帝实录》，北京：中华书局，1985年，第9页。<br />
<br />
23 叶高树：《清朝前期的文化政策》，台北：稻乡出版社，2002年，第72-73页。<br />
<br />
24 鄂尔泰等修，李洵、赵德贵等点校：《八旗通志·初集》，长春：东北师范大学出版社，1989年，第5339页。<br />
<br />
19. Ortai and some people compiled it on the orders of the emperor: ''Records of emperor shizuzhang in the Qing Dynasty'', Beijing: China Book Company, 1989, p.13.<br />
<br />
20. Editor of China's First Historical Archives: ''Translation of manchu archives of the National Historical Institute of the early Qing Dynasty, Shunzhi Dynasty'', Beijing: Guangming Daily Press, 1989, p.80.<br />
<br />
21. Yan Chongnian made proofreading: ''Kangxi Shuntian Fuzhi'', Beijing: China Book Company, 2009, p.482.<br />
<br />
22. Ortai and some people compiled it on the orders of the emperor: ''Records of emperor shizuzhang in the Qing Dynasty'', Beijing: China Book Company ,1989,p.9.<br />
<br />
23.Kao-Shu Yeh, ''Cultural policy in the early Qing Dynasty'', Taipei:Daoxiang Press, 2002, pp. 72-73.<br />
<br />
24. Ortai and some people compiled，Li Wei, Zhao Degui and others proofread: ''Journal of the eight banners •First Episode'', Changchun: Northeast Normal University Press, 1989, p. 5339.<br />
<br />
<br />
19. E,Ertai et al. (eds. under the order of the Emperor). ''An Actual Record of ShiZu Zhang in Factual Record of Qing Dynasty'', Beijing:Zhonghua Book Company,1985,p.13.<br />
<br />
20. The First Historical Archives of China(ed.). ''A translation of Manchu archives of the Imperial Academy of National History in the Shunzhi Period of the early Qing Dynasty'', Beijing: Guangming Daily Press, 1989, p.80.<br />
<br />
21. Yan Chongnian(proofread). ''The History of Shuntian of Emperor Kangxi'', Beijing: China Book Company, 2009, p.482.<br />
<br />
22. E,Ertai et al. (eds. under the order of the Emperor). ''An Actual Record of ShiZu Zhang in Factual Record of Qing Dynasty'', Beijing:Zhonghua Book Company,1985,p.9.<br />
<br />
23. Kao-Shu Yeh, ''The Cultural Policies of the Early Qing Dynasty'', Taipei:Daoxiang Press, 2002, pp. 72-73.<br />
<br />
24. E,Ertai et al.(eds.), Li,Xun&Zhao Degui et al.(proofread). ''The First Collectanea in Ba Qi Tong Zhi'', Changchun:Northeast Normal University Press,1989, p.5339.<br />
<br />
==国别 202120081540 阳佳颖 女==<br />
25 同上。<br />
<br />
26 鄂尔泰等奉敕修：《清实录·世祖章皇帝实录》，北京：中华书局，1985年，第11页。<br />
<br />
27 同上，第7-8页。<br />
<br />
28 鄂尔泰等修，李洵、赵德贵等点校：《八旗通志·初集》，长春：东北师范大学出版社，1989年，第5325页。<br />
<br />
29 同上。<br />
<br />
30 叶高树：《<诗经>满文译本比较研究——以<周南>、<召南>为例》，《国立台湾师范大学历史学报》1992年第20期。<br />
<br />
31 叶高树：《清朝前期的文化政策》，台北：稻乡出版社，2002年，第91页。<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[25] Idem<br />
<br />
[26] Ertai et al. (eds. under the order of the Emperor). "Actual Record of ShiZu Zhang in Factual Record of Qing Dynasty", Beijing:Zhonghua Book Company,1985,p.11.<br />
<br />
[27] Idem,pp.7-8.<br />
<br />
[28] E,Ertai et al.(eds.), Li,Xun&Zhao Degui et al.(proofread). ''The First Collectanea in Ba Qi Tong Zhi'', Changchun:Northeast Normal University Press,1989, p.5325.<br />
<br />
[29] Idem<br />
<br />
[30] Ye,Gaoshu. “The Comparative Study of the Manchu Translation On The Book of Songs---Cases Study of Zhounan and Zhaonan”.''Historical Inquiry of the National Taiwan Normal University'',no.20(1992).<br />
<br />
[31] Ye,Gaoshu. ''The Cultural Policies of the Early Qing Dynasty''. Taipei:Daoxiang Press,2002,p.91.--[[User:Yang Jiaying|Yang Jiaying]] ([[User talk:Yang Jiaying|talk]]) 07:16, 29 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
[25] Idem<br />
<br />
[26] E,Ertai et al. (eds. under the order of the Emperor). "''Actual Record of Shih Tsu Fu Lin in Factual Record of Tsing Dynasty''", Beijing: China publishing house,1985,p.11.<br />
<br />
[27] Idem,p.7-8.<br />
<br />
[28] Ertai et al.(eds.), Li,Xun & Zhao Degui et al.(proofread). "''General History of the Eight Banners''", Changchun: Northeast Normal University Press,1989, p.5325.<br />
<br />
[29] Idem<br />
<br />
[30] Ye,Gaoshu. "''The Comparative Study of the Manchu Translation On The Book of Songs---Cases Study of Zhounan and Zhaonan.''", Bulletin of Historical Research of National Taiwan Normal University, No.20(1992).<br />
<br />
[31] Ye,Gaoshu. "''The Cultural Policies of the Early Tsing Dynasty''". Taipei: Daoxiang Publishing House,2002,p.91. --Ye Weijie<br />
<br />
=Hongloumeng=<br />
HERE STARTS A NEW TRANSLATION: REST OF CHAPTER 19 OF HONGLOUMENG<br />
<br />
PLEASE READ [[Joint_translation_terms|Joint translation terms]] <br />
<br />
PLEASE ALSO READ THE PREVIOUS PARTS, AT LEAST THE SENTENCES BEFORE YOUR OWN PART IN CHAPTER 19 [[20210303_culture|1, Mar 3 Chapters 1-4]], [[20210310_culture|2, Mar 10 Chapters 6-7]], [[20210317_culture|3, Mar 17 Chapters 11-13]], [[20210324_culture|4, Mar 24 Chapters 15-17]], [[20210331_culture|5, Mar 31 Chapters 4-7]], [[20210407_culture|6, Apr 7 Chapters 8-10]], [[20210414_culture|7, Apr 14 Chapters 13-15]] , [[20210519_culture|12, May 19 Chapters 17-19]], [[20210929_homework#Hongloumeng|for Sep 29 - rest of HLM Chapter 19]] [[20211013_homework|for Oct 13 - HLM Chapters 20-21]] etc.<br />
<br />
==国别 202120081544 叶维杰 男==<br />
<br />
第十九回 ... 这些丫头们明知宝玉不讲究这些；二则李嬷嬷已是告老解事出去的了，如今管不着他们：因此只顾玩笑，并不理他。那李嬷嬷还只管问：“宝玉如今一顿吃多少饭？什么时候睡觉？”丫头们总胡乱答应。有的说：“好个讨厌的老货！” 李嬷嬷又问道：“这盖碗里是酪，怎么不送给我吃？”说毕，拿起就吃。一个丫头道：“快别动，那是说了给袭人留着的，回来又惹气了。你老人家自己承认，别带累我们受气。”李嬷嬷听了，又气又愧，便说道：“我不信他这么坏了肠子。别说我吃了一碗牛奶，就是再比这个值钱的，也是应该的。难道待袭人比我还重？难道他不想想怎么长大了？我的血变了奶，吃的长这么大，如今我吃他碗牛奶，他就生气了？我偏吃了，看他怎么着！你们看袭人不知怎么样，那是我手里调理出来的毛丫头，什么阿物儿！”一面说，一面赌气把酪全吃了。<br />
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Chapter XIX...These girls' busy joking with each other and not much cared about Nanny Li as they previously knew Pao'yue was not particular about these, and there's no room left for Nanny Li to discipline them for she's already be dismissed. While Nanny Li kept asking:“ How's Pao-yue's appetite these day? And the time he make rest?” Always with so less careness girls reply. Some complained:“Aye! Such an old nosy lady!” Still Nanny Li asked：“A bowl of cheeze here! Why don't you bring it to me?”Then she directly grabbed some to her mouth. One girl hurriedly said:“Quit it! That's what Pao'yue reserved for Xiren! You take the blame yourself if he gets discontented, don't get us involved.” Angry but ashamed also Nanny Li went, and said:“I don't believe it！I even deserve something more valuable, let alone a bowl of milk! Is Xi'ren more important than me? Pao'yue can't be this heartless! Think about it, I myself raised him up this good step by step heart and soul with my own blood! How can he get discontented merely because of a bowl of milk? Still I'm gonna take it, even if he did! And Xi'ren? I taught her everything! Mad at me? Don't be ridiculous!”Nagging, Nanny Li emptied the whole bowl.<br />
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Chapter XIX...These maids knew clearly that Baoyu didn't care the trifles. Furthermore, Mammy Li was already retired and she had no control over them. Therefor she just ignored him in her teasing. Mammy Li always asked:"How many meals did Baoyu eat recently? When did he go to bed?" The maids'answers always were irrelevant. Some of them said:"What a nasty old woman!" While Mammy Li kept asking :"There is some cheese in the bowl. Why don't you give me?" As soon as the voice fell down, she grabbed the cheese and had it. One maid hurriedly said:“Quit it! That's what Baoyu reserved for Xiren! You take the blame yourself and don't get us involved.” Angry but ashamed also Mammy Li was, and said:“I don't believe he has such a bad temper！I even deserve something more valuable, not to mention a bowl of milk! Is Xi'ren more important than me? Think about it, I raised him up by my breast nursing with my own blood! How can he get discontented merely because of a bowl of milk? Still I'm gonna take it, even if he would! And Xiren? That's me who taught her everything! Mad at me? Don't be ridiculous!”Nagging, Mammy Li emptied the whole bowl.--[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 01:29, 2 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Chapter XIX ... these servant-girls were well aware that Precious Jade was not particular in these respects, and that in the next place Nanny Plum，having pleaded old age, resigned her place and gone home，had nowadays no control over them，so that they simply gave their minds to romping and joking，and paid no heed whatsoever to her. Nanny Plum however still kept on asking about Precious Jade，"How much rice do you now eat at one meal? And at what time do you go to sleep?" to which questions the servant-girls replied quite at random；some of those being there observed: "What a dreadful despicable old thing she is!" - "In this covered bowl," she continued to inquire, "is cream, and why not give it to me to eat?" and having concluded these words，she took it up there and then began eating it." Be quick，and leave it alone!" a servant-girl expostulated，"that，she said, was kept in order to be given to Aroma, and on his return，when he again gets into a huff，you，old lady，must，on your own motion，confess to having eaten it，and not involve us in any way as to have to bear his resentment." Nanny Plum，at these words，felt both angry and ashamed. "I can't believe，" she forthwith remarked，"that he has become so bad at heart！Not to speak of the milk I've had. I have，in fact every right to even something more expensive than this；for is it likely that he holds Aroma dearer than myself？ It can't forsooth be that he doesn't bear in mind how that I've brought him up to be a big man，and how that he has eaten my blood transformed into milk and grown up to this age！and will be because I'm now having a bowl of milk of his be angry on that score！I will，yes，eat it，and we'll see what he'll do！I don't know what you people think of Aroma，but she was a lowbred girl，whom I've with my own hands raised up! And what fine object indeed was she！"As she spoke，she flew into a temper, and taking the cream, she drank the whole of it.--[[User:Zhang Yang|Zhang Yang]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yang|talk]]) 13:02, 11 October 2021 (UTC)Zhang Yang<br />
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==国别 202120081551 张扬 男==<br />
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又一个丫头笑道：“他们不会说话，怨不得你老人家生气。宝玉还送东西给你老人家去，岂有为这个不自在的？”李嬷嬷道：“你也不必装狐媚子哄我，打量上次为茶撵茜雪的事我不知道呢！明儿有了不是，我再来领。”说着，赌气去了。<br />
少时，宝玉回来，命人去接袭人。只见晴雯躺在床上不动，宝玉因问：“可是病了？还是输了呢？”秋纹道：“他倒是赢的，谁知李老太太来了，混输了，他气的睡去了。”宝玉笑道：“你们别和他一般见识，由他去就是了。”<br />
说着，袭人已来，彼此相见。袭人又问宝玉何处吃饭，多早晚回来；又代母、妹问诸同伴姊妹好。一时换衣卸妆。宝玉命取酥酪来，丫鬟们回说：“李奶奶吃了。”宝玉才要说话，袭人便忙笑说道：“原来留的是这个，多谢费心。前儿我因为好吃，吃多了，好肚子疼，闹的吐了，才好了。他吃了倒好，搁在这里白糟蹋了。我只想风干栗子吃，你替我剥栗子，我去铺炕。”<br />
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Another servant-girl grinned:“They don’t know how to speak properly, and it’s no wonder you old lady should get angry. Precious Jade still sends you great things, and it’s impossible that he will feel uncomfortable for a thing like this.” “You don’t have to act like a vixen to cajole me!” Nanny Plum said, “You think I’m not aware that you pushed Snow Alizarin away on account of a cup of tea the other day? And if I did make a mistake, I’ll come by and admit it!” Having said this, she went off, pissed off.<br />
Soon Precious Jade came back and gave orders to go and fetch Aroma. Seeing Sunny Cloud Formation lying perfectly still on bed, Precious Jade asked:“ Is she ill? Or has she lost at cards?” “She had been a winner,” Autumn Vein answered,“but Nanny Plum came and muddled her so that she lost, and angry at that she rushed off to sleep,” Precious Jade smiled:“Don’t place yourselves on the same footing as nanny Plum. Leave her alone.”Aroma came as Precious Jade was saying his words. After the mutual salutations, Aroma went on to ask of Precious Jade:“ Where did you have your dinner? And when did you come back?” and to present likewise on behalf of her mother and sisters her salutations to all the girls, who were her companions. In a short while, she changed her costume and washed off her make up. When Precious Jade bade them fetch the cream, the servant-girls answered:“ Nanny Plum has eaten it.” And as Precious Jade was on the point of making some remarks Aroma hastened to interfere, laughing:“ Is it really this that you have kept for me? Many thanks for troubling. The other day when I ate some of it, I found it very tasty and had a lot of it, then I got a pain in the stomach. I was so upset that it was only after I had thrown it all up that I feel right. So it's fine that she has had it. If it had been kept there, it would have been wasted all for no use. What I want are dry chestnuts, and if you can clean a few for me, I'll go and lay the bed."<br />
--[[User:Zhang Yang|Zhang Yang]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yang|talk]]) 10:58, 29 September 2021 (UTC)Zhang Yang<br />
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Another servant-girl grinned, “They don’t know how to talk properly, and no wonder you, old lady, get angry. Precious Jade still sends you great things, and it’s no need to be unpleased with it.” “You don’t have to cheat me!” Nanny Plum said, “You think I’m not aware that you sent Snow Alizarin away just on account of a cup of tea the other day? I will get it when it is prepared well tomorrow!” Having said this, she went off with sulks. Soon Precious Jade came back and asked someone to pick up Aroma. Seeing Sunny Cloud Formation lying still on bed, Precious Jade asked, “ Is she ill? Or has she lost at cards?” “She had been a winner,” Autumn Vein answered,“but Nanny Plum came and muddled her, so she lost the game and rushed off to sleep for the anger.” Precious Jade smiled, “Don’t take it serious and just leave her alone.”Aroma came as Precious Jade was saying his words. After the mutual salutations, Aroma went on to ask Precious Jade about the place for dinner and the time he would come back, then greet everyone on behalf of her mother and sisters. In a short while, she changed her costume and washed off her make-up. When Precious Jade asked one to fetch the cream, the servant-girls answered,“ Nanny Plum has taken it.” As Precious Jade was on the point of saying something, Aroma laughing, “ Is it this that you have kept for me? Thanks for troubling. The other day when I ate some of it, I found it very tasty and had a lot of it, then I got a pain in the stomach. It was better that she did so, for at least it is not wasted before getting bad. I just want some drying chestnuts. Could you please peel them while I will make the beds.”--[[User:Chen Jing|Chen Jing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jing|talk]]) 11:23, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==国别 202020080595 陈静 女==<br />
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宝玉听了，信以为真，方把酥酪丢开，取了栗子来，自向灯下检剥。一面见众人不在房中，乃笑问袭人道：“今儿那个穿红的是你什么人？”袭人道：“那是我两姨姐姐。”宝玉听了，赞叹了两声。袭人道：“叹什么？我知道你心里的缘故，想是说他那里配穿红的？”宝玉笑道：“不是，不是。那样的人不配穿红的，谁还敢穿？我因为见他实在好的很，怎么也得他在咱们家就好了。”袭人冷笑道：“我一个人是奴才命罢了，难道连我的亲戚都是奴才命不成，定还要拣实在好的丫头才往你们家来？”宝玉听了，忙笑道：“你又多心了。我说往咱们家来，必定是奴才不成，说亲戚就使不得？”袭人道：“那也般配不上。”<br />
宝玉便不肯再说，只是剥栗子。袭人笑道：“怎么不言语了？想是我才冒撞冲犯了你？明儿赌气花几两银子，买进他们来就是了。”<br />
宝玉笑道：“你说的话，怎么叫人答言呢？我不过是赞他好，正配生在这深宅大院里，没的我们这宗浊物倒生在这里。”<br />
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Hearing this, Precious Jade fell for it and throw the curds away, taking some chestnuts and then peeling them under the lantern. Finding others not in the room except Aroma, Precious Jade quipped: “Who is the the person in red today?” Aroma answered, “Two of my cousins”. Knowing it, Precious Jade couldn’t repress a sigh of admiration. “What do you sigh for? I know it is because they could not wear red.” Aroma said. Precious Jade replied with smile: “No! Who dares to wear red if such persons doesn't deserve it? I just admire them and hope if they can stay in our home.” Aroma sneered, “I am just a slave. So all of my families are slaves and we should pick up the best girls to be slaves in your home?” Precious Jade said with smile, “Don’t be touchy. It doesn’t mean to be the slave but to be our relatives in our house.” Aroma replied, “It doesn’t match, either.” Precious Jade refused to say any more, but just peeled chestnuts. Aroma smiled and said, “Why are you silent? I just offended you. You could spend some money and buy them if you want.” Precious Jade smiled and said, “How to respond to your words. I just show my admiration and think they should be in such circumstance where the persons like me live.”--[[User:Chen Jing|Chen Jing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jing|talk]]) 11:26, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Hearing this, Master Bao fell for it, threw the curds away, took some chestnuts and then peeled them under the lantern. Finding others not in the room except Aroma, Master quipped: “What’s the relationship between you and the person in red today?” Aroma answered, “Two of my cousins”. Knowing it, Master Bao couldn’t repress a sigh of admiration. “What do you sigh for? I know what you are thinking. You must think they don’t deserve to wear red.” Aroma said. Master Bao replied with smile: “No! Who dares to wear red if such persons don’t deserve it? I just admire them and hope if they can stay in our house.” Aroma sneered, “I live as a maid. So all of my families should be the same as me? And we should pick up the best girls to be maids in your home?” Master Bao said with smile, “Don’t be touchy. It doesn’t mean to be the maid but to be our relatives in our house.” Aroma replied, “It doesn’t match, either.” Master Bao refused to say any more, but just peeled chestnuts. Aroma smiled and said, “Why are you silent? I think I just offended you. You could spend some money and buy them if you want.” Master smiled and said, “How to respond to your words. I just show my admiration and think they are born to be in such circumstance where the persons like me live. ”--[[User:Chen Xinyi|Chen Xinyi]] ([[User talk:Chen Xinyi|talk]]) 10:34, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==翻译学 202120081481 陈心怡 女==<br />
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袭人道：“他虽没这样造化，倒也是娇生惯养的，我姨父、姨娘的宝贝儿似的。如今十七岁，各样的嫁妆都齐备了，明年就出嫁。”宝玉听了“出嫁”二字，不禁又嗐了两声。正不自在，又听袭人叹道：“我这几年，姊妹们都不大见；如今我要回去了，他们又都去了。”<br />
宝玉听这话里有文章，不觉吃了一惊，忙扔下栗子，问道：“怎么着，你如今要回去？”袭人道：“我今儿听见我妈和哥哥商量，教我再耐一年，明年他们上来，就赎出我去呢。”宝玉听了这话，越发忙了，因问：“为什么赎你呢？”袭人道：“这话奇了。我又比不得是这里的家生子儿，我们一家子都在别处，独我一个人在这里，怎么是个了局呢？”宝玉道：“我不叫你去，也难哪。”袭人道：“从来没这个理。就是朝廷宫里，也有定例：几年一挑，几年一放，没有长远留下人的理，别说你们家。” 宝玉想一想，果然有理。又道：“老太太要不放你呢？”<br />
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Aroma said, “Although she has few achievements, she is pampered and the apple of my uncle’s, aunt’s eyes. She is now 17. Since all kinds of dowries had been prepared, she could get married next year. ” Hearing “get married”, Precious Jade Merchant signed spontaneously. He was still ill at ease and then heard Aroma said, “I have rarely met with my sisters in the past few years. Now I’m going back, however, they came.” Precious Jade Merchant thought that there’s more to it than what is said. He was amazed, threw chestnuts at once and asked, “what’s wrong? You are going back now?” Aroma said, “I heard my mother and brother talking about it today. They want me to remain patient for another year and they will come here to redeem me next year. ” Precious Jade heard it, felt anxious and asked, “Why they want to redeem you?” Aroma said, “What you said is pretty strange. I’m not a daughter of maids here. My family is elsewhere, and I’m the only one here. How can it be like this?” Precious Jade said, “I’m afraid I can’t let you go.” Aroma said, “It makes no sense. There are routines even in the imperial palace: palace maids are selected once every few years and then set free. There is no reason to keep a person for a long time in the imperial palace, let alone in your house.” Precious Jade thought about it for a while and thought it made sense. Then he said, “What if my grandmothers doesn’t let you go?”--[[User:Chen Xinyi|Chen Xinyi]] ([[User talk:Chen Xinyi|talk]]) 10:02, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Aroma said, “Though not born as good, she is also spoilt and pampered, being the apple of my aunt and uncles’ eyes. She is now 17 and dowries of all sorts have been prepared for her marriage next year.” At the hearing of the word “marriage”, Precious Jade Merchant gave a sigh. As he was feeling ill at ease, Aroma sighed and continued, “I rarely met my sisters in the past few years. While I’m going back home, they are all about to leave.” Precious Jade Merchant felt surprised at what she said. He threw away chestnuts at once and asked, “why, you are going back home?” Aroma answered, ““I heard my mother and my brother talking today. They told me to stay here for another year and they will come here to ransom me next year.” Hearing that, Precious Jade got more anxious and asked, “Why do they want to ransom you?” Aroma replied, “what a strange question! I’m no daughter of maids here. My family lives elsewhere and I’m all alone here. How can we be together?” Precious Jade sighed, “If I won’t let you go, I suppose it’s difficult.” Aroma answered, “It makes no sense. There are routines even in the imperial palace: maids are selected once every few years and then set free. There is no reason to keep a servant for a long time in the imperial palace, let alone in your house.”Precious Jade thought for a while and considered it reasonable. Then he said, “What if my grandmothers won’t let you go?”--[[User:Gao Mi|Gao Mi]] ([[User talk:Gao Mi|talk]]) 09:47, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==翻译学 202120081487 高蜜 女==<br />
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袭人道：“为什么不放呢？我果然是个难得的，或者感动了老太太、太太，不肯放我出去，再多给我们家几两银子留下，也还有的；其实我又不过是个最平常的人，比我强的多而且多。我从小儿跟着老太太，先伏侍了史大姑娘几年，这会子又伏侍了你几年。我们家要来赎我，正是该叫去的，只怕连身价不要，就开恩放我去呢。要说为伏侍的你好，不叫我去，断然没有的事。那伏侍的好，是分内应当的，不是什么奇功；我去了，仍旧又有好的了，不是没了我就使不得的。”<br />
宝玉听了这些话，竟是有去的理，无留的理，心里越发急了。因又道：“虽然如此说，我只一心要留下你，不怕老太太不和你母亲说，多多给你母亲些银子，他也不好意思接你了。”<br />
袭人道：“我妈自然不敢强：且慢说和他好说，又多给银子；就便不好好和他说，一个钱也不给，安心要强留下我，他也不敢不依。但只是咱们家从没干过这倚势仗贵霸道的事。这比不得别的东西，因为喜欢，加十倍利，弄了来给你，那卖的人不吃亏，就可以行得的；如今无故平空留下我，于你又无益，反教我们骨肉分离，这件事，老太太、太太肯行吗？”<br />
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Aroma said, “Why won’t she let me leave? I should be so important, or I have somehow moved Grandma Merchant and Lady King so that they won’t let go of me and give some more money to my family so as to make me stay. Actually, I am a most ordinary person. A whole lot people are better than me. Bought in by Grandma Merchant since I was a child, I had served Lady History for the first several years, and these several years I have been serving you. Now my family are about to pay the ransom. When I ask for a leave, I’m thinking that you could have mercy on me and allow my leaving without the ransom money. I certainly don’t buy it that you stop me from leaving just because I have served you well. Even if it’s true, I’m just doing what I’m supposed to do, which is really no big deal. Nothing will go wrong without me as there are still good servants who will take my place when I leave.” Hearing that, Precious Jade Merchant became all the more anxious because she had a reason to leave and no reason to stay. Therefore, he continued, “Since all I want is to keep you here, I might as well tell you that I wish Grandma Merchant to talk to your mother and give her a lot more money so that she has no reason to come and take you home. Aroma replied, “My mother certainly dares not to ask for my leaving, not to mention that you talk to her in a mild and polite way and give her extra money. Even if you force her without a penny, she dares not to defy. It’s only that your family has never done such a thing as to throw your weight about. It’s feasible when you buy something with ten times of its original price out of love, for the seller suffers no loss. Unlike anything else, it does you no good to keep me for no reason, which instead separates me from my mother. Do you think Grandma Merchant and Lady King will let that happen?”--[[User:Gao Mi|Gao Mi]] ([[User talk:Gao Mi|talk]]) 16:09, 28 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Aroma said, “Why won’t she let me leave? I should be so important, or I have somehow moved Grandma Merchant and Lady King so that they won’t let go of me and give some more money to my family so as to make me stay. Actually, I can't be more ordinary, and too many maids out there are better than me. Bought in by Grandma Merchant when I was a child, I had served Lady History for the first several years, and these years I have been serving you. Now my families are about to pay the ransom. When I ask for leaving, I’m thinking that you could have mercy on me and allow my leaving without the ransom money. I certainly don’t buy it that you stop me from leaving just because I have taken good care of you. Even if it’s true, I’m just doing what I’m supposed to do, which is really no big deal. Nothing will go wrong without me as there are still good maids who will take my place when I leave.” Hearing that, Precious Jade Merchant became more anxious because she had every reason to leave but no reason to stay. Therefore, he continued, “Since all I want is to keep you here, I might as well tell you that I may beg Grandma to talk to your mother and give her extra money so that she has no reason to come and take you home.” Aroma replied, “My mother certainly dares not to ask, not to mention that you talk to her in a mild and polite way and give her extra money. Even if you force her without a penny, she dares not to defy. It’s only that your family has never done such a thing as to throw your weight about. It’s feasible when you buy something with ten times of its original price out of love, for the seller suffers no loss. Unlike anything else, it does you no good to keep me for no reason, which instead separates me from my family. Do you think Grandma Merchant and Lady King will let that happen?”--[[User:He Qin|He Qin]] ([[User talk:He Qin|talk]]) 10:02, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==翻译学 202120081489 何芩 女==<br />
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宝玉听了，思忖半晌，乃说道：“依你说来说去，是去定了？”袭人道：“去定了。”宝玉听了，自思道：“谁知这样一个人，这样薄情无义呢！”乃叹道：“早知道都是要去的，我就不该弄了来，临了剩我一个孤鬼儿。”说着，便赌气上床睡了。原来袭人在家，听见他母、兄要赎他回去，他就说：“至死也不回去。”又说：“当日原是你们没饭吃，就剩了我还值几两银子，要不叫你们卖，没有个看着老子娘饿死的理；如今幸而卖到这个地方儿，吃穿和主子一样，又不朝打暮骂。况如今爹虽没了，你们却又整理的家成业就，复了元气；若果然还艰难，把我赎出来，再多掏摸几个钱，也还罢了。其实又不难了，这会子又赎我做什么？权当我死了，再不必起赎我的念头了。”因此哭了一阵。他母、兄见他这般坚执，自然必不出来的了；况且原是卖倒的死契。明仗着贾宅是慈善宽厚人家儿，不过求求，只怕连身价银一并赏了，还是有的事呢。<br />
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After hearing this, Precious Jade Merchant thought for a while and said, “According to you, you have to go?” “I have to.” Aroma confirmed. Hearing this, Precious Jade thought to himself, “Who knows how heartless you are.” “I should not have had you here, since you are doomed to go, leaving me alone as a ghost.” Precious Jade sighed and went to bed with complaints. However, during her stay at home, Aroma heard her mother and elder brother wanted to redeem her back. “I won’t go back until I die.” Aroma railed, “At that time, you were starved to death. Nothing but I was worth some money. If I had refused to be sold, you would have been dead. I was fortunately to be sold to the Merchant’s and treated as a lady, free from abuses. Though my father has passed away, you have recollected yourselves and established new lives. If you were still in trouble, it would make sense that you wanted to reap some profit by redeeming me out. Since you are not, why are you bothering to do this? Don’t ever think about it! Just pretend I’m dead.” Seeing Aroma’s tears and insistence, her mother and elder brother knew it was impossible for her to leave the Merchant’s, besides, it was a sold-out death indenture. In fact, it was not impossible for the Merchant’s, who was a charitable and generous family, to set Aroma free with compensation money, if Aroma pleaded.--[[User:He Qin|He Qin]] ([[User talk:He Qin|talk]]) 13:03, 28 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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After hearing this, Precious Jade Merchant thought for a while and said, “According to you, you have to go?” “Yes, I have to.” Aroma confirmed. Hearing this, Precious Jade thought, “Who knows how heartless she is.” “I should not have had you here, since you are doomed to go, leaving me alone as a ghost.” Precious Jade sighed and went to bed with complaints. However, during her stay at home, Aroma heard her mother and elder brother want to redeem her back. “I won’t return home until I die.” Aroma railed, “At that time, you were starved to death. Nothing but I was worth some money. If I had refused to be sold, you would have been dead. I was fortunately to be sold to the Merchant’s and treated as a lady, free from abuses. Though my father has passed away, you have reorganized the family and established new lives. If you were still in trouble, it would make sense that you wanted to reap some profit by redeeming me out. Since you are not, why are you bothering to do this? Don’t think about it anymore! Just pretend I’m dead.” Seeing Aroma’s tears and insistence, her mother and elder brother knew it was impossible for Aroma to leave the Merchant’s, besides, it was a sold-out lifetime indenture. In fact, it was possible for the Merchant’s, who was a charitable and generous family, to set Aroma free with compensation money, if Aroma pleaded.--[[User:Li Shuang|Li Shuang]] ([[User talk:Li Shuang|talk]]) 09:41, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==翻译学 202120081499 李双 女==<br />
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二则，贾府中从不曾作践下人，只有恩多威少的；且凡老少房中所有亲侍的女孩子们，更比待家下众人不同，平常寒薄人家的女孩儿也不能那么尊重。因此他母子两个就死心不赎了。<br />
次后忽然宝玉去了，他两个又是那个光景儿，母子二人心中更明白了，越发一块石头落了地，而且是意外之想，彼此放心，再无别意了。<br />
且说袭人自幼儿见宝玉性格异常，其淘气憨顽出于众小儿之外，更有几件千奇百怪、口不能言的毛病儿。近来仗着祖母溺爱，父母亦不能十分严紧拘管，更觉放纵弛荡，任情恣性，最不喜务正。每欲劝时，谅不能听。今日可巧有赎身之论，故先用骗词以探其情，以压其气，然后好下箴规。今见宝玉默默睡去，知其情有不忍，气已馁堕。自己原不想栗子吃，只因怕为酥酪生事，又像那茜雪之茶，是以假要栗子为由，混过宝玉不提就完了。<br />
What’s more, the Merchant’s was very good to the servants, and never treated them cruelly. All the girls who served the old or the young received more respect than the others, even more than the girls who lived in poor families. Consequently Aroma’s mother and brother made their minds not to redeem her. Later the sudden arrival of Precious Jade and his meeting with Aroma still further reassured them and put down their stone in heart. The unexpected situation dispelled their other thoughts. When Precious Jade Merchant was young, Aroma found that he was different from ordinary children and that he was naughtier and had some foibles which can’t be told to others. Recently, because Grandma Merchant spoiled Precious Jade too much, his parents couldn’t discipline him too. He was therefore more indulgent and willful, and hated doing the right thing. Whenever others persuaded him, he was stubborn. Today it happened to talk about redemption, so Aroma deliberately lied to Precious Jade to test his attitude and to restrain his anger, and then made the rules. She saw Precious Jade go to sleep silently. She knew the truth, therefore she couldn’t help feeling some guilt, and her anger also subsided. Aroma hadn’t wanted to eat the chestnuts, but was just afraid of the problems that would result from the milk, just like Snow Alizarin’s tea. For this reason, she tricked Precious Jade into not mentioning milk by pretending she wanted to eat chestnuts.--[[User:Li Shuang|Li Shuang]] ([[User talk:Li Shuang|talk]]) 04:50, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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What’s more, the Merchant’s was very nice to the servants, and never treated them cruelly. All the girls who served as maids of the family members, old or young, were generally treated more kindly than the servants in other position, and were even better off than daughters of ordinary families. Consequently Aroma’s mother and brother made their minds not to buy her freedom. Then the sudden arrival of Precious Jade and the acquaintance between Aroma and her master showed the true situation of Aroma, which made them reassure. The unexpected situation dispelled their other thoughts. These years had shown Aroma that Precious Jade with some indescribably odd habits, was no ordinary youth and was more willful than others. Recently, Precious Jade was so indulged by his grandma that his parents couldn’t discipline him strictly. Therefore, he became more indulgent, headstrong and impatient at conventions. Whenever she wanted to exhort him to clean up his act, she was convinced he would not listen to her. Luckily, using the incident as a convenient excuse, Aroma enabled to sound him out, pacify his mood, and give him a good lecture. She saw Precious Jade go to sleep silently. She knew his sadness about her departure, so she didn’t have the heart to give a lecture to him. As for chestnuts, Aroma hadn’t wanted to eat but she had pretended to be eager for them, for fear that the junket would creat a disturbance, just like Snow Alizarin’s tea. She made Precious Jade forget the junket by pretending to hanker after chestnuts.--[[User:Liu Shengnan|Liu Shengnan]] ([[User talk:Liu Shengnan|talk]]) 08:53, 1 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==翻译学 202120081506 刘胜楠 女==<br />
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于是命小丫头子们将栗子拿去吃了，自己来推宝玉，只见宝玉泪痕满面。<br />
袭人便笑道：“这有什么伤心的？你果然留我，我自然不肯出去。”宝玉见这话头儿活动了，便道：“你说说，我还要怎么留你？我自己也难说了。”<br />
袭人笑道：“咱们两个的好，是不用说了。但你要安心留我，不在这上头。我另说出三件事来，你果然依了，那就是真心留我了；刀搁在脖子上，我也不出去了。”<br />
宝玉忙笑道：“你说那几件？我都依你。好姐姐，好亲姐姐，别说两三件，就是两三百件，我也依的。只求你们看守着我，等我有一日化成了飞灰，——飞灰还不好，灰还有形有迹，还有知识的。——等我化成一股轻烟，风一吹就散了的时候儿，你们也管不得我，我也顾不得你们了，凭你们爱那里去，那里去就完了。”<br />
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Aroma thereupon gave the chestnuts to the other maids and nudged Precious Jade gently. She found his face is tear-strained .“Why you so sad about that?”she cajoled. “If you really want me to remind here, I won’t leave of course.” Reading between the lines, Precious Jade quickly replied , “Just tell me what I can do to keep you. I don't know how to persuade you.” She laughed, “We needn’t mention how well we get along with each other. If you really want to keep me, that’s a whole other story. If you promise me two or three things I come up with, I’ll assume that you are truly want me to stay. Then even a knife at my throat could not make me get out of here.”Precious Jade merrily said, “Well, what are these three conditions? I will agree them all, dear sister, my nice sister. I’d agree to two or three hundred conditions, let alone two or three. I merely implore you all to stay and take care of me until the day that I turn into flying ashes. No, I don’t want to turn into ashes because ashes have a trace of form and awareness . I’d like to let you all stay until I’ve turned into a wisp of smoke and been blown away by the wind. Then you will not be able to watch over me, and l will not be able to care about you. I will let you go wherever you please as well.”--[[User:Liu Shengnan|Liu Shengnan]] ([[User talk:Liu Shengnan|talk]]) 04:48, 29 September 2021 (UTC) <br />
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Aroma thereupon gave the chestnuts to the other maids and nudged Precious Jade gently. She found his face tear-strained .“Why are you so sad about that?”she cajoled .“If you really want me to remind in Jia’s mansion, I won’t leave naturally.” Reading between the lines, Precious Jade quickly replied , “Just tell me what else I can do to keep you. I don't know.” She laughed, “We needn’t mention how well we get along with each other. If you really want to keep me, that’s a whole other story. If you promise me two or three things I come up with, I‘ll assume that you are truly want me to stay. Then even a knife at my throat could not make me get out of here.” Precious Jade merrily said, “Well, what are these three conditions? I will agree them all, good sister, my dear sister. I’d agree to two or three hundred conditions, let alone two or three. I merely implore you all to stay and take care of me until the day that I turn into flying ashes. No, I don’t want to turn into ashes because ashes have a trace of form and awareness . I’d like to let you all stay until I’ve turned into a wisp of smoke and been blown away by the wind. Then you will not be able to take care of me, and l will not be able to care about you. I will let you go wherever you want as well.”--[[User:Jin Xiaotong|Jin Xiaotong]] ([[User talk:Jin Xiaotong|talk]]) 13:38, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==法语语言文学 202120021494 金晓童 女==<br />
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急的袭人忙捂他的嘴道：“好爷，我正为劝你这些个，更说的狠了。”宝玉忙说道：“再不说这话了。”袭人道：“这是头一件要改的。”宝玉道：“改了，再说你就拧嘴。还有什么？”<br />
袭人道：“第二件，你真爱念书也罢，假爱也罢，只在老爷跟前，或在别人跟前，你别只管嘴里混批，只作出个爱念书的样儿来，也叫老爷少生点儿气，在人跟前也好说嘴。老爷心里想着：我家代代念书，只从有了你，不承望不但不爱念书(已经他心里又气又恼了)，而且背前面后混批评：凡读书上进的人，你就起个外号儿，叫人家‘禄蠹’；又说只除了什么‘明明德’外就没书了，都是前人自己混编纂出来的。这些话，你怎么怨得老爷不气，不时时刻刻的要打你呢？”<br />
宝玉笑道：“再不说了。那是我小时候儿不知天多高地多厚，信口胡说的，如今再不敢说了。还有什么呢？”<br />
Aroma covered his mouth in a hurry and said:"my dear lord, I'm trying to persuade you, but you said these even harder." Precious Jade Merchant quickly said:"I will not say these again.""This is the first thing you need to change."Aroma replied.Precious Jade Merchant said:"OK,if I say it again,you can twist my mouth.Anything else?＂<br />
Aroma said:” The second thing, whether you like studying or not, except for nonsense you just need to pretend that you like reading when talking to milord or other people, which can make milord less angry so that he have something to talk. Milord will say to himself:“Everyone in my family have studied from generation to generation except you. And I can’t imagine that not only do you hate reading(already he was angry and bitter), but also making criticism everywhere----if someone are motivated and love reading, you will call him ‘greedy man’; or you will say every book is fabricated but ‘li Ji’Because of these above, why did you complain that milord are usually annoyed and beat your ass?” “I will never be like that before. When I was a kid, I didn’t understand bragging and talk whatever I want. My dare not say now, and what else?” Precious Jade Merchant said with a smile.--[[User:Jin Xiaotong|Jin Xiaotong]] ([[User talk:Jin Xiaotong|talk]]) 14:49, 28 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Xiren covered his mouth in a hurry and said: "my dear lord, I'm trying to persuade you, but you're exaggerating these."Baoyu quickly said: "I will not say these again. " "This is the first thing you need to change. "Xiren replied.Baoyu said: "OK, if I say it again,you can twist my mouth. Anything else? "Xiren said: "The second thing, whether you like studying or not, you can't just talk nonsense, you just need to pretend that you like reading when talking to milord or other people, which can make milord less angry so that he have something to talk with others. Milord will say to himself: "Everyone in my family have studied from generation to generation except you .And I can't imagine that not only do you hate reading (already he was angry and bitter), but also making criticism everywhere casually----if someone are motivated and love reading, you will call him 'greedy man'; you also said there were no other books in the world except 'li Ji', that all other books were made up groundlessly by predecessors. Because of these above, why did you complain that milord are usually annoyed and beat your ass? " <br />
"I will never be like that before. When I was a kid, I didn't understand bragging and talk whatever I want. My dare not say now, and what else? "BaoYu said with a smile.--[[User:Li Yi|Li Yi]] ([[User talk:Li Yi|talk]]) 02:19, 2 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==法语语言文学 202120081504 李怡 女==<br />
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袭人道：“再不许谤僧毁道的了。还有更要紧的一件事：再不许弄花儿，弄粉儿，偷着吃人嘴上擦的胭脂和那个爱红的毛病儿了。”宝玉道：“都改，都改。再有什么，快说罢。”<br />
袭人道：“也没有了，只是百事检点些，不任意任性的就是了。你要果然都依了，就拿八人轿也抬不出我去了。”宝玉笑道：“你在这里长远了，不怕没八人轿你坐。”袭人冷笑道：“这我可不稀罕的！有那个福气，没有那个道理，纵坐了也没趣儿。”<br />
二人正说着，只见秋纹走进来说：“三更天了，该睡了。方才老太太打发嬷嬷来问，我答应睡了。”宝玉命取表来看时，果然针已指到子初二刻了。方从新盥漱，宽衣安歇，不在话下。<br />
至次日清晨，袭人起来，便觉身体发重，头疼目胀，四肢火热。先时还扎挣的住，次后挨不住，只要睡，因而和衣躺在炕上。<br />
Aroma said :Stop denigrating monks and dhamma.There is a more important things : no more indulging in flowers and rouge and powder,no more touching lipstick on other people's lips secretly ,and give up the habit of applying makeup. Precious Jade Merchant said :i will change it all .And anything else ? Aroma said : Nothing,you must be careful of everything and stop being capricious. If you change them all, I won't leave even if you lift me in a huge Jiao. Precious Jade Merchant laughed and said : If you stay here long enough, you'll be able to ride in a big Jiao. Aroma sneered and said :I don't desire it, and even if I were lucky enough to ride in the big Jiao, it would be against the rules and boring.<br />
While the two were talking, Autumn Vein came in and said : It's early in the morning and it's time to go to bed. Grandma Merchant sent her maid to ask after you, and I said you were asleep. Precious Jade Merchant took a watch and checked the time, and it was already midnight, he cleaned up again and then undressed and went to bed and stopped talking.<br />
When Aroma got up early the next morning, she felt heavy and dizzy,and she felt her body was burning. At first she managed to stand up, then she couldn't hold on and felt sleepy, and finally she lay down in bed with her clothes on.--[[User:Li Yi|Li Yi]] ([[User talk:Li Yi|talk]]) 08:35, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Aroma said, “Stop denigrating monks and dhamma. There is a more important things : no more indulging in flowers and rouge and powder, no more eating lipstick on other people’s lips secretly, and give up the habit of applying makeup.” Precious Jade Merchant said, “I I will rectify all these addictions. And anything else ? ” Aroma said: “No, however, you must be careful of everything and stop being capricious. If you were a kind man, I won’t leave even if you had an eight-man palanquin. Precious Jade Merchant laughed and said: “If you stay here long enough, you’ll be able to in an eight-person palanquin. Aroma sneered and said: “I don’t desire it, and even if I were lucky enough to be in the palanquin, it would be against the rules. That’s boring.” While the two were talking, Autumn Vein came in and said, “It's almost dawn and it’s time to go to bed. Grandma Merchant sent her maid to ask after you, and I said you were asleep.” Precious Jade Merchant asked his servant to bring the watch and checked the time, and it was already midnight. He cleaned up again, undressed and went to bed promptly. When Aroma got up the next morning, she felt heavy and dizzy with a body burning. At first, she was able to stand up, but couldn’t hold on after a short while, and felt extremely sleepy. Thus, she lay down in bed with her clothes on.--[[User:Peng Ruixue|Peng Ruixue]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruixue|talk]]) 12:59, 29 September 2021 (UTC)彭瑞雪<br />
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==法语语言文学 202120081517 彭瑞雪 女==<br />
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宝玉忙回了贾母，传医诊视，说道：“不过偶感风寒，吃一两剂药，疏散疏散就好了。”开方去后，令人取药来煎好。刚服下去，命他盖上被窝焐汗。宝玉自去黛玉房中来看视。<br />
彼时黛玉自在床上歇午，丫鬟们皆出去自便，满屋内静悄悄的。宝玉揭起绣线软帘，进入里间，只见黛玉睡在那里，忙上来推他道：“好妹妹，才吃了饭，又睡觉。”将黛玉唤醒。黛玉见是宝玉，因说道：“你且出去逛逛。我前儿闹了一夜，今儿还没歇过来，浑身酸疼。”宝玉道：“酸疼事小，睡出来的病大。我替你解闷儿，混过困去就好了。”黛玉只合着眼，说道：“我不困，只略歇歇儿。你且别处去闹会子再来。”宝玉推他道：“我往那里去呢？见了别人就怪腻的。”<br />
After hastily greeting Granny Merchant, Precious Jade Merchant invited a doctor to see Aroma at home. The doctor said,“This young lady has only caught a cold by chance, take a few pills, the illness will slowly fade away.” According to the prescription prescribed by the doctor, the servant was ordered to pick out the medicine in the pharmacy and to cook it. As soon as Aroma finished the soup, the doctor asked her to cover herself with a quilt in order to sweat and get rid of the cold in her body. Then, Precious Jade Merchant went alone to Mascara Jade Forest’s room to visit her. At that time, she was lying alone in bed, taking a nap, and the maids had all gone off to do their own things, and silence filled the whole room. Precious Jade Merchant gently lifted the curtain and entered the room, only to see her sleeping there, and hurriedly went up to her, nudged her and said to her: “Lovely sister, you just went to bed after eating, how can you do that?” He tried to wake Mascara Jade Forest up. When she was awakened, she saw that the person who had woken her up was Precious Jade Merchant, she saisd, “Could you go out for a walk for the time being. I was up all night the night before, and to this day I still have not recovered my energy. I feel sick.” he answered, “Feeling sick is not a big problem. But if you keep sleeping, you will become really very ill. I will relieve your boredom so that the sleepiness is dispelled, and you will be refreshed.” Mascara Jade Forest just closed her eyes and said,“I’m not sleepy, I just want to rest for a while. Go and play somewhere else for a while, after that, you can come back to me.” Precious Jade Merchant nudged her and said, “Where can I go? I’m tired of others.”--[[User:Peng Ruixue|Peng Ruixue]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruixue|talk]]) 12:37, 29 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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After hastily greeting Grandma Merchant, Precious Jade invited a doctor to see Aroma at home. The doctor said,“This young lady has only caught a cold by chance, take a few pills and she will be recovered.” According to the prescription prescribed by the doctor, the servant was ordered to pick out the medicine in the pharmacy and to decoct it. As soon as Aroma finished the medicine, the doctor asked her to cover herself with a quilt in order to sweat and get rid of the cold in her body. Then, Precious Jade went alone to Mascara Jade's room to visit her. At that time, Mascara Jade was lying alone in bed, taking a nap, and the maids had all gone off to do their own things, and silence filled the whole room. Precious Jade gently lifted the curtain and entered the room, only to see Daiyu sleeping there, and hurriedly went up to her, nudged her and said to her: “Lovely sister, you just went to bed after eating, how can you do that?” Precious Jade tried to wake Mascara Jade up. When she was awakened, she saw that the person who had woken her up was Precious Jade , she saisd, “Could you go out for a walk for the time being. I was up all night the night before, and to this day I still have not recovered my energy. I feel sick.” Precious Jade answered, “Feeling sick is not a big problem. But if you keep sleeping, you will become really very sick. I will relieve your boredom so that the sleepiness will be dispelled, and you will be refreshed.” Mascara Jade just closed her eyes and said,“I’m not sleepy, I just want to rest for a while. Go and play somewhere else for a while, after that, you can come back to me.” Precious Jade nudged her and said, “Where can I go? I’m tired of others.”--Yang Kun(talk) 21;22, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==法语语言文学 202120081542 杨堃 女==<br />
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黛玉听了，嗤的一笑道：“你既要在这里，那边去老老实实的坐着，咱们说话儿。”宝玉道：“我也歪着。”黛玉道：“你就歪着。”宝玉道：“没有枕头，咱们在一个枕头上罢。”黛玉道：“放屁！外头不是枕头？拿一个来枕着。”<br />
宝玉出至外间，看了一看，回来笑道：“那个我不要，也不知是那个腌臜老婆子的。”黛玉听了，睁开眼，起身笑道：“真真你就是我命中的魔星！请枕这一个。”说着，将自己枕的推给宝玉，又起身将自己的再拿了一个来枕上，二人对着脸儿躺下。<br />
黛玉一回眼，看见宝玉左边腮上有钮扣大小的一块血迹，便欠身凑近前来，以手抚之细看道：“这又是谁的指甲划破了？”宝玉倒身，一面躲，一面笑道：“不是划的，只怕是才刚替他们淘澄胭脂膏子，溅上了一点儿。”说着，便找绢子要擦。<br />
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When Mascara Jade heard this, she giggled and said, "Since you want to sit here, sit honestly there and let's talk." Precious Jade Merchant said, "I want to lie down here,too." "You can do it!" said Mascara Jade. " Precious Jade said, "There isn't other pillow. Let's be on the same pillow." Mascara Jade said, "Bullshit! It's not a pillow outside? Take one !" <br />
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Precious Jade went out to the outer room, looked at it, came back and smiled, "I don't want that, and I don't know if it belongs to a certain pickled old woman." Hearing this, Mascara Jade opened her eyes, got up and smiled, " You are the magic star I hit! Please rest with this one. " Then, she pushed her pillow to Precious Jade, got up and fetched another one .After that,the two lay down face-to-face. <br />
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As soon as Mascara Jade looked back and saw a piece of blood ,the size of a button, on Precious Jade's left cheek. She leaned forward and looked closely with her hand, saying, "whose nails cut your face?" Precious Jade turned back, hiding, and said with a smile, "It's not a wound. I think it's just spattered with a little blusher when I washed it for them just now." With that, he looked for the handkerchief to wipe.--Yang Kun (talk) 23:50, 28 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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When Mascara Jade heard this, she giggled and said, "Since you want to stay here, sit there quietly and let's have a talk." Precious Jade said, "I want to lie down, too." "Do as you like" said Mascara Jade. " Precious Jade said, "There isn't other pillow. Let's share the pillow." Mascara Jade said, "Don’t talk rot! It's not a pillow outside? Take one !" Precious Jade went out to the outer room, looked at it, came back and smiled, "I don't want that, and I don't know if it belongs to a certain pickled old woman." Hearing this, Mascara Jade opened her eyes, got up and smiled, " You are the magic star I hit! Please rest with this one. " Then, she pushed her pillow to Precious Jade, got up and fetched another one. After that, the two lay down face-to-face. As soon as Mascara Jade looked back and saw a piece of blood ,the size of a button, on Precious Jade’s left cheek. She leaned forward and looked closely with her hand, saying, "whose nails cut your face?" Precious Jade turned back, hiding, and said with a smile, "It's not a wound. I think it's just spattered with a little blusher when I washed it for them just now." With that, he looked for the handkerchief to wipe.--[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 05:12, 29 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==法语语言文学 202120081556 周俊辉 女==<br />
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黛玉便用自己的绢子替他擦了，咂着嘴儿说道：“你又干这些事了；干也罢了，必定还要带出幌子来。就是舅舅看不见，别人看见了，又当作奇怪事，新鲜话儿，去学舌讨好儿，吹到舅舅耳朵里，大家又该不得心净了。”<br />
宝玉总没听见这些话，只闻见一股幽香，却是从黛玉袖中发出，闻之令人醉魂酥骨。<br />
宝玉一把便将黛玉的衣袖拉住，要瞧瞧笼着何物。黛玉笑道：“这时候谁带什么香呢？”宝玉笑道：“那么着，这香是那里来的？”黛玉道：“连我也不知道，想必是柜子里头的香气熏染的，也未可知。”宝玉摇头道：“未必。这香的气味奇怪，不是那些香饼子、香球子、香袋儿的香。”黛玉冷笑道：“难道我也有什么罗汉、真人给我些奇香不成？就是得了奇香，也没有亲哥哥亲兄弟弄了花儿、朵儿、霜儿、雪儿替我炮制。我有的是那些俗香罢了。”<br />
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Mascara Jade wiped his cheek with her handkerchief. Smacking her mouth, she said:“ You did it again. You always make excuses to do the trifles. You’re lucky that my uncle doesn’t know. But if other people saw it, they would take it as an anecdote, an opportunity to play up to my uncle. As soon as my uncle hears about it, there will be no peace in the house.”<br />
The words went in one his ear and out the other. At that moment, he smelled a faint fragrance coming from Mascara Jade’s sleeve, which was intoxicating. <br />
Precious Jade grabbed Mascara Jade’s sleeve to see what it was. Mascara Jade laughed and said, “Who brings balsam at this time?” He laughed: “Then where does the fragrance come from?” “Even I don’t know. Maybe it came out of the closet.” Precious Jade shook his head:“Not necessarily, the smell is very strange, not like the fragrance of incense cake, of incense ball, of incense bag.” Mascara Jade sneered: “ Will some god give me some magic spice? Even if I really get it, there is no brothers to help me find flowers, buds, frost and snow, then help me make incense. All I have is mediocre spices.”--[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 01:04, 2 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Mascara Jade Forest wiped his mouth with her mocket,she pouted and said:“You did it again, but you also make trouble to us. Although uncle couldn't see it, other people could and would take it as a anecdote. Mabye he heard of it beacause of someone's flattery, there won't be quiet.”<br />
The words went in one of his ears and out the other. At that moment, he smelled a faint fragrance coming from Mascara Jade Forest’s sleeve,which was intoxicating. <br />
Precious Jade Merchant grabbed her sleeve to see what stuff hide im. Mascara Jade Forest smiled and said, “Who brings balsam at this time?” He laughed: “Then where does the fragrance come from?” “Even I don’t know. Maybe it's fumigated by the fragrance of the closet.” Precious Jade Merchant shook his head:“Not necessarily, the smell is very strange, not like the fragrance of incense cake, of incense ball, of incense bag.” Mascara Jade Forest sneered: “ Will some god give me some magic spice? Even if I really get it, there is no brothers to help me find flowers, buds, frost and snow, then help me make incense. All I have is mediocre spices.”--[[User:Zhou Qing|Zhou Qing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Qing|talk]]) 13:13, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==法语语言文学 202120081558 周清 女==<br />
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宝玉笑道：“凡我说一句，你就拉上这些。不给你个利害也不知道，从今儿可不饶你了。”说着，翻身起来，将两只手呵了两口，便伸向黛玉膈肢窝内两胁下乱挠。黛玉素性触痒不禁，见宝玉两手伸来乱挠，便笑的喘不过气来。口里说：“宝玉，你再闹，我就恼了。”宝玉方住了手，笑问道：“你还说这些不说了？”黛玉笑道：“再不敢了。”一面理鬓，笑道：“我有奇香，你有‘暖香’没有？”<br />
宝玉见问，一时解不来，因问：“什么‘暖香’？”黛玉点头笑叹道：“蠢才，蠢才！你有‘玉’，人家就有‘金’来配你；人家有‘冷香’，你就没有‘暖香’去配他？”宝玉方听出来，因笑道：“方才告饶，如今更说狠了。”说着又要伸手。黛玉忙笑道：“好哥哥，我可不敢了。”宝玉笑道：“饶你不难，只把袖子我闻一闻。”说着便拉了袖子，笼在面上，闻个不住。黛玉夺了手道：“这可该去了。”宝玉笑道：“要去不能。咱们斯斯文文的躺着说话儿。”说着，复又躺下。黛玉也躺下，用绢子盖上脸。<br />
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Precious Jade Merchant smiled and said:"if i say a word,you will do something like this. You don't know how to constrain, from now on, i won't forgive you anymore if you won't change." As he said, he stood up and exhaled two warm breaths to his both hands, and then put them into the two flanks of Mascara Jade Forest's diaphragm and scratched randomly. Mascara Jade Forest still couldn't help itching, so she couldn't breathe with a smile. She said:"Baoyu, if you make a disturbance,i will bw anoyed." Baoyu stopped, he smiled and said:"Will you still say this?" "i'll never do it again. But i have a special perfume, do you have the 'warm perfume'." Mascara Jade Forest smiled and said.<br />
Precious Jade Merchant couldn't solve it for a while, so he asked:"What's the "warm perfume?" Mascara Jade Forest nodded and signed with a smile:"stupd, stupid!You have "jade", people will have "gold"to match you;i have "cold perfume", but you don't have "warm perfume?" Precious Jade Merchant undstood:"You just surrendered, and now it's even more excesive." He was about to stretch out his hand again. Mascara Jade Forest hurriedly smiled: "Good brother, I don't dare anymore."Precious Jade Merchant smiled: "It's not difficult to spare you. I just smell your sleeves." As he said, he pulled up his sleeves, caged on his face, and couldn't help smelling it.Mascara Jade Forest grabbed his hand and said, "This is the time to go." Precious Jade Merchant smiled and said, "I can't go. Let's lie down and talk quietly." As he said, he lay down again. Mascara Jade Forest also lay down and covered her face with silk.--[[User:Zhou Qing|Zhou Qing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Qing|talk]]) 12:54, 11 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Precious Jade Merchant smiled and said:"if i say a word,you will do something like this. You don't know what happened if I'm not serious. I won't let you off from this day forward. " As he said, he stood up and exhaled two warm breaths to his both hands, and then put them into the two flanks of Mascara Jade Forest's diaphragm and scratched randomly. Mascara Jade Forest still couldn't help itching, so she couldn't breathe with a smile. She said:"Baoyu, if you make a disturbance,i will bw anoyed." Baoyu stopped, he smiled and said:"Will you still say this?" "i'll never do it again. But i have a special perfume, do you have the 'warm perfume'." Mascara Jade Forest smiled and said. Precious Jade Merchant couldn't solve it for a while, so he asked:"What's the "warm perfume?" Mascara Jade Forest nodded and signed with a smile:"stupd, stupid!You have "jade", people will have "gold"to match you;i have "cold perfume", but you don't have "warm perfume?" Precious Jade Merchant undstood:"You just surrendered, and now it's even more excesive." He was about to stretch out his hand again. Mascara Jade Forest hurriedly smiled: "Good brother, I don't dare anymore."Precious Jade Merchant smiled: "It's not difficult to spare you. I just smell your sleeves." As he said, he pulled up his sleeves, caged on his face, and couldn't help smelling it.Mascara Jade Forest grabbed his hand and said, "This is the time to go." Precious Jade Merchant smiled and said, "I don't go. Let's lie down and talk quietly." As he said, he lay down again. Mascara Jade Forest also lay down and covered her face with silk.--[[User:Gong Boya|Gong Boya]] ([[User talk:Gong Boya|talk]]) 13:56, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==俄语语言文学 202120081488 宫博雅 女==<br />
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宝玉有一搭没一搭的说些鬼话，黛玉总不理。宝玉问他几岁上京，路上见何景致，扬州有何古迹，土俗民风如何。黛玉不答。宝玉只怕他睡出病来，便哄他道：“嗳哟！你们扬州衙门里有一件大故事，你可知道么？”黛玉见他说的郑重，又且正言厉色，只当是真事，因问：“什么事？”宝玉见问，便忍着笑顺口诌道：“扬州有一座黛山，山上有个林子洞。”黛玉笑道：“这就扯谎，自来也没听见这山。”宝玉道：“天下山水多着呢，你那里都知道？等我说完了，你再批评。”黛玉道：“你说。”<br />
宝玉又诌道：“林子洞里原来有一群耗子精。那一年腊月初七，老耗子升座议事，说：‘明儿是腊八儿了，世上的人都熬腊八粥。如今我们洞里果品短少，须得趁此打劫些个来才好。’乃拔令箭一枝，遣了个能干小耗子去打听。小耗子回报：‘各处都打听了，惟有山下庙里果、米最多。’老耗子便问：‘米有几样？果有几品？’小耗子道：‘米、豆成仓。果品却只有五样：一是红枣，二是栗子，三是落花生，四是菱角，五是香芋。’<br />
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Precious Jade Merchant chattered by fits and starts, Mascara Jade Forest kept silent. Precious Jade Merchant asked, “How old were you when you went to the captical? What did you see along the road? Are there any historical sites in Yangzhou? How about the folk customs?” She didn’t answer. Precious Jade Merchant was worried she will get ill for sleeping too long , and coaxed her, “ Ah! There is an important event in yamen of Yangzhou, you know that? ” Mascara Jade Forest saw what he said with a stern look,so she aslo took it seriously. Then she asked, “What envent? ” Upon seeing this, Precious Jade Merchant concealed a smile and kept cooking up, “in Yangzhou there is a mountain called Daishan and a forest cave upon there. ” Mascara Jade Forest smiled, “It is nonsense, I have not heard of it at all. ”Precious Jade Merchant replied, “There are so many landscapes in the world, how do you know all of them? Keeping your comments until i finish my words. ” She said, “Say it. ” Precious Jade Merchant talked recklessly again, “There used to be a bunch of ratspirits in the forest cave. On the seventh day of the twelfth lunar month, the elder ratspirit held a meeting. On the meeting, he said, ‘Tomorrow is the eighth day of the twelfth lunar month. People will all make laba rice porridge. Now that we are short of grain in the cave, we must seize the chance to rob some. ’ Cosequently he threw a command arrow and sent an able young ratspirit to inquire. Young ratspirit returned and reported, ‘I have made inquiries everywhere. The temple at the mountain foot stores most fruits and rice. ’ The old ratspirit asked, ‘ How many kinds of grain? How many kinds of tribute? ’ The young ratspirit said, ‘There's a whole warehouse of rice and bean. There are only five kinds of cereal: one is red dates, two is chestnuts, three is peanuts, four is water chestnut, five is taro. ’--[[User:Gong Boya|Gong Boya]] ([[User talk:Gong Boya|talk]]) 01:55, 13 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Chinese names can be translated directly in pinyin.(宝玉—Baoyu；黛玉—Daiyu);Bao Yu was talking nonsense, but Dai Yu always ignored it. She asked him how old he was when he went to Beijing, what sights he saw on the way, what are the monuments in Yangzhou, and what are the customs and folklore. Daiyu did not answer. She was afraid that he would fall asleep and get sick, so she coaxed him, "Oh! There is a big story in your Yangzhou government office, do you know it?" The first time I saw him, I thought he was telling the truth, so I asked, "What is it?" When Baoyu saw the question, he stifled a laugh and said smoothly, "There is a Dai Mountain in Yangzhou and there is a Lin Zi Cave on the mountain." Daiyu laughed and said, "That's a lie, I haven't heard of this mountain since." The world is full of mountains and rivers, where do you know them all? When I've finished, you can criticise again." Daiyu said, "You say it." Bao Yu said, "There was a group of rat spirits in the forest cave. That year, on the seventh day of the lunar month, the old rats rose to their seats and said: 'Tomorrow is the eighth day of the lunar month, and everyone in the world is making lunar porridge. Now we are short of fruits in the cave, so we must take advantage of this to rob some of them.' He drew an arrow and sent a competent little rat to inquire. The little rat reported, 'I have asked everywhere, but the temple at the bottom of the hill has the most fruit and rice.' The old rat then asked, 'How many kinds of rice are there? How many kinds of fruit are there?' The little rat said, 'Rice and beans are in the warehouse. But there are only five kinds of fruits: first, red dates, second, chestnuts, third, groundnuts, fourth, lozenges, and fifth, taro.--[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 06:46, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==俄语语言文学 202120081515 毛优 女==<br />
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“老耗子听了大喜，即时拔了一枝令箭，问：‘谁去偷米？’一个耗子便接令去偷米。又拔令箭问：‘谁去偷豆？’又一个耗子接令去偷豆。然后一一的都各领令去了。只剩下香芋，因又拔令箭问：‘谁去偷香芋？’只见一个极小极弱的小耗子应道：‘我愿去偷香芋。’<br />
“老耗子和众耗子见他这样，恐他不谙练，又怯懦无力，不准他去。小耗子道：‘我虽年小身弱，却是法术无边，口齿伶俐，机谋深远。这一去，管比他们偷的还巧呢。’众耗子忙问：‘怎么比他们巧呢？’小耗子道：‘我不学他们直偷；我只摇身一变，也变成个香芋，滚在香芋堆里，叫人瞧不出来，却暗暗儿的搬运，渐渐的就搬运尽了。这不比直偷硬取的巧吗？’众耗子听了，都说：‘妙却妙，只是不知怎么变？你先变个我们瞧瞧。’小耗子听了，笑道：‘这个不难，等我变来。’说毕，摇身说：‘变！’竟变了一个最标致美貌的一位小姐。众耗子忙笑说：‘错了，错了。原说变果子，怎么变出个小姐来了呢？’小耗子现了形，笑道：‘我说你们没见世面，只认得这果子是香芋，却不知盐课林老爷的小姐才是真正的香玉呢。’”<br />
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The old mouse was overjoyed and immediately drew an arrow and asked:"Who is going to steal the rice?" A mouse took the order to steal the rice. Then he drew /pulled another arrow and asked again :"Who is going to steal the beans?" Another mouse took the order to steal the beans. All the mouses One by one received the orders, only the order of taro was left. So the old mouse drew this left arrow and asked:"Who is going to steal the taro?" At this time a very small and weak mouse responded:"I am willing to steal the taro." The old mouse and all the mice saw him like this, and they would not allow him to go because they were afraid that he would be unskilled and cowardly. But the little mouse said: ‘Although I am young and weak, I have boundless power, skillful tongue and foresight. I will steal more cleverly than others. "The mice hurriedly asked: "How can you do that?" The little mouse said: "I won't learn from them to steal directy. I just changed my body and turned into a taro, rolled in the taro pile. In that way people can't see me. Then I will secretly carry the taros, and gradually they were exhausted. Isn't this more clever than stealing directly? All the mice heard this, and they all said, "It's indeed a wonderful way, but how can you change yourself into a taro? Can you show us now? let's see!"The little mouse listened and said with a smile: "This is not difficult, wait for me!" After speaking, he said: "Change! "She has turned into the most beautiful girl in this world. The mice laughed and said:"it’s wrong, it’s wrong. Originally you said that you would turn into fruit, why did you turn into a girl?" The little mouse appeared, and smiled: "I said you hadn't seen the world, because you only recognized that it was a taro, but you didn't know that master Lin's daughter was the real fragrant jade. "(In Chinese pronounciation of the word "taro" is as the same as the word "fragrant jade")--[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 14:28, 28 September 2021 (UTC)Sept. 28<br />
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The old mouse was overjoyed and immediately drew an arrow and asked:"Who is going to steal the rice?" A mouse took the order to steal the rice. Then he pulled another arrow and asked again :"Who is going to steal the beans?" Another mouse took the order to steal the beans. All the mouses One by one received the orders, only the order of taro was left. So the old mouse pulled this left arrow and asked:"Who is going to steal the taro?" At this time a very small and weak mouse responded:"I am willing to steal the taro." The old mouse and all the mice saw him like this, and they would not allow him to go because they were afraid that he would be unskilled and cowardly. But the little mouse said: ‘Although I am young and weak, I have boundless supernatural power, skillful tongue and foresight. I will steal more cleverly than others. "The mice hurriedly asked: "How can you do that?" The little mouse said: "I won't learn from them to steal directy. I just changed my body and turned into a taro, rolled in the taro pile. In that way people can't see me. Then I will secretly carry the taros, and gradually they were exhausted. Isn't this more clever than stealing directly? All the mice heard this, and they all said, "It's indeed a wonderful way, but how can you change yourself into a taro? Can you show us now? let's see!"The little mouse listened and said with a smile: "This is not difficult, wait for me!" After speaking, he said: "Change! "She has turned into the most beautiful girl in this world. The mice laughed and said:"it’s wrong, it’s wrong. Originally you said that you would turn into fruit, why did you turn into a girl?" The little mouse appeared, and smiled: "I said you hadn't seen the world, because you only recognized that it was a taro, but you didn't know that master Lin's daughter was the real fragrant jade. "--[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:00, 11 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==俄语语言文学 202120081529 吴婧悦 女==<br />
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黛玉听了，翻身爬起来，按着宝玉笑道：“我把你这个烂了嘴的！我就知道你是编派我呢。”说着便拧。宝玉连连央告：“好妹妹，饶了我罢，再不敢了。我因为闻见你的香气，忽然想起这个故典来。”黛玉笑道：“饶骂了人，你还说是故典呢。” 一语未了，只见宝钗走来，笑问：“谁说故典呢？我也听听。”黛玉忙让坐，笑道：“你瞧瞧，还有谁？他饶骂了，还说是故典。”宝钗笑道：“哦！是宝兄弟哟，怪不得他，他肚子里的故典本来多么。就只是可惜一件：该用故典的时候儿，他就偏忘了。有今儿记得的，前儿夜里的芭蕉诗就该记得呀，眼面前儿的倒想不起来。别人冷的了不得，他只是出汗。这会子偏又有了记性了。”黛玉听了，笑道：“阿弥陀佛！到底是我的好姐姐。你一般也遇见对子了。可知一还一报，不爽不错的。”<br />
刚说到这里，只听宝玉房中一片声吵嚷起来。<br />
未知何事，下回分解。<br />
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Mascara Jade Forest listened, turned over and got up, she laughed at Precious Jade and said: “ Why you love to gossip so much? I knew that you were making fun of me.” She said and tweaked his ear. Precious Jade hastened to say that: “ my dear sister, forgive me please, I dare not do it again. Because I smelt your scent, and suddenly remembered this literary allusion.” Mascara Jade Forest smiled and added: “ You spout insults but said that it is an allusion.” Didn’t finish saying, while Precious hairpin came in, she also smiled and said: “ Who is telling allusions? I want to know, too.” Mascara Jade Forest offered her seat to Precious hairpin , and said: “ Look! Who else? He spout insults, but said they are allusion.” Precious hairpin added with a smile: “ Oh! It is brother Precious Jade, it’s none of his business, because he knew a lot of allusions, but it is a pity that he didn’t remember the allusion when it needed. He should have remembered the Plantain poem, but didn’t remember the allusion before him. The others were so cold, but he only sweated, and this time he unexpectedly had a good memory.” Mascara Jade Forest listened to her, laughing: “ God! You exactly my good sister. Now you also meet with your opponent. It is true that measure for measure.” By this time, Precious Jade‘s room rang out a noise. Unknown what had happened, it will be told in the next chapter.<br />
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Daiyu heard, turned over and got up, she laughed at Baoyu and said: “ Why you love to gossip so much? I know that you are making fun of me.” She said and tweaked his ear. Baoyu hastened to say that: “ my dear sister, forgive me please, I dare not do it again. Because I smelt your scent, and suddenly remembered this literary allusion.” Daiyu smiled and added: “ You spout insults but said that it is an allusion.” Didn’t finish saying, while Baochai came in, she also smiled and said: “ Who is telling allusions? I want to know, too.” Daiyu offered her seat to Baochai, and said: “ Look! Who else? He spout insults, but said they are allusion.” Baochai added with a smile: “ Oh! It is brother Baoyu, it’s none of his business, because he knew a lot of allusions, but it is a pity that he didn’t remember the allusion when it needed. He should have remembered the Plantain poem, but didn’t remember the allusion before him. The others were so cold, but he only sweated, and this time he unexpectedly had a good memory.” Daiyu listened to her, laughing: “ God! You are exactly my good sister. Now you also meet with your opponent. It is true that measure for measure.” By this time, Baoyu’s room rang out a noise. Unknown what had happened, it will be told in the next chapter. --[[User:Xie Qinglin|Xie Qinglin]] ([[User talk:Xie Qinglin|talk]]) 02:20, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==俄语语言文学 202120081533 谢庆琳 女==<br />
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花解语──解：理解，领会。 语本“解语花”，出自五代·王仁裕《开元天宝遗事·卷下·解语花》：“秋八月，太液池有千叶白莲，数枝盛开，帝(唐玄宗)与贵戚宴赏焉。左右皆叹羡。久之，帝指贵妃示于左右曰：‘争如我解语花！’”(争：怎。)原指唐玄宗把杨贵妃比做善解人意的鲜花。引申以比喻善解人意的美女。曹雪芹化用为“花解语”，则变为美女善解人意；而“花”又为袭人之姓，则“花解语”就是花袭人善解人意。<br />
玉生香──玉：指林黛玉。 生香：散发出香气。语或本“活色生香”，出自唐·薛能《杏花》诗：“活色生香第一枝，手中移得近青楼。”原形容杏花呈现出生机盎然的美丽颜色，散发出沁人心脾的香气。引申以形容女子的天生美貌和芳香气息。这里用以形容林黛玉的天生美貌和芳香气息。<br />
“Hua Jie Yu” - " Jie": to understand, to comprehend. The phrase is from Wang Renyu's "The Legacy of Kaiyuan Tianbao - Volume 2 - The Flower of Explanation": "In the eighth month of autumn, there were a thousand leaves of white lotus in full bloom at the Taiyan Pond. The Emperor (Tang Xuanzong) and his noble relatives enjoyed the feast, and all the people around him admired them. After a long time, the emperor pointed to the noble princess and showed her to the left and right, saying: 'Compete with me to interpret the flowers!'" (Strive: how.) Originally, Emperor Tang Xuanzong compared Yang Guifei to an understanding flower. This is a metaphor for a beautiful woman who understands people. Cao Xueqin's use of the word "Hua Jie Yu" is a metaphor for a beautiful woman who understands people's feelings; and since "Hua" is also the surname of Assailant, "Hua Jie Yu" means that Hua Assailant understands people's feelings. “Jade is fragrant” - “Jade” refers to Lin Daiyu. The name of the poem is "Jade". The phrase is derived from the poem 'Apricot Blossoms' by Xue Neng: "The first branch of apricot blossoms is in living colour and fragrance, and the hand has moved close to the green tower." The original description is that the apricot blossoms are of a vibrant and beautiful colour, emitting a refreshing fragrance. It is also used to describe the natural beauty and fragrance of a woman. Here it is used to describe the natural beauty and fragrance of Lin Daiyu.<br />
--[[User:Xie Qinglin|Xie Qinglin]] ([[User talk:Xie Qinglin|talk]]) 02:02, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
“Hua Jie Yu” - " Jie": to understand, to comprehend. The phrase is from five dynasties and ten years ·Wang Renyu's "The Legacy of Kaiyuan Tianbao - Volume 2 - The Flower of Explanation": "In the eighth month of autumn, there were a thousand leaves of white lotus in full bloom at the Taiye Pond. The Emperor (Tang Xuanzong) and his relatives enjoyed the beautiful scenery, and all the people around him admired them. After a long time, the emperor pointed to Yang Guifei（his wife）and showed her to the left and right, saying: 'Compete with me to interpret the flowers!'" (Strive: how.) Originally, Emperor Tang Xuanzong compared Yang Guifei to an understanding flower. This is a metaphor for a beautiful woman who understands people. Cao Xueqin used the word "Hua Jie Yu" as a metaphor for a beautiful woman who understands people's feelings; and since “Hua” is also the surname of Aroma, “Hua Jie Yu” means that “Aroma Hua” understands people's feelings. “Yu Sheng Xiang” - “Yu”(Jade) refers to Mascara Jade Forest. “Sheng Xiang”- exude fragrance. Or it could be called ''Huo Se Sheng Xiang''.The phrase is derived from the poem 'Apricot Blossoms' by Xue Neng: "The first branch of apricot blossoms is in living colour and fragrance, when got it in hand has moved close to the brothel." The original description is that the apricot blossoms are of a vibrant and beautiful colour, emitting a refreshing fragrance. It is also used to describe the natural beauty and fragrance of a woman. Here it is used to describe the natural beauty and fragrance of Mascara Jade Forest.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 03:24, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==俄语语言文学 202120081552 张怡然 女==<br />
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掷骰(t óu投)子——是一种游戏，即互掷骰子，以点数多少决输赢。 骰子：游戏或赌博用具。多用兽骨制成，为立体小方块，六面分别刻以一、二、三、四、五、六点，一、四点涂以红色，其馀涂以黑色，故又称“色子”。相传为曹操之子曹植发明。<br />
《丁郎认父》──取材于小说《升仙记》的弋阳腔剧目。写明代杜文学因受奸相严嵩迫害，流落湖广，入赘胡丞相府，与前妻所生子丁郎曲折相认的故事。<br />
《黄伯央大摆阴魂阵》──或作《黄伯英大摆阴兵阵》。是由《七国春秋平话》改编的地方戏目。写燕国大将乐毅请师父黄伯央(《七国春秋平话》作“黄伯杨”)下山摆设阴魂阵围困齐将孙膑，最后两国讲和的故事。<br />
Cast the dice - is a game in which two people cast in turn, using the size of the dice to determine the winner. Dice: a game or gambling device.Most of them are small cubes made of animal bones, six sides are engraved on one, two, three, four, five, six points, one and four coated into red, and the rest is also black, so the dice is called again ''Shai zi''.It is said to be invented by Cao Zhi, the son of Cao Cao. <br />
''Ding lang got acquainted with his father''-- based on the novel ''The Ascension of the Immortals'' yiyang repertoire. It tells the story of a man named Du Wenxue in the Ming Dynasty, who was forced to live in Huguang area because of the persecution of Yan Song, the adulterous phase. He entered the residence of Prime Minister Hu and met ding Lang, the son of his ex-wife with twists and turns.<br />
''Huang Boyang's Great display of ghosts'' ─ or ''Huang Boying's great display of died soldiers''. It is a local opera adapted from ”The story collection of the Seven Kingdoms In the Spring and Autumn Period”. It tells the story of the state of Yan general Yue Yi please master Huang Boyang (''The story collection of the Seven Kingdoms In the Spring and Autumn Period'' for ''Huang Boyang'' ) Down the mountain set up the ghost array besiege Qi general Sun Bin， finally the last two countries peace story.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 15:47, 28 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
Cast the dice - is a game in which two people cast in turn, using the size of the dice to determine the winner. Dice: a game or gambling device.Most of them are small cubes made of animal bones, six sides are engraved on one, two, three, four, five, six points, one and four coated into red, and the rest is coated into black, so the dice is also called 'Shai zi''.It is said to be invented by Cao Zhi, the son of Cao Cao. <br />
''Ding lang got acquainted with his father''-- based on yiyang repertoire of the novel ''Sheng Xian Ji''. It tells the story of a man named Du Wenxue in the Ming Dynasty, who was forced to live in Huguang area because of the persecution of Yan Song, the adulterous phase. He entered the residence of Prime Minister Hu and met ding Lang, the son of his ex-wife with twists and turns.<br />
''Huang Boyang's Great display of ghosts'' ─ or ''Huang Boying's great display of died soldiers''. It is a local opera adapted from ”The story collection of the Seven Kingdoms In the Spring and Autumn Period”. It tells the story of the state of Yan general Yue Yi please master Huang Boyang (''The story collection of the Seven Kingdoms In the Spring and Autumn Period'' for ''Huang Boyang'' ) Down the mountain set up the ghost array besiege Qi general Sun Bin， finally the last make peace between the two countries.--[[User:Liu Yue|Liu Yue]] ([[User talk:Liu Yue|talk]]) 10:26, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==亚非语言文学 202120081509 刘越 女==<br />
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香玉──典出唐·温庭筠《晚归曲》：“弯堤弱柳遥相瞩，雀扇团圆掩香玉。”原比喻美女散发的香气和洁白如玉的肌肤。这里是把玉石的“玉”和林黛玉的“玉”合为一体，以比喻美女林黛玉。<br />
《孙行者大闹天宫》──京剧和地方戏均有此剧目，取材于小说《西游记》。写孙悟空跟随唐僧前大闹天宫的故事。<br />
《姜太公斩将封神》──京剧和地方戏均有此剧目，取材于小说《封神演义》。写姜太公助周灭商后斩将封神的故事。 按：以上四剧皆为闹剧，隐寓宁国府子弟粗俗不堪。<br />
献酬──亦作“献醻”。指酒席上主宾互相敬酒。《诗经·小雅·楚茨》：“献醻交错，礼仪卒度，笑语卒获。”郑玄笺：“始主人酌宾为献，宾既酌主人，主人又自饮酌宾曰醻。”<br />
行令──即行酒令。是一种宴会中助兴的游戏。其方法是：由一人任令官，按一定规矩行令，违令或按令该饮者都要饮酒。<br />
Sweet jade -- classic tang · Wen Tingjun late homing song : "Bent dike weak willow distant look, bird fan reunion mask sweet jade." Originally used as a metaphor for beauty to send out fragrance and white jade skin. Here, the "jade" of jade and the "jade" of Mascara Jade Forest are combined as a whole to compare the beauty Lin Daiyu. <br />
Monkey King Makes Havoc in Heaven-- a play in Both Beijing and local operas, based on the novel 'Journey to the West.' It tells the story of Sun Wukong who caused havoc in heaven before he followed Tang Priest. <br />
Jiang Taigong beheaded a General and canonized a God. This play is used in Both Beijing Opera and local opera, and is based on the novel Creation of the Gods(Fengshen Yanyi). Write the story of Jiang Taigong, who helped Zhou destroy the Shang dynasty and then beheaded the generals and sealed the gods. The author explains: the above four plays are farce, alluding to the vulgar children of the Ningguo mansion.<br />
献酬（Make toasts）─ can also be said 献醻. Refers to the banquet guests toasting each other. The Book of Songs· xiaoya ·chuets : "The host and the guest toast each other, the etiquette completely conforms to the law, then a word and a smile are appropriate natural." Zheng Xuanjian: "First, the host toasts to the guests. After the guests drink the wine revered by the host, the host drinks it, which is called making toasts ." <br />
Order -- that is, order to drink. It's a fun game at a banquet. Its method is: by a person as an officer, according to certain rules of the order, the violation or according to the order of the drinker to drink.--[[User:Liu Yue|Liu Yue]] ([[User talk:Liu Yue|talk]]) 10:26, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
Here is the "jade" of Jade and Lin Daiyu "jade" into one--[[User:Zhang Qiuyi|Zhang Qiuyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Qiuyi|talk]]) 10:38, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==亚非语言文学 202120081550 张秋怡 女==<br />
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家生子儿——奴仆在主子家生养的子女。清代规定家奴之子女必须为奴，世代如此。清·赵翼《陔馀丛考·家生子儿》：“奴仆在主家所生子，俗谓家生子。按《法苑珠林》记庸岭有大蛇为患，都尉令长求人家生婢子及有罪家女祭之，‘家生’之名见此。”(按：《法苑珠林》为唐·释道世撰。)又《汉书·陈胜传》“秦令少府章邯免骊山徒、人奴产子”唐·颜师古注：“奴产子，犹今人云家生奴也。”“家生奴”即“家生子”。可知“家生子”或“家生奴”之称至少在唐代已有。<br />
卖倒的死契——指双方约定卖出后不能赎身、必须终生为奴的卖身契。 卖倒：犹“卖定”、“卖死”。不可变更或反悔之意。<br />
禄蠹——禄：身居官爵，享受俸禄。 蠹：蛀虫。 “禄蠹”或本“国蠧”，出自《左传·襄公二十二年》：“不可使也，而傲使人，国之蠧也。”意思是本无治国之才而身居高位，便是国家的蛀虫。“禄蠹”与“国蠧” 的意思基本上一样，也是指身居高位、坐享国家俸禄而不干实事的官吏。<br />
Offspring - The offspring of a servant in his master's house.The Qing Dynasty stipulated that the children of domestic slaves must be slaves,from generation to generation so.Qing · Zhaoyi “Gai Yu Cong Kao·The offspring of a servant in his master's house”：“A son born to a slave in his master's house is called a son of the family. according to the story in the Pearl forest of Fayuan that there was a snake in yongling, the commander ordered the family to give birth to maidservants and guilty family female sacrifice, the name of ‘Jia Sheng’ can be seen here.”(according to: the Pearl forest of Fayuan was written for Tang· Shi Daoshi.) Also in The Book of Han · Biography of Chen Sheng, “The Qin Dynasty sent Zhang Han to pardon those who had served in mount Lishan for crimes and the sons born to house slaves”Tang · Yan Shigu notes: “Slaves give birth to children, and is also slaves”.“family born slave” is “family born child”. It can be known that “family born son” or “family born slave” had been known at least in the Tang Dynasty.Dead deed of sale refers to the deed of sale in which both parties agree that they cannot redeem themselves and must be slaves for life. Sell down: “sell it” and “sell it to death”.The meaning of not changing or repentance.“LU DU”-Lu：official status, enjoy the salary. Du：moth. “Ludu” or “Guodu” from “Zuo Zhuan · Xianggong 22 years”: “do not make, but proud to make people the worm of the nation.It means that if you are in a high position without the ability to govern a country, you are the moth of the country. “Ludu” and “Guodu” basically the same meaning, also refers to a high position, enjoy the state salary and do not work officials.--[[User:Zhang Qiuyi|Zhang Qiuyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Qiuyi|talk]]) 01:29, 29 September 2021 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:Wang Yifan21|Wang Yifan21]] ([[User talk:Wang Yifan21|talk]]) 13:47, 11 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
Annotation:<br />
First:The common term for a son born to a slave in his master’s house is a family son.<br />
Second:It means that if you are in a high position without the ability to govern a country,you are the moth of the country.<br />
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==亚非语言文学 202120081524 王逸凡 女==<br />
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明明德——头一个“明”为动词。彰明、弘扬之意。 明德：美德，至德，完美的道德。 语出《礼记·大学》：“大学之道，在明明德，在亲民，在止于至善。”意思是弘扬完美的道德。这里是指贾宝玉只肯定包括《大学》在内的《四书》(《论语》、《大学》、《中庸》、《孟子》)是正经书，其他书都要不得。<br />
魔星——曹雪芹的原作为“天魔星”，显然是借用了佛家和道家的“天魔”之说。佛家说“天魔”为欲界第六天主。如《楞严经》卷九说：“或汝阴魔，或复天魔。”又《百喻经·小儿得大龟喻》说：“邪见外道，天魔波旬，及恶知识，而语之言，汝但极意六尘，恣情五欲，如我语者，必得解脱。”道家则说“天魔”为天上的魔怪。如《云笈七签》卷四说：“有经无符，则天魔害人。”这里的“魔星”则为冤家之意。<br />
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Mingmingde-The first Ming is a verb which means obviousness, clearness or carrying forward and the word Mingde means virtue,supreme virtue,perfect morality. The Book of Rites·Great learningnsaid that The way of a university lies in being clear and virtuous, being close to the people and being perfect. It means to promote perfect morality. Precious Jade Merchant only affirmed The Four Books including Great learning. (Analects,Great Learning,The Doctrine of the Mean, Mencius) are the proper scriptures and the other books are not acceptable.<br />
Devil star—Cao Xueqin's original as heaven devil star apparently borrowed Buddhism and Taoism’s doctrine of heaven devil.Buddhists say that demons are the sixth god of desire.For example,volume 9 of the Surangama Sutra says, Either you cast shadows or you recover demons from heaven.And Buddhist parables said Evil sees the outside world,the sky is full of demons,and evil knowledge.But as you speak,you will be free from your desires.Taoism says that demons of heaven are demons in the sky.Such as Cloud gupta seven signs volume 4 said there is no sign,then the devil harm people.The devil star here is the meaning of enemy.--[[User:Wang Yifan21|Wang Yifan21]] ([[User talk:Wang Yifan21|talk]]) 12:34, 30 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Laba Porridge-Originated from what Buddhism calls "Buddha Bathing Day". According to legend, Sakyamuni was born on the eighth day of the fourth month of the lunar calendar. Therefore, since the Han Dynasty, every Buddhist temple has held commemorative activities on this day. , "Buddhist Bathing Festival" or "Buddha Day". "The Book of the Later Han Dynasty·Tao Qian Biography" said:" Every time Buddha baths, to provid alms and rice to the road."In the Southern Dynasties Liang Zongmo's "Jingchu Sui Shi Ji" said: "April 8th, all monasteries Set up a fast, bath the Buddha with five-color perfume, and make Longhua Hui together. According to "The Biography of the Eminent Monk": ‘On April 8th, to bathe the Buddha, use Duliang incense as blue water, tulip as red water, Qiulong incense as white water, aconite incense as yellow water, benzoin as black water, to infuse the top of the Buddha. ’"In the Song Dynasty, the day of Sakyamuni’s Buddhahood, the eighth day of the twelfth lunar month, was the "Buddha Bathing Day." Every time this day, all the temples held commemorative activities, not only followed the alms, bathing Buddha and other items, but also added laba porridge, known as "Buddha Bathing Day." "On the eighth day of the lunar New Year, three or five monks and nuns in the streets chanted Buddha in teams. They would sit on a gold, bronze or wooden Buddha statue in a silver or bronze saro or a good basin. They would soak it in perfume and shower it with the branches of a tree and intended for the edification of the masses. The great monasteries served as bathing buddhas, and gave seven treasures and five flavors porridge and disciples, called "laba porridge". Since then every families also cooks porridge with fruit and miscellaneous ingredients. "Since then, the phase has become a common practice, and it has not faded to this day.--[[User:Li Xinxing|Li Xinxing]] ([[User talk:Li Xinxing|talk]]) 12:47, 11 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Laba congee - Originated from a festival which calls “Buddha Bathing Day” in Buddhism. According to legend, Sakyamuni was born on the eighth of forth lunar month. Therefore, on this day, every Buddhist temple will hold activities since Han Dynasty. People will practice alms all over the place, and wash Buddha statues with water full of spices, which is called “Buddha Bathing Day”, “Buddha Bathing Festival” or “Buddha Buddhism Day”. “Book of Later Han Dynasty · Tao Qian Biography” said: “Every time Buddha baths, there are more drinking and rice to the homeless people. And Liang Zongmo, the author of “Jingchu Sui Shi Ji”, said: “April 8th, all monasteries set up a fast, bath the Buddha with five-color perfume, and make Longhua Hui together.”<br />
According to “The Biography of the Eminent Monk”: “On April 8th, people use Duliang incense as blue water, Yujin incense as red water, Qiulong incense as white water, Fuzi incense as yellow water, and Anxi incense as black water, to infuse the top of the Buddha”. In Song Dynasty, the day when Sakyamuni became a Buddha, the eighth of twelfth lunar month, was the "Buddha Bathing Day." On that day, all Buddhist temples held the activities which called “Buddha Bathing Activities”, not only followed the traditional items, but also added Laba congee. The folks also follow the example and eat Laba congee. We can see these things from “DongJingMengHualu·Volume Ten·December”, a book written by Meng in Song Dynasty: three or five monks and nuns in the streets chanted Buddha in teams. They would sit on a gold, bronze or wooden Buddha statue in a silver or bronze saro or a good basin. They would soak it in perfume and shower it with the branches of a tree and intended for the edification of the masses. The great monasteries served as bathing buddhas, and gave seven treasures and five flavors porridge and disciples, called ‘Laba congee’. Since then every families also cooks porridge with fruit and miscellaneous ingredients.” Since then, the phase has become a common practice, and it has not faded to this day.--[[User:Xu Minyun|Xu Minyun]] ([[User talk:Xu Minyun|talk]]) 13:55, 11 October 2021 (UTC)</div>Zhang Yiranhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_5&diff=134370Hist Trans Theo EN 52021-12-26T14:43:30Z<p>Zhang Yiran: /* Introduction */</p>
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<div>'''History of Translation Theories'''<br />
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[[History_of_Translation_Theories|Overview Page of History of Translation Theories]]<br />
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[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_1]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_2]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_3]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_4]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_5]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_6]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_7]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_8]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_9]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_10]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_11]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_12]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_13]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_14]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_15]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_16]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_17]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_18]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_19]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_20]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_21]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_22]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_23]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_24]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_25]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_26]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_27]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_28]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_29]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_30]] ...<br />
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=Chapter 5 History of Translation Theories from Early Russia to the Soviet Union=<br />
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'''从古罗斯到苏联前的翻译理论史'''<br />
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张怡然 Zhang Yiran,Hunan Normal University,China<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
Translation as a means of intercultural communication, each country has a distinctive translation ideology. This paper focuses on the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia. Through analyzing the history of translation, can find that Russia has formed a literary tradition of translation studies in the late 18th century. In the 19th century, Pushkin, Lermontov, Turgenev and other outstanding poets and literary scholars were keen on translation, especially in the middle of the century when Belinsky and other famous literary critics published a series of comments on literary translation, which emphasized the literary tradition of Russian translation to an unparalleled extent, which is rare in the history of translation in the world. The general principles of Russian literary translation thought were also formed during this period: namely, to insist on commenting on the merits of a translation in terms of the overall effect of the work, to emphasize the ideological content and literary value of the translation, and that the translation should serve the reader and be people-oriented. The above ideas influenced the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, a study of the history of translation theory in pre-Soviet Russia will help learners of Russian to better understand the characteristics of their translations and to improve the accuracy and peopleliness of their translations.Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 12:57, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Translation theories, Translation ideas，History of Translation<br />
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===摘要===<br />
翻译作为一种跨文化交际的手段，每个国家都有独具特色的翻译思想。本文主要探讨苏联前俄国的翻译历史。通过梳理其翻译史可发现，俄国于18世纪末期就已形成了翻译研究的文学传统。进入19世纪后, 普希金、莱蒙托夫、屠格涅夫等优秀诗人、文学家对翻译的热衷, 尤其是世纪中叶别林斯基等著名文学评论家发表一系列关于文学翻译的评论, 更是把俄国翻译的文学传统强调到无以复加的程度, 这在世界翻译史上都是罕见的。俄国文学翻译思想的总原则也在这一时期形成:即坚持从作品的整体效果上来评论译作优劣, 强调译作的思想内容和文学价值, 翻译应为读者服务, 译文应具有人民性。上述思想影响了苏联时期翻译理论的形成。因此，对苏联前俄国翻译理论史的研究有利于俄语学习者在翻译时更好的理解其翻译特点，提高翻译的准确性和人民性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译理论 翻译思想 翻译史 <br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
This paper provides a comprehensive and concise overview of the history of translation in Russia: Russian written translations began in the Kievan Rus' era, when religious subjects were the main focus of translations, especially the Bible, which was translated from Greek. Religious translations continued to flourish under the Moscow principality, represented by Maksim Gleick (МаксимГрек). At the same time, the national character of Russian translations began to emerge, and the languages of translation expanded from Greek to Latin, German and West Slavic, and the subjects covered included Western chivalric fiction, geographical literature, alchemy and medicine. In the eighteenth century, Peter the Great introduced a number of measures to focus on translation, making this period a turning point in the history of Russian translation. The proliferation of specialised translations (e.g. of legal texts) was the main feature of translation activity in the early eighteenth century. After this period Russian translators began to translate literary works.The main translators were Lomonosov (М.В. Ломоносов) and Tretyakovsky (V.K. Тредьяковский). In the second half of the eighteenth century, translation was given greater importance in Russia, and the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books was founded by Ekaterina II, in which a large number of outstanding translators emerged. The nineteenth century was a golden period in the history of Russian translation. Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин) and Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский) both produced many excellent translations. Pushkin (A.С.Пушкин) and Lermontov (M.Ю.Лермонтов) contributed greatly to the development of Russian literature in translation, while Fetter concentrated on love poetry. In the twentieth century, the Russian translation community made significant achievements in theoretical translation studies. In particular, the rapid development of the philological school and the debate between the literary and philological schools made Soviet translation theory one of the leading theories of translation in the world.(Guo Lin,2006:5)Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 12:57, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===1.The history of Russian translation and the period of enlightenment of its translation theory. ===<br />
1. The emergence and development of literary translation.<br />
<br />
Translation activity has a long history in Russia, the beginnings of which can be traced back to the time of Kievan Rus'. A relatively sophisticated system of writing, literature and translation was already in place in ancient Russia in the ninth century AD. Frequent cultural and trade exchanges with Byzantine, German, French and Scandinavian countries contributed significantly to the development of translation in Russia at that time, as did contacts with Eastern countries. From Kievan Rus' onwards, Russian translation methods oscillated between two main tendencies, either to follow the original texts exactly, up to the point of translating them word for word, or to be arbitrary, even to the point of rewriting, adding or deleting at will. The first tendency is the main characteristic of translations of the Bible and other sacred books, while the second, though not absolute, can be said to characterize most secular works.(Feng Xin,2009:8)(Wu Keli,2006:4)<br />
<br />
2.Initiation of translation activities-religious translation. <br />
<br />
In 864 AD, the Byzantine king sent two Greek priests, Kirill (Кирилл) and Mephodi (Мефодий), to spread Christianity among the Slavic people. At the beginning of their mission, they created a new alphabet (now known as the Kirill alphabet) and used this writing system to translate many religious texts from Greek into the ancient Church Slavonic. Among the results were the New Testament, hymnals and prayer books.(Feng,2009:8)<br />
<br />
In 988 AD, Rus was baptised and Kievan Rus was converted to Christianity. A large number of translations appeared instantly to help Protestants become familiar with the new religious philosophy and ethical system and to understand the rituals and customs of the Church. These translations were in a variety of genres, including the Acts of the Saints, sermons, chronicles and so on. In addition, apocryphal books telling magical and fantastical stories were also popular, and some of them had similarities with the later 'fantasy novels'. Most of these translations were done in Bulgaria and were popularised in Rus. At that time, translations of religious texts were mostly word-for-word. There were also a small number of works that, unlike the 'elaborate copies of the original', had a separate literary value. In one case, a large number of details of Russian life were added to the storyline of a sermon (e.g. The Tales of Achild the Wise). In another case, military historical narratives are interspersed with the terminology of the ancient Russian feudal system and certain literary images from the stories of ancient Russian warriors (e.g. Joseph Flav's History of the Jewish War). This translation can be considered one of the most successful of the period. In the translation, the translator succeeded in avoiding many word-for-word translations). In a third case, the manuscripts copied by Ancient Rus, although based on Greek epic poetry (e.g. The Great Work of Digenes Akritas), often borrowed from Russian folk poetry, so that a large number of folk compositions appeared. As a result of this literary process, the translated literature was smoothly enriched by Russian manuscripts, which contributed to the development of original Russian literature and consolidated its links with the medieval literary process. Unfortunately, at that early stage in the development of translation, the translators were not signed, so it is impossible to verify whether the works were translated at home or abroad.(Feng,2009:9) <br />
<br />
During the difficult period of 'Mongol rule' (1228-1480), translations continued to play an important role in the cultural life of the country. The remaining chapters of the Bible were translated one after another, and previous translations were again proofread and revised. In addition to religious translations, more translations of non-religious subjects emerge, such as The Kingdom of India and The Trojan War. Most of the works were still translated from Greek, while works probably translated from Latin and ancient Hebrew also appeared. During this period, Russian began to take shape through the interaction of Old Slavonic (Church Slavonic) and local national languages. However, religious texts were still only translated into Church Slavonic, and the use of this language was by then restricted to ecclesiastical matters. At the same time, political and commercial exchanges with other countries were more likely to be in Russian, which was becoming increasingly sophisticated: elements of the combination of Old Slavonic and Russian can also be found in original works.（Wu,2006:6)<br />
<br />
14-15th century literature in translation by Rus was characterised by an obsession with new themes. These were mainly new works of tranquillity-abstinence literature, or works recommended by and familiar to the tranquillists. This mystical genre was introduced to Rus after it had swept through the Byzantine and Yugoslav peoples. It was reflected in the semi-secular translations popular at the time (for example, The Trojan War). <br />
<br />
In the 16th century AD, Moscow eventually became the political centre of Russia, as well as the translation centre of the country. In 1515, the Grand Duke of Moscow, Vassily III (Василий Ⅲ), asked a Greek monastery to send a learned translator to Moscow. This man, who accompanied the Greek mission to Moscow in 1516, was the historically famous Maksim Gleick (Максим Грек). Maksim Gleick worked as a translator throughout his life, studying most of the religious texts and some of the non-religious works during this period. In addition, he also proofread and annotated previously existing translations.(Wu,2006:7) <br />
<br />
At the beginning, Maksim knew neither Russian nor Old Slavonic, so he divided the translation into two steps: first, he translated from Greek to Latin, and then his assistant translated from Latin to Old Slavonic. In the process of revising existing translations, he often broke with established tradition and was therefore denounced as blasphemous. Maksim was also a prolific writer, educator and philosopher. His writings contain many insights into the art of translation - the earliest recorded treatise on translation in Russia. Maksim insisted that the original text must be carefully analysed in order to grasp its full subtleties and implications. Therefore, the translator must not only master the language of the original, but also have a broad knowledge of the language and prepare for the translation. To support his argument, Maksim used Greek lexicography, phonetic organisation and phonetics involved in translation. His other major contribution was the compilation of a dictionary containing Greek, Latin and Hebrew nouns, which was also the first of its kind in Russian history. Although it was recognised at the time that translators should have a command of both languages as well as a profound background knowledge, the practitioners of translation at the time lacked the necessary qualities and their translations were not as good as they could have been.(Wu,2006:7)Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 13:39, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
1. The emergence and development of literary translation. <br />
<br />
Translation activity has a long history in Russia, the beginnings of which can be traced back to the Time of Kievan Rus'. A relatively sophisticated system of writing, literature and translation was already in ancient Russia in the ninth century AD. Frequent cultural and trade exchanges with Byzantine, German, French and Scandinavian countries contributed significantly to the development of translation in Russia at that time, as did contacts with Eastern countries. From Kievan Rus' onwards, Russian translation methods oscillated between two main tendencies, either to follow the original texts exactly, up to the point of translating them word by word, or to be arbitrary, even to the point of rewriting, adding words or deleting at will. The first tendency is the main characteristic of translations of the Bible and other sacred books, while the second, though not absolutely, can be said to characterize most secular works.<br />
<br />
2.Initiation of translation activities-religious translation. <br />
<br />
In 864 AD, the Byzantine king sent two Greek priests, Kirill (Кирилл) and Mephodi (Мефодий), to spread Christianity among the Slavic people. At the beginning of their mission, they created a new alphabet (now known as the Kirill alphabet) and used this writing system to translate many religious texts from Greek into the ancient Church Slavonic. Among the results were the New Testament, hymnals and prayer books. In 988 AD, Rus was baptised and Kievan Rus was converted to Christianity. A large number of translations appeared instantly to help Protestants become familiar with the new religious philosophy and ethical system and to understand the rituals and customs of the Church. These translations were in a variety of genres, including the Acts of the Saints, sermons, chronicles and so on. In addition, apocryphal books telling magical and fantastical stories were also popular, and some of them had similarities with the later 'fantasy novels'. Most of these translations were done in Bulgaria and were popularised in Rus. At that time, translations of religious texts were mostly word-for-word. There were also a small number of works that, unlike the 'elaborate copies of the original', had a separate literary values. In one case, a large number of details of Russian life were added to the storyline of a sermon (e.g. The Tales of Achild the Wise). In another case, military historical narratives are interspersed with the terminology of the ancient Russian feudal system and certain literary images from the stories of ancient Russian warriors (e.g. Joseph Flav's History of the Jewish War). This translation can be considered one of the most successful of the period. In the translation, the translator succeeded in avoiding many word-for-word translations). Thirdly, the manuscripts copied by Ancient Rus, although based on Greek epic poetry (e.g. The Great Work of Digenes Akritas), often borrowed from Russian folk poetry, so that a large number of folk compositions appeared. As a result of this literary process, the translated literature was smoothly enriched by Russian manuscripts, which contributed to the development of original Russian literature and consolidated its links with the medieval literary process. Unfortunately, at that early stage in the development of translation, the translators were not signed, so it is impossible to verify whether the works were translated at home or abroad. During the difficult period of 'Mongol rule' (1228-1480), translations continued to play an important role in the cultural life of the country. The remaining chapters of the Bible were translated one after another, and previous translations were again proofread and revised. In addition to religious translations, more translations of non-religious subjects emerge, such as The Kingdom of India and The Trojan War. Most of the works were still translated from Greek, while works probably translated from Latin and ancient Hebrew also appeared. During this period, Russian began to take shape through the interaction of Old Slavonic (Church Slavonic) and local national languages. However, religious texts were still only translated into Church Slavonic, and the use of this language was by then restricted to ecclesiastical matters. At the same time, political and commercial exchanges with other countries were more likely to be in Russian, which was becoming increasingly sophisticated: elements of the combination of Old Slavonic and Russian can also be found in original works. 14-15th century literature in translation by Rus was characterised by an obsession with new themes. These were mainly new works of tranquillity-abstinence literature, or works recommended by and familiar to the tranquillists. This mystical genre was introduced to Rus after it had swept through the Byzantine and Yugoslav peoples. It was reflected in the semi-secular translations popular at the time (for example, The Trojan War). In the 16th century AD, Moscow eventually became the political center of Russia, as well as the translation center of the country. In 1515, the Grand Duke of Moscow, Vassily III (Василий Ⅲ), asked a Greek monastery to send a learned translator to Moscow. This man, who accompanied the Greek mission to Moscow in 1516, was the historically famous Maksim Grek (Максим Грек). Maxim Greek worked as a translator throughout his life, studying most of the religious texts and some of the non-religious works during this period. In addition, he also proofread and annotated previously existing translations. At the beginning, Maxim knew neither Russian nor Old Slavonic, so he divided the translation into two steps: first, he translated from Greek to Latin, and then his assistant translated from Latin to Old Slavonic. In the process of revising existing translations, he often broke with established tradition and was therefore denounced as blasphemous. Maxim was also a prolific writer, educator and philosopher. His writings contain many insights into the art of translation - the earliest recorded treatise on translation in Russia. Maxim insisted that the original text must be carefully analysed in order to grasp its full subtleties and implications. Therefore, the translator must not only master the language of the original, but also have a broad knowledge of the language and prepare for the translation. To support his argument, Maxim used Greek lexicography, phonetic organisation and phonetics involved in translation. His other major contribution was the compilation of a dictionary containing Greek, Latin and Hebrew nouns, which was also the first of its kind in Russian history. Although it was recognized at the time that translators should have a command of both languages and profound background knowledge, the practitioners of translation at the time lacked the necessary qualities and their translations were not as good as they should have been. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. Overview of the Russian school of Translation. ===<br />
===2.1 18th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The eighteenth century is an important period in the history of Russian translation. The status of translation in social culture has undergone a qualitative change, and this is due to Peter the Great's reform. At the beginning of the century, translation was still mostly related to professional documents such as laws and contracts. Later, the translator's tentacles gradually expanded to literary translation, for example, French poetry translation. The famous translators of this period are Sumarokov(А.П.Сумароков), Lomonosov(М.В.Ломоносов), Tretyakovsky (В.К.Тредьяковский) and so on. In the second half of the 18th century, the Association for the Translation of Foreign Books officially put forward the importance of translation. The organization has been active for 15 years with over 100 members.（Wu,2006:10)<br />
<br />
1.Imperial support for translation. The political reforms introduced by Peter the Great also led to intensive economic and cultural exchanges between Russia and European countries. This created a huge demand for translations of scientific and technical literature and literary works. Translators were required to produce works of a high standard.<br />
<br />
Peter the Great issued a special decree on translation, requiring "faithful" communication of the original text. In a directive issued to his subordinates in 1709, he explicitly stated that when translating foreign books, word-for-word translations were to be avoided and that the content of the original text should be clearly expressed in one's own language, based on an understanding of its content. On the other hand, Peter the Great's subversion of the written language initially caused confusion in Russian translation circles. A large number of foreign languages entered the Russian language, and the piles of foreign syntactic structures distracted attention. In any case, Peter the Great's reforms did set a new norm and a new direction for translation.(Wu,2006:11)<br />
<br />
In terms of content, Peter the Great's reforms were, from the very beginning, inextricably linked to the translation of scientific and technical texts, such as the many books on military defence engineering that he ordered to be translated and used to strengthen Russia's military forces. Peter the Great also placed great importance on the translation of prose, poetry and other literary works. During this period, the Russian language began to develop its own literary model, and many educated Russians saw translation as a way of enriching the language and enhancing its uniqueness and expressiveness. <br />
<br />
From around the 1830s, the importance of translating Western European scientific and technical texts gradually gave way to literary works such as prose and poetry. Writers who were also translators turned their attention to the work of new Western European writers, mainly poets, especially French poets. At the same time, the legacy of the Greco-Roman period also entered their minds. They began to translate the works of philosophers and historians, which - on the one hand - gave rise to difficulties in literary rhetoric and scientific terminology and, on the other, played an important role in the formation of a standard Russian language.(Feng,2009:10)(Guo,2006:8) <br />
<br />
From that time onwards, translation also became an organised activity, with the emergence of specific bodies responsible for the organisation and management of translation work. 1735 saw the establishment of the first specialised translation organisation, the Russian Society, at the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences. The Society had a professional group of translators and some of the academy's scholars, such as Lomonosov and Tretyakovsky, were among its members. The Association was responsible for selecting works, defining the rules or principles of translation, commenting on translations, and training translators. It is worth mentioning that the Academy of Sciences also set up a school of foreign languages to train official translators. In 1748, the Academy implemented Queen Elizabeth's decree to increase the number of translations of non-religious books and publicly appealed to "the nobility and other classes of intellectuals" to take an active part in the translation process.(Guo,2006:8)(Feng,2009:10) <br />
<br />
In the second half of the 18th century, Ekaterina II's efforts to create a 'civilised state' not only led to the development of literature, but also gave preferential treatment to writers. For example, in order to select the best original texts, she ordered the establishment of the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books (1768 - 1783). The Society was dedicated to providing excellent conditions for translation work throughout Russia. The purchase of manuscripts was financed out of Ekaterina's own funds. Later, the Society also discussed a proposal to establish a translation bureau under the Academy of Sciences (1790). The 114 members of the Society included such notable figures as Tretyakovsky, Sumarokov and Radishev. For 14 years the Association was active, producing numerous literary translations and likewise contributing to the discussion of theoretical issues in translation.(Guo,2006:9)<br />
<br />
2.The emergence of poetry translation. Translation of poetry also developed in Russia in the 18th century, and later became one of the jewels of the country's literature. The great Russian scholar and poet Lomonosov was a major contributor to this process. A great deal of the work created by Lomonosov and his contemporaries Sumarokov and Tretyakovsky was poetry in translation. They often translated while exploring theoretical issues in translation: they would explain in their works why they translated this way and not that way; they stressed the importance of translation work and the creative value it contained. Among the most prestigious writers and translators in Russian literature at the time, there were several interesting competitions in which two or three poets translated the same work at the same time, and their translations were published in journals. It was often the case that different translations of the same work were published at the same time, without the translator's name, for the judgement of "literary lovers and peers". This phenomenon also supports the idea that the 18th century was a period of 'experimentation' in the history of Russian translation.(Feng,2006:11) <br />
<br />
Lomonosov's translations from Latin, German, French and Greek are numerous and varied, showing his talent for both rhyming and free verse. He was keen to reproduce the rhythmic structure of the original texts, using a variety of iambic and iambic meter to convey the Alexandrian style of French epic and the hexameter style of Greek tragedy. Russian poetry was not very developed at the time and was still based on syllables. <br />
Lomonosov's innovations enriched Russian poetry and established new forms and traditions of Russian poetic style and rhyme. <br />
<br />
In contrast, Kantymir (Д.М.Кантемира) and Tretyakovsky's greatest quest was to insist on a faithful translation of the original. In the process, the translators had to contend with the problems of reams of vocabulary and rhetorical rules. Tretyakovsky became famous for his successful use of Russian rhyme to translate many verses of the original in his translation of Paul Thielmann's A Journey to Love Island. In the introduction to the novel, the translator states his approach to translation: "The translator is only one person away from the author. I would add that if the author is original, the translator should be even more original (I am not referring to myself, but to a good translator)". He believes that "prose to prose" and "poetry to poetry" can be as good as the original, and that a good translation is one that "describes the full meaning of each verse". Kantymir 's translation of Horace's Letters and other poetic works in Latin and French, although less well-known than the former, is equally valuable.(Wu,2006:16) Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:40, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The eighteenth century is an important period in the history of Russian translation. The status of translation in social culture has undergone a qualitative change, and this is due to Peter the Great's reform. At the beginning of the century, translation was still mostly related to professional documents such as laws and contracts. Later, the translator's tentacles gradually expanded to literary translation, for example, French poetry translation. The famous translators of this period are Sumarokov(А.П.Сумароков), Lomonosov(М.В.Ломоносов), Tretyakovsky (В.К.Тредьяковский) and so on. In the second half of the 18th century, the Association for the Translation of Foreign Books officially put forward the importance of translation. The organization has been active for 15 years with over 100 members. The following points reflected the reasons why translation was paid more attention in the eighteenth century.<br />
<br />
1.Imperial support for translation. <br />
<br />
The political reforms introduced by Peter the Great also led to intensive economic and cultural exchanges between Russia and European countries. This created a huge demand for translations of scientific and technical literature and literary works. Translators were required to produce works of a high standard.Peter the Great issued a special decree on translation, requiring "faithful" communication of the original text. In a directive issued to his subordinates in 1709, he explicitly stated that when translating foreign books, word-for-word translations were to be avoided and that the content of the original text should be clearly expressed in one's own language, based on an understanding of its content. On the other hand, Peter the Great's subversion of the written language initially caused confusion in Russian translation circles. A large number of foreign languages entered the Russian language, and the piles of foreign syntactic structures distracted attention. In any case, Peter the Great's reforms did set a new norm and a new direction for translation. In terms of content, Peter the Great's reforms were, from the very beginning, inextricably linked to the translation of scientific and technical texts, such as the many books on military defence engineering that he ordered to be translated and used to strengthen Russia's military forces. Peter the Great also placed great importance on the translation of prose, poetry and other literary works. During this period, the Russian language began to develop its own literary model, and many educated Russians saw translation as a way of enriching the language and enhancing its uniqueness and expressiveness. <br />
<br />
From around the 1830s, the importance of translating Western European scientific and technical texts gradually gave way to literary works such as prose and poetry. Writers who were also translators turned their attention to the work of new Western European writers, mainly poets, especially French poets. At the same time, the legacy of the Greco-Roman period also entered their minds. They began to translate the works of philosophers and historians, which - on the one hand - gave rise to difficulties in literary rhetoric and scientific terminology and, on the other, played an important role in the formation of a standard Russian language. <br />
<br />
From that time onwards, translation also became an organised activity, with the emergence of specific bodies responsible for the organisation and management of translation work. 1735 saw the establishment of the first specialised translation organisation, the Russian Society, at the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences. The Society had a professional group of translators and some of the academy's scholars, such as Lomonosov and Tretyakovsky, were among its members. The Association was responsible for selecting works, defining the rules or principles of translation, commenting on translations, and training translators. It is worth mentioning that the Academy of Sciences also set up a school of foreign languages to train official translators. In 1748, the Academy implemented Queen Elizabeth's decree to increase the number of translations of non-religious books and publicly appealed to "the nobility and other classes of intellectuals" to take an active part in the translation process. <br />
<br />
In the second half of the 18th century, Ekaterina II's efforts to create a 'civilised state' not only led to the development of literature, but also gave preferential treatment to writers. For example, in order to select the best original texts, she ordered the establishment of the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books (1768-1783). The Society was dedicated to providing excellent conditions for translation work throughout Russia. The purchase of manuscripts was financed out of Ekaterina's own funds. Later, the Society also discussed a proposal to establish a translation bureau under the Academy of Sciences (1790). The 114 members of the Society included such notable figures as Tretyakovsky, Sumarokov and Radishev. For 14 years the Association was active, producing numerous literary translations and likewise contributing to the discussion of theoretical issues in translation.<br />
<br />
2.The emergence of poetry translation.<br />
<br />
Translation of poetry also developed in Russia in the 18th century, and later became one of the jewels of the country's literature. The great Russian scholar and poet Lomonosov was a major contributor to this process. A great deal of the work created by Lomonosov and his contemporaries Sumarokov and Tretyakovsky was poetry in translation. They often translated while exploring theoretical issues in translation: they would explain in their works why they translated this way and not that way; they stressed the importance of translation work and the creative value it contained. Among the most prestigious writers and translators in Russian literature at the time, there were several interesting competitions in which two or three poets translated the same work at the same time, and their translations were published in journals. It was often the case that different translations of the same work were published at the same time, without the translator's name, for the judgement of "literary lovers and peers". This phenomenon also supports the idea that the 18th century was a period of 'experimentation' in the history of Russian translation. <br />
<br />
Lomonosov's translations works in Latin, German, French and Greek are numerous and varied, showing his talent for both rhyming and free verse. He was keen to reproduce the rhythmic structure of the original texts, using a variety of iambic and iambic meter to convey the Alexandrian style of French epic and the hexameter style of Greek tragedy. Russian poetry was not very developed at the time and was still based on syllables. <br />
Lomonosov's innovations enriched Russian poetry and established new forms and traditions of Russian poetic style and rhyme. <br />
<br />
In contrast, Kantymir (Д.М.Кантемира) and Tretyakovsky's greatest quest was to insist on a faithful translation of the original. In the process, the translators had to contend with the problems of reams of vocabulary and rhetorical rules. Tretyakovsky became famous for his successful use of Russian rhyme to translate many verses of the original in his translation of Paul Thielmann's A Journey to Love Island. In the introduction to the novel, the translator states his approach to translation: "The translator is only one person away from the author. I would add that if the author is original, the translator should be even more original (I am not referring to myself, but to a good translator)". He believes that "prose to prose" and "poetry to poetry" can be as good as the original, and that a good translation is one that "describes the full meaning of each verse". Kantymir 's translation of Horace's Letters and other poetic works in Latin and French, although less well-known than the former, is equally valuable. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 12:39, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.2 First half of the19th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The nineteenth century was a golden age in the history of Russian translation. If translation had established itself as a profession in the first hundred years, it was elevated to the level of art in this century. The nineteenth century produced a number of masters of translation, including Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин), Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский), Pushkin (А.С.Пушкин), Lermontov (М.Ю.Лермонтов) and Fetter (А.Фет).(Wu,2006:23)<br />
<br />
The new Russian school of translation owes its formation to the historian Nikolai Karamzin and the poet Zhukovsky. Karamzin published a number of translations in several magazines between the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century. He saw translations as a good help in perfecting a writer's style: a source of information that would satisfy human curiosity, inform historical facts, entertain women and provide material for new magazines. As a young man, Karamzin was strongly opposed to the alteration of and disloyalty to the original texts, but later became a champion of free translation, famously saying: "Whoever follows the author of the original text step by step is no different from a servant who serves his lord". Karamzin's translations cover an admirable range of genres and languages: he translated works by both classical and contemporaneous authors, in Greek, French, Latin, German, English, Italian and some Oriental languages.(Feng,2009:12)<br />
<br />
Pushkin called Zhukovsky "a genius of translation". After graduating from the Moscow Noble Boarding University in 1802, Zhukovsky devoted himself to translation. It was thanks to his efforts that Russian readers were able to access the works of world literary giants such as Schiller, Goethe, Byron and Walters Scott. Zhukovsky's creative translation activities also ranged from Charles Bello to Grimm's Fairy Tales. From Charles Bellow to Grimm's fairy tales, from Homer's epic Odyssey to the poetic history of ancient Rus' Igor's Expedition, all became his original texts. There is no denying that Zhukovsky is a master in the history of Russian translation. Like Karamzin, Zhukovsky was a fan of free translation, sometimes rewriting the original or even creating a new story from its subject: sometimes transferring the setting of events to Russia and giving Russian names to the characters. For example, in his 1808 translation of the German Romantic poet Bilge's narrative poem Lenore, he changed the heroine's name from Lenore to Lyudmila and moved the story to the time of the Livonian War in 16th-century Russia. Zhukovsky believed that the "unsavoury character" of the work should be weakened while retaining the original author's ideas. His talent enabled him to reproduce the style, rhythm and tone of the original poems, while some of his best works were also faithful to the original. In later years, however, his view of translation changed in response to the tendency to stay close to the original, and he retranslated several of his previous translations to make them more faithful to the original, including Lenore. The Russian school of translation owes much to the tradition of translation created by Zhukovsky.(Wu,2006:24-30)(Feng,2009:13)(Guo,2006:9)<br />
<br />
Pushkin and Lermontov are also two poets who set the stage for an epoch in the history of Russian translation. Although only a small proportion of their poetry was translated, they made a significant contribution to the improvement of the art of translation in Russia. In their rewriting and imitation of poetry, they were able to reproduce the most important features of foreign poetry, the key point being that their creative translations were no less valuable in their own right than the originals. Their free translation became a model for other translators, and in addition they established the important principle that a good artistic translation must also be a good work in the national literature of the translated language. Pushkin played an indelibly important role in the development of the Russian school of translation. He was always interested in the question of translation, and his critical views on translation were objective and profound. Before translation he stressed the importance of the choice of the original work, and in translation he demanded that the translator should be faithful to the original, while at the same time displaying his deep creative skills and his own literary style. In one of his unfinished posthumous works, 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', Pushkin wrote: 'Chateaubriand's translation (verbatim) compensates to some extent for the faults of the young French writers (free translation), for they have insulted the great man very cruelly, though in a perfectly innocent manner. There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own rhetorical conventions, its own way of expressing itself, and it is impossible to translate into another language with the corresponding vocabulary". These insights had a positive impact on the best Russian translators of the 19th and 20th centuries. In addition, Pushkin's discussion of translation coincided with a turning point in the history of Russian literature, when the Romantic era was being replaced by a new era with a predominantly realist orientation, and a process of 'separation' between translated and national literature was under way. Pushkin's discussion of the work of the translator as distinct from that of the writer contributed to the independence of literature in translation from indigenous literature.(Guo,2006:10)(Wu,2006:37-41) <br />
<br />
During this period, while most people advocated free translation, there were a few translators who insisted on maximum fidelity to the original and advocated the word-for-word method, even at the expense of the work's willingness to be translated. Among these were such well-known writers as P.A. Vyazemsky (П.А.Вяземский) and N.I. Gnedzic (Н.И.Гнедич). In fact, they did not always live up to their principles, and sometimes their talent and artistic intuition ended up breaking the bonds of verbatim translation. Vyazemsky's translations of Benjamin Constant and Adam Mickiewicz were not without literary and artistic merit, and his translation of Homer's epic Iliad in particular was highly praised by Pushkin. It was Fetter who was the most insistent on the idea of a verbatim translation. Fetter translated many famous works, and his philosophy throughout was one of sentence-for-sentence, word-for-word translation, retaining all the words of the original. Fetter's extreme word-for-word approach had a negative impact on most of his translations, although he was sometimes able to come up with some effective methods of translation.(Feng,2009:14) <br />
<br />
Free translations were also sometimes used to promote democratic ideas in the original that could not pass official scrutiny. A number of translators, such as V. Kurochkin (В.Курочкин), D. M. Minayev (Д.Минаев) and M. M. Mikhalov (М.Михайлов), achieved this by selecting appropriate original works or by using texts in their translations that were superficially imperceptible in their allusion to the conditions in Russia at the time. It was from that time onwards that the use of translation as a weapon to express dissent became part of the Russian tradition.(Feng,2009:14) Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:41, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The nineteenth century was the golden age in the history of Russian translation. If translation had established its status in the first hundred years, it was elevated to the level of art in this century. The nineteenth century produced a number of masters of translation, including Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин), Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский), Pushkin (А.С.Пушкин), Lermontov (М.Ю.Лермонтов) and Fetter (А.Фет). <br />
<br />
The new Russian school of translation owes its formation to the publishment of a number of translations of historian Nikolai Karamzin and the poet Zhukovsky. Karamzin in several magazines between the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century. He regarded translation as a good help in perfecting a writer's style: a source of information that satisfies human curiosity, informs historical facts, entertains women and provides materials for new magazines. As a young man, Karamzin was strongly opposed to the disloyalty to the original texts, but later became a champion of free translation. His famous saying was: "Whoever follows the author of the original text step by step is no different from a servant who serves his lord". Karamzin's translations cover an admirable range of genres and languages: he translated works by both classical and contemporaneous authors, in Greek, French, Latin, German, English, Italian and some Oriental languages. <br />
<br />
Pushkin called Zhukovsky "a genius of translation". After graduating from the Moscow Noble Boarding University in 1802, Zhukovsky devoted himself to translation. It was thanks to his efforts that Russian readers were able to access the works of world literary giants such as Schiller, Goethe, Byron and Walters Scott. Zhukovsky's creative translation activities also ranged from Charles Bello to Grimm's Fairy Tales. From Charles Bellow to Grimm's fairy tales, from Homer's epic Odyssey to the poetic history of ancient Rus' Igor's Expedition, all became his original texts. There is no denying that Zhukovsky is a master in the history of Russian translation. Like Karamzin, Zhukovsky was a fan of free translation, who sometimes rewrites the original or even creates a new story from its subject, transfers the setting of events to Russia and gives Russian names to the characters. For example, in his 1808 translation of the German Romantic poet Bilge's narrative poem Lenore, he changed the heroine's name from Lenore to Lyudmila and moved the story to the time of the Livonian War in 16th-century Russia. Zhukovsky believed that the "unsavoury character" of the work should be weakened while retaining the original author's ideas. His talent enabled him to reproduce the style, rhythm and tone of the original poems, while some of his best works were also faithful to the original. In later years, however, his view of translation changed in response to the tendency to stay close to the original, and he retranslated several of his previous translations to make them more faithful to the original, including Lenore. The Russian school of translation owes much to the tradition of translation created by Zhukovsky.<br />
<br />
Pushkin and Lermontov are also two poets who gave perfect preparations for an epoch in the history of Russian translation. Although only a small proportion of their poetry was translated, they made a significant contribution to the improvement of the art of translation in Russia. In their rewriting and imitation of poetry, they were able to reproduce the most important features of foreign poetry, the key point being that their creative translations were no less valuable in their own right than the originals. Their free translation became a model for other translators, and in addition they established the important principle that a good artistic translation must also be a good work in the national literature of the translated language. Pushkin played an indelibly important role in the development of the Russian school of translation. He was always interested in the question of translation, and his critical views on translation were objective and profound. Before translation he stressed the importance of the choice of the original work, and in translation he demanded that the translator should be faithful to the original, while at the same time displaying his deep creative skills and his own literary style. In one of his unfinished posthumous works, 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', Pushkin wrote: 'Chateaubriand's translation (verbatim) compensates to some extent for the faults of the young French writers (free translation), for they have insulted the great man very cruelly, though in a perfectly innocent manner. There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own rhetorical conventions, its own way of expressing itself, and it is impossible to translate into another language with the corresponding vocabulary". These insights had a positive impact on the best Russian translators of the 19th and 20th centuries. In addition, Pushkin's discussion of translation coincided with a turning point in the history of Russian literature, when the Romantic era was being replaced by a new era with a predominantly realist orientation, and a process of 'separation' between translated and national literature was under way. Pushkin's discussion of the work of the translator as distinct from that of the writer contributed to the independence of literature in translation from indigenous literature. <br />
<br />
During this period, while most people advocated free translation, there were a few translators who insisted on maximum fidelity to the original and advocated the word-for-word method, even at the expense of the work's willingness to be translated. Among these were such well-known writers as P.A. Vyazemsky (П.А.Вяземский) and N.I. Gnedzic (Н.И.Гнедич). In fact, they did not always live up to their principles, and sometimes their talent and artistic intuition ended up breaking the bonds of verbatim translation. Vyazemsky's translations of Benjamin Constant and Adam Mickiewicz were not without literary and artistic merit, and his translation of Homer's epic Iliad in particular was highly praised by Pushkin. It was Fetter who was the most insistent on the idea of a verbatim translation. Fetter translated many famous works, and his philosophy throughout was one of sentence-for-sentence, word-for-word translation, retaining all the words of the original. Fetter's extreme word-for-word approach had a negative impact on most of his translations, although he was sometimes able to come up with some effective methods of translation. <br />
<br />
Free translations were also used to promote democratic ideas in original that could not pass official scrutiny. A number of translators, such as V. Kurochkin (В.Курочкин), D. M. Minayev (Д.Минаев) and M. M. Mikhalov (М.Михайлов), achieved this by selecting appropriate original works or by using texts in their translations that were superficially imperceptible in their allusion to the conditions in Russia at the time. It was since then that the use of translation was used as a weapon to express dissent became part of the Russian tradition. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:05, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.3 Second half of the19th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The mid-nineteenth century was a period of increasingly intense political and ideological struggle in Russian literature, and a great debate raged in the Russian literary world over the question of 'art for the people' or 'art for art's sake'. The debate was mainly about the choice of material for translation and the method of translation. As far as the choice of material was concerned, the democratic and revolutionary writers who supported 'art for the people' chose to translate works with progressive ideological content and a democratic orientation, such as Heine. The aristocratic and liberal intellectual writers, on the other hand, opted for philosophical poetry with a chanting and individualistic feel. Of course, this is not absolute: "Mikhailov and Dobrolyubov of the democratic revolutionary school also translated Heine's moody love poems The Songbook, while Tolstoy of the aristocratic and liberal school translated some of Goethe's more progressive poems, such as The Fiancée of Corinth and The Whore of God. In terms of their approach to translation, the Democratic-Revolutionary translators, based on the reproduction of the original as a whole, approached their translations very liberally, even adding in many elements typical of Russian culture. The latter, on the other hand, usually adopted a direct translation, focusing on conveying the formal details of the original work. This divergence was mainly due to the different starting points of the two groups of translators, with the democratic revolutionaries seeking to convey advanced ideas to the Russian general public and the aristocratic intellectuals believing that works of art were irrelevant to the people and that artistic creations should not be exposed to "vulgar" reality.(Feng,2009:14-15)<br />
<br />
There were a large number of outstanding literary writers and literary critics who made brilliant statements about literary translation in that era, none more so than Belinsky (В.Г.Белинский), Chernyshevsky (Н.Г.Черныщевский) and Dubrolyovsky (Н.Г.Добролюбов). Belinsky was one of the greatest Russian literary critics of the 19th century. He believed that translations should not be word-for-word, but should reproduce the spirit of the original, in much the same way as Pushkin's view of translation theory. On the other hand, he also opposed arbitrary 'paraphrasing': the ideal translation should not add or delete arbitrarily to the original text, but should enable the reader to understand the foreign work truly and accurately through the translation. Such a viewpoint seems to us to be quite convincing even now. Belinsky played a decisive role in completely burying the 'rewriting' and 'adapting it to Russian custom' arguments. This issue dominates his writings. He argues that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of the translation, and this is one of the criteria by which he judges its merits. He points out, for example, that the greatest strength of Gnedzic's translation of the Iliad is that it "exudes the atmosphere of ancient life" and "the spirit of the ancient Greeks". However, the contradiction between national identity and translatability was once a problem for Belinsky. Initially believing that it was impossible to translate works with a strong national character into other languages, he was only convinced by the success of Turgenev's collaboration with Louis Viardot in translating Gogol's novels into French in 1846, and then became increasingly determined to recognise translatability in translation. Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a series of revisions that led to a complete and rigorous system of translation theory, the first of its kind in the history of Russian translation theory.(Wu,2006:58-61)(Feng,2009:15)<br />
<br />
Translation in Russia developed in the second half of the 19th century. From the 1960s onwards, the Russian readership of non-language speakers began to expand, and these readers were keen to see the translation 'replace' the original. This demand led to an unprecedented expansion in the choice of subjects and translations of Russian literature. Interest in foreign theatrical works was particularly high at this stage, and a strong interest in European classical literature also developed. Dickens, Saclay, Victor Hugo, Dumas, Balzac, Flaubert, Tudor, Maupassant and Zola, as well as lesser-known writers of today, were successively brought to the attention of a wide range of Russian readers in the form of translations. At that time, European theatre classics like Shakespeare's plays were translated into Russia in large numbers. Many professional translators were involved, the most successful being the translator P.N.V. Weinberg. He translated foreign literature from the standpoint of progressive Russian literature of the time. His translation of Othello, for example, is notable for its vividness in the Russian language, and has always been recognised as the best translation in terms of conveying the totality of scenes, plots and long dialogues, even though the translation is wordy compared to the original.(Feng,2009:15-16)<br />
<br />
Although there has been a quantitative surge in translations of Russian literature during this period, the quality has generally been poor, manifesting itself in word-for-word translations, redundant sentences and poor vocabulary, not to mention inventiveness. In addition, the language of the characters in the translation is heavily Russified, with Russian proverbs, sayings and idioms that the foreign characters could never have known, and the introduction of Russian-specific life circumstances that cause contradictions with the plot and details of the original work. For example, В Тулу со своим самоваром ехать (Bring your own samovar to Tula - it's superfluous). The reason for this is that the literary world did not attach much importance to the translation of fiction and prose, and there were no specialists working on this task. Another point is that at this stage there was little progress in the study of Russian translation theory, and no valuable theoretical insights emerged. The linguist A.A. Потебня (1835-1891) expressed his views on translation from a psychological standpoint in his essay "Language and Peopleliness ". In his view, it was impossible to express in another language what was originally intended to be expressed in a certain language. He, like many other literary scholars, denied the translatability of language.(Feng,2006:16)(Guo,2006:11)Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:41, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The mid-nineteenth century was a period of increasingly intensively political and ideological struggle in Russian literature, and a great debate raged in the Russian literary world over the question of 'art for the people' or 'art for art's sake'. The debate was mainly about the choice of materials for translation and the methods of translation. As far as the choice of material was concerned, the democratic and revolutionary writers who supported 'art for the people' chose to translate works with progressive ideological content and a democratic orientation, such as Heine. The aristocratic and liberal intellectual writers, on the other hand, opted for philosophical poetry with a chanting and individualistic feel. It's undoubtful that this is not absolute: "Mikhailov and Dobrolyubov of the democratic revolutionary school also translated Heine's moody love poems The Songbook, while Tolstoy of the aristocratic and liberal school translated some of Goethe's more progressive poems, such as The Fiancée of Corinth and The Whore of God. In terms of their approach to translation, the Democratic-Revolutionary translators, based on the reproduction of the original as a whole, approached their translations very liberally, when they even added in many elements typical of Russian culture. The latter, on the other hand, usually adopted a direct translation, focusing on conveying the formal details of the original work. This divergence was mainly due to the different starting points of the two groups of translators, with the democratic revolutionaries seeking to convey advanced ideas to the Russian general public and the aristocratic intellectuals believing that works of art were irrelevant to the people and that artistic creations should not be exposed to "vulgar" reality.<br />
<br />
There were a large number of outstanding literary writers and literary critics who made brilliant statements about literary translation in that era, none more so than Belinsky (В.Г.Белинский), Chernyshevsky (Н.Г.Черныщевский) and Dubrolyovsky (Н.Г.Добролюбов). Belinsky was one of the greatest Russian literary critics of the 19th century. He believed that translations should not be word-for-word, but should reproduce the spirit of the original text, in much the same way as Pushkin's view of translation theory. On the other hand, he also opposed arbitrary 'paraphrasing': the ideal translation should not add or delete arbitrarily to the original text, but should enable the reader to understand the foreign work truly and accurately through the translation. Such a viewpoint seems to us to be quite convincing even now. Belinsky played a decisive role in completely burying the 'rewriting' and 'adapting it to Russian custom' arguments. This issue dominates his writings. He argues that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of the translation, and this is one of the criteria by which he judges its merits. He points out, for example, that the greatest strength of Gnedzic's translation of the Iliad is that it "exudes the atmosphere of ancient life" and "the spirit of the ancient Greeks". However, the contradiction between national identity and translatability was once a problem for Belinsky. Initially believing that it was impossible to translate works with a strong national character into other languages, he was only convinced by the success of Turgenev's collaboration with Louis Viardot in translating Gogol's novels into French in 1846, and then became increasingly determined to recognise translatability in translation. Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a series of revisions that led to a complete and rigorous system of translation theory, the first of its kind in the history of Russian translation theory.<br />
<br />
Translation in Russia developed in the second half of the 19th century. From the 1960s onwards, the Russian readership of non-language speakers began to expand, and these readers were keen to see the translation 'replace' the original. This demand led to an unprecedented expansion in the choice of subjects and translations of Russian literature. Interest in foreign theatrical works was particularly high at this stage, and a strong interest in European classical literature also developed. Dickens, Saclay, Victor Hugo, Dumas, Balzac, Flaubert, Tudor, Maupassant and Zola, as well as lesser-known writers of today, were successively brought to the attention of a wide range of Russian readers in the form of translations. At that time, European theatre classics like Shakespeare's plays were translated into Russia in large numbers. Many professional translators were involved, the most successful being the translator P.N.V. Weinberg. He translated foreign literature from the standpoint of progressive Russian literature of the time. His translation of Othello, for example, is notable for its vividness in the Russian language, and has always been recognised as the best translation in terms of conveying the totality of scenes, plots and long dialogues, even though the translation is wordy compared to the original.<br />
<br />
Although there has been a quantitative surge in translations of Russian literature during this period, the quality has generally been poor, manifesting itself in word-for-word translations, redundant sentences and poor vocabulary, not to mention inventiveness. In addition, the language of the characters in the translation is heavily Russified, that is, contents with Russian proverbs, sayings and idioms that the foreign characters could never have known, and the introduction of Russian-specific life circumstances that cause contradictions with the plot and details of the original work. For example, В Тулу со своим самоваром ехать (Bring your own samovar to Tula - it's superfluous). The reason for this is that the literary world did not attach much importance to the translation of fiction and prose, and there were no specialists working on this task. Another point is that at this stage there was little progress in the study of Russian translation theory, and no valuable theoretical insights emerged. The linguist A.A. Потебня (1835-1891) expressed his views on translation from a psychological standpoint in his essay "Language and Peopleliness ". In his view, it was impossible to express in another language what was originally intended to be expressed in a certain language. Just like many other literary scholars, he denied the translatability of language. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:13, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.Translation ideas of famous writers of the 18-19th centuries. ===<br />
===3.1. Pushkin 's ideas on translation. ===<br />
Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin (Александр Сергеевич Пушкин, 1977-1837), a famous Russian poet and writer of the nineteenth century, was also very much a translator. Although he left behind few works on translation, his ideas on translation are worth studying. Pushkin's translations of poetry were associated with classicism in the early stages of his work and later with romanticism. Although these translations are far removed from the original in a literal sense, they are almost close to composition. Pushkin's significance as a translator, however, lies in 1) the reproduction of foreign originals in the standard Russian language he established in his translations and 2) the full expression of the realist artistic method in the heyday of his compositions: the focus on typical features and the technique of outlining the historical and individual characteristics that reflect the original.(Wu,2006:37-41)(Li Zheng＆Fan Min,2010:69）<br />
<br />
Pushkin's translations have their own characteristics and style. He did not translate all of his works word for word from the original, and in some places he deleted what he considered to be redundant sentences in order to avoid the verbosity of the original, occasionally replacing the translation with a general paraphrase. He advocates respect for the characteristics of foreign readers, while at the same time opposing word-for-word translations, which can lead to the trampling of the mother tongue. He therefore advocated translations which, on the one hand, required fidelity to the original in terms of meaning and, on the other, should preserve the original's distinctive features.<br />
As he says in his unfinished 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', commenting on Chateaubriand's translation: 'There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), has failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own conventional rhetorical devices, its own habitual expressions, and it is impossible to translate all this into another language using the corresponding vocabulary." Pushkin's rejection of word-for-word translation can be seen.(Li＆Fan,2010:69）<br />
<br />
Pushkin's influence on the cause of translation in Russia was immense, and this influence refers neither to his few translations nor to his theoretical views, but to the fact that Pushkin pioneered the translation of Russian literature. Although his ideas on translation cannot be called a theory, they do provide certain translation ideas for later generations of literary translators.(Li＆Fan,2010:69）Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin (Александр Сергеевич Пушкин, 1977-1837), a famous Russian poet and writer of the nineteenth century, was also an outstanding translator. Besides he left behind few works on translation, his ideas on translation are worth studying. Pushkin's translations of poetry were associated with classicism in the early stages of his work and with romanticism later. Although these translations are far removed from the original in a literal sense, they are almost close to composition. Pushkin's significance as a translator, however, lies in the reproduction of foreign originalities in the standard Russian language he established in his translations and the full expression of the realist artistic method in the heyday of his compositions: the focus on typical features and the technique of outlining the historical and individual characteristics that reflect the original.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's translations have their own distinctive characteristics and style. He did not translate all of his works literally from the original context, but in some places he deleted what he considered to be redundant sentences in order to avoid the verbosity of the original, occasionally replacing the translation with a general paraphrase. He advocates to give enough respect for the characteristics of foreign readers, while at the same time opposing word-for-word translations, which may lead to the trampling of the mother tongue. Therefore, He advocated translations which, on the one hand, required fidelity to the original text in terms of meaning and, on the other hand, should preserve the original's distinctive features.<br />
<br />
As he says in his unfinished 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', he comments on Chateaubriand's translation: 'There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), has failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own conventional rhetorical devices, its own habitual expressions, and it is impossible to translate all this into another language using the corresponding vocabulary." Pushkin's rejection of word-for-word translation can be revealed clearly.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's influence on the cause of translation in Russia was huge, and his influence refers neither to his few translations nor to his theoretical views, but to the fact that Pushkin pioneered the translation of Russian literature. Although his ideas on translation cannot be called a theory, they do provide certain unique and new translation ideas for later generations of literary translators. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:29, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.1. Belinsky's ideas on translation. ===<br />
Vissarion Grigorievich Belinsky (Виссарион Григорьевич Белинский, 1811-1848) was a famous literary critic of the nineteenth century and one of the most involved in the world of translation among Russian literary activists of his time. Belinsky was fluent in French and as a young man translated for two magazines, Miscellany and Telescope. Later, after a career in literary criticism, he published numerous articles on translation and criticism of translated works.<br />
Belinsky's and Pushkin's views on translation were very similar, both advocating that translations should not be word-for-word. Belinsky first introduced the term 'theory' of translation, and in his 1838 review of Polevoy's translation of Hamlet, he first proposed the need for a theory of translation. He considered the role of theory: "Any object that man perceives has a theory of its own, and a theory is the knowledge of the laws by which the object exists."（Wu，2006：51-53）<br />
<br />
Belinsky argues that in translation: "Closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original. Each <br />
language has its own distinctive expressions, characteristics and qualities; these are so distinctive that to correctly convey a certain image or sentence, it is sometimes necessary to change them completely in the translation. The corresponding image, like the corresponding sentence, does not necessarily lie in a superficial agreement of words: the inner life of the translation should be made to correspond to the inner life of the original". It can be seen that Belinsky, like Pushkin, was also opposed to word-for-word rigid translations, his view being that the task of translating a language lies in reproducing the spirit of the original. He believed that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of a translation, so the question of the interrelationship between national character and translatability has always troubled Belinsky. He pointed out that 'there is only one rule for translating a literary work - to convey the spirit of the work being translated, and this can only be done by translating it into Russian as the author himself would have written it in Russian, if he had been Russian' (The Complete Works of Belinsky Volume 2).（Wang，Yulun＆Jiang,Wanzhu，1989：53-55）<br />
<br />
Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a number of achievements, and his view of translation as a whole is a complete and rigorous system. His view of translation was developed gradually, and in the process it was dominated by an increasingly firm recognition of the possibility of a successful solution to the task of translation, that is, of translatability. Belinsky believed that a translation must be discerning in its content and form in relation to the original. He has pointed out that "approaching the original is not the same as conveying the letters, but rather the spirit of the original." It is also suggested that the translator and the original author are two different kinds of people. But in order to convey the 'spirit' of the original in the translation, the translator's genius needs to reach a certain tacit understanding with this 'spirit'. He advocates the preservation of exoticism in translation, opposes naturalisation, the arbitrary distortion of the face of the original work, the overwhelming of the original author with the personality of the translator's style, the emphasis on both likeness and likeness, etc. However, while recognising the importance of reproducing the poetic form of the original work in translation, Belinsky also took into account the state of development of Russian literature in translation. This also led him to look favourably on translating good poetry in prose, seeing such translations as a form of transition for Russian readers to the treasures of world literature.（Wang＆Jiang，1989：53-55）<br />
<br />
Although Belinsky wrote little about literary translation, his theoretical views contain the kernel of the realist principles of translation proposed by contemporary Soviet literary translators. His ideas on translation had a very profound influence on the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period.Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Vissarion Grigorievich Belinsky (Виссарион Григорьевич Белинский, 1811-1848) was a famous literary critic of the nineteenth century and one of the most active in the world of translation among Russian literary activists of his time. Belinsky was fluent in French and when he was a young man he translated for two magazines, Miscellany and Telescope. Later, after a career in literary criticism, he published numerous articles on translation and criticism of translated works.<br />
<br />
Belinsky's and Pushkin's views on translation were very similar, both advocating that translations should not be word-for-word. Belinsky first introduced the term 'theory' of translation, and in his 1838 review of Polevoy's translation of Hamlet, he first proposed the need for a theory of translation. He considered the role of theory: "Any object that man perceives has a theory of its own, and a theory is the knowledge of the laws by which the object exists."<br />
<br />
Belinsky argues that in translation: "Closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original. Each language has its own distinctive expressions, characteristics and qualities; these are so distinctive that to correctly convey a certain image or sentence, it is sometimes necessary to change them completely in the translation. The corresponding image, like the corresponding sentence, does not necessarily lie in a superficial agreement of words: the inner life of the translation should be made to correspond to the inner life of the original". It can be seen that Belinsky, like Pushkin, was also opposed to word-for-word rigid translations, his view being that the task of translating a language lies in reproducing the spirit of the original. He believed that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of a translation, so the question of the interrelationship between national character and translatability has always troubled Belinsky. He pointed out that 'there is only one rule for translating a literary work - to convey the spirit of the work being translated, and this can only be done by translating it into Russian as the author himself would have written it in Russian, if he had been Russian' (The Complete Works of Belinsky Volume 2).<br />
<br />
Belinsky's career as a translator had a number of achievements, and his view of translation as a whole is a complete and rigorous system. His view of translation was developed gradually, and in this process it was dominated by an increasingly firm recognition of the possibility of a successful solution to the task of translation, that is, of translatability. Belinsky believed that a translation must be discerning in its content and form in relation to the original. He has pointed out that "approaching the original is not the same as conveying the letters, but rather the spirit of the original." It is also suggested that the translator and the original author are two different kinds of people. But in order to convey the 'spirit' of the original in the translation, the translator's genius needs to reach a certain tacit understanding with this 'spirit'. He advocates the preservation of exoticism in translation, opposes naturalisation, the arbitrary distortion of the face of the original work, the overwhelming of the original author with the personality of the translator's style, the emphasis on both likeness and likeness, etc. However, while recognising the importance of reproducing the poetic form of the original work in translation, Belinsky also took into account the state of development of Russian literature in translation. This also led him to look favourably on translating good poetry in prose, seeing such translations as a form of transition for Russian readers to the treasures of world literature.<br />
<br />
Although Belinsky wrote little about literary translation, his theoretical views contain the kernel of the realist principles of translation proposed by contemporary Soviet literary translators. His ideas on translation had a very profound influence on the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:56, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.Conclusion ===<br />
Translation has demonstrated its importance in social activity since antiquity, yet it was only in the twentieth century that it became a widely followed professional discipline. This article reviews Russian translation activity and translation thought in pre-Soviet Russia, exploring its development before the formation of a theoretical system. Throughout the history of translation, Russian scholars have contributed greatly to the development of translation literature in the world. Through combing through the history of Russian translation, we learn that the translation ideas of a number of outstanding writers, though not theoretical, have had an unmistakable impact on later generations. When discussing the translation ideas of 19th-century writers, we are inspired to insist on the principle that "closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original", emphasizing the ideological content and literary value of the translation, that the translation should serve the readers, and that the translation should be people-oriented. These ideas influenced, to a greater or lesser extent, the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, the study of the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia is not only conducive to sorting out Russian translation ideas Russian learners can better understand the characteristics of their translations when translating and improve the accuracy of their translations.Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:44, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Translation has played its important role in the social activities since antiquity, yet it was until in the twentieth century that it became a widely followed professional discipline. This paper reviews Russian translators and translation thoughts in pre-Soviet Russia, exploring its development before the formation of a theoretical system. Throughout the history of translation, Russian scholars have contributed greatly to the development of translation literature in the world. By combing through the history of Russian translation, we learn that the translation ideas of a number of outstanding writers, though not very theoretical, have had an unmistakable impact on later generations. When discussing the translation ideas of 19th-century writers, we are inspired to insist on the principle that "closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original", emphasizing the ideological content and literary value of the translation that the translation should serve the readers, and that the translation should be people-oriented. These ideas influenced, to a greater or lesser extent, the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, the study of the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia not only is conducive to sorting out Russian translation ideas, but also make Russian learners better understand the characteristics of their translations when translating and improving the accuracy of their translations. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 14:02, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.References ===<br />
Feng Xin 冯欣（2009）. 俄罗斯翻译理论史及其影响研究[D] A study of the history of Russian translation theory and its influence.上海外国语大学 Shanghai International Studies University.<br />
<br />
Gaczilaser Гачечиладзе Г.Р.(1959). Вопросы теории художественного перевода Problems of Literary Theory.Тбилиси: Литература да хлебовнеба <br />
<br />
Gotsiridze，Khukhuni Гоциридзе Д.З.,Хухуни Г.Т(1984). Очерки по истории западно-европейского перевода и русского переводов.A summary of the history of Western European and Russian translations.-Тбилиси.<br />
<br />
Guo Lin 郭琳（2006）.俄罗斯语言学派翻译理论若干问题研究[D] A Study of Some Problems of Translation Theory of the Russian School of Philology.首都师范大学 Capital Normal University.<br />
<br />
Levin，Fedorov Левин Ю.Д.,Федоров А.В(1960). Русские писатели о переводе Russian writers on translation .- Ленииград.<br />
<br />
Li Zheng, Fan Min 李铮,范敏（2010）. 普希金与翻译[J] Pushkin and Translation. 现代交际 Modern Intercourse Journal,(05):69.<br />
<br />
Wang，Yulun；Jiang,Wanzhu 王育伦,姜万砫（1989).别林斯基论文学翻译[J] Belinsky on Literary Translation .中国翻译 Chinese translators Journal ,(03):53-55.<br />
<br />
Wu, Keli 吴克礼（2006）.俄苏翻译理论流派综述 The Translation Methods and Studies in USSR. 上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 06:38, 14 December 2021 (UTC)</div>Zhang Yiranhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_5&diff=134369Hist Trans Theo EN 52021-12-26T14:42:33Z<p>Zhang Yiran: /* Abstract */</p>
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<div>'''History of Translation Theories'''<br />
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=Chapter 5 History of Translation Theories from Early Russia to the Soviet Union=<br />
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'''从古罗斯到苏联前的翻译理论史'''<br />
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张怡然 Zhang Yiran,Hunan Normal University,China<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
Translation as a means of intercultural communication, each country has a distinctive translation ideology. This paper focuses on the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia. Through analyzing the history of translation, can find that Russia has formed a literary tradition of translation studies in the late 18th century. In the 19th century, Pushkin, Lermontov, Turgenev and other outstanding poets and literary scholars were keen on translation, especially in the middle of the century when Belinsky and other famous literary critics published a series of comments on literary translation, which emphasized the literary tradition of Russian translation to an unparalleled extent, which is rare in the history of translation in the world. The general principles of Russian literary translation thought were also formed during this period: namely, to insist on commenting on the merits of a translation in terms of the overall effect of the work, to emphasize the ideological content and literary value of the translation, and that the translation should serve the reader and be people-oriented. The above ideas influenced the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, a study of the history of translation theory in pre-Soviet Russia will help learners of Russian to better understand the characteristics of their translations and to improve the accuracy and peopleliness of their translations.Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 12:57, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Translation theories, Translation ideas，History of Translation<br />
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===摘要===<br />
翻译作为一种跨文化交际的手段，每个国家都有独具特色的翻译思想。本文主要探讨苏联前俄国的翻译历史。通过梳理其翻译史可发现，俄国于18世纪末期就已形成了翻译研究的文学传统。进入19世纪后, 普希金、莱蒙托夫、屠格涅夫等优秀诗人、文学家对翻译的热衷, 尤其是世纪中叶别林斯基等著名文学评论家发表一系列关于文学翻译的评论, 更是把俄国翻译的文学传统强调到无以复加的程度, 这在世界翻译史上都是罕见的。俄国文学翻译思想的总原则也在这一时期形成:即坚持从作品的整体效果上来评论译作优劣, 强调译作的思想内容和文学价值, 翻译应为读者服务, 译文应具有人民性。上述思想影响了苏联时期翻译理论的形成。因此，对苏联前俄国翻译理论史的研究有利于俄语学习者在翻译时更好的理解其翻译特点，提高翻译的准确性和人民性。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
翻译理论 翻译思想 翻译史 <br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
This essay provides a comprehensive and concise overview of the history of translation in Russia: Russian written translations began in the Kievan Rus' era, when religious subjects were the main focus of translations, especially the Bible, which was translated from Greek. Religious translations continued to flourish under the Moscow principality, represented by Maksim Gleick (МаксимГрек). At the same time, the national character of Russian translations began to emerge, and the languages of translation expanded from Greek to Latin, German and West Slavic, and the subjects covered included Western chivalric fiction, geographical literature, alchemy and medicine. In the eighteenth century, Peter the Great introduced a number of measures to focus on translation, making this period a turning point in the history of Russian translation. The proliferation of specialised translations (e.g. of legal texts) was the main feature of translation activity in the early eighteenth century. After this period Russian translators began to translate literary works.The main translators were Lomonosov (М.В. Ломоносов) and Tretyakovsky (V.K. Тредьяковский). In the second half of the eighteenth century, translation was given greater importance in Russia, and the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books was founded by Ekaterina II, in which a large number of outstanding translators emerged. The nineteenth century was a golden period in the history of Russian translation. Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин) and Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский) both produced many excellent translations. Pushkin (A.С.Пушкин) and Lermontov (M.Ю.Лермонтов) contributed greatly to the development of Russian literature in translation, while Fetter concentrated on love poetry. In the twentieth century, the Russian translation community made significant achievements in theoretical translation studies. In particular, the rapid development of the philological school and the debate between the literary and philological schools made Soviet translation theory one of the leading theories of translation in the world.(Guo Lin,2006:5)Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 12:57, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
This paper provides a comprehensive and concise overview of the history of translation in Russia: Russian written translations began in the Kievan Rus' era, when religious subjects were the main focus of translations, especially the Bible, translated from Greek. Religious translations continued to flourish under the Moscow principality, represented by Maksim Gleick (МаксимГрек). At the same time, the national character of Russian translations began to emerge, and the languages of translation expanded from Greek to Latin, German and West Slavic, and the subjects covered included Western chivalric fiction, geographical literature, alchemy and medicine. In the eighteenth century, Peter the Great introduced a number of measures to focus on translation, leading this period to a turning point in the history of Russian translation. The proliferation of specialised translations (e.g. of legal texts) was the main feature of translation activity in the early eighteenth century. After this period Russian translators began to translate literary works.The main translators were Lomonosov (М.В. Ломоносов) and Tretyakovsky (V.K. Тредьяковский). In the second half of the eighteenth century, translation was paid greater attention in Russia, and the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books was founded by Ekaterina II, in which a large number of outstanding translators emerged. The nineteenth century was a golden period in the history of Russian translation when Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин) and Rukovsky (В.А.Жуковский) both produced many excellent translations. Pushkin (A.С.Пушкин) and Lermontov (M.Ю.Лермонтов) contributed greatly to the development of Russian literature in translation, while Fetter concentrated on love poetry. In the twentieth century, the Russian translation community made significant achievements in theoretical translation studies. In particular, the rapid development of the philological school and the debate between the literary and philological schools made Soviet translation theory one of the leading theories of translation in the world. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:14, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===1.The history of Russian translation and the period of enlightenment of its translation theory. ===<br />
1. The emergence and development of literary translation.<br />
<br />
Translation activity has a long history in Russia, the beginnings of which can be traced back to the time of Kievan Rus'. A relatively sophisticated system of writing, literature and translation was already in place in ancient Russia in the ninth century AD. Frequent cultural and trade exchanges with Byzantine, German, French and Scandinavian countries contributed significantly to the development of translation in Russia at that time, as did contacts with Eastern countries. From Kievan Rus' onwards, Russian translation methods oscillated between two main tendencies, either to follow the original texts exactly, up to the point of translating them word for word, or to be arbitrary, even to the point of rewriting, adding or deleting at will. The first tendency is the main characteristic of translations of the Bible and other sacred books, while the second, though not absolute, can be said to characterize most secular works.(Feng Xin,2009:8)(Wu Keli,2006:4)<br />
<br />
2.Initiation of translation activities-religious translation. <br />
<br />
In 864 AD, the Byzantine king sent two Greek priests, Kirill (Кирилл) and Mephodi (Мефодий), to spread Christianity among the Slavic people. At the beginning of their mission, they created a new alphabet (now known as the Kirill alphabet) and used this writing system to translate many religious texts from Greek into the ancient Church Slavonic. Among the results were the New Testament, hymnals and prayer books.(Feng,2009:8)<br />
<br />
In 988 AD, Rus was baptised and Kievan Rus was converted to Christianity. A large number of translations appeared instantly to help Protestants become familiar with the new religious philosophy and ethical system and to understand the rituals and customs of the Church. These translations were in a variety of genres, including the Acts of the Saints, sermons, chronicles and so on. In addition, apocryphal books telling magical and fantastical stories were also popular, and some of them had similarities with the later 'fantasy novels'. Most of these translations were done in Bulgaria and were popularised in Rus. At that time, translations of religious texts were mostly word-for-word. There were also a small number of works that, unlike the 'elaborate copies of the original', had a separate literary value. In one case, a large number of details of Russian life were added to the storyline of a sermon (e.g. The Tales of Achild the Wise). In another case, military historical narratives are interspersed with the terminology of the ancient Russian feudal system and certain literary images from the stories of ancient Russian warriors (e.g. Joseph Flav's History of the Jewish War). This translation can be considered one of the most successful of the period. In the translation, the translator succeeded in avoiding many word-for-word translations). In a third case, the manuscripts copied by Ancient Rus, although based on Greek epic poetry (e.g. The Great Work of Digenes Akritas), often borrowed from Russian folk poetry, so that a large number of folk compositions appeared. As a result of this literary process, the translated literature was smoothly enriched by Russian manuscripts, which contributed to the development of original Russian literature and consolidated its links with the medieval literary process. Unfortunately, at that early stage in the development of translation, the translators were not signed, so it is impossible to verify whether the works were translated at home or abroad.(Feng,2009:9) <br />
<br />
During the difficult period of 'Mongol rule' (1228-1480), translations continued to play an important role in the cultural life of the country. The remaining chapters of the Bible were translated one after another, and previous translations were again proofread and revised. In addition to religious translations, more translations of non-religious subjects emerge, such as The Kingdom of India and The Trojan War. Most of the works were still translated from Greek, while works probably translated from Latin and ancient Hebrew also appeared. During this period, Russian began to take shape through the interaction of Old Slavonic (Church Slavonic) and local national languages. However, religious texts were still only translated into Church Slavonic, and the use of this language was by then restricted to ecclesiastical matters. At the same time, political and commercial exchanges with other countries were more likely to be in Russian, which was becoming increasingly sophisticated: elements of the combination of Old Slavonic and Russian can also be found in original works.（Wu,2006:6)<br />
<br />
14-15th century literature in translation by Rus was characterised by an obsession with new themes. These were mainly new works of tranquillity-abstinence literature, or works recommended by and familiar to the tranquillists. This mystical genre was introduced to Rus after it had swept through the Byzantine and Yugoslav peoples. It was reflected in the semi-secular translations popular at the time (for example, The Trojan War). <br />
<br />
In the 16th century AD, Moscow eventually became the political centre of Russia, as well as the translation centre of the country. In 1515, the Grand Duke of Moscow, Vassily III (Василий Ⅲ), asked a Greek monastery to send a learned translator to Moscow. This man, who accompanied the Greek mission to Moscow in 1516, was the historically famous Maksim Gleick (Максим Грек). Maksim Gleick worked as a translator throughout his life, studying most of the religious texts and some of the non-religious works during this period. In addition, he also proofread and annotated previously existing translations.(Wu,2006:7) <br />
<br />
At the beginning, Maksim knew neither Russian nor Old Slavonic, so he divided the translation into two steps: first, he translated from Greek to Latin, and then his assistant translated from Latin to Old Slavonic. In the process of revising existing translations, he often broke with established tradition and was therefore denounced as blasphemous. Maksim was also a prolific writer, educator and philosopher. His writings contain many insights into the art of translation - the earliest recorded treatise on translation in Russia. Maksim insisted that the original text must be carefully analysed in order to grasp its full subtleties and implications. Therefore, the translator must not only master the language of the original, but also have a broad knowledge of the language and prepare for the translation. To support his argument, Maksim used Greek lexicography, phonetic organisation and phonetics involved in translation. His other major contribution was the compilation of a dictionary containing Greek, Latin and Hebrew nouns, which was also the first of its kind in Russian history. Although it was recognised at the time that translators should have a command of both languages as well as a profound background knowledge, the practitioners of translation at the time lacked the necessary qualities and their translations were not as good as they could have been.(Wu,2006:7)Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 13:39, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
1. The emergence and development of literary translation. <br />
<br />
Translation activity has a long history in Russia, the beginnings of which can be traced back to the Time of Kievan Rus'. A relatively sophisticated system of writing, literature and translation was already in ancient Russia in the ninth century AD. Frequent cultural and trade exchanges with Byzantine, German, French and Scandinavian countries contributed significantly to the development of translation in Russia at that time, as did contacts with Eastern countries. From Kievan Rus' onwards, Russian translation methods oscillated between two main tendencies, either to follow the original texts exactly, up to the point of translating them word by word, or to be arbitrary, even to the point of rewriting, adding words or deleting at will. The first tendency is the main characteristic of translations of the Bible and other sacred books, while the second, though not absolutely, can be said to characterize most secular works.<br />
<br />
2.Initiation of translation activities-religious translation. <br />
<br />
In 864 AD, the Byzantine king sent two Greek priests, Kirill (Кирилл) and Mephodi (Мефодий), to spread Christianity among the Slavic people. At the beginning of their mission, they created a new alphabet (now known as the Kirill alphabet) and used this writing system to translate many religious texts from Greek into the ancient Church Slavonic. Among the results were the New Testament, hymnals and prayer books. In 988 AD, Rus was baptised and Kievan Rus was converted to Christianity. A large number of translations appeared instantly to help Protestants become familiar with the new religious philosophy and ethical system and to understand the rituals and customs of the Church. These translations were in a variety of genres, including the Acts of the Saints, sermons, chronicles and so on. In addition, apocryphal books telling magical and fantastical stories were also popular, and some of them had similarities with the later 'fantasy novels'. Most of these translations were done in Bulgaria and were popularised in Rus. At that time, translations of religious texts were mostly word-for-word. There were also a small number of works that, unlike the 'elaborate copies of the original', had a separate literary values. In one case, a large number of details of Russian life were added to the storyline of a sermon (e.g. The Tales of Achild the Wise). In another case, military historical narratives are interspersed with the terminology of the ancient Russian feudal system and certain literary images from the stories of ancient Russian warriors (e.g. Joseph Flav's History of the Jewish War). This translation can be considered one of the most successful of the period. In the translation, the translator succeeded in avoiding many word-for-word translations). Thirdly, the manuscripts copied by Ancient Rus, although based on Greek epic poetry (e.g. The Great Work of Digenes Akritas), often borrowed from Russian folk poetry, so that a large number of folk compositions appeared. As a result of this literary process, the translated literature was smoothly enriched by Russian manuscripts, which contributed to the development of original Russian literature and consolidated its links with the medieval literary process. Unfortunately, at that early stage in the development of translation, the translators were not signed, so it is impossible to verify whether the works were translated at home or abroad. During the difficult period of 'Mongol rule' (1228-1480), translations continued to play an important role in the cultural life of the country. The remaining chapters of the Bible were translated one after another, and previous translations were again proofread and revised. In addition to religious translations, more translations of non-religious subjects emerge, such as The Kingdom of India and The Trojan War. Most of the works were still translated from Greek, while works probably translated from Latin and ancient Hebrew also appeared. During this period, Russian began to take shape through the interaction of Old Slavonic (Church Slavonic) and local national languages. However, religious texts were still only translated into Church Slavonic, and the use of this language was by then restricted to ecclesiastical matters. At the same time, political and commercial exchanges with other countries were more likely to be in Russian, which was becoming increasingly sophisticated: elements of the combination of Old Slavonic and Russian can also be found in original works. 14-15th century literature in translation by Rus was characterised by an obsession with new themes. These were mainly new works of tranquillity-abstinence literature, or works recommended by and familiar to the tranquillists. This mystical genre was introduced to Rus after it had swept through the Byzantine and Yugoslav peoples. It was reflected in the semi-secular translations popular at the time (for example, The Trojan War). In the 16th century AD, Moscow eventually became the political center of Russia, as well as the translation center of the country. In 1515, the Grand Duke of Moscow, Vassily III (Василий Ⅲ), asked a Greek monastery to send a learned translator to Moscow. This man, who accompanied the Greek mission to Moscow in 1516, was the historically famous Maksim Grek (Максим Грек). Maxim Greek worked as a translator throughout his life, studying most of the religious texts and some of the non-religious works during this period. In addition, he also proofread and annotated previously existing translations. At the beginning, Maxim knew neither Russian nor Old Slavonic, so he divided the translation into two steps: first, he translated from Greek to Latin, and then his assistant translated from Latin to Old Slavonic. In the process of revising existing translations, he often broke with established tradition and was therefore denounced as blasphemous. Maxim was also a prolific writer, educator and philosopher. His writings contain many insights into the art of translation - the earliest recorded treatise on translation in Russia. Maxim insisted that the original text must be carefully analysed in order to grasp its full subtleties and implications. Therefore, the translator must not only master the language of the original, but also have a broad knowledge of the language and prepare for the translation. To support his argument, Maxim used Greek lexicography, phonetic organisation and phonetics involved in translation. His other major contribution was the compilation of a dictionary containing Greek, Latin and Hebrew nouns, which was also the first of its kind in Russian history. Although it was recognized at the time that translators should have a command of both languages and profound background knowledge, the practitioners of translation at the time lacked the necessary qualities and their translations were not as good as they should have been. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. Overview of the Russian school of Translation. ===<br />
===2.1 18th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The eighteenth century is an important period in the history of Russian translation. The status of translation in social culture has undergone a qualitative change, and this is due to Peter the Great's reform. At the beginning of the century, translation was still mostly related to professional documents such as laws and contracts. Later, the translator's tentacles gradually expanded to literary translation, for example, French poetry translation. The famous translators of this period are Sumarokov(А.П.Сумароков), Lomonosov(М.В.Ломоносов), Tretyakovsky (В.К.Тредьяковский) and so on. In the second half of the 18th century, the Association for the Translation of Foreign Books officially put forward the importance of translation. The organization has been active for 15 years with over 100 members.（Wu,2006:10)<br />
<br />
1.Imperial support for translation. The political reforms introduced by Peter the Great also led to intensive economic and cultural exchanges between Russia and European countries. This created a huge demand for translations of scientific and technical literature and literary works. Translators were required to produce works of a high standard.<br />
<br />
Peter the Great issued a special decree on translation, requiring "faithful" communication of the original text. In a directive issued to his subordinates in 1709, he explicitly stated that when translating foreign books, word-for-word translations were to be avoided and that the content of the original text should be clearly expressed in one's own language, based on an understanding of its content. On the other hand, Peter the Great's subversion of the written language initially caused confusion in Russian translation circles. A large number of foreign languages entered the Russian language, and the piles of foreign syntactic structures distracted attention. In any case, Peter the Great's reforms did set a new norm and a new direction for translation.(Wu,2006:11)<br />
<br />
In terms of content, Peter the Great's reforms were, from the very beginning, inextricably linked to the translation of scientific and technical texts, such as the many books on military defence engineering that he ordered to be translated and used to strengthen Russia's military forces. Peter the Great also placed great importance on the translation of prose, poetry and other literary works. During this period, the Russian language began to develop its own literary model, and many educated Russians saw translation as a way of enriching the language and enhancing its uniqueness and expressiveness. <br />
<br />
From around the 1830s, the importance of translating Western European scientific and technical texts gradually gave way to literary works such as prose and poetry. Writers who were also translators turned their attention to the work of new Western European writers, mainly poets, especially French poets. At the same time, the legacy of the Greco-Roman period also entered their minds. They began to translate the works of philosophers and historians, which - on the one hand - gave rise to difficulties in literary rhetoric and scientific terminology and, on the other, played an important role in the formation of a standard Russian language.(Feng,2009:10)(Guo,2006:8) <br />
<br />
From that time onwards, translation also became an organised activity, with the emergence of specific bodies responsible for the organisation and management of translation work. 1735 saw the establishment of the first specialised translation organisation, the Russian Society, at the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences. The Society had a professional group of translators and some of the academy's scholars, such as Lomonosov and Tretyakovsky, were among its members. The Association was responsible for selecting works, defining the rules or principles of translation, commenting on translations, and training translators. It is worth mentioning that the Academy of Sciences also set up a school of foreign languages to train official translators. In 1748, the Academy implemented Queen Elizabeth's decree to increase the number of translations of non-religious books and publicly appealed to "the nobility and other classes of intellectuals" to take an active part in the translation process.(Guo,2006:8)(Feng,2009:10) <br />
<br />
In the second half of the 18th century, Ekaterina II's efforts to create a 'civilised state' not only led to the development of literature, but also gave preferential treatment to writers. For example, in order to select the best original texts, she ordered the establishment of the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books (1768 - 1783). The Society was dedicated to providing excellent conditions for translation work throughout Russia. The purchase of manuscripts was financed out of Ekaterina's own funds. Later, the Society also discussed a proposal to establish a translation bureau under the Academy of Sciences (1790). The 114 members of the Society included such notable figures as Tretyakovsky, Sumarokov and Radishev. For 14 years the Association was active, producing numerous literary translations and likewise contributing to the discussion of theoretical issues in translation.(Guo,2006:9)<br />
<br />
2.The emergence of poetry translation. Translation of poetry also developed in Russia in the 18th century, and later became one of the jewels of the country's literature. The great Russian scholar and poet Lomonosov was a major contributor to this process. A great deal of the work created by Lomonosov and his contemporaries Sumarokov and Tretyakovsky was poetry in translation. They often translated while exploring theoretical issues in translation: they would explain in their works why they translated this way and not that way; they stressed the importance of translation work and the creative value it contained. Among the most prestigious writers and translators in Russian literature at the time, there were several interesting competitions in which two or three poets translated the same work at the same time, and their translations were published in journals. It was often the case that different translations of the same work were published at the same time, without the translator's name, for the judgement of "literary lovers and peers". This phenomenon also supports the idea that the 18th century was a period of 'experimentation' in the history of Russian translation.(Feng,2006:11) <br />
<br />
Lomonosov's translations from Latin, German, French and Greek are numerous and varied, showing his talent for both rhyming and free verse. He was keen to reproduce the rhythmic structure of the original texts, using a variety of iambic and iambic meter to convey the Alexandrian style of French epic and the hexameter style of Greek tragedy. Russian poetry was not very developed at the time and was still based on syllables. <br />
Lomonosov's innovations enriched Russian poetry and established new forms and traditions of Russian poetic style and rhyme. <br />
<br />
In contrast, Kantymir (Д.М.Кантемира) and Tretyakovsky's greatest quest was to insist on a faithful translation of the original. In the process, the translators had to contend with the problems of reams of vocabulary and rhetorical rules. Tretyakovsky became famous for his successful use of Russian rhyme to translate many verses of the original in his translation of Paul Thielmann's A Journey to Love Island. In the introduction to the novel, the translator states his approach to translation: "The translator is only one person away from the author. I would add that if the author is original, the translator should be even more original (I am not referring to myself, but to a good translator)". He believes that "prose to prose" and "poetry to poetry" can be as good as the original, and that a good translation is one that "describes the full meaning of each verse". Kantymir 's translation of Horace's Letters and other poetic works in Latin and French, although less well-known than the former, is equally valuable.(Wu,2006:16) Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:40, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The eighteenth century is an important period in the history of Russian translation. The status of translation in social culture has undergone a qualitative change, and this is due to Peter the Great's reform. At the beginning of the century, translation was still mostly related to professional documents such as laws and contracts. Later, the translator's tentacles gradually expanded to literary translation, for example, French poetry translation. The famous translators of this period are Sumarokov(А.П.Сумароков), Lomonosov(М.В.Ломоносов), Tretyakovsky (В.К.Тредьяковский) and so on. In the second half of the 18th century, the Association for the Translation of Foreign Books officially put forward the importance of translation. The organization has been active for 15 years with over 100 members. The following points reflected the reasons why translation was paid more attention in the eighteenth century.<br />
<br />
1.Imperial support for translation. <br />
<br />
The political reforms introduced by Peter the Great also led to intensive economic and cultural exchanges between Russia and European countries. This created a huge demand for translations of scientific and technical literature and literary works. Translators were required to produce works of a high standard.Peter the Great issued a special decree on translation, requiring "faithful" communication of the original text. In a directive issued to his subordinates in 1709, he explicitly stated that when translating foreign books, word-for-word translations were to be avoided and that the content of the original text should be clearly expressed in one's own language, based on an understanding of its content. On the other hand, Peter the Great's subversion of the written language initially caused confusion in Russian translation circles. A large number of foreign languages entered the Russian language, and the piles of foreign syntactic structures distracted attention. In any case, Peter the Great's reforms did set a new norm and a new direction for translation. In terms of content, Peter the Great's reforms were, from the very beginning, inextricably linked to the translation of scientific and technical texts, such as the many books on military defence engineering that he ordered to be translated and used to strengthen Russia's military forces. Peter the Great also placed great importance on the translation of prose, poetry and other literary works. During this period, the Russian language began to develop its own literary model, and many educated Russians saw translation as a way of enriching the language and enhancing its uniqueness and expressiveness. <br />
<br />
From around the 1830s, the importance of translating Western European scientific and technical texts gradually gave way to literary works such as prose and poetry. Writers who were also translators turned their attention to the work of new Western European writers, mainly poets, especially French poets. At the same time, the legacy of the Greco-Roman period also entered their minds. They began to translate the works of philosophers and historians, which - on the one hand - gave rise to difficulties in literary rhetoric and scientific terminology and, on the other, played an important role in the formation of a standard Russian language. <br />
<br />
From that time onwards, translation also became an organised activity, with the emergence of specific bodies responsible for the organisation and management of translation work. 1735 saw the establishment of the first specialised translation organisation, the Russian Society, at the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences. The Society had a professional group of translators and some of the academy's scholars, such as Lomonosov and Tretyakovsky, were among its members. The Association was responsible for selecting works, defining the rules or principles of translation, commenting on translations, and training translators. It is worth mentioning that the Academy of Sciences also set up a school of foreign languages to train official translators. In 1748, the Academy implemented Queen Elizabeth's decree to increase the number of translations of non-religious books and publicly appealed to "the nobility and other classes of intellectuals" to take an active part in the translation process. <br />
<br />
In the second half of the 18th century, Ekaterina II's efforts to create a 'civilised state' not only led to the development of literature, but also gave preferential treatment to writers. For example, in order to select the best original texts, she ordered the establishment of the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books (1768-1783). The Society was dedicated to providing excellent conditions for translation work throughout Russia. The purchase of manuscripts was financed out of Ekaterina's own funds. Later, the Society also discussed a proposal to establish a translation bureau under the Academy of Sciences (1790). The 114 members of the Society included such notable figures as Tretyakovsky, Sumarokov and Radishev. For 14 years the Association was active, producing numerous literary translations and likewise contributing to the discussion of theoretical issues in translation.<br />
<br />
2.The emergence of poetry translation.<br />
<br />
Translation of poetry also developed in Russia in the 18th century, and later became one of the jewels of the country's literature. The great Russian scholar and poet Lomonosov was a major contributor to this process. A great deal of the work created by Lomonosov and his contemporaries Sumarokov and Tretyakovsky was poetry in translation. They often translated while exploring theoretical issues in translation: they would explain in their works why they translated this way and not that way; they stressed the importance of translation work and the creative value it contained. Among the most prestigious writers and translators in Russian literature at the time, there were several interesting competitions in which two or three poets translated the same work at the same time, and their translations were published in journals. It was often the case that different translations of the same work were published at the same time, without the translator's name, for the judgement of "literary lovers and peers". This phenomenon also supports the idea that the 18th century was a period of 'experimentation' in the history of Russian translation. <br />
<br />
Lomonosov's translations works in Latin, German, French and Greek are numerous and varied, showing his talent for both rhyming and free verse. He was keen to reproduce the rhythmic structure of the original texts, using a variety of iambic and iambic meter to convey the Alexandrian style of French epic and the hexameter style of Greek tragedy. Russian poetry was not very developed at the time and was still based on syllables. <br />
Lomonosov's innovations enriched Russian poetry and established new forms and traditions of Russian poetic style and rhyme. <br />
<br />
In contrast, Kantymir (Д.М.Кантемира) and Tretyakovsky's greatest quest was to insist on a faithful translation of the original. In the process, the translators had to contend with the problems of reams of vocabulary and rhetorical rules. Tretyakovsky became famous for his successful use of Russian rhyme to translate many verses of the original in his translation of Paul Thielmann's A Journey to Love Island. In the introduction to the novel, the translator states his approach to translation: "The translator is only one person away from the author. I would add that if the author is original, the translator should be even more original (I am not referring to myself, but to a good translator)". He believes that "prose to prose" and "poetry to poetry" can be as good as the original, and that a good translation is one that "describes the full meaning of each verse". Kantymir 's translation of Horace's Letters and other poetic works in Latin and French, although less well-known than the former, is equally valuable. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 12:39, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.2 First half of the19th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The nineteenth century was a golden age in the history of Russian translation. If translation had established itself as a profession in the first hundred years, it was elevated to the level of art in this century. The nineteenth century produced a number of masters of translation, including Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин), Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский), Pushkin (А.С.Пушкин), Lermontov (М.Ю.Лермонтов) and Fetter (А.Фет).(Wu,2006:23)<br />
<br />
The new Russian school of translation owes its formation to the historian Nikolai Karamzin and the poet Zhukovsky. Karamzin published a number of translations in several magazines between the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century. He saw translations as a good help in perfecting a writer's style: a source of information that would satisfy human curiosity, inform historical facts, entertain women and provide material for new magazines. As a young man, Karamzin was strongly opposed to the alteration of and disloyalty to the original texts, but later became a champion of free translation, famously saying: "Whoever follows the author of the original text step by step is no different from a servant who serves his lord". Karamzin's translations cover an admirable range of genres and languages: he translated works by both classical and contemporaneous authors, in Greek, French, Latin, German, English, Italian and some Oriental languages.(Feng,2009:12)<br />
<br />
Pushkin called Zhukovsky "a genius of translation". After graduating from the Moscow Noble Boarding University in 1802, Zhukovsky devoted himself to translation. It was thanks to his efforts that Russian readers were able to access the works of world literary giants such as Schiller, Goethe, Byron and Walters Scott. Zhukovsky's creative translation activities also ranged from Charles Bello to Grimm's Fairy Tales. From Charles Bellow to Grimm's fairy tales, from Homer's epic Odyssey to the poetic history of ancient Rus' Igor's Expedition, all became his original texts. There is no denying that Zhukovsky is a master in the history of Russian translation. Like Karamzin, Zhukovsky was a fan of free translation, sometimes rewriting the original or even creating a new story from its subject: sometimes transferring the setting of events to Russia and giving Russian names to the characters. For example, in his 1808 translation of the German Romantic poet Bilge's narrative poem Lenore, he changed the heroine's name from Lenore to Lyudmila and moved the story to the time of the Livonian War in 16th-century Russia. Zhukovsky believed that the "unsavoury character" of the work should be weakened while retaining the original author's ideas. His talent enabled him to reproduce the style, rhythm and tone of the original poems, while some of his best works were also faithful to the original. In later years, however, his view of translation changed in response to the tendency to stay close to the original, and he retranslated several of his previous translations to make them more faithful to the original, including Lenore. The Russian school of translation owes much to the tradition of translation created by Zhukovsky.(Wu,2006:24-30)(Feng,2009:13)(Guo,2006:9)<br />
<br />
Pushkin and Lermontov are also two poets who set the stage for an epoch in the history of Russian translation. Although only a small proportion of their poetry was translated, they made a significant contribution to the improvement of the art of translation in Russia. In their rewriting and imitation of poetry, they were able to reproduce the most important features of foreign poetry, the key point being that their creative translations were no less valuable in their own right than the originals. Their free translation became a model for other translators, and in addition they established the important principle that a good artistic translation must also be a good work in the national literature of the translated language. Pushkin played an indelibly important role in the development of the Russian school of translation. He was always interested in the question of translation, and his critical views on translation were objective and profound. Before translation he stressed the importance of the choice of the original work, and in translation he demanded that the translator should be faithful to the original, while at the same time displaying his deep creative skills and his own literary style. In one of his unfinished posthumous works, 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', Pushkin wrote: 'Chateaubriand's translation (verbatim) compensates to some extent for the faults of the young French writers (free translation), for they have insulted the great man very cruelly, though in a perfectly innocent manner. There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own rhetorical conventions, its own way of expressing itself, and it is impossible to translate into another language with the corresponding vocabulary". These insights had a positive impact on the best Russian translators of the 19th and 20th centuries. In addition, Pushkin's discussion of translation coincided with a turning point in the history of Russian literature, when the Romantic era was being replaced by a new era with a predominantly realist orientation, and a process of 'separation' between translated and national literature was under way. Pushkin's discussion of the work of the translator as distinct from that of the writer contributed to the independence of literature in translation from indigenous literature.(Guo,2006:10)(Wu,2006:37-41) <br />
<br />
During this period, while most people advocated free translation, there were a few translators who insisted on maximum fidelity to the original and advocated the word-for-word method, even at the expense of the work's willingness to be translated. Among these were such well-known writers as P.A. Vyazemsky (П.А.Вяземский) and N.I. Gnedzic (Н.И.Гнедич). In fact, they did not always live up to their principles, and sometimes their talent and artistic intuition ended up breaking the bonds of verbatim translation. Vyazemsky's translations of Benjamin Constant and Adam Mickiewicz were not without literary and artistic merit, and his translation of Homer's epic Iliad in particular was highly praised by Pushkin. It was Fetter who was the most insistent on the idea of a verbatim translation. Fetter translated many famous works, and his philosophy throughout was one of sentence-for-sentence, word-for-word translation, retaining all the words of the original. Fetter's extreme word-for-word approach had a negative impact on most of his translations, although he was sometimes able to come up with some effective methods of translation.(Feng,2009:14) <br />
<br />
Free translations were also sometimes used to promote democratic ideas in the original that could not pass official scrutiny. A number of translators, such as V. Kurochkin (В.Курочкин), D. M. Minayev (Д.Минаев) and M. M. Mikhalov (М.Михайлов), achieved this by selecting appropriate original works or by using texts in their translations that were superficially imperceptible in their allusion to the conditions in Russia at the time. It was from that time onwards that the use of translation as a weapon to express dissent became part of the Russian tradition.(Feng,2009:14) Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:41, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The nineteenth century was the golden age in the history of Russian translation. If translation had established its status in the first hundred years, it was elevated to the level of art in this century. The nineteenth century produced a number of masters of translation, including Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин), Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский), Pushkin (А.С.Пушкин), Lermontov (М.Ю.Лермонтов) and Fetter (А.Фет). <br />
<br />
The new Russian school of translation owes its formation to the publishment of a number of translations of historian Nikolai Karamzin and the poet Zhukovsky. Karamzin in several magazines between the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century. He regarded translation as a good help in perfecting a writer's style: a source of information that satisfies human curiosity, informs historical facts, entertains women and provides materials for new magazines. As a young man, Karamzin was strongly opposed to the disloyalty to the original texts, but later became a champion of free translation. His famous saying was: "Whoever follows the author of the original text step by step is no different from a servant who serves his lord". Karamzin's translations cover an admirable range of genres and languages: he translated works by both classical and contemporaneous authors, in Greek, French, Latin, German, English, Italian and some Oriental languages. <br />
<br />
Pushkin called Zhukovsky "a genius of translation". After graduating from the Moscow Noble Boarding University in 1802, Zhukovsky devoted himself to translation. It was thanks to his efforts that Russian readers were able to access the works of world literary giants such as Schiller, Goethe, Byron and Walters Scott. Zhukovsky's creative translation activities also ranged from Charles Bello to Grimm's Fairy Tales. From Charles Bellow to Grimm's fairy tales, from Homer's epic Odyssey to the poetic history of ancient Rus' Igor's Expedition, all became his original texts. There is no denying that Zhukovsky is a master in the history of Russian translation. Like Karamzin, Zhukovsky was a fan of free translation, who sometimes rewrites the original or even creates a new story from its subject, transfers the setting of events to Russia and gives Russian names to the characters. For example, in his 1808 translation of the German Romantic poet Bilge's narrative poem Lenore, he changed the heroine's name from Lenore to Lyudmila and moved the story to the time of the Livonian War in 16th-century Russia. Zhukovsky believed that the "unsavoury character" of the work should be weakened while retaining the original author's ideas. His talent enabled him to reproduce the style, rhythm and tone of the original poems, while some of his best works were also faithful to the original. In later years, however, his view of translation changed in response to the tendency to stay close to the original, and he retranslated several of his previous translations to make them more faithful to the original, including Lenore. The Russian school of translation owes much to the tradition of translation created by Zhukovsky.<br />
<br />
Pushkin and Lermontov are also two poets who gave perfect preparations for an epoch in the history of Russian translation. Although only a small proportion of their poetry was translated, they made a significant contribution to the improvement of the art of translation in Russia. In their rewriting and imitation of poetry, they were able to reproduce the most important features of foreign poetry, the key point being that their creative translations were no less valuable in their own right than the originals. Their free translation became a model for other translators, and in addition they established the important principle that a good artistic translation must also be a good work in the national literature of the translated language. Pushkin played an indelibly important role in the development of the Russian school of translation. He was always interested in the question of translation, and his critical views on translation were objective and profound. Before translation he stressed the importance of the choice of the original work, and in translation he demanded that the translator should be faithful to the original, while at the same time displaying his deep creative skills and his own literary style. In one of his unfinished posthumous works, 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', Pushkin wrote: 'Chateaubriand's translation (verbatim) compensates to some extent for the faults of the young French writers (free translation), for they have insulted the great man very cruelly, though in a perfectly innocent manner. There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own rhetorical conventions, its own way of expressing itself, and it is impossible to translate into another language with the corresponding vocabulary". These insights had a positive impact on the best Russian translators of the 19th and 20th centuries. In addition, Pushkin's discussion of translation coincided with a turning point in the history of Russian literature, when the Romantic era was being replaced by a new era with a predominantly realist orientation, and a process of 'separation' between translated and national literature was under way. Pushkin's discussion of the work of the translator as distinct from that of the writer contributed to the independence of literature in translation from indigenous literature. <br />
<br />
During this period, while most people advocated free translation, there were a few translators who insisted on maximum fidelity to the original and advocated the word-for-word method, even at the expense of the work's willingness to be translated. Among these were such well-known writers as P.A. Vyazemsky (П.А.Вяземский) and N.I. Gnedzic (Н.И.Гнедич). In fact, they did not always live up to their principles, and sometimes their talent and artistic intuition ended up breaking the bonds of verbatim translation. Vyazemsky's translations of Benjamin Constant and Adam Mickiewicz were not without literary and artistic merit, and his translation of Homer's epic Iliad in particular was highly praised by Pushkin. It was Fetter who was the most insistent on the idea of a verbatim translation. Fetter translated many famous works, and his philosophy throughout was one of sentence-for-sentence, word-for-word translation, retaining all the words of the original. Fetter's extreme word-for-word approach had a negative impact on most of his translations, although he was sometimes able to come up with some effective methods of translation. <br />
<br />
Free translations were also used to promote democratic ideas in original that could not pass official scrutiny. A number of translators, such as V. Kurochkin (В.Курочкин), D. M. Minayev (Д.Минаев) and M. M. Mikhalov (М.Михайлов), achieved this by selecting appropriate original works or by using texts in their translations that were superficially imperceptible in their allusion to the conditions in Russia at the time. It was since then that the use of translation was used as a weapon to express dissent became part of the Russian tradition. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:05, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.3 Second half of the19th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The mid-nineteenth century was a period of increasingly intense political and ideological struggle in Russian literature, and a great debate raged in the Russian literary world over the question of 'art for the people' or 'art for art's sake'. The debate was mainly about the choice of material for translation and the method of translation. As far as the choice of material was concerned, the democratic and revolutionary writers who supported 'art for the people' chose to translate works with progressive ideological content and a democratic orientation, such as Heine. The aristocratic and liberal intellectual writers, on the other hand, opted for philosophical poetry with a chanting and individualistic feel. Of course, this is not absolute: "Mikhailov and Dobrolyubov of the democratic revolutionary school also translated Heine's moody love poems The Songbook, while Tolstoy of the aristocratic and liberal school translated some of Goethe's more progressive poems, such as The Fiancée of Corinth and The Whore of God. In terms of their approach to translation, the Democratic-Revolutionary translators, based on the reproduction of the original as a whole, approached their translations very liberally, even adding in many elements typical of Russian culture. The latter, on the other hand, usually adopted a direct translation, focusing on conveying the formal details of the original work. This divergence was mainly due to the different starting points of the two groups of translators, with the democratic revolutionaries seeking to convey advanced ideas to the Russian general public and the aristocratic intellectuals believing that works of art were irrelevant to the people and that artistic creations should not be exposed to "vulgar" reality.(Feng,2009:14-15)<br />
<br />
There were a large number of outstanding literary writers and literary critics who made brilliant statements about literary translation in that era, none more so than Belinsky (В.Г.Белинский), Chernyshevsky (Н.Г.Черныщевский) and Dubrolyovsky (Н.Г.Добролюбов). Belinsky was one of the greatest Russian literary critics of the 19th century. He believed that translations should not be word-for-word, but should reproduce the spirit of the original, in much the same way as Pushkin's view of translation theory. On the other hand, he also opposed arbitrary 'paraphrasing': the ideal translation should not add or delete arbitrarily to the original text, but should enable the reader to understand the foreign work truly and accurately through the translation. Such a viewpoint seems to us to be quite convincing even now. Belinsky played a decisive role in completely burying the 'rewriting' and 'adapting it to Russian custom' arguments. This issue dominates his writings. He argues that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of the translation, and this is one of the criteria by which he judges its merits. He points out, for example, that the greatest strength of Gnedzic's translation of the Iliad is that it "exudes the atmosphere of ancient life" and "the spirit of the ancient Greeks". However, the contradiction between national identity and translatability was once a problem for Belinsky. Initially believing that it was impossible to translate works with a strong national character into other languages, he was only convinced by the success of Turgenev's collaboration with Louis Viardot in translating Gogol's novels into French in 1846, and then became increasingly determined to recognise translatability in translation. Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a series of revisions that led to a complete and rigorous system of translation theory, the first of its kind in the history of Russian translation theory.(Wu,2006:58-61)(Feng,2009:15)<br />
<br />
Translation in Russia developed in the second half of the 19th century. From the 1960s onwards, the Russian readership of non-language speakers began to expand, and these readers were keen to see the translation 'replace' the original. This demand led to an unprecedented expansion in the choice of subjects and translations of Russian literature. Interest in foreign theatrical works was particularly high at this stage, and a strong interest in European classical literature also developed. Dickens, Saclay, Victor Hugo, Dumas, Balzac, Flaubert, Tudor, Maupassant and Zola, as well as lesser-known writers of today, were successively brought to the attention of a wide range of Russian readers in the form of translations. At that time, European theatre classics like Shakespeare's plays were translated into Russia in large numbers. Many professional translators were involved, the most successful being the translator P.N.V. Weinberg. He translated foreign literature from the standpoint of progressive Russian literature of the time. His translation of Othello, for example, is notable for its vividness in the Russian language, and has always been recognised as the best translation in terms of conveying the totality of scenes, plots and long dialogues, even though the translation is wordy compared to the original.(Feng,2009:15-16)<br />
<br />
Although there has been a quantitative surge in translations of Russian literature during this period, the quality has generally been poor, manifesting itself in word-for-word translations, redundant sentences and poor vocabulary, not to mention inventiveness. In addition, the language of the characters in the translation is heavily Russified, with Russian proverbs, sayings and idioms that the foreign characters could never have known, and the introduction of Russian-specific life circumstances that cause contradictions with the plot and details of the original work. For example, В Тулу со своим самоваром ехать (Bring your own samovar to Tula - it's superfluous). The reason for this is that the literary world did not attach much importance to the translation of fiction and prose, and there were no specialists working on this task. Another point is that at this stage there was little progress in the study of Russian translation theory, and no valuable theoretical insights emerged. The linguist A.A. Потебня (1835-1891) expressed his views on translation from a psychological standpoint in his essay "Language and Peopleliness ". In his view, it was impossible to express in another language what was originally intended to be expressed in a certain language. He, like many other literary scholars, denied the translatability of language.(Feng,2006:16)(Guo,2006:11)Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:41, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The mid-nineteenth century was a period of increasingly intensively political and ideological struggle in Russian literature, and a great debate raged in the Russian literary world over the question of 'art for the people' or 'art for art's sake'. The debate was mainly about the choice of materials for translation and the methods of translation. As far as the choice of material was concerned, the democratic and revolutionary writers who supported 'art for the people' chose to translate works with progressive ideological content and a democratic orientation, such as Heine. The aristocratic and liberal intellectual writers, on the other hand, opted for philosophical poetry with a chanting and individualistic feel. It's undoubtful that this is not absolute: "Mikhailov and Dobrolyubov of the democratic revolutionary school also translated Heine's moody love poems The Songbook, while Tolstoy of the aristocratic and liberal school translated some of Goethe's more progressive poems, such as The Fiancée of Corinth and The Whore of God. In terms of their approach to translation, the Democratic-Revolutionary translators, based on the reproduction of the original as a whole, approached their translations very liberally, when they even added in many elements typical of Russian culture. The latter, on the other hand, usually adopted a direct translation, focusing on conveying the formal details of the original work. This divergence was mainly due to the different starting points of the two groups of translators, with the democratic revolutionaries seeking to convey advanced ideas to the Russian general public and the aristocratic intellectuals believing that works of art were irrelevant to the people and that artistic creations should not be exposed to "vulgar" reality.<br />
<br />
There were a large number of outstanding literary writers and literary critics who made brilliant statements about literary translation in that era, none more so than Belinsky (В.Г.Белинский), Chernyshevsky (Н.Г.Черныщевский) and Dubrolyovsky (Н.Г.Добролюбов). Belinsky was one of the greatest Russian literary critics of the 19th century. He believed that translations should not be word-for-word, but should reproduce the spirit of the original text, in much the same way as Pushkin's view of translation theory. On the other hand, he also opposed arbitrary 'paraphrasing': the ideal translation should not add or delete arbitrarily to the original text, but should enable the reader to understand the foreign work truly and accurately through the translation. Such a viewpoint seems to us to be quite convincing even now. Belinsky played a decisive role in completely burying the 'rewriting' and 'adapting it to Russian custom' arguments. This issue dominates his writings. He argues that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of the translation, and this is one of the criteria by which he judges its merits. He points out, for example, that the greatest strength of Gnedzic's translation of the Iliad is that it "exudes the atmosphere of ancient life" and "the spirit of the ancient Greeks". However, the contradiction between national identity and translatability was once a problem for Belinsky. Initially believing that it was impossible to translate works with a strong national character into other languages, he was only convinced by the success of Turgenev's collaboration with Louis Viardot in translating Gogol's novels into French in 1846, and then became increasingly determined to recognise translatability in translation. Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a series of revisions that led to a complete and rigorous system of translation theory, the first of its kind in the history of Russian translation theory.<br />
<br />
Translation in Russia developed in the second half of the 19th century. From the 1960s onwards, the Russian readership of non-language speakers began to expand, and these readers were keen to see the translation 'replace' the original. This demand led to an unprecedented expansion in the choice of subjects and translations of Russian literature. Interest in foreign theatrical works was particularly high at this stage, and a strong interest in European classical literature also developed. Dickens, Saclay, Victor Hugo, Dumas, Balzac, Flaubert, Tudor, Maupassant and Zola, as well as lesser-known writers of today, were successively brought to the attention of a wide range of Russian readers in the form of translations. At that time, European theatre classics like Shakespeare's plays were translated into Russia in large numbers. Many professional translators were involved, the most successful being the translator P.N.V. Weinberg. He translated foreign literature from the standpoint of progressive Russian literature of the time. His translation of Othello, for example, is notable for its vividness in the Russian language, and has always been recognised as the best translation in terms of conveying the totality of scenes, plots and long dialogues, even though the translation is wordy compared to the original.<br />
<br />
Although there has been a quantitative surge in translations of Russian literature during this period, the quality has generally been poor, manifesting itself in word-for-word translations, redundant sentences and poor vocabulary, not to mention inventiveness. In addition, the language of the characters in the translation is heavily Russified, that is, contents with Russian proverbs, sayings and idioms that the foreign characters could never have known, and the introduction of Russian-specific life circumstances that cause contradictions with the plot and details of the original work. For example, В Тулу со своим самоваром ехать (Bring your own samovar to Tula - it's superfluous). The reason for this is that the literary world did not attach much importance to the translation of fiction and prose, and there were no specialists working on this task. Another point is that at this stage there was little progress in the study of Russian translation theory, and no valuable theoretical insights emerged. The linguist A.A. Потебня (1835-1891) expressed his views on translation from a psychological standpoint in his essay "Language and Peopleliness ". In his view, it was impossible to express in another language what was originally intended to be expressed in a certain language. Just like many other literary scholars, he denied the translatability of language. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:13, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.Translation ideas of famous writers of the 18-19th centuries. ===<br />
===3.1. Pushkin 's ideas on translation. ===<br />
Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin (Александр Сергеевич Пушкин, 1977-1837), a famous Russian poet and writer of the nineteenth century, was also very much a translator. Although he left behind few works on translation, his ideas on translation are worth studying. Pushkin's translations of poetry were associated with classicism in the early stages of his work and later with romanticism. Although these translations are far removed from the original in a literal sense, they are almost close to composition. Pushkin's significance as a translator, however, lies in 1) the reproduction of foreign originals in the standard Russian language he established in his translations and 2) the full expression of the realist artistic method in the heyday of his compositions: the focus on typical features and the technique of outlining the historical and individual characteristics that reflect the original.(Wu,2006:37-41)(Li Zheng＆Fan Min,2010:69）<br />
<br />
Pushkin's translations have their own characteristics and style. He did not translate all of his works word for word from the original, and in some places he deleted what he considered to be redundant sentences in order to avoid the verbosity of the original, occasionally replacing the translation with a general paraphrase. He advocates respect for the characteristics of foreign readers, while at the same time opposing word-for-word translations, which can lead to the trampling of the mother tongue. He therefore advocated translations which, on the one hand, required fidelity to the original in terms of meaning and, on the other, should preserve the original's distinctive features.<br />
As he says in his unfinished 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', commenting on Chateaubriand's translation: 'There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), has failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own conventional rhetorical devices, its own habitual expressions, and it is impossible to translate all this into another language using the corresponding vocabulary." Pushkin's rejection of word-for-word translation can be seen.(Li＆Fan,2010:69）<br />
<br />
Pushkin's influence on the cause of translation in Russia was immense, and this influence refers neither to his few translations nor to his theoretical views, but to the fact that Pushkin pioneered the translation of Russian literature. Although his ideas on translation cannot be called a theory, they do provide certain translation ideas for later generations of literary translators.(Li＆Fan,2010:69）Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin (Александр Сергеевич Пушкин, 1977-1837), a famous Russian poet and writer of the nineteenth century, was also an outstanding translator. Besides he left behind few works on translation, his ideas on translation are worth studying. Pushkin's translations of poetry were associated with classicism in the early stages of his work and with romanticism later. Although these translations are far removed from the original in a literal sense, they are almost close to composition. Pushkin's significance as a translator, however, lies in the reproduction of foreign originalities in the standard Russian language he established in his translations and the full expression of the realist artistic method in the heyday of his compositions: the focus on typical features and the technique of outlining the historical and individual characteristics that reflect the original.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's translations have their own distinctive characteristics and style. He did not translate all of his works literally from the original context, but in some places he deleted what he considered to be redundant sentences in order to avoid the verbosity of the original, occasionally replacing the translation with a general paraphrase. He advocates to give enough respect for the characteristics of foreign readers, while at the same time opposing word-for-word translations, which may lead to the trampling of the mother tongue. Therefore, He advocated translations which, on the one hand, required fidelity to the original text in terms of meaning and, on the other hand, should preserve the original's distinctive features.<br />
<br />
As he says in his unfinished 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', he comments on Chateaubriand's translation: 'There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), has failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own conventional rhetorical devices, its own habitual expressions, and it is impossible to translate all this into another language using the corresponding vocabulary." Pushkin's rejection of word-for-word translation can be revealed clearly.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's influence on the cause of translation in Russia was huge, and his influence refers neither to his few translations nor to his theoretical views, but to the fact that Pushkin pioneered the translation of Russian literature. Although his ideas on translation cannot be called a theory, they do provide certain unique and new translation ideas for later generations of literary translators. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:29, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.1. Belinsky's ideas on translation. ===<br />
Vissarion Grigorievich Belinsky (Виссарион Григорьевич Белинский, 1811-1848) was a famous literary critic of the nineteenth century and one of the most involved in the world of translation among Russian literary activists of his time. Belinsky was fluent in French and as a young man translated for two magazines, Miscellany and Telescope. Later, after a career in literary criticism, he published numerous articles on translation and criticism of translated works.<br />
Belinsky's and Pushkin's views on translation were very similar, both advocating that translations should not be word-for-word. Belinsky first introduced the term 'theory' of translation, and in his 1838 review of Polevoy's translation of Hamlet, he first proposed the need for a theory of translation. He considered the role of theory: "Any object that man perceives has a theory of its own, and a theory is the knowledge of the laws by which the object exists."（Wu，2006：51-53）<br />
<br />
Belinsky argues that in translation: "Closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original. Each <br />
language has its own distinctive expressions, characteristics and qualities; these are so distinctive that to correctly convey a certain image or sentence, it is sometimes necessary to change them completely in the translation. The corresponding image, like the corresponding sentence, does not necessarily lie in a superficial agreement of words: the inner life of the translation should be made to correspond to the inner life of the original". It can be seen that Belinsky, like Pushkin, was also opposed to word-for-word rigid translations, his view being that the task of translating a language lies in reproducing the spirit of the original. He believed that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of a translation, so the question of the interrelationship between national character and translatability has always troubled Belinsky. He pointed out that 'there is only one rule for translating a literary work - to convey the spirit of the work being translated, and this can only be done by translating it into Russian as the author himself would have written it in Russian, if he had been Russian' (The Complete Works of Belinsky Volume 2).（Wang，Yulun＆Jiang,Wanzhu，1989：53-55）<br />
<br />
Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a number of achievements, and his view of translation as a whole is a complete and rigorous system. His view of translation was developed gradually, and in the process it was dominated by an increasingly firm recognition of the possibility of a successful solution to the task of translation, that is, of translatability. Belinsky believed that a translation must be discerning in its content and form in relation to the original. He has pointed out that "approaching the original is not the same as conveying the letters, but rather the spirit of the original." It is also suggested that the translator and the original author are two different kinds of people. But in order to convey the 'spirit' of the original in the translation, the translator's genius needs to reach a certain tacit understanding with this 'spirit'. He advocates the preservation of exoticism in translation, opposes naturalisation, the arbitrary distortion of the face of the original work, the overwhelming of the original author with the personality of the translator's style, the emphasis on both likeness and likeness, etc. However, while recognising the importance of reproducing the poetic form of the original work in translation, Belinsky also took into account the state of development of Russian literature in translation. This also led him to look favourably on translating good poetry in prose, seeing such translations as a form of transition for Russian readers to the treasures of world literature.（Wang＆Jiang，1989：53-55）<br />
<br />
Although Belinsky wrote little about literary translation, his theoretical views contain the kernel of the realist principles of translation proposed by contemporary Soviet literary translators. His ideas on translation had a very profound influence on the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period.Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Vissarion Grigorievich Belinsky (Виссарион Григорьевич Белинский, 1811-1848) was a famous literary critic of the nineteenth century and one of the most active in the world of translation among Russian literary activists of his time. Belinsky was fluent in French and when he was a young man he translated for two magazines, Miscellany and Telescope. Later, after a career in literary criticism, he published numerous articles on translation and criticism of translated works.<br />
<br />
Belinsky's and Pushkin's views on translation were very similar, both advocating that translations should not be word-for-word. Belinsky first introduced the term 'theory' of translation, and in his 1838 review of Polevoy's translation of Hamlet, he first proposed the need for a theory of translation. He considered the role of theory: "Any object that man perceives has a theory of its own, and a theory is the knowledge of the laws by which the object exists."<br />
<br />
Belinsky argues that in translation: "Closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original. Each language has its own distinctive expressions, characteristics and qualities; these are so distinctive that to correctly convey a certain image or sentence, it is sometimes necessary to change them completely in the translation. The corresponding image, like the corresponding sentence, does not necessarily lie in a superficial agreement of words: the inner life of the translation should be made to correspond to the inner life of the original". It can be seen that Belinsky, like Pushkin, was also opposed to word-for-word rigid translations, his view being that the task of translating a language lies in reproducing the spirit of the original. He believed that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of a translation, so the question of the interrelationship between national character and translatability has always troubled Belinsky. He pointed out that 'there is only one rule for translating a literary work - to convey the spirit of the work being translated, and this can only be done by translating it into Russian as the author himself would have written it in Russian, if he had been Russian' (The Complete Works of Belinsky Volume 2).<br />
<br />
Belinsky's career as a translator had a number of achievements, and his view of translation as a whole is a complete and rigorous system. His view of translation was developed gradually, and in this process it was dominated by an increasingly firm recognition of the possibility of a successful solution to the task of translation, that is, of translatability. Belinsky believed that a translation must be discerning in its content and form in relation to the original. He has pointed out that "approaching the original is not the same as conveying the letters, but rather the spirit of the original." It is also suggested that the translator and the original author are two different kinds of people. But in order to convey the 'spirit' of the original in the translation, the translator's genius needs to reach a certain tacit understanding with this 'spirit'. He advocates the preservation of exoticism in translation, opposes naturalisation, the arbitrary distortion of the face of the original work, the overwhelming of the original author with the personality of the translator's style, the emphasis on both likeness and likeness, etc. However, while recognising the importance of reproducing the poetic form of the original work in translation, Belinsky also took into account the state of development of Russian literature in translation. This also led him to look favourably on translating good poetry in prose, seeing such translations as a form of transition for Russian readers to the treasures of world literature.<br />
<br />
Although Belinsky wrote little about literary translation, his theoretical views contain the kernel of the realist principles of translation proposed by contemporary Soviet literary translators. His ideas on translation had a very profound influence on the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:56, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.Conclusion ===<br />
Translation has demonstrated its importance in social activity since antiquity, yet it was only in the twentieth century that it became a widely followed professional discipline. This article reviews Russian translation activity and translation thought in pre-Soviet Russia, exploring its development before the formation of a theoretical system. Throughout the history of translation, Russian scholars have contributed greatly to the development of translation literature in the world. Through combing through the history of Russian translation, we learn that the translation ideas of a number of outstanding writers, though not theoretical, have had an unmistakable impact on later generations. When discussing the translation ideas of 19th-century writers, we are inspired to insist on the principle that "closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original", emphasizing the ideological content and literary value of the translation, that the translation should serve the readers, and that the translation should be people-oriented. These ideas influenced, to a greater or lesser extent, the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, the study of the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia is not only conducive to sorting out Russian translation ideas Russian learners can better understand the characteristics of their translations when translating and improve the accuracy of their translations.Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:44, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Translation has played its important role in the social activities since antiquity, yet it was until in the twentieth century that it became a widely followed professional discipline. This paper reviews Russian translators and translation thoughts in pre-Soviet Russia, exploring its development before the formation of a theoretical system. Throughout the history of translation, Russian scholars have contributed greatly to the development of translation literature in the world. By combing through the history of Russian translation, we learn that the translation ideas of a number of outstanding writers, though not very theoretical, have had an unmistakable impact on later generations. When discussing the translation ideas of 19th-century writers, we are inspired to insist on the principle that "closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original", emphasizing the ideological content and literary value of the translation that the translation should serve the readers, and that the translation should be people-oriented. These ideas influenced, to a greater or lesser extent, the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, the study of the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia not only is conducive to sorting out Russian translation ideas, but also make Russian learners better understand the characteristics of their translations when translating and improving the accuracy of their translations. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 14:02, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.References ===<br />
Feng Xin 冯欣（2009）. 俄罗斯翻译理论史及其影响研究[D] A study of the history of Russian translation theory and its influence.上海外国语大学 Shanghai International Studies University.<br />
<br />
Gaczilaser Гачечиладзе Г.Р.(1959). Вопросы теории художественного перевода Problems of Literary Theory.Тбилиси: Литература да хлебовнеба <br />
<br />
Gotsiridze，Khukhuni Гоциридзе Д.З.,Хухуни Г.Т(1984). Очерки по истории западно-европейского перевода и русского переводов.A summary of the history of Western European and Russian translations.-Тбилиси.<br />
<br />
Guo Lin 郭琳（2006）.俄罗斯语言学派翻译理论若干问题研究[D] A Study of Some Problems of Translation Theory of the Russian School of Philology.首都师范大学 Capital Normal University.<br />
<br />
Levin，Fedorov Левин Ю.Д.,Федоров А.В(1960). Русские писатели о переводе Russian writers on translation .- Ленииград.<br />
<br />
Li Zheng, Fan Min 李铮,范敏（2010）. 普希金与翻译[J] Pushkin and Translation. 现代交际 Modern Intercourse Journal,(05):69.<br />
<br />
Wang，Yulun；Jiang,Wanzhu 王育伦,姜万砫（1989).别林斯基论文学翻译[J] Belinsky on Literary Translation .中国翻译 Chinese translators Journal ,(03):53-55.<br />
<br />
Wu, Keli 吴克礼（2006）.俄苏翻译理论流派综述 The Translation Methods and Studies in USSR. 上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 06:38, 14 December 2021 (UTC)</div>Zhang Yiranhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20211229_homework&diff=13436820211229 homework2021-12-26T14:38:54Z<p>Zhang Yiran: /* 张扬 Zhāng Yáng 国别 男 202120081551 */</p>
<hr />
<div>Quicklinks: [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021|Back to course homepage]] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal#Frequently_asked_questions_FAQ FAQ] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal Manual] [[20210926_homework|Back to all homework webpages overview]] [[20220112_final_exam|final exam page]]<br />
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PLEASE READ [[Joint_translation_terms|Joint translation terms]] <br />
<br />
PLEASE ALSO READ THE PREVIOUS PARTS, AT LEAST THE SENTENCES BEFORE YOUR OWN PART IN CHAPTER 19 [[20210303_culture|1, Mar 3 Chapters 1-4]], [[20210310_culture|2, Mar 10 Chapters 6-7]], [[20210317_culture|3, Mar 17 Chapters 11-13]], [[20210324_culture|4, Mar 24 Chapters 15-17]], [[20210331_culture|5, Mar 31 Chapters 4-7]], [[20210407_culture|6, Apr 7 Chapters 8-10]], [[20210414_culture|7, Apr 14 Chapters 13-15]] , [[20210519_culture|12, May 19 Chapters 17-19]], [[20210929_homework#Hongloumeng|for Sep 29 - rest of HLM Chapter 19]] [[20211013_homework|for Oct 13 - HLM Chapters 20-21]] [[20211020_homework|for Oct 20 - HLM Chapters 21-22]] [[20211027_homework|for Oct 27 - HLM Chapters 23-24]] etc.<br />
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==陈静 Chén Jìng 国别 女 202020080595==<br />
<br />
心较比干多一窍──比干：暴君商(殷)纣王之叔，被誉为圣人。据《史记·殷本纪》载：纣王厌恶比干谏诤不已，怒曰：“吾闻圣人心有七窍。”于是“剖比干，观其心”。<br />
<br />
The heart is one more hole than Bigan. Bigan, the uncle of tyrant Shang King Zhou, is known as a saint. According to Historical Records: Yin Dynasty, King Zhou dislikes the advisement of Bigan, so said with anger,"I heard that a saint has seven hole in his heart." Thus, Bigan was anatomized to observe his heart.--[[User:Chen Jing|Chen Jing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jing|talk]]) 11:44, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==蔡珠凤 Cài Zhūfèng 法语语言文学 女 202120081477==<br />
<br />
古人以为心窍越多越聪明，故以“心较比干多一窍” 形容黛玉绝顶聪明。<br />
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病如西子胜三分──西子：即西施。《庄子·天运》说：“西施病心而颦(皱眉)”，益增娇艳。<br />
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The ancients thought that the more the mind, the smarter it was, so they described Daiyu as extremely clever. <br />
Illness like Xi Zi wins three points - Xi Zi: Xi Shi. Zhuangzi Tianyun said: "Xi Shi frowns (frowns) when she is ill", which increases her beauty.--[[User:Zeng Junlin|Zeng Junlin]] ([[User talk:Zeng Junlin|talk]]) 12:01, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==曾俊霖 Zēng Jùnlín 国别 男 202120081478==<br />
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故以“病如西子胜三分”形容黛玉病弱而娇美。 胜：胜过，超过。 下面贾宝玉替林黛玉起表字为“颦颦”，亦用西施颦眉之典，但又不敢明说，故编了一套谎活，杜撰了《古今人物通考》书名。<br />
Therefore, Dai Yu is described as weak and beautiful by "sick as Xizi wins three points". Next, Jia Baoyu wrote "Pingping" for Lin Daiyu. He also used the code of Xi shi’s frown, but he didn't dare to say it clearly, so he made up a set of lies and invented the title of the general examination of ancient and modern characters. --[[User:Zeng Junlin|Zeng Junlin]] ([[User talk:Zeng Junlin|talk]]) 12:00, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==陈惠妮 Chén Huìnī 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081479==<br />
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教引嬷嬷──清代专司教导年幼皇子的女子，称“谙达”。后来世家大族也仿效而行。<br />
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“花气袭人”之句：是宋·陆游《村居书喜》中的半句，原诗为七言律诗：<br />
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==陈湘琼 Chén Xiāngqióng 外国语言学及应用语言学 女 202120081480==<br />
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“红桥梅市晓山横，白塔樊江春水生。花气袭人知骤暖，鹊声穿树喜新晴。坊场酒贱贫犹醉，原野泥深老亦耕。<br />
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==陈心怡 Chén Xīnyí 翻译学 女 202120081481==<br />
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最喜先期官赋足，经年无吏叩柴荆。”意谓因闻到花香，才知天气已经骤然暖和了。第二十三回和二十八回均引作“花气袭人知昼暖”，将“骤”误为“昼”，可能是曹雪芹误记。<br />
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==程杨 Chéng Yáng 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081482==<br />
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省(xǐ ng醒)——典出《礼记·曲礼上》：“凡为人子之礼，冬温而夏凊，昏定而晨省。”[凊( jìng净)：凉。]<br />
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Xing (pronounced xǐng) – canonical originated from ''The Book of Rites • Qu Li'': "The etiquette of being sons is: make his parents feel warm in winter, cool in the summer, serve them to bed at night, and greet them in the morning. [Jing (pronounced jìng)]--[[User:Cheng Yang|Cheng Yang]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yang|talk]]) 11:27, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==丁旋 Dīng Xuán 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081483==<br />
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意谓子女冬天要为父母焐暖被褥，夏天要为父母扇凉床席，每天早上要向父母请安问好，晚上要服侍父母安寝。泛指子女对父母的孝敬无微不至。故“省”即“晨省”的略称。<br />
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==杜莉娜 Dù Lìnuó 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081484==<br />
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指子女早晨向父母请安问候的礼节。<br />
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第四回 薄命女偏逢薄命郎，葫芦僧判断葫芦案<br />
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==付红岩 Fù Hóngyán 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081485==<br />
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却说黛玉同姐妹们至王夫人处，见王夫人正和兄嫂处的来使计议家务，又说姨母家遭人命官司等语。因见王夫人事情冗杂，姐妹们遂出来 ,至寡嫂李氏房中来了。原来这李氏即贾珠之妻。<br />
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==付诗雨 Fù Shīyǔ 日语语言文学 女 202120081486==<br />
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珠虽夭亡，幸存一子，取名贾兰，今方五岁，已入学攻书。这李氏亦系金陵名宦之女。父名李守中，曾为国子祭酒；族中男女无不读诗书者。<br />
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Although Bead Merchant had died at an early age, he had the good fortune of leaving behind him a son, to whom the name of Cymbidium Merchant was given. He was, at this period, just in his fifth year, and had already entered school, and applied himself to books. This Silk Plum was also the daughter of an official of note in Gold Mausoleum. Her father's name was Midfielder Plum, who had, at one time, been Imperial Libationer. Among his kindred, men as well as women had all devoted themselves to poetry and letters. --[[User:Fu Shiyu|Fu Shiyu]] ([[User talk:Fu Shiyu|talk]]) 07:24, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==高蜜 Gāo Mì 翻译学 女 202120081487==<br />
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至李守中继续以来，便谓“女子无才便是德”，故生了此女，不曾叫他十分认真读书，只不过将些 《女四书》、 《烈女传》读读，认得几个字，记得前朝这几个贤女便了；<br />
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==宫博雅 Gōng Bóyǎ 俄语语言文学 女 202120081488==<br />
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却以纺绩女红为要，因取名为李纨，字宫裁。所以这李纨虽青春丧偶，且居处于膏粱锦绣之中，竟如槁木死灰一般，一概不问不闻，惟知侍亲养子，闲时陪侍小姑等针黹、诵读而已。<br />
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==何芩 Hé Qín 翻译学 女 202120081489==<br />
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今黛玉虽客居于此，已有这几个姑嫂相伴，除老父之外，馀者也就无用虑了。如今且说贾雨村授了应天府，一到任，就有件人命官司详至案下，却是两家争买一婢，各不相让，以致殴伤人命。彼时雨村即拘原告来审。<br />
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==胡舒情 Hú Shūqíng 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081490==<br />
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那原告道：“被打死的乃是小人的主人。因那日买了个丫头，不想系拐子拐来卖的。这拐子先已得了我家的银子，我家小主人原说第二日方是好日，再接入门；<br />
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==黄锦云 Huáng Jǐnyún 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081491==<br />
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这拐子又悄悄的卖与了薛家，被我们知道了，去找拿卖主，夺取丫头。无奈薛家原系金陵一霸，倚财仗势，众豪奴将我小主人竟打死了。凶身主仆已皆逃走，无有踪迹，只剩了几个局外的人。<br />
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But this kidnapper stealthily sold her over again to the Hsueeh family. When we came to know of this, we went in search of the seller to lay hold of him, and bring back the girl by force. But the Hsueeh party has been all along the bully of Chin Ling, full of confidence in his wealth and prestige; and his arrogant menials in a body seized our master and beat him to death.The murderous master and his crew have all long ago made good their escape, leaving no trace behind them, while there only remain several parties not concerned in the affair. --[[User:Huang Jinyun|Huang Jinyun]] ([[User talk:Huang Jinyun|talk]]) 13:37, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==黄逸妍 Huáng Yìyán 外国语言学及应用语言学 女 202120081492==<br />
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小人告了一年的状，竟无人作主。求太老爷拘拿凶犯，以扶善良，存殁感激天恩不尽！”雨村听了，大怒道：“那有这等事：打死人竟白白的走了，拿不来的？”<br />
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==黄柱梁 Huáng Zhùliáng 国别 男 202120081493==<br />
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便发签差公人，立刻将凶犯家属拿来拷问。只见案旁站着一个门子，使眼色不叫他发签。雨村心下狐疑，只得停了手。He sent a signature to send the official and immediately tortured the family members of the murderer. Seeing a boy page of the court standing by the case, who didn't ask Yucun to sign. Yucun was suspicious and had to stop.--[[User:Huang Zhuliang|Huang Zhuliang]] ([[User talk:Huang Zhuliang|talk]]) 01:45, 26 December 2021 (UTC)Huang Zhuliang<br />
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He sent a signature to send the official and immediately tortured the family members of the murderer. Seeing a boy page of the court standing by the case, who didn't ask Yucun to sign. Yucun was suspicious and had to stop to do it.--[[User:Jin Xiaotong|Jin Xiaotong]] ([[User talk:Jin Xiaotong|talk]]) 11:17, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==金晓童 Jīn Xiǎotóng 202120081494==<br />
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退堂至密室，令从人退去，只留这门子一人伏侍。门子忙上前请安，笑问：“老爷一向加官进禄，八九年来，就忘了我了？”<br />
He retreated to the secret room and ordered everyone to leave the door man alone. The door man is busy forward to ask for his respect, smile to ask: "the master has been adding officials into the salary, eight or nine years, forget me?"--[[User:Jin Xiaotong|Jin Xiaotong]] ([[User talk:Jin Xiaotong|talk]]) 11:20, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==邝艳丽 Kuàng Yànl 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081495==<br />
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雨村道：“我看你十分眼熟，但一时总想不起来。”门子笑道：“老爷怎么把出身之地竟忘了？老爷不记得当年葫芦庙里的事么？”雨村大惊，方想起往事。<br />
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==李爱璇 Lǐ Àixuán 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081496==<br />
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原来这门子本是葫芦庙里一个小沙弥，因被火之后无处安身，想这件生意倒还轻省，耐不得寺院凄凉，遂趁年纪轻，蓄了发，充当门子。雨村那里想得是他。<br />
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It turned out that the gatekeeper was originally a little monk in Bottle-gourd Temple. Because he had no place to settle down after the temple being burned by the fire, he thought this business was easy and could not bear the desolation of the temple. So he saved his hair and acted as a gatekeeper while he was young. Yue-ts'un didn't think it was him.--[[User:Li Aixuan|Li Aixuan]] ([[User talk:Li Aixuan|talk]]) 07:10, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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The fact is that this Retainer had been a young monk in the Hu Lu temple, but because of its destruction by fire, he had no place to rest his frame, he remembered how light and easy was, after all, this kind of occupation, and being unable to reconcile himself to the solitude and quiet of a temple, he accordingly availed himself of his years, which were as yet few, to let his hair grow, and become a retainer. Yue-ts'un had had no idea that it was him. --[[User:Li Ruiyang|Li Ruiyang]] ([[User talk:Li Ruiyang|talk]]) 11:03, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==李瑞洋 Lǐ Ruìyáng 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081497==<br />
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便忙携手笑道：“原来还是故人。”因赏他坐了说话。这门子不敢坐。雨村笑道：“你也算贫贱之交了。此系私室，但坐不妨。”门子才斜签着坐下。<br />
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Hastily taking his hand, he smilingly said, "You are, indeed, an old acquaintance!" and then pressed him to take a seat, so as to have a chat with more ease, but the Retainer would not presume to sit down. "Friendships," Yue-ts'un remarked, putting on a smiling expression, "contracted in poor circumstances should not be forgotten! This is a private room, so that if you sat down, what would it matter?" The Retainer thereupon craved permission to take a seat and sat down gingerly.--[[User:Li Ruiyang|Li Ruiyang]] ([[User talk:Li Ruiyang|talk]]) 11:04, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==李姗 Lǐ Shān 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081498==<br />
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雨村道：“方才何故不令发签？”门子道：“老爷荣任到此，难道就没抄一张本省的‘护官符’来不成？”雨村忙问：“何为‘护官符’？”<br />
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Chia Yu-tsun asked, "Why did you not grant me the passport just now?" The doorman answered that "Your Excellency, when you are to assume office here, haven't you hold some relations to a guard officer? " Yu-tsun was confused and thus continued, "guard officer?".--[[User:Li Shan|Li Shan]] ([[User talk:Li Shan|talk]]) 13:30, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==李双 Lǐ Shuāng 翻译学 女 202120081499==<br />
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门子道：“如今凡作地方官的，都有一个私单，上面写的是本省最有权势极富贵的大乡绅名姓，各省皆然。倘若不知，一时触犯了这样的人家，不但官爵，只怕连性命也难保呢！<br />
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==李文璇 Lǐ Wénxuán 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081500==<br />
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所以叫做‘护官符’。方才所说的这薛家，老爷如何惹得他！他这件官司并无难断之处，从前的官府都因碍着情分脸面，所以如此。”<br />
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“So it was called “the amulet of protection from the feudal official. The family Xue we talked just now, we can’t offend them, my lord. His lawsuit had no difficulty, however, the former official had trouble in the relationship, thus causing the situation then.”. --[[User:Li Wenxuan|Li Wenxuan]] ([[User talk:Li Wenxuan|talk]]) 09:46, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==李雯 Lǐ Wén 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081501==<br />
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一面说，一面从顺袋中取出一张抄的“护官符”来，递与雨村看时，上面皆是本地大族名宦之家的俗谚口碑，云：贾不假，白玉为堂金作马。<br />
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==李新星 Lǐ Xīnxīng 亚非语言文学 女 202120081503==<br />
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阿房宫，三百里，住不下金陵一个史。东海缺少白玉床，龙王来请金陵王。丰年好大雪，珍珠如土金如铁。<br />
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==李怡 Lǐ Yí 法语语言文学 女 202120081504==<br />
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雨村尚未看完，忽闻传点，报：“王老爷来拜。”雨村忙具衣冠接迎，有顿饭工夫，方回来问这门子。门子道：“四家皆连络有亲，一损俱损，一荣俱荣。<br />
Yucun has not finished reading, suddenly smell spread point, report: "Wang master came to visit." Yucun hurriedly arranged his clothes to meet him and had a meal before he came back to ask about it. Siemens way: "the four are connected to have relatives, a failure other destroyed, a glory other glory.--[[User:Li Yi|Li Yi]] ([[User talk:Li Yi|talk]]) 06:45, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Yucun has not finished reading, but suddenly heard from the messenger saying : "Wang master come to visit." Yucun hurriedly arranged his clothes to welcome him. Only after a meal did he come back to ask Menzi, who said: "the four families are closely connected, so do their honor and failure.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 07:12, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==刘沛婷 Liú Pèitíng 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081505==<br />
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今告打死人之薛，就是‘丰年大雪’之薛。不单靠这三家，他的世交亲友在都在外的本也不少，老爷如今拿谁去？”雨村听说，便笑问门子道：“这样说来，却怎么了结此案？<br />
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The xue of killing people is the xue of 'heavy snow in the year of plenty'. He has not only these three families, but also many family friends and relatives who are away from home. Who are you going to take now?" Rain village heard, then smiled and asked Siemens way: "So say, but how to settle the case?--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 07:05, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==刘胜楠 Liú Shèngnán 翻译学 女 202120081506==<br />
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你大约也深知这凶犯躲的方向了？”门子笑道：“不瞒老爷说，不但这凶犯躲的方向，并这拐的人我也知道，死鬼买主也深知道，待我细说与老爷听：<br />
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==刘薇 Liú Wēi 国别 女 202120081507==<br />
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这个被打死的是一个小乡宦之子，名唤冯渊，父母俱亡，又无兄弟，守着些薄产度日。年纪十八九岁，酷爱男风，不好女色。这也是前生冤孽，可巧遇见这丫头，他便一眼看上了，立意买来作妾，设誓不近男色，也不再娶第二个了。<br />
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==刘晓 Liú Xiǎo 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081508==<br />
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所以郑重其事，必得三日后方进门。谁知这拐子又偷卖与薛家，他意欲卷了两家的银子逃去；谁知又走不脱，两家拿住，打了个半死，都不肯收银，各要领人。<br />
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==刘越 Liú Yuè 亚非语言文学 女 202120081509==<br />
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那薛公子便喝令下人动手，将冯公子打了个稀烂，抬回去三日竟死了。这薛公子原择下日子要上京的，既打了人，夺了丫头，他便没事人一般，只管带了家眷走他的路，并非为此而逃；<br />
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He then rudely ordered his subordinates to do something about it, and beat Feng up so badly that he was carried home and died within three days. The Duke of Xue had intended to go to the capital in a few days, and since he had beaten and robbed the maid, he acted as if nothing had happened, and simply took his family away, not because of this escape;--[[User:Liu Yue|Liu Yue]] ([[User talk:Liu Yue|talk]]) 06:59, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==刘运心 Liú Yùnxīn 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081510==<br />
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这人命些些小事，自有他弟兄、奴仆在此料理。这且别说，老爷可知这被卖的丫头是谁？”雨村道：“我如何晓得？”门子冷笑道：“这人还是老爷的大恩人呢！<br />
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==罗安怡 Luó Ānyí 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081511==<br />
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他就是葫芦庙旁住的甄老爷的女儿，小名英莲的。”雨村骇然道：“原来是他！听见他自五岁被人拐去，怎么如今才卖呢？”门子道：“这种拐子单拐幼女，养至十二三岁，带至他乡转卖。<br />
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==罗曦 Luó Xī 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081512==<br />
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当日这英莲，我们天天哄他玩耍，极相熟的，所以隔了七八年，虽模样儿出脱的齐整，然大段未改，所以认得；且他眉心中原有米粒大的一点胭脂记，从胎里带来的。<br />
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==马新 Mǎ Xīn 外国语言学及应用语言学 女 202120081513==<br />
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偏这拐子又租了我的房子居住，那日拐子不在家，我也曾问他。他说是打怕了的，万不敢说，只说拐子是他的亲爹，因无钱还债才卖的。再四哄他，他又哭了，只说：‘我原不记得小时的事。’<br />
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The trafficker had rented my house to live in by coincidence. I had ever asked her one day when the trafficker was not at home. She said that she dared not to say anything after being attacked for a long time, and only answered that he was her father who sold her to pay off the debts. By coaxing her for several times, she cried again and said that "I don’t remember what happened when I was a child".--[[User:Ma Xin|Ma Xin]] ([[User talk:Ma Xin|talk]]) 07:14, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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The kidnapper just happened to rent the houses from me. One day, when he was not at home, I asked her about such a thing. She told me that she was afraid to say anything after being beaten so much; she only insisted that he was her father who sold her to pay off his debts. When I tried repeatedly to coax it out of her, she burst into tears and said that 'I do not remember what happened in my childhood.'--[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 08:29, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==毛雅文 Máo Yǎwén 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081514==<br />
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这无可疑了。那日冯公子相见了，兑了银子，因拐子醉了，英莲自叹说：‘我今日罪孽可满了！’后又听见三日后才过门，他又转有忧愁之态。<br />
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There is not doubt that the girl who was carried off by the kidnapper is Yinglian all right. The day when Feng Yuan met her and paid down his silver, the kidnapper had got drunk. And then, Yinglian sighed, 'I am overwhelmed by my sins today!' However, her gloom started deepening again, when she heard that Feng Yuan would not be coming and picking her up for three days.--[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 08:14, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==毛优 Máo Yōu 俄语语言文学 女 202120081515==<br />
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我又不忍，等拐子出去，又叫内人去解劝他：‘这冯公子必待好日期来接，可知必不以丫鬟相看。况他是个绝风流人品，家里颇过得，素性又最厌恶堂客，今竟破价买你，后事不言可知。<br />
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==牟一心 Móu Yīxīn 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081516==<br />
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只耐得三两日，何必忧闷？’他听如此说，方略解些，自谓从此得所。谁料天下竟有不如意事，第二日，他偏又卖与了薛家。<br />
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Only for three or two days, why bother to be depressed? Hearing this, he relieved a little bit, saying that he would get a place to settle since then. Unexpectedly, everything is never perfect. On the next day, he was sold to the Xue.--[[User:Mou Yixin|Mou Yixin]] ([[User talk:Mou Yixin|talk]]) 07:13, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==彭瑞雪 Péng Ruìxuě 法语语言文学 女 202120081517==<br />
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若卖与第二家还好，这薛公子的混名，人称他‘呆霸王’，最是天下第一个弄性尚气的人，而且使钱如土。只打了个落花流水，生拖死拽，把个英莲拖去，如今也不知死活。<br />
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==秦建安 Qín Jiànān 外国语言学及应用语言学 女 202120081518==<br />
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这冯公子空喜一场，一念未遂，反花了钱，送了命，岂不可叹！”雨村听了，也叹道：“这也是他们的孽障遭遇，亦非偶然，不然这冯渊如何偏只看上了这英莲？<br />
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==邱婷婷 Qiū Tíngtíng 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081519==<br />
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这英莲受了拐子这几年折磨，才得了个路头，且又是个多情的，若果聚合了，倒是件美事，偏又生出这段事来。这薛家纵比冯家富贵，想其为人，自然姬妾众多，淫佚无度，未必及冯渊定情于一人。<br />
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==饶金盈 Ráo Jīnyíng 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081520==<br />
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这正是梦幻情缘，恰遇见一对薄命儿女。且不要议论他人，只目今这官司如何剖断才好？”门子笑道：“老爷当年何其明决，今日何反成个没主意的人了？<br />
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It should be the love of dream, only to be an ill-fated couple. Don’t talk about others for the moment. It’s crucial that this case be judged properly.” The servant said with a smile, “ how decisive you were in those days. Why are you so irresolute at the present ?”--[[User:Shi Liqing|Shi Liqing]] ([[User talk:Shi Liqing|talk]]) 07:31, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==石丽青 Shí Lìqīng 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081521==<br />
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小的听见老爷补升此任，系贾府、王府之力。此薛蟠即贾府之亲，老爷何不顺水行舟，做个人情，将此案了结，日后也好去见贾、王二公。”<br />
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I heard that you respected master assumed office with the help of Jia Mansion and Wang Mansion. Xue Pan is a relative of Jia Mansion. Why don’t you do him a special favor, making use of the opportunity to settle the case, so that you can make a smooth explanation to master Jia and Wang in days to come.”--[[User:Shi Liqing|Shi Liqing]] ([[User talk:Shi Liqing|talk]]) 07:03, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==孙雅诗 Sūn Yǎshī 外国语言学及应用语言学 女 202120081522==<br />
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雨村道：“你说的何尝不是，但事关人命，蒙皇上隆恩，起复委用，正竭力图报之时，岂可因私枉法？是实不忍为的。”门子听了，冷笑道：<br />
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==王李菲 Wáng Lǐfēi 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081523==<br />
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“老爷说的自是正理，但如今世上是行不去的。岂不闻古人说的：‘大丈夫相时而动。’又说：‘趋吉避凶者为君子。’依老爷这话，不但不能报效朝廷，亦且自身不保，还要三思为妥。”<br />
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“What lord said is reasonable, but it is unfeasible in the current world. Have you not heard what the ancients said:’ A real man can take action according to the specific situation’, and ‘The one who can avoid calamity and bring on good fortune is a gentleman.’ According to lord’s words, you not only can’t serve the court, but also can’t protect yourself. You’d better think it over. ‘ --[[User:Wang Lifei|Wang Lifei]] ([[User talk:Wang Lifei|talk]]) 15:40, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==王逸凡 Wáng Yìfán 亚非语言文学 女 202120081524==<br />
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雨村低了头，半日方说道：“依你怎么着？”门子道：“小人已想了个很好的主意在此：老爷明日坐堂，只管虚张声势，动文书，发签拿人。<br />
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==王镇隆 Wáng Zhènlóng 英语语言文学（英美文学） 男 202120081525==<br />
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凶犯自然是拿不来的，原告固是不依，只用将薛家族人及奴仆人等拿几个来拷问；小的在暗中调停，令他们报个‘暴病身亡’，合族中及地方上共递一张保呈。<br />
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==卫怡雯 Wèi Yíwén 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081526==<br />
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老爷只说善能扶鸾请仙，堂上设了乩坛，令军民人等只管来看。老爷便说：‘乩仙批了，死者冯渊与薛蟠原系夙孽，今犯狭路相遇，原应了结：<br />
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==魏楚璇 Wèi Chǔxuán 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081527==<br />
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今薛蟠已得了无名之病，被冯渊的魂魄追索而死。其祸皆由拐子而起，除将拐子按法处治外，馀不累及’等语。小人暗中嘱咐拐子，令其实招。<br />
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==魏兆妍 Wèi Zhàoyán 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081528==<br />
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众人见乩仙批语与拐子相符，自然不疑了。薛家有的是钱，老爷断一千也可，五百也可，与冯家作烧埋之费。那冯家也无甚要紧的人，不过为的是钱，有了银子，也就无话了。<br />
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==吴婧悦 Wú Jìngyuè 俄语语言文学 女 202120081529==<br />
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老爷细想，此计如何？”雨村笑道：“不妥，不妥。等我再斟酌斟酌，压服得口声才好。”二人计议已定。至次日坐堂，勾取一干有名人犯，雨村详加审问。<br />
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The lord thought carefully, and asked how about this plan? Yucun laughed and said: “ It’s not the right way, it’s not the right way. Let me think the matter over, the plan should be convinced by all the others.” Then they confirmed the plan. At tomorrow’s court session, convening all criminals, whose name was known, Yucun questioned them seriously. --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 14:31, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==吴映红 Wú Yìnghóng 日语语言文学 女 202120081530==<br />
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果见冯家人口稀少，不过赖此欲得些烧埋之银；薛家仗势倚情，偏不相让：故致颠倒未决。雨村便徇情枉法，胡乱判断了此案。<br />
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==肖毅瑶 Xiāo Yìyáo 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081531==<br />
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冯家得了许多烧埋银子，也就无甚话说了。雨村便疾忙修书二封与贾政并京营节度使王子腾，不过说“令甥之事已完，不必过虑”之言寄去。<br />
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The Feng family got a lot of buried silver and had nothing to say. Rain village will quickly repair two letters and Jia Zheng and Jingying jie make Prince Teng, but said "nephew has finished, do not have to worry about" words to send.--[[User:Xiao Yiyao|Xiao Yiyao]] ([[User talk:Xiao Yiyao|talk]]) 10:25, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==谢佳芬 Xiè Jiāfēn 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081532==<br />
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此事皆由葫芦庙内沙弥新门子所为，雨村又恐他对人说出当日贫贱时事来，因此心中大不乐意。后来到底寻了他一个不是，远远的充发了才罢。当下言不着雨村。<br />
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It was all done by a novice monk Xinmenzi in Gourd Temple. Yucun was afraid that he would tell people about the awful current affairs of that day, so he was very unsatisfied. Later, Yucan pick holes in him , and banished him far away. Now, there was no one talking about bad things about Yucun.--[[User:Xie Jiafen|Xie Jiafen]] ([[User talk:Xie Jiafen|talk]]) 14:05, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==谢庆琳 Xiè Qìnglín 俄语语言文学 女 202120081533==<br />
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且说那买了英莲、打死冯渊的薛公子，亦系金陵人氏，本是书香继世之家。只是如今这薛公子幼年丧父，寡母又怜他是个独根孤种，未免溺爱纵容些，遂致老大无成；<br />
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==熊敏 Xióng Mǐn 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081534==<br />
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且家中有百万之富，现领着内帑钱粮，采办杂料。这薛公子学名薛蟠，表字文起，性情奢侈，言语傲慢；虽也上过学，不过略识几个字，终日惟有斗鸡走马，游山玩景而已。<br />
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In addition, there are countless money in the family, and now people are taking the domestic money and food to purchase stuffs. The Mr. Xue so-called Xue Pan, is entitled as Wenqi with extravagant temperament and arrogant speech. Although he has also gone to school, but he knows a few words, he only like fighting cock walking around the mountains and enjoying the scenery all day long.<br />
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In addition, there are countless money in the family, and now people are taking the domestic money and food to purchase stuffs. Mr.Xue, whose name is Xue Pan, is entitled as Wenqi with extravagant temperament and arrogant speech. Although he has also gone to school, he knows a few words, he only like fighting cock walking around the mountains and enjoying the scenery all day long.--[[User:Xu Minyun|Xu Minyun]] ([[User talk:Xu Minyun|talk]]) 11:21, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==徐敏赟 Xú Mǐnyūn 语言智能与跨文化传播研究 男 202120081535==<br />
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虽是皇商，一应经纪世事全然不知，不过赖祖、父旧日的情分，户部挂个虚名，支领钱粮；其馀事体，自有伙计、老家人等措办。<br />
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Although he was a royal merchant, he knew nothing about economics. However, due to the old affection of his grandfathers and fathers, he was given a virtual position in Board of Revenue to received money and grain, and the rest of affairs were handled by his clerks and old family members.--[[User:Xu Minyun|Xu Minyun]] ([[User talk:Xu Minyun|talk]]) 09:43, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Although he was a royal merchant, he knew nothing about economics. However, due to the old affection of his ancestors and his father, he was given a virtual position in Board of Revenue to received money and grain, and the rest of affairs were handled by his clerks and old family members.--[[User:Yan Jing|Yan Jing]] ([[User talk:Yan Jing|talk]]) 11:08, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==颜静 Yán Jìng 语言智能与跨文化传播研究 女 202120081536==<br />
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寡母王氏，乃现任京营节度使王子腾之妹，与荣国府贾政的夫人王氏是一母所生的姊妹，今年方五十上下，只有薛蟠一子。还有一女，比薛蟠小两岁，乳名宝钗，生得肌骨莹润，举止娴雅。<br />
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Wang, the widowed mother, is the sister of Wang Ziteng, the current governor of Jingying Festival and the sister of Wang, the wife of Jia Zheng in the Rongguo mansion. This year, she is about 50, and has only a son Xue Pan. Besides, she has a daughter, whose milk name is Bao Chai, two years younger than Xue Pan. Bao Chai has beautiful body and behave elegantly .<br />
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==颜莉莉 Yán Lìlì 国别 女 202120081537==<br />
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当时他父亲在日极爱此女，令其读书识字，较之乃兄竟高十倍。自父亲死后，见哥哥不能安慰母心，他便不以书字为念，只留心针黹、家计等事，好为母亲分忧代劳。<br />
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His father had been so fond of her that he had sent her to read ten times better than her brother. Seeing that her brother could not pacify her mother after her father's death, she stopped thinking about reading and only cared about needle-work and family livelihood in order to share her mother's cares and duties.<br />
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==颜子涵 Yán Zǐhán 国别 女 202120081538==<br />
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近因今上崇尚诗礼，征采才能，降不世之隆恩，除聘选妃嫔外，凡世宦名家之女，皆得亲名达部，以备选择为公主、郡主入学陪侍，充为才人、赞善之职。<br />
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==阳佳颖 Yáng Jiāyǐng 国别 女 202120081540==<br />
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自薛蟠父亲死后，各省中所有的买卖承局、总管、伙计人等，见薛蟠年轻不谙世事，便趁时拐骗起来，京都几处生意，渐亦销耗。<br />
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Ever since the death of Xue Pan's father， all the assistants， managers and partners， and other employees in the respective provinces， perceiving how youthful and inexperienced Xue Pan was in years， readily availed themselves of the time to begin swindling and defrauding. As a result, The business， carried on in various different places in the capital，gradually also began to fall off and to show a deficit.--[[User:Yang Jiaying|Yang Jiaying]] ([[User talk:Yang Jiaying|talk]]) 08:33, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==杨爱江 Yáng Àijiāng 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081541==<br />
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薛蟠素闻得都中乃第一繁华之地，正思一游，便趁此机会：一来送妹待选；二来望亲；三来亲自入部销算旧账，再计新支；其实只为游览上国风光之意。<br />
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==杨堃 Yáng Kūn 法语语言文学 女 202120081542==<br />
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因此早已检点下行装细软，以及馈送亲友各色土物人情等类，正择日起身，不想偏遇着那拐子卖英莲。薛蟠见英莲生的不俗，立意买了作妾，又遇冯家来夺，因恃强喝令豪奴将冯渊打死。<br />
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==杨柳青 Yáng Liǔqīng 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081543==<br />
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便将家中事务，一一嘱托了族中人并几个老家人；自己同着母亲、妹子，竟自起身长行去了。人命官司，他却视为儿戏，自谓花上几个钱，没有不了的。<br />
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Dragon Marshgrass entrusted the household affairs to the clan middleman and old family members. Then he just went away with his mother and sister. He should deem the affair of murder as a trifling matter and believed it could be easily solved through money.--[[User:Yang Liuqing|Yang Liuqing]] ([[User talk:Yang Liuqing|talk]]) 12:31, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==叶维杰 Yè Wéijié 国别 男 202120081544==<br />
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在路不计其日。那日已将入都，又听见母舅王子腾升了九省统制，奉旨出都查边。薛蟠心中暗喜道：“我正愁进京去有舅舅管辖，不能任意挥霍；如今升出去，可知天从人愿。”<br />
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==易扬帆 Yì Yángfān 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081545==<br />
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因和母亲商议道：“咱们京中虽有几处房舍，只是这十来年没人居住，那看守的人未免偷着租赁给人住，须得先着人去打扫收拾才好。”他母亲道：“何必如此招摇？”<br />
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So he discussed with his mother, "Although we have a few premises in the capital, no one has lived there for ten years, the guards may sneakily rent to people to live, we must first ask someone to clean and tidy up." His mother said, "Why do you have to be so flashy? "--[[User:Yi Yangfan|Yi Yangfan]] ([[User talk:Yi Yangfan|talk]]) 09:23, 25 December 2021 (UTC)Yi Yangfan<br />
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So he discussed with his mother, "Although we have a few houses in the capital, no one has lived there for ten years. The guards may sneakily rent the house to other people, so we must first send someone to tidy up the house. His mother said, "Why do you have to be so flashy? "--[[User:Yin Huizhen|Yin Huizhen]] ([[User talk:Yin Huizhen|talk]]) 13:50, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==殷慧珍 Yīn Huìzhēn 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081546==<br />
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咱们这进京去，原是先拜望亲友，或是在你舅舅处，或是你姨父家，他两家的房舍极是宽敞的，咱们且住下，再慢慢儿的着人去收拾，岂不消停些？”<br />
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Now we go to the capital Beijing, and we should visit our relatives first. Your uncle‘s or your aunt‘s husband’s house are good choices, and their houses are very spacious. Let's stay there for a while and then send someone to clean up the house，and it will be more inconspicuous.--[[User:Yin Huizhen|Yin Huizhen]] ([[User talk:Yin Huizhen|talk]]) 13:38, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==殷美达 Yīn Měidá 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081547==<br />
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薛蟠道：“如今舅舅正升了外省去，家里自然忙乱起身，咱们这会子反一窝一拖的奔了去，岂不没眼色呢？”他母亲道：“你舅舅虽升了去，还有你姨父家。<br />
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==尹媛 Yǐn Yuán 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081548==<br />
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况这几年来，你舅舅、姨娘两处，每每带信捎书接咱们来；如今既来了，你舅舅虽忙着起身，你贾家的姨娘未必不苦留我们，咱们且忙忙的收拾房子，岂不使人见怪？你的意思，我早知道了：<br />
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==詹若萱 Zhān Ruòxuān 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081549==<br />
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守着舅舅、姨母住着，未免拘紧了；不如各自住着，好任意施为。你既如此，你自去挑所宅子去住；我和你姨娘，姊妹们别了这几年，却要住几日，我带了你妹子去投你姨娘家去。你道好不好？”<br />
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==张秋怡 Zhāng Qiūyí 亚非语言文学 女 202120081550==<br />
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薛蟠见母亲如此说，情知扭不过，只得吩咐人夫，一路奔荣国府而来。那时王夫人已知薛蟠官司一事，亏贾雨村就中维持了，才放了心。<br />
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==张扬 Zhāng Yáng 国别 男 202120081551==<br />
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又见哥哥升了边缺，正愁少了娘家的亲戚来往，略觉寂寞。过了几日，忽家人报：“姨太太带了哥儿、姐儿，合家进京，在门外下车了。”<br />
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Seeing that her brother was promoted, she was worried about the lack of relatives in her mother's family, and felt a little lonely. A few days later, suddenly her family reported: "concubine brought her brothers and sisters to Beijing and got off outside the door."--[[User:Zhang Yang|Zhang Yang]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yang|talk]]) 10:02, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Seeing that her brother was promoted, Dragon Marshgrass was worried about the lack of relatives in her mother's family, and felt a little lonely. A few days later, suddenly her family reported: "concubine brought her brothers and sisters to Beijing and got off outside the door."--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:38, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==张怡然 Zhāng Yírán 俄语语言文学 女 202120081552==<br />
<br />
喜的王夫人忙带了人，接到大厅上，将薛姨妈等接进去了。姊妹们一朝相见，悲喜交集，自不必说。叙了一番契阔，又引着拜见贾母，将人情土物各种酬献了，合家俱厮见过，又治席接风。<br />
<br />
Lady King was so happy that she brought someone to the hall and took Aunt Marshgrass in. The sisters were joy tempered with sorrow to see each other that it goes without saying. Told a story of great deeds, and led to visit Grandma Merchant, all kinds of reward will be offered, together with the furniture saw, and treat the seat to receive wind.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:35, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Mr. Wang was so happy that she brought someone to the hall and took Aunt Xue in. The sisters were in joy tempered with sorrow to see each other that it goes without saying. Told a story of great deeds, and led to visit Grandma Merchant, all kinds of reward will be offered, together with the furniture saw, and treat the seat to receive wind.--[[User:Zhong Yifei|Zhong Yifei]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yifei|talk]]) 10:07, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==钟义菲 Zhōng Yìfēi 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081553==<br />
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薛蟠拜见过贾政、贾琏，又引着见了贾赦、贾珍等。贾政便使人进来对王夫人说：“姨太太已有了年纪，外甥年轻，不知庶务，在外住着，恐又要生事。<br />
<br />
Xue Pan met Jia Zheng and Jia Lian and introduced Jia She and Jia Zhen. Jia Zheng sent someone in and said to Mrs. Wang, "my aunt is old, and my nephew is young. He doesn't know about general affairs. If he is living outside, I am afraid that something will happen again.--[[User:Zhong Yifei|Zhong Yifei]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yifei|talk]]) 10:10, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xue Pan met Jia Zheng and Jia Lian and introduced Jia She and Jia Zhen. Jia Zheng sent someone in and said to Mrs. Wang, "my aunt is old, and my nephew is young. He doesn't know about general affairs. If he lives outside, I am afraid that he will make some trouble.--[[User:Zhong Yulu|Zhong Yulu]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yulu|talk]]) 13:01, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==钟雨露 Zhōng Yǔlù 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081554==<br />
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咱们东南角上梨香院那一所房十来间白空闲着，叫人请了姨太太和姐儿、哥儿住了甚好。”王夫人原要留住。贾母也遣人来说：“请姨太太就在这里住下，大家亲密些。”<br />
<br />
“We have a room in the southeast corner of the Li Xiang courtyard that is vacant, and ask someone to invite the aunt and sister and brother to live here.” Mrs. Wang originally wanted to stay. Mrs. Jia also sent someone to say: “Please invite the aunt to stay here, the relationship between us will be closer.”--[[User:Zhong Yulu|Zhong Yulu]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yulu|talk]]) 12:58, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“We have dozens of room in the southeast corner of the Li Xiang courtyard that is vacant, and ask someone to invite the aunt and sister and brother to live here.” Mrs. Wang originally wanted to stay. Mrs. Jia also sent someone to say: “Please stay here, the relationship between us will be closer.”--[[User:Zhou Jiu|Zhou Jiu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Jiu|talk]]) 02:51, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==周玖 Zhōu Jiǔ 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081555==<br />
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薛姨妈正欲同居一处，方可拘紧些儿子；若另住在外边，又恐他纵性惹祸：遂忙应允。又私与王夫人说明：“一应日费供给，一概都免，方是处常之法。”<br />
<br />
Aunt Xue wanted to live here so that she could supervise her son. If she lived elsewhere, she feared that her son would get into trouble again. So he agreed. She said to Mrs. Wang privately, "The Xue family will pay for all the supplies in the Jia mansion by themselves. This is the only way to get along with them for a long time."<br />
<br />
==周俊辉 Zhōu Jùnhuī 法语语言文学 女 202120081556==<br />
<br />
王夫人知他家不难于此，遂亦从其自便。从此后，薛家母女就在梨香院住了。原来这梨香院乃当日荣公暮年养静之所，小小巧巧，约有十馀间房舍，前厅后舍俱全。<br />
<br />
==周巧 Zhōu Qiǎo 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081557==<br />
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另有一门通街，薛蟠的家人就走此门出入。西南上又有一个角门，通着夹道子，出了夹道，便是王夫人正房的东院了。每日或饭后或晚间，薛姨妈便过来，或与贾母闲谈，或与王夫人相叙；<br />
<br />
==周清 Zhōu Qīng 法语语言文学 女 202120081558==<br />
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宝钗日与黛玉、迎春姊妹等一处，或看书下棋，或做针黹：倒也十分相安。只是薛蟠起初原不欲在贾府中居住，生恐姨父管束，不得自在。无奈母亲执意在此，且贾宅中又十分殷勤苦留，只得暂且住下；<br />
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==周小雪 Zhōu Xiǎoxuě 日语语言文学 女 202120081559==<br />
<br />
一面使人打扫出自家的房屋，再移居过去。谁知自此间住了不上一月，贾宅族中凡有的子侄，俱已认熟了一半，都是那些纨袴气习，莫不喜与他来往。<br />
<br />
==朱素珍 Zhū Sùzhēn 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081561==<br />
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今日会酒，明日观花，甚至聚赌嫖娼，无所不至，引诱的薛蟠比当日更坏了十倍。虽说贾政训子有方，治家有法，一则族大人多，照管不到；二则现在房长乃是贾珍，彼乃宁府长孙，又现袭职，凡族中事，都是他掌管；<br />
Staying together and drinking wine today, appreciating flowers tomorrow, and even gambling and prostitution, everything will be done. Xue Pan, who is seduced, is ten times worse than that day. Although Jia Zhengxun is good at governing family, on the one hand,there are so many people in the family that he can not look after everyone; On the other hand, the house chief is Jia Zhen, and he is the eldest grandson of the Ning Mansion, now everything is in charge of him.<br />
<br />
==邹岳丽 Zōu Yuèlí 日语语言文学 女 202120081562==<br />
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三则公私冗杂，且素性潇洒，不以俗事为要，每公暇之时，不过看书、着棋而已；况这梨香院相隔两层房舍，又有街门别开，任意可以出入：<br />
<br />
==Nadia 202011080004==<br />
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这些子弟们所以只管放意畅怀的，因此薛蟠遂将移居之念渐渐打灭了。<br />
<br />
==Mahzad Heydarian 玛莎 202021080004==<br />
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日后如何，下回分解。葫芦僧判断葫芦案──<br />
<br />
==Mariam Toure 2020GBJ002301==<br />
<br />
“葫芦”的谐音为糊涂，故其意谓糊涂僧糊涂判案。<br />
<br />
==Rouabah Soumaya 202121080001==<br />
<br />
指知县贾雨村按照现为衙门门子而原为葫芦庙小沙弥的主意糊里糊涂判结了薛蟠强买甄英莲并打死人命一案。<br />
<br />
Zhizhi County Jia Yucun was confused and convicted the case of Xue Panqiang buying Zhen Yinglian and killing people based on the idea that he is now Yamenzi but was originally a young novice monk in the Gourd Temple.<br />
<br />
==Muhammad Numan 202121080002==<br />
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女子无才便是德──语出明·张岱《公祭祁夫人文》：<br />
<br />
==Atta Ur Rahman 202121080003==<br />
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“(陈)眉公曰：‘丈夫有德便是才，女子无才便是德。’此语殊为未确。”<br />
<br />
==Muhammad Saqib Mehran 202121080004==<br />
<br />
(又见清·石成金《家训钞》引)<br />
<br />
==Zohaib Chand 202121080005==<br />
<br />
意谓女子如果读书识字，便可能受到小说、戏曲的不良影响，做出伤风败俗的事，倒不如不识字而能保持妇德。<br />
<br />
==Jawad Ahmad 202121080006==<br />
<br />
《女四书》、《列女传》──都是记述历代贤德女子的事迹，以宣扬封建妇德的书。<br />
English:The Four Books on Women and the Biography of Lienu ─ ─ both describe the deeds of <br />
<br />
virtuous women in past dynasties to publicize the feudal virtues of women.<br />
<br />
==Nizam Uddin 202121080007==<br />
<br />
《女四书》：明·王相模仿南宋·朱熹所编《四书》而辑成，包括东汉·班昭的《女诫》、唐·宋若莘和宋若昭的《女论语》、明·永乐皇后徐氏的《内训》、王相之母刘氏的《女范捷录》四种专讲女德的书，故称。<br />
<br />
==Öncü 202121080008==<br />
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《列女传》：西汉·刘向编撰。全书七卷，每卷为一类，分别为母仪、贤明、仁智、贞顺、节义、辩通、嬖孽，共收妇女故事一百零四则。<br />
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==Akira Jantarat 202121080009==<br />
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纺绩女红(gōng工)──泛指女子应做的家务活计。<br />
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Fangji Female Red (''gong'')──refers to the household chores of women.--[[User:Benjamin Wellsand|Benjamin Wellsand]] ([[User talk:Benjamin Wellsand|talk]]) 19:13, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Benjamin Wellsand 202111080118==<br />
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纺绩：“纺”是把丝纺成纱，“绩”是把麻绩成线。<br />
<br />
''Fangji'': "Fang" means to spin silk into yarn, "Ji" means to turn the hemp into thread.--[[User:Benjamin Wellsand|Benjamin Wellsand]] ([[User talk:Benjamin Wellsand|talk]]) 19:06, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==Asep Budiman 202111080020==<br />
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女红：又作“女工”或“女功”。<br />
<br />
==Ei Mon Kyaw 202111080021==<br />
<br />
是指纺织、缝纫、刺绣等。</div>Zhang Yiranhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20211229_homework&diff=13436720211229 homework2021-12-26T14:35:02Z<p>Zhang Yiran: /* 张怡然 Zhāng Yírán 俄语语言文学 女 202120081552 */</p>
<hr />
<div>Quicklinks: [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021|Back to course homepage]] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal#Frequently_asked_questions_FAQ FAQ] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal Manual] [[20210926_homework|Back to all homework webpages overview]] [[20220112_final_exam|final exam page]]<br />
<br />
PLEASE READ [[Joint_translation_terms|Joint translation terms]] <br />
<br />
PLEASE ALSO READ THE PREVIOUS PARTS, AT LEAST THE SENTENCES BEFORE YOUR OWN PART IN CHAPTER 19 [[20210303_culture|1, Mar 3 Chapters 1-4]], [[20210310_culture|2, Mar 10 Chapters 6-7]], [[20210317_culture|3, Mar 17 Chapters 11-13]], [[20210324_culture|4, Mar 24 Chapters 15-17]], [[20210331_culture|5, Mar 31 Chapters 4-7]], [[20210407_culture|6, Apr 7 Chapters 8-10]], [[20210414_culture|7, Apr 14 Chapters 13-15]] , [[20210519_culture|12, May 19 Chapters 17-19]], [[20210929_homework#Hongloumeng|for Sep 29 - rest of HLM Chapter 19]] [[20211013_homework|for Oct 13 - HLM Chapters 20-21]] [[20211020_homework|for Oct 20 - HLM Chapters 21-22]] [[20211027_homework|for Oct 27 - HLM Chapters 23-24]] etc.<br />
<br />
==陈静 Chén Jìng 国别 女 202020080595==<br />
<br />
心较比干多一窍──比干：暴君商(殷)纣王之叔，被誉为圣人。据《史记·殷本纪》载：纣王厌恶比干谏诤不已，怒曰：“吾闻圣人心有七窍。”于是“剖比干，观其心”。<br />
<br />
The heart is one more hole than Bigan. Bigan, the uncle of tyrant Shang King Zhou, is known as a saint. According to Historical Records: Yin Dynasty, King Zhou dislikes the advisement of Bigan, so said with anger,"I heard that a saint has seven hole in his heart." Thus, Bigan was anatomized to observe his heart.--[[User:Chen Jing|Chen Jing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jing|talk]]) 11:44, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==蔡珠凤 Cài Zhūfèng 法语语言文学 女 202120081477==<br />
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古人以为心窍越多越聪明，故以“心较比干多一窍” 形容黛玉绝顶聪明。<br />
<br />
病如西子胜三分──西子：即西施。《庄子·天运》说：“西施病心而颦(皱眉)”，益增娇艳。<br />
<br />
The ancients thought that the more the mind, the smarter it was, so they described Daiyu as extremely clever. <br />
Illness like Xi Zi wins three points - Xi Zi: Xi Shi. Zhuangzi Tianyun said: "Xi Shi frowns (frowns) when she is ill", which increases her beauty.--[[User:Zeng Junlin|Zeng Junlin]] ([[User talk:Zeng Junlin|talk]]) 12:01, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==曾俊霖 Zēng Jùnlín 国别 男 202120081478==<br />
<br />
故以“病如西子胜三分”形容黛玉病弱而娇美。 胜：胜过，超过。 下面贾宝玉替林黛玉起表字为“颦颦”，亦用西施颦眉之典，但又不敢明说，故编了一套谎活，杜撰了《古今人物通考》书名。<br />
Therefore, Dai Yu is described as weak and beautiful by "sick as Xizi wins three points". Next, Jia Baoyu wrote "Pingping" for Lin Daiyu. He also used the code of Xi shi’s frown, but he didn't dare to say it clearly, so he made up a set of lies and invented the title of the general examination of ancient and modern characters. --[[User:Zeng Junlin|Zeng Junlin]] ([[User talk:Zeng Junlin|talk]]) 12:00, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==陈惠妮 Chén Huìnī 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081479==<br />
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教引嬷嬷──清代专司教导年幼皇子的女子，称“谙达”。后来世家大族也仿效而行。<br />
<br />
“花气袭人”之句：是宋·陆游《村居书喜》中的半句，原诗为七言律诗：<br />
<br />
==陈湘琼 Chén Xiāngqióng 外国语言学及应用语言学 女 202120081480==<br />
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“红桥梅市晓山横，白塔樊江春水生。花气袭人知骤暖，鹊声穿树喜新晴。坊场酒贱贫犹醉，原野泥深老亦耕。<br />
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==陈心怡 Chén Xīnyí 翻译学 女 202120081481==<br />
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最喜先期官赋足，经年无吏叩柴荆。”意谓因闻到花香，才知天气已经骤然暖和了。第二十三回和二十八回均引作“花气袭人知昼暖”，将“骤”误为“昼”，可能是曹雪芹误记。<br />
<br />
==程杨 Chéng Yáng 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081482==<br />
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省(xǐ ng醒)——典出《礼记·曲礼上》：“凡为人子之礼，冬温而夏凊，昏定而晨省。”[凊( jìng净)：凉。]<br />
<br />
Xing (pronounced xǐng) – canonical originated from ''The Book of Rites • Qu Li'': "The etiquette of being sons is: make his parents feel warm in winter, cool in the summer, serve them to bed at night, and greet them in the morning. [Jing (pronounced jìng)]--[[User:Cheng Yang|Cheng Yang]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yang|talk]]) 11:27, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==丁旋 Dīng Xuán 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081483==<br />
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意谓子女冬天要为父母焐暖被褥，夏天要为父母扇凉床席，每天早上要向父母请安问好，晚上要服侍父母安寝。泛指子女对父母的孝敬无微不至。故“省”即“晨省”的略称。<br />
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==杜莉娜 Dù Lìnuó 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081484==<br />
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指子女早晨向父母请安问候的礼节。<br />
<br />
第四回 薄命女偏逢薄命郎，葫芦僧判断葫芦案<br />
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==付红岩 Fù Hóngyán 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081485==<br />
<br />
却说黛玉同姐妹们至王夫人处，见王夫人正和兄嫂处的来使计议家务，又说姨母家遭人命官司等语。因见王夫人事情冗杂，姐妹们遂出来 ,至寡嫂李氏房中来了。原来这李氏即贾珠之妻。<br />
<br />
==付诗雨 Fù Shīyǔ 日语语言文学 女 202120081486==<br />
<br />
珠虽夭亡，幸存一子，取名贾兰，今方五岁，已入学攻书。这李氏亦系金陵名宦之女。父名李守中，曾为国子祭酒；族中男女无不读诗书者。<br />
<br />
Although Bead Merchant had died at an early age, he had the good fortune of leaving behind him a son, to whom the name of Cymbidium Merchant was given. He was, at this period, just in his fifth year, and had already entered school, and applied himself to books. This Silk Plum was also the daughter of an official of note in Gold Mausoleum. Her father's name was Midfielder Plum, who had, at one time, been Imperial Libationer. Among his kindred, men as well as women had all devoted themselves to poetry and letters. --[[User:Fu Shiyu|Fu Shiyu]] ([[User talk:Fu Shiyu|talk]]) 07:24, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==高蜜 Gāo Mì 翻译学 女 202120081487==<br />
<br />
至李守中继续以来，便谓“女子无才便是德”，故生了此女，不曾叫他十分认真读书，只不过将些 《女四书》、 《烈女传》读读，认得几个字，记得前朝这几个贤女便了；<br />
<br />
==宫博雅 Gōng Bóyǎ 俄语语言文学 女 202120081488==<br />
<br />
却以纺绩女红为要，因取名为李纨，字宫裁。所以这李纨虽青春丧偶，且居处于膏粱锦绣之中，竟如槁木死灰一般，一概不问不闻，惟知侍亲养子，闲时陪侍小姑等针黹、诵读而已。<br />
<br />
==何芩 Hé Qín 翻译学 女 202120081489==<br />
<br />
今黛玉虽客居于此，已有这几个姑嫂相伴，除老父之外，馀者也就无用虑了。如今且说贾雨村授了应天府，一到任，就有件人命官司详至案下，却是两家争买一婢，各不相让，以致殴伤人命。彼时雨村即拘原告来审。<br />
<br />
==胡舒情 Hú Shūqíng 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081490==<br />
<br />
那原告道：“被打死的乃是小人的主人。因那日买了个丫头，不想系拐子拐来卖的。这拐子先已得了我家的银子，我家小主人原说第二日方是好日，再接入门；<br />
<br />
==黄锦云 Huáng Jǐnyún 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081491==<br />
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这拐子又悄悄的卖与了薛家，被我们知道了，去找拿卖主，夺取丫头。无奈薛家原系金陵一霸，倚财仗势，众豪奴将我小主人竟打死了。凶身主仆已皆逃走，无有踪迹，只剩了几个局外的人。<br />
<br />
But this kidnapper stealthily sold her over again to the Hsueeh family. When we came to know of this, we went in search of the seller to lay hold of him, and bring back the girl by force. But the Hsueeh party has been all along the bully of Chin Ling, full of confidence in his wealth and prestige; and his arrogant menials in a body seized our master and beat him to death.The murderous master and his crew have all long ago made good their escape, leaving no trace behind them, while there only remain several parties not concerned in the affair. --[[User:Huang Jinyun|Huang Jinyun]] ([[User talk:Huang Jinyun|talk]]) 13:37, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==黄逸妍 Huáng Yìyán 外国语言学及应用语言学 女 202120081492==<br />
<br />
小人告了一年的状，竟无人作主。求太老爷拘拿凶犯，以扶善良，存殁感激天恩不尽！”雨村听了，大怒道：“那有这等事：打死人竟白白的走了，拿不来的？”<br />
<br />
==黄柱梁 Huáng Zhùliáng 国别 男 202120081493==<br />
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便发签差公人，立刻将凶犯家属拿来拷问。只见案旁站着一个门子，使眼色不叫他发签。雨村心下狐疑，只得停了手。He sent a signature to send the official and immediately tortured the family members of the murderer. Seeing a boy page of the court standing by the case, who didn't ask Yucun to sign. Yucun was suspicious and had to stop.--[[User:Huang Zhuliang|Huang Zhuliang]] ([[User talk:Huang Zhuliang|talk]]) 01:45, 26 December 2021 (UTC)Huang Zhuliang<br />
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He sent a signature to send the official and immediately tortured the family members of the murderer. Seeing a boy page of the court standing by the case, who didn't ask Yucun to sign. Yucun was suspicious and had to stop to do it.--[[User:Jin Xiaotong|Jin Xiaotong]] ([[User talk:Jin Xiaotong|talk]]) 11:17, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==金晓童 Jīn Xiǎotóng 202120081494==<br />
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退堂至密室，令从人退去，只留这门子一人伏侍。门子忙上前请安，笑问：“老爷一向加官进禄，八九年来，就忘了我了？”<br />
He retreated to the secret room and ordered everyone to leave the door man alone. The door man is busy forward to ask for his respect, smile to ask: "the master has been adding officials into the salary, eight or nine years, forget me?"--[[User:Jin Xiaotong|Jin Xiaotong]] ([[User talk:Jin Xiaotong|talk]]) 11:20, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==邝艳丽 Kuàng Yànl 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081495==<br />
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雨村道：“我看你十分眼熟，但一时总想不起来。”门子笑道：“老爷怎么把出身之地竟忘了？老爷不记得当年葫芦庙里的事么？”雨村大惊，方想起往事。<br />
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==李爱璇 Lǐ Àixuán 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081496==<br />
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原来这门子本是葫芦庙里一个小沙弥，因被火之后无处安身，想这件生意倒还轻省，耐不得寺院凄凉，遂趁年纪轻，蓄了发，充当门子。雨村那里想得是他。<br />
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It turned out that the gatekeeper was originally a little monk in Bottle-gourd Temple. Because he had no place to settle down after the temple being burned by the fire, he thought this business was easy and could not bear the desolation of the temple. So he saved his hair and acted as a gatekeeper while he was young. Yue-ts'un didn't think it was him.--[[User:Li Aixuan|Li Aixuan]] ([[User talk:Li Aixuan|talk]]) 07:10, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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The fact is that this Retainer had been a young monk in the Hu Lu temple, but because of its destruction by fire, he had no place to rest his frame, he remembered how light and easy was, after all, this kind of occupation, and being unable to reconcile himself to the solitude and quiet of a temple, he accordingly availed himself of his years, which were as yet few, to let his hair grow, and become a retainer. Yue-ts'un had had no idea that it was him. --[[User:Li Ruiyang|Li Ruiyang]] ([[User talk:Li Ruiyang|talk]]) 11:03, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==李瑞洋 Lǐ Ruìyáng 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081497==<br />
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便忙携手笑道：“原来还是故人。”因赏他坐了说话。这门子不敢坐。雨村笑道：“你也算贫贱之交了。此系私室，但坐不妨。”门子才斜签着坐下。<br />
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Hastily taking his hand, he smilingly said, "You are, indeed, an old acquaintance!" and then pressed him to take a seat, so as to have a chat with more ease, but the Retainer would not presume to sit down. "Friendships," Yue-ts'un remarked, putting on a smiling expression, "contracted in poor circumstances should not be forgotten! This is a private room, so that if you sat down, what would it matter?" The Retainer thereupon craved permission to take a seat and sat down gingerly.--[[User:Li Ruiyang|Li Ruiyang]] ([[User talk:Li Ruiyang|talk]]) 11:04, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==李姗 Lǐ Shān 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081498==<br />
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雨村道：“方才何故不令发签？”门子道：“老爷荣任到此，难道就没抄一张本省的‘护官符’来不成？”雨村忙问：“何为‘护官符’？”<br />
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Chia Yu-tsun asked, "Why did you not grant me the passport just now?" The doorman answered that "Your Excellency, when you are to assume office here, haven't you hold some relations to a guard officer? " Yu-tsun was confused and thus continued, "guard officer?".--[[User:Li Shan|Li Shan]] ([[User talk:Li Shan|talk]]) 13:30, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==李双 Lǐ Shuāng 翻译学 女 202120081499==<br />
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门子道：“如今凡作地方官的，都有一个私单，上面写的是本省最有权势极富贵的大乡绅名姓，各省皆然。倘若不知，一时触犯了这样的人家，不但官爵，只怕连性命也难保呢！<br />
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==李文璇 Lǐ Wénxuán 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081500==<br />
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所以叫做‘护官符’。方才所说的这薛家，老爷如何惹得他！他这件官司并无难断之处，从前的官府都因碍着情分脸面，所以如此。”<br />
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“So it was called “the amulet of protection from the feudal official. The family Xue we talked just now, we can’t offend them, my lord. His lawsuit had no difficulty, however, the former official had trouble in the relationship, thus causing the situation then.”. --[[User:Li Wenxuan|Li Wenxuan]] ([[User talk:Li Wenxuan|talk]]) 09:46, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==李雯 Lǐ Wén 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081501==<br />
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一面说，一面从顺袋中取出一张抄的“护官符”来，递与雨村看时，上面皆是本地大族名宦之家的俗谚口碑，云：贾不假，白玉为堂金作马。<br />
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==李新星 Lǐ Xīnxīng 亚非语言文学 女 202120081503==<br />
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阿房宫，三百里，住不下金陵一个史。东海缺少白玉床，龙王来请金陵王。丰年好大雪，珍珠如土金如铁。<br />
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==李怡 Lǐ Yí 法语语言文学 女 202120081504==<br />
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雨村尚未看完，忽闻传点，报：“王老爷来拜。”雨村忙具衣冠接迎，有顿饭工夫，方回来问这门子。门子道：“四家皆连络有亲，一损俱损，一荣俱荣。<br />
Yucun has not finished reading, suddenly smell spread point, report: "Wang master came to visit." Yucun hurriedly arranged his clothes to meet him and had a meal before he came back to ask about it. Siemens way: "the four are connected to have relatives, a failure other destroyed, a glory other glory.--[[User:Li Yi|Li Yi]] ([[User talk:Li Yi|talk]]) 06:45, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Yucun has not finished reading, but suddenly heard from the messenger saying : "Wang master come to visit." Yucun hurriedly arranged his clothes to welcome him. Only after a meal did he come back to ask Menzi, who said: "the four families are closely connected, so do their honor and failure.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 07:12, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==刘沛婷 Liú Pèitíng 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081505==<br />
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今告打死人之薛，就是‘丰年大雪’之薛。不单靠这三家，他的世交亲友在都在外的本也不少，老爷如今拿谁去？”雨村听说，便笑问门子道：“这样说来，却怎么了结此案？<br />
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The xue of killing people is the xue of 'heavy snow in the year of plenty'. He has not only these three families, but also many family friends and relatives who are away from home. Who are you going to take now?" Rain village heard, then smiled and asked Siemens way: "So say, but how to settle the case?--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 07:05, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==刘胜楠 Liú Shèngnán 翻译学 女 202120081506==<br />
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你大约也深知这凶犯躲的方向了？”门子笑道：“不瞒老爷说，不但这凶犯躲的方向，并这拐的人我也知道，死鬼买主也深知道，待我细说与老爷听：<br />
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==刘薇 Liú Wēi 国别 女 202120081507==<br />
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这个被打死的是一个小乡宦之子，名唤冯渊，父母俱亡，又无兄弟，守着些薄产度日。年纪十八九岁，酷爱男风，不好女色。这也是前生冤孽，可巧遇见这丫头，他便一眼看上了，立意买来作妾，设誓不近男色，也不再娶第二个了。<br />
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==刘晓 Liú Xiǎo 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081508==<br />
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所以郑重其事，必得三日后方进门。谁知这拐子又偷卖与薛家，他意欲卷了两家的银子逃去；谁知又走不脱，两家拿住，打了个半死，都不肯收银，各要领人。<br />
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==刘越 Liú Yuè 亚非语言文学 女 202120081509==<br />
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那薛公子便喝令下人动手，将冯公子打了个稀烂，抬回去三日竟死了。这薛公子原择下日子要上京的，既打了人，夺了丫头，他便没事人一般，只管带了家眷走他的路，并非为此而逃；<br />
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He then rudely ordered his subordinates to do something about it, and beat Feng up so badly that he was carried home and died within three days. The Duke of Xue had intended to go to the capital in a few days, and since he had beaten and robbed the maid, he acted as if nothing had happened, and simply took his family away, not because of this escape;--[[User:Liu Yue|Liu Yue]] ([[User talk:Liu Yue|talk]]) 06:59, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==刘运心 Liú Yùnxīn 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081510==<br />
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这人命些些小事，自有他弟兄、奴仆在此料理。这且别说，老爷可知这被卖的丫头是谁？”雨村道：“我如何晓得？”门子冷笑道：“这人还是老爷的大恩人呢！<br />
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==罗安怡 Luó Ānyí 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081511==<br />
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他就是葫芦庙旁住的甄老爷的女儿，小名英莲的。”雨村骇然道：“原来是他！听见他自五岁被人拐去，怎么如今才卖呢？”门子道：“这种拐子单拐幼女，养至十二三岁，带至他乡转卖。<br />
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==罗曦 Luó Xī 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081512==<br />
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当日这英莲，我们天天哄他玩耍，极相熟的，所以隔了七八年，虽模样儿出脱的齐整，然大段未改，所以认得；且他眉心中原有米粒大的一点胭脂记，从胎里带来的。<br />
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==马新 Mǎ Xīn 外国语言学及应用语言学 女 202120081513==<br />
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偏这拐子又租了我的房子居住，那日拐子不在家，我也曾问他。他说是打怕了的，万不敢说，只说拐子是他的亲爹，因无钱还债才卖的。再四哄他，他又哭了，只说：‘我原不记得小时的事。’<br />
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The trafficker had rented my house to live in by coincidence. I had ever asked her one day when the trafficker was not at home. She said that she dared not to say anything after being attacked for a long time, and only answered that he was her father who sold her to pay off the debts. By coaxing her for several times, she cried again and said that "I don’t remember what happened when I was a child".--[[User:Ma Xin|Ma Xin]] ([[User talk:Ma Xin|talk]]) 07:14, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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The kidnapper just happened to rent the houses from me. One day, when he was not at home, I asked her about such a thing. She told me that she was afraid to say anything after being beaten so much; she only insisted that he was her father who sold her to pay off his debts. When I tried repeatedly to coax it out of her, she burst into tears and said that 'I do not remember what happened in my childhood.'--[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 08:29, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==毛雅文 Máo Yǎwén 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081514==<br />
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这无可疑了。那日冯公子相见了，兑了银子，因拐子醉了，英莲自叹说：‘我今日罪孽可满了！’后又听见三日后才过门，他又转有忧愁之态。<br />
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There is not doubt that the girl who was carried off by the kidnapper is Yinglian all right. The day when Feng Yuan met her and paid down his silver, the kidnapper had got drunk. And then, Yinglian sighed, 'I am overwhelmed by my sins today!' However, her gloom started deepening again, when she heard that Feng Yuan would not be coming and picking her up for three days.--[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 08:14, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==毛优 Máo Yōu 俄语语言文学 女 202120081515==<br />
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我又不忍，等拐子出去，又叫内人去解劝他：‘这冯公子必待好日期来接，可知必不以丫鬟相看。况他是个绝风流人品，家里颇过得，素性又最厌恶堂客，今竟破价买你，后事不言可知。<br />
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==牟一心 Móu Yīxīn 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081516==<br />
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只耐得三两日，何必忧闷？’他听如此说，方略解些，自谓从此得所。谁料天下竟有不如意事，第二日，他偏又卖与了薛家。<br />
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Only for three or two days, why bother to be depressed? Hearing this, he relieved a little bit, saying that he would get a place to settle since then. Unexpectedly, everything is never perfect. On the next day, he was sold to the Xue.--[[User:Mou Yixin|Mou Yixin]] ([[User talk:Mou Yixin|talk]]) 07:13, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==彭瑞雪 Péng Ruìxuě 法语语言文学 女 202120081517==<br />
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若卖与第二家还好，这薛公子的混名，人称他‘呆霸王’，最是天下第一个弄性尚气的人，而且使钱如土。只打了个落花流水，生拖死拽，把个英莲拖去，如今也不知死活。<br />
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==秦建安 Qín Jiànān 外国语言学及应用语言学 女 202120081518==<br />
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这冯公子空喜一场，一念未遂，反花了钱，送了命，岂不可叹！”雨村听了，也叹道：“这也是他们的孽障遭遇，亦非偶然，不然这冯渊如何偏只看上了这英莲？<br />
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==邱婷婷 Qiū Tíngtíng 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081519==<br />
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这英莲受了拐子这几年折磨，才得了个路头，且又是个多情的，若果聚合了，倒是件美事，偏又生出这段事来。这薛家纵比冯家富贵，想其为人，自然姬妾众多，淫佚无度，未必及冯渊定情于一人。<br />
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==饶金盈 Ráo Jīnyíng 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081520==<br />
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这正是梦幻情缘，恰遇见一对薄命儿女。且不要议论他人，只目今这官司如何剖断才好？”门子笑道：“老爷当年何其明决，今日何反成个没主意的人了？<br />
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It should be the love of dream, only to be an ill-fated couple. Don’t talk about others for the moment. It’s crucial that this case be judged properly.” The servant said with a smile, “ how decisive you were in those days. Why are you so irresolute at the present ?”--[[User:Shi Liqing|Shi Liqing]] ([[User talk:Shi Liqing|talk]]) 07:31, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==石丽青 Shí Lìqīng 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081521==<br />
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小的听见老爷补升此任，系贾府、王府之力。此薛蟠即贾府之亲，老爷何不顺水行舟，做个人情，将此案了结，日后也好去见贾、王二公。”<br />
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I heard that you respected master assumed office with the help of Jia Mansion and Wang Mansion. Xue Pan is a relative of Jia Mansion. Why don’t you do him a special favor, making use of the opportunity to settle the case, so that you can make a smooth explanation to master Jia and Wang in days to come.”--[[User:Shi Liqing|Shi Liqing]] ([[User talk:Shi Liqing|talk]]) 07:03, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==孙雅诗 Sūn Yǎshī 外国语言学及应用语言学 女 202120081522==<br />
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雨村道：“你说的何尝不是，但事关人命，蒙皇上隆恩，起复委用，正竭力图报之时，岂可因私枉法？是实不忍为的。”门子听了，冷笑道：<br />
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==王李菲 Wáng Lǐfēi 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081523==<br />
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“老爷说的自是正理，但如今世上是行不去的。岂不闻古人说的：‘大丈夫相时而动。’又说：‘趋吉避凶者为君子。’依老爷这话，不但不能报效朝廷，亦且自身不保，还要三思为妥。”<br />
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“What lord said is reasonable, but it is unfeasible in the current world. Have you not heard what the ancients said:’ A real man can take action according to the specific situation’, and ‘The one who can avoid calamity and bring on good fortune is a gentleman.’ According to lord’s words, you not only can’t serve the court, but also can’t protect yourself. You’d better think it over. ‘ --[[User:Wang Lifei|Wang Lifei]] ([[User talk:Wang Lifei|talk]]) 15:40, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==王逸凡 Wáng Yìfán 亚非语言文学 女 202120081524==<br />
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雨村低了头，半日方说道：“依你怎么着？”门子道：“小人已想了个很好的主意在此：老爷明日坐堂，只管虚张声势，动文书，发签拿人。<br />
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==王镇隆 Wáng Zhènlóng 英语语言文学（英美文学） 男 202120081525==<br />
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凶犯自然是拿不来的，原告固是不依，只用将薛家族人及奴仆人等拿几个来拷问；小的在暗中调停，令他们报个‘暴病身亡’，合族中及地方上共递一张保呈。<br />
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==卫怡雯 Wèi Yíwén 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081526==<br />
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老爷只说善能扶鸾请仙，堂上设了乩坛，令军民人等只管来看。老爷便说：‘乩仙批了，死者冯渊与薛蟠原系夙孽，今犯狭路相遇，原应了结：<br />
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==魏楚璇 Wèi Chǔxuán 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081527==<br />
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今薛蟠已得了无名之病，被冯渊的魂魄追索而死。其祸皆由拐子而起，除将拐子按法处治外，馀不累及’等语。小人暗中嘱咐拐子，令其实招。<br />
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==魏兆妍 Wèi Zhàoyán 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081528==<br />
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众人见乩仙批语与拐子相符，自然不疑了。薛家有的是钱，老爷断一千也可，五百也可，与冯家作烧埋之费。那冯家也无甚要紧的人，不过为的是钱，有了银子，也就无话了。<br />
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==吴婧悦 Wú Jìngyuè 俄语语言文学 女 202120081529==<br />
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老爷细想，此计如何？”雨村笑道：“不妥，不妥。等我再斟酌斟酌，压服得口声才好。”二人计议已定。至次日坐堂，勾取一干有名人犯，雨村详加审问。<br />
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The lord thought carefully, and asked how about this plan? Yucun laughed and said: “ It’s not the right way, it’s not the right way. Let me think the matter over, the plan should be convinced by all the others.” Then they confirmed the plan. At tomorrow’s court session, convening all criminals, whose name was known, Yucun questioned them seriously. --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 14:31, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==吴映红 Wú Yìnghóng 日语语言文学 女 202120081530==<br />
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果见冯家人口稀少，不过赖此欲得些烧埋之银；薛家仗势倚情，偏不相让：故致颠倒未决。雨村便徇情枉法，胡乱判断了此案。<br />
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==肖毅瑶 Xiāo Yìyáo 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081531==<br />
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冯家得了许多烧埋银子，也就无甚话说了。雨村便疾忙修书二封与贾政并京营节度使王子腾，不过说“令甥之事已完，不必过虑”之言寄去。<br />
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The Feng family got a lot of buried silver and had nothing to say. Rain village will quickly repair two letters and Jia Zheng and Jingying jie make Prince Teng, but said "nephew has finished, do not have to worry about" words to send.--[[User:Xiao Yiyao|Xiao Yiyao]] ([[User talk:Xiao Yiyao|talk]]) 10:25, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==谢佳芬 Xiè Jiāfēn 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081532==<br />
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此事皆由葫芦庙内沙弥新门子所为，雨村又恐他对人说出当日贫贱时事来，因此心中大不乐意。后来到底寻了他一个不是，远远的充发了才罢。当下言不着雨村。<br />
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It was all done by a novice monk Xinmenzi in Gourd Temple. Yucun was afraid that he would tell people about the awful current affairs of that day, so he was very unsatisfied. Later, Yucan pick holes in him , and banished him far away. Now, there was no one talking about bad things about Yucun.--[[User:Xie Jiafen|Xie Jiafen]] ([[User talk:Xie Jiafen|talk]]) 14:05, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==谢庆琳 Xiè Qìnglín 俄语语言文学 女 202120081533==<br />
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且说那买了英莲、打死冯渊的薛公子，亦系金陵人氏，本是书香继世之家。只是如今这薛公子幼年丧父，寡母又怜他是个独根孤种，未免溺爱纵容些，遂致老大无成；<br />
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==熊敏 Xióng Mǐn 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081534==<br />
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且家中有百万之富，现领着内帑钱粮，采办杂料。这薛公子学名薛蟠，表字文起，性情奢侈，言语傲慢；虽也上过学，不过略识几个字，终日惟有斗鸡走马，游山玩景而已。<br />
<br />
In addition, there are countless money in the family, and now people are taking the domestic money and food to purchase stuffs. The Mr. Xue so-called Xue Pan, is entitled as Wenqi with extravagant temperament and arrogant speech. Although he has also gone to school, but he knows a few words, he only like fighting cock walking around the mountains and enjoying the scenery all day long.<br />
<br />
In addition, there are countless money in the family, and now people are taking the domestic money and food to purchase stuffs. Mr.Xue, whose name is Xue Pan, is entitled as Wenqi with extravagant temperament and arrogant speech. Although he has also gone to school, he knows a few words, he only like fighting cock walking around the mountains and enjoying the scenery all day long.--[[User:Xu Minyun|Xu Minyun]] ([[User talk:Xu Minyun|talk]]) 11:21, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==徐敏赟 Xú Mǐnyūn 语言智能与跨文化传播研究 男 202120081535==<br />
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虽是皇商，一应经纪世事全然不知，不过赖祖、父旧日的情分，户部挂个虚名，支领钱粮；其馀事体，自有伙计、老家人等措办。<br />
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Although he was a royal merchant, he knew nothing about economics. However, due to the old affection of his grandfathers and fathers, he was given a virtual position in Board of Revenue to received money and grain, and the rest of affairs were handled by his clerks and old family members.--[[User:Xu Minyun|Xu Minyun]] ([[User talk:Xu Minyun|talk]]) 09:43, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Although he was a royal merchant, he knew nothing about economics. However, due to the old affection of his ancestors and his father, he was given a virtual position in Board of Revenue to received money and grain, and the rest of affairs were handled by his clerks and old family members.--[[User:Yan Jing|Yan Jing]] ([[User talk:Yan Jing|talk]]) 11:08, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==颜静 Yán Jìng 语言智能与跨文化传播研究 女 202120081536==<br />
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寡母王氏，乃现任京营节度使王子腾之妹，与荣国府贾政的夫人王氏是一母所生的姊妹，今年方五十上下，只有薛蟠一子。还有一女，比薛蟠小两岁，乳名宝钗，生得肌骨莹润，举止娴雅。<br />
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Wang, the widowed mother, is the sister of Wang Ziteng, the current governor of Jingying Festival and the sister of Wang, the wife of Jia Zheng in the Rongguo mansion. This year, she is about 50, and has only a son Xue Pan. Besides, she has a daughter, whose milk name is Bao Chai, two years younger than Xue Pan. Bao Chai has beautiful body and behave elegantly .<br />
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==颜莉莉 Yán Lìlì 国别 女 202120081537==<br />
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当时他父亲在日极爱此女，令其读书识字，较之乃兄竟高十倍。自父亲死后，见哥哥不能安慰母心，他便不以书字为念，只留心针黹、家计等事，好为母亲分忧代劳。<br />
<br />
His father had been so fond of her that he had sent her to read ten times better than her brother. Seeing that her brother could not pacify her mother after her father's death, she stopped thinking about reading and only cared about needle-work and family livelihood in order to share her mother's cares and duties.<br />
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==颜子涵 Yán Zǐhán 国别 女 202120081538==<br />
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近因今上崇尚诗礼，征采才能，降不世之隆恩，除聘选妃嫔外，凡世宦名家之女，皆得亲名达部，以备选择为公主、郡主入学陪侍，充为才人、赞善之职。<br />
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==阳佳颖 Yáng Jiāyǐng 国别 女 202120081540==<br />
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自薛蟠父亲死后，各省中所有的买卖承局、总管、伙计人等，见薛蟠年轻不谙世事，便趁时拐骗起来，京都几处生意，渐亦销耗。<br />
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Ever since the death of Xue Pan's father， all the assistants， managers and partners， and other employees in the respective provinces， perceiving how youthful and inexperienced Xue Pan was in years， readily availed themselves of the time to begin swindling and defrauding. As a result, The business， carried on in various different places in the capital，gradually also began to fall off and to show a deficit.--[[User:Yang Jiaying|Yang Jiaying]] ([[User talk:Yang Jiaying|talk]]) 08:33, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==杨爱江 Yáng Àijiāng 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081541==<br />
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薛蟠素闻得都中乃第一繁华之地，正思一游，便趁此机会：一来送妹待选；二来望亲；三来亲自入部销算旧账，再计新支；其实只为游览上国风光之意。<br />
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==杨堃 Yáng Kūn 法语语言文学 女 202120081542==<br />
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因此早已检点下行装细软，以及馈送亲友各色土物人情等类，正择日起身，不想偏遇着那拐子卖英莲。薛蟠见英莲生的不俗，立意买了作妾，又遇冯家来夺，因恃强喝令豪奴将冯渊打死。<br />
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==杨柳青 Yáng Liǔqīng 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081543==<br />
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便将家中事务，一一嘱托了族中人并几个老家人；自己同着母亲、妹子，竟自起身长行去了。人命官司，他却视为儿戏，自谓花上几个钱，没有不了的。<br />
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Dragon Marshgrass entrusted the household affairs to the clan middleman and old family members. Then he just went away with his mother and sister. He should deem the affair of murder as a trifling matter and believed it could be easily solved through money.--[[User:Yang Liuqing|Yang Liuqing]] ([[User talk:Yang Liuqing|talk]]) 12:31, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==叶维杰 Yè Wéijié 国别 男 202120081544==<br />
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在路不计其日。那日已将入都，又听见母舅王子腾升了九省统制，奉旨出都查边。薛蟠心中暗喜道：“我正愁进京去有舅舅管辖，不能任意挥霍；如今升出去，可知天从人愿。”<br />
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==易扬帆 Yì Yángfān 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081545==<br />
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因和母亲商议道：“咱们京中虽有几处房舍，只是这十来年没人居住，那看守的人未免偷着租赁给人住，须得先着人去打扫收拾才好。”他母亲道：“何必如此招摇？”<br />
<br />
So he discussed with his mother, "Although we have a few premises in the capital, no one has lived there for ten years, the guards may sneakily rent to people to live, we must first ask someone to clean and tidy up." His mother said, "Why do you have to be so flashy? "--[[User:Yi Yangfan|Yi Yangfan]] ([[User talk:Yi Yangfan|talk]]) 09:23, 25 December 2021 (UTC)Yi Yangfan<br />
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So he discussed with his mother, "Although we have a few houses in the capital, no one has lived there for ten years. The guards may sneakily rent the house to other people, so we must first send someone to tidy up the house. His mother said, "Why do you have to be so flashy? "--[[User:Yin Huizhen|Yin Huizhen]] ([[User talk:Yin Huizhen|talk]]) 13:50, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==殷慧珍 Yīn Huìzhēn 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081546==<br />
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咱们这进京去，原是先拜望亲友，或是在你舅舅处，或是你姨父家，他两家的房舍极是宽敞的，咱们且住下，再慢慢儿的着人去收拾，岂不消停些？”<br />
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Now we go to the capital Beijing, and we should visit our relatives first. Your uncle‘s or your aunt‘s husband’s house are good choices, and their houses are very spacious. Let's stay there for a while and then send someone to clean up the house，and it will be more inconspicuous.--[[User:Yin Huizhen|Yin Huizhen]] ([[User talk:Yin Huizhen|talk]]) 13:38, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==殷美达 Yīn Měidá 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081547==<br />
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薛蟠道：“如今舅舅正升了外省去，家里自然忙乱起身，咱们这会子反一窝一拖的奔了去，岂不没眼色呢？”他母亲道：“你舅舅虽升了去，还有你姨父家。<br />
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==尹媛 Yǐn Yuán 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081548==<br />
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况这几年来，你舅舅、姨娘两处，每每带信捎书接咱们来；如今既来了，你舅舅虽忙着起身，你贾家的姨娘未必不苦留我们，咱们且忙忙的收拾房子，岂不使人见怪？你的意思，我早知道了：<br />
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==詹若萱 Zhān Ruòxuān 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081549==<br />
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守着舅舅、姨母住着，未免拘紧了；不如各自住着，好任意施为。你既如此，你自去挑所宅子去住；我和你姨娘，姊妹们别了这几年，却要住几日，我带了你妹子去投你姨娘家去。你道好不好？”<br />
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==张秋怡 Zhāng Qiūyí 亚非语言文学 女 202120081550==<br />
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薛蟠见母亲如此说，情知扭不过，只得吩咐人夫，一路奔荣国府而来。那时王夫人已知薛蟠官司一事，亏贾雨村就中维持了，才放了心。<br />
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==张扬 Zhāng Yáng 国别 男 202120081551==<br />
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又见哥哥升了边缺，正愁少了娘家的亲戚来往，略觉寂寞。过了几日，忽家人报：“姨太太带了哥儿、姐儿，合家进京，在门外下车了。”<br />
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Seeing that her brother was promoted, she was worried about the lack of relatives in her mother's family, and felt a little lonely. A few days later, suddenly her family reported: "concubine brought her brothers and sisters to Beijing and got off outside the door."--[[User:Zhang Yang|Zhang Yang]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yang|talk]]) 10:02, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==张怡然 Zhāng Yírán 俄语语言文学 女 202120081552==<br />
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喜的王夫人忙带了人，接到大厅上，将薛姨妈等接进去了。姊妹们一朝相见，悲喜交集，自不必说。叙了一番契阔，又引着拜见贾母，将人情土物各种酬献了，合家俱厮见过，又治席接风。<br />
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Lady King was so happy that she brought someone to the hall and took Aunt Marshgrass in. The sisters were joy tempered with sorrow to see each other that it goes without saying. Told a story of great deeds, and led to visit Grandma Merchant, all kinds of reward will be offered, together with the furniture saw, and treat the seat to receive wind.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:35, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Mr. Wang was so happy that she brought someone to the hall and took Aunt Xue in. The sisters were in joy tempered with sorrow to see each other that it goes without saying. Told a story of great deeds, and led to visit Grandma Merchant, all kinds of reward will be offered, together with the furniture saw, and treat the seat to receive wind.--[[User:Zhong Yifei|Zhong Yifei]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yifei|talk]]) 10:07, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==钟义菲 Zhōng Yìfēi 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081553==<br />
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薛蟠拜见过贾政、贾琏，又引着见了贾赦、贾珍等。贾政便使人进来对王夫人说：“姨太太已有了年纪，外甥年轻，不知庶务，在外住着，恐又要生事。<br />
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Xue Pan met Jia Zheng and Jia Lian and introduced Jia She and Jia Zhen. Jia Zheng sent someone in and said to Mrs. Wang, "my aunt is old, and my nephew is young. He doesn't know about general affairs. If he is living outside, I am afraid that something will happen again.--[[User:Zhong Yifei|Zhong Yifei]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yifei|talk]]) 10:10, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Xue Pan met Jia Zheng and Jia Lian and introduced Jia She and Jia Zhen. Jia Zheng sent someone in and said to Mrs. Wang, "my aunt is old, and my nephew is young. He doesn't know about general affairs. If he lives outside, I am afraid that he will make some trouble.--[[User:Zhong Yulu|Zhong Yulu]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yulu|talk]]) 13:01, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==钟雨露 Zhōng Yǔlù 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081554==<br />
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咱们东南角上梨香院那一所房十来间白空闲着，叫人请了姨太太和姐儿、哥儿住了甚好。”王夫人原要留住。贾母也遣人来说：“请姨太太就在这里住下，大家亲密些。”<br />
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“We have a room in the southeast corner of the Li Xiang courtyard that is vacant, and ask someone to invite the aunt and sister and brother to live here.” Mrs. Wang originally wanted to stay. Mrs. Jia also sent someone to say: “Please invite the aunt to stay here, the relationship between us will be closer.”--[[User:Zhong Yulu|Zhong Yulu]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yulu|talk]]) 12:58, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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“We have dozens of room in the southeast corner of the Li Xiang courtyard that is vacant, and ask someone to invite the aunt and sister and brother to live here.” Mrs. Wang originally wanted to stay. Mrs. Jia also sent someone to say: “Please stay here, the relationship between us will be closer.”--[[User:Zhou Jiu|Zhou Jiu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Jiu|talk]]) 02:51, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==周玖 Zhōu Jiǔ 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081555==<br />
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薛姨妈正欲同居一处，方可拘紧些儿子；若另住在外边，又恐他纵性惹祸：遂忙应允。又私与王夫人说明：“一应日费供给，一概都免，方是处常之法。”<br />
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Aunt Xue wanted to live here so that she could supervise her son. If she lived elsewhere, she feared that her son would get into trouble again. So he agreed. She said to Mrs. Wang privately, "The Xue family will pay for all the supplies in the Jia mansion by themselves. This is the only way to get along with them for a long time."<br />
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==周俊辉 Zhōu Jùnhuī 法语语言文学 女 202120081556==<br />
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王夫人知他家不难于此，遂亦从其自便。从此后，薛家母女就在梨香院住了。原来这梨香院乃当日荣公暮年养静之所，小小巧巧，约有十馀间房舍，前厅后舍俱全。<br />
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==周巧 Zhōu Qiǎo 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081557==<br />
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另有一门通街，薛蟠的家人就走此门出入。西南上又有一个角门，通着夹道子，出了夹道，便是王夫人正房的东院了。每日或饭后或晚间，薛姨妈便过来，或与贾母闲谈，或与王夫人相叙；<br />
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==周清 Zhōu Qīng 法语语言文学 女 202120081558==<br />
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宝钗日与黛玉、迎春姊妹等一处，或看书下棋，或做针黹：倒也十分相安。只是薛蟠起初原不欲在贾府中居住，生恐姨父管束，不得自在。无奈母亲执意在此，且贾宅中又十分殷勤苦留，只得暂且住下；<br />
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==周小雪 Zhōu Xiǎoxuě 日语语言文学 女 202120081559==<br />
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一面使人打扫出自家的房屋，再移居过去。谁知自此间住了不上一月，贾宅族中凡有的子侄，俱已认熟了一半，都是那些纨袴气习，莫不喜与他来往。<br />
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==朱素珍 Zhū Sùzhēn 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081561==<br />
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今日会酒，明日观花，甚至聚赌嫖娼，无所不至，引诱的薛蟠比当日更坏了十倍。虽说贾政训子有方，治家有法，一则族大人多，照管不到；二则现在房长乃是贾珍，彼乃宁府长孙，又现袭职，凡族中事，都是他掌管；<br />
Staying together and drinking wine today, appreciating flowers tomorrow, and even gambling and prostitution, everything will be done. Xue Pan, who is seduced, is ten times worse than that day. Although Jia Zhengxun is good at governing family, on the one hand,there are so many people in the family that he can not look after everyone; On the other hand, the house chief is Jia Zhen, and he is the eldest grandson of the Ning Mansion, now everything is in charge of him.<br />
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==邹岳丽 Zōu Yuèlí 日语语言文学 女 202120081562==<br />
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三则公私冗杂，且素性潇洒，不以俗事为要，每公暇之时，不过看书、着棋而已；况这梨香院相隔两层房舍，又有街门别开，任意可以出入：<br />
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==Nadia 202011080004==<br />
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这些子弟们所以只管放意畅怀的，因此薛蟠遂将移居之念渐渐打灭了。<br />
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==Mahzad Heydarian 玛莎 202021080004==<br />
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日后如何，下回分解。葫芦僧判断葫芦案──<br />
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==Mariam Toure 2020GBJ002301==<br />
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“葫芦”的谐音为糊涂，故其意谓糊涂僧糊涂判案。<br />
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==Rouabah Soumaya 202121080001==<br />
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指知县贾雨村按照现为衙门门子而原为葫芦庙小沙弥的主意糊里糊涂判结了薛蟠强买甄英莲并打死人命一案。<br />
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Zhizhi County Jia Yucun was confused and convicted the case of Xue Panqiang buying Zhen Yinglian and killing people based on the idea that he is now Yamenzi but was originally a young novice monk in the Gourd Temple.<br />
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==Muhammad Numan 202121080002==<br />
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女子无才便是德──语出明·张岱《公祭祁夫人文》：<br />
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==Atta Ur Rahman 202121080003==<br />
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“(陈)眉公曰：‘丈夫有德便是才，女子无才便是德。’此语殊为未确。”<br />
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==Muhammad Saqib Mehran 202121080004==<br />
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(又见清·石成金《家训钞》引)<br />
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==Zohaib Chand 202121080005==<br />
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意谓女子如果读书识字，便可能受到小说、戏曲的不良影响，做出伤风败俗的事，倒不如不识字而能保持妇德。<br />
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==Jawad Ahmad 202121080006==<br />
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《女四书》、《列女传》──都是记述历代贤德女子的事迹，以宣扬封建妇德的书。<br />
English:The Four Books on Women and the Biography of Lienu ─ ─ both describe the deeds of <br />
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virtuous women in past dynasties to publicize the feudal virtues of women.<br />
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==Nizam Uddin 202121080007==<br />
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《女四书》：明·王相模仿南宋·朱熹所编《四书》而辑成，包括东汉·班昭的《女诫》、唐·宋若莘和宋若昭的《女论语》、明·永乐皇后徐氏的《内训》、王相之母刘氏的《女范捷录》四种专讲女德的书，故称。<br />
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==Öncü 202121080008==<br />
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《列女传》：西汉·刘向编撰。全书七卷，每卷为一类，分别为母仪、贤明、仁智、贞顺、节义、辩通、嬖孽，共收妇女故事一百零四则。<br />
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==Akira Jantarat 202121080009==<br />
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纺绩女红(gōng工)──泛指女子应做的家务活计。<br />
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Fangji Female Red (''gong'')──refers to the household chores of women.--[[User:Benjamin Wellsand|Benjamin Wellsand]] ([[User talk:Benjamin Wellsand|talk]]) 19:13, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==Benjamin Wellsand 202111080118==<br />
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纺绩：“纺”是把丝纺成纱，“绩”是把麻绩成线。<br />
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''Fangji'': "Fang" means to spin silk into yarn, "Ji" means to turn the hemp into thread.--[[User:Benjamin Wellsand|Benjamin Wellsand]] ([[User talk:Benjamin Wellsand|talk]]) 19:06, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==Asep Budiman 202111080020==<br />
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女红：又作“女工”或“女功”。<br />
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==Ei Mon Kyaw 202111080021==<br />
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是指纺织、缝纫、刺绣等。</div>Zhang Yiranhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20211222_homework&diff=13436620211222 homework2021-12-26T14:34:24Z<p>Zhang Yiran: /* 张扬 Zhāng Yáng 国别 男 202120081551 */</p>
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<div>Quicklinks: [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021|Back to course homepage]] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal#Frequently_asked_questions_FAQ FAQ] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal Manual] [[20210926_homework|Back to all homework webpages overview]] [[20220112_final_exam|final exam page]]<br />
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PLEASE READ [[Joint_translation_terms|Joint translation terms]] <br />
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PLEASE ALSO READ THE PREVIOUS PARTS, AT LEAST THE SENTENCES BEFORE YOUR OWN PART IN CHAPTER 19 [[20210303_culture|1, Mar 3 Chapters 1-4]], [[20210310_culture|2, Mar 10 Chapters 6-7]], [[20210317_culture|3, Mar 17 Chapters 11-13]], [[20210324_culture|4, Mar 24 Chapters 15-17]], [[20210331_culture|5, Mar 31 Chapters 4-7]], [[20210407_culture|6, Apr 7 Chapters 8-10]], [[20210414_culture|7, Apr 14 Chapters 13-15]] , [[20210519_culture|12, May 19 Chapters 17-19]], [[20210929_homework#Hongloumeng|for Sep 29 - rest of HLM Chapter 19]] [[20211013_homework|for Oct 13 - HLM Chapters 20-21]] [[20211020_homework|for Oct 20 - HLM Chapters 21-22]] etc.<br />
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==陈静 Chén Jìng 国别 女 202020080595==<br />
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闲静似娇花照水，行动如弱柳扶风。心较比干多一窍，病如西子胜三分。宝玉看罢，笑道：“这个妹妹我曾见过的。”<br />
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She, who is demure as delicate flowers and act like weak willow, is more clever than Bigan(the most clever man in the Legend of Deification) and more beautiful than Xishi(the most beautiful woman in acient China). Precious Jade simled, “I have seen her.”--[[User:Chen Jing|Chen Jing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jing|talk]]) 11:26, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Leisure is like a delicate flower shining on the water, and action is like a weak willow supporting the wind. The heart has more than one orifices than the stem, and like a disease wins Xizi. Baoyu said with a smile, "I've seen this sister."<br />
--[[User:Cai Zhufeng|Cai Zhufeng]] ([[User talk:Cai Zhufeng|talk]]) 11:18, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==蔡珠凤 Cài Zhūfèng 日语语言文学 女 202120081477==<br />
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贾母笑道：“又胡说了，你何曾见过？”宝玉笑道：“虽没见过，却看着面善，心里倒像是远别重逢的一般。”贾母笑道：“好，好！这么更相和睦了。”<br />
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Grandma Merchant smiled and said, "nonsense again. Have you ever seen her?" Baoyu said with a smile, "although I haven't seen her, I look good and feel like I'm far from meeting again." Grandma Merchant said with a smile, "OK, OK! It's more harmonious."<br />
--[[User:Cai Zhufeng|Cai Zhufeng]] ([[User talk:Cai Zhufeng|talk]]) 11:22, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Dowager Jia smiled and said, "nonsense again. Have you ever seen it?" Baoyu said with a smile, "although I haven't seen it, I look good and feel like I'm far from meeting again." Dowager Jia said with a smile, "OK, OK! It's more harmonious."--[[User:Zeng Junlin|Zeng Junlin]] ([[User talk:Zeng Junlin|talk]]) 13:18, 21 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Grandma Merchant smiled and said, "Nonsense again. Have you ever seen it?" Precious Jade said with a smile, "Although I haven't seen it, I look good and feel like I'm far from meeting again." Grandma Merchant said with a smile, "OK, OK! It's more harmonious."--[[User:Zeng Junlin|Zeng Junlin]] ([[User talk:Zeng Junlin|talk]]) 13:18, 21 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==曾俊霖 Zēng Jùnlín 国别 男 202120081478==<br />
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宝玉便走向黛玉身边坐下，又细细打量一番，因问：“妹妹可曾读书？”黛玉道：“不曾读书，只上了一年学，些须认得几个字。”<br />
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Baoyu went to Daiyu and sat down. She looked at her carefully, because she asked, "has your sister ever read?" Daiyu said, "I didn't study. I only studied for a year. I have to recognize a few words."--[[User:Zeng Junlin|Zeng Junlin]] ([[User talk:Zeng Junlin|talk]]) 13:12, 21 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==陈惠妮 Chén Huìnī 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081479==<br />
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宝玉又道：“妹妹尊名？”黛玉便说了名。宝玉又道：“表字？”黛玉道：“无字。”<br />
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==陈湘琼 Chén Xiāngqióng 外国语言学及应用语言学 女 202120081480==<br />
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宝玉笑道：“我送妹妹一字：莫若‘颦颦’二字极妙。”探春便道：“何处出典？”宝玉道：“《古今人物通考》上说：<br />
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Baoyu smiled and said:" I want to describe you with two words—Ping Ping, and no words are better than them." Tanchun then asked:"In which book did you find them?" Baoyu said:" On ''General Study of Ancient and Modern Characters''"--[[User:Chen Xiangqiong|Chen Xiangqiong]] ([[User talk:Chen Xiangqiong|talk]]) 01:04, 20 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Precious Jade smiled and said:" I want to give away two words to you—Pingping, and no words are better than them." Tanchun then asked:"In which book did you find them?" Jade said:"''On General Study of Ancient and Modern Characters''."--[[User:Chen Xinyi|Chen Xinyi]] ([[User talk:Chen Xinyi|talk]]) 06:37, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==陈心怡 Chén Xīnyí 翻译学 女 202120081481==<br />
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‘西方有石名黛，可代画眉之墨。’况这妹妹眉尖若蹙，取这个字，岂不甚美？”探春笑道：“只怕又是杜撰。”<br />
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'There is a stone in the west named Dai, it can replace the ink of painting eyebrows.' The sister's eyebrows are frown, if take this word for name, isn’t it very beautiful?" Tanchun laughed: "I'm afraid it's a fabrication again."--[[User:Chen Xinyi|Chen Xinyi]] ([[User talk:Chen Xinyi|talk]]) 06:29, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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‘There is a stone in the west named Dai, it can replace the ink of drawing eyebrows.' Besides, her eyebrows are frown, if take this word for name, isn’t it very beautiful?" Tanchun laughed: "I'm afraid it's a fabrication again."--[[User:Cheng Yang|Cheng Yang]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yang|talk]]) 11:33, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==程杨 Chéng Yáng 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081482==<br />
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宝玉笑道：“除了《四书》，杜撰的也太多呢。”因又问黛玉：“可有玉没有？”众人都不解。<br />
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Baoyu laughed and said, "Besides the Four Books, there are too many things made up." Again he asked Daiyu, "Do you have any jade?" Everyone was puzzled.--[[User:Cheng Yang|Cheng Yang]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yang|talk]]) 11:35, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==丁旋 Dīng Xuán 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081483==<br />
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黛玉便忖度着：“因他有玉，所以才问我的。”便答道：“我没有玉。你那玉也是件稀罕物儿，岂能人人皆有？”<br />
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Mascara Jade Forest contemplated, “He asked me because he has a jade.” So she answered, “I have no jade. Your jade is a rarity. How could everyone have it?”--[[User:Ding Xuan|Ding Xuan]] ([[User talk:Ding Xuan|talk]]) 13:45, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Mascara Jade Forest presumed, “He asked me because he has a jade.” So she answered, “I have no jade. Your jade is a rarity. How could everyone have it?”--[[User:Du Lina|Du Lina]] ([[User talk:Du Lina|talk]]) 08:25, 23 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==杜莉娜 Dù Lìnuó 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081484==<br />
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宝玉听了，登时发作起狂病来，摘下那玉就狠命摔去，骂道：“什么罕物！人的高下不识，还说灵不灵呢！我也不要这劳什子！”<br />
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After hearing that,Precious Jade Merchant suddenly went mad. And he took off and dropped the jade with cursing that “What the hell is a rare thing! You all say that it is divine, but it can't tell lowliness or nobleness.I won't have the waste now!” --[[User:Du Lina|Du Lina]] ([[User talk:Du Lina|talk]]) 12:29, 19 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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After hearing that,Precious Jade Merchant suddenly went mad. And he took off and dropped the jade with cursing that “What the hell is a rare thing! You all say that it is divine, but nobody could tell lowliness or nobleness.I won't have the waste now!” --[[User:Fu Hongyan|Fu Hongyan]] ([[User talk:Fu Hongyan|talk]]) 11:18, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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--[[User:Fu Hongyan|Fu Hongyan]] ([[User talk:Fu Hongyan|talk]]) 11:19, 26 December 2021 (UTC)==付红岩 Fù Hóngyán 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081485==<br />
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吓的地下众人一拥争去拾玉。贾母急的搂了宝玉道：“孽障，你生气，要打骂人容易，何苦摔那命根子？”宝玉满面泪痕，哭道：“家里姐姐妹妹都没有，单我有，我说没趣儿；<br />
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The aside servants were scared and then rushed to pick up the jade.Jia's mother anxiously hugged Baoyu and said:" poor kid, if you are angry, why do you bother to fall the jade rahtere to beat and curse."Covered with tears, Baoyu cried:" my beloved elder and litter sisters have no one. I'm ashamed of owning one."--[[User:Fu Hongyan|Fu Hongyan]] ([[User talk:Fu Hongyan|talk]]) 11:19, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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All those, who stood below, were startled; and in a body they pressed forward, vying with each other as to who should pick up the gem.<br />
Grandma Merchant was so distressed that she clasped Precious Jade in her embrace. "You child of wrath," she exclaimed. "When you get into a passion, it's easy enough for you to beat and abuse people; but what makes you fling away that stem of life?"<br />
Precious Jade’s face was covered with the traces of tears. "All my cousins here, senior as well as junior," he rejoined, as he sobbed, "have no gem, and if it's only I to have one, there's no fun in it, I maintain! “.--[[User:Fu Shiyu|Fu Shiyu]] ([[User talk:Fu Shiyu|talk]]) 06:27, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==付诗雨 Fù Shīyǔ 日语语言文学 女 202120081486==<br />
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如今来了这个神仙似的妹妹也没有：可知这不是个好东西。”贾母忙哄他道：“你这妹妹原有玉来着，因你姑妈去世时，舍不得你妹妹，无法可处，遂将他的玉带了去：<br />
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And now comes this angelic sort of cousin, and she too has none, so that it's clear enough that it is no profitable thing." Grandma Merchant hastened to coax him. "This cousin of yours," she explained, "would, under former circumstances, have come here with a jade; and it's because your aunt felt unable, as she lay on her death-bed, to reconcile herself to the separation from your cousin, that in the absence of any remedy, she forthwith took the gem belonging to her (daughter), along with her (in the grave); --[[User:Fu Shiyu|Fu Shiyu]] ([[User talk:Fu Shiyu|talk]]) 12:24, 19 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Now the newly arrived cousin who is as lovely as a fairy hasn't got one either, so it can't be any good." "Your cousin did have one once," said Dowager lady Chia to soothe him, "but when your aunt was dying she was unwilling to leave your cousin, the best she could do was to take the jade with her instead. --[[User:Gao Mi|Gao Mi]] ([[User talk:Gao Mi|talk]]) 04:49, 20 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==高蜜 Gāo Mì 翻译学 女 202120081487==<br />
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一则全殉葬之礼，尽你妹妹的孝心；二则你姑妈的阴灵儿也可权作见了你妹妹了。因此他说没有，也是不便自己夸张的意思啊。<br />
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In that way, your cousin showed her filial piety by letting the jade be buried with her; in the meantime, your aunt’s spirit could see your cousin through the jade. Therefore, when your cousin said she hadn’t got one, it was because she didn’t want to boast about it. --[[User:Gao Mi|Gao Mi]] ([[User talk:Gao Mi|talk]]) 04:50, 20 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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In that way, your cousin showed her filial piety by letting the jade be buried with her; in the meantime, your aunt’s spirit could see your cousin through the jade. Therefore, when your cousin said she hadn’t got one, it was because she didn't want to publicise it.--[[User:Gong Boya|Gong Boya]] ([[User talk:Gong Boya|talk]]) 07:00, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==宫博雅 Gōng Bóyǎ 俄语语言文学 女 202120081488==<br />
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你还不好生带上，仔细你娘知道。”说着，便向丫鬟手中接来，亲与他带上。宝玉听如此说，想了一想，也就不生别论。<br />
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"If you don't take it with you, be careful your mother knows" As she spoke, she took the jade from the servant girl and adorned him herself. When Precious Jade Merchant heard her say this, he thought for a while and said nothing else.--[[User:Gong Boya|Gong Boya]] ([[User talk:Gong Boya|talk]]) 06:56, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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"You‘d better keep it well in case your mother notices.” As she spoke, she took the jade from the maid and adorned him herself. When Precious Jade Merchant heard her saying this, he thought for a while and said nothing else. --[[User:He Qin|He Qin]] ([[User talk:He Qin|talk]]) 12:18, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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<nowiki>Insert non-formatted text here</nowiki>==何芩 Hé Qín 翻译学 女 202120081489==<br />
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当下奶娘来问黛玉房舍，贾母便说：“将宝玉挪出来，同我在套间暖阁里，把你林姑娘暂且安置在碧纱厨里。等过了残冬，春天再给他们收拾房屋，另作一番安置罢。”<br />
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When the nanny came to ask where Mascara Jade should stay, Lady Dowager answered, “ Place Precious Jade in the warm house in my suit and settle your Miss Forest in the Green Voile House temporarily until the winter ends. In next spring, you’ll rearrange the room for them.”--[[User:He Qin|He Qin]] ([[User talk:He Qin|talk]]) 12:34, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Hardly when the nanny came to ask the room of Mascara Jade, Lady Dowager said, “ Place Precious Jade in the warm house with me and settle your Miss Lin inside the room of the partition door temporarily until the winter ends. In next spring, you’ll rearrange the room for them.”--[[User:Hu Shuqing|Hu Shuqing]] ([[User talk:Hu Shuqing|talk]]) 11:31, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==胡舒情 Hú Shūqíng 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081490==<br />
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宝玉道：“好祖宗，我就在碧纱厨外的床上很妥当，又何必出来，闹的老祖宗不得安静呢？”贾母想一想说：“也罢了。<br />
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Baoyu said:” Dear grandma, I would rather stay at the bed outside the partition door, than at your room to bother you.” The Lady Dowager said thoughtfully:”That’s Ok.”--[[User:Hu Shuqing|Hu Shuqing]] ([[User talk:Hu Shuqing|talk]]) 05:38, 21 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Presious Jade said:"Dear mother, I would rather stay on the bed outside the partition door rather than at grandma's to bother her." The Lady Dowager said thoughtfully:"That's OK."--[[User:Huang Jinyun|Huang Jinyun]] ([[User talk:Huang Jinyun|talk]]) 09:06, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==黄锦云 Huáng Jǐnyún 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081491==<br />
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每人一个奶娘并一个丫头照管，馀者在外间上夜听唤。”一面早有熙凤命人送了一顶藕合色花帐并锦被、缎褥之类。<br />
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But let each one of you have a nurse, as well as a waiting-maid to attend on you; the other servants can remain in the outside rooms and keep night watch and be ready to answer any call." At an early hour, besides, Hsi-feng had sent a servant round with a grey flowered curtain, embroidered coverlets and satin quilts and other such articles.--[[User:Huang Jinyun|Huang Jinyun]] ([[User talk:Huang Jinyun|talk]]) 14:25, 19 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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But let each one of you have a nurse and a waiting-maid; the other servants can remain in the outside rooms and keep night watch and be ready to answer any call." At an early hour, besides, Hsi-feng had sent a servant round with a grey flowered curtain, embroidered coverlets and satin quilts and other such articles.--[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 14:22, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==黄逸妍 Huáng Yìyán 外国语言学及应用语言学 女 202120081492==<br />
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黛玉只带了两个人来：一个是自己的奶娘王嬷嬷；一个是十岁的小丫头，名唤雪雁。贾母见雪雁甚小，一团孩气；<br />
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Daiyu had brought her old Wet-nurse Nanny Wang and ten-year-old Xueyan,who had also attended her since she was a child. The Lady Dowager considered Xueyan too young;--[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 14:17, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Daiyu had brought her old Wet-nurse Nanny Wang and ten-year-old Xueyan,who had also attended her since she was a child. The Lady Dowager considered Xueyan too young;--[[User:Huang Zhuliang|Huang Zhuliang]] ([[User talk:Huang Zhuliang|talk]]) 01:41, 26 December 2021 (UTC)Huang Zhuliang<br />
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==黄柱梁 Huáng Zhùliáng 国别 男 202120081493==<br />
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王嬷嬷又极老：料黛玉皆不遂心，将自己身边一个二等小丫头，名唤鹦哥的与了黛玉。亦如迎春等一般：每人除自幼乳母外，另有四个教引嬷嬷；Mammy(Here mammy not means the lady who gives birth to a baby, but a lady who looks after some noble children) Wang is very old: she is not expectd to look after Daiyu well. So,Daiyu's grandmother gave Daiyu to a second-class little page girl named Yingge. Daiyu's arrangement is also like Jia Yingchun who not only has the nursing mother, but also four teaching mothers.--[[User:Huang Zhuliang|Huang Zhuliang]] ([[User talk:Huang Zhuliang|talk]]) 14:02, 19 December 2021 (UTC)Huang Zhuliang<br />
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Mammy(Here mammy not means the lady who gives birth to a baby, but a lady who looks after some noble children) Wang is very old: she is not expectd to look after Daiyu well. So,Daiyu's grandmother gave Daiyu to a second-class little girl named Polly. Daiyu's arrangement is also like Jia Yingchun who not only has the nursing mother, but also four teaching mummys.--[[User:Jin Xiaotong|Jin Xiaotong]] ([[User talk:Jin Xiaotong|talk]]) 14:40, 20 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==金晓童 Jīn Xiǎotóng 202120081494==<br />
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除贴身掌管钗钏盥沐两个丫头外，另有四五个洒扫房屋、来往使役的小丫头。当下王嬷嬷与鹦哥陪侍黛玉在碧纱厨内，宝玉乳母李嬷嬷并大丫头名唤袭人的陪侍在外面大床上。<br />
In addition to the two servants who are in charge of jewelry and toiletries, there are four or five little maids who sweep the house and do chores. At the moment King mammy and polly accompany daiyu in green gauze room, Baoyu’s mammy li and big maid Xiren accompany on the big bed outside.--[[User:Jin Xiaotong|Jin Xiaotong]] ([[User talk:Jin Xiaotong|talk]]) 14:37, 20 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==邝艳丽 Kuàng Yànl 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081495==<br />
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原来这袭人亦是贾母之婢，本名蕊珠，贾母因溺爱宝玉，恐宝玉之婢不中使，素喜蕊珠心地纯良，遂与宝玉。宝玉因知他本姓花，又曾见旧人诗句有“花气袭人”之句，遂回明贾母，即把蕊珠更名袭人。<br />
This maid Xi Ren, whose real name is Rui Zhu, also belongs to Lady Dowager. Lady Dowager enjoyed Rui Zhu’s purity and kindness then assigned her to Baoyu, for Lady Dowager coddled him and worried that the maids of Baoyu not work well. Baoyu knew her last name was Hua, and saw once poetic sentence “the fragrance of flowers assails noses”, then he talked it with Lady Dowager, and then Rui Zhu was named Xi Ren.--[[User:Kuang Yanli|Kuang Yanli]] ([[User talk:Kuang Yanli|talk]]) 07:12, 20 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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This maid Xi Ren, whose real name is Rui Zhu, also belongs to Lady Dowager. Lady Dowager enjoyed Rui Zhu’s purity and kindness, then assigned her to serve Jade, for Lady Dowager coddled him and worried that the maids of Jade not professional. Jade knew her last name was Flower, and saw once a poetic sentence “the fragrance of flowers assails noses”, then he talked it with Lady Dowager. And then Rui Zhu was named Xi Ren.--[[User:Li Aixuan|Li Aixuan]] ([[User talk:Li Aixuan|talk]]) 12:33, 20 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==李爱璇 Lǐ Àixuán 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081496==<br />
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却说袭人倒有些痴处：伏侍贾母时，心中只有贾母；如今跟了宝玉，心中又只有宝玉了。只因宝玉性情乖僻，每每规谏，见宝玉不听，心中着实忧郁。<br />
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However, it is said that Hsi-jen is crazy: when seving Jia's mother, only Jia's mother is in her heart; now serving Jade, there is only Jade in her heart. Because of Jade's perverse temperament, when Jade doesn't listen to her advise, Hsi-jen is really depressed.--[[User:Li Aixuan|Li Aixuan]] ([[User talk:Li Aixuan|talk]]) 07:11, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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However, Hsi Jen had several simple traits. While in attendance upon dowager lady Chia, in her heart and her eyes there was no one but her venerable ladyship, and her alone; and now in her attendance upon Pao-yue, her heart and her eyes were again full of Pao-yue, and him alone. But as Pao-yue was of a perverse temperament and did not heed her repeated injunctions, she felt at heart exceedingly grieved.--[[User:Li Ruiyang|Li Ruiyang]] ([[User talk:Li Ruiyang|talk]]) 00:42, 21 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==李瑞洋 Lǐ Ruìyáng 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081497==<br />
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是晚，宝玉、李嬷嬷已睡了，他见里面黛玉、鹦哥犹未安歇，他自卸了妆，悄悄的进来，笑问：“姑娘怎么还不安歇？”黛玉忙笑让：“姐姐请坐。”<br />
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At night, after nurse Li had fallen asleep, seeing that in the inner chambers, Tai-yue and Ying Ko had not as yet retired to rest, she removed her makeup, and with gentle step walked in.<br />
"How is it, miss，" she inquired smiling, "that you have not turned in as yet？"<br />
Tai-yue at once put on a smile. "Sit down, sister, " she rejoined, pressing her to take a seat. --[[User:Li Ruiyang|Li Ruiyang]] ([[User talk:Li Ruiyang|talk]]) 01:37, 21 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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At night, after Master Bao and nurse Li had fallen asleep, seeing that in the inner chambers, Tai-yue and Ying Ko had not as yet retired to rest, she removed her makeup, and with gentle step walked in."How is it, miss，" she inquired smilingly, "that you have not turned in as yet？" Tai-yue at once put on a smile. "Sit down, my dear sister, " she rejoined, leading her to take a seat.--[[User:Li Shan|Li Shan]] ([[User talk:Li Shan|talk]]) 14:41, 21 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==李姗 Lǐ Shān 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081498==<br />
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袭人在床沿上坐了。鹦哥笑道：“林姑娘在这里伤心，自己淌眼抹泪的说：‘今儿才来了，就惹出你们哥儿的病来。倘或摔坏了那玉，岂不是因我之过？’<br />
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Hsi-jen then sat by the bedside. Ying Ko ridiculed, "Miss Lin was feeling sad with her tears dropping down today, saying that 'It is the first day that I come here, while I have triggered the relapse of your young master. If his precious jade was truly broken apart, then I am sure to blame."--[[User:Li Shan|Li Shan]] ([[User talk:Li Shan|talk]]) 14:29, 21 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Aroma then sat by the bedside. Brother Parrot ridiculed, "Miss Lin feels sad with her tears dropping down today, saying that 'It is the first day that I come here, while I have triggered the relapse of your young master. If his precious jade is truly broken apart, then I'll be sure to blame."--[[User:Li Shuang|Li Shuang]] ([[User talk:Li Shuang|talk]]) 02:45, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==李双 Lǐ Shuāng 翻译学 女 202120081499==<br />
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所以伤心。我好容易劝好了。”袭人道：“姑娘快别这么着。将来只怕比这更奇怪的笑话儿还有呢。<br />
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“She is therefore so sad, and I had a hard time persuading her to stop crying.” Aroma said: “Please don’t look so sad, young lady. There will be more stranger jokes in the future.”--[[User:Li Shuang|Li Shuang]] ([[User talk:Li Shuang|talk]]) 02:40, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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“She is therefore so sad, and I had a hard time persuading her to stop crying.” Aroma said: “Please don’t look so sad, my mistress. There will be more stranger jokes in the future.”--[[User:Li Wenxuan|Li Wenxuan]] ([[User talk:Li Wenxuan|talk]]) 10:51, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==李文璇 Lǐ Wénxuán 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081500==<br />
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若为他这种行状，你多心伤感，只怕你还伤感不了呢。快别多心。”黛玉道：“姐姐们说的，我记着就是了。”<br />
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“If you feel sad for his behavior, I’m afraid that you can’t be so. Don’t think too much.” Daiyu said: “I will remember what our sisters has said.” --[[User:Li Wenxuan|Li Wenxuan]] ([[User talk:Li Wenxuan|talk]]) 00:23, 20 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==李雯 Lǐ Wén 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081501==<br />
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又叙了一会，方才安歇。次早起来，省过贾母，因往王夫人处来。正值王夫人与熙凤在一处拆金陵来的书信，又有王夫人的兄嫂处遣来的两个媳妇儿来说话。<br />
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==李新星 Lǐ Xīnxīng 亚非语言文学 女 202120081503==<br />
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黛玉虽不知原委，探春等却晓得是议论金陵城中居住的薛家姨母之子、表兄薛蟠倚财仗势，打死人命，现在应天府案下审理。如今舅舅王子腾得了信，遣人来告诉这边，意欲唤取进京之意。<br />
Although Daiyu did not know the exact cause, Tanchun and others knew that it was xue Pan, son and cousin of aunt Xue who lived in Jinling city, who killed a man by taking advantage of his wealth and power, and was now being tried by the Tianfu court. Now uncle Prince teng got the letter, send people to tell here, intended to call the meaning of Beijing.--[[User:Li Xinxing|Li Xinxing]] ([[User talk:Li Xinxing|talk]]) 12:24, 19 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Although Dai Yu did not know the original commission, Tan Chun and others knew that it was a discussion of Xue Pan, the son of the Xue family's aunt and cousin Xue Pan, who lived in Jinling City, who relied on wealth and power to kill people, and now it should be tried under the Tianfu case. Now that his uncle Prince Teng had received the letter, he sent someone to tell this side, intending to summon the intention of entering the capital.--[[User:Li Yi|Li Yi]] ([[User talk:Li Yi|talk]]) 12:27, 19 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==李怡 Lǐ Yí 法语语言文学 女 202120081504==<br />
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毕竟怎的，下回分解。<br />
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起复——即重新起用被停职或撤职的官员，包括因父母丧停职回家守孝及因被弹劾而遭撤职的官员。<br />
If you want to know what happened, the answer is next time<br />
Reinstatement – Reinstate officials who have been suspended or removed from their posts, including those who have been suspended from their posts for the death of their parents and who have been removed from office for impeachment.--[[User:Li Yi|Li Yi]] ([[User talk:Li Yi|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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After all, I'll break it down next time.<br />
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Reinstatement - reinstatement of officials who have been suspended or removed from office, including those who have been removed from office due to the death of their parents and those who have been removed from office due to impeachment.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 12:24, 19 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==刘沛婷 Liú Pèitíng 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081505==<br />
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邸(dǐ底)报——亦称“邸抄”、“抄报”、“宫门抄”，清代或称“京报”。中国古代官方报纸的通称。<br />
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Di Pao -- also known as "Di Copy", "copy newspaper" or "Palace Gate Copy" -- is also known as "Beijing Newspaper" during the Qing Dynasty. The general name of the official newspaper in ancient China.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 12:23, 19 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Di Bao -- also known as "Di Copy", "copy newspaper" or "Palace Gate Copy" -- is also known as "Beijing Newspaper" during the Qing Dynasty. The general name of the official newspaper in ancient China.--[[User:Liu Shengnan|Liu Shengnan]] ([[User talk:Liu Shengnan|talk]]) 12:10, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==刘胜楠 Liú Shèngnán 翻译学 女 202120081506==<br />
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承办者或为地方官府驻京办事机构，或为朝廷。邸报专门抄发诏令、奏章及朝政新闻，以供地方官及时了解。 邸：原指战国时各诸侯在都城的客馆，后泛指地方官府驻京办事处。<br />
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The undertaker is either the local government office in Beijing or the imperial court. The residence newspaper specially copied and issued imperial edicts, memorials and government news for local officials to understand in time. Di: it used to refer to the guest houses of various princes in the capital during the Warring States period, and later it generally refers to the offices of local officials in Beijing. --[[User:Liu Shengnan|Liu Shengnan]] ([[User talk:Liu Shengnan|talk]]) 12:09, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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The undertaker is either the local government office in Beijing or the imperial court. The "Di" newspaper(a official gazette) specially copied and issued imperial edicts, memorials and government news for local officials to understand in time."Di": Originally referred to the guest hall of the princes in the capital during the Warring States Period, and later generally referred to the Beijing office of the local government. --[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 14:40, 22 December 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei<br />
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==刘薇 Liú Wēi 国别 女 202120081507==<br />
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贱荆——亦称“拙荆”、“山荆”等。谦词。对人称自己的妻子。 荆：“荆钗布裙”的省称。<br />
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"Jian Jing" ——also known as "Zhuo Jing", "Shan Jing" etc. It's a modest word when a man mention his wife in front of others. "Jing"is a short name for "JingChaiBuQun"(the female have only a thorn for a hairpin and plain cloth for a skirt). --[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 12:36, 19 December 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei<br />
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Jian Jing, also known as "Zhuo Jing", "Shan Jing",etc, is a humle term for quoting one's own wife. Jing is an abbreviation for "Jingchaibuqun", that is, a thorn for a hairpin and palin cloth for a skirt.--[[User:Liu Xiao|Liu Xiao]] ([[User talk:Liu Xiao|talk]]) 06:59, 20 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==刘晓 Liú Xiǎo 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081508==<br />
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形容妇人极为简朴的服饰。语出汉·刘向《列女传》(见《太平御览》卷七一八引)：“梁鸿妻孟光，荆钗布裙。” 荆钗：即以木棍为钗。<br />
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Jing, used to describe women's plain, simple and unadorned clothes, is originated from a sentence in the ''Biographies of Exemplary Women'' written by Liu Xiang in the Han Dynasty (see ''Imperial Review under the Reign of Taizong in the Song Dynasty'', Vol.718): "Meng Guang, wife of Liang Hong has only a thorn for a hairpin and plain cloth for a skirt." Jingchai means a thron for a hairpin.--[[User:Liu Xiao|Liu Xiao]] ([[User talk:Liu Xiao|talk]]) 06:53, 20 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Jing, used to describe the extremely simple dress of a woman. In Han, Liu Xiang's "Biography of the Female" (see ”Taiping Yu Lan“（Imperial Review under the Reign of Taizong in the Song Dynasty）, vol. 718): "Liang Hong's wife, Meng Guang, was dressed in a woven hairpin and cloth skirt." Jingchai (荆钗): a wooden stick used as a hairpin.--[[User:Liu Yue|Liu Yue]] ([[User talk:Liu Yue|talk]]) 05:02, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==刘越 Liú Yuè 亚非语言文学 女 202120081509==<br />
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内顾之忧──语出北朝魏·袁翻《安置蠕蠕表》：“且蠕蠕尚存，则高车犹有内顾之忧，未暇窥窬上国；<br />
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The Worries of Internal Concern - From Yuan Fan's " Settlement Zoran Policy ", And if Zoran still existed, then Gao Che (a generic term used by the Northern Dynasties for a part of the nomadic tribes in the north of the desert) would still have internal concerns and would not have had the strength to covet the vassal states.--[[User:Liu Yue|Liu Yue]] ([[User talk:Liu Yue|talk]]) 04:55, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Internal Concerns – derived from Yuan Fan's "Policy on the Settlement of Ruru". “And if Ruru survived, Gaoche would have internal concerns and would have no time to covet the territory of the Emperor.--[[User:Liu Yunxin|Liu Yunxin]] ([[User talk:Liu Yunxin|talk]]) 13:30, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==刘运心 Liú Yùnxīn 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081510==<br />
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若蠕蠕全灭，则高车跋扈之计，岂易可知？”(蠕蠕：“柔然”的别称，亦称“芮芮”、“茹茹”。我国古代北方少数民族名。<br />
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“If Ruru was annihilated, wasn’t it easy to know the conceited plan of Gaoche?” (“Ruru”, an alternative name for Rouran Khaganate, can also be called “Ruirui” or “Ruru”. The name of an ancient northern ethnic minorities.)--[[User:Liu Yunxin|Liu Yunxin]] ([[User talk:Liu Yunxin|talk]]) 12:53, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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If Ruru was annihilated, would it be easy to know the conceited plan of Gaoche?" (“Ruru”,: an alias for Rouran Khaganate, also known as "Ruirui" and "Ruru". The name of an ancient northern minority group in the region of China.--[[User:Luo Anyi|Luo Anyi]] ([[User talk:Luo Anyi|talk]]) 11:44, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==罗安怡 Luó Ānyí 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081511==<br />
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高车：亦称“狄历”、“敕勒”、“铁勒”、“丁零”。 我国古代北方少数民族名。)意谓因对家事或国事的顾念而担忧。<br />
Gao Che: also known as Di Li, Cile, Tie Le, Ding Zero. The name of a minority group in the north of China in ancient times). It means to worry about family or national affairs.--[[User:Luo Anyi|Luo Anyi]] ([[User talk:Luo Anyi|talk]]) 11:39, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==罗曦 Luó Xī 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081512==<br />
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这里指家庭需要照顾的人或事。<br />
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垂花门──旧时较为讲究的四合院二门。门顶如屋顶式样，其四角和前后多有下垂的雕花，故称。<br />
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This refers to the person or thing that family members need to take care of. <br />
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Floral-Pendant Gates: It was the second gate of a courtyard house with exquisite decoration in the old days. The top of the door was like a roof, with drooping carvings on the back and front of four corners, so it is called "Floral-Pendant Gates".--[[User:Ma Xin|Ma Xin]] ([[User talk:Ma Xin|talk]]) 11:25, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==马新 Mǎ Xīn 外国语言学及应用语言学 女 202120081513==<br />
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超手游廊──亦作“超手回廊”、“抄手游廊”。房廊像两手笼入袖筒，两袖成环形状，故称。<br />
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Verandah Chao Shou —— also known as "Corridor Chao Shou" and "Cross Hand Verandah". Its gallery looked like a two-handed cage into the sleeves, and the two sleeves formed a ring shape, so it was called "Verandah Chao Shou".--[[User:Ma Xin|Ma Xin]] ([[User talk:Ma Xin|talk]]) 07:37, 20 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Verandah Chao Shou: It was also known as “Corridor Chao Shou” or “Verandah Cross Hand”. Its gallery was similar to a two-handed cage into the two sleeves which formed a ring shape, so it was called “Verandah Chao Shou”. --[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 06:26, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==毛雅文 Máo Yǎwén 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081514==<br />
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穿山游廊──指与厅房两边山墙门通连的回廊。以其可由山墙门穿行，故称。 山：即房屋两侧的山墙。<br />
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Chuan Shan You Lang: A veranda or corridor connected with the gable doors on both sides of the hall. People can pass through the corridor after entering into the gable doors, so this kind of corridor is called such a name. Shan: The gable doors on both sides of a house.--[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 13:22, 19 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Chuan Shan You Lang: It refers to the corridor connected to the door of the wall on either side of the room. People can pass through the corridor after entering into the gable doors, so this kind of corridor is called such a name. Shan: The gable doors on both sides of a house.--[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 13:33, 19 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==毛优 Máo Yōu 俄语语言文学 女 202120081515==<br />
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“第一个”六句──这是对迎春形象的描写。 微丰：稍胖。 腮凝新荔：形容腮帮子像荔枝般的红润。<br />
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The first six lines - It is a description of Yingchun's image. Wei Feng: Slightly fat. Sai Ning Xin Li：The cheeks are as red as lychees.--[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 13:29, 19 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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The first six lines - It is a description of Yingchun's image. Wei Feng: Slightly fat. Sai Ning Xin Li：The cheeks are as red and shiny as lychees.--[[User:Mou Yixin|Mou Yixin]] ([[User talk:Mou Yixin|talk]]) 07:21, 20 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==牟一心 Móu Yīxīn 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081516==<br />
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鼻腻鹅脂：形容鼻端像鹅脂般光润。<br />
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“第二个”七句──这是对探春形象的描写。 削肩：俗称溜肩。<br />
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Bi Ni E Zhi: an idiom to describe someone’s tip of nose is as shiny and smooth as goose grease.<br />
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“The second” seven lines —— this is a depiction of the look of Tanchun. Rounded shoulders: commonly known as sloping shoulders --[[User:Mou Yixin|Mou Yixin]] ([[User talk:Mou Yixin|talk]]) 07:18, 20 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Bi Ni E Zhi: a Chiniese idiom to describe someone’s tip of nose is as shiny and smooth as goose grease.<br />
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“The second” seven lines —— this is a depiction of Tanchun'image. Cuted shoulders: commonly known as sloping shoulders--[[User:Peng Ruixue|Peng Ruixue]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruixue|talk]]) 07:00, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==彭瑞雪 Péng Ruìxuě 法语语言文学 女 202120081517==<br />
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倾斜的双肩。古人以为美人肩。<br />
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长挑身材：瘦高的身材。 鸭蛋脸儿：犹如鸭蛋似的长圆形脸盘。<br />
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Sloping shoulders. The ancients considered these to be the shoulders of beauty.<br />
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Long, tall figure: a tall, thin figure. Duck egg face: an oblong face like a duck egg.--[[User:Peng Ruixue|Peng Ruixue]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruixue|talk]]) 06:32, 20 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Sloping shoulders. The ancient people considered such shoulders as the shoulders of beauty.<br />
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Long, tall figure: a tall, thin figure. Duck egg face: an oblong face like a duck egg--[[User:Qing Jianan|Qing Jianan]] ([[User talk:Qing Jianan|talk]]) 11:59, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==秦建安 Qín Jiànān 外国语言学及应用语言学 女 202120081518==<br />
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俊眼修眉：秀美的眼睛，长长的秀眉。 顾盼神飞：左顾右盼，目光炯炯，神采飞扬。 文彩精华：光彩照人，精神十足。<br />
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Jun Yan Xiu Mei: charming eyes with long and delicate eyebrows. Gu Pan Shen Fei: looking left and right, with shining eyes and soaring spirit. Wen Cai Jing Hua: being radiant and full of energy.--[[User:Qing Jianan|Qing Jianan]] ([[User talk:Qing Jianan|talk]]) 11:58, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Jun Yan Xiu Mei: beautiful eyes with long and delicate eyebrows. Gu Pan Shen Fei: looking left and right, with shining eyes and soaring spirit. Wen Cai Jing Hua: being radiant and full of energy.--[[User:Qiu Tingting|Qiu Tingting]] ([[User talk:Qiu Tingting|talk]]) 01:21, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==邱婷婷 Qiū Tíngtíng 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081519==<br />
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见之忘俗：意谓别人见了就会忘了俗气，变得高雅起来。形容探春一身高雅之气。<br />
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“第三个”两句──这是对惜春形象的描写。<br />
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To see is to forget vulgarity: It means that when others see something or someone will forget the secular atmosphere and become more elegant. In this sentence, it describes Tanchun has a great elegant temperament.<br />
"The third" two sentences ─ thses are the description of the image of Xi Chun.--[[User:Qiu Tingting|Qiu Tingting]] ([[User talk:Qiu Tingting|talk]]) 02:50, 20 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Jian Zhi Wang Su: It means that others will forget the vulgarity and become elegant when they see it. It is used to describe Tanchun's elegance. <br />
The two sentences containing “ the third” — are the image depiction of Sichun.--[[User:Rao Jinying|Rao Jinying]] ([[User talk:Rao Jinying|talk]]) 12:27, 19 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==饶金盈 Ráo Jīnyíng 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081520==<br />
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形容惜春年纪尚小，身材和容貌都还没有发育成熟。<br />
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人参养荣丸──以人参、当归、黄芪、陈皮、白芍、熟地、桂心等配制而成的丸药，主治脾胃气血亏虚等症。<br />
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It is used to describe the Xichun, who is still young and body and appearance are not developed.<br />
Ginseng Yangrong Pill- A pill made of ginseng, angelica, astragalus, Chen Pi, Bai Shao, Shu Di, Gui Xin, etc., mainly used for treating deficiency of qi and blood in the spleen and stomach.--[[User:Rao Jinying|Rao Jinying]] ([[User talk:Rao Jinying|talk]]) 12:22, 19 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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It is used to depict Xichun, who is still in her young age and underdeveloped stature as well as appearance.<br />
Ginseng tonic bolus- a sort of pill composed of ginseng, Angelica sinensis, astragalus, tangerine peel, white paleontology root, rehmannia glutinousa, laurel heart, etc. is mainly used to treat diseases such as deficiency in spleen, stomach, qi as well as blood.--[[User:Shi Liqing|Shi Liqing]] ([[User talk:Shi Liqing|talk]]) 13:00, 19 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==石丽青 Shí Lìqīng 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081521==<br />
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荣：中医指血脉。 养荣丸：似有双关之意：除了保养血脉之意外，还有保养荣誉之意，与薛宝钗的“冷香丸”相对，以寓二人的不同性格。<br />
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“Rong” refers to blood vessel in the field of traditional Chinese medicine. Tonic bolus embraces double meaning. Apart from the maintenance of blood, it also boasts the function of maintaining the honor, which is opposite to “Cold Fragrant Pellet” of Xue Baochai. This is the revelation of different personalities between these two people.--[[User:Shi Liqing|Shi Liqing]] ([[User talk:Shi Liqing|talk]]) 12:45, 19 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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“Rong” refers to blood vessel in the field of traditional Chinese medicine. Tonic bolus embraces double meanings. Apart from the maintenance of blood vessel, it also boasts the function of maintaining the honor, which is opposite to “Cold Fragrant Pellet” of Xue Baochai. This is the revelation of different personalities between these two people.--[[User:Sun Yashi|Sun Yashi]] ([[User talk:Sun Yashi|talk]]) 02:27, 20 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==孙雅诗 Sūn Yǎshī 外国语言学及应用语言学 女 202120081522==<br />
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窄褃(kèn掯)袄──即紧身妖。 窄：瘦小。 褃：是上衣前后幅两侧接缝部分的名称。<br />
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Narrow ken coat ── is a tight quilted jacket.Narrow: thin.Ken: It is the name of the seams on the front and rear sides of the jacket.--[[User:Sun Yashi|Sun Yashi]] ([[User talk:Sun Yashi|talk]]) 02:18, 20 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Narrow Ken coat ── namely tight quilted jacket. Narrow: thin. Ken: the name of the seams on the front and back of the jacket. --[[User:Wang Lifei|Wang Lifei]] ([[User talk:Wang Lifei|talk]]) 08:50, 21 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==王李菲 Wáng Lǐfēi 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081523==<br />
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仪门──原指官署大门里的第二道正门。之所以称“仪门”，是因为官员至此门必须整齐仪表。<br />
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Etiquette Gate ── originally refers to the second main gate in the main gate of the government office. The reason why it is called "Etiquette Gate" is because the officers must be well-groomed when he arrives. --[[User:Wang Lifei|Wang Lifei]] ([[User talk:Wang Lifei|talk]]) 08:38, 21 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Etiquette Gate--Originally, it refers to the second main door in the gate of the official office. The reason why it is called "Etiquette Gate" is that officials must be neat and tidy when they arrive at this gate.--[[User:Wang Yifan21|Wang Yifan21]] ([[User talk:Wang Yifan21|talk]]) 06:30, 23 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==王逸凡 Wáng Yìfán 亚非语言文学 女 202120081524==<br />
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《明会典·礼部十七·官员礼》：“新官到任之日……先至神庙祭祀毕，引至仪门前下马，具官服，从中道入。”<br />
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The Ming Canon - Rituals XVII - Official Rites: "On the day the new official arrives, he first goes to the temple to offer sacrifice, after which he is led to dismount in front of the ceremonial gate, with his official uniform, and enters from the middle road."--[[User:Wang Yifan21|Wang Yifan21]] ([[User talk:Wang Yifan21|talk]]) 06:27, 23 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==王镇隆 Wáng Zhènlóng 英语语言文学（英美文学） 男 202120081525==<br />
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又《江宁府志·建制·官署》：“其制大门之内为仪门，仪门内为莅事堂。”后加以引申，大家府第的第二道正门也称仪门。<br />
"Jiangning official records，organizational system，official ": "inside the system gate is the instrument gate, and inside the instrument gate is the visiting hall." Later extended, the second main gate of everyone's house is also called Yimen. --[[User:Wang Zhenlong|Wang Zhenlong]] ([[User talk:Wang Zhenlong|talk]]) 11:12, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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"Jiangning official records，organizational system，government ": "inside the system gate is the etiquette gate, and inside the etiquette gate is the visiting hall." Later extended, the second main gate of mansion is also called etiquette gate.--[[User:Wei Yiwen|Wei Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Wei Yiwen|talk]]) 09:52, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==卫怡雯 Wèi Yíwén 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081526==<br />
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鹿顶耳房钻山──这里是指在正房两侧与东西厢房北侧之间建有两座平顶耳房，并在耳房山墙上开门。如此则使正房、东西耳房、东西厢房皆可相通，便于穿行，所以下句说“四通八达”。<br />
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Luding Erfang Zuanshan—— it refers to two flat top ear rooms which are situated on the two sides of principal room and northern side of east and west wings and open up the door on the gable. Then it makes a connection between principal room, east and west ear room as well as east and west wings so that it is more convenient for people to pass. It is called “extend in all directions” as described below.--[[User:Wei Yiwen|Wei Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Wei Yiwen|talk]]) 02:14, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Luding Erfang Zuanshan——it refers to two flat-top ear rooms which are situated on the two sides of principal room and northern side of east and west wings and open up the door on the gable of ear rooms. Then it makes a connection between principal room, east and west ear rooms as well as east and west wings so that it is very convenient for people to pass. Therefore, it is called “accessible in all directions” as described below.--[[User:Wei Chuxuan|Wei Chuxuan]] ([[User talk:Wei Chuxuan|talk]]) 07:44, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==魏楚璇 Wèi Chǔxuán 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081527==<br />
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鹿顶：亦作“盝顶”。即平屋顶。 耳房：紧靠正房或厢房两侧并利用其山墙建造的房屋。<br />
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Luding: flat roof. Ear room: a room built by using a gable on either side of a principle room or wing-room.--[[User:Wei Chuxuan|Wei Chuxuan]] ([[User talk:Wei Chuxuan|talk]]) 02:00, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Lu Ding: this means flat roof. Er Fang: a room built by using the gable on both sides of a principle room or wing-room.--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 12:13, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==魏兆妍 Wèi Zhàoyán 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081528==<br />
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因其位于正房两侧，犹如人的两只耳朵，故称。 钻山：指打通房屋两侧的山墙，以与相邻的房屋或回廊相通。<br />
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As they are located on both sides of the main house just like people’s ears, they are called “wings”. Zuan Shan: this means breaking through the gables on both sides of the house to connect to adjacent houses and cloisters.--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 07:45, 20 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Because they are located on both sides of the main house just like people’s ears, they are called “wings”. Zuan Shan: this means breaking through the gables on both sides of the house to connect to adjacent houses and cloisters. --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 21 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==吴婧悦 Wú Jìngyuè 俄语语言文学 女 202120081529==<br />
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赤金九龙青地大匾──以赤金涂饰的九条雕龙为边框的黑底大匾。 九龙：古代传说龙生九子，性格各异。但说法各异。<br />
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The horizontal board, which is decorated with pink gold, night dragon and tuff - the board is black and is made of motifs of dragon and phoenix. The nine dragons: it is said that, in the ancient time, the dragon had nine sons, whose character were totally different. But there were different ideas about it.--[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 14:02, 19 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
A large plaque with nine dragons painted in red gold on a black background. Nine Dragons: Ancient legend has it that dragons are born with nine sons, each with a different character. However, there are different sayings.--[[User:Wu Yinghong|Wu Yinghong]] ([[User talk:Wu Yinghong|talk]]) 05:36, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==吴映红 Wú Yìnghóng 日语语言文学 女 202120081530==<br />
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明·杨慎《升庵外集·动物一·龙生九子》说：“龙生九子不成龙，各有所好：囚牛，平生好音乐，今胡琴头上刻兽是其遗像；<br />
Ming-Yang Shen's "Sheng'an Waiji - Animals I - The Nine Sons of the Dragon" says: "The nine sons of the dragon were born without becoming dragons, but each had his own interests: the prisoner bull, who was good at music in his life, and the beast carved on the head of the huqin today is his posthumous image.<br />
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Yang Shen of Ming Dynasty said in "Sheng an Outside collection · Animal · Long Sheng Jiu Zi" : "Long sheng Jiu Zi is not a dragon, each has his own good points: prisoner ox, good music in his life, the beast carved on the head of Huqin is his portrait; --[[User:Xiao Yiyao|Xiao Yiyao]] ([[User talk:Xiao Yiyao|talk]]) 10:32, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==肖毅瑶 Xiāo Yìyáo 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081531==<br />
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睚毗，平生好杀，金刀柄上龙吞口是其遗像；嘲风，平生好险，今殿角走兽是其遗像；蒲牢，平生好鸣，今钟上兽纽是其遗像；<br />
Yapi, who was easy to kill, has a portrait of a dragon swallowing mouth on the gold hilt. Scene wind, life good risk, this temple corner beast is its portrait; Pu Lao, life good Ming, this bell on the beast new is its portrait; --[[User:Xiao Yiyao|Xiao Yiyao]] ([[User talk:Xiao Yiyao|talk]]) 10:28, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Yapi, who likes killing, so the image of a dragon swallowing mouth on the gold hilt is its portrait. Chaofeng, who likes being at risk, so the image of the temple corner beast is its portrait; Pulao, who likes chirping, so the image of the bell on the beast new is its portrait.--[[User:Xie Jiafen|Xie Jiafen]] ([[User talk:Xie Jiafen|talk]]) 11:34, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==谢佳芬 Xiè Jiāfēn 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081532==<br />
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狻猊，平生好坐，今佛座狮子是其遗像；霸下，平生好负重，今碑座兽是其遗像；陛犴，平生好讼，今狱门上狮子头是其遗像；<br />
Suan ni likes sitting all its life , it looks alike a lion, which usually appears in the pedestal of Buddha ; Ba xia likes bearing a heavy burden all its life, so its image usually appears under the stone monuments as a stele monster; Bi'an likes lawsuit all its life, so its image usually appears in the cell doors.--[[User:Xie Jiafen|Xie Jiafen]] ([[User talk:Xie Jiafen|talk]]) 07:02, 20 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Suan ni likes sitting all its life , it looks alike a lion, which usually appears in the pedestal of Buddha ; Ba xia likes bearing a heavy burden all its life, so its image usually appears under the stone monuments as a stele monster; Bi'an likes lawsuit all its life, so its image usually appears in the cell doors.--[[User:Xie Qinglin|Xie Qinglin]] ([[User talk:Xie Qinglin|talk]]) 07:25, 20 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==谢庆琳 Xiè Qìnglín 俄语语言文学 女 202120081533==<br />
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屓屭，平生好文，今碑两旁龙是其遗像；蚩吻，平生好吞，今殿脊兽头是其遗像。”明·焦竑《玉堂丛语·卷一·文学》则说：<br />
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The clamshell, life is good literature, today the two sides of the monument dragon is its image; Chi kiss, life is good swallow, today the temple ridge beast head is its image." Ming - Jiao Hong "Yu Tang Congye - Volume 1 - Literature" said.--[[User:Xie Qinglin|Xie Qinglin]] ([[User talk:Xie Qinglin|talk]]) 07:24, 20 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==熊敏 Xióng Mǐn 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081534==<br />
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“俗传龙生九子不成龙，各有所好……一曰赑屭，形似龟，好负重，今石碑下龟趺是也；二曰螭吻，形似兽，性好望，今屋上兽头是也；<br />
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“ It is said that the nine sons of dragons are not born into dragons, and each has its own features...One is Bixi shaped like a tortoise, and it is so heavy. It is also a tortoise under the stone tablet; the second is Liwen shaped like a beast, and it is well-known.<br />
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"It is said that the nine sons of dragons are not born into dragons, and each has its own features...One is Bi'xi, whose shapes like a tortoise, and it likes carrying heavy things. It is also a tortoise under the stone tablet; The second is Li'wen, whose shapes like a beast, and it is well-known, It often apperas in roof.--[[User:Xu Minyun|Xu Minyun]] ([[User talk:Xu Minyun|talk]]) 11:39, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==徐敏赟 Xú Mǐnyūn 语言智能与跨文化传播研究 男 202120081535==<br />
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三曰蒲牢，形似龙而小，性好叫吼，今钟上纽是也；四曰狴犴，形似虎，有威力，故立于狱门；五曰饕餮，好饮食，故立于鼎盖；<br />
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The third one is Pu'lao, who looks like a dragon but is small and easy to roar, and it often appeared in chime. The fourth was Bi'an, who looks like a tiger and is so powerful that he stand in the door of the prison. The fifth is Tao'tie, like eating food, so stand in tripod cover;--[[User:Xu Minyun|Xu Minyun]] ([[User talk:Xu Minyun|talk]]) 11:32, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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The third one is Pu'lao, who looks like a dragon but is small and easy to roar, and it often appeared in chime. The fourth was Bi'an, who looks like a tiger and is so powerful that he stands in the door of the prison. The fifth is Tao'tie, like eating food, so stands in tripod cover;--[[User:Yan Jing|Yan Jing]] ([[User talk:Yan Jing|talk]]) 11:47, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==颜静 Yán Jìng 语言智能与跨文化传播研究 女 202120081536==<br />
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六曰，性好水，故立于桥柱；七曰睚毗，性好杀，故立于刀环；八曰金猊，形似狮，性好烟火，故立于香炉；<br />
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The sixth is good at water, so it stands on the bridge column; The seventh is called Ya Zi, good at killing, so it stands in the knife ring; The eighth is Jin Ni, like a lion, has a good nature of fireworks, so it stands in the incense burner;--[[User:Yan Jing|Yan Jing]] ([[User talk:Yan Jing|talk]]) 11:04, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==颜莉莉 Yán Lìlì 国别 女 202120081537==<br />
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九曰椒图，形似螺蚌，性好闭，故立于门铺首。”明·沈德符《万历野获编·卷七·内阁·龙子》又说：“长沙李文正公在阁，孝宗忽下御札，问龙生九子之详。<br />
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The ninth is called Jiao Tu, which is shaped like a screw and likes to close its mouth, so it is used as decoration on the door. Shen Defu of the Ming Dynasty, in his book ''Wanli Ye Huo, Vol.7, Cabinet, Longzi,'' also said, "When Duke Li Wenzheng of Changsha was in the cabinet, Emperor Xiaozong suddenly got down to ask the details of the birth of nine longzi.<br />
--[[User:Yan Lili|Yan Lili]] ([[User talk:Yan Lili|talk]]) 13:30, 21 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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When Duke Li Wenzheng of Changsha was in the pavilion, Emperor Xiaozong suddenly sent a royal letter and asked about the details of Long Sheng's nine sons.--[[User:Yan Zihan|Yan Zihan]] ([[User talk:Yan Zihan|talk]]) 07:32, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==颜子涵 Yán Zǐhán 国别 女 202120081538==<br />
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文正对云：‘其子蒲牢好鸣，今为钟上钮鼻；囚牛好音，今为胡琴头刻兽；睚眦好杀，今为刀剑上吞口；<br />
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Wen Zheng said , "his son Pu Lao likes roaring，the dragon shaped animal button on the Hong Zhong is its relic; The Qiu Niu loves music all his life. He often squats on the head of the piano to enjoy the music of plucking strings, so his portrait is engraved on the head of the HuQin; Ya Ci is the second child. He is aggressive and likes killing all his life，and swallow a sword with his mouth.--[[User:Yan Zihan|Yan Zihan]] ([[User talk:Yan Zihan|talk]]) 07:29, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Wen Zheng said , "his son Pu Lao likes roaring，and often appears on the bell; Qiu Niu loves music all his life,accordingly, he becomes a decoration for music instrument, such as two-stringed bowed violin (huqin); Ya Ci likes fighting and killing，people see him as the patron saint of weapons, so he often appears on the weapons.--[[User:Yang Jiaying|Yang Jiaying]] ([[User talk:Yang Jiaying|talk]]) 08:08, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==阳佳颖 Yáng Jiāyǐng 国别 女 202120081540==<br />
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嘲风好险，今为殿阁走兽；狻猊好坐，今为佛座骑象；霸下好负重，今为碑碣石趺；<br />
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Chao Feng loves adventure,he now often appears on the corner on the housetop; Suan Ni loves sitting quietly, his image is often found in temples as the mount of Buddha; Bi xi has the power of strength. He loves to carry heavy stuff to show off his magic energy, so under the stele can people see his appearing.--[[User:Yang Jiaying|Yang Jiaying]] ([[User talk:Yang Jiaying|talk]]) 08:12, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Chao Feng loves adventure. It's the small decorative animal on the eaves of the housetop; Suan Ni loves sitting quietly. Its image is often found in temples as the mount of Buddha; Bi xi has the power of strength. He loves to carry heavy stuff to show off his magic energy, so under the stele can people see his appearing.--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 11:30, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==杨爱江 Yáng Àijiāng 英语语言文学（ 语言学） 女 202120081541==<br />
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狴犴好讼，今为狱户首镇压；屓屭好文，今为碑两旁蜿蜒；蚩吻好吞，今为殿脊兽头。’”<br />
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Bi An is eager for justice and righteousness and can distinguish right from wrong. Now they generally stand on both sides of the lobby of the government office to deter those who violate the law and discipline. Bi Xi, which is fond of reading and writing articles, is gentle. And now it’s the animal winding around on both sides of the stele. Chi Wen which has the ability of swallowing fire becomes the beast heads at both ends of the palace roof. --[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 07:24, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Bi An is eager for justice and righteousness and can distinguish right from wrong. Now it generally stands on both sides of the lobby of the government office to deter those who violate the law and discipline. Bi Xi, which is fond of reading and writing articles, is gentle. And now it’s the animal winding around on both sides of the stele. Chi Wen, who has the ability of swallowing fire, becomes the beast heads at both ends of the palace roof. --[[User:Yang Kun|Yang Kun]] ([[User talk:Yang Kun|talk]]) 11:14, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==杨堃 Yáng Kūn 法语语言文学 女 202120081542==<br />
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此外，明·陈仁锡《潜确类书》、明·胡侍《真珠船·龙生九子》、清·褚人获《坚瓠十集·龙九子》、清·高士奇《天禄识馀·龙种》，对九龙的名称、性格、用途的说法也各不相同，可见出于民间传说。世人多用作装饰，以示祥瑞。<br />
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In addition, the names, characters and uses of the Dragon's nine sons, which can be seen from folklore, are also different in ''Reference Book of Qian Que'' by Chen Renxi of Ming Dynasty, ''Zhenzhu Boat·The Nine Sons of the Dragon'' by Hu Shi of Ming Dynasty,''Jian Hu's Collection-Vol.10·The Nine Sons of the Dragon'' by Chu Renhuo of Qing Dynasty and ''Tian Lu Shi Yu· Dragon Species'' by Gao Shiqi of Qing Dynasty. People often use the images of the Dragon's nine sons as decoration, to show good luck. --[[User:Yang Kun|Yang Kun]] ([[User talk:Yang Kun|talk]]) 03:53, 23 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, the names, characters and usages of the Dragon's nine sons, which can be seen from folklore, also differ in ''Reference Book of Qian Que'' by Chen Renxi of Ming Dynasty, ''Zhenzhu Boat·The Nine Sons of the Dragon'' by Hu Shi of Ming Dynasty,''Jian Hu's Collection-Vol.10·The Nine Sons of the Dragon'' by Chu Renhuo of Qing Dynasty and ''Tian Lu Shi Yu· Dragon Species'' by Gao Shiqi of Qing Dynasty. People often use the images of the Dragon's nine sons as decoration show auspiciousness.--[[User:Yang Liuqing|Yang Liuqing]] ([[User talk:Yang Liuqing|talk]]) 11:18, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==杨柳青 Yáng Liǔqīng 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081543==<br />
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万幾宸(chén辰)翰之宝──此为皇帝印章所刻的文字。 万幾：国家纷繁复杂的政务。典出《尚书·虞书·皋陶谟》：“兢兢业业，一日二日万幾。”<br />
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The treature of the emporer's notes of handling affairs──This was the inscription on the emperor's seal. Wanji: Country's compliccated government affairs. It was recorded in ''ShangShu·YuShu·The Srategy of Gao Tao'':"Be cautious and practical. There were thousands of complicated government affairs needed to be handled."<br />
[ ''ShangShu·YuShu·The Srategy of Gao Tao'' were important documents that recorded the plans and deliberations of emperors and ministers.]<br />
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The treasure of the Emperor's seal and ink imprint──This refers to the inscription on the emperor's seal. Wanji: Country's complicated executive affairs. It was what's recorded in ''Gao Tao Mo, Book Yu, The Book of History'', which is "Be cautious and practical. There were thousands of complicated government affairs needed to be handled."--[[User:Ye Weijie|Ye Weijie]] ([[User talk:Ye Weijie|talk]]) 14:31, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==叶维杰 Yè Wéijié 国别 男 202120081544==<br />
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孔颖达传云：“幾，微也，言当戒惧万事之微。”意谓尽管政务繁重，也不能忽略任何小事。亦称“万机”。<br />
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Kong Yingda said: "Ji, which refers to the slighest thing, meaning that should be aware of the very small things." It means that despite the arduous government affairs, no small things can be ignored. Also known as "Wan Ji".<br />
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Kong Yingda's biography said: "The word Ji means that before saying something one should fear the smallest of all things." This means that despite the heavy workload of the government, one should not neglect any small matters. It is also referred to as "ten thousand business".--[[User:Yi Yangfan|Yi Yangfan]] ([[User talk:Yi Yangfan|talk]]) 10:00, 26 December 2021 (UTC)Yi Yangfan<br />
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==易扬帆 Yì Yángfān 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081545==<br />
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典出《汉书·百官公卿表上》：“相国、丞相皆秦官，金印紫绶，掌丞天子，助理万机。”这里是形容皇帝日理万机，政务繁忙。<br />
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The allusion is from ''Han Shu: The List of Hundred Officials（Previous）'': "The Minister of State and the Prime Minister were both Qin officials, with gold seals and purple ribbons, and were in charge of the Emperor and assisted in all affairs." This is a description of the emperor's busy schedule of affairs.--[[User:Yi Yangfan|Yi Yangfan]] ([[User talk:Yi Yangfan|talk]]) 09:24, 25 December 2021 (UTC)Yi Yangfan<br />
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The allusion is from Han Shu: The List of Hundred Officials（Previous）: "The Ministers of State and the Prime Ministers were Qin officials, with golden seals and purple ribbons, and they were in charge of the Emperor and assisted in all affairs." Here is the description of the emperor's busy schedule of affairs.--[[User:Yin Huizhen|Yin Huizhen]] ([[User talk:Yin Huizhen|talk]]) 12:37, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==殷慧珍 Yīn Huìzhēn 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081546==<br />
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宸：“北宸”的省称。即北极星。因皇帝上朝坐北朝南，遂为皇帝的代称。翰：本义是羽毛，因古代以羽毛为笔，引申为墨迹(书写的字)。<br />
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Chen:is short for "Beichen", that is, the Polaris, which was the alternative name of the Emperors because they sat in the North and faced the South in the imperial court. Han：the original meaning is feather, because in ancient times, feather was used as a pen，and it extended the meanig to ink（written words）.--[[User:Yin Huizhen|Yin Huizhen]] ([[User talk:Yin Huizhen|talk]]) 12:29, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Chen: short for "Beichen", is the Polaris, which was the alternative name of the Emperors because they sat facing the South in the imperial court. Han：the original meaning was feather, because in ancient times, feather was used as a pen，which extended the meaning to ink（written words）.--[[User:Yin Meida|Yin Meida]] ([[User talk:Yin Meida|talk]]) 08:45, 24 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==殷美达 Yīn Měidá 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081547==<br />
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宝：这里指皇帝的印章。上古天子、诸侯均以圭璧制印，故称“宝”。唐以后只有帝、后之印可称“宝”。<br />
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Bao refers to the emperors' seals. In ancient time, emperors and dukes all had their seals made of Gui and Bi(precious jade),from which it derived the name "Bao". After Tang Dynasty, "Bao" was used exclusively by the emperors and empresses.--[[User:Yin Meida|Yin Meida]] ([[User talk:Yin Meida|talk]]) 09:02, 24 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Bao refers to the emperors' seals in the article. In ancient time, emperors and dukes all had their seals made of Gui and Bi(precious jade),from which it derived the name "Bao". Since Tang Dynasty, "Bao" was used exclusively to describe the seals of the emperors and empresses.--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 09:32, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==尹媛 Yǐn Yuán 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081548==<br />
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“座上”对联──珠玑：本义为珠宝，引申为名贵装饰。 昭日月：形容装饰光亮如日月。 昭：明亮。<br />
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Couplet "above the seat"─ Gem's original meaning is jewelry, which extended for precious decorations. Zhao Riyue means the decorations as bright as the sun and the moon. Zhao means brightness.--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 12:21, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Couplet "above the seat"─ Gem's original meaning is jewelry, which extended for precious decorations. Zhao Riyue means the decorations as bright as the sun and the moon. Zhao means brightness.--[[User:Zhan Ruoxuan|Zhan Ruoxuan]] ([[User talk:Zhan Ruoxuan|talk]]) 12:44, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==詹若萱 Zhān Ruòxuān 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081549==<br />
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黼黻(fǔ fú府服)：泛指绣有华美花纹的礼服。《晏子春秋·谏下十五》：“公衣黼黻之衣，素绣之裳，一衣而王采具焉。” 黼：黑白相间的斧形花纹。<br />
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Fu Fu (f incarnation fu fu clothing) : refers to embroidered with colorful decorative pattern of the dress. "Yan Zi Spring And Autumn · Jian Next 15" : "I: gongclothes: both clothes, plain embroidered clothes, one dress and Wang CAI yan." I: black and white axe shape.--[[User:Zhan Ruoxuan|Zhan Ruoxuan]] ([[User talk:Zhan Ruoxuan|talk]]) 12:43, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Fu Fu (f incarnation fu fu clothing) : refers to embroidered with colorful decorative pattern of the dress. "Yan Zi Spring And Autumn · Jian Next 15" : "I: gongclothes: both clothes, plain embroidered clothes, one dress and Wang CAI yan." I: black and white axe shape.--[[User:Zhang Qiuyi|Zhang Qiuyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Qiuyi|talk]]) 11:18, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==张秋怡 Zhāng Qiūyí 亚非语言文学 女 202120081550==<br />
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黻：黑与青相间的亚形花纹。 焕烟霞：形容绣服放射出如烟如霞的光彩，绚丽多姿。 焕：放射光彩。此联形容主宾皆珠光宝气，服饰华丽。<br />
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Fu: black and blue sub-pattern. Huan Yanxia: to describe the embroidered clothing radiates the radiance of smoke and clouds. Huan: radiate brilliance. This couplet describes the guests of honor are glittering jewels, gorgeous clothes.--[[User:Zhang Qiuyi|Zhang Qiuyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Qiuyi|talk]]) 11:17, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Fu: black and green sub shaped pattern. Huanyanxia: to describe that the embroidered clothes radiate smoke like glow, gorgeous and colorful. Huan: radiate brilliance. This couplet describes the guests of honor are glittering jewels, gorgeous clothes.--[[User:Zhang Yang|Zhang Yang]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yang|talk]]) 11:30, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==张扬 Zhāng Yáng 国别 男 202120081551==<br />
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汝窑美人觚(gū孤)──出自著名汝窑的一种盛酒器。 汝窑：即北宋汝州瓷窑。因其青瓷器皿质量特佳，多为贡品，故名闻天下，后世成为收藏珍品。<br />
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Ruyao Beauty Gu-- A wine container from the famous Ruyao. Ruyao: Ruzhou porcelain kiln in the Northern Song Dynasty. Because its celadon ware is of excellent quality and mostly tribute, it is famous all over the world and has become a collection treasure in future generations.--[[User:Zhang Yang|Zhang Yang]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yang|talk]]) 09:59, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Beauty porcelain（mei ren gu）-- A wine container from the famous Ruyao. Ru kiln: Ruzhou porcelain kiln in the Northern Song Dynasty. Because its celadon ware is of excellent quality and mostly tribute, it is famous all over the world and has become a collection treasure in future generations.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:34, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==张怡然 Zhāng Yírán 俄语语言文学 女 202120081552==<br />
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美人觚：因其体长腰细，形似美人，故名。<br />
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椅搭──又称“椅披”。是一种长方形织物的椅用装饰品。因搭或披在椅背和椅坐上，故名。<br />
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Beauty porcelain（mei ren gu）: so named because of its long waist and resemblance to a beauty. <br />
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Chairs（Yi da） - also known as 'chairs'（Yi pi）. This is a rectangular fabric chair upholstery. The name is derived from the fact that it is placed on the back of the chair or on the seat of the chair.<br />
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Beauty porcelain ：so named because of its long body and slender waist and resemblance to a beauty. <br />
Chairs（Yi da） - also known as 'chairs'（Yi pi）. This is a rectangular fabric chair upholstery. The name is derived from the fact that it is placed on the back of the chair or on the seat of the chair.--[[User:Zhong Yifei|Zhong Yifei]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yifei|talk]]) 10:12, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==钟义菲 Zhōng Yìfēi 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081553==<br />
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掐牙——是一种装饰性衣服花边。即以锦缎等折叠成细条，镶嵌在衣边上，以为美观。 掐：嵌入之意。<br />
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Qia Ya— a kind of decorative lace. That is to fold brocade into thin strips and inlay them on the edge of the clothes to look beautiful. Qia: embedded.--[[User:Zhong Yifei|Zhong Yifei]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yifei|talk]]) 12:30, 19 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Qia Ya— a kind of decorative lace. That is to fold brocade into thin strips and inlay them on the edge of the clothes to look beautiful. Qia: it means “embedded”.--[[User:Zhong Yulu|Zhong Yulu]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yulu|talk]]) 08:04, 20 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==钟雨露 Zhōng Yǔlù 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081554==<br />
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牙：即“牙子”。器物突出的边沿。<br />
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《四书》──即《论语》、《孟子》、《大学》、《中庸》(后两种原为《礼记》中的两篇)。<br />
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“Ya”: also called "Ya Zi" in Chinese. It means the protruding edge of an object. <br />
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''The Four Books'' includes— ''The Confucian Analects'', ''The Works of Mencius'', ''The Great Learning'', and ''The Doctrine of the Mean'' (the latter two were originally two books from ''The Book of Rites'').--[[User:Zhong Yulu|Zhong Yulu]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yulu|talk]]) 12:22, 19 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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''The Four Books'' includes— ''The Confucian Analects'', ''The Works of Mencius'', ''The Great Learning'', and ''The Doctrine of the Mean'' (the latter two were originally two books chosen from ''The Book of Rites'').--[[User:Zhou Jiu|Zhou Jiu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Jiu|talk]]) 01:18, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==周玖 Zhōu Jiǔ 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081555==<br />
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宋代朱熹选定并定名《四书》，遂成为元、明、清三代科举考试的必读之书。<br />
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抹额：原指束在额上的头巾。其起源似乎很早。<br />
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During the Song dynasty, Zhu xi chose and named ''Four Books'' which became the required readings in Imperial Competitive Examinations of Yuan dynasty, Ming dynasty, and Qing dynasty.<br />
Mo E: It originally refers to a kerchief tied around the forehead. Its origin seems to be very early.<br />
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During the Song dynasty, Zhu xi chose and named ''Four Books'' which became the required readings in Imperial Competitive Examinations of Yuan dynasty, Ming dynasty, and Qing dynasty.<br />
Headband: It originally refers to a kerchief tied around the forehead. Its origin seems to be very early.--[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 01:25, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==周俊辉 Zhōu Jùnhuī 法语语言文学 女 202120081556==<br />
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宋·高承《事物纪原·戎容兵械·抹额》引《二仪实录》曰：“禹娶涂山之夕，大风雷电，中有甲卒千人，其不披甲者，以红绡帕抹其头额，云海神来朝。<br />
Song Gaocheng quoted the ''Record of Eryi'' in his book ''Things Documentary-Armed Soldiers-Headband'': “When Yu married the Tushan lady, there was a strong wind, thunder and rain. There were a thousand soldiers in gear, and those who were not wore equipment bound a thin red handkerchiefs on their foreheads in anticipation of the arrival of the god of clouds."--[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 01:21, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
Song Gaocheng quoted the ''Record of Eryi'' in his book ''Things Documentary-Armed Soldiers-Headband'': “When Yu married Tu Shan,under the cicumstance of a strong wind, together with thunder and lighting, there were a thousand soldiers who were not equipped with armor but decorated their foreheads with a thin red handkerchiefs in anticipation of the arrival of the god of clouds.--[[User:Zhou Qiao1|Zhou Qiao1]] ([[User talk:Zhou Qiao1|talk]]) 12:42, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==周巧 Zhōu Qiǎo 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081557==<br />
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禹问之，对曰：‘此武士之首服也。’秦始皇至海上，有神朝，皆抹额、绯衫、大口袴。侍卫自此抹额，遂为军容之服。<br />
Yu asked and replied, "this is the surrender of a warrior." When the first emperor of Qin went to the sea, there was the divine Dynasty where people wore red upper garment and loose trousers and decorated with smear. Since then, bodyguards decorated their forehead with smear, which has become a kind of military costume.--[[User:Zhou Qiao1|Zhou Qiao1]] ([[User talk:Zhou Qiao1|talk]]) 13:17, 19 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Yu asked, and said, ‘this is the first choice for samurai. When Qin Shihuang arrived at the sea, there was a dynasty, and all the people here wiped their foreheads, crimson shirts, and hakama. Since then, the guards wiped their foreheads and became the uniforms of the military.--[[User:Zhou Qing|Zhou Qing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Qing|talk]]) 11:04, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==周清 Zhōu Qīng 法语语言文学 女 202120081558==<br />
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可知原为军人的标志。后普及到一般男子，平民以布巾束发，富人用金箍束发，兼为头饰。<br />
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箭袖──亦称“箭衣”。<br />
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It can be seen that it was originally a symbol of a soldier. Later, it was promoted to be used by ordinary men. Common people used cloth towels to tie their hair, and the rich used gold hoops to tie their hair, which also served as headwear. <br />
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Arrow sleeve ─ ─ also known as "arrow suit".<br />
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It was a sign of soldiers. Later, it was popularized to ordinary men. Common people tied their hair with cloth towels, and the rich tied their hair with gold hoops, which was also used as headwear. <br />
Arrow Sleeves - also known as "Arrow Suit".--[[User:Zhou Xiaoxue|Zhou Xiaoxue]] ([[User talk:Zhou Xiaoxue|talk]]) 05:13, 24 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==周小雪 Zhōu Xiǎoxuě 日语语言文学 女 202120081559==<br />
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是一种窄袖长袍。其袖口呈斜切状，朝手背的袖口长，朝手心的袖口短，便于射箭，故名。其斜袖口又形似马蹄，故又称马蹄袖。<br />
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It's a kind of robe with narrow sleeves. Its cuffs were in a diagonal cut shape. The cuffs facing the back of the hand are long and the cuffs facing the palm are short, which is convenient for archery, so it is named Arrow Sleeves. Its oblique cuff is also shaped like a horseshoe, so it is also called horseshoe sleeve.--[[User:Zhou Xiaoxue|Zhou Xiaoxue]] ([[User talk:Zhou Xiaoxue|talk]]) 05:55, 20 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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It's a kind of robe with narrow sleeves. Its cuffs were in diagonal cut shape. The cuffs facing the back of the hand are long and the cuffs facing the palm are short, which is convenient for archery, so it is named Arrow Sleeves. Its oblique cuff is also shaped like horseshoe, so it is also called horseshoe sleeve.--[[User:Zhu Suzhen|Zhu Suzhen]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suzhen|talk]]) 14:08, 26 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==朱素珍 Zhū Sùzhēn 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081561==<br />
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后成为一种服式，不射箭的男子也穿。<br />
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“倒像”两句──似有双关之意：一者暗指贾宝玉的化身神瑛侍者在太虚幻境用甘露浇灌林黛玉的化身绛珠仙草；<br />
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Later, it became a sort of clothing style, which can also worn by men who did not shoot arrows. The two sentences of "inverted image" seem to have a double meaning: one alluded to Jia Baoyu’s incarnation Shenying waiter watering Lin Daiyu’s incarnation—— the celestial grass with nectar in the Tai Xu fantasy.<br />
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Later, it became a kind of clothing style, which was also worn by men who did not shoot arrows. <br />
Two sentences of "inverted image" -- there seems to be a pun: one implies that Jia Baoyu's incarnation Shenying waiter watered Lin Daiyu's incarnation Jiangzhu fairy grass with nectar in Taixu fantasy;--[[User:Zou Yueli|Zou Yueli]] ([[User talk:Zou Yueli|talk]]) 11:03, 20 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==邹岳丽 Zōu Yuèlí 日语语言文学 女 202120081562==<br />
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再者隐寓二人心有灵犀一点通，一见锺情。下文贾宝玉说“这个妹妹我曾见过的”、“心里倒像是远别重逢的一般”，其用意同此。<br />
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In addition, it implies that the two people share the same heartand fall in love at first sight. Below, Jia Baoyu said that "I have seen this sister" and "I feel like I am far from meeting again". His intention is the same. <br />
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==Nadia 202011080004==<br />
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请安──这里指的是清代一种见面问好的特殊礼仪：<br />
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==Mahzad Heydarian 玛莎 202021080004==<br />
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男子须在口称“请某某安”的同时，右膝弯曲或跪地(俗称打千)；<br />
A man must bend his right knee or kneel on the ground while showing respect.<br />
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==Mariam Toure 2020GBJ002301==<br />
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女子则在口称“请某某安”的同时，双手扶左膝，右腿微屈，身体半蹲。<br />
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==Rouabah Soumaya 202121080001==<br />
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寄名锁──旧时父母为保佑幼儿长命百岁，让幼儿作僧、道的“寄名”弟子，并在幼儿项下悬挂锁形饰物，谓之“寄名锁”。<br />
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==Muhammad Numan 202121080002==<br />
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面如傅粉──语本南朝宋·刘义庆《世说新语·容止》：<br />
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==Atta Ur Rahman 202121080003==<br />
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“何平叔(晏)美姿仪，面至白。<br />
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==Muhammad Saqib Mehran 202121080004==<br />
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魏明帝疑其傅粉，正夏月，与热汤饼。<br />
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==Zohaib Chand 202121080005==<br />
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既啖，大汗出，以朱衣自拭，色转皎然。”<br />
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==Jawad Ahmad 202121080006==<br />
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(皎然：洁白貌。)原指何晏的脸上好像抹了香粉般洁白。<br />
English: (Jiao Ran: pure and white appearance.) The original means, He Yan's face it's like white as powdered.<br />
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==Nizam Uddin 202121080007==<br />
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引申以泛喻男子姿容洁白秀美。<br />
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==Öncü 202121080008==<br />
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《西江月》二词──即按照《西江月》词牌填写的两首(也称“阕”)词。<br />
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Two words in "Westlake Moon" According，Fill in two poems (also known as "Que") in the poem of "Westlake Moon".--[[User:AkiraJantarat|AkiraJantarat]] ([[User talk:AkiraJantarat|talk]]) 04:45, 21 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==Akira Jantarat 202121080009==<br />
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词：原本指歌曲中的文词，后来文词与曲调分离，遂变成文体之一。<br />
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Words: Originally refers to the words in the song. Later, the words and the tune were separated and became one of the styles.--[[User:AkiraJantarat|AkiraJantarat]] ([[User talk:AkiraJantarat|talk]]) 04:33, 21 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Word: It originally referred to the words in a song. In time, the words and the tune separated and became one of the styles. --[[User:Benjamin Wellsand|Benjamin Wellsand]] ([[User talk:Benjamin Wellsand|talk]]) 13:14, 19 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==Benjamin Wellsand 202111080118==<br />
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但仍须按曲填词，于是发展出许多词牌，每个词牌都有字数、句数、韵脚等规定，还有双调、长调、小令之别。<br />
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However, it is still necessary to fill in the lyrics according to the tune. So many poems have been developed. Each poem has a word count, sentence count, rhymes and other provisions, as well as the difference between two-tone, long tune, and short meter.--[[User:Benjamin Wellsand|Benjamin Wellsand]] ([[User talk:Benjamin Wellsand|talk]]) 13:10, 19 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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However, it is still necessary to fill in lyrics according to the tune, so many lyric cards have been developed. Each lyric card has regulations on the number of words, sentences, and rhymes, as well as the differences between double tune, long tune, and short meter. --[[User:Asep Budiman|Asep Budiman]] ([[User talk:Asep Budiman|talk]]) 07:58, 21 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==Asep Budiman 202111080020==<br />
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故作词谓之“填词”，就是按照词牌的规范填写文字，不可越雷池一步。<br />
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The preceding phrase "filling in words" means to fill in the words in accordance with the specifications of the words and phrases, and do not go beyond those criteria. --[[User:Asep Budiman|Asep Budiman]] ([[User talk:Asep Budiman|talk]]) 07:56, 21 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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The preceding phrase "filling in words" means to fill in the words in accordance with the specifications of the words and phrases, and do not overstep the prescribed limit. --[[User:EIMONKYAW|EIMONKYAW]] ([[User talk:EIMONKYAW|talk]]) 09:23, 22 December 2021 (UTC)Ei Mon Kyaw<br />
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==Ei Mon Kyaw 202111080021==<br />
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《西江月》就是词牌之一。本书用了不少词牌，以下不再一一注释。<br />
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"Westlake Moon" is one of the poems. This book uses a lot of words, so I won’t annotate them one by one below. --[[User:EIMONKYAW|EIMONKYAW]] ([[User talk:EIMONKYAW|talk]]) 08:59, 22 December 2021 (UTC)Ei Mon Kyaw<br />
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"Westlake Moon" is one of the tune names of poem. There are a lot of tune names in the book, which will not annotated one by one below.--[[User:Chen Jing|Chen Jing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jing|talk]]) 11:49, 26 December 2021 (UTC)</div>Zhang Yiranhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20211229_homework&diff=13428820211229 homework2021-12-25T14:35:01Z<p>Zhang Yiran: /* 张怡然 Zhāng Yírán 俄语语言文学 女 202120081552 */</p>
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<div>Quicklinks: [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021|Back to course homepage]] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal#Frequently_asked_questions_FAQ FAQ] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal Manual] [[20210926_homework|Back to all homework webpages overview]] [[20220112_final_exam|final exam page]]<br />
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PLEASE READ [[Joint_translation_terms|Joint translation terms]] <br />
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PLEASE ALSO READ THE PREVIOUS PARTS, AT LEAST THE SENTENCES BEFORE YOUR OWN PART IN CHAPTER 19 [[20210303_culture|1, Mar 3 Chapters 1-4]], [[20210310_culture|2, Mar 10 Chapters 6-7]], [[20210317_culture|3, Mar 17 Chapters 11-13]], [[20210324_culture|4, Mar 24 Chapters 15-17]], [[20210331_culture|5, Mar 31 Chapters 4-7]], [[20210407_culture|6, Apr 7 Chapters 8-10]], [[20210414_culture|7, Apr 14 Chapters 13-15]] , [[20210519_culture|12, May 19 Chapters 17-19]], [[20210929_homework#Hongloumeng|for Sep 29 - rest of HLM Chapter 19]] [[20211013_homework|for Oct 13 - HLM Chapters 20-21]] [[20211020_homework|for Oct 20 - HLM Chapters 21-22]] [[20211027_homework|for Oct 27 - HLM Chapters 23-24]] etc.<br />
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==陈静 Chén Jìng 国别 女 202020080595==<br />
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心较比干多一窍──比干：暴君商(殷)纣王之叔，被誉为圣人。据《史记·殷本纪》载：纣王厌恶比干谏诤不已，怒曰：“吾闻圣人心有七窍。”于是“剖比干，观其心”。<br />
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==蔡珠凤 Cài Zhūfèng 法语语言文学 女 202120081477==<br />
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古人以为心窍越多越聪明，故以“心较比干多一窍” 形容黛玉绝顶聪明。<br />
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病如西子胜三分──西子：即西施。《庄子·天运》说：“西施病心而颦(皱眉)”，益增娇艳。<br />
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==曾俊霖 Zēng Jùnlín 国别 男 202120081478==<br />
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故以“病如西子胜三分”形容黛玉病弱而娇美。 胜：胜过，超过。 下面贾宝玉替林黛玉起表字为“颦颦”，亦用西施颦眉之典，但又不敢明说，故编了一套谎活，杜撰了《古今人物通考》书名。<br />
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==陈惠妮 Chén Huìnī 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081479==<br />
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教引嬷嬷──清代专司教导年幼皇子的女子，称“谙达”。后来世家大族也仿效而行。<br />
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“花气袭人”之句：是宋·陆游《村居书喜》中的半句，原诗为七言律诗：<br />
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==陈湘琼 Chén Xiāngqióng 外国语言学及应用语言学 女 202120081480==<br />
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“红桥梅市晓山横，白塔樊江春水生。花气袭人知骤暖，鹊声穿树喜新晴。坊场酒贱贫犹醉，原野泥深老亦耕。<br />
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==陈心怡 Chén Xīnyí 翻译学 女 202120081481==<br />
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最喜先期官赋足，经年无吏叩柴荆。”意谓因闻到花香，才知天气已经骤然暖和了。第二十三回和二十八回均引作“花气袭人知昼暖”，将“骤”误为“昼”，可能是曹雪芹误记。<br />
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==程杨 Chéng Yáng 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081482==<br />
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省(xǐ ng醒)——典出《礼记·曲礼上》：“凡为人子之礼，冬温而夏凊，昏定而晨省。”[凊( jìng净)：凉。]<br />
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==丁旋 Dīng Xuán 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081483==<br />
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意谓子女冬天要为父母焐暖被褥，夏天要为父母扇凉床席，每天早上要向父母请安问好，晚上要服侍父母安寝。泛指子女对父母的孝敬无微不至。故“省”即“晨省”的略称。<br />
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==杜莉娜 Dù Lìnuó 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081484==<br />
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指子女早晨向父母请安问候的礼节。<br />
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第四回 薄命女偏逢薄命郎，葫芦僧判断葫芦案<br />
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==付红岩 Fù Hóngyán 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081485==<br />
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却说黛玉同姐妹们至王夫人处，见王夫人正和兄嫂处的来使计议家务，又说姨母家遭人命官司等语。因见王夫人事情冗杂，姐妹们遂出来 ,至寡嫂李氏房中来了。原来这李氏即贾珠之妻。<br />
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==付诗雨 Fù Shīyǔ 日语语言文学 女 202120081486==<br />
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珠虽夭亡，幸存一子，取名贾兰，今方五岁，已入学攻书。这李氏亦系金陵名宦之女。父名李守中，曾为国子祭酒；族中男女无不读诗书者。<br />
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Although Bead Merchant had died at an early age, he had the good fortune of leaving behind him a son, to whom the name of Cymbidium Merchant was given. He was, at this period, just in his fifth year, and had already entered school, and applied himself to books. This Silk Plum was also the daughter of an official of note in Gold Mausoleum. Her father's name was Midfielder Plum, who had, at one time, been Imperial Libationer. Among his kindred, men as well as women had all devoted themselves to poetry and letters. --[[User:Fu Shiyu|Fu Shiyu]] ([[User talk:Fu Shiyu|talk]]) 07:24, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==高蜜 Gāo Mì 翻译学 女 202120081487==<br />
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至李守中继续以来，便谓“女子无才便是德”，故生了此女，不曾叫他十分认真读书，只不过将些 《女四书》、 《烈女传》读读，认得几个字，记得前朝这几个贤女便了；<br />
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==宫博雅 Gōng Bóyǎ 俄语语言文学 女 202120081488==<br />
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却以纺绩女红为要，因取名为李纨，字宫裁。所以这李纨虽青春丧偶，且居处于膏粱锦绣之中，竟如槁木死灰一般，一概不问不闻，惟知侍亲养子，闲时陪侍小姑等针黹、诵读而已。<br />
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==何芩 Hé Qín 翻译学 女 202120081489==<br />
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今黛玉虽客居于此，已有这几个姑嫂相伴，除老父之外，馀者也就无用虑了。如今且说贾雨村授了应天府，一到任，就有件人命官司详至案下，却是两家争买一婢，各不相让，以致殴伤人命。彼时雨村即拘原告来审。<br />
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==胡舒情 Hú Shūqíng 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081490==<br />
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那原告道：“被打死的乃是小人的主人。因那日买了个丫头，不想系拐子拐来卖的。这拐子先已得了我家的银子，我家小主人原说第二日方是好日，再接入门；<br />
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==黄锦云 Huáng Jǐnyún 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081491==<br />
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这拐子又悄悄的卖与了薛家，被我们知道了，去找拿卖主，夺取丫头。无奈薛家原系金陵一霸，倚财仗势，众豪奴将我小主人竟打死了。凶身主仆已皆逃走，无有踪迹，只剩了几个局外的人。<br />
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But this kidnapper stealthily sold her over again to the Hsueeh family. When we came to know of this, we went in search of the seller to lay hold of him, and bring back the girl by force. But the Hsueeh party has been all along the bully of Chin Ling, full of confidence in his wealth and prestige; and his arrogant menials in a body seized our master and beat him to death.The murderous master and his crew have all long ago made good their escape, leaving no trace behind them, while there only remain several parties not concerned in the affair. --[[User:Huang Jinyun|Huang Jinyun]] ([[User talk:Huang Jinyun|talk]]) 13:37, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==黄逸妍 Huáng Yìyán 外国语言学及应用语言学 女 202120081492==<br />
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小人告了一年的状，竟无人作主。求太老爷拘拿凶犯，以扶善良，存殁感激天恩不尽！”雨村听了，大怒道：“那有这等事：打死人竟白白的走了，拿不来的？”<br />
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==黄柱梁 Huáng Zhùliáng 国别 男 202120081493==<br />
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便发签差公人，立刻将凶犯家属拿来拷问。只见案旁站着一个门子，使眼色不叫他发签。雨村心下狐疑，只得停了手。<br />
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==金晓童 Jīn Xiǎotóng 202120081494==<br />
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退堂至密室，令从人退去，只留这门子一人伏侍。门子忙上前请安，笑问：“老爷一向加官进禄，八九年来，就忘了我了？”<br />
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==邝艳丽 Kuàng Yànl 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081495==<br />
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雨村道：“我看你十分眼熟，但一时总想不起来。”门子笑道：“老爷怎么把出身之地竟忘了？老爷不记得当年葫芦庙里的事么？”雨村大惊，方想起往事。<br />
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==李爱璇 Lǐ Àixuán 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081496==<br />
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原来这门子本是葫芦庙里一个小沙弥，因被火之后无处安身，想这件生意倒还轻省，耐不得寺院凄凉，遂趁年纪轻，蓄了发，充当门子。雨村那里想得是他。<br />
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It turned out that the gatekeeper was originally a little monk in Bottle-gourd Temple. Because he had no place to settle down after the temple being burned by the fire, he thought this business was easy and could not bear the desolation of the temple. So he saved his hair and acted as a gatekeeper while he was young. Yue-ts'un didn't think it was him.--[[User:Li Aixuan|Li Aixuan]] ([[User talk:Li Aixuan|talk]]) 07:10, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==李瑞洋 Lǐ Ruìyáng 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081497==<br />
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便忙携手笑道：“原来还是故人。”因赏他坐了说话。这门子不敢坐。雨村笑道：“你也算贫贱之交了。此系私室，但坐不妨。”门子才斜签着坐下。<br />
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==李姗 Lǐ Shān 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081498==<br />
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雨村道：“方才何故不令发签？”门子道：“老爷荣任到此，难道就没抄一张本省的‘护官符’来不成？”雨村忙问：“何为‘护官符’？”<br />
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Chia Yu-tsun asked, "Why did you not grant me the passport just now?" The doorman answered that "Your Excellency, when you are to assume office here, haven't you hold some relations to a guard officer? " Yu-tsun was confused and thus continued, "guard officer?".--[[User:Li Shan|Li Shan]] ([[User talk:Li Shan|talk]]) 13:30, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==李双 Lǐ Shuāng 翻译学 女 202120081499==<br />
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门子道：“如今凡作地方官的，都有一个私单，上面写的是本省最有权势极富贵的大乡绅名姓，各省皆然。倘若不知，一时触犯了这样的人家，不但官爵，只怕连性命也难保呢！<br />
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==李文璇 Lǐ Wénxuán 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081500==<br />
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所以叫做‘护官符’。方才所说的这薛家，老爷如何惹得他！他这件官司并无难断之处，从前的官府都因碍着情分脸面，所以如此。”<br />
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“So it was called “the amulet of protection from the feudal official. The family Xue we talked just now, we can’t offend them, my lord. His lawsuit had no difficulty, however, the former official had trouble in the relationship, thus causing the situation then.”. --[[User:Li Wenxuan|Li Wenxuan]] ([[User talk:Li Wenxuan|talk]]) 09:46, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==李雯 Lǐ Wén 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081501==<br />
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一面说，一面从顺袋中取出一张抄的“护官符”来，递与雨村看时，上面皆是本地大族名宦之家的俗谚口碑，云：贾不假，白玉为堂金作马。<br />
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==李新星 Lǐ Xīnxīng 亚非语言文学 女 202120081503==<br />
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阿房宫，三百里，住不下金陵一个史。东海缺少白玉床，龙王来请金陵王。丰年好大雪，珍珠如土金如铁。<br />
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==李怡 Lǐ Yí 法语语言文学 女 202120081504==<br />
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雨村尚未看完，忽闻传点，报：“王老爷来拜。”雨村忙具衣冠接迎，有顿饭工夫，方回来问这门子。门子道：“四家皆连络有亲，一损俱损，一荣俱荣。<br />
Yucun has not finished reading, suddenly smell spread point, report: "Wang master came to visit." Yucun hurriedly arranged his clothes to meet him and had a meal before he came back to ask about it. Siemens way: "the four are connected to have relatives, a failure other destroyed, a glory other glory.--[[User:Li Yi|Li Yi]] ([[User talk:Li Yi|talk]]) 06:45, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Yucun has not finished reading, but suddenly heard from the messenger saying : "Wang master come to visit." Yucun hurriedly arranged his clothes to welcome him. Only after a meal did he come back to ask Menzi, who said: "the four families are closely connected, so do their honor and failure.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 07:12, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==刘沛婷 Liú Pèitíng 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081505==<br />
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今告打死人之薛，就是‘丰年大雪’之薛。不单靠这三家，他的世交亲友在都在外的本也不少，老爷如今拿谁去？”雨村听说，便笑问门子道：“这样说来，却怎么了结此案？<br />
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The xue of killing people is the xue of 'heavy snow in the year of plenty'. He has not only these three families, but also many family friends and relatives who are away from home. Who are you going to take now?" Rain village heard, then smiled and asked Siemens way: "So say, but how to settle the case?--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 07:05, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==刘胜楠 Liú Shèngnán 翻译学 女 202120081506==<br />
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你大约也深知这凶犯躲的方向了？”门子笑道：“不瞒老爷说，不但这凶犯躲的方向，并这拐的人我也知道，死鬼买主也深知道，待我细说与老爷听：<br />
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==刘薇 Liú Wēi 国别 女 202120081507==<br />
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这个被打死的是一个小乡宦之子，名唤冯渊，父母俱亡，又无兄弟，守着些薄产度日。年纪十八九岁，酷爱男风，不好女色。这也是前生冤孽，可巧遇见这丫头，他便一眼看上了，立意买来作妾，设誓不近男色，也不再娶第二个了。<br />
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==刘晓 Liú Xiǎo 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081508==<br />
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所以郑重其事，必得三日后方进门。谁知这拐子又偷卖与薛家，他意欲卷了两家的银子逃去；谁知又走不脱，两家拿住，打了个半死，都不肯收银，各要领人。<br />
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==刘越 Liú Yuè 亚非语言文学 女 202120081509==<br />
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那薛公子便喝令下人动手，将冯公子打了个稀烂，抬回去三日竟死了。这薛公子原择下日子要上京的，既打了人，夺了丫头，他便没事人一般，只管带了家眷走他的路，并非为此而逃；<br />
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He then rudely ordered his subordinates to do something about it, and beat Feng up so badly that he was carried home and died within three days. The Duke of Xue had intended to go to the capital in a few days, and since he had beaten and robbed the maid, he acted as if nothing had happened, and simply took his family away, not because of this escape;--[[User:Liu Yue|Liu Yue]] ([[User talk:Liu Yue|talk]]) 06:59, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==刘运心 Liú Yùnxīn 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081510==<br />
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这人命些些小事，自有他弟兄、奴仆在此料理。这且别说，老爷可知这被卖的丫头是谁？”雨村道：“我如何晓得？”门子冷笑道：“这人还是老爷的大恩人呢！<br />
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==罗安怡 Luó Ānyí 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081511==<br />
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他就是葫芦庙旁住的甄老爷的女儿，小名英莲的。”雨村骇然道：“原来是他！听见他自五岁被人拐去，怎么如今才卖呢？”门子道：“这种拐子单拐幼女，养至十二三岁，带至他乡转卖。<br />
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==罗曦 Luó Xī 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081512==<br />
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当日这英莲，我们天天哄他玩耍，极相熟的，所以隔了七八年，虽模样儿出脱的齐整，然大段未改，所以认得；且他眉心中原有米粒大的一点胭脂记，从胎里带来的。<br />
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==马新 Mǎ Xīn 外国语言学及应用语言学 女 202120081513==<br />
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偏这拐子又租了我的房子居住，那日拐子不在家，我也曾问他。他说是打怕了的，万不敢说，只说拐子是他的亲爹，因无钱还债才卖的。再四哄他，他又哭了，只说：‘我原不记得小时的事。’<br />
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The trafficker had rented my house to live in by coincidence. I had ever asked her one day when the trafficker was not at home. She said that she dared not to say anything after being attacked for a long time, and only answered that he was her father who sold her to pay off the debts. By coaxing her for several times, she cried again and said that "I don’t remember what happened when I was a child".--[[User:Ma Xin|Ma Xin]] ([[User talk:Ma Xin|talk]]) 07:14, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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The kidnapper just happened to rent the houses from me. One day, when he was not at home, I asked her about such a thing. She told me that she was afraid to say anything after being beaten so much; she only insisted that he was her father who sold her to pay off his debts. When I tried repeatedly to coax it out of her, she burst into tears and said that 'I do not remember what happened in my childhood.'--[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 08:29, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==毛雅文 Máo Yǎwén 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081514==<br />
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这无可疑了。那日冯公子相见了，兑了银子，因拐子醉了，英莲自叹说：‘我今日罪孽可满了！’后又听见三日后才过门，他又转有忧愁之态。<br />
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There is not doubt that the girl who was carried off by the kidnapper is Yinglian all right. The day when Feng Yuan met her and paid down his silver, the kidnapper had got drunk. And then, Yinglian sighed, 'I am overwhelmed by my sins today!' However, her gloom started deepening again, when she heard that Feng Yuan would not be coming and picking her up for three days.--[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 08:14, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==毛优 Máo Yōu 俄语语言文学 女 202120081515==<br />
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我又不忍，等拐子出去，又叫内人去解劝他：‘这冯公子必待好日期来接，可知必不以丫鬟相看。况他是个绝风流人品，家里颇过得，素性又最厌恶堂客，今竟破价买你，后事不言可知。<br />
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==牟一心 Móu Yīxīn 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081516==<br />
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只耐得三两日，何必忧闷？’他听如此说，方略解些，自谓从此得所。谁料天下竟有不如意事，第二日，他偏又卖与了薛家。<br />
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Only for three or two days, why bother to be depressed? Hearing this, he relieved a little bit, saying that he would get a place to settle since then. Unexpectedly, everything is never perfect. On the next day, he was sold to the Xue.--[[User:Mou Yixin|Mou Yixin]] ([[User talk:Mou Yixin|talk]]) 07:13, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==彭瑞雪 Péng Ruìxuě 法语语言文学 女 202120081517==<br />
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若卖与第二家还好，这薛公子的混名，人称他‘呆霸王’，最是天下第一个弄性尚气的人，而且使钱如土。只打了个落花流水，生拖死拽，把个英莲拖去，如今也不知死活。<br />
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==秦建安 Qín Jiànān 外国语言学及应用语言学 女 202120081518==<br />
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这冯公子空喜一场，一念未遂，反花了钱，送了命，岂不可叹！”雨村听了，也叹道：“这也是他们的孽障遭遇，亦非偶然，不然这冯渊如何偏只看上了这英莲？<br />
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==邱婷婷 Qiū Tíngtíng 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081519==<br />
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这英莲受了拐子这几年折磨，才得了个路头，且又是个多情的，若果聚合了，倒是件美事，偏又生出这段事来。这薛家纵比冯家富贵，想其为人，自然姬妾众多，淫佚无度，未必及冯渊定情于一人。<br />
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==饶金盈 Ráo Jīnyíng 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081520==<br />
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这正是梦幻情缘，恰遇见一对薄命儿女。且不要议论他人，只目今这官司如何剖断才好？”门子笑道：“老爷当年何其明决，今日何反成个没主意的人了？<br />
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It should be the love of dream, only to be an ill-fated couple. Don’t talk about others for the moment. It’s crucial that this case be judged properly.” The servant said with a smile, “ how decisive you were in those days. Why are you so irresolute at the present ?”--[[User:Shi Liqing|Shi Liqing]] ([[User talk:Shi Liqing|talk]]) 07:31, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==石丽青 Shí Lìqīng 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081521==<br />
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小的听见老爷补升此任，系贾府、王府之力。此薛蟠即贾府之亲，老爷何不顺水行舟，做个人情，将此案了结，日后也好去见贾、王二公。”<br />
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I heard that you respected master assumed office with the help of Jia Mansion and Wang Mansion. Xue Pan is a relative of Jia Mansion. Why don’t you do him a special favor, making use of the opportunity to settle the case, so that you can make a smooth explanation to master Jia and Wang in days to come.”--[[User:Shi Liqing|Shi Liqing]] ([[User talk:Shi Liqing|talk]]) 07:03, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==孙雅诗 Sūn Yǎshī 外国语言学及应用语言学 女 202120081522==<br />
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雨村道：“你说的何尝不是，但事关人命，蒙皇上隆恩，起复委用，正竭力图报之时，岂可因私枉法？是实不忍为的。”门子听了，冷笑道：<br />
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==王李菲 Wáng Lǐfēi 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081523==<br />
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“老爷说的自是正理，但如今世上是行不去的。岂不闻古人说的：‘大丈夫相时而动。’又说：‘趋吉避凶者为君子。’依老爷这话，不但不能报效朝廷，亦且自身不保，还要三思为妥。”<br />
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==王逸凡 Wáng Yìfán 亚非语言文学 女 202120081524==<br />
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雨村低了头，半日方说道：“依你怎么着？”门子道：“小人已想了个很好的主意在此：老爷明日坐堂，只管虚张声势，动文书，发签拿人。<br />
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==王镇隆 Wáng Zhènlóng 英语语言文学（英美文学） 男 202120081525==<br />
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凶犯自然是拿不来的，原告固是不依，只用将薛家族人及奴仆人等拿几个来拷问；小的在暗中调停，令他们报个‘暴病身亡’，合族中及地方上共递一张保呈。<br />
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==卫怡雯 Wèi Yíwén 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081526==<br />
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老爷只说善能扶鸾请仙，堂上设了乩坛，令军民人等只管来看。老爷便说：‘乩仙批了，死者冯渊与薛蟠原系夙孽，今犯狭路相遇，原应了结：<br />
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==魏楚璇 Wèi Chǔxuán 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081527==<br />
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今薛蟠已得了无名之病，被冯渊的魂魄追索而死。其祸皆由拐子而起，除将拐子按法处治外，馀不累及’等语。小人暗中嘱咐拐子，令其实招。<br />
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==魏兆妍 Wèi Zhàoyán 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081528==<br />
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众人见乩仙批语与拐子相符，自然不疑了。薛家有的是钱，老爷断一千也可，五百也可，与冯家作烧埋之费。那冯家也无甚要紧的人，不过为的是钱，有了银子，也就无话了。<br />
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==吴婧悦 Wú Jìngyuè 俄语语言文学 女 202120081529==<br />
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老爷细想，此计如何？”雨村笑道：“不妥，不妥。等我再斟酌斟酌，压服得口声才好。”二人计议已定。至次日坐堂，勾取一干有名人犯，雨村详加审问。<br />
<br />
The lord thought carefully, and asked how about this plan? Yucun laughed and said: “ It’s not the right way, it’s not the right way. Let me think the matter over, the plan should be convinced by all the others.” Then they confirmed the plan. At tomorrow’s court session, convening all criminals, whose name was known, Yucun questioned them seriously. --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 14:31, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==吴映红 Wú Yìnghóng 日语语言文学 女 202120081530==<br />
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果见冯家人口稀少，不过赖此欲得些烧埋之银；薛家仗势倚情，偏不相让：故致颠倒未决。雨村便徇情枉法，胡乱判断了此案。<br />
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==肖毅瑶 Xiāo Yìyáo 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081531==<br />
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冯家得了许多烧埋银子，也就无甚话说了。雨村便疾忙修书二封与贾政并京营节度使王子腾，不过说“令甥之事已完，不必过虑”之言寄去。<br />
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==谢佳芬 Xiè Jiāfēn 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081532==<br />
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此事皆由葫芦庙内沙弥新门子所为，雨村又恐他对人说出当日贫贱时事来，因此心中大不乐意。后来到底寻了他一个不是，远远的充发了才罢。当下言不着雨村。<br />
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It was all done by a novice monk Xinmenzi in Gourd Temple. Yucun was afraid that he would tell people about the awful current affairs of that day, so he was very unsatisfied. Later, Yucan pick holes in him , and banished him far away. Now, there was no one talking about bad things about Yucun.--[[User:Xie Jiafen|Xie Jiafen]] ([[User talk:Xie Jiafen|talk]]) 14:05, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==谢庆琳 Xiè Qìnglín 俄语语言文学 女 202120081533==<br />
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且说那买了英莲、打死冯渊的薛公子，亦系金陵人氏，本是书香继世之家。只是如今这薛公子幼年丧父，寡母又怜他是个独根孤种，未免溺爱纵容些，遂致老大无成；<br />
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==熊敏 Xióng Mǐn 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081534==<br />
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且家中有百万之富，现领着内帑钱粮，采办杂料。这薛公子学名薛蟠，表字文起，性情奢侈，言语傲慢；虽也上过学，不过略识几个字，终日惟有斗鸡走马，游山玩景而已。<br />
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==徐敏赟 Xú Mǐnyūn 语言智能与跨文化传播研究 男 202120081535==<br />
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虽是皇商，一应经纪世事全然不知，不过赖祖、父旧日的情分，户部挂个虚名，支领钱粮；其馀事体，自有伙计、老家人等措办。<br />
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==颜静 Yán Jìng 语言智能与跨文化传播研究 女 202120081536==<br />
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寡母王氏，乃现任京营节度使王子腾之妹，与荣国府贾政的夫人王氏是一母所生的姊妹，今年方五十上下，只有薛蟠一子。还有一女，比薛蟠小两岁，乳名宝钗，生得肌骨莹润，举止娴雅。<br />
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==颜莉莉 Yán Lìlì 国别 女 202120081537==<br />
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当时他父亲在日极爱此女，令其读书识字，较之乃兄竟高十倍。自父亲死后，见哥哥不能安慰母心，他便不以书字为念，只留心针黹、家计等事，好为母亲分忧代劳。<br />
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==颜子涵 Yán Zǐhán 国别 女 202120081538==<br />
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近因今上崇尚诗礼，征采才能，降不世之隆恩，除聘选妃嫔外，凡世宦名家之女，皆得亲名达部，以备选择为公主、郡主入学陪侍，充为才人、赞善之职。<br />
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==阳佳颖 Yáng Jiāyǐng 国别 女 202120081540==<br />
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自薛蟠父亲死后，各省中所有的买卖承局、总管、伙计人等，见薛蟠年轻不谙世事，便趁时拐骗起来，京都几处生意，渐亦销耗。<br />
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==杨爱江 Yáng Àijiāng 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081541==<br />
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薛蟠素闻得都中乃第一繁华之地，正思一游，便趁此机会：一来送妹待选；二来望亲；三来亲自入部销算旧账，再计新支；其实只为游览上国风光之意。<br />
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==杨堃 Yáng Kūn 法语语言文学 女 202120081542==<br />
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因此早已检点下行装细软，以及馈送亲友各色土物人情等类，正择日起身，不想偏遇着那拐子卖英莲。薛蟠见英莲生的不俗，立意买了作妾，又遇冯家来夺，因恃强喝令豪奴将冯渊打死。<br />
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==杨柳青 Yáng Liǔqīng 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081543==<br />
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便将家中事务，一一嘱托了族中人并几个老家人；自己同着母亲、妹子，竟自起身长行去了。人命官司，他却视为儿戏，自谓花上几个钱，没有不了的。<br />
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==叶维杰 Yè Wéijié 国别 男 202120081544==<br />
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在路不计其日。那日已将入都，又听见母舅王子腾升了九省统制，奉旨出都查边。薛蟠心中暗喜道：“我正愁进京去有舅舅管辖，不能任意挥霍；如今升出去，可知天从人愿。”<br />
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==易扬帆 Yì Yángfān 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081545==<br />
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因和母亲商议道：“咱们京中虽有几处房舍，只是这十来年没人居住，那看守的人未免偷着租赁给人住，须得先着人去打扫收拾才好。”他母亲道：“何必如此招摇？”<br />
<br />
So he discussed with his mother, "Although we have a few premises in the capital, no one has lived there for ten years, the guards may sneakily rent to people to live, we must first ask someone to clean and tidy up." His mother said, "Why do you have to be so flashy? "--[[User:Yi Yangfan|Yi Yangfan]] ([[User talk:Yi Yangfan|talk]]) 09:23, 25 December 2021 (UTC)Yi Yangfan<br />
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So he discussed with his mother, "Although we have a few houses in the capital, no one has lived there for ten years. The guards may sneakily rent the house to other people, so we must first send someone to tidy up the house. His mother said, "Why do you have to be so flashy? "--[[User:Yin Huizhen|Yin Huizhen]] ([[User talk:Yin Huizhen|talk]]) 13:50, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==殷慧珍 Yīn Huìzhēn 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081546==<br />
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咱们这进京去，原是先拜望亲友，或是在你舅舅处，或是你姨父家，他两家的房舍极是宽敞的，咱们且住下，再慢慢儿的着人去收拾，岂不消停些？”<br />
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Now we go to the capital Beijing, and we should visit our relatives first. Your uncle‘s or your aunt‘s husband’s house are good choices, and their houses are very spacious. Let's stay there for a while and then send someone to clean up the house，and it will be more inconspicuous.--[[User:Yin Huizhen|Yin Huizhen]] ([[User talk:Yin Huizhen|talk]]) 13:38, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==殷美达 Yīn Měidá 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081547==<br />
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薛蟠道：“如今舅舅正升了外省去，家里自然忙乱起身，咱们这会子反一窝一拖的奔了去，岂不没眼色呢？”他母亲道：“你舅舅虽升了去，还有你姨父家。<br />
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==尹媛 Yǐn Yuán 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081548==<br />
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况这几年来，你舅舅、姨娘两处，每每带信捎书接咱们来；如今既来了，你舅舅虽忙着起身，你贾家的姨娘未必不苦留我们，咱们且忙忙的收拾房子，岂不使人见怪？你的意思，我早知道了：<br />
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==詹若萱 Zhān Ruòxuān 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081549==<br />
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守着舅舅、姨母住着，未免拘紧了；不如各自住着，好任意施为。你既如此，你自去挑所宅子去住；我和你姨娘，姊妹们别了这几年，却要住几日，我带了你妹子去投你姨娘家去。你道好不好？”<br />
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==张秋怡 Zhāng Qiūyí 亚非语言文学 女 202120081550==<br />
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薛蟠见母亲如此说，情知扭不过，只得吩咐人夫，一路奔荣国府而来。那时王夫人已知薛蟠官司一事，亏贾雨村就中维持了，才放了心。<br />
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==张扬 Zhāng Yáng 国别 男 202120081551==<br />
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又见哥哥升了边缺，正愁少了娘家的亲戚来往，略觉寂寞。过了几日，忽家人报：“姨太太带了哥儿、姐儿，合家进京，在门外下车了。”<br />
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==张怡然 Zhāng Yírán 俄语语言文学 女 202120081552==<br />
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喜的王夫人忙带了人，接到大厅上，将薛姨妈等接进去了。姊妹们一朝相见，悲喜交集，自不必说。叙了一番契阔，又引着拜见贾母，将人情土物各种酬献了，合家俱厮见过，又治席接风。<br />
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Lady King was so happy that she brought someone to the hall and took Aunt Marshgrass in. The sisters were joy tempered with sorrow to see each other that it goes without saying. Told a story of great deeds, and led to visit Grandma Merchant, all kinds of reward will be offered, together with the furniture saw, and treat the seat to receive wind.<br />
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==钟义菲 Zhōng Yìfēi 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081553==<br />
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薛蟠拜见过贾政、贾琏，又引着见了贾赦、贾珍等。贾政便使人进来对王夫人说：“姨太太已有了年纪，外甥年轻，不知庶务，在外住着，恐又要生事。<br />
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Xue Pan met Jia Zheng and Jia Lian and introduced Jia She and Jia Zhen. Jia Zheng sent someone in and said to Mrs. Wang, "my aunt is old, and my nephew is young. He doesn't know about general affairs. If he is living outside, I am afraid that something will happen again.--[[User:Zhong Yifei|Zhong Yifei]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yifei|talk]]) 10:10, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Xue Pan met Jia Zheng and Jia Lian and introduced Jia She and Jia Zhen. Jia Zheng sent someone in and said to Mrs. Wang, "my aunt is old, and my nephew is young. He doesn't know about general affairs. If he lives outside, I am afraid that he will make some trouble.--[[User:Zhong Yulu|Zhong Yulu]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yulu|talk]]) 13:01, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==钟雨露 Zhōng Yǔlù 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081554==<br />
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咱们东南角上梨香院那一所房十来间白空闲着，叫人请了姨太太和姐儿、哥儿住了甚好。”王夫人原要留住。贾母也遣人来说：“请姨太太就在这里住下，大家亲密些。”<br />
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“We have a room in the southeast corner of the Li Xiang courtyard that is vacant, and ask someone to invite the aunt and sister and brother to live here.” Mrs. Wang originally wanted to stay. Mrs. Jia also sent someone to say: “Please invite the aunt to stay here, the relationship between us will be closer.”--[[User:Zhong Yulu|Zhong Yulu]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yulu|talk]]) 12:58, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==周玖 Zhōu Jiǔ 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081555==<br />
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薛姨妈正欲同居一处，方可拘紧些儿子；若另住在外边，又恐他纵性惹祸：遂忙应允。又私与王夫人说明：“一应日费供给，一概都免，方是处常之法。”<br />
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==周俊辉 Zhōu Jùnhuī 法语语言文学 女 202120081556==<br />
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王夫人知他家不难于此，遂亦从其自便。从此后，薛家母女就在梨香院住了。原来这梨香院乃当日荣公暮年养静之所，小小巧巧，约有十馀间房舍，前厅后舍俱全。<br />
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==周巧 Zhōu Qiǎo 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081557==<br />
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另有一门通街，薛蟠的家人就走此门出入。西南上又有一个角门，通着夹道子，出了夹道，便是王夫人正房的东院了。每日或饭后或晚间，薛姨妈便过来，或与贾母闲谈，或与王夫人相叙；<br />
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==周清 Zhōu Qīng 法语语言文学 女 202120081558==<br />
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宝钗日与黛玉、迎春姊妹等一处，或看书下棋，或做针黹：倒也十分相安。只是薛蟠起初原不欲在贾府中居住，生恐姨父管束，不得自在。无奈母亲执意在此，且贾宅中又十分殷勤苦留，只得暂且住下；<br />
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==周小雪 Zhōu Xiǎoxuě 日语语言文学 女 202120081559==<br />
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一面使人打扫出自家的房屋，再移居过去。谁知自此间住了不上一月，贾宅族中凡有的子侄，俱已认熟了一半，都是那些纨袴气习，莫不喜与他来往。<br />
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==朱素珍 Zhū Sùzhēn 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081561==<br />
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今日会酒，明日观花，甚至聚赌嫖娼，无所不至，引诱的薛蟠比当日更坏了十倍。虽说贾政训子有方，治家有法，一则族大人多，照管不到；二则现在房长乃是贾珍，彼乃宁府长孙，又现袭职，凡族中事，都是他掌管；<br />
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==邹岳丽 Zōu Yuèlí 日语语言文学 女 202120081562==<br />
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三则公私冗杂，且素性潇洒，不以俗事为要，每公暇之时，不过看书、着棋而已；况这梨香院相隔两层房舍，又有街门别开，任意可以出入：<br />
<br />
==Nadia 202011080004==<br />
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这些子弟们所以只管放意畅怀的，因此薛蟠遂将移居之念渐渐打灭了。<br />
<br />
==Mahzad Heydarian 玛莎 202021080004==<br />
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日后如何，下回分解。葫芦僧判断葫芦案──<br />
<br />
==Mariam Toure 2020GBJ002301==<br />
<br />
“葫芦”的谐音为糊涂，故其意谓糊涂僧糊涂判案。<br />
<br />
==Rouabah Soumaya 202121080001==<br />
<br />
指知县贾雨村按照现为衙门门子而原为葫芦庙小沙弥的主意糊里糊涂判结了薛蟠强买甄英莲并打死人命一案。<br />
<br />
Zhizhi County Jia Yucun was confused and convicted the case of Xue Panqiang buying Zhen Yinglian and killing people based on the idea that he is now Yamenzi but was originally a young novice monk in the Gourd Temple.<br />
<br />
==Muhammad Numan 202121080002==<br />
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女子无才便是德──语出明·张岱《公祭祁夫人文》：<br />
<br />
==Atta Ur Rahman 202121080003==<br />
<br />
“(陈)眉公曰：‘丈夫有德便是才，女子无才便是德。’此语殊为未确。”<br />
<br />
==Muhammad Saqib Mehran 202121080004==<br />
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(又见清·石成金《家训钞》引)<br />
<br />
==Zohaib Chand 202121080005==<br />
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意谓女子如果读书识字，便可能受到小说、戏曲的不良影响，做出伤风败俗的事，倒不如不识字而能保持妇德。<br />
<br />
==Jawad Ahmad 202121080006==<br />
<br />
《女四书》、《列女传》──都是记述历代贤德女子的事迹，以宣扬封建妇德的书。<br />
English:The Four Books on Women and the Biography of Lienu ─ ─ both describe the deeds of <br />
<br />
virtuous women in past dynasties to publicize the feudal virtues of women.<br />
<br />
==Nizam Uddin 202121080007==<br />
<br />
《女四书》：明·王相模仿南宋·朱熹所编《四书》而辑成，包括东汉·班昭的《女诫》、唐·宋若莘和宋若昭的《女论语》、明·永乐皇后徐氏的《内训》、王相之母刘氏的《女范捷录》四种专讲女德的书，故称。<br />
<br />
==Öncü 202121080008==<br />
<br />
《列女传》：西汉·刘向编撰。全书七卷，每卷为一类，分别为母仪、贤明、仁智、贞顺、节义、辩通、嬖孽，共收妇女故事一百零四则。<br />
<br />
==Akira Jantarat 202121080009==<br />
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纺绩女红(gōng工)──泛指女子应做的家务活计。 <br />
<br />
==Benjamin Wellsand 202111080118==<br />
<br />
纺绩：“纺”是把丝纺成纱，“绩”是把麻绩成线。 <br />
<br />
==Asep Budiman 202111080020==<br />
<br />
女红：又作“女工”或“女功”。<br />
<br />
==Ei Mon Kyaw 202111080021==<br />
<br />
是指纺织、缝纫、刺绣等。</div>Zhang Yiranhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20211222_homework&diff=13428620211222 homework2021-12-25T14:27:56Z<p>Zhang Yiran: /* 张怡然 Zhāng Yírán 俄语语言文学 女 202120081552 */</p>
<hr />
<div>Quicklinks: [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021|Back to course homepage]] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal#Frequently_asked_questions_FAQ FAQ] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal Manual] [[20210926_homework|Back to all homework webpages overview]] [[20220112_final_exam|final exam page]]<br />
<br />
PLEASE READ [[Joint_translation_terms|Joint translation terms]] <br />
<br />
PLEASE ALSO READ THE PREVIOUS PARTS, AT LEAST THE SENTENCES BEFORE YOUR OWN PART IN CHAPTER 19 [[20210303_culture|1, Mar 3 Chapters 1-4]], [[20210310_culture|2, Mar 10 Chapters 6-7]], [[20210317_culture|3, Mar 17 Chapters 11-13]], [[20210324_culture|4, Mar 24 Chapters 15-17]], [[20210331_culture|5, Mar 31 Chapters 4-7]], [[20210407_culture|6, Apr 7 Chapters 8-10]], [[20210414_culture|7, Apr 14 Chapters 13-15]] , [[20210519_culture|12, May 19 Chapters 17-19]], [[20210929_homework#Hongloumeng|for Sep 29 - rest of HLM Chapter 19]] [[20211013_homework|for Oct 13 - HLM Chapters 20-21]] [[20211020_homework|for Oct 20 - HLM Chapters 21-22]] etc.<br />
<br />
==陈静 Chén Jìng 国别 女 202020080595==<br />
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闲静似娇花照水，行动如弱柳扶风。心较比干多一窍，病如西子胜三分。宝玉看罢，笑道：“这个妹妹我曾见过的。”<br />
<br />
==蔡珠凤 Cài Zhūfèng 法语语言文学 女 202120081477==<br />
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贾母笑道：“又胡说了，你何曾见过？”宝玉笑道：“虽没见过，却看着面善，心里倒像是远别重逢的一般。”贾母笑道：“好，好！这么更相和睦了。”<br />
<br />
Dowager Jia smiled and said, "nonsense again. Have you ever seen it?" Baoyu said with a smile, "although I haven't seen it, I look good and feel like I'm far from meeting again." Dowager Jia said with a smile, "OK, OK! It's more harmonious."--[[User:Zeng Junlin|Zeng Junlin]] ([[User talk:Zeng Junlin|talk]]) 13:18, 21 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Grandma Merchant smiled and said, "Nonsense again. Have you ever seen it?" Precious Jade said with a smile, "Although I haven't seen it, I look good and feel like I'm far from meeting again." Grandma Merchant said with a smile, "OK, OK! It's more harmonious."--[[User:Zeng Junlin|Zeng Junlin]] ([[User talk:Zeng Junlin|talk]]) 13:18, 21 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==曾俊霖 Zēng Jùnlín 国别 男 202120081478==<br />
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宝玉便走向黛玉身边坐下，又细细打量一番，因问：“妹妹可曾读书？”黛玉道：“不曾读书，只上了一年学，些须认得几个字。”<br />
<br />
Baoyu went to Daiyu and sat down. She looked at her carefully, because she asked, "has your sister ever read?" Daiyu said, "I didn't study. I only studied for a year. I have to recognize a few words."--[[User:Zeng Junlin|Zeng Junlin]] ([[User talk:Zeng Junlin|talk]]) 13:12, 21 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==陈惠妮 Chén Huìnī 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081479==<br />
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宝玉又道：“妹妹尊名？”黛玉便说了名。宝玉又道：“表字？”黛玉道：“无字。”<br />
<br />
==陈湘琼 Chén Xiāngqióng 外国语言学及应用语言学 女 202120081480==<br />
<br />
宝玉笑道：“我送妹妹一字：莫若‘颦颦’二字极妙。”探春便道：“何处出典？”宝玉道：“《古今人物通考》上说：<br />
<br />
Baoyu smiled and said:" I want to describe you with two words—Ping Ping, and no words are better than them." Tanchun then asked:"In which book did you find them?" Baoyu said:" On ''General Study of Ancient and Modern Characters''"--[[User:Chen Xiangqiong|Chen Xiangqiong]] ([[User talk:Chen Xiangqiong|talk]]) 01:04, 20 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Precious Jade smiled and said:" I want to give away two words to you—Pingping, and no words are better than them." Tanchun then asked:"In which book did you find them?" Jade said:"''On General Study of Ancient and Modern Characters''."--[[User:Chen Xinyi|Chen Xinyi]] ([[User talk:Chen Xinyi|talk]]) 06:37, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==陈心怡 Chén Xīnyí 翻译学 女 202120081481==<br />
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‘西方有石名黛，可代画眉之墨。’况这妹妹眉尖若蹙，取这个字，岂不甚美？”探春笑道：“只怕又是杜撰。”<br />
<br />
'There is a stone in the west named Dai, it can replace the ink of painting eyebrows.' The sister's eyebrows are frown, if take this word for name, isn’t it very beautiful?" Tanchun laughed: "I'm afraid it's a fabrication again."--[[User:Chen Xinyi|Chen Xinyi]] ([[User talk:Chen Xinyi|talk]]) 06:29, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==程杨 Chéng Yáng 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081482==<br />
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宝玉笑道：“除了《四书》，杜撰的也太多呢。”因又问黛玉：“可有玉没有？”众人都不解。<br />
<br />
==丁旋 Dīng Xuán 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081483==<br />
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黛玉便忖度着：“因他有玉，所以才问我的。”便答道：“我没有玉。你那玉也是件稀罕物儿，岂能人人皆有？”<br />
<br />
Mascara Jade Forest contemplated, “He asked me because he has a jade.” So she answered, “I have no jade. Your jade is a rarity. How could everyone have it?”--[[User:Ding Xuan|Ding Xuan]] ([[User talk:Ding Xuan|talk]]) 13:45, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Mascara Jade Forest presumed, “He asked me because he has a jade.” So she answered, “I have no jade. Your jade is a rarity. How could everyone have it?”--[[User:Du Lina|Du Lina]] ([[User talk:Du Lina|talk]]) 08:25, 23 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==杜莉娜 Dù Lìnuó 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081484==<br />
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宝玉听了，登时发作起狂病来，摘下那玉就狠命摔去，骂道：“什么罕物！人的高下不识，还说灵不灵呢！我也不要这劳什子！”<br />
<br />
After hearing that,Precious Jade Merchant suddenly went mad. And he took off and dropped the jade with cursing that “What the hell is a rare thing! You all say that it is divine, but it can't tell lowliness or nobleness.I won't have the waste now!” --[[User:Du Lina|Du Lina]] ([[User talk:Du Lina|talk]]) 12:29, 19 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==付红岩 Fù Hóngyán 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081485==<br />
<br />
吓的地下众人一拥争去拾玉。贾母急的搂了宝玉道：“孽障，你生气，要打骂人容易，何苦摔那命根子？”宝玉满面泪痕，哭道：“家里姐姐妹妹都没有，单我有，我说没趣儿；<br />
<br />
The aside servants were scared and then rushed to pick up the jade.Jia's mother anxiously hugged Baoyu and said:" poor kid, if you are angry, why do you bother to fall the jade rahtere to beat and curse."Covered with tears, Baoyu cried:" my beloved elder and litter sisters have no one. I'm ashamed of owning one."<br />
<br />
<br />
All those, who stood below, were startled; and in a body they pressed forward, vying with each other as to who should pick up the gem.<br />
Grandma Merchant was so distressed that she clasped Precious Jade in her embrace. "You child of wrath," she exclaimed. "When you get into a passion, it's easy enough for you to beat and abuse people; but what makes you fling away that stem of life?"<br />
Precious Jade’s face was covered with the traces of tears. "All my cousins here, senior as well as junior," he rejoined, as he sobbed, "have no gem, and if it's only I to have one, there's no fun in it, I maintain! “.--[[User:Fu Shiyu|Fu Shiyu]] ([[User talk:Fu Shiyu|talk]]) 06:27, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==付诗雨 Fù Shīyǔ 日语语言文学 女 202120081486==<br />
<br />
如今来了这个神仙似的妹妹也没有：可知这不是个好东西。”贾母忙哄他道：“你这妹妹原有玉来着，因你姑妈去世时，舍不得你妹妹，无法可处，遂将他的玉带了去：<br />
<br />
And now comes this angelic sort of cousin, and she too has none, so that it's clear enough that it is no profitable thing." Grandma Merchant hastened to coax him. "This cousin of yours," she explained, "would, under former circumstances, have come here with a jade; and it's because your aunt felt unable, as she lay on her death-bed, to reconcile herself to the separation from your cousin, that in the absence of any remedy, she forthwith took the gem belonging to her (daughter), along with her (in the grave); --[[User:Fu Shiyu|Fu Shiyu]] ([[User talk:Fu Shiyu|talk]]) 12:24, 19 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Now the newly arrived cousin who is as lovely as a fairy hasn't got one either, so it can't be any good." "Your cousin did have one once," said Dowager lady Chia to soothe him, "but when your aunt was dying she was unwilling to leave your cousin, the best she could do was to take the jade with her instead. --[[User:Gao Mi|Gao Mi]] ([[User talk:Gao Mi|talk]]) 04:49, 20 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==高蜜 Gāo Mì 翻译学 女 202120081487==<br />
<br />
一则全殉葬之礼，尽你妹妹的孝心；二则你姑妈的阴灵儿也可权作见了你妹妹了。因此他说没有，也是不便自己夸张的意思啊。<br />
<br />
In that way, your cousin showed her filial piety by letting the jade be buried with her; in the meantime, your aunt’s spirit could see your cousin through the jade. Therefore, when your cousin said she hadn’t got one, it was because she didn’t want to boast about it. --[[User:Gao Mi|Gao Mi]] ([[User talk:Gao Mi|talk]]) 04:50, 20 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In that way, your cousin showed her filial piety by letting the jade be buried with her; in the meantime, your aunt’s spirit could see your cousin through the jade. Therefore, when your cousin said she hadn’t got one, it was because she didn't want to publicise it.--[[User:Gong Boya|Gong Boya]] ([[User talk:Gong Boya|talk]]) 07:00, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==宫博雅 Gōng Bóyǎ 俄语语言文学 女 202120081488==<br />
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你还不好生带上，仔细你娘知道。”说着，便向丫鬟手中接来，亲与他带上。宝玉听如此说，想了一想，也就不生别论。<br />
<br />
"If you don't take it with you, be careful your mother knows" As she spoke, she took the jade from the servant girl and adorned him herself. When Precious Jade Merchant heard her say this, he thought for a while and said nothing else.--[[User:Gong Boya|Gong Boya]] ([[User talk:Gong Boya|talk]]) 06:56, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
"You‘d better keep it well in case your mother notices.” As she spoke, she took the jade from the maid and adorned him herself. When Precious Jade Merchant heard her saying this, he thought for a while and said nothing else. --[[User:He Qin|He Qin]] ([[User talk:He Qin|talk]]) 12:18, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==何芩 Hé Qín 翻译学 女 202120081489==<br />
<br />
当下奶娘来问黛玉房舍，贾母便说：“将宝玉挪出来，同我在套间暖阁里，把你林姑娘暂且安置在碧纱厨里。等过了残冬，春天再给他们收拾房屋，另作一番安置罢。”<br />
<br />
When the nanny came to ask where Mascara Jade should stay, Lady Dowager answered, “ Place Precious Jade in the warm house in my suit and settle your Miss Forest in the Green Voile House temporarily until the winter ends. In next spring, you’ll rearrange the room for them.”--[[User:He Qin|He Qin]] ([[User talk:He Qin|talk]]) 12:34, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==胡舒情 Hú Shūqíng 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081490==<br />
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宝玉道：“好祖宗，我就在碧纱厨外的床上很妥当，又何必出来，闹的老祖宗不得安静呢？”贾母想一想说：“也罢了。<br />
<br />
Baoyu said:” Dear grandma, I would rather stay at the bed outside the partition door, than at your room to bother you.” The Lady Dowager said thoughtfully:”That’s Ok.”--[[User:Hu Shuqing|Hu Shuqing]] ([[User talk:Hu Shuqing|talk]]) 05:38, 21 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Presious Jade said:"Dear mother, I would rather stay on the bed outside the partition door rather than at grandma's to bother her." The Lady Dowager said thoughtfully:"That's OK."--[[User:Huang Jinyun|Huang Jinyun]] ([[User talk:Huang Jinyun|talk]]) 09:06, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==黄锦云 Huáng Jǐnyún 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081491==<br />
<br />
每人一个奶娘并一个丫头照管，馀者在外间上夜听唤。”一面早有熙凤命人送了一顶藕合色花帐并锦被、缎褥之类。<br />
<br />
But let each one of you have a nurse, as well as a waiting-maid to attend on you; the other servants can remain in the outside rooms and keep night watch and be ready to answer any call." At an early hour, besides, Hsi-feng had sent a servant round with a grey flowered curtain, embroidered coverlets and satin quilts and other such articles.--[[User:Huang Jinyun|Huang Jinyun]] ([[User talk:Huang Jinyun|talk]]) 14:25, 19 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But let each one of you have a nurse and a waiting-maid; the other servants can remain in the outside rooms and keep night watch and be ready to answer any call." At an early hour, besides, Hsi-feng had sent a servant round with a grey flowered curtain, embroidered coverlets and satin quilts and other such articles.--[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 14:22, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==黄逸妍 Huáng Yìyán 外国语言学及应用语言学 女 202120081492==<br />
<br />
黛玉只带了两个人来：一个是自己的奶娘王嬷嬷；一个是十岁的小丫头，名唤雪雁。贾母见雪雁甚小，一团孩气；<br />
<br />
Daiyu had brought her old Wet-nurse Nanny Wang and ten-year-old Xueyan,who had also attended her since she was a child. The Lady Dowager considered Xueyan too young;--[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 14:17, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==黄柱梁 Huáng Zhùliáng 国别 男 202120081493==<br />
<br />
王嬷嬷又极老：料黛玉皆不遂心，将自己身边一个二等小丫头，名唤鹦哥的与了黛玉。亦如迎春等一般：每人除自幼乳母外，另有四个教引嬷嬷；Mammy(Here mammy not means the lady who gives birth to a baby, but a lady who looks after some noble children) Wang is very old: she is not expectd to look after Daiyu well. So,Daiyu's grandmother gave Daiyu to a second-class little page girl named Yingge. Daiyu's arrangement is also like Jia Yingchun who not only has the nursing mother, but also four teaching mothers.--[[User:Huang Zhuliang|Huang Zhuliang]] ([[User talk:Huang Zhuliang|talk]]) 14:02, 19 December 2021 (UTC)Huang Zhuliang<br />
<br />
Mammy(Here mammy not means the lady who gives birth to a baby, but a lady who looks after some noble children) Wang is very old: she is not expectd to look after Daiyu well. So,Daiyu's grandmother gave Daiyu to a second-class little girl named Polly. Daiyu's arrangement is also like Jia Yingchun who not only has the nursing mother, but also four teaching mummys.--[[User:Jin Xiaotong|Jin Xiaotong]] ([[User talk:Jin Xiaotong|talk]]) 14:40, 20 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==金晓童 Jīn Xiǎotóng 202120081494==<br />
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除贴身掌管钗钏盥沐两个丫头外，另有四五个洒扫房屋、来往使役的小丫头。当下王嬷嬷与鹦哥陪侍黛玉在碧纱厨内，宝玉乳母李嬷嬷并大丫头名唤袭人的陪侍在外面大床上。<br />
In addition to the two servants who are in charge of jewelry and toiletries, there are four or five little maids who sweep the house and do chores. At the moment King mammy and polly accompany daiyu in green gauze room, Baoyu’s mammy li and big maid Xiren accompany on the big bed outside.--[[User:Jin Xiaotong|Jin Xiaotong]] ([[User talk:Jin Xiaotong|talk]]) 14:37, 20 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==邝艳丽 Kuàng Yànl 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081495==<br />
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原来这袭人亦是贾母之婢，本名蕊珠，贾母因溺爱宝玉，恐宝玉之婢不中使，素喜蕊珠心地纯良，遂与宝玉。宝玉因知他本姓花，又曾见旧人诗句有“花气袭人”之句，遂回明贾母，即把蕊珠更名袭人。<br />
This maid Xi Ren, whose real name is Rui Zhu, also belongs to Lady Dowager. Lady Dowager enjoyed Rui Zhu’s purity and kindness then assigned her to Baoyu, for Lady Dowager coddled him and worried that the maids of Baoyu not work well. Baoyu knew her last name was Hua, and saw once poetic sentence “the fragrance of flowers assails noses”, then he talked it with Lady Dowager, and then Rui Zhu was named Xi Ren.--[[User:Kuang Yanli|Kuang Yanli]] ([[User talk:Kuang Yanli|talk]]) 07:12, 20 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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This maid Xi Ren, whose real name is Rui Zhu, also belongs to Lady Dowager. Lady Dowager enjoyed Rui Zhu’s purity and kindness, then assigned her to serve Jade, for Lady Dowager coddled him and worried that the maids of Jade not professional. Jade knew her last name was Flower, and saw once a poetic sentence “the fragrance of flowers assails noses”, then he talked it with Lady Dowager. And then Rui Zhu was named Xi Ren.--[[User:Li Aixuan|Li Aixuan]] ([[User talk:Li Aixuan|talk]]) 12:33, 20 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==李爱璇 Lǐ Àixuán 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081496==<br />
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却说袭人倒有些痴处：伏侍贾母时，心中只有贾母；如今跟了宝玉，心中又只有宝玉了。只因宝玉性情乖僻，每每规谏，见宝玉不听，心中着实忧郁。<br />
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However, it is said that Hsi-jen is crazy: when seving Jia's mother, only Jia's mother is in her heart; now serving Jade, there is only Jade in her heart. Because of Jade's perverse temperament, when Jade doesn't listen to her advise, Hsi-jen is really depressed.--[[User:Li Aixuan|Li Aixuan]] ([[User talk:Li Aixuan|talk]]) 07:11, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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However, Hsi Jen had several simple traits. While in attendance upon dowager lady Chia, in her heart and her eyes there was no one but her venerable ladyship, and her alone; and now in her attendance upon Pao-yue, her heart and her eyes were again full of Pao-yue, and him alone. But as Pao-yue was of a perverse temperament and did not heed her repeated injunctions, she felt at heart exceedingly grieved.--[[User:Li Ruiyang|Li Ruiyang]] ([[User talk:Li Ruiyang|talk]]) 00:42, 21 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==李瑞洋 Lǐ Ruìyáng 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081497==<br />
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是晚，宝玉、李嬷嬷已睡了，他见里面黛玉、鹦哥犹未安歇，他自卸了妆，悄悄的进来，笑问：“姑娘怎么还不安歇？”黛玉忙笑让：“姐姐请坐。”<br />
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At night, after nurse Li had fallen asleep, seeing that in the inner chambers, Tai-yue and Ying Ko had not as yet retired to rest, she removed her makeup, and with gentle step walked in.<br />
"How is it, miss，" she inquired smiling, "that you have not turned in as yet？"<br />
Tai-yue at once put on a smile. "Sit down, sister, " she rejoined, pressing her to take a seat. --[[User:Li Ruiyang|Li Ruiyang]] ([[User talk:Li Ruiyang|talk]]) 01:37, 21 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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At night, after Master Bao and nurse Li had fallen asleep, seeing that in the inner chambers, Tai-yue and Ying Ko had not as yet retired to rest, she removed her makeup, and with gentle step walked in."How is it, miss，" she inquired smilingly, "that you have not turned in as yet？" Tai-yue at once put on a smile. "Sit down, my dear sister, " she rejoined, leading her to take a seat.--[[User:Li Shan|Li Shan]] ([[User talk:Li Shan|talk]]) 14:41, 21 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==李姗 Lǐ Shān 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081498==<br />
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袭人在床沿上坐了。鹦哥笑道：“林姑娘在这里伤心，自己淌眼抹泪的说：‘今儿才来了，就惹出你们哥儿的病来。倘或摔坏了那玉，岂不是因我之过？’<br />
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Hsi-jen then sat by the bedside. Ying Ko ridiculed, "Miss Lin was feeling sad with her tears dropping down today, saying that 'It is the first day that I come here, while I have triggered the relapse of your young master. If his precious jade was truly broken apart, then I am sure to blame."--[[User:Li Shan|Li Shan]] ([[User talk:Li Shan|talk]]) 14:29, 21 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Aroma then sat by the bedside. Brother Parrot ridiculed, "Miss Lin feels sad with her tears dropping down today, saying that 'It is the first day that I come here, while I have triggered the relapse of your young master. If his precious jade is truly broken apart, then I'll be sure to blame."--[[User:Li Shuang|Li Shuang]] ([[User talk:Li Shuang|talk]]) 02:45, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==李双 Lǐ Shuāng 翻译学 女 202120081499==<br />
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所以伤心。我好容易劝好了。”袭人道：“姑娘快别这么着。将来只怕比这更奇怪的笑话儿还有呢。<br />
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“She is therefore so sad, and I had a hard time persuading her to stop crying.” Aroma said: “Please don’t look so sad, young lady. There will be more stranger jokes in the future.”--[[User:Li Shuang|Li Shuang]] ([[User talk:Li Shuang|talk]]) 02:40, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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“She is therefore so sad, and I had a hard time persuading her to stop crying.” Aroma said: “Please don’t look so sad, my mistress. There will be more stranger jokes in the future.”--[[User:Li Wenxuan|Li Wenxuan]] ([[User talk:Li Wenxuan|talk]]) 10:51, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==李文璇 Lǐ Wénxuán 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081500==<br />
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若为他这种行状，你多心伤感，只怕你还伤感不了呢。快别多心。”黛玉道：“姐姐们说的，我记着就是了。”<br />
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“If you feel sad for his behavior, I’m afraid that you can’t be so. Don’t think too much.” Daiyu said: “I will remember what our sisters has said.” --[[User:Li Wenxuan|Li Wenxuan]] ([[User talk:Li Wenxuan|talk]]) 00:23, 20 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==李雯 Lǐ Wén 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081501==<br />
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又叙了一会，方才安歇。次早起来，省过贾母，因往王夫人处来。正值王夫人与熙凤在一处拆金陵来的书信，又有王夫人的兄嫂处遣来的两个媳妇儿来说话。<br />
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==李新星 Lǐ Xīnxīng 亚非语言文学 女 202120081503==<br />
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黛玉虽不知原委，探春等却晓得是议论金陵城中居住的薛家姨母之子、表兄薛蟠倚财仗势，打死人命，现在应天府案下审理。如今舅舅王子腾得了信，遣人来告诉这边，意欲唤取进京之意。<br />
Although Daiyu did not know the exact cause, Tanchun and others knew that it was xue Pan, son and cousin of aunt Xue who lived in Jinling city, who killed a man by taking advantage of his wealth and power, and was now being tried by the Tianfu court. Now uncle Prince teng got the letter, send people to tell here, intended to call the meaning of Beijing.--[[User:Li Xinxing|Li Xinxing]] ([[User talk:Li Xinxing|talk]]) 12:24, 19 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Although Dai Yu did not know the original commission, Tan Chun and others knew that it was a discussion of Xue Pan, the son of the Xue family's aunt and cousin Xue Pan, who lived in Jinling City, who relied on wealth and power to kill people, and now it should be tried under the Tianfu case. Now that his uncle Prince Teng had received the letter, he sent someone to tell this side, intending to summon the intention of entering the capital.--[[User:Li Yi|Li Yi]] ([[User talk:Li Yi|talk]]) 12:27, 19 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==李怡 Lǐ Yí 法语语言文学 女 202120081504==<br />
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毕竟怎的，下回分解。<br />
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起复——即重新起用被停职或撤职的官员，包括因父母丧停职回家守孝及因被弹劾而遭撤职的官员。<br />
If you want to know what happened, the answer is next time<br />
Reinstatement – Reinstate officials who have been suspended or removed from their posts, including those who have been suspended from their posts for the death of their parents and who have been removed from office for impeachment.--[[User:Li Yi|Li Yi]] ([[User talk:Li Yi|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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After all, I'll break it down next time.<br />
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Reinstatement - reinstatement of officials who have been suspended or removed from office, including those who have been removed from office due to the death of their parents and those who have been removed from office due to impeachment.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 12:24, 19 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==刘沛婷 Liú Pèitíng 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081505==<br />
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邸(dǐ底)报——亦称“邸抄”、“抄报”、“宫门抄”，清代或称“京报”。中国古代官方报纸的通称。<br />
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Di Pao -- also known as "Di Copy", "copy newspaper" or "Palace Gate Copy" -- is also known as "Beijing Newspaper" during the Qing Dynasty. The general name of the official newspaper in ancient China.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 12:23, 19 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Di Bao -- also known as "Di Copy", "copy newspaper" or "Palace Gate Copy" -- is also known as "Beijing Newspaper" during the Qing Dynasty. The general name of the official newspaper in ancient China.--[[User:Liu Shengnan|Liu Shengnan]] ([[User talk:Liu Shengnan|talk]]) 12:10, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==刘胜楠 Liú Shèngnán 翻译学 女 202120081506==<br />
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承办者或为地方官府驻京办事机构，或为朝廷。邸报专门抄发诏令、奏章及朝政新闻，以供地方官及时了解。 邸：原指战国时各诸侯在都城的客馆，后泛指地方官府驻京办事处。<br />
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The undertaker is either the local government office in Beijing or the imperial court. The residence newspaper specially copied and issued imperial edicts, memorials and government news for local officials to understand in time. Di: it used to refer to the guest houses of various princes in the capital during the Warring States period, and later it generally refers to the offices of local officials in Beijing. --[[User:Liu Shengnan|Liu Shengnan]] ([[User talk:Liu Shengnan|talk]]) 12:09, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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The undertaker is either the local government office in Beijing or the imperial court. The "Di" newspaper(a official gazette) specially copied and issued imperial edicts, memorials and government news for local officials to understand in time."Di": Originally referred to the guest hall of the princes in the capital during the Warring States Period, and later generally referred to the Beijing office of the local government. --[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 14:40, 22 December 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei<br />
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==刘薇 Liú Wēi 国别 女 202120081507==<br />
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贱荆——亦称“拙荆”、“山荆”等。谦词。对人称自己的妻子。 荆：“荆钗布裙”的省称。<br />
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"Jian Jing" ——also known as "Zhuo Jing", "Shan Jing" etc. It's a modest word when a man mention his wife in front of others. "Jing"is a short name for "JingChaiBuQun"(the female have only a thorn for a hairpin and plain cloth for a skirt). --[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 12:36, 19 December 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei<br />
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Jian Jing, also known as "Zhuo Jing", "Shan Jing",etc, is a humle term for quoting one's own wife. Jing is an abbreviation for "Jingchaibuqun", that is, a thorn for a hairpin and palin cloth for a skirt.--[[User:Liu Xiao|Liu Xiao]] ([[User talk:Liu Xiao|talk]]) 06:59, 20 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==刘晓 Liú Xiǎo 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081508==<br />
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形容妇人极为简朴的服饰。语出汉·刘向《列女传》(见《太平御览》卷七一八引)：“梁鸿妻孟光，荆钗布裙。” 荆钗：即以木棍为钗。<br />
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Jing, used to describe women's plain, simple and unadorned clothes, is originated from a sentence in the ''Biographies of Exemplary Women'' written by Liu Xiang in the Han Dynasty (see ''Imperial Review under the Reign of Taizong in the Song Dynasty'', Vol.718): "Meng Guang, wife of Liang Hong has only a thorn for a hairpin and plain cloth for a skirt." Jingchai means a thron for a hairpin.--[[User:Liu Xiao|Liu Xiao]] ([[User talk:Liu Xiao|talk]]) 06:53, 20 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Jing, used to describe the extremely simple dress of a woman. In Han, Liu Xiang's "Biography of the Female" (see ”Taiping Yu Lan“（Imperial Review under the Reign of Taizong in the Song Dynasty）, vol. 718): "Liang Hong's wife, Meng Guang, was dressed in a woven hairpin and cloth skirt." Jingchai (荆钗): a wooden stick used as a hairpin.--[[User:Liu Yue|Liu Yue]] ([[User talk:Liu Yue|talk]]) 05:02, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==刘越 Liú Yuè 亚非语言文学 女 202120081509==<br />
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内顾之忧──语出北朝魏·袁翻《安置蠕蠕表》：“且蠕蠕尚存，则高车犹有内顾之忧，未暇窥窬上国；<br />
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The Worries of Internal Concern - From Yuan Fan's " Settlement Zoran Policy ", And if Zoran still existed, then Gao Che (a generic term used by the Northern Dynasties for a part of the nomadic tribes in the north of the desert) would still have internal concerns and would not have had the strength to covet the vassal states.--[[User:Liu Yue|Liu Yue]] ([[User talk:Liu Yue|talk]]) 04:55, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Internal Concerns – derived from Yuan Fan's "Policy on the Settlement of Ruru". “And if Ruru survived, Gaoche would have internal concerns and would have no time to covet the territory of the Emperor.--[[User:Liu Yunxin|Liu Yunxin]] ([[User talk:Liu Yunxin|talk]]) 13:30, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==刘运心 Liú Yùnxīn 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081510==<br />
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若蠕蠕全灭，则高车跋扈之计，岂易可知？”(蠕蠕：“柔然”的别称，亦称“芮芮”、“茹茹”。我国古代北方少数民族名。<br />
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“If Ruru was annihilated, wasn’t it easy to know the conceited plan of Gaoche?” (“Ruru”, an alternative name for Rouran Khaganate, can also be called “Ruirui” or “Ruru”. The name of an ancient northern ethnic minorities.)--[[User:Liu Yunxin|Liu Yunxin]] ([[User talk:Liu Yunxin|talk]]) 12:53, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==罗安怡 Luó Ānyí 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081511==<br />
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高车：亦称“狄历”、“敕勒”、“铁勒”、“丁零”。 我国古代北方少数民族名。)意谓因对家事或国事的顾念而担忧。<br />
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==罗曦 Luó Xī 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081512==<br />
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这里指家庭需要照顾的人或事。<br />
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垂花门──旧时较为讲究的四合院二门。门顶如屋顶式样，其四角和前后多有下垂的雕花，故称。<br />
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This refers to the person or thing that family members need to take care of. <br />
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Floral-Pendant Gates: It was the second gate of a courtyard house with exquisite decoration in the old days. The top of the door was like a roof, with drooping carvings on the back and front of four corners, so it is called "Floral-Pendant Gates".--[[User:Ma Xin|Ma Xin]] ([[User talk:Ma Xin|talk]]) 11:25, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==马新 Mǎ Xīn 外国语言学及应用语言学 女 202120081513==<br />
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超手游廊──亦作“超手回廊”、“抄手游廊”。房廊像两手笼入袖筒，两袖成环形状，故称。<br />
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Verandah Chao Shou —— also known as "Corridor Chao Shou" and "Cross Hand Verandah". Its gallery looked like a two-handed cage into the sleeves, and the two sleeves formed a ring shape, so it was called "Verandah Chao Shou".--[[User:Ma Xin|Ma Xin]] ([[User talk:Ma Xin|talk]]) 07:37, 20 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Verandah Chao Shou: It was also known as “Corridor Chao Shou” or “Verandah Cross Hand”. Its gallery was similar to a two-handed cage into the two sleeves which formed a ring shape, so it was called “Verandah Chao Shou”. --[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 06:26, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==毛雅文 Máo Yǎwén 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081514==<br />
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穿山游廊──指与厅房两边山墙门通连的回廊。以其可由山墙门穿行，故称。 山：即房屋两侧的山墙。<br />
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Chuan Shan You Lang: A veranda or corridor connected with the gable doors on both sides of the hall. People can pass through the corridor after entering into the gable doors, so this kind of corridor is called such a name. Shan: The gable doors on both sides of a house.--[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 13:22, 19 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Chuan Shan You Lang: It refers to the corridor connected to the door of the wall on either side of the room. People can pass through the corridor after entering into the gable doors, so this kind of corridor is called such a name. Shan: The gable doors on both sides of a house.--[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 13:33, 19 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==毛优 Máo Yōu 俄语语言文学 女 202120081515==<br />
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“第一个”六句──这是对迎春形象的描写。 微丰：稍胖。 腮凝新荔：形容腮帮子像荔枝般的红润。<br />
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The first six lines - It is a description of Yingchun's image. Wei Feng: Slightly fat. Sai Ning Xin Li：The cheeks are as red as lychees.--[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 13:29, 19 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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The first six lines - It is a description of Yingchun's image. Wei Feng: Slightly fat. Sai Ning Xin Li：The cheeks are as red and shiny as lychees.--[[User:Mou Yixin|Mou Yixin]] ([[User talk:Mou Yixin|talk]]) 07:21, 20 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==牟一心 Móu Yīxīn 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081516==<br />
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鼻腻鹅脂：形容鼻端像鹅脂般光润。<br />
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“第二个”七句──这是对探春形象的描写。 削肩：俗称溜肩。<br />
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Bi Ni E Zhi: an idiom to describe someone’s tip of nose is as shiny and smooth as goose grease.<br />
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“The second” seven lines —— this is a depiction of the look of Tanchun. Rounded shoulders: commonly known as sloping shoulders --[[User:Mou Yixin|Mou Yixin]] ([[User talk:Mou Yixin|talk]]) 07:18, 20 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Bi Ni E Zhi: a Chiniese idiom to describe someone’s tip of nose is as shiny and smooth as goose grease.<br />
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“The second” seven lines —— this is a depiction of Tanchun'image. Cuted shoulders: commonly known as sloping shoulders--[[User:Peng Ruixue|Peng Ruixue]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruixue|talk]]) 07:00, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==彭瑞雪 Péng Ruìxuě 法语语言文学 女 202120081517==<br />
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倾斜的双肩。古人以为美人肩。<br />
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长挑身材：瘦高的身材。 鸭蛋脸儿：犹如鸭蛋似的长圆形脸盘。<br />
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Sloping shoulders. The ancients considered these to be the shoulders of beauty.<br />
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Long, tall figure: a tall, thin figure. Duck egg face: an oblong face like a duck egg.--[[User:Peng Ruixue|Peng Ruixue]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruixue|talk]]) 06:32, 20 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==秦建安 Qín Jiànān 外国语言学及应用语言学 女 202120081518==<br />
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俊眼修眉：秀美的眼睛，长长的秀眉。 顾盼神飞：左顾右盼，目光炯炯，神采飞扬。 文彩精华：光彩照人，精神十足。<br />
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Jun Yan Xiu Mei: beautiful eyes with long and delicate eyebrows. Gu Pan Shen Fei: looking left and right, with shining eyes and soaring spirit. Wen Cai Jing Hua: being radiant and full of energy.--[[User:Qiu Tingting|Qiu Tingting]] ([[User talk:Qiu Tingting|talk]]) 01:21, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==邱婷婷 Qiū Tíngtíng 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081519==<br />
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见之忘俗：意谓别人见了就会忘了俗气，变得高雅起来。形容探春一身高雅之气。<br />
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“第三个”两句──这是对惜春形象的描写。<br />
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To see is to forget vulgarity: It means that when others see something or someone will forget the secular atmosphere and become more elegant. In this sentence, it describes Tanchun has a great elegant temperament.<br />
"The third" two sentences ─ thses are the description of the image of Xi Chun.--[[User:Qiu Tingting|Qiu Tingting]] ([[User talk:Qiu Tingting|talk]]) 02:50, 20 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Jian Zhi Wang Su: It means that others will forget the vulgarity and become elegant when they see it. It is used to describe Tanchun's elegance. <br />
The two sentences containing “ the third” — are the image depiction of Sichun.--[[User:Rao Jinying|Rao Jinying]] ([[User talk:Rao Jinying|talk]]) 12:27, 19 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==饶金盈 Ráo Jīnyíng 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081520==<br />
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形容惜春年纪尚小，身材和容貌都还没有发育成熟。<br />
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人参养荣丸──以人参、当归、黄芪、陈皮、白芍、熟地、桂心等配制而成的丸药，主治脾胃气血亏虚等症。<br />
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It is used to describe the Xichun, who is still young and body and appearance are not developed.<br />
Ginseng Yangrong Pill- A pill made of ginseng, angelica, astragalus, Chen Pi, Bai Shao, Shu Di, Gui Xin, etc., mainly used for treating deficiency of qi and blood in the spleen and stomach.--[[User:Rao Jinying|Rao Jinying]] ([[User talk:Rao Jinying|talk]]) 12:22, 19 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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It is used to depict Xichun, who is still in her young age and underdeveloped stature as well as appearance.<br />
Ginseng tonic bolus- a sort of pill composed of ginseng, Angelica sinensis, astragalus, tangerine peel, white paleontology root, rehmannia glutinousa, laurel heart, etc. is mainly used to treat diseases such as deficiency in spleen, stomach, qi as well as blood.--[[User:Shi Liqing|Shi Liqing]] ([[User talk:Shi Liqing|talk]]) 13:00, 19 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==石丽青 Shí Lìqīng 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081521==<br />
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荣：中医指血脉。 养荣丸：似有双关之意：除了保养血脉之意外，还有保养荣誉之意，与薛宝钗的“冷香丸”相对，以寓二人的不同性格。<br />
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“Rong” refers to blood vessel in the field of traditional Chinese medicine. Tonic bolus embraces double meaning. Apart from the maintenance of blood, it also boasts the function of maintaining the honor, which is opposite to “Cold Fragrant Pellet” of Xue Baochai. This is the revelation of different personalities between these two people.--[[User:Shi Liqing|Shi Liqing]] ([[User talk:Shi Liqing|talk]]) 12:45, 19 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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“Rong” refers to blood vessel in the field of traditional Chinese medicine. Tonic bolus embraces double meanings. Apart from the maintenance of blood vessel, it also boasts the function of maintaining the honor, which is opposite to “Cold Fragrant Pellet” of Xue Baochai. This is the revelation of different personalities between these two people.--[[User:Sun Yashi|Sun Yashi]] ([[User talk:Sun Yashi|talk]]) 02:27, 20 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==孙雅诗 Sūn Yǎshī 外国语言学及应用语言学 女 202120081522==<br />
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窄褃(kèn掯)袄──即紧身妖。 窄：瘦小。 褃：是上衣前后幅两侧接缝部分的名称。<br />
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Narrow ken coat ── is a tight quilted jacket.Narrow: thin.Ken: It is the name of the seams on the front and rear sides of the jacket.--[[User:Sun Yashi|Sun Yashi]] ([[User talk:Sun Yashi|talk]]) 02:18, 20 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Narrow Ken coat ── namely tight quilted jacket. Narrow: thin. Ken: the name of the seams on the front and back of the jacket. --[[User:Wang Lifei|Wang Lifei]] ([[User talk:Wang Lifei|talk]]) 08:50, 21 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==王李菲 Wáng Lǐfēi 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081523==<br />
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仪门──原指官署大门里的第二道正门。之所以称“仪门”，是因为官员至此门必须整齐仪表。<br />
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Etiquette Gate ── originally refers to the second main gate in the main gate of the government office. The reason why it is called "Etiquette Gate" is because the officers must be well-groomed when he arrives. --[[User:Wang Lifei|Wang Lifei]] ([[User talk:Wang Lifei|talk]]) 08:38, 21 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Etiquette Gate--Originally, it refers to the second main door in the gate of the official office. The reason why it is called "Etiquette Gate" is that officials must be neat and tidy when they arrive at this gate.--[[User:Wang Yifan21|Wang Yifan21]] ([[User talk:Wang Yifan21|talk]]) 06:30, 23 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==王逸凡 Wáng Yìfán 亚非语言文学 女 202120081524==<br />
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《明会典·礼部十七·官员礼》：“新官到任之日……先至神庙祭祀毕，引至仪门前下马，具官服，从中道入。”<br />
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The Ming Canon - Rituals XVII - Official Rites: "On the day the new official arrives, he first goes to the temple to offer sacrifice, after which he is led to dismount in front of the ceremonial gate, with his official uniform, and enters from the middle road."--[[User:Wang Yifan21|Wang Yifan21]] ([[User talk:Wang Yifan21|talk]]) 06:27, 23 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==王镇隆 Wáng Zhènlóng 英语语言文学（英美文学） 男 202120081525==<br />
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又《江宁府志·建制·官署》：“其制大门之内为仪门，仪门内为莅事堂。”后加以引申，大家府第的第二道正门也称仪门。<br />
"Jiangning official records，organizational system，official ": "inside the system gate is the instrument gate, and inside the instrument gate is the visiting hall." Later extended, the second main gate of everyone's house is also called Yimen. --[[User:Wang Zhenlong|Wang Zhenlong]] ([[User talk:Wang Zhenlong|talk]]) 11:12, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==卫怡雯 Wèi Yíwén 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081526==<br />
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鹿顶耳房钻山──这里是指在正房两侧与东西厢房北侧之间建有两座平顶耳房，并在耳房山墙上开门。如此则使正房、东西耳房、东西厢房皆可相通，便于穿行，所以下句说“四通八达”。<br />
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Luding Erfang Zuanshan—— it refers to two flat top ear rooms which are situated on the two sides of principal room and northern side of east and west wings and open up the door on the gable. Then it makes a connection between principal room, east and west ear room as well as east and west wings so that it is more convenient for people to pass. It is called “extend in all directions” as described below.--[[User:Wei Yiwen|Wei Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Wei Yiwen|talk]]) 02:14, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Luding Erfang Zuanshan——it refers to two flat-top ear rooms which are situated on the two sides of principal room and northern side of east and west wings and open up the door on the gable of ear rooms. Then it makes a connection between principal room, east and west ear rooms as well as east and west wings so that it is very convenient for people to pass. Therefore, it is called “accessible in all directions” as described below.--[[User:Wei Chuxuan|Wei Chuxuan]] ([[User talk:Wei Chuxuan|talk]]) 07:44, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==魏楚璇 Wèi Chǔxuán 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081527==<br />
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鹿顶：亦作“盝顶”。即平屋顶。 耳房：紧靠正房或厢房两侧并利用其山墙建造的房屋。<br />
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Luding: flat roof. Ear room: a room built by using a gable on either side of a principle room or wing-room.--[[User:Wei Chuxuan|Wei Chuxuan]] ([[User talk:Wei Chuxuan|talk]]) 02:00, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Lu Ding: this means flat roof. Er Fang: a room built by using the gable on both sides of a principle room or wing-room.--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 12:13, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==魏兆妍 Wèi Zhàoyán 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081528==<br />
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因其位于正房两侧，犹如人的两只耳朵，故称。 钻山：指打通房屋两侧的山墙，以与相邻的房屋或回廊相通。<br />
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As they are located on both sides of the main house just like people’s ears, they are called “wings”. Zuan Shan: this means breaking through the gables on both sides of the house to connect to adjacent houses and cloisters.--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 07:45, 20 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Because they are located on both sides of the main house just like people’s ears, they are called “wings”. Zuan Shan: this means breaking through the gables on both sides of the house to connect to adjacent houses and cloisters. --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 21 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==吴婧悦 Wú Jìngyuè 俄语语言文学 女 202120081529==<br />
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赤金九龙青地大匾──以赤金涂饰的九条雕龙为边框的黑底大匾。 九龙：古代传说龙生九子，性格各异。但说法各异。<br />
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The horizontal board, which is decorated with pink gold, night dragon and tuff - the board is black and is made of motifs of dragon and phoenix. The nine dragons: it is said that, in the ancient time, the dragon had nine sons, whose character were totally different. But there were different ideas about it.--[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 14:02, 19 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
A large plaque with nine dragons painted in red gold on a black background. Nine Dragons: Ancient legend has it that dragons are born with nine sons, each with a different character. However, there are different sayings.--[[User:Wu Yinghong|Wu Yinghong]] ([[User talk:Wu Yinghong|talk]]) 05:36, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==吴映红 Wú Yìnghóng 日语语言文学 女 202120081530==<br />
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明·杨慎《升庵外集·动物一·龙生九子》说：“龙生九子不成龙，各有所好：囚牛，平生好音乐，今胡琴头上刻兽是其遗像；<br />
Ming-Yang Shen's "Sheng'an Waiji - Animals I - The Nine Sons of the Dragon" says: "The nine sons of the dragon were born without becoming dragons, but each had his own interests: the prisoner bull, who was good at music in his life, and the beast carved on the head of the huqin today is his posthumous image.<br />
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==肖毅瑶 Xiāo Yìyáo 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081531==<br />
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睚毗，平生好杀，金刀柄上龙吞口是其遗像；嘲风，平生好险，今殿角走兽是其遗像；蒲牢，平生好鸣，今钟上兽纽是其遗像；<br />
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==谢佳芬 Xiè Jiāfēn 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081532==<br />
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狻猊，平生好坐，今佛座狮子是其遗像；霸下，平生好负重，今碑座兽是其遗像；陛犴，平生好讼，今狱门上狮子头是其遗像；<br />
Suan ni likes sitting all its life , it looks alike a lion, which usually appears in the pedestal of Buddha ; Ba xia likes bearing a heavy burden all its life, so its image usually appears under the stone monuments as a stele monster; Bi'an likes lawsuit all its life, so its image usually appears in the cell doors.--[[User:Xie Jiafen|Xie Jiafen]] ([[User talk:Xie Jiafen|talk]]) 07:02, 20 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Suan ni likes sitting all its life , it looks alike a lion, which usually appears in the pedestal of Buddha ; Ba xia likes bearing a heavy burden all its life, so its image usually appears under the stone monuments as a stele monster; Bi'an likes lawsuit all its life, so its image usually appears in the cell doors.--[[User:Xie Qinglin|Xie Qinglin]] ([[User talk:Xie Qinglin|talk]]) 07:25, 20 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==谢庆琳 Xiè Qìnglín 俄语语言文学 女 202120081533==<br />
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屓屭，平生好文，今碑两旁龙是其遗像；蚩吻，平生好吞，今殿脊兽头是其遗像。”明·焦竑《玉堂丛语·卷一·文学》则说：<br />
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The clamshell, life is good literature, today the two sides of the monument dragon is its image; Chi kiss, life is good swallow, today the temple ridge beast head is its image." Ming - Jiao Hong "Yu Tang Congye - Volume 1 - Literature" said.--[[User:Xie Qinglin|Xie Qinglin]] ([[User talk:Xie Qinglin|talk]]) 07:24, 20 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==熊敏 Xióng Mǐn 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081534==<br />
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“俗传龙生九子不成龙，各有所好……一曰赑屭，形似龟，好负重，今石碑下龟趺是也；二曰螭吻，形似兽，性好望，今屋上兽头是也；<br />
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“ It is said that the nine sons of dragons are not born into dragons, and each has its own features...One is Bixi shaped like a tortoise, and it is so heavy. It is also a tortoise under the stone tablet; the second is Liwen shaped like a beast, and it is well-known.<br />
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==徐敏赟 Xú Mǐnyūn 语言智能与跨文化传播研究 男 202120081535==<br />
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三曰蒲牢，形似龙而小，性好叫吼，今钟上纽是也；四曰狴犴，形似虎，有威力，故立于狱门；五曰饕餮，好饮食，故立于鼎盖；<br />
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==颜静 Yán Jìng 语言智能与跨文化传播研究 女 202120081536==<br />
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六曰，性好水，故立于桥柱；七曰睚毗，性好杀，故立于刀环；八曰金猊，形似狮，性好烟火，故立于香炉；<br />
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==颜莉莉 Yán Lìlì 国别 女 202120081537==<br />
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九曰椒图，形似螺蚌，性好闭，故立于门铺首。”明·沈德符《万历野获编·卷七·内阁·龙子》又说：“长沙李文正公在阁，孝宗忽下御札，问龙生九子之详。<br />
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The ninth is called Jiao Tu, which is shaped like a screw and likes to close its mouth, so it is used as decoration on the door. Shen Defu of the Ming Dynasty, in his book ''Wanli Ye Huo, Vol.7, Cabinet, Longzi,'' also said, "When Duke Li Wenzheng of Changsha was in the cabinet, Emperor Xiaozong suddenly got down to ask the details of the birth of nine longzi.<br />
--[[User:Yan Lili|Yan Lili]] ([[User talk:Yan Lili|talk]]) 13:30, 21 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==颜子涵 Yán Zǐhán 国别 女 202120081538==<br />
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文正对云：‘其子蒲牢好鸣，今为钟上钮鼻；囚牛好音，今为胡琴头刻兽；睚眦好杀，今为刀剑上吞口；<br />
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==阳佳颖 Yáng Jiāyǐng 国别 女 202120081540==<br />
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嘲风好险，今为殿阁走兽；狻猊好坐，今为佛座骑象；霸下好负重，今为碑碣石趺；<br />
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==杨爱江 Yáng Àijiāng 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081541==<br />
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狴犴好讼，今为狱户首镇压；屓屭好文，今为碑两旁蜿蜒；蚩吻好吞，今为殿脊兽头。’”<br />
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==杨堃 Yáng Kūn 法语语言文学 女 202120081542==<br />
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此外，明·陈仁锡《潜确类书》、明·胡侍《真珠船·龙生九子》、清·褚人获《坚瓠十集·龙九子》、清·高士奇《天禄识馀·龙种》，对九龙的名称、性格、用途的说法也各不相同，可见出于民间传说。世人多用作装饰，以示祥瑞。<br />
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In addition, the names, characters and uses of the Dragon's nine sons, which can be seen from folklore, are also different in ''Reference Book of Qian Que'' by Chen Renxi of Ming Dynasty, ''Zhenzhu Boat·The Nine Sons of the Dragon'' by Hu Shi of Ming Dynasty,''Jian Hu's Collection-Vol.10·The Nine Sons of the Dragon'' by Chu Renhuo of Qing Dynasty and ''Tian Lu Shi Yu· Dragon Species'' by Gao Shiqi of Qing Dynasty. People often use the images of the Dragon's nine sons as decoration, to show good luck. --[[User:Yang Kun|Yang Kun]] ([[User talk:Yang Kun|talk]]) 03:53, 23 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==杨柳青 Yáng Liǔqīng 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081543==<br />
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万幾宸(chén辰)翰之宝──此为皇帝印章所刻的文字。 万幾：国家纷繁复杂的政务。典出《尚书·虞书·皋陶谟》：“兢兢业业，一日二日万幾。”<br />
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==叶维杰 Yè Wéijié 国别 男 202120081544==<br />
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孔颖达传云：“幾，微也，言当戒惧万事之微。”意谓尽管政务繁重，也不能忽略任何小事。亦称“万机”。<br />
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Kong Yingda said: "Ji, which refers to the slighest thing, meaning that should be aware of the very small things." It means that despite the arduous government affairs, no small things can be ignored. Also known as "Wan Ji".<br />
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==易扬帆 Yì Yángfān 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081545==<br />
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典出《汉书·百官公卿表上》：“相国、丞相皆秦官，金印紫绶，掌丞天子，助理万机。”这里是形容皇帝日理万机，政务繁忙。<br />
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The allusion is from ''Han Shu: The List of Hundred Officials（Previous）'': "The Minister of State and the Prime Minister were both Qin officials, with gold seals and purple ribbons, and were in charge of the Emperor and assisted in all affairs." This is a description of the emperor's busy schedule of affairs.--[[User:Yi Yangfan|Yi Yangfan]] ([[User talk:Yi Yangfan|talk]]) 09:24, 25 December 2021 (UTC)Yi Yangfan<br />
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The allusion is from Han Shu: The List of Hundred Officials（Previous）: "The Ministers of State and the Prime Ministers were Qin officials, with golden seals and purple ribbons, and they were in charge of the Emperor and assisted in all affairs." Here is the description of the emperor's busy schedule of affairs.--[[User:Yin Huizhen|Yin Huizhen]] ([[User talk:Yin Huizhen|talk]]) 12:37, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==殷慧珍 Yīn Huìzhēn 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081546==<br />
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宸：“北宸”的省称。即北极星。因皇帝上朝坐北朝南，遂为皇帝的代称。翰：本义是羽毛，因古代以羽毛为笔，引申为墨迹(书写的字)。<br />
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Chen:is short for "Beichen", that is, the Polaris, which was the alternative name of the Emperors because they sat in the North and faced the South in the imperial court. Han：the original meaning is feather, because in ancient times, feather was used as a pen，and it extended the meanig to ink（written words）.--[[User:Yin Huizhen|Yin Huizhen]] ([[User talk:Yin Huizhen|talk]]) 12:29, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Chen: short for "Beichen", is the Polaris, which was the alternative name of the Emperors because they sat facing the South in the imperial court. Han：the original meaning was feather, because in ancient times, feather was used as a pen，which extended the meaning to ink（written words）.--[[User:Yin Meida|Yin Meida]] ([[User talk:Yin Meida|talk]]) 08:45, 24 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==殷美达 Yīn Měidá 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081547==<br />
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宝：这里指皇帝的印章。上古天子、诸侯均以圭璧制印，故称“宝”。唐以后只有帝、后之印可称“宝”。<br />
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Bao refers to the emperors' seals. In ancient time, emperors and dukes all had their seals made of Gui and Bi(precious jade),from which it derived the name "Bao". After Tang Dynasty, "Bao" was used exclusively by the emperors and empresses.--[[User:Yin Meida|Yin Meida]] ([[User talk:Yin Meida|talk]]) 09:02, 24 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Bao refers to the emperors' seals in the article. In ancient time, emperors and dukes all had their seals made of Gui and Bi(precious jade),from which it derived the name "Bao". Since Tang Dynasty, "Bao" was used exclusively to describe the seals of the emperors and empresses.--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 09:32, 25 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==尹媛 Yǐn Yuán 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081548==<br />
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“座上”对联──珠玑：本义为珠宝，引申为名贵装饰。 昭日月：形容装饰光亮如日月。 昭：明亮。<br />
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Couplet "above the seat"─ Gem's original meaning is jewelry, which extended for precious decorations. Zhao Riyue means the decorations as bright as the sun and the moon. Zhao means brightness.--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 12:21, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==詹若萱 Zhān Ruòxuān 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081549==<br />
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黼黻(fǔ fú府服)：泛指绣有华美花纹的礼服。《晏子春秋·谏下十五》：“公衣黼黻之衣，素绣之裳，一衣而王采具焉。” 黼：黑白相间的斧形花纹。<br />
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==张秋怡 Zhāng Qiūyí 亚非语言文学 女 202120081550==<br />
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黻：黑与青相间的亚形花纹。 焕烟霞：形容绣服放射出如烟如霞的光彩，绚丽多姿。 焕：放射光彩。此联形容主宾皆珠光宝气，服饰华丽。<br />
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==张扬 Zhāng Yáng 国别 男 202120081551==<br />
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汝窑美人觚(gū孤)──出自著名汝窑的一种盛酒器。 汝窑：即北宋汝州瓷窑。因其青瓷器皿质量特佳，多为贡品，故名闻天下，后世成为收藏珍品。<br />
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==张怡然 Zhāng Yírán 俄语语言文学 女 202120081552==<br />
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美人觚：因其体长腰细，形似美人，故名。<br />
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椅搭──又称“椅披”。是一种长方形织物的椅用装饰品。因搭或披在椅背和椅坐上，故名。<br />
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Beauty porcelain（mei ren gu）: so named because of its long waist and resemblance to a beauty. <br />
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Chairs（Yi da） - also known as 'chairs'（Yi pi）. This is a rectangular fabric chair upholstery. The name is derived from the fact that it is placed on the back of the chair or on the seat of the chair.<br />
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==钟义菲 Zhōng Yìfēi 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081553==<br />
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掐牙——是一种装饰性衣服花边。即以锦缎等折叠成细条，镶嵌在衣边上，以为美观。 掐：嵌入之意。<br />
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Qia Ya— a kind of decorative lace. That is to fold brocade into thin strips and inlay them on the edge of the clothes to look beautiful. Qia: embedded.--[[User:Zhong Yifei|Zhong Yifei]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yifei|talk]]) 12:30, 19 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Qia Ya— a kind of decorative lace. That is to fold brocade into thin strips and inlay them on the edge of the clothes to look beautiful. Qia: it means “embedded”.--[[User:Zhong Yulu|Zhong Yulu]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yulu|talk]]) 08:04, 20 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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<nowiki>Insert non-formatted text here</nowiki>==钟雨露 Zhōng Yǔlù 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081554==<br />
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牙：即“牙子”。器物突出的边沿。<br />
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《四书》──即《论语》、《孟子》、《大学》、《中庸》(后两种原为《礼记》中的两篇)。<br />
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“Ya”: also called "Ya Zi" in Chinese. It means the protruding edge of an object. <br />
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''The Four Books'' includes— ''The Confucian Analects'', ''The Works of Mencius'', ''The Great Learning'', and ''The Doctrine of the Mean'' (the latter two were originally two books from ''The Book of Rites'').--[[User:Zhong Yulu|Zhong Yulu]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yulu|talk]]) 12:22, 19 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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''The Four Books'' includes— ''The Confucian Analects'', ''The Works of Mencius'', ''The Great Learning'', and ''The Doctrine of the Mean'' (the latter two were originally two books chosen from ''The Book of Rites'').--[[User:Zhou Jiu|Zhou Jiu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Jiu|talk]]) 01:18, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==周玖 Zhōu Jiǔ 英语语言文学（英美文学） 女 202120081555==<br />
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宋代朱熹选定并定名《四书》，遂成为元、明、清三代科举考试的必读之书。<br />
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抹额：原指束在额上的头巾。其起源似乎很早。<br />
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During the Song dynasty, Zhu xi chose and named ''Four Books'' which became the required readings in Imperial Competitive Examinations of Yuan dynasty, Ming dynasty, and Qing dynasty.<br />
Mo E: It originally refers to a kerchief tied around the forehead. Its origin seems to be very early.<br />
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During the Song dynasty, Zhu xi chose and named ''Four Books'' which became the required readings in Imperial Competitive Examinations of Yuan dynasty, Ming dynasty, and Qing dynasty.<br />
Headband: It originally refers to a kerchief tied around the forehead. Its origin seems to be very early.--[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 01:25, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==周俊辉 Zhōu Jùnhuī 法语语言文学 女 202120081556==<br />
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宋·高承《事物纪原·戎容兵械·抹额》引《二仪实录》曰：“禹娶涂山之夕，大风雷电，中有甲卒千人，其不披甲者，以红绡帕抹其头额，云海神来朝。<br />
Song Gaocheng quoted the ''Record of Eryi'' in his book ''Things Documentary-Armed Soldiers-Headband'': “When Yu married the Tushan lady, there was a strong wind, thunder and rain. There were a thousand soldiers in gear, and those who were not wore equipment bound a thin red handkerchiefs on their foreheads in anticipation of the arrival of the god of clouds."--[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 01:21, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
Song Gaocheng quoted the ''Record of Eryi'' in his book ''Things Documentary-Armed Soldiers-Headband'': “When Yu married Tu Shan,under the cicumstance of a strong wind, together with thunder and lighting, there were a thousand soldiers who were not equipped with armor but decorated their foreheads with a thin red handkerchiefs in anticipation of the arrival of the god of clouds.--[[User:Zhou Qiao1|Zhou Qiao1]] ([[User talk:Zhou Qiao1|talk]]) 12:42, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==周巧 Zhōu Qiǎo 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081557==<br />
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禹问之，对曰：‘此武士之首服也。’秦始皇至海上，有神朝，皆抹额、绯衫、大口袴。侍卫自此抹额，遂为军容之服。<br />
Yu asked and replied, "this is the surrender of a warrior." When the first emperor of Qin went to the sea, there was the divine Dynasty where people wore red upper garment and loose trousers and decorated with smear. Since then, bodyguards decorated their forehead with smear, which has become a kind of military costume.--[[User:Zhou Qiao1|Zhou Qiao1]] ([[User talk:Zhou Qiao1|talk]]) 13:17, 19 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Yu asked, and said, ‘this is the first choice for samurai. When Qin Shihuang arrived at the sea, there was a dynasty, and all the people here wiped their foreheads, crimson shirts, and hakama. Since then, the guards wiped their foreheads and became the uniforms of the military.--[[User:Zhou Qing|Zhou Qing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Qing|talk]]) 11:04, 22 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==周清 Zhōu Qīng 法语语言文学 女 202120081558==<br />
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可知原为军人的标志。后普及到一般男子，平民以布巾束发，富人用金箍束发，兼为头饰。<br />
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箭袖──亦称“箭衣”。<br />
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It can be seen that it was originally a symbol of a soldier. Later, it was promoted to be used by ordinary men. Common people used cloth towels to tie their hair, and the rich used gold hoops to tie their hair, which also served as headwear. <br />
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Arrow sleeve ─ ─ also known as "arrow suit".<br />
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It was a sign of soldiers. Later, it was popularized to ordinary men. Common people tied their hair with cloth towels, and the rich tied their hair with gold hoops, which was also used as headwear. <br />
Arrow Sleeves - also known as "Arrow Suit".--[[User:Zhou Xiaoxue|Zhou Xiaoxue]] ([[User talk:Zhou Xiaoxue|talk]]) 05:13, 24 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==周小雪 Zhōu Xiǎoxuě 日语语言文学 女 202120081559==<br />
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是一种窄袖长袍。其袖口呈斜切状，朝手背的袖口长，朝手心的袖口短，便于射箭，故名。其斜袖口又形似马蹄，故又称马蹄袖。<br />
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It's a kind of robe with narrow sleeves. Its cuffs were in a diagonal cut shape. The cuffs facing the back of the hand are long and the cuffs facing the palm are short, which is convenient for archery, so it is named Arrow Sleeves. Its oblique cuff is also shaped like a horseshoe, so it is also called horseshoe sleeve.--[[User:Zhou Xiaoxue|Zhou Xiaoxue]] ([[User talk:Zhou Xiaoxue|talk]]) 05:55, 20 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==朱素珍 Zhū Sùzhēn 英语语言文学（语言学） 女 202120081561==<br />
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后成为一种服式，不射箭的男子也穿。<br />
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“倒像”两句──似有双关之意：一者暗指贾宝玉的化身神瑛侍者在太虚幻境用甘露浇灌林黛玉的化身绛珠仙草；<br />
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Later, it became a kind of clothing style, which was also worn by men who did not shoot arrows. <br />
Two sentences of "inverted image" -- there seems to be a pun: one implies that Jia Baoyu's incarnation Shenying waiter watered Lin Daiyu's incarnation Jiangzhu fairy grass with nectar in Taixu fantasy;--[[User:Zou Yueli|Zou Yueli]] ([[User talk:Zou Yueli|talk]]) 11:03, 20 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==邹岳丽 Zōu Yuèlí 日语语言文学 女 202120081562==<br />
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再者隐寓二人心有灵犀一点通，一见锺情。下文贾宝玉说“这个妹妹我曾见过的”、“心里倒像是远别重逢的一般”，其用意同此。<br />
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In addition, it implies that the two people share the same heartand fall in love at first sight. Below, Jia Baoyu said that "I have seen this sister" and "I feel like I am far from meeting again". His intention is the same. <br />
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==Nadia 202011080004==<br />
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请安──这里指的是清代一种见面问好的特殊礼仪：<br />
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==Mahzad Heydarian 玛莎 202021080004==<br />
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男子须在口称“请某某安”的同时，右膝弯曲或跪地(俗称打千)；<br />
A man must bend his right knee or kneel on the ground while showing respect.<br />
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==Mariam Toure 2020GBJ002301==<br />
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女子则在口称“请某某安”的同时，双手扶左膝，右腿微屈，身体半蹲。<br />
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==Rouabah Soumaya 202121080001==<br />
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寄名锁──旧时父母为保佑幼儿长命百岁，让幼儿作僧、道的“寄名”弟子，并在幼儿项下悬挂锁形饰物，谓之“寄名锁”。<br />
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==Muhammad Numan 202121080002==<br />
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面如傅粉──语本南朝宋·刘义庆《世说新语·容止》：<br />
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==Atta Ur Rahman 202121080003==<br />
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“何平叔(晏)美姿仪，面至白。<br />
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==Muhammad Saqib Mehran 202121080004==<br />
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魏明帝疑其傅粉，正夏月，与热汤饼。<br />
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==Zohaib Chand 202121080005==<br />
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既啖，大汗出，以朱衣自拭，色转皎然。”<br />
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==Jawad Ahmad 202121080006==<br />
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(皎然：洁白貌。)原指何晏的脸上好像抹了香粉般洁白。<br />
English: (Jiao Ran: pure and white appearance.) The original means, He Yan's face it's like white as powdered.<br />
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==Nizam Uddin 202121080007==<br />
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引申以泛喻男子姿容洁白秀美。<br />
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==Öncü 202121080008==<br />
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《西江月》二词──即按照《西江月》词牌填写的两首(也称“阕”)词。<br />
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Two words in "Westlake Moon" According，Fill in two poems (also known as "Que") in the poem of "Westlake Moon".--[[User:AkiraJantarat|AkiraJantarat]] ([[User talk:AkiraJantarat|talk]]) 04:45, 21 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==Akira Jantarat 202121080009==<br />
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词：原本指歌曲中的文词，后来文词与曲调分离，遂变成文体之一。<br />
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Words: Originally refers to the words in the song. Later, the words and the tune were separated and became one of the styles.--[[User:AkiraJantarat|AkiraJantarat]] ([[User talk:AkiraJantarat|talk]]) 04:33, 21 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Word: It originally referred to the words in a song. In time, the words and the tune separated and became one of the styles. --[[User:Benjamin Wellsand|Benjamin Wellsand]] ([[User talk:Benjamin Wellsand|talk]]) 13:14, 19 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==Benjamin Wellsand 202111080118==<br />
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但仍须按曲填词，于是发展出许多词牌，每个词牌都有字数、句数、韵脚等规定，还有双调、长调、小令之别。<br />
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However, it is still necessary to fill in the lyrics according to the tune. So many poems have been developed. Each poem has a word count, sentence count, rhymes and other provisions, as well as the difference between two-tone, long tune, and short meter.--[[User:Benjamin Wellsand|Benjamin Wellsand]] ([[User talk:Benjamin Wellsand|talk]]) 13:10, 19 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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However, it is still necessary to fill in lyrics according to the tune, so many lyric cards have been developed. Each lyric card has regulations on the number of words, sentences, and rhymes, as well as the differences between double tune, long tune, and short meter. --[[User:Asep Budiman|Asep Budiman]] ([[User talk:Asep Budiman|talk]]) 07:58, 21 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==Asep Budiman 202111080020==<br />
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故作词谓之“填词”，就是按照词牌的规范填写文字，不可越雷池一步。<br />
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The preceding phrase "filling in words" means to fill in the words in accordance with the specifications of the words and phrases, and do not go beyond those criteria. --[[User:Asep Budiman|Asep Budiman]] ([[User talk:Asep Budiman|talk]]) 07:56, 21 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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The preceding phrase "filling in words" means to fill in the words in accordance with the specifications of the words and phrases, and do not overstep the prescribed limit. --[[User:EIMONKYAW|EIMONKYAW]] ([[User talk:EIMONKYAW|talk]]) 09:23, 22 December 2021 (UTC)Ei Mon Kyaw<br />
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==Ei Mon Kyaw 202111080021==<br />
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《西江月》就是词牌之一。本书用了不少词牌，以下不再一一注释。<br />
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"Westlake Moon" is one of the poems. This book uses a lot of words, so I won’t annotate them one by one below. --[[User:EIMONKYAW|EIMONKYAW]] ([[User talk:EIMONKYAW|talk]]) 08:59, 22 December 2021 (UTC)Ei Mon Kyaw</div>Zhang Yiranhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021&diff=134124Introduction to Translation Studies 20212021-12-21T15:30:32Z<p>Zhang Yiran: /* Presentations Dec 22 on Decriptive Studies, Culture, Invisibility, Constructivism */</p>
<hr />
<div>Quicklinks: [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021|This course homepage]] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal#Frequently_asked_questions_FAQ FAQ] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal Manual] [[20210926_homework|all homework webpages]] <br />
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<center><span style="color:red">'''Deadline Dec 9, 2021 [[20220112_final_exam|final exam page]] - final deadline after correction: Dec 15, 2021'''</span></center><br />
<br />
Welcome to our course website '''Introduction to Translation Studies 2021'''. Whenever you visit this site, please see if there is anything in English not yet translated into Chinese and make a Chinese translation beneath (one paragraph English, one paragraph Chinese). Any correction or improvement of earlier translations is mostly welcome!<br />
<br />
欢迎访问我们“翻译导论课”的网页。…………<br />
<br />
=Session 1 Sep 26, 2021=<br />
Today is international day of languages!<br />
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Introduction to the course. Organizational things. Working with the Wiki.<br />
==Organizational Things==<br />
*Please register for the Course Wiki http://bit.ly/WIKIREG. Username is your Pinyin Name (“Wang Jianguo” – no Chinese characters) and email, for your real name also write your Pinyin Name (Wang Jianguo), no Chinese characters. If the name is taken, write "Wang Jianguo1". Write a sentence about yourself in the bio info. Please check the box that you abide to the Terms of Service and type in the password “wikicaptcha”. You will receive an email with a link. Please confirm the link. After confirmation, please allow a few days that I can approve your username. After that, you can access the course wiki http://bit.ly/TransStud and edit the contents. You need to edit the course website every week to prepare the upcoming session. <br />
*Please prepare each session during the week before, so that you come prepared to class.<br />
*In the WeChat group, please write your name as "Wang Jianguo 王建国 21级 英语口译". If possible, please use a profile photo of yourself where you can be recognized. 麻烦各位同学修改一下自己的备注，改成自己的姓名（拼音、汉字、21级、方向）就好。<br />
*We meet Wednesdays 7 pm - 8:40 pm online on http://bit.ly/ZOOMCOURSE (573 941 6744, course). Please leave your camera ON, so that we actually see each other. In the classroom, we also see each other.<br />
*Please note that you can only participate with a good internet connection, with a smart device which is able to run Zoom and with a running camera. Therefore, please make sure that you have a working device. If your phone’s camera is broken, please borrow a different phone or contact us that we can help you to get a second hand phone for free.<br />
* Please take the weekly survey http://bit.ly/EU-SURVEY<br />
* Please store the pdf material you get from the teacher. Please prepare the material for each session in advance.<br />
<br />
==Edits==<br />
Every student is required to edit something every week. This can be:<br />
* Translate any English paragraph on this website from English to Chinese.<br />
* Correct an earlier translation of your fellow student beneath.<br />
* Prepare an article (please link to from this page) and/or a powerpoint (please upload here) on a topic you will present during the semester.<br />
* Prepare the final exam paper as early as possible by writing a chapter for a book on "History of Translations", "History of Translation Theories", "Machine translation - A challenge or a chance for human translators?", "Culture loaded words", "The cultural turn in Translation History", "Appropriateness Theory" ... For this, please organize yourself, find groups who want to write the same book together, and think together about the necessary chapters and the structure etc. of the book. The paper needs to be delivered until November 1. Then we jointly work on copy editing, grading etc.<br />
* The Teaching Assistants should write the grades every week in a table, so that you can see the results of your quizzes/surveys etc., your performance in class and final exam paper grades.<br />
<br />
==Topics, Sessions and Material==<br />
<br />
'''Which paper or book should I read to prepare my presentation?'''<br />
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Please also mention in this list beneath, '''who''' is presenting the topic with '''ppt''' and '''handout'''.<br />
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1 Sep 26 Introduction <br />
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2 Sep 29 Emergence I<br />
*Teacher presentation<br />
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3 Oct 13 Emergence II<br />
*3a Xu, Jun 许钧, Mu Lei 穆雷. "翻译学概论 [Introduction to Translation Studies]." 南京: 译林出版社2009:195 pp., here 180-192.<br />
*3b=7c Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜. Translation Studies 翻译学. 复旦大学出版社, 2017, here the beginning about the emergence<br />
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4 Oct 20 History of Translation <br />
*4a History of Western Translation 谭载喜.西方翻译简史[M]. 北京:商务印书馆, 1991年.<br />
*4b History of Translation in China – before May Fourth 马祖毅. 中国翻译简史——“五四”以前部分（修订本）[M]. 中国对外翻译出版公司，1998年.<br />
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5 Oct 27 Early understanding<br />
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The early understanding next session refers to the very early theoretical understanding of the Translation process from ancient times until Maybe up to the middle of the 20th century. There are no elaborated theories yet, but at least some discussions About principles, strategies etc.<br />
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*5a Holmes, James. 1972. The Name and Nature of Translation Studies. Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies[M]. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1988: 67-80.<br />
*5b Sourcebook Lefevere, Andre. Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook[M]. London and New York：Routledge, 1990.<br />
*5c Textbook Newmark, Peter. A Text Book of Translation[M]. UK: Prentice Hall International Ltd, 1988.<br />
*5d Translation Basics 刘宓庆. 翻译基础[M]. 上海：华东师范大学出版社，2008年.<br />
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6 Nov 3 Linguistics and Equivalence (Nida)<br />
*6a Early linguistic theory Catford, J. A Linguistic Theory of Translation[M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1965.<br />
*6b Early important understanding Nida, E. A. Toward a Science of Translating[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br />
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7 Nov 10 Translation Studies<br />
*7a Bassnett, Susan. Translation Studies[M]. London and New York: Methuen, 1980. <br />
*7b Translation Studies 许钧，穆雷. 翻译学概论[M]. 南京：译林出版社，2009年.<br />
*7c=3b Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. Translation Studies 翻译学[M]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社，2000年. (the 2nd part contains a lot of English papers)<br />
*7d Categories of Contemporary Western Translation Studies 2002_Pan_Wenguo_潘文国_当代西方的翻译学研究_2002<br />
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8 Nov 17 Translation Theories<br />
*8a Western theory 刘军平. 西方翻译理论通史[M]. 武汉：武汉大学出版社，2009年.<br />
*8b Theories Gentzler, E. Contemporary Translation Theories[M]. London and New York: Routledge, 1993.<br />
*8c Contemp. West. theories 廖七一. 当代西方翻译理论探索[M]. 南京：译林出版社, 2000年.<br />
*8d Xu, Jun 许钧. Translation Theories 翻译论. 湖北教育出版社, 2003<br />
*8e Pan_Wenguo_Cont_West_Trans_Stud_当代西方的翻译学研究_兼谈_翻译学的学科性问题_潘文国<br />
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9 Nov 24 History of Chinese Translation Theories<br />
*9a 陈福康.中国译学理论史稿（修订本）[M]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社，2000年.<br />
*9b 许钧. 翻译论[M]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社，2003年.<br />
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10 Dec 1 Appropriateness Theory<br />
*10a Moratto, Woesler: Current Dynamics, Springer 2021<br />
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11 Dec 8 Methods and Style<br />
*11a Methods Wilss, Wolfram. The Science of Translation: Problems and Methods[M]. Gunter Narr Verlag Tubinger, 1982.<br />
*11b Style 刘宓庆. 文体与翻译[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司：北京，1998年.<br />
*11c Trans_Stud_Problems_and_Methods_翻译学问题与方法<br />
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12 Dec 15 Theory and Practice <br />
*12a Bell, Roger T. Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice[M]. London and New York: Longman, 1991.<br />
*12b Theory and Practice Munday, Jermy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications[M]. London and NewYork: Routledge, 2001.<br />
*12c Theory and Practice Nida, Eugene A. and Charles R. Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1969.<br />
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13 Dec 22 Decriptive Studies, Culture, Invisibility, Constructivism<br />
*13a “descriptive” Toury, Gideon. Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M]. Amsterdam/ Philadelphia: John BenjaminB Publishing company, 1995.<br />
*13b Culture Toury, Gideon. Translation Across Cultures[M]. NewDelhi: Bahri Publications, 1987.<br />
*13c Invisibility Venuti, L. The Translator 's Invisibility[M]. London and NewYork: Routledge, 1995.<br />
*13d Constructivism Research 易经. 翻译学体系构建研究[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社，2012年.<br />
*13e Art or Science? Different papers by Huang Zhending Trans_Stud_Art_and_Scient_Theory_翻译学艺术论与科学论的统一<br />
<br />
14 Dec 29 East-West Comparison<br />
*14a East-West comparison 刘宓庆. 中西翻译思想比较研究[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司, 2005年.<br />
*14b English-Chinese TS 蒋坚松. 英汉对比与汉译英研究[M]. 长沙：湖南人民出版社，2002年.<br />
<br />
15 Jan 5 Review in Preparation of final exam<br />
<br />
16 Jan 12 Final Exam<br />
<br />
Please download several pdfs with monographs and articles about translation studies history and theories from our WeChat group.<br />
<br />
*Bassnett, Susan. Translation studies. Routledge, 2013<br />
*Bell, Roger T., and Christopher Candlin. Translation and translating: Theory and practice. Vol. 298. London: Longman, 1991 <br />
*Catford, John Cunnison. A linguistic theory of translation. Oxford University Press, 1978.<br />
*Chen, Fukang. "Zhongguo yixue lilun shi gao (A History of Chinese Translation Theory)." (1992).<br />
*Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary translation theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br />
*Holmes, James S. The name and nature of translation studies. Translation Studies Section, Department of General Literary Studies, University of Amsterdam, 1975.<br />
*Huang, Chending黄振定. "文学翻译评价的科学性及其科学论." 外国语 4 (1999): 49-56.<br />
*Huang, Chending 黄振定. "翻译学是一门人文科学." 外语与外语教学 2 (1999): 33-35.<br />
*Huang, Chending 黄振定.翻译学: 艺术论与科学论的统一. 上海外语教育出版社, 2008<br />
*Lefevere, André, ed. Translation/history/culture: A sourcebook. Routledge, 2002.<br />
*Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications, Routledge 2013<br />
*Nida, Eugene Albert, and Charles Russell Taber, eds. The theory and practice of translation. Vol. 8. Brill Archive, 1982.<br />
*Nida, Eugene Albert. Toward a science of translating: with special reference to principles and procedures involved in Bible translating. Brill Archive, 1964.<br />
*Pan Wenguo 潘文国. "当代西方的翻译学研究——兼谈 “翻译学” 的学科性问题." 中国翻译 23.1 (2002): 31-34.<br />
*Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜. Translation Studies 翻译学. 复旦大学出版社, 2017<br />
*Toury, Gideon. "Descriptive Translation Studies–and beyond John Benjamins Publishing Company." Amsterdam/Philadelphia (1995).<br />
*Venuti, Lawrence. The translator's invisibility: A history of translation. Routledge, 2017.<br />
*Wilss, Wolfram. The science of translation: problems and methods. Vol. 180. John Benjamins Pub Co, 1982. 翻译学问题与方法 Shanghai: SFLEP (2001).<br />
*Xu, Jun 许钧, Mu Lei 穆雷. "翻译学概论 [Introduction to Translation Studies]." 南京: 译林出版社 10 (2009): 180-192.<br />
*Xu, Jun 许钧. Translation Theories 翻译论. 湖北教育出版社, 2003<br />
*Zhao, Wei 赵巍. "翻译学学科性质与研究方法反思." 解放军外国语学院学报 28.6 (2005): 69-72.<br />
<br />
(We use Chicago Social Sciences Citation Style [https://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide/citation-guide-2.html Chicago Style].)<br />
<br />
==Final exam class projects==<br />
<br />
Please help to edit one of the following book publications (please write your name behind the topics and organize the book with a proposal for the press and a chapter in the form of a journal paper by each participant):<br />
*[[History of Translation Studies]] (Sample from last year.)<br />
*[[History of Translations]] <br />
Rouabah Soumaya( History of translation in the Middle Ages) 李习长 (History of Modern and Contemporary Chinese Translation) 黄柱梁（The Translation of Buddihist Sutra in China） 王镇隆 叶维杰 李雯( The Translation theory after the establishment of the People's Republic of China)李怡(Modern Western Translation History) 李新星 刘沛婷(Western Translation history in Renaissance) 刘薇(Contemporary American Translation History) 周俊辉 周玖 钟雨露 钟义菲 魏楚璇(western translation history in the modern and contemporary Age)<br />
*[[History of Translation Theories]] 李瑞洋（Development of Translation Theories in Modern China）、陈心怡 张扬、曾俊霖 张怡然(History of Translation Theories from early Russia to the Soviet Union) 尹媛（The Brief Introduction of American structural school of translation theory) 李双 杨堃 刘运心 魏兆妍(The Development of Humanism Trend in Western Translation Theory) 吴婧悦(History of Translation Theories in the Soviet Union) 杨爱江<br />
*[[Machine translation]] - A challenge or a chance for human translators? 卫怡雯 肖毅瑶 王李菲 徐敏赟 颜莉莉 颜静 谢佳芬 熊敏 陈惠妮 蔡珠凤 陈湘琼 Nadia<br />
*[[Culture loaded words]] 羊叶（中文电影英译字幕中文化负载词的翻译——以《霸王别姬》为例）、谢庆琳、罗曦（The translation methods of culture loaded words） 何芩、孙雅诗、杜莉娜（跨文化交际视角下旅游文本中文化负载词的英汉翻译研究）、宫博雅（俄语成语中文化负载词的中文翻译分析）、周小雪(《药》英日译本中文化负载词的翻译对比研究）、付诗雨（博物馆文物解说词中文化负载词的日译研究）、丁旋(Translation of Culture-Loaded Words in ''The Concubine Market of Yangchow '' of Lin Yutang's Version from the Perspective of Newmark’s Translation Theory)、高蜜、殷慧珍、程杨、胡舒情<br />
*[[The cultural turn]] in Translation History 金晓童 李爱璇 李文璇 黄锦云 李姗 黄逸妍<br />
*[[Appropriateness Theory]] - Ei Mon Kyaw (Creating Appropriateness Theory). I need more students here. You can write papers criticizing existing theories here and suggest what needs to be improved to develop a new theory! This is cutting edge research here! I expect the best students to participate and we may try to submit the papers to real academic journals!Ei Mon Kyaw (Creating Appropriateness Theory). 殷美达 易扬帆（Appropriateness in Lyrics Translation -- A Case Study of Lana Del Rey's Lyrics Translation in QQ Music）<br />
*[[Translation types, strategies, styles, methods]] 刘晓（纽马克翻译理论指导下旅游文本中翻译策略与翻译技巧的使用——以''Everglades National Park, Florida (Excerpt)''为例） 刘越 毛雅文 毛优（俄语政论语体翻译策略及翻译技巧的使用——以“2019年俄罗斯政府工作报告”为例 彭瑞雪 秦建安（功能对等翻译视角下的鲁迅短篇小说翻译研究——以杨、戴夫妇的《孔乙己》英译本为例） 颜子涵 邝艳丽 阳佳颖 杨柳青（卞之琳的文学翻译理论和实践 ——以其浪漫主义诗歌译作为例）Atta Ur Rahman、Zohaib Chand、Muhammad Numan、Muhammad Saqib Mehran 刘胜楠（浅析目的论视角下《哪吒之魔童降世》字幕翻译策略）<br />
*[[Aesthetic Appreciation of Literary Translations]] 朱素珍 邹岳丽 邱婷婷(Three beauties embodied in Xu Yuanchong's English translation of ''Tang Poetry'') 吴映红(A comparative study of aesthetic reproduction in Chinese versions of snow country from the perspective of translation aesthetics)<br />
*[[Translation Theories Apllied to Literary Translations]] 周巧 付红岩 詹若萱（Chinese Translation of Subtitles of "Jane Eyre" from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory）<br />
*[[Comparative Studies in Translation]] 石丽青 牟一心 饶金盈 罗安怡 马新 王逸凡 张秋怡 朱壬铎<br />
<br />
(We use Chicago Social Sciences Citation Style [https://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide/citation-guide-2.html Chicago Style].)<br />
<br />
==Schedule==<br />
Please add your name, presentation form (ppt, handout) and subtopic here.<br />
<br />
'''All sessions''': <br />
*1 Sep 26 Introduction<br />
*2 Sep 29 Emergence I<br />
*3 Oct 13 Emergence II <br />
(中国翻译的起源 The Emergence of Translation Studies in China) ppt by Chen Xiangqiong 陈湘琼 and handout by Xie Qinglin 谢庆琳.<br />
<br />
(机器翻译的起源与发展 The Origin of Machine Translation) ppt by Yan Jing 颜静 and handout by Xu Minyun 徐敏赟.<br />
<br />
*4 Oct 20 History of Translation <br />
(中国翻译简史 The Brief History of Chinese Translation) ppt by Hu Shuqing 胡舒情 and handout by Gong Boya 宫博雅. <br />
<br />
(西方翻译简史 The Brief History of Western Translation) ppt by Ding Xuan 丁旋 and handout by Fu Shiyu 付诗雨.<br />
<br />
(中国译场中佛经翻译的历史 The History of Buddhist Scripture Translation in Chinese Translation Center) PPT by Ye Weijie 叶维杰 and handout by Wang Zhenlong 王镇隆. <br />
<br />
(中国诗歌翻译简史 A Brief History of Chinese Poetry Translation) ppt by Rao Jinying 饶金盈 202120081520 and handout by Mou Yixin 牟一心.<br />
<br />
(2000年以来的大中华文库翻译历史 The Translation History of Library of Chinese Classics Since 2000) ppt by Zhang Yang 张扬 and handout by Zeng Junlin曾俊霖.<br />
<br />
*5 Oct 27 Early understanding <br />
The early understanding next session refers to the very early theoretical understanding of the Translation process from ancient times until Maybe up to the middle of the 20th century. There are no elaborated theories yet, but at least some discussions About principles, strategies etc.<br />
<br />
(佛经翻译的文质之争 The Debates Between Wen and Zhi on Buddhist Scriptures Translation) ppt by He Qin 何芩 202120081489 and handout by Gao Mi高蜜.<br />
<br />
(林语堂的翻译 Translation by Lin Yutang) ppt by Xie Jiafen 谢佳芬 and handout by Yan Lili 颜莉莉.<br />
<br />
*6 Nov 3 Linguistics and Equivalence (Nida) <span style="color:red"><br />
<br />
(J.C.Catford's Translation Equivalence Theory) ppt by Huang Yiyan 黄逸妍 and handout by Huang Jinyun 黄锦云.<br />
<br />
(Two Types of Equivalence by Eugene A. Nida) ppt by Du Lina 杜莉娜 and handout by Ma Xin 马新.<br />
<br />
(The Three Essences of Functional Equivalence and Its Application) ppt by Yi Yangfan 易扬帆 and handout by Yin Yuan 尹媛.<br />
<br />
(Eugene Nida's Principles of Correspondence Theory) ppt by Chen Huini 陈慧妮 and handout by Cai Zhufeng 蔡珠凤.<br />
<br />
*6 Nov 10 Translation Studies<br />
(The Name and Nature of Translation Studies)ppt by Liu Shengnan刘胜楠; handout by Li Yi李怡 <br />
<br />
(Five Approaches to Translation)ppt by Li Wenxuan李文璇; handout by Li Shan 李姗 <br />
<br />
(Principles of Translation)ppt by Xiao Yiyao肖毅瑶; handout by Wu Yinghong吴映红<br />
<br />
(Cultural and Ideological Approaches in Translation)ppt by Mahzad Heydarian; handout by Mahzad Heydarian<br />
<br />
(Roman Jacobson's Categories of Translation)ppt by Xiong Min熊敏; handout by Sun Yashi孙雅诗<br />
<br />
(Lin Yutang' s Translation Aesthetics )ppt by Luo Anyi罗安怡; handout by Shi Liqing石丽青<br />
<br />
*8 Nov 17 Translation Theories <br />
(Translation Theories of George Steiner)ppt by Yang Liuqing 杨柳青; handout by Yin Huizhen 殷慧珍<br />
<br />
(The Functional Translation Theory of Reiss, Vermeer and Nord)ppt by Peng Ruixue 彭瑞雪;handout by Qin Jianan 秦建安.<br />
<br />
(Translation Theories of Peter Newmark) ppt by Liu Xiao 刘晓; handout by Liu Yue 刘越.<br />
<br />
(Yan Fu's Translation Thoughts)ppt by Wang Lifei 王李菲; handout by Wei Chuxuan 魏楚璇<br />
<br />
(Translation theorie of Xu Yuanchong) ppt by Zhouqing周清; handout by Zou Yueli邹岳丽.<br />
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*9 Nov 24 History of Chinese Translation Theories <br />
(The History of Chinese Translation Theories in Qing Dynasty)ppt by Cheng Yang 程杨 and handout by Li Shuang 李双.<br />
<br />
(The History of Chinese Buddhist Translation Theories)ppt by Qiu Tingting邱婷婷; handout by Wei Yiwen 卫怡雯<br />
<br />
(The Chinese Translation Theories During the Period of the May Forth Movement)ppt by Li Wen 李雯; handout by Zhou Xiaoxue 周小雪<br />
<br />
(The History of Chinese Translation Theories from 1949 to Present)ppt by Yang Aijiang 杨爱江; handout by Yang Kun 杨堃<br />
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*10 Dec 1 Appropriateness Theory - this is a new theory suggested by M. Woesler in 2020. Everybody is invited to help to develop this theory or to criticize other theories and suggesting what a new theory (like the appropriateness theory) needs to do better.<br />
<br />
(Appropriateness Theory) ppt by Yin Meida殷美达 and handout by Ei Mon Kyaw 艾梦觉<br />
<br />
*11 Dec 8 Methods and Style<br />
(The Literal Translation and Free Translation)ppt by Zhong Yifei钟义菲; handout by Zhong Yulu钟雨露.<br />
<br />
(The Amplification and Omission in Translation)ppt by Zhou Jiu周玖; handout by Zhou Junhui周俊辉.<br />
<br />
(Zhu Shenghao's Translation Style Take the Translation of Shakespeare's Plays for Example)ppt by Li Aixuan李爱璇；handout by Jing Xiaotong金晓童.<br />
<br />
(Translation Methods of Idioms)ppt by Liu Yunxin 刘运心; handout by Li Ruiyang 李瑞洋<br />
<br />
(Domestication and Foreignization)pptx by Chen Jing 陈静; handout by Chen Xinyi 陈心怡<br />
<br />
*12 Dec 15 Theory and Practice. <br />
(The value and limits of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in its Application of Literature) ppt by 詹若萱 and handout by 罗曦<br />
(Catford's Translation Shift Theory and its practice)ppt by 周巧and handout by 朱素珍<br />
(An Analysis of Different Versions on the Basis of the Three Beauties of Xu Yuanchong) ppt by 邝艳丽 and handout by 付红岩<br />
(庞德的翻译理论及其在《华夏集》中的应用 Ezra Pound's translation theory and its application in Cathay) handout by 张秋怡 and ppt by 王逸凡<br />
() Skopos Theory and its Application ppt by 刘沛婷 and handout by 李新星<br />
<br />
*13 Dec 22 Decriptive Studies, Culture, Invisibility, Constructivism<br />
() ppt by 殷美达 and handout by 张怡然<br />
<br />
*14 Dec 29 East-West Comparison<br />
()ppt by刘薇 and handout by黄柱梁<br />
()ppt by魏兆妍 and handout by 吴婧悦<br />
()ppt by阳佳颖 and handout by 颜子涵<br />
(韦努蒂与鲁迅异化翻译策略之比较 A Comparison of Venuti's and Lu Xun's Foreignization Translation Strategy) ppt by毛优 and handout by 毛雅文<br />
*15 Jan 5 Review in Preparation of final exam<br />
*16 Jan 12 Final Exam<br />
<br />
== Homework from Session 1 Sep 26 due on Sep 29, 2021 ==<br />
<br />
1. Take the survey after session 1: http://bit.ly/EU-SURVEY<br />
<br />
2. Please fill in the 2nd quiz (to show that you have read the texts for session 2) before session 2. (Will be added later.)<br />
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3. Every student should translate 1 sentence. Here is the [[20210929_homework|homework page]]. - IN PREPARATION...<br />
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*[[20210929_homework|homework of session 1 for session 2 Sep 29]]<br />
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4. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation is once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20210929_homework|here]].<br />
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*[[20210929_homework|homework of session 1 for session 2 Sep 29]]<br />
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5. Please pick a topic from the pdf material, the general session topics or your own thoughts to do a presentation on. For the first topics, you need to do the presentation already in 1 week!<br />
<br />
===Homework for later===<br />
4. Write a final exam paper as a chapter of the book "Translation Studies", ... It has to be a topic, not yet chosen by any other student in the book. I will upload the book here later. You can participate in writing this book.<br />
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5. Get familiar with the pdfs I send you on WeChat group as learning material.<br />
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=Session 2, Sep 29: Emergence I=<br />
*Teacher presentation<br />
*Survey http://bit.ly/Eval-01<br />
*Please select a topic to do a ppt or handout on<br />
*Review homework<br />
*Prepare final exam<br />
<br />
===Homework for this session Sep 29===<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 2 (Emergence I)<br />
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2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
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*[[20210929_homework|homework of session 1 for session 2 Sep 29]]<br />
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3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
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==Session 2, Sep 29, Topic 1: Emergence I - Emergence in China==<br />
*Teacher presentation: [[Media:Emergence_I.pptx|Teacher presentation on the Emergence of Translation]] by Martin Woesler --[[User:Root|Root]] ([[User talk:Root|talk]]) 11:44, 13 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Homework for next session Oct 13==<br />
<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 3 (Emergence II)<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211013_homework|homework of session 2 for session 3 Oct 13]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211013_homework|homework of session 2 for session 3 Oct 13]]<br />
<br />
4. Please write your name behind one of the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Final_exam_class_projects|book projects]] where you want to write a chapter as your final exam paper. Also indicate the topic of your chapter in this book project.<br />
<br />
5. (Only for students who do presentation on Oct 13: Emergence II (中国新时期翻译研究发展的起源 The origin of translation studies in China in the new Era) ppt by Chen Xiangqiong 陈湘琼 and handout by Xie Qinglin 谢庆琳. (Emergence of Oral Interpretation) ppt by Shan Gongfei:) Prepare ppt or handout.(机器翻译的起源 The Origin of Machine Translation) handout by Xu Minyun 徐敏赟 202120081535 and powerpoint by Yan Jing 颜静 202120081536.<br />
<br />
=Session 3, Oct 13, Topic 2: Emergence II - Emergence in China=<br />
==Homework for this session Oct 13==<br />
<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 3 (Emergence II)<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211013_homework|homework of session 2 for session 3 Oct 13]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211013_homework|homework of session 2 for session 3 Oct 13]]<br />
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4. (Only for students who do presentation on Oct 13:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
==Presentations in Session 3, Emergence of Translation II==<br />
<br />
*ppt: [[Media:03 Emergence of translations in China by Xie Qinglin.pptx|Presentation on Emergence of translation study in China 中国翻译的起源]] by Chen Xiangqiong 陈湘琼; handout [[Media:03_Xie_Qinglin_Emergence_of_translations_in_China.docx|Emergence of translation studies in China]] by Xie Qinglin 谢庆琳<br />
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Tip: Since the topics are sorted roughly chronologically, this topic should be the emergence of translation rather than emergence of translation studies.<br />
<br />
*ppt: [[Media:The_Origin_of_Machine_Translation_by_Yan_Jing.pptx|Presentation on Origin of Machine Translation 机器翻译的起源与发展]] by Yan Jing 颜静; handout [[Media:The_Origin_of_Machine_Translation_by_Xu_Minyun.docx|Origin of Machine Translation handout]] by Xu Minyun 徐敏赟<br />
<br />
Tip: This topic is also very modern, it should be presented at the end of the semester.<br />
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==Homework for next session Oct 20==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 3 (Emergence II)<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211020_homework|homework of session 3 for session 4 Oct 20]]<br />
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3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
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4. (Only for students who do presentation on Oct 13:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
=Session 4, Oct 20, Topic 3=<br />
==Homework for this session Oct 20==<br />
<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 4<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211020_homework|homework of session 3 for session 4 Oct 20]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
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4. (Only for students who do presentation on Oct 20:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
==Presentations on History of Translation, session 4==<br />
* ppt: [[Media: The brief history of western translation_by_Ding_Xuan.pptx|Presentation on The brief history of western translation]] by Ding Xuan; handout [[Media:The brief history of Western translation.doc| The brief history of western translation]] by Fu Shiyu<br />
*ppt: [[Media: The brief history of Chinese translation.pptx|Presentation on The brief history of Chinese translation]] by Hu Shuqing; handout [[Media:The brief history of Chinese translation_by_Gong_Boya.doc| The brief history of Chinese translation]] by Gong Boya<br />
* ppt:[[Media: A brief history of Chinese poetry translation.pptx|Presentation on A brief history of Chinese poetry translation]] by Rao Jinying; handout: [[Media: A brief history of Chinese poetry translation.doc| A brief history of Chinese poetry translation]] by Mou Yixin<br />
* ppt:[[Media: The Translation history of Library of Chinese Classics Since 2000.pptx|Presentation on The Translation history of Library of Chinese Classics Since 2000]] by Zhang Yang; handout: [[Media: The Translation history of Library of Chinese Classics Since 2000_by_Zeng_Junlin.doc| The Translation history of Library of Chinese Classics]] by Zeng Junlin<br />
* ppt:[[Media: The History of Buddhist Scripture Translation in Chinese Translation Center.pptx|Presentation on The History of Buddhist Scripture Translation in Chinese Translation Center]] by Ye Weijie; handout: [[Media: The History of Buddhist Scripture Translation in Chinese Translation Center.docx| The History of Buddhist Scripture Translation in Chinese Translation Center]] by Wang Zhenlong<br />
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==Homework for next session Oct 27==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 5<br />
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2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
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*[[20211027_homework|homework of session 4 for session 5 Oct 27]]<br />
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3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
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4. (Only for students who do presentation on Oct 27:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
=Session 5, Oct 27, Topic 4 Early Understanding of Translation (no elaborated theories yet)=<br />
==Homework for this session Oct 27==<br />
<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 5<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211027_homework|homework of session 4 for session 5 Oct 27]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Oct 27:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
==Presentations Oct 27 on Early Understanding==<br />
<br />
* Teacher presentation: [[Media:05_Transl_Studies_Emergence2_History.pptx|Powerpoint for the Sessions 3-5 by Martin Woesler, please download from this link]]<br />
<br />
The early understanding next session refers to the very early theoretical understanding of the Translation process from ancient times until maybe up to the middle of the 20th century. There are no elaborated theories yet, but at least some discussions about principles, strategies etc.<br />
<br />
* ppt: [[Media: Tranlation by Lin Yutang.pptx|Translation by Lin Yutang]] by Xie Jiafen; handout [[Media: Tranlation by Lin Yutang(handout).docx| Translation by Lin Yutang(handout)]] by Yan Lili<br />
* ppt: [[Media: The Debates Between Wen and Zhi on Buddhist Scriptures Translation.pptx|The Debates Between Wen and Zhi on Buddhist Scriptures Translation]] by He Qin; handout [[Media: The Wen-Zhi Debate in the history of sutra translation (handout).docx| The Wen-Zhi Debate in the History of Sutra Translation (handout)]] by Gao Mi<br />
<br />
==Homework for next session 6, Nov 3==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 6<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211103_homework|homework of session 5 for session 6, Nov 3]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Nov 3:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
<br />
=Session 6, Nov 3, Topic 5 Translation Equivalence, Nida and Linguistics=<br />
==Homework for this session Nov 3==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 6<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211103_homework|homework of session 5 for session 6 Nov 3]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Nov 3:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
==Presentations Nov 3 on Linguistics and Equivalence(Nida)==<br />
<br />
* ppt: [[Media:J.C.Catford's Translation Equivalence Theory(ppt).pptx|J.C.Catford's Translation Equivalence Theory(ppt)]] by Huang Yiyan; handout [[Media:Translation Equivalence Theory.docx|J.C.Catford's Translation Equivalence Theory]] by Huang Jinyun<br />
* ppt: [[Media:Two Types of Equivalence by Eugene A. Nida(ppt).pptx|Two Types of Equivalence by Eugene A. Nida(ppt)]] by Du Lina; handout [[Media: Two Types of Equivalence by Eugene A. Nida.docx|Two Types of Equivalence by Eugene A. Nida]] by Ma Xin<br />
* ppt: [[Media:The Three Essences of Functional Equivalence and Its Application.pptx|The Three Essences of Functional Equivalence and Its Application]] by Yi Yangfan; handout [[Media: The Three Essences of Functional Equivalence and Its Application.docx|The Three Essences of Functional Equivalence and Its Application]] by Yin Yuan<br />
* ppt: [[Media:Eugene Nida ‘s Principles of Correspondence Theory(ppt).pptx|Eugene Nida ‘s Principles of Correspondence Theory(ppt)]] by Chen Huini; handout [[Media:Eugene Nida ‘s Principles of Correspondence Theory.docx|Eugene Nida ‘s Principles of Correspondence Theory]] by Cai Zhufeng<br />
<br />
==Homework for next session 7, Nov 10==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 7<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211110_homework|homework of session 6 for session 7, Nov 10]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Nov 10:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
5. WRITE A DRAFT OF YOUR FINAL EXAM PAPER!<br />
*[[20220112_final_exam|Final Exam paper page]]<br />
<br />
=Session 7, Nov 10, Topic 6 Translation Studies=<br />
==Homework for this session Nov 10==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 7<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211110_homework|homework of session 6 for session 7 Nov 10]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Nov 3:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
==Presentations Nov 10 on Translation Studies==<br />
<br />
* ppt 1: [[Media:The Name and Nature of Translation Studies(ppt).pptx|The Name and Nature of Translation Studies(ppt)]] by Liu Shengnan; handout [[Media: The Name and Nature of Translation Studies.docx| The Name and Nature of Translation Studies]] by Li Yi<br />
<br />
* ppt 2: [[Media:Five Approaches to Translation.pptx|Five Approaches to Translation]] by Li Wenxuan; handout [[Media:Five Approaches to Translation(handout).docx|Five Approaches to Translation()]] by Li Shan<br />
<br />
* ppt 3: [[Media:Principles of Translation(ppt).pptx|Principles of Translation(ppt)]] by Xiao Yiyao; handout [[Media:Principles of Translation.docx|Principles of Translation]] by Wu Yinghong<br />
<br />
* ppt 4: [[Media:Cultural and Ideological Approaches in Translation(ppt).pptx|Cultural and Ideological Approaches in Translation]] by Mahzad Heydarian; handout [[Media:Cultural and Ideological Approaches in Translation.docx| Cultural and Ideological Approaches in Translation ]] by Mahzad Heydarian<br />
<br />
* ppt 5: [[Media:Roman Jacobson's Categories of Translation(ppt).pptx|Roman Jacobson's Categories of Translation(ppt)]] by Xiong Min; handout [[Media: Roman Jacobson's Categories of Translation.docx| Roman Jacobson's Categories of Translation]] by Sun Yashi<br />
<br />
* ppt 6: [[Media:Lin Yutang' s Translation Aesthetics(ppt).pptx|Lin Yutang' s Translation Aesthetics]] by Luo Anyi; handout [[Media:Lin Yutang' s Translation Aesthetics.docx| Lin Yutang' s Translation Aesthetics]] by Shi Liqing<br />
<br />
==Homework for next session 8, Nov 17==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 8<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211117_homework|homework of session 6 for session 8, Nov 17]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Nov 17:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
=Session 8, Nov 17, Translation Theories =<br />
==Homework for this session Nov 17==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 8<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211117_homework|homework of session 7 for session 8, Nov 17]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Nov 17:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
==Presentations Nov 17 on Translation Theories==<br />
* ppt 1: [[Media:Translation Theories of George Steiner(ppt).pptx|Translation Theories of George Steiner(ppt)]] by Yang Liuqing 杨柳青; handout [[Media: Translation Theories of George Steiner.docx| Translation Theories of George Steiner]] by Yin Huizhen 殷慧珍<br />
* ppt 2: [[Media:The Functional Translation Theory of Reiss, Vermeer and Nord(ppt).pptx|The Functional Translation Theory of Reiss, Vermeer and Nord(ppt)]] by Peng Ruixue 彭瑞雪; [[Media:The Functional Translation Theory of Reiss, Vermeer and Nord (handout).docx|The Functional Translation Theory of Reiss, Vermeer and Nord (handout).docx]] by Qin Jianan 秦建安. <br />
* ppt 3: [[Media:Translation Theories of Peter Newmark.pptx|Translation Theories of Peter Newmark]] ppt by Liu Xiao 刘晓; [[Media:Translation Theories of Peter Newmark.docx|Translation Theories of Peter Newmark .docx]] handout by Liu Yue 刘越.<br />
<br />
* ppt 4:[[Media:Yan Fu's Translation Thoughts(ppt).pptx|Yan Fu's Translation Thoughts(ppt)]] by Wang Lifei 王李菲; handout [[Media: Yan Fu's Translation Thoughts.docx| Yan Fu's Translation Thoughts]] by Wei Chuxuan 魏楚璇<br />
* ppt 5: [[Media:Translation of Xu Yuanchong.pptx|Translation theorie of Xu Yuanchong]] ppt by Zhouqing周清; [[Media:Translation of Xu Yuanchong.docx|Translation theorie of Xu Yuanchong]]handout by Zou Yueli邹岳丽.<br />
<br />
==Homework for next session 9, Nov 24==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 9<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211124_homework|homework of session 8 for session 9, Nov 24]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Nov 24:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
=Session 9, Nov 24, History of Chinese Translation Theories =<br />
<br />
==Homework for this session Nov 24==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 9<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211124_homework|homework of session 8 for session 9, Nov 24]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Nov 24:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
==Presentations Nov 24 on Chinese Translation Theories ==<br />
* ppt 1: [[Media:The History of Chinese Translation Theories in Qing Dynasty(ppt).pptx|The History of Chinese Translation Theories in Qing Dynasty(ppt)]]ppt by Cheng Yang 程杨 and [[Media: The History of Chinese Translation Theories in Qing Dynasty.docx| The History of Chinese Translation Theories in Qing Dynasty]]handout by Li Shuang 李双. <br />
* ppt 2: [[Media:The History of Chinese Buddhist Translation Theories(ppt).pptx|The History of Chinese Buddhist Translation Theories(ppt)]] by Qiu Tingting邱婷婷; handout [[Media: The History of Chinese Buddhist Translation Theories.docx| The History of Chinese Buddhist Translation Theories]] by Wei Yiwen 卫怡雯 <br />
* ppt 3: [[Media:The Chinese Translation Theories During the Period of the May Forth Movement(ppt).pptx|The Chinese Translation Theories During the Period of the May Forth Movement(ppt)]]by Li Wen 李雯; [[Media: The Chinese Translation Theories During the Period of the May Forth Movement.docx|The Chinese Translation Theories During the Period of the May Forth Movement]] handout by Zhou Xiaoxue 周小雪<br />
* ppt 4: [[Media: The History of Chinese Translation Theories from 1949 to Present(ppt).pptx|The History of Chinese Translation Theories from 1949 to Present(ppt)]]by Yang Aijiang 杨爱江 [[Media: The History of Chinese Translation Theories from 1949 to Present.docx|The History of Chinese Translation Theories from 1949 to Present]] handout by Yang Kun 杨堃<br />
<br />
==Homework for next session 10, Dec 1==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 10<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211201_homework|homework of session 9 for session 10, Dec 1]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 1:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
=Session 10, Dec 1, Appropriateness Theory=<br />
This is a new theory suggested by M. Woesler in 2020. Everybody is invited to help to develop this theory or to criticize other theories and suggesting what a new theory (like the appropriateness theory) needs to do better.<br />
<br />
==Homework for this session Dec 1==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 10<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211201_homework|homework of session 9 for session 10, Dec 1]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 1:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
==Presentations Dec 1==<br />
* handout 1: [[Media: Appropriateness Theory.docx| Appropriateness Theory]] by Ei Mon Kyaw 艾梦觉;ppt 1: [[Media:Appropriateness Theory(ppt).pptx|Appropriateness Theory(ppt)]] by Yin Meida殷美达;<br />
* Topic 2: [[Media: The Appropriateness Theory.docx| The Appropriateness Theory]] by Asep Budiman;ppt 1: [[Media:Appropriateness Theory<br />
(ppt).pptx|Appropriateness Theory(ppt)]] by Asep Budiman;<br />
*Teacher presentation [[Media:10_Translation_Studies_Discipline.pptx|10_Translation_Studies_Discipline.pptx]]<br />
*Teacher presentation [[Media:Appropriateness_Theory_Teacher_Presentation.pptx|Appropriateness_Theory_Teacher_Presentation.pptx]]<br />
<br />
==Homework for next session 11, Dec 8==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 11<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211208_homework|homework of session 10 for session 11, Dec 8]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 8:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
=Session 11, Dec 8, Methods and Style=<br />
==Homework for this session Dec 8==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 11<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211208_homework|homework of session 10 for session 11, Dec 8]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 8:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
==Presentations Dec 8 on Methods and Style==<br />
* ppt 1: [[Media:The Literal Translation and Free Translation(ppt).pptx|The Literal Translation and Free Translation(ppt)]] by Zhong Yifei钟义菲; handout [[Media: The Literal Translation and Free Translation.docx| The Literal Translation and Free Translation]] by Zhong Yulu钟雨露.<br />
* ppt 1: [[Media:The Amplification and Omission in Translation(ppt).pptx|The Amplification and Omission in Translation(ppt)]] by Zhou Jiu周玖; handout [[Media: The Amplification and Omission in Translation.docx| The Amplification and Omission in Translation]] by Zhou Junhui周俊辉.<br />
* ppt 3: [[Media:Zhu Shenghao's Translation Style Take the Translation of Shakespeare's Plays for Example(ppt).pptx|Zhu Shenghao's Translation Style Take the Translation of Shakespeare's Plays for Example(ppt)]] by Li Aixuan李爱璇；handout [[Media:Zhu Shenghao's Translation Style Take the Translation of Shakespeare's Plays for Example.docx|Zhu Shenghao's Translation Style Take the Translation of Shakespeare's Plays for Example]] by Jing Xiaotong金晓童.<br />
* ppt 4: [[File:Translation Methods of Idioms.pptx|Translation Methods of Idioms(ppt)]] by Liu Yunxin 刘运心; handout [[File:Translation Methods of Idioms.docx|Translation Methods of Idioms(handout)]] by Li Ruiyang 李瑞洋<br />
* ppt 5: [[Media:11_Chen_Jing_Domestication_and_Foreignization.pptx|Domestication and Foreignization(pptx)]] by Chen Jing 陈静; handout [[File:Domestication and Foreignization.docx|Domestication and Foreignization(handout)]] by Chen Xinyi 陈心怡<br />
*Teacher presentation [[Media:11_Translation_Studies_Discipline.pptx|11_Translation_Studies_Discipline.pptx]]<br />
<br />
[[File:Translation Methods of Idioms.pptx]]<br />
<br />
==Homework for next session 12, Dec 15==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 12<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211215_homework|homework of session 11 for session 12, Dec 15]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 15:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
=Session 12, Dec 15, Theory and Practice.=<br />
<br />
==Homework for this session Dec 15==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 12<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211215_homework|homework of session 11 for session 12, Dec 15]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 15:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
==Presentations Dec 15 on Theory and Practice==<br />
* ppt 1: [[Media:Catford Translation Shift Theory and Tts Practice(ppt).pptx|Catford Translation Shift Theory and Its Practice(ppt)]] by Zhou Qiao 周巧; handout [[Media:Catford Translation Shift Theory and Its Practice.docx|Catford Translation Shift Theory and Its Practice]] by Zhu Suzhen 朱素珍.<br />
<br />
* ppt 2: [[Media: The value and limits of Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory in its Application of Literature(ppt).pptx| The value and limits of Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory in its Application of Literature（ppt）]] by Zhan Ruoxuan 詹若萱;handout [[Media:The value and limits of Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory in its Application of Literature.docx|The value and limits of Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory in its Application of Literature]] by Luo Xi 罗曦.<br />
<br />
* ppt 3：[[Media:Ezra Pound's translation theory and its application in Cathay(ppt).pptx|Ezra Pound's translation theory and its application in Cathay(ppt)]] by Wang Yifan 王逸凡; handout [[Media:Ezra Pound's translation theory and its application in Cathay.docx|Ezra Pound's translation theory and its application in Cathay]] by Zhang Qiuyi 张秋怡.<br />
<br />
* ppt 4：[[Media:Skopos Theory and its application by Jawad and Liu Peiting.pptx|Skopos Theory and its application by Jawad and Liu Peiting]] by Jawad Ahmad; handout [[Media:Skopos Theory and Its Application.docx|Skopos Theory and Its Application]] by Liu Peiting 刘沛婷.<br />
<br />
==Homework for next session 13, Dec 22==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 13<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211222_homework|homework of session 12 for session 13, Dec 22]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 22:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
=Session 13, Dec 22, Decriptive Studies, Culture, Invisibility, Constructivism=<br />
<br />
==Homework for this session Dec 22==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 13<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211222_homework|homework of session 12 for session 13, Dec 22]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 22:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
==Presentations Dec 22 on Decriptive Studies, Culture, Invisibility, Constructivism==<br />
<br />
* ppt 1: [[Media:Gideon Toury's Descriptive Translation Studies(ppt).pptx|Gideon Toury's Descriptive Translation Studies(ppt)]]ppt by Benjamin Wellsand; handout [[Media:Gideon Toury's Descriptive Translation Studies.docx|Gideon Toury's Descriptive Translation Studies]] by Bi bi Nadia.<br />
<br />
* ppt 2: [[Media:Gideon Toury's Descriptive Study of Norms in Translation Presentation(ppt).pptx|Gideon Toury's Descriptive Study of Norms in Translation Presentation(ppt)]]ppt by Rouabah Soumaya; handout [[Media:.docx|.docx]] by Bi bi Nadia.<br />
<br />
* ppt 3: [[Media:Presentation on Cultural Aspects of Translation Studies(ppt).pptx|Presentation on Cultural Aspects of Translation Studies(ppt)]]ppt by Zhang Yiran 张怡然; handout [[Media:Presentation on Cultural Aspects of Translation Studies.docx|Presentation on Cultural Aspects of Translation Studies]] by Atta Ur Rahman.<br />
<br />
==Homework for next session 14, Dec 29==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 14<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211229_homework|homework of session 13 for session 14, Dec 29]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 29:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
=Session 14, Dec 29, East-West Comparison=<br />
<br />
==Homework for this session Dec 29==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 14<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211229_homework|homework of session 13 for session 14, Dec 29]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 29:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
==Presentations Dec 29 on East-West Comparison==<br />
*ppt 1: A Comparison of Venuti's and Lu Xun's Foreignization Translation Strategy ppt by Mao You 毛优; [[Media: A Comparison of Venuti's and Lu Xun's Foreignization Translation Strategy(Handout).docx|A Comparison of Venuti's and Lu Xun's Foreignization Translation Strategy(Handout).docx]] handout by Mao Yawen 毛雅文.<br />
<br />
*ppt 2: A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western Contemporary Cultural Translation——Taking the Translation Concepts of Liu Miqing(刘宓庆) and Susan Bassnett as an Example. [[File:A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western Contemporary Cultural Translation.pptx]] by Wei Zhaoyan魏兆妍；[[File:A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western Contemporary Cultural Translation(handout).docx]] by Wu Jingyue吴婧悦<br />
<br />
*ppt 3: [[Media:(ppt).pptx|(ppt)]]ppt by ; handout [[Media:Hypotactic and Paratactic.docx|Hypotactic and Paratactic]] by Huang Zhuliang黄柱梁.<br />
<br />
==Homework for next session 15, Jan 5==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 15<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20210105_homework|homework of session 14 for session 15, Jan 5]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Jan 5:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
=Session 15, Jan 5, Review in Preparation of final exam=<br />
<br />
=Session 16, Jan 12, Final Exam=<br />
<br />
<br />
=Samples from last year: 人类起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation=<br />
Please note: All the sessions (2-16) here are copies of the 2020 course. <br />
<br />
You can have a look how the fellow students did it last year, <br />
<br />
but you have to write everything new here for 2021.<br />
<br />
*Teacher presentation<br />
<br />
*Student presentations<br />
<br />
OLD (2020):<br />
<br />
*Handout for download [[Media:The_emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation.docx|Global Emergence of Interpretation and Translation]] by 彭锐宏<br />
*Classroom presentation for download [[Media:The_emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_by_Peng_Ruihong.pptx|Presentation on Emergence of translation]] by 彭锐宏--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 07:05, 28 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 2, Topic 2: 西方起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation in the West===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:The_Emergence_of_Translation_and_Interpretation_in_Western_Countries.docx|Handout on The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation in Western Countries]]--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 05:43, 28 September 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou by 聂晓楼<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The_Emergence_of_Translation_and_Interpretation_in_Western_Countries.pptx|Powerpoint on The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation in Western Countries]]--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 05:43, 28 September 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou by 聂晓楼<br />
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===Session 2, Topic 3: 中国起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation in China===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:Emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_in_China.docx| Handout on Emergence of translation and interpretation in China]]--Mashuya by 马淑雅<br />
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_in_China.pptx|PowerPoint on Emergence of translation and interpretation in China]]--Mashuya by 马淑雅<br />
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===Session 2, Topic 4: 日本起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation in Japan===<br />
*Handout for download: [[Media:The_Emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_in_Japan.docx|The Emergence of translation and interpretation in Japan]] by 孟莹 --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 16:10, 27 September 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The_Emergence_of_Translation_and_Interpretation_in_Japan.ppt|Powerpoint on the Emergence of Translation and Interpretation in Japan]] by 孟莹--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 16:10, 27 September 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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===Homework from Session 2 (Sep 28, 2020), due on (Oct 5, 2020)===<br />
1. Every student should translate 1 paragraph of an English book on Contemporary Chinese Literature INTO CHINESE. Link: [[20200928_trans|here]].<br />
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2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20200928_trans|here]].<br />
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==3rd Session: History==<br />
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===Session 3, Topic 1:中国古代翻译史History of Translation in Ancient China===<br />
*Handout for download：[[Media:Handout for History of Translation in Ancient China.doc]]--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 09:14, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media: History of Translation in Ancient China.pptx]]--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 09:14, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 3, Topic 2: 中国翻译史代表人物The Representatives in Chinese Translation History===<br />
*Handout for download: [[Media:Chin_Trans_Hist_Rep.docx|The Representatives in Chinese Translation History]] --[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 11:35, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:....pptx|The Representatives in Chinese Translation History]] --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:36, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 3, Topic 3: 中国翻译史的四个阶段 The Four Stages of Chinese Translation History===<br />
*Handout for download: [[Media:The four stages of Chinese translation history.docx|Description of the file]] PLEASE UPLOAD by --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:08, 5 October 2020 (UTC)XX<br />
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The_four_stages_of_Chinese_translation_history.pptx|The Four Stages of Chinese Translation History]] by --[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 16:16, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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===Session 3, Topic 4: 当代中国之翻译 Translation in Contemporary China===<br />
*Handout for download: [[Media:Handout for Translation in Contemporary China.docx|Translation in today's China]] by --[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 02:08, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Translation in Contemporary China(1).pptx|Presentation on translation in China today]] --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 01:05, 5 October 2020 (UTC) Zhang Yuxing by 张宇星<br />
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==='''Homework from Session 3 (Oct 5, 2020), for Session 4 due on (Oct 12, 2020)'''===<br />
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1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book "Translation Studies". <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201005_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
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2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201005_trans|here]].<br />
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==Session 4: Development==<br />
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===Session 4, Topic 1: 西方翻译史 Western translation history===<br />
*Handout for download: [[Media:....docx|Western translation history]] by Zhou Siqing--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:57, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Western translation history.pptx|Western translation history]] by Zhang Qi [[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 07:46, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 4, Topic 2: 中国佛经翻译的发展 The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures.docx]] by Jiang Qiwei--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:26, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures.ppt|The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures]] by Hu Jin--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:26, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 4, Topic 3:西方翻译理论史History of Western Translation Theory===<br />
*Handout for download: [[Media:...docx|History of Western Translation Theory]] by --[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 13:19, 4 October 2020 (UTC)XX<br />
* Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:...pptx| Brief History of Western Translation Theory]] by --[[User:Zhou Shiqing|Zhou Shiqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shiqing|talk]]) 13:19, 4 October 2020 (UTC)XX<br />
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===Session 4, Topic 4:口译未来的发展 Prospect of Interpreting===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Prospect of Interpreting.docx]]-by Zhang Yinliu--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 08:30, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Prospect of Interpreting.pptx]]--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 08:23, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 4, Topic 5:新中国成立后翻译的发展 Translation Development of New China===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:Translation Development of New China.pdf]] by Li Luyi --[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:47, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Translation Development .pptx]] by Zheng Huajun--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:47, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 4, Topic 6:圣经翻译的发展 The Development of Bible Translation===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Development of Bible Translation.docx]]--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:05, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Development of Bible Translation.pptx]] by Han Haiyang--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 02:01, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 4, Topic 7:机器翻译的发展 The Development of Machine Translation===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:Handout-The Development of Machine Translation.docx]] by Deng Jinxia----[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 12:42, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:PPT The Development of Machine Translation.pptx]] by Han Wanzhen--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 06:31, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 4, Topic 8:视听翻译的发展 The Development of Audiovisual Translation===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Development of Audiovisual Translation-Handout.docx]]--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 16:01, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Development of Audiovisual Translation-PPT.pptx]] by Cheng Yusi--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 16:04, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==='''Homework from Session 4 (Oct 12, 2020), for Session 5 due on (Oct 19, 2020)'''===<br />
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1. Every student should translate a short passage of a paper on the Chinese essay. <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201012_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
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2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. [[20201012_trans|here]].<br />
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3. Take part in an online survey. The survey is currently prepared by the fellow students.<br />
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==Session 5: ==<br />
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===Session 5, Topic 1:林纾的翻译 Lin Shu's translation===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:Translation by Lin Shu.docx]]--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:50, 29 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation by Lin Shu(After correcting).pptx]]--Xu Pengfei<br />
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===Session 5, Topic 2:茅盾的翻译 Mao Dun's Translation===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:Mao Dun's Translation.docx]]--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 02:44, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[[Media:translations by Mao Dun.pptx]]--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 13:14, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 5, Topic 3:严复和天演论 Yan Fu and Tianyan Lun===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:YAN Fu and Tianyan Lun.docx]]--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 09:53, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Yuan Yuchen<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:YAN Fu and Tianyan Lun.pptx]]--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 10:28, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
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Please stick to your 5 minutes with your presentation. We are 3 presentations behind. Thank you for your cooperation.<br />
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===Session 5, Topic 4:《红楼梦》的英译 The Translation of ''The Red Chamber Dreams''===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Translation of ''The Red Chamber Dreams''.docx]]--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 13:38, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Translation of ''The Red Chamber Dreams''.pptx]]----[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 03:59, 24 October 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
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===Session 5, Topic 5:《圣经》的早期汉译 The Early Translation of the Bible into Chinese===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Early Translation of the Bible into Chinese.docx]]--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 15:22, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Early Translation of the Bible into Chinese.ppt]]--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 14:55, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 5, Topic 6:梁实秋的翻译 The Translation of Liang Shiqiu===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Liang Shiqiu's Translation.pdf]]--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]]([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:32, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media: Liang Shiqiu.pdf]]--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]]([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 00:32, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Session 6: Early Theories==<br />
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==='''Homework from Session 5 (Oct 19, 2020), for Session 6 due on (Oct 26, 2020)'''===<br />
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1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book "Translation Studies". <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201019_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
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2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201019_trans|here]].<br />
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===Session 6, Topic 1: 巴斯奈特文化翻译观 The Cultural Translation Theory of Bassnett===<br />
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Handout for download: [[Media:The Cultural Translatioin Theory of Susan Bassnett.pdf]]--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]]([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 16:36, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Cultural Translatioin Theory of Bassnett.ppt]]--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 05:07, 24 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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===Session 6, Topic 2: 中国早期代表性佛经翻译理论 Early Representative Theories of Buddhist Scriptures Translation in China===<br />
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Handout for download:[[Media:Early Representative Theories of Buddhist Scriptures Translation in China.docx]]--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:23, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Early Representative Theories of Buddhist Scriptures Translation in China.pptx]]--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 00:43, 26 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 6, Topic 3: 两种西方早期翻译模式的比较分析:贺拉斯模式和杰罗姆模式 The Comparative Analysis of Two Early Western Translation Models: Horace Model and Jerome Model===<br />
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Handout for download:[[Media:The Comparative Analysis of Two Translation Models.docx]]--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 09:41, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The_Comparative_Analysis_of_Two_Translation_Models.pptx]]--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 09:24, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br />
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===Session 6, Topic 4: 卡特福德的《翻译的语言学理论》 A Linguistic Theory of Translation of J.C.Catford===<br />
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Handout for download:[[Media:A Linguistic Theory of Translation of Catford.docx]]--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 12:30, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:A Linguistic Theory of Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 12:38, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 6, Topic 5: 中西早期译论对比 The Comparison between Chinese and Western Early Translation Theories===<br />
Handout for download:[[Media:Comparison of Early Translation Theories between China and the West.docx]]--[[User:QiKai|Qi Kai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 14:04, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom Presentation for download:[[Media:Chinese and Western Early Theories Comparison.pptx]]--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 13:26, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 6, Topic 6: 系统翻译理论的早期尝试 Early Attempts at Systematic Translation Theory===<br />
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Handout for download: [[Media:Early Attempts at Systematic Translation Theory.docx]]--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 12:40, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Early Attempts at Systematic Translation Theory.ppt]]--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]])03:52, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Session 7: Western theories==. 周巧 presentation PowerPoint 朱素珍 handout Cat ford Translation Shift Theory<br />
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===Homework from Session 6 (Oct 26, 2020), for Session 6 due on (Nov 2, 2020)===<br />
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1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book "Translation Studies". <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201026_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
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2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201026_trans|here]].<br />
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===Session 7, Topic 1: 奈达功能对等理论 Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
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Handout for download:[[Media:Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory.docx]]<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory ppt.pptx]]--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 02:59, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 7, Topic 2: 多元系统理论 Polysystem Theory===<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Polysystem Theory ppt.pptx]]--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 11:35, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Handout for download:[[Media:Polysystem Theory.docx]]--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 11:21, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 7, Topic 3： 后殖民主义翻译理论 Post-colonial Translation Theory===<br />
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Handout for download:[[Media:Post-colonial Translation Theory.doc]]--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 12:27, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Post-colonial Translation Theory.pptx]]--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 01:29, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 7, Topic 4： 布拉格学派 Prague School===<br />
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Handout for download: [[Media:Prague_School-Handout.doc]]--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 14:48, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Prague School.pptx]]--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:08, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 7, Topic 5： 目的论 Skopos Theory===<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Skopos Theory.pptx]]--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 07:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
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Handout for download:[[Media:Skopos Theory.docx]]--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:21, 2 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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===Session 7, Topic 6： 语言学派 Linguistic School===<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Linguistic School.pptx]]----[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Handout for download: [[Media:Linguistic School-Handout.doc]]----[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:48, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Session 8: Methods==<br />
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===Homework from Session 7 (Nov 2, 2020), for Session 8 due on (Nov 9, 2020)===<br />
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1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book "Translation Studies". <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201102_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
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2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201102_trans|here]].<br />
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===Session 8, Topic 1： 正说反译与反说正译 Negation===<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Negation-Gan Fengyu.pptx]][[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 13:01, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Handout for download:[[Media:Negation.docx]]--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 12:56, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 8, Topic 2：异化策略下的翻译方法 Translation Methods of Foreignization Strategy ===<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation Methods of Foreignization Strategy-Zhao Xiaoyan.pptx]]--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 15:35, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Handout for download:[[Media:Translation Methods of Foreignization Strategy-Zhang Hui.docx]]--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 15:33, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 8, Topic 3： 交际翻译与语义翻译 Communicative Translation and Semantic Translation===<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Communicative Translation and Semantic Translation.pptx]]by Zhang Yu--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 13:01, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Handout for download:[[Media:Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation-handout.docx]]--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 13:49, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 8, Topic 4： 直译与意译 Literal Translation and Free translation===<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Literal Translation and Free translation.pptx]]--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:45, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
Handout for download:[[Media:Literal Translation and Free translation Handout.docx]]--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 01:22, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 8, Topic 5： 增译与减译 Amplification and Omission===<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Amplification and Omission.pptx]]--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 03:06, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Amplification And Omission.docx]]--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 05:05, 9 November 2020 (UTC)Wensixing<br />
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===Session 8, Topic 6： 影视字幕的翻译方法-以《肖申克的救赎》为例 The Translation Method of Film and Television Subtitles——Taking Shawshank’s Redemption as an Example===<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Translation Method of Film and Television Subtitles—Taking Shawshank’s Redemption as an Example.pptx]]--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 01:21, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
Handout for download:[[Media:The Translation Method of Film and Television Subtitles—Taking Shawshank’s Redemption as an Example Handout.docx]]--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 01:16, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Session 9: Style==<br />
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===Homework from Session 8 (Nov 9, 2020), for Session 9 due on (Nov 16, 2020)===<br />
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1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201116_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
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2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201116_trans|here]].<br />
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===Session 9, Topic 1: 源语风格和翻译 Style of Source Text and Translation===<br />
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Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Style of Source Text and Translation.docx]]--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 06:48, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Style of Source Text and Translation1.pptx]]--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 07:03, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 9, Topic2 : 科技翻译 Scientific Style===<br />
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Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Scientific Style.docx]]--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 01:42, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Scientific Style.pptx]]--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:17, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 9,Topic 3:不同翻译风格对比 Comparison among Different Translation Styles===<br />
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Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Handout Session 9 Comparison among Different Translation Styles.docx]]--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 14:40, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Session 9 Comparison among Different Translation Styles.pptx]]--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 14:40, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 9,Topic 4: 文学风格可译与不可译 On Literary Style from a Translatable View and Untranslatable View===<br />
Classroom handout for download:[[Media:On Literary Style from a Translatable View and Untranslatable View.docx]]--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:49, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:On Literary Style from a Translatable View and Untranslatable View.pptx]] by Li Yongshan --[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:49, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 9,Topic 5: 翻译与风格 Translation and Style= ==<br />
Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Translation_and_Style.docx]]--Hu Huifang<br />
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Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Translation_and_Style.pptx]]--Zeng Yanhu<br />
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[[Media:Example.ogg]]<br />
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==Session 10: Translation Studies==<br />
<br />
===Homework from Session 9 (Nov 16, 2020), for Session 10 due on (Nov 23, 2020)===<br />
<br />
1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201123_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
<br />
2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201123_trans|here]].<br />
<br />
===Session 10,Topic 1: 翻译转换 Translation Shifts===<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation_Shifts.pptx]]--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 14:51, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Translation_Shifts_handout.docx]]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 15:05, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 10,Topic 2: 解码和重新编码 Decoding and Recoding===<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Decoding and Recoding.pptx]]--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 08:33, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Decoding and Recoding.docx]]--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 04:32, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 10,Topic 3: 视听翻译 Audiovisual Translation===<br />
Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Audiovisual Translation.docx]]--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 13:19, 22 November 2020 (UTC) - READ BY NIE XIAOLOU<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Audiovisual Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 00:26, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 10,Topic 4: 对钱钟书“化境说”的理论研究 The Translation Studies of Qian Zhongshu’s Theory of Huajing===<br />
[[Media:Handout-The Translation Studies of Qian Zhongshu’s theory of Huajing.docx]]--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 05:38, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[[Media:The Translation Studies of Qian Zhongshu’s theory of Huajing.pptx]]--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 05:40, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 10, Topic 5: 英汉被动语态对比研究及其翻译策略 Contrastive Studies of Passive Voice(C&E) and its Translation Strategies===<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Contrastive Studies of Passive Voice(C&E) and its Translation Strategies.pptx]] --[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 09:20, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Contrastive Studies of Passive Voice(C&E) and its Translation Strategies.docx]]--[[User:Blank|Zhang Hu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hu|talk]]) 10:23, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 10,Topic 6: 不可译性及其转化策略 Untranslatability and Translation Strategies====<br />
<br />
Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Untranslatability and Translation Strategies.docx]]--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 12:03, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Untranslatability & Translation Strategies.pptx]]--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 12:45, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Session 11: Theory and Practice==<br />
<br />
===Homework from Session 10 (Nov 23, 2020), for Session 11 due on (Nov 30, 2020)===<br />
<br />
1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201130_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
<br />
2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201130_trans|here]].<br />
<br />
===Session 11,Topic 1: 功能对等理论对商标翻译的影响 The Effect of the Equivalence Theory on Trademark Translation===<br />
<br />
Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Handout.The Theory and Practice.docx]]--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 07:38, 30 November 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Effect of the Equivalence Theory on Trademark Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 08:08, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 11,Topic 2: 归化和异化在翻译中的实践 Translation practice in domestication and foreignization===<br />
<br />
Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Handout.The Practice of Foreignization and Domestication.docx]]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 01:21, 30 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation practice in domestication and foreignization.pptx]]--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 09:00, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
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===Session 11,Topic 3: 目的论及其应用 Skopos Theory and its Applications===<br />
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Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Skopos Theory and its Applications.docx]]--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 05:08, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download：[[Media:Skopos Theory and its Applications.pptx]]--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 05:16, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 11,Topic 4:语义翻译与交际翻译 The Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation=== <br />
<br />
Classroom handout for download:[[Media:The Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation.docx]]--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 16:30, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation.ppt]]--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 06:56, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 11,Topic 5: 奈达的功能对等理论及其在科技文英译汉中的应用 Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory and its Application in E-C Translation of EST===<br />
<br />
Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Nida’s_Functional_Equivalence_Theory_and_its_Application_in E-C_Translation_of_EST.docx]]--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 02:03, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory and its Application in E-C Translation of EST.pptx]]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 03:25, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 11,Topic 6:女性主义翻译 The Feminist Translation===<br />
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Handout for download：[[Media:Feminist Translation.doc]]--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:07, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation：[[Media:Feminist Translation.pptx]]<br />
<br />
==Session 12: Different Aspects==<br />
<br />
===Homework from Session 11 (Nov 30, 2020), for Session 12 due on (Dec 7, 2020)===<br />
<br />
1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201207_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
<br />
2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201207_trans|here]].<br />
<br />
===Session 12, Topic 1: 政论文翻译 Translation of Political Text===<br />
<br />
Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Translation of Political Text.docx]]--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 12:21, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Translation of Political Text.pptx]] By Chen Jiaxin --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 12:30, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 12, Topic 2: 诗歌翻译 Poem Translation===<br />
Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Poem Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 14:59, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
[[Media:Poem_Translation_handout.docx]] by Zhang Yujie& Yang Hairong--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 03:14, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 12, Topic 3: 旅游翻译 Tourism Translation===<br />
Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Tourism Translation.pptx]] by Tan Xinjie & Wei Yafei --[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 09:53, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei <br />
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[[Media:Tourism_Translation_handout.docx]] by Tan Xinjie & Wei Yafei--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 10:06, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Wei Yafei<br />
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==Session 13: East West comparison==<br />
<br />
===Homework from Session 12 (Nov 30, 2020), for Session 13 due on (Dec 14, 2020)===<br />
<br />
1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201214_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
<br />
2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201214_trans|here]].<br />
<br />
===Topic 1:严复和泰特勒翻译标准之对比 A Comparison between Yan Fu's and Tytler's Translation Criteria===<br />
[[Media:A Comparison Between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s Translation Criteria.pptx]]--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 07:15, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
[[Media:A Comparison Between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s Translation Criteria.docx]]--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 06:52, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
<br />
===Topic 2:中西翻译发展比较Comparison of the Development of Chinese and Western Translation===<br />
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[[Media:Comparison of the Development of Chinese and Western Translation.pptx]] by Liu Yi.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 15:38, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[[Media:Comparison of the Development of Chinese and Western Translation.doc]] by Tan Yuanyuan.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 15:47, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Topic 3:中西文化差异对翻译的影响The Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on Translation===<br />
[[Media:Handout-The Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on Translation.doc]] by Yang Yue--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 05:10, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
[[Media:The Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on Translation.pptx]] by Yi Zichu--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 05:01, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Topic 4:中国佛经翻译与圣经翻译的比较Comparison Between the translation of Buddhist scriptures of China and Bible translation===<br />
[[Media:The Comparison of the Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures and Bible translation.pptx]]by Xiao Ting--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 00:54, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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[[Media:The Comparison of the Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures and Bible Translation.docx]]--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 02:07, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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===Topic 5:20世纪中叶以来中西翻译理论对比 Comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century===<br />
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[[Media:Comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century by Mo Ling.pptx]]--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 09:38, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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[[Media:Handout of comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century by Yuan Tianyi.doc]]<br />
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===Topic 6；中西思维方式差异在翻译中的体现——以习语为例 The Embodiment of the Differences between Chinese and Western Thinking Modes in Translation -- Taking Idioms as an Example===<br />
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Classroom handout for download: [[Media:The Embodiment of the Differences between Chinese and Western Thinking Modes in Translation -- Taking Idioms as an Example.docx]]--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Sha]] --[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Sha]] ([[User talk:Chen Sha|talk]]) 14:43, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The Embodiment of the Differences between Chinese and Western Thinking Modes in Translation -- Taking Idioms as an Example.pptx]] By Chen Jiangning --[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Jiangning]]--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 14:43, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Session 14: Strategies==<br />
===Homework from Session 13 (Dec 14, 2020), for Session 14 due on (Dec 21, 2020)===<br />
<br />
1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201221_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
<br />
2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201221_trans|here]].<br />
<br />
===Topic 1；阿拉伯大征服时代与翻译学 The Era of Arab Conquest and Translatology===<br />
<br />
Classroom handout for download: [[Media:The Era of Arab Conquest and Translatology.docx]] Ma Zhixing＆Wu kai --[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 10:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The Era of Arab Conquest and Translatology.ppt]] Ma Zhixing＆Wu kai --[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 10:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Topic 2；韦努蒂的抵抗式翻译策略 Resistancy Translation Strategy—Lawrence Venuti===<br />
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Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Resistancy Translation Strategy—Lawrence Venuti.docx]] Tang Yiran&Yang Ziling --[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 23:34, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Resistancy Translation Strategy—Lawrence Venuti.ppt]] Tang Yiran&Yang Ziling --[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 23:34, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Topic 3；英日译本对照--以《雪国》为例The Contrast of Japanese-English Translation--Taking "Snow Country" as an Example===<br />
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Classroom handout for download: [[Media:The Contrast of Differences in Japanese-English Xie Ziyi& Peng Yongliang.docx]] <br />
--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 05:48, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The Contrast of Differences in Japanese-English Xie Ziyi& Peng Yongliang.pptx]] <br />
--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 05:48, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Session 15: Contemporary Translation Theories==<br />
<br />
===Homework from Session 14 (Dec 21, 2020), for Session 15 due on (Dec 28, 2020)===<br />
<br />
1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201228_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
<br />
2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201228_trans|here]].<br />
<br />
<br />
===Topic 1 Contemporary Translation Theories ===<br />
<br />
Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Contemporary Translation Theories.docx]] <br />
<br />
<br />
Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Contemporary Translation Theories.pptx]] <br />
--[[User:Sagara Seydou 3|Sagara Seydou 3]] ([[User talk:Sagara Seydou 3|talk]]) 08:07, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Session 16: Final Discussion==<br />
<br />
==List of topics for presentations and handouts in class==<br />
1 Emergence: <br />
孟莹: 日本起源, 聂晓楼: 西方起源, 马淑雅: 中国起源, 彭锐宏: 人类起源<br />
<br />
2 History: <br />
周思庆 张琪: 西方翻译史; 马娟 刘智伟: 历史上中国著名的翻译家; 解帆 张宇星: 现当代中国翻译演变; 凌子瑾 李玉: 中国古代翻译史; 杨晨婷 余妮: 中国近代翻译史; 周诗卿 纪甜甜: 西方翻译理论简史<br />
<br />
3 Development: <br />
韩宛真 邓锦霞: 机器翻译的发展; 蒋淇玮 胡瑾：中国佛经翻译的发展; 吴琼 张银柳: 口译未来的发展; 成于思 龚钰冕: 翻译实践的发展; 郑华君 李璐伊: 新中国成立后翻译的发展; 韩海洋 彭育志：圣经翻译的发展<br />
<br />
4 Early Literary Examples: <br />
许鹏飞 肖伊宁: 林纾的翻译; 许晶 李凌月; 袁诗琦 姚佳; 邹鑫雨 曹润鑫:《红楼梦》的英译; 袁雨晨 肖茜: 严复和《天演论》; 苏琳 周玉娟<br />
<br />
5 Early Theories: <br />
徐梦蝶 杨逸; 陈涵 曾心媛; 陈静静 高明珠; 文晓艺 韦洪朗: 严复与林纾的翻译理论; 康浩宇 漆凯: 玄奘翻译理论; 刘洋诺 邬香: 系统翻译理论的早期尝试<br />
<br />
6 (Western) Theories: <br />
康灵凤 莫南: 功能对等理论; 吴琪 常慧月：多元系统理论; 纪甜甜 姜好: 后殖民翻译理论; 许静 游雨婷; 布拉格学派; 肖双玲 王轩: 目的论; 李丽丽 王源: 语言学派<br />
<br />
7 Methods: <br />
甘奉玉 丁代凤; 赵晓燕 张慧: 异化策略下的翻译方法; 张瑜 谭星越: 语义翻译和交际翻译; 吴一露 司妤: 直译和意译; 文偲荇 李梦: 增译和减译; 林敏 刘金惺琦<br />
<br />
8 Style: <br />
孔祥慧 孔亚楠; 罗雨晴 娄灿灿; 管钦清：不同翻译风格对比； 林鑫 李泳珊：文学风格可译与不可译; 曾雁湖 胡慧芳<br />
<br />
9 Translation Studies: <br />
罗维嘉 桂一枝; 彭小玲 彭丹; 全美欣 宋建茹:视听翻译;石迪文 易欢; 姚诚 张虎：中英语态对比及其翻译策略; 刘欧 陈永相：不可译性及其转化策略<br />
<br />
10 Theory and Practice: <br />
彭娟 陶冶; 吴子佳 雷旷溪: 归化异化在翻译中的实践; 汤蓓 王美玲; 蒋凤仪 顾东方; 周园曲 祝美梅; 阳慧 张佩闻; <br />
<br />
11 Different Aspects: <br />
周艺文 陈佳欣; 谭鑫洁 魏亚菲; 张毓婕 杨海容; <br />
<br />
12 East West Comparison: <br />
唐铭 欧蓉; 谭媛媛 刘艺: 中西翻译发展史及比较; 杨悦 义子楚: 中西文化差异对翻译的影响; 肖婷 徐佳：中国佛经翻译和圣经翻译的比较; 莫玲 袁天翼; 陈莎 陈江宁：中西方思维方式差异在翻译中的体现--以习语为例。<br />
<br />
13 Strategies: <br />
吴恺 马智星: 阿拉伯大征服时代与翻译学; 汤伊然 杨子泠(劳伦斯·韦努蒂的异化翻译策略); 彭永亮 谢子熠<br />
<br />
14 Contemporary translation Theories: <br />
Sagara Seydo Nguyen, Thuy Hien (Helen)<br />
<br />
==List of Topics for final exam papers in Translation Studies==<br />
<br />
学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
Ideas<br />
*literal vs. free<br />
*Faithful/loyal/foreignization/alienation/exotization vs. domestication/localization<br />
*unit of translation<br />
*contrastive analysis<br />
*the equivalence problem (functional, dynamic)<br />
*translatability vs untranslatability <br />
*SLT vs TLT relation<br />
*translation types, strategies, styles, methods<br />
*communication factors, translator role in social setting<br />
*cognitive factors<br />
*machine translation<br />
*translation quality assessment<br />
*translation ethics / manipulation etc.<br />
<br />
<br />
Suggested topics for final exam papers (chapters of book on translation studies)<br />
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Each student needs to prepare one small topic for a 5-min. classroom presentation (with a fellow student, who writes a handout about it) and needs to find a topic for a chapter of a book on Translation Studies. Alternatively to the classroom presentation, the student can also assist the teacher by preparing class, sorting the wiki page etc.<br />
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Here is the link to the list: [[Topics in Translation Studies]]<br />
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=Final Exam Papers=<br />
<span style="color:red">The deadline has been extended to '''Dec 21, 2020'''. Please find a paper you want to proof read, contact the author, proof read (by copying each paragraph and make corrections/suggestions in the copy) and sign until Dec 19. The author then finalizes (works in the suggestions) until the final deadline Dec 21!</span><br />
==Structure==<br />
需要有topic、学生姓名、学号、专业、Abstract、Key words、题目、摘要、关键词、不同的章回（比如1. Introduction、2. Nida’s Theory、3. ……、4.……、5. Conclusion、References)、然后还需要每个阶段以后有来源。一个阶段不要超过100英文词。每个章回会有几个阶段没问题。每个阶段以后需要一个同学的这个阶段的修改。<br />
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==Tips for writing your final exam paper: How to indicate your references==<br />
*You can use the existing book chapters here as an example.<br />
*Please write the text and indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. And then, you need to add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: East China Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
*Do '''not''' write any references like in one of the sample chapters:<br />
<br />
[1] dsalkfkdsa<br />
<br />
[2] adsfadsfag<br />
<br />
But only the following way:<br />
<br />
(Liu Miqing 2010, 17) in the text<br />
<br />
and then<br />
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'''References'''<br />
*Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
*Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: East China Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
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Also, please avoid using the three apostrophes like ' ' ' (without spaces). Use the equal signs to mark headers and subheaders instead. If your paper topic has two equal signs at the beginning and end of your topic, then use three equal signs for your sub headers. Example (without spaces):<br />
= = Topic = =<br />
< c e n t e r > Student Name, Student no. < / c e n t e r ><br />
= = = Abstract = = =<br />
This chapter is on ....<br />
= = = Key Words = = =<br />
Egg, Hen<br />
= = = 题目 = = =<br />
= = = 摘要 = = =<br />
= = = 关键词 = = =<br />
= = = Introduction = = =<br />
Here starts the normal text of the chapter. Please remember to indicate the source of EACH PARAGRAPH, sometimes even of single sentences. You can indicate it like this. (Woesler 2020, 345) And don't forget to mention the full bibliographical entry beneath under ''References''.<br />
= = = The Egg = = =<br />
Bla, bla, bla<br />
= = = The Hen = = =<br />
Bla, bla, bla<br />
= = = Conclusion = = =<br />
Bla, bla, bla<br />
= = = References = = =<br />
Woesler, Martin. (2020). Responsibility and Ethics in Times of Corona. Woesler, Martin and Hans-Martin Sass eds. ''Medicine and Ethics in Times of Corona'' Muenster: LIT<br />
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==Sample papers==<br />
You can find the full papers also on the Webpage [[History of Translation Studies]]). They are marked with "Sample paper".<br />
* A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories<br />
* An Analysis of the Book of Contemporary Translation Theories and Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications<br />
* Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theroy<br />
* Comparison of Derrida’s and Benjamin’s Translation View<br />
* Impacts of Western Translation Theories on The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish<br />
* On the Comparison between "Sublimation" an "Functonal Equivalence" Theories<br />
* Study on Gladys’ Translation of The Border Town from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics<br />
* The Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Communication<br />
* Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior<br />
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==Website to write your final exam paper on==<br />
[[20220112_final_exam|final exam page]]<br />
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As a reference, here is the information about last year's final exam papers:<br />
<br />
The website where everybody wrote their final exam paper on became too big and produced a database error. Therefore we split the website into 10 small websites. They are sorted like the chapters in the book. Please look for your name and find the right of the 10 small websites to edit your book chapter. Everybody also needs to help to improve other book chapters (copy a paragraph, paste it beneath, make your corrections in the paragraph and sign it).<br />
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Here you can write your Final Exam Papers:<br />
<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1, (samples)]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2, (samples)]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3, students: 蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi， 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi, 郑华君 Zheng Huajun, 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi, 陶冶 Tao Ye, 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4, students: 杨海容 Yang Hairong，游雨婷 You Yuting，王源 Wang Yuan，徐佳 Xu Jia，凌子瑾 Ling Zijin，石迪文 Shi Diwen，张玲 Zhang Ling，曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan，姚诚 Yao Cheng，朱旭 Zhu Xu，许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei，赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan，张琪 Zhang Qi，周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5, students: 李玉 Li Yu，林敏 Lin Min，文偲荇 Wen Sixing， 周诗卿 Zhou Shiqing，朱素瑶 Zhu Suyao，胡百辉 Hu Baihui，马智星 Ma Zhixing, 胡瑾 Hu Jin，张毓婕 Zhang Yujie，顾东方 Gu Dongfang，高明珠 Gao Mingzhu，张虎 Zhang Hu，李璐伊 Li Luyi，袁诗琦 Yuan Shiqi，王美玲 Wang Meiling，康浩宇 Kang Haoyu，王轩 Wang Xuan，陈永相 Chen Yongxiang，莫玲 Mo Ling，袁天翼 Yuan Tianyi]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6, students:汤蓓 Tang Bei欧蓉 Ou Rong，谭星越 Tan Xingyue，周罗平 Zhou Luoping，龚钰冕 Gong Yumian，邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu， 陈惠 Chen Hui，罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing，谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7, students:曾雁湖 Zeng Yanhu，邓锦霞 Deng Jinxia，姜好 Jiang Hao，管钦清 Guan Qinqing，唐铭 Tang Ming，娄灿灿 Lou Cancan，丁代凤 Ding Daifeng，苏琳 Su Lin，徐佳 Xu Jia， 刘艺 Liu Yi，李凌月 Li Lingyue，马娟 Ma Juan，吴琪 Wu Qi，姚佳 Yao Jia，李海泉 Li Haiquan，吴琼 Wu Qiong，杨子泠 Yang Ziling，林敏 Lin Min，彭锐宏 Peng Ruihong ，汤伊然 Tang Yiran，阳慧 Yang Hui，刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8, students: 王煜 Wang Yu，方洁玲 Fang Jieling，许静 Xu Jing，周书尧 Zhou Shuyao，彭永亮 Peng Yongliang，宋建茹 Song Jianru，韦洪朗 Wei Honglang，魏亚菲 Wei Yafei，张雪仪 Zhang Xueyi，甘奉玉 Gan Fengyu，赵茜 Zhao Xi，吴恺 Wu Kai，周艺文 Zhou Yiwen，张维虹 Zhang Weihong，司妤 Si Yu]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9, students: 易欢 Yi Huan，曾良 Zeng Liang，义子楚 Yi Zichu，欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling，石海瑶 Shi Haiyao，胡慧芳 Hu Huifang，吴一露 Wu Yilu，纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian, 桂一枝 Gui Yizhi，刘欧 Liu Ou，祝美梅 Zhu Meimei，谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan，张银柳 Zhang Yinliu，李泳珊 Li Yongshan，聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10, students:陈静静 Chen Jingjing， Thuy Hien Nguyen Thuy Hien，肖茜 Xiao Xi，余妮 Yu Ni，韩宛真 Han Wanzhen，陈佳欣 Chen Jiaxin，成于思 Cheng Yusi，方洁玲 Fang Jieling，张慧 Zhang Hui，吴子佳 Wu Zijia，孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui，许晶 Xu Jing，周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan，曹润鑫 Cao Runxin，肖伊宁 Xiao Yining, Sagara Seydou，欧阳静兰 Ouyang Jinglan]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_11 Part 11, students:李丽琴 Li Liqin, 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 刘怡瑜 Liu Yiyu, 李梦 Li Meng, 林鑫 Lin Xin, 罗维嘉 Luo Weijia, 漆凯 Qi Kai, 郭露 Guo Lu，张宇星 Zhang Yuxing, 陈涵 Chen Han, 李丽丽 Li Lili, 刘柳 Liu Liu, 陈莎 Chen Sha, 徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie,彭丹 Peng Dan， 谢子熠 Xie Ziyi，莫南 Mo Nan]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_12 Part 12, students: 全美欣 Quan Meixin，何长琦 He Changqi，刘博 Liu Bo，刘金惺琦 liu Jinxingqi，谌孙福 Chen Sunfu，曾芳缘 Zeng Fangyuan，肖婷 Xiao Ting，常慧月 Chang Huiyue，彭娟 Peng Juan，彭小玲 Peng Xiaoling，杨悦 Yang Yue，肖双玲 Xiao Shuangling，彭育志 Peng Yuzhi，孟莹 Meng Ying]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_13 Part 13, students: 杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng，杨逸 Yang Yi, 马淑雅 Ma Shuya, 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan, 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_14 Part 14, students:周思庆 Zhou Siqing，蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei，瞿淼 Qu Miao，韩海洋 Han Haiyang，刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi，解帆 Xie Fan，刘洋诺 Liu Yangnuo，袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen，邬香 Wu Xiang]<br />
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=Benefits=<br />
This course is registered as a "EU Expert" diploma supplement course. Collect 10 such courses during your study and you receive a certificate by the Jean Monnet Chair.<br />
<br />
=Misplaced things=<br />
Handout 4 of Ren Xin --<br />
贺骥.“世界文学”概念:维兰德首创：<br />
Summary： 主要讲述了人们发现维兰德首次提出“世界文学”的过程，维兰德对“世界文学”的概念以及与歌德的比较。<br />
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一、为何说维兰德首创“世界文学”？<br />
1987 年，德国学者魏茨( Hans-Joachim Weitz，1904—2001) 在《阿卡迪亚》杂志上发表了一篇题为《维兰德是“世界文学”一词的首创者》的短文。魏茨声称他发现了德国作家维兰德( Christoph Martin Wieland，1733—1813) 在1790 至1813 年间亲笔书写的一则手记中首次提到“世界文学”。但维兰德于1813 年1 月20 日去世，他的同时代人并不知道他写有这则手记，歌德在不知情的情况下从1827 年1 月15 日起多次使用了“世界文学”这个词。维兰德与歌德对于“世界文学”的概念相近，但他没有详细论证。所以说，“世界文学”一次是维兰德首创，歌德第一次明确提出的<br />
二、维兰德“世界文学”的概念与歌德的比较<br />
1. 维兰德在创作早期作品时：世界文学就是世界各民族的文学名作的总集。该观点体现在《民族文学》文学是世界各民族的共同精神财富，世界文学就是所有时代所有民族的典范作品总集。<br />
2. 和歌德一样，维兰德的世界文学概念带有言必称希腊的欧洲中心主义色彩，他的世界文学乃是以古希腊罗马文学为正典、以欧洲文学为核心的世界各民族文学经典的总集。“阅读最优秀的作家的杰作”乃是维兰德“世界文学”概念的核心: 杰作即古往今来世界各民族的文学经典。<br />
3. 维兰德认为优秀作品的形成过程: 首先作家必须以阅世高人的文化修养和娴熟的艺术技巧创造有审美价值的“文学杰作”；其次是后世“最优秀的人们”对这些杰作的“宣扬”和“奉为样板”。<br />
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三、“世界文学”概念有三种定义: <br />
( 1) 广义的“世界文学”指的是所有民族和所有时代文学作品的总和( Gesamtliteratur) ; <br />
( 2) 狭义的“世界文学”指的是超时代的、具有普遍审美价值的世界各民族文学的典范作品总集( Kanon) ，换言之，“世界文学”就是具有世界声誉的文学杰作的荟萃，这种精英主义意义上的“世界文学”概念在当今学界占据了主导地位; <br />
( 3) 歌德于1827 年提出的文学发展蓝图，它指的是国际性的文学交往( Kommunikation der Literatur) 和文化接触，交往的结果就是具有特性的各民族文学的融合。<br />
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Reference: <br />
贺骥.“世界文学”概念:维兰德首创[J].社会科学,2014(07):176-182. --[[User:ImRx|ImRx]] ([[User talk:ImRx|talk]]) 13:24, 13 April 2018 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
[1]文飙.阿拉伯民间文学的珍品《一千零一夜》.<br />
1.流传情况： <br />
《一千零一夜》早在公元六世纪左右已在波斯、伊拉克和埃及产生并流传着。公元十世纪阿拨斯王朝统治时代汇集成书,后又经过数百年不断搜集、整理、加工和修改；大约到十六世纪才形成比较完整的总集。<br />
2.故事发生的地点：多在当时阿拉伯世界两大中心城市— 巴格达及开罗。<br />
3.《一千零一夜》，中文另一译名为《天方夜谭( 谈) 》的原因：<br />
这个译名的来源说明中世纪时期阿拉伯帝国与中国的关系。阿拉伯半岛的麦加城在帝国中称为“ 圣城”, 城内有古庙名“ 天房”, 中国古嫂都译为“ 天方”, 实即“ 天房”之误。我国明朝以前称阿拉伯为黑衣大食国，明朝以后则称为“ 天方国”, 这就是旧译本称为《天方夜谭》的原因。<br />
4.故事内容： 《一千零一夜》是一部包罗万象的民间故事集, 有格言、谚语、童话, 王子公主的恋爱故事, 及市民冒险故事。这些故事的主角从底层的劳苦大众到最高的统治者哈里发。能够比较全面而深刻地反映中世纪东方的社会生活。<br />
5.《一千零一夜》的起源：<br />
在古代印度和中国为海岛中,有一个萨桑国。残暴的国王山鲁亚尔每夜娶一王后,翌晨即杀掉再娶。老百姓受此威胁,十分恐怖,纷纷携儿带女逃走,致使城中十室九空。然而国王仍照例命令宰相寻找女子供他虐杀。一天，宰相找遍民间，没找到一个,便满怀恐惧、忧郁地转回府邸来。宰相的大女儿山鲁佐德见父亲情状,问明情由,执意让父亲把她嫁给国王,宰相不得已才把女儿送进宫去。山鲁佐德一见国王,就悲伤地哭泣起来，她希望国王允许她在死之前能和妹妹再见一面,国王同意了,派人到宰相家召敦亚佐德进宫。姐妹俩高高兴兴地坐在床脚下谈笑。其时,敦亚佐德请求姐姐讲个故事消磨时间。山鲁佐德便征得国王许可,开始讲起故事来,借以引动国王的好奇心和兴趣,从而免遭杀戮。这样,日复一日,山鲁佐德一直讲了一千零一个夜晚,最后，终于使国王悔悟。<br />
6.影响：<br />
《一千零一夜》在世界各国广为传播。<br />
它最早介绍到欧洲,对西方文化起过一定的积极作用,许多欧美文学艺术家,如但丁、乔叟、薄伽丘、莎士比亚、塞万提斯、莱辛等都或多或少地受到它的直接或间接的影响。 <br />
在我国，早在六十多年以前就有了《一千零一夜》的译本。<br />
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[2]冯辉.略论《一千零一夜》对世界文学的借鉴与影响.<br />
摘要：《一千零一夜》对世界文学的借鉴与影响。荷马史诗中的巨人故事对《一千零一夜》的启发 ,《一千零一夜》对法国、英国、德国、中国作家的影响。 <br />
一、流传情况：<br />
1.流传时间：多数学者认为:它的故事和手抄本在中近东地区开始流传的年代约在8 世纪中叶—9 世纪中叶。一些世界文学史家则认为:大约在十字军东征时期(1095— 1291), 《一千零一夜》的故事已通过民间传到欧洲。<br />
2.流传情况： <br />
a. 18 世纪初, 法国人加朗根据叙利亚抄本, 首次把《一千零一夜》译成法文出版, 以后在欧洲出现了各种文字的译本。<br />
b. 中国1900 年有过译本, 以后不断的出现多种白话文本。新中国成立后, 纳训选译的3 卷本以及80 年代出版的全译本1 —6 卷, 收集了275 个故事。<br />
二、《一千零一夜》对古希腊荷马史诗巨人故事的借鉴<br />
《一千零一夜》第4 卷第172 个故事《辛伯达航海的故事》写三次航海的故事, 可以看出受到古希腊荷马史诗《奥德修纪》中独眼巨人故事的影响, 又带有阿拉伯民族的特色。<br />
三、《一千零一夜》对世界文学的影响：<br />
1.文艺复兴人文主义作家对《一千零一夜》中故事的扬弃与创新<br />
a)法国：《一千零一夜》第2 卷第75 个故事《阿里·艾尔哲明的故事》与法国文艺复兴时期拉伯雷《巨人传》中第三代国王庞大固埃出生时的行囊装载十分相似。<br />
b)英国：在《一千零一夜》第3 卷第152 个故事的《亚历山大大帝和弱小民族的故事》与英国文艺复兴时期的作家莎士比亚的《哈姆雷特》中有类似的情节，两个故事有历史延续性与巧妙的联系。<br />
《一千零一夜》：<br />
东征西讨的希腊国王亚历山大,一次路过一个弱小国家, 其民众各自门前准备好了坟墓, 家家一贫如洗, 安贫乐道, 所以并不怕亚历山大来争夺地盘。亚历山大十分好奇, 亲自见他们的国王。国王拿了两个头骨, 告诉他这是两个国王的头骨, 一个生前暴虐, 死后安拉让他下地狱;一个生前公正廉明, 爱护百姓, 死后安拉让他升入天堂。国王又问亚历山大:“ 到底你是这两个帝王中的哪一个呢?”年青的亚历山大受了感动, 要这个国王做他的宰相。国王拒绝了他, 说他虽拥有一个大帝国, 却有许多仇敌。国王虽穷, 他所有的一切“ 仅仅是知足” 。亚历山大感慨万千,告辞归去, 不再侵犯他们。<br />
《哈姆雷特》：第五幕第一场墓地对话中 <br />
哈姆雷特面对死人头骨说道:“ 要是我们用想像推测下去, 谁知道亚历山大的高贵的尸体, 不就是塞在酒桶口上的泥土?”“ 凯撒死了, 你尊严的尸体, 也许变了泥把破墙填砌, 啊! 他从前是何等的英雄, 现在只好替人挡风遮雨。”<br />
c)意大利：意大利文艺复兴时期的小说家卜伽丘的《十日谈》中的贵妇宴请国王吃鸡宴, 以打退国王邪念的故事, 在《一千零一夜》第4 卷第175 个故事《宰相夫人的故事》中有类似情节。<br />
2.对18 世纪英国现实主义小说家笛福《鲁宾逊飘流记》的影响<br />
把《辛伯达航海的故事》与《鲁宾逊飘流记》相比较, 辛伯达可以说是鲁宾逊典型的雏型与前身, 鲁宾逊则更加丰富, 更带时代特点。<br />
1)不同点： <br />
辛伯达是中世纪阿拉伯人中积极进取, 发展海外贸易,不断向外开拓勇于冒险的新兴商人, 他开初坐享父亲遗产,挥霍一空, 最后决定变卖家产七次到海上做冒险生意。<br />
鲁宾逊是18 世纪英国资本主义原始积累时期的新资产阶级商人的代表, 父亲没有给他丰厚的资产, 他本人是不满现状的小商人, 三次海外冒险；<br />
辛伯达是在第7次航海时在一个岛国居住了27 年才返回故乡, 鲁宾逊是在第三次航海时在一个荒岛上度过了28 年, 才返回故乡。<br />
2)相似点：<br />
两人都曾遭到过毁灭性的打击, 死里逃生,但每次都以顽强的毅力, 惊人的应变能力, 沉着应付, 化险为夷；发财致富的欲望, 对海外世界的好奇与向往, 每次都促使他们不安现状, 敢于做一次又一次的冒险。<br />
3.对中国作家的影响<br />
《一千零一夜》第1 卷第12 个故事《脚夫和巴格达三个女人的故事》中，脚夫诵的表达自己忠信的诗同中国现代作家钱钟书的长篇小说《围城》中的苏小姐自己写的诗相似。这里已改造成一首爱情诗, 方鸿渐当时并不知道是苏小姐自己写的诗, 说这首诗是借的外债,<br />
四、小结<br />
因为国别不同, 语言不通, 翻译技术有限，后来的作家们不一定能亲自看到这些《一千零一夜》中的故事原文。但阿拉伯文化与文学对欧洲文艺复兴运动及后来的世界文学的发展起到的推动作用和所作的贡献是世界发展史上所公认的事实。<br />
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[3]陆英英.《一千零一夜》在欧洲.<br />
摘要： 介绍了欧洲许多国家早期对《一千零一夜》的译本。《一千零一夜》译成欧洲各种文字后, 引起了欧洲人收集和研究东方文学的热望, 激起了他们了解东方的兴趣。《一千零一夜》对欧洲文学包括戏剧、小说、诗歌、诗剧都产生了巨大影响。<br />
1.法国译本：<br />
A.1704-1717年出现的法国安东尼·加仑的译本是《一千零一夜》——最著名的译本。为了迎合读者掺杂了许多自己想象的情节<br />
B.1828年法国出版特雷布梯的译本 —— 增加情节，接近原版<br />
C.1969年出版了勒内赫瓦姆的《一千零一夜》译本 —— 忠于原作<br />
2.英国译本（几乎都是从法国译本转译而来）： <br />
A.1811年乔纳森·斯科特出版的译本 —— 最突出<br />
B.1838年，亨利·托伦斯打算给译文加注释, 但他只译了五十夜就死了<br />
C.1839-1841年，爱德华·威廉·莱恩的《一千零一夜》三卷本（从阿文直译），删去了当时英国的道德传统所不能接受的故事, 并写了许多注释 —— 极具参考价值<br />
D.1885年，理查德·伯顿的译本出版 —— 最完备的译本<br />
E.英国军官伯顿（会讲阿拉伯语）—— 强烈殖民主义色彩<br />
3.德国译本：<br />
A.第一个把《一千零一夜》译成德文的是东方学家冯哈曼尔。<br />
B.1837-1841年之间出现了凡勒的德译本 ——忠实原文，生涩<br />
C.东方学家莱塔马教授 —— 德国最著名的译本<br />
4.罗马尼亚译本：<br />
A.1771年，出版的《哈伦·拉希德的故事》——罗马尼亚最早<br />
B.1783年，修道院主教罗法伊勒出版了根据希腊文译出的全译本<br />
C.1835-1838年格拉西姆·哥嘉出版《哈利曼或者阿拉伯神话故事》四卷本译本<br />
D.1966-1976，罗马尼亚最大出版社——梅纳法出版社出版了十四卷本的《一千零一夜》<br />
5.俄文译本：<br />
A.萨利尔译的，东方学家卡利姆斯基出版的。<br />
B.高尔基于1904年也译过。<br />
C.列夫·托尔斯泰也译过几篇，如《皇帝和衬衣的故事》等。<br />
6.捷克译本：<br />
1958-1963年捷克斯洛伐克科学院出版的塔瓦外孜授译的《一千零一夜》全集。<br />
7.波兰译本：<br />
1774年出版了第一本——《阿拉伯传奇或一千零一夜》<br />
8.威尼斯译本：<br />
1757-1762年，出版了四卷本的《一千零一夜》和《一千零一日》故事集, 书名为《阿拉伯故事》。<br />
9.希腊译本：<br />
译者为布利兹威斯，译本分三卷。<br />
10.此外还有葡萄牙语、荷兰语、丹麦语、瑞典语、匈牙利语等译本。<br />
东方学家朝温在《阿拉伯著作一览》一书中用了一百二十页专门介绍《一千零一夜》的各种版本和文本。<br />
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参考文献：<br />
[1]文飙. 阿拉伯民间文学的珍品《一千零一夜》[J].徐州师范学院学报,1978(02):59-64.<br />
[2]冯辉. 略论《一千零一夜》对世界文学的借鉴与影响[J].河南教育学院学报(哲学社会科学版),2001(01):110-112.<br />
[3]陆英英.《一千零一夜》在欧洲[J].阿拉伯世界,1983(02):84-90. --[[User:ImRx|ImRx]] ([[User talk:ImRx|talk]]) 13:34, 16 April 2018 (UTC)<br />
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[1]杨晓雨.佛经翻译与圣经翻译比较[J].考试周刊,2017(74):192. <br />
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摘要： 中国翻译史的源头是佛经翻译，而西方翻译史则始于另一部宗教巨著———圣经翻译。中国的佛经翻译和西方的圣经翻译虽然在具体内容、翻译分期、信徒和对应的时代背景等方面有所差异，但两者都经历了直译、意译、直意译相结合的发展历程。本文对比了佛经翻译和圣经翻译，探求宗教类文献翻译中的共同特点。<br />
1.佛经翻译<br />
A.四个时期：<br />
a. 创立时期（东汉末年到西晋），代表人物有安世高和支谦；<br />
b.初步发展阶段是（晋代到隋朝），代表人物有道安和鸠摩罗什；<br />
c.鼎盛时期（唐朝），代表人物为玄奘、不空；<br />
d.逐渐结束于北宋。<br />
B.翻译形式<br />
最初由西域僧人的梵语口授，再找汉人加以润饰。音译。<br />
后来出现精通汉语的印度高僧和熟练掌握梵语的中国高僧。直译为主。<br />
C.翻译大家<br />
三藏法师，从数量和翻译成就都无人能比。直译&意译结合。<br />
2.圣经翻译<br />
A.概况<br />
圣经翻译是西方翻译史的起源。经历了希伯来文－希腊文－拉丁文的过程。<br />
B.流传形式：手写本。<br />
C.最早的圣经译本：公元前3-2世纪《圣经·旧约》（据《西方翻译简史》记载。后世也叫《七十子希腊文本》。<br />
缺点：用词晦涩难懂，不易理解，跟当时的希腊语有较大的出入。<br />
优点：此译本特别完整准确地还原了圣经原籍的内容。<br />
D.翻译大家：a. 西塞罗—西方翻译史上最早的翻译理论家，主张活译。<br />
b. 圣哲罗姆—翻译了第一部标准拉丁语圣经。直译和意译相结合。<br />
3.佛经翻译和圣经翻译的相似性：<br />
经历了直译—意译—直意译结合的过程。<br />
A.最初翻译时，中西译者都是逐字逐句的直译。<br />
原因：宗教经典神圣不可侵犯，译经僧侣对宗教经典抱有虔诚态度；<br />
由于译者身份的局限性，缺乏专业的语言翻译基础。<br />
B.随着经验的累积，译者们开始倡导意译。<br />
代表人物：马丁路德<br />
原因：受众人群都是普通老百姓，需要简单流畅、明晓易懂的语言才能让教义被大众所通晓。<br />
C.主张直译&意译相结合。<br />
代表人物：玄奘大师—《钦定本圣经》<br />
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[2]顾颍.从佛经与《圣经》翻译看中西方翻译思想——《中西方翻译思想比较》评析[J].常熟理工学院学报,2008(03):122-124.<br />
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摘要：作者认为比利时学者安德烈勒菲弗尔（当代文学翻译学术带头人，较有影响力）由于对中国翻译史缺乏深入研究，对中国的佛经翻译了解不透彻，在《中西方翻译思想比较》中提出“西方译者更为忠实原文, 而中国译者则倾向于归化原文”的观点较为片面。并提出佛经翻译和圣经翻译的共有规律：直译、意译两原则交替主导翻译活动并趋于成熟，直至最终实现两者的有机融合。<br />
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[3]姜晏.译介学视角下的中西方《圣经》翻译[J].青岛大学师范学院学报,2011,28(02):125-128.<br />
摘要：《圣经》翻译的主要功能是服务于宗教的传播。但译者们对其“创造性叛逆”的翻译，使得《圣经》对世界各民族语言，包括对中国语言文学都产生了深远影响，同时推动各国文化交流、促进不同思想的包容。<br />
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1.翻译不只是语言文字的转换，而是应关注原文在外语和本族语转换过程中的信息的失落、变形、增添、扩散等问题。<br />
2.《圣经》翻译对西方各国（民族）语言的影响 —— 不分析译本翻译的好坏，而是分析译本对译入语国家或民族的文化和语言所产生的影响。<br />
A.4世纪，乌裴拉主教翻译成东日耳曼语。<br />
8、9世纪，阿尔弗雷得等翻译成古英语。<br />
这些标志着民族语言翻译的开始。<br />
B.《圣经》翻译在13世纪达到了新的高潮。<br />
C.马丁路德：把《圣经》新约和旧约翻译成德语，并且翻译成能被大众所接受的语言。他认为翻译就是让外语成为译者的本土化语言。<br />
作用：消除了普通人对《圣经》的语言障碍，对统一德语和发展德语做出贡献。<br />
D.威廉廷代尔的译本成为英国翻译史上最著名的英王钦定本的主要参照本。<br />
作用：完全符合英语的用法习惯，增加了英语的表现力；<br />
对英国散文、语言和文化发展起到了不可估量的作用。<br />
3.《圣经》在汉译中的创造性叛逆<br />
A.创造的叛逆性翻译是为了使《圣经》在新的环境中易于被受众接受。<br />
B.特征：<br />
a.显著的归化特征：吴经熊采用骚体，把外国的体裁中国化。<br />
吴经熊翻译的《新约全集》:“天主聖子耶穌基督福音之濫觴，正如《意灑雅先知書》之所記云:吾遣使者，以先啟行; 為爾前驅，備爾行程。”<br />
b.误译：严复的译本以中国士大夫为主要读者，因此他的译本符合士大夫的价值观，同时也降低阅读难度。<br />
c.改编或删节：严复考虑到中国读者几千年来的儒家文化熏陶，迎合中国道德伦理和文化。<br />
4.《圣经》汉译对中国语言文学的影响<br />
a.丰富了汉语词汇，为现代汉语带来许多新意象和表达方式。如，天堂、伊甸园等。<br />
b.影响中国现代文学的创作主体，许多意象来源于《圣经》中的典故。<br />
c.影响许多中国著名的作家和文学理论家。如，鲁迅、冰心、徐志摩等。<br />
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[4] 曾志琼.浅析“圣经故事”包含的男权思想及其危害[J].西昌学院学报(自然科学版),2004(04):21-23.<br />
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《圣经》中包含的男权思想：<br />
1.创世纪故事中包含的男权思想。<br />
a.在上帝创世的神话中，男性亚当是用象征承载人类生命的泥土按上帝的形象创造出来的，而女性夏娃是作为男性的附属品用亚当的肋骨而创造出来的，目的是为亚当消除孤独寂寞。<br />
b.创世纪故事中，包含“女人是祸水”思想。作为女性象征的夏娃经不住蛇的诱惑，偷吃了禁果，使人类受到上帝的惩罚，开始了苦难。<br />
2.“圣经故事”中的先知先觉、基督英雄们都是男性。<br />
人类历史的英雄史都是谱写男性的。整个圣经故事都是以男性英雄为主线而描绘基督教历史的。从最早制造方舟振救人类的挪亚，到带领以色列人出埃及，使以色列人摆脱埃及法老贵族奴役的摩西，到带领以色列人力战外族，为以色列人开缰拓土的约书亚，再到带领以色列人雪耻，赶走外族，使以色列人建国的大卫以及拯救人类的耶稣等等。<br />
3.婚姻家庭中的男权思想、夫权思想 <br />
a.嫡长子制，忽视女性后代的存在。<br />
b.多妻制。基督英雄们都是妻妾成群，可以主人的身份任意拥有女人。<br />
c.休妻制。女性不论犯不犯错都可能被休。甚至可以被男性当财产、畜生一样送人。<br />
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[5]菲利斯·特丽波,周辉.女性主义诠释学与圣经研究[J].圣经文学研究, 2009(00):35-44.<br />
摘要：作者认为出现在父权制社会的圣经充满了男性形象和语言，对《圣经》进行重新的诠释，以挑战圣经中的父权制。焦点是希伯来圣经，重点不仅仅落在不利于女性的事例上。 考量了圣经中女性研究的三条女性主义进路。<br />
1.阐释了一些不利于女性的故事。希伯来女子从生到死都属于男人，遭受到男性权威的虐待、凌辱。<br />
2.重申被忽视的女性作为上帝的篇章和反抗父权制文化的女性形象。<br />
3.利用前两种方式，同情地重新讲述关于妇女的故事<br />
（作者菲利斯·特丽波被认为是在圣经文本基础上探索妇女与性别问题的领袖人物）<br />
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[6]林燕.女性主义圣经诠释概述[J].宗教学研究,2013(04):213-219.<br />
女性经验是重新阐释圣经的基点。<br />
女性主义圣经诠释随着女性神学的繁荣而发展。女性圣经诠释是不同于女性主义神学的独立学科，它具有独立的研究前提和范畴。<br />
核心内容：对传统的圣经诠释和基督神学所建构的两性关系提出质疑和批判；寻找、重建圣经中被忽视、被遗忘的女性形象，恢复重建女性的地位和尊严；为争取女性在教会中担任圣职而斗争。<br />
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参考文献：<br />
[1]杨晓雨.佛经翻译与圣经翻译比较[J].考试周刊,2017(74):192. <br />
[2]顾颍.从佛经与《圣经》翻译看中西方翻译思想——《中西方翻译思想比较》评析[J].常熟理工学院学报,2008(03):122-124.<br />
[3]姜晏.译介学视角下的中西方《圣经》翻译[J].青岛大学师范学院学报,2011,28(02):125-128.<br />
[4]曾志琼.浅析“圣经故事”包含的男权思想及其危害[J].西昌学院学报(自然科学版),2004(04):21-23. <br />
[5]菲利斯·特丽波,周辉.女性主义诠释学与圣经研究[J].圣经文学研究,2009(00):35-44.<br />
[6]林燕.女性主义圣经诠释概述[J].宗教学研究,2013(04):213-219.--[[User:ImRx|ImRx]] ([[User talk:ImRx|talk]]) 02:42, 4 June 2018 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
《霍乱时期的爱情》<br />
加夫列尔·加西亚·马尔克斯——拉美魔幻现实主义的领军人物<br />
1967年，《百年孤独》；1982年， 获诺贝尔奖；1985年，《霍乱时期的爱情》<br />
故事是以费尔明娜和阿里萨、乌尔比诺医生爱恨悲欢的三角恋为主线，以阿里萨与其余622名女性形形色色的性欲与真情为副线。小说采用了顺时叙述。以乌尔比诺的棋友之死为故事的开始，先后讲述了：医生的婚后生活；阿里萨和费尔明娜如诗如梦的初恋，乌尔比诺追求费尔明娜并与之结婚；阿里萨的失望心情和纵欲寻欢；费尔明娜婚后生活的不快和孀居的孤独；阿里萨耐心点燃费尔明娜心中的爱火。<br />
一.主要人物：<br />
1.阿里萨：喜欢阅读、喜欢写诗。多愁善感，阴郁。一生中有过623个女人，但费尔明娜是他一生的挚爱。最后在他并不怎么上心的航运公司里获得了董事长的职位。<br />
“费尔明娜，我等待这个机会，已经有51年9个月零4天了，在这段时间里，我一直爱着你，从我第一眼见到你，直到现在，我第一次向你表达我的誓言，我永远爱你，忠贞不渝。”这句话是在等待了半个世纪终于等到费尔明娜的丈夫死去后，阿里萨在葬礼之后再一次对费尔明娜隔了51年的第二次表白。<br />
2.费尔明娜：她是骡子商人的女儿，美丽、智慧并且高傲。被阿里萨追求却遭到父亲的强烈反对，后来嫁给医生乌尔比诺。<br />
3.乌尔比诺医生：擅长治疗霍乱的医生，黄金单身汉，知识渊博，外表帅气（虽然电影里图片很猥琐），热爱城市并致力于为他的城市他的家乡奉献，但实际上骨子里较懦弱，在和费尔明娜的婚姻里婆媳关系不合，他不敢冲撞他的母亲。“只有上帝知道我有多爱你。”<br />
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二.爱情&霍乱的隐喻关系<br />
1.在追求费尔明娜的过程中，阿里萨生理和心理都经受了如霍乱症状一般的痛苦。在阿里萨对费尔明娜一见钟情后，“他开始寡言少语，茶饭不思，辗转反侧，彻夜难眠”。<br />
等待费尔明娜回第一封信的时候“他腹泻，吐绿水，晕头转向，常常突然昏厥，脉搏微弱，呼吸沉重，像垂死之人一样冒着虚汗…”这些症状和霍乱的症状很相似。但事实上阿里萨并没有患上霍乱，后边医生的检查也可以证实。<br />
所以，我们可以这样认为：爱情，在阿里萨身上的表现就如同霍乱对人的侵袭一样。在这本书中，霍乱也就代表爱情，所有的症状都是变相的爱。<br />
但不同的是：疾病带来的恐惧是自私的，是从自我角度出发的，是害怕失去自己；而爱情带来的恐惧常常源自于所爱之人，是害怕失去对方。<br />
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2.在中国古代文学里也有关于爱情对疾病的意象。<br />
在中国，因爱情引起的疾病叫做“相思病”，一般是因对某人的思念而生病。表现为焦虑、食欲不振、失眠、幻想、晕厥等类似生病的身体状态。<br />
很著名的例子就是《红楼梦》中的林黛玉人物形象。 还有《西厢记》张生为崔莺莺“为伊消得人憔悴”也是“相思病”的例子。这样的例证还有很多。<br />
问题：如果爱情是一种病，能致病，那么医生能不能诊断并治愈因爱情引起的疾病呢？<br />
大家都知道，林黛玉的身体一向比较弱，但是住在大观园中可以让黛玉有很好的物质条件治疗或者从中医角度来讲“调养”她的身体。看当时最好的医生, 吃的是最难得到的药材做成的药。可是在听到宝玉和宝钗成亲的消息后还是郁郁而终。说明在中国的古典文学中，医生并不可以治愈爱情引起的相思病。<br />
我们再看西方文学里《变形记》——“所有人都知道, 真正的疾病和爱情疾病是很相似的: 意识变得虚弱, 眼神变得憔悴,膝盖变得无力… 上帝啊! 医生们真是无知啊! ”<br />
还有《霍乱》里，母亲担心阿里萨得了霍乱,去看了医生。做了很多必要的医疗检查, 最后通过对阿里萨的性格了解以及与阿里萨的谈话确定了病因。医生最后能确诊阿里萨的爱情疾病并不是因为他高超的医术或者他的各种医学常识, 而是因为他本人的年纪来带的阅历以及对爱情和对阿里萨的了解得出的结论。<br />
以及小说里医术高超的乌比尔诺医生, 虽然有广博深人的医学知识储量, 他研究霍乱是为了在医学层面上彻彻底底的治疗它。他一点也不懂爱, 不懂爱情。所以，乌比尔诺医生也不具有诊断爱情疾病的能力。<br />
所以，中西方古典的文学作品中, 医生是并不赋有能力来诊断和治疗爱情所引起的疾病的。<br />
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三.主人公的青年、中年、老年三个阶段他们的爱情。<br />
a.青年阶段——浪漫疯狂，以阿里萨和费尔明娜的初恋为主。因费尔明娜的醒悟接着拒绝阿里萨而结束——“不，请别这样，忘了吧”、“今天见到您，我发现我们之间不过是一场幻觉”。这个时期，阿里萨是以等待、信还有音乐追求费尔明娜的，我认为这三项几乎是在所有的爱情中都会或多或少起到作用的。<br />
等待。自从阿里萨对费尔明娜一见倾心之后，他就每天在费尔明娜上学必经的道路上，捧着一本诗集在一棵杏树下假装看书，只为了一天能匆匆忙忙地看上她四次，风雨无阻。<br />
信。最初阿里萨缺乏勇气向费尔明娜说出自己的爱意，于是开始给费尔明娜写信，从一张便条最后变成了70页的情书。也是在频繁通信中，打动了费尔明娜。<br />
音乐。在因费尔明娜失眠的夜晚，他在费尔明娜的窗外演奏自创的爱的华尔兹。费尔明娜也是在他的音乐中更深刻的了解他。<br />
总的来说，青年时期：他们的相爱过程短，不成熟，更多的是幻想。<br />
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b.中年阶段，主要是费尔明娜与乌尔比诺医生的婚姻以及阿里萨漫长的等待中的孤独狩猎生涯。<br />
费&阿：隐秘顽强。阿里萨单相思，对抗时间和死亡。<br />
阿里萨在被拒绝：先是自虐，后转移对费尔明娜及她丈夫的怨恨与诅咒，随后又对费尔明娜宽恕，决定和费尔明娜留在同一个城市，并且开始新一轮漫长的等待，他的单相思——对抗时间和死亡，等乌比尔诺医生死去。<br />
爱情的失败也让阿里萨意识到自己的身份和社会地位配不上费尔明娜，逼迫着自己去经营生活，改变自己的社会地位。<br />
阿里萨猎艳：通过性寻找爱，消除内心孤独感<br />
同时他和众多女人发生肉体关系。但其实正是通过和其他女人的相处，来消除内心的孤独感，弥补得不到费尔明娜爱情的缺失。他也更加确认费尔明娜对他的不可替代，是他一生唯一的挚爱。<br />
费&乌：世俗婚姻。陪伴，稳定、平淡。<br />
在费尔明娜与乌尔比诺医生的婚姻中，他们互相陪伴，平淡也稳定。只有一次例外，就是乌尔比诺出轨芭芭拉林奇小姐，被费尔明娜发现后，医生经过长时间的内心矛盾并最终坦白。<br />
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c.老年阶段——理性智慧，以费尔明娜和阿里萨的黄昏恋为主。<br />
阿里萨一直坚持到了医生去世。他以他的坚持和耐心打动了费尔明娜，让费尔明娜愿意接受他。他们开始了一段旅行，旅行结束的时候因为他们不愿面对现实所以不愿回去，最后乘着以霍乱为帆的船继续航行。<br />
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四.小说里讲述的各种各样的爱情可能。<br />
开篇摄影师赫雷米亚与黑白混血女人之间隐蔽的恋情；<br />
阿里萨和费尔明娜持续了半个世纪的柏拉图式的精神恋爱（包括他们青涩纯粹的初恋与年老时的黄昏恋）；<br />
阿里萨对费尔明娜忠贞不渝的单相思；<br />
费尔明娜与乌尔比诺医生的世俗婚姻爱情；<br />
乌尔比诺与林奇小姐战战兢兢的婚外恋；<br />
阿里萨和众多女人们纯粹的肉欲追逐的露水爱情；<br />
阿里萨与14岁少女的洛丽塔式的忘年恋…<br />
忠贞的爱、雀跃的爱、逃离的爱、私通的爱、狂热的爱、转瞬即逝的爱、生死相依的爱…<br />
不同层次不同角色不同性质的爱情，这篇小说也堪称是“爱情的教科书”“陈列爱情的博物馆”<br />
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五.除了爱情之外的其他主题。<br />
1.衰老。儿童摄影师赫雷米亚德圣阿莫尔的自杀；<br />
岁月加于人的痕迹——表现在岁月加于主人公身上的痕迹（蹒跚的步态、上楼梯的速度、意外的跌倒、满是皱纹的皮肤、稀疏的头发）；<br />
乌尔比诺医生、阿里萨想尽办法延缓衰老 <br />
2.死亡。小说中提到最多的是霍乱，也是整个故事发生的宏大背景。<br />
借以描写这种难以治愈、神秘莫测的疾病来写死亡。因为霍乱预示着死亡，而且在当时几乎就等于死亡，当时地的生产力水平和医学发展不足以让人们去抗衡。<br />
当人们被生理上的痛楚折磨时，往往无力也无心开出精神上的花朵。然而小说中描写的就是这样一种稀有的生命之花，因为爱情有勇气与苦难和死亡的疾病抗争。<br />
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阿里萨一生都在追求费尔米纳的爱情，即使面临死亡的抉择也义无反顾: 冷酷无情的费尔米纳的父亲最初阻挠女儿与他的爱情时，甚至用死亡来威胁阿里萨，但是阿里萨毫无畏惧，“‘朝我开枪吧!’他说，把一只手放在胸口上，‘没有比为爱情而死更光荣的事情了’”。因为有了爱情，所以阿里萨充满了无畏的勇气。他为了爱情不怕死，并且崇尚为爱而死。<br />
同时阿里萨的爱情之路实质上是一直与死亡作斗争，他到年老时害怕衰老和死亡，因为他明白，只有乌尔比诺医生死去，他才有机会再接近费尔米纳，因此，他努力与时间、衰老、死亡作斗争，他要为爱好好活着，战胜时间，战胜衰老，跨越死亡，他要活过乌尔比诺，才能重获费尔明娜。<br />
所以说这两个主题实际上也是与爱情密切相关的，因爱情而起的，可以归结到爱情主题上。<br />
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参考文献：<br />
1.於珍珍.《霍乱时期的爱情》中的医生形象分析[J].才智,2014(32):318-319.<br />
2.荣利. “滥情”的痴情者[D].浙江师范大学,2015.<br />
3.谈清妍.爱情的乌托邦——解读《霍乱时期的爱情》中的爱情与死亡[J].襄樊学院学报,2009,30(06):51-54.<br />
4.高小斐,孙世友.悲欢离合五十年——浅论《霍乱时期的爱情》中的爱情[J].才智, 2014(16):288.<br />
5.李贞琤.疾病缠绕下的爱情——马尔克斯小说爱情主题与疾病主题关系探究[J].开封教育学院学报,2017,37(12):38-39+42.<br />
6.姚婧.情感的疾病化书写——解读《霍乱时期的爱情》[J].名作欣赏,2015(17):125-128.--[[User:ImRx|ImRx]] ([[User talk:ImRx|talk]]) 03:00, 4 June 2018 (UTC)<br />
<br />
handout of张传伟<br />
世界主义与世界文学<br />
一、世界主义<br />
<br />
1、世界文学的定义：<br />
(1) 各民族优秀文学的经典之总汇；<br />
(2) 一种用于从总体上研究、评价和批评文学的全球的、跨文化的和比较的视角；(3)不同语言中的文学生产、流通、翻译和批评性选择的发展演变过程。<br />
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2、形成和发展<br />
（1）词源探究<br />
作为一个跨学科的理论概念和批评话语，世界主义可以追踪到古希腊的哲学思想那里，甚至这个术语本身就出自希腊语。我们今天在英文中所描述的世界主义( cosmopolitanism) 是由两个词组成的:cosmos在希腊语中，意为宇宙或世界，polis意为城市或城邦。这样我们就有了“世界”这个词。那些信仰其伦理道德的人便被人称为“世界主义者”( cosmopolites)，而他们的主张和理论教义便被称为“世界主义”。这就是世界主义概念就其字面意义而言的形成。<br />
（2）后世发展<br />
世界主义通常在三个层面得到讨论:哲学的、政治学和社会学的以及文化和文学的层面。哲学维度的世界主义可以追溯到柏拉图和亚里士多德的著作，这两位希腊先哲本质上并不赞成世界主义，在他们看来，人们通常生活在自己的城邦，并且依恋特定的政治教义，所以很容易与之相认同。当他们的城邦遭受外敌入侵时，公民们便会奋起抗击，保卫自己的城邦。对这些古希腊人来说，好的公民不应当与外邦人分享过多的利益。这一观点后来逐步发展为爱国主义和民族主义。在中国，爱国主义和民族主义对那些试图形成独特的中华民族和文化认同的知识分子一直有着极大的吸引力，一个特例就是五四时期，当时虽曾有人鼓吹过世界主义，但很快就销声匿迹，淹没在民族主义的汪洋大海中了，其原因恰在于当时的中国文化土壤和时代精神并不适合世界主义驻足。<br />
但并不是所有古希腊先哲们都反对世界主义，另一些思想较为开放且见多识广的古希腊知识分子，尤其是犬儒派哲人迪奥格尼斯(Diogenes)则鼓吹一种较为普世的伦理道德，因为他并不把自己局限于特定的城邦，甚至公开宣称:“我是一个世界公民。”从此，“世界公民”(citizen of the world)便成了所有信奉世界主义的人所致力于追求的理想。当然，他们所追求的并非是特定的民族—国家的利益，而更是一种普世价值和全人类的共同利益。他们的这种理想和追求并不满足于局限在哲学和社会政治层面，他们还试图将其推而广之。<br />
当代学者在讨论世界主义时很少引证这些远古时期的观点，但其中的某些观点却依然在现代哲学家的著作中得到响应和发展。启蒙时期的哲学家如康德则表示了对其的莫大兴趣，提出一种世界主义的法律或权利。19 世纪以前的不同形式的世界主义仅仅停留在哲学家的假想和论辩层面上的话，那么自19 世纪以来，那些有远大抱负的人便逐渐开始将世界主义付诸实践了，从哥伦布发现“新大陆”到世界贸易航线形成等都为全球化的进程奠定了基础。<br />
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二、世界文学<br />
<br />
1、源起<br />
歌德是德语“世界文学”( Weltliteratur) 一词的创制者，也是第一个明确提出世界文学观念的人。歌德关于世界文学的论述集中在1827-1830年间，归纳起来有三个要点: 其一，世界文学是一个对话和流通的平台，各民族文学可以通过进入这个平台相互交流、取长补短、相得益彰。其二，世界文学是一个合乎世界主义的理想，能够推动各民族文学逐渐打破孤立割裂状态，影响融合而形成一个有机的统一体。其三，世界文学是彰显民族文学价值的场所。歌德就站在德国的角度谈论世界文学，他渴望本民族文学在推动世界文学形成过程中扮演“光荣的”、“美好的”角色，对其他民族文学(例如法国文学) 所处的优势地位则十分敏感。<br />
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2、“世界文学”内涵<br />
在《什么是世界文学？》一书中，丹穆若什以世界、文本和读者为中心，进一步阐释“世界文学”的三重定义：“世界文学是民族文学间的椭圆折射”“世界文学是从翻译中获益的文学”“世界文学不是指一套经典文本，而是指一种阅读模式——一种以超然的态度进入与我们自身时空不同的世界的形式”。首先，“椭圆折射”利用椭圆具备两个焦点的特性，指代世界文学的双重性质。世界文学具有两个核心要点——源文化和主体文化。一部文学作品如果想成为世界文学的一部分，需要从源文化出发，被他国文化空间接受。“接受”过程与接受主体的民族文化传统和价值需求相关。因此，世界文学既与源文化相关，又与主体文化相关，是一种双重折射。仔细分析，世界文学双重折射特性表明世界文学作品并非静止、孤立，而是在不同国家、不同文化间互相流通、交流、传播、碰撞。世界文学作品，不仅受到源文化熏陶，也经过主体文化的接受和改造。其次，由于语言障碍，世界文学作品的传播和流通必须依赖文学翻译。但是，文学语言在翻译过程中会有得失。丹穆若什认为翻译中对于得失的衡量是区分民族文学与世界文学的标志。具体来看，在翻译中受损的文学，“通常局限于本民族或本地区的传统内”；从翻译中获益的文学，“进入世界文学的范畴”。他进一步指出，民族文学进入世界文学，当范围扩大后，“风格上的损失会被深度上的扩张所抵消”。由此看出，世界文学作品源于民族文学而高于民族文学，价值取向超越民族特性，拥有“世界性”。最后，丹穆若什认为世界文学并非经典文本的简单集合，而是通过一种阅读，使读者超越自身时空，进入更加广阔的世界。作为阅读模式，一部作品能否成为世界文学，取决于其他国家、民族读者的阅读效果。一旦外国作品开始在读者脑中发生共鸣，世界文学就开始活动。这种“共鸣”，实际是不同民族文学作品的相同价值取向的融汇。作品自身价值取向被本国以外读者认可，超越民族性，成为世界性价值。由此看来，世界文学不代表文学作品数量的多少，而是作为一种阅读模式，“可以通过少量作品来深入体验，也可以通过大量作品来广泛探寻”，在世界范围内寻找共鸣。<br />
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3、“世界文学”与“世界的文学”<br />
一般而言，“世界文学”和“世界的文学”这两个概念多半是在明确的不同语境中被运用：若说“世界文学”依然意味着作品之无可非议的重要性，那么，“世界的文学”则更多地指向世界上那些不怎么有名、却能展示新方向的文学；它们不同凡响、颇有魅力，却还未在读者意识中占有重要位置。也就是说，“世界的文学”未必就是审美和经典意义的上乘之作，或得到广泛接受的作品。谈论“世界的文学”，人们面对的是浩繁的书卷，无数作品和文化传统，难以把握的界线，并在挑选时怀有开放态度。<br />
20 世纪70 年代，世界体系理论( World System Theory) 兴起于美国，对世界文学观念产生重大影响。以美国著名社会学家伊曼纽尔·沃勒斯坦( Immanuel Wallerstein) 为代表的世界体系理论的核心，是把人类社会看成一个由结构性经济联系及各种内在制度制约的一体化的体系，以此作为考察社会发展变迁的分析单位。这是对20 世纪五六十年代兴盛的以民族国家为分析单位、研究人类社会发展变迁的经典现代化理论的反拨。<br />
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4、世界文学与比较文学<br />
世界文学与比较文学的关系引起西方学者的重视。一种声音认为，世界文学相比于比较文学，只是在原有学科体系基础上扩大比较范围。如大卫·费里斯指出：“比较文学应成为世界文学，只是扩大比较范围，比较方法不变。”另一种声音认为，比较文学与世界文学并行不悖，相互作用。“国别文学、比较文学和世界文学彼此间保持动态相互作用关系，都无法完全取代对方。”②对于读者来讲，世界文学仅存于国家空间。比如中国读者阅读海明威《老人与海》，即使该作品在世界范围内得到广泛认可，作为世界文学作品享誉中外，但对于中国读者而言，阅读的只是一部美国小说而已。比较研究作为方法，通用于国别文学、比较文学和世界文学研究。但是，如库班指出，“世界文学接受文本，即使代表特别的国家精神……也能穿过甚至超越他们的国家，语言和历史起源，有效解域本身”，世界文学关注世界性，超越民族性。今天西方学者老话重提，有一些新的阐释，但是，作为克服比较文学危机、面向未来的比较文学学科理论，尚缺乏指导性意义。全世界比较文学学者必须寻求比较文学理论的新突破。<br />
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三、中国文学的世界化与世界文学的中国化<br />
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1、中国文学的世界化<br />
中国文学世界化并不只是中国作家获得国际大奖或是中国作家作品被翻译介绍到外国。世界化是中国文学作为全球化时代世界文学的主体之一，在世界文学中体现出中国主体性。<br />
马克思《路易·波拿巴的雾月十八日》中说：“就像一个刚学会一种新语言的人总是要把它翻译成本国语言一样；只有当他能够不必在心里把新语言翻译成本国语言，当他能够忘掉本国语言来运用新语言的时候，他才算领会了新语言的精神，才算是运用自如。”后现代批评家们奉为圭臬的这篇名著中，马克思的话说出了中国的世界文学认证的真正价值。全球化时代中，世界文学是对自我认证，也是对他人的认证，中国文学从世界文学得到认证，同样，世界文学从中国文学得到认证。<br />
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2、世界文学的“中国化”<br />
世界文学的“中国化”指很多学者表示怀疑，以为是将世界文学作品按中国的观念进行改造，甚至变成“红色经典”。我们必须解释清楚：世界文学的中国化并不是用中国文学标准来“化”世界文学，而是建构中国的世界文学阐释理论体系。这是完全正当的无可非议的，中国文学从不追求“文化权力中心”。但是中国文学必须建立中国的世界文学视域，中国如何看待世界文学史理论、世界文学经典的选编与世界文学翻译，这三大要素，缺一不可。<br />
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参考文献<br />
[1]方维规.何谓世界文学?[J].文艺研究,2017(01):5-18.<br />
[2]曹顺庆,李斌.比较文学未来发展之路——世界文学与比较文学变异学[J].中国高校社会科学,2016(06):39-47+154.<br />
[3]方汉文.中国文学的世界化与世界文学的中国化[J].江南大学学报(人文社会科学版),2016,15(01):93-98.<br />
[4]王宁.世界文学语境中的中国当代文学[J].当代作家评论,2014(06):4-16+2.<br />
[5]王宁.世界主义、世界文学以及中国文学的世界性[J].中国比较文学,2014(01):11-26.<br />
[6]刘洪涛.世界文学观念的嬗变及其在中国的意义[J].中国比较文学,2012(04):9-21.<br />
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西方文学的翻译<br />
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一、翻译内容、技法叙事<br />
清末颇为兴盛的外国小说翻译一方面介绍了西方的文化思想,另一方面明显的汉民族文化特征仍不容忽视。因为近代译者多具有根深蒂固的中国文化观念,因此他们在翻译过程中对原著进行特殊的、比较主观的处理是特定历史阶段的产物。<br />
在西方小说文化思想内容的翻译方面,“西方宗教观、伦理观与中国具体国情不同,其文学作品必然与中国文化发生抵悟,翻译者趋于沟通的心理,尽可能地使译作。与中国文化相通。”<br />
在叙事技法的传递方面,“早期小说译者的文学修养主要源于中国传统文化,其译作的小说文体形式必然采用中国原有的通俗小说文体——章回体。在原著风格的翻译方面,“早期小说译者在翻译小说时非常注重小说的读者群,这些读者多属具有一定文化修养的文人阶层,其思维方式、审美习惯皆己定型。翻译者如果想拥有庞大的读者群,其译作就应该考虑到中国读者的阅读习惯与审美情趣,突出小说消闲、怡情的文学特征。因此,外国小说译作的汉化便成了翻译者有意追求的一种语言风格。<br />
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二、翻译方法和翻译文体<br />
由于文学意识的不自觉、白话语体表达的幼稚性以及受众对象的特殊性等原因,在近代的文学翻译中,归化的手法、文言的文体和意译的方法颇受青睐。因此,“这种译述、意译的风气使得早期文学翻译的体例很不完备。”文学革命爆发后,文学翻译的目标读者出现“平民化”倾向,文学翻译文体走向通俗化、大众化,同时由于文学翻译中文学意识的不断增强,直译方法逐渐为越来越多的译者所使用,文学翻译开始走向异化。<br />
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三、近代翻译与意识形态的相互关系<br />
译入语文化中的主流意识形态对中国近代翻译选材有着不容忽视的影响和操控作用。1840年—1919年的中国翻译史印证了勒菲弗尔的翻译理论。通过研究这个时期的翻译史,我们可以清楚看到,翻译作品的兴盛是随着各个历史阶段的主流意识形态的变化而变化的。例如“甲午战争的失败把中华民族的生死存亡摆在每个人的面前，……此时的意识形态可以归纳为‘开民智、求变革’,其目的是为了唤醒全体国民,进行思想和现代意识启蒙。小说因为其易普及<br />
性被选作变革工具,成为资产阶级改良派医治`社会病'的良方。”<br />
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四、近代翻译在文化和语言方面的属性<br />
中国近代翻译有层次区别,早期的科技翻译不同于后来的社科、文学翻译,前者主要是技术问题,后者主要是文化和语言问题。众所周知，文化翻译往往涉及到深层的语言体系问题。近代社会译者所深谙的古代汉语体系决定了近代翻译文学从根本上具有中国“古代性”。这样,“翻译者总是用旧思想、旧思维来理解和表达西方新思想、新思维,总是在旧有的语言体系中寻找相对应或相似的术语、概念、范畴和话语方式,因此,西方思想文化在翻译的过程就不知不觉地变了形,变得本土化、民族化了。<br />
五、近代翻译的动机及其所带来的影响<br />
近代译者为了让时人了解西方民主思想和先进的科技知识,大多有目的地选择政治小说、科学小说、侦探小说加以引进,其翻译动机就是要救国启民,因此他们的翻译观明显具有功利主义的性质。这一点对于我们理解近代的小说翻译理论和翻译策略大有裨益,对于译文中普遍存在的删改现象也就能够给予合理的解释。他明确地谈到“他们企图用中国传统文化和文学的规范去干预原文本,以此来调整读者对译文的反应,避免可能造成的文化障碍。运用这种策略和方法的目的,无非是趋利避害,把原文本中有利于译文读者的信息翻译出来,对那些不利于一译文读者或不实用的信息避而不译。”<br />
参考文献<br />
【1】吴莎,屠国元.论中国近代翻译选材与意识形态的关系(1840-1919)[J].外语与外语教学,2007(11):38-40.<br />
【2】顾建新.清末民初文学翻译方法与文学翻译文体的发展[J].外语教学,2004(06):50-54.<br />
【3】韩永芝.从文化排斥与文化认同看清末外国小说翻译[J].解放军外国语学院学报,2001(05):66-69.<br />
【4】高玉.论中国近代翻译文学的“古代性”[J].华中师范大学学报(人文社会科学版),2000(04):66-72.<br />
【5】陆国飞.近代外国小说译介中的功利主义思想[J].学术界,2007(04):236-239.<br />
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外国诗歌翻译<br />
[1]郭建辉.外国诗歌的审美特征与外国诗歌的鉴赏[J].重庆工业高等专科学校学报,2001(03):93-95.<br />
由于各民族的文化传统的不同影响，外国诗歌也呈现出不同的特点，详细分析了从《荷马史诗》与《圣经》到现代主义艾略特的《荒原》特点，以把握外国诗歌的审美特征。<br />
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[2]河洛易.中国现代诗歌翻译概述[J].解放军外国语学院学报,2000(05):105-108.<br />
作为中国20世纪的诗歌翻译来说, 大致可分为七个阶段：1、诗歌翻译的前奏曲——近代诗歌翻译 (1840 年鸦片战争到 1919年“五四”运动)；2、现代诗歌翻译的开创期 (从1919 年新青年社到 1930年“左联”成立)；3、现代诗歌翻译的中期 (从 1930 年“左联”成立到 1937 年抗战开始)；4、现代诗歌翻译的后期 (从 1937年抗战开始到1949年中华人民共和国成立)；5、当代“十七年”的诗歌翻译 (从 1949 年新中国成立到“文化大革命”前夕)；6、当代“文革十年”的诗歌翻译 (文革十年)；7、当代新时期的诗歌翻译 (1976 年至今)。<br />
外国诗歌的翻译不是一个自我封闭的静态系统，而是一个不断自我调整和适应的开放系统。<br />
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[3]熊辉.翻译诗歌对诗人创作的影响[J].文艺争鸣,2017(09):7-12.<br />
翻译诗歌为百年新诗发展注入了生机和活力，学界目前多从创作技巧、形式艺术或思想情感的角度去论述前者对后者的影响，较少从创作实践的层面去思考二者的关联。实际上，新诗创作者由于接受了不同的文化而具有各自特殊的写作背景，翻译诗歌对新诗创作的影响也因为创作主体的多元化而呈现出复杂的格局：部分诗人直接阅读并翻译了外国诗歌，译诗对他们创作的影响主要停留在翻译过程或思维转换上；也有部分诗人通过阅读其他人翻译的作品而受到了译诗文本的影响，这部分人也包括那些参与翻译的诗人，因为他们自己在翻译诗歌的同时也可能会阅读别人的译作。<br />
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[4]熊辉.外国诗歌的翻译与中国现代新诗的文体创新[J].上海师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2013,42(03):70-76.<br />
外国诗歌的翻译有助于中国新诗的文体创新,作者从语言层面的创造新字、改进语言句法和表达方式,形式层面的创造新形式、引入新形式等方面展开论述。在此基础上分析了这种在翻译的过程中创新的文体所具有的文体特征和文化属性,进而表明外国诗歌的翻译对中国新诗文体创新具有带动作用。<br />
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[5]李特夫,李国林.诗歌翻译研究:传统思路与现代视野[J].天津外国语学院学报,2004(01):31-36+47. <br />
随着译学研究范式的转向、开拓与创新 ,各种译学思想得以不断重诂和修订，为我国诗歌翻译研究带来了新的启示。在对传统译诗观念进行简要回顾和思考的基础上，针对当前一些争议和疑难性问题提出了个人看法，并借鉴西方译论，就未来诗歌翻译研究有关问题进行了探讨。<br />
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[[Media:Earliest_translations_from_the_West_to_Chinese_presentation_by_Lin_Li.pdf]]<br />
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[[Media:The Arabian Nights_by_Wang_Xinyi.pdf]]<br />
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[[Media:Lecture_The Arabian Nights_by_Wang_Xinyi.pdf]]</div>Zhang Yiranhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=File:Presentation_on_Cultural_Aspects_of_Translation_Studies.docx&diff=134123File:Presentation on Cultural Aspects of Translation Studies.docx2021-12-21T15:29:30Z<p>Zhang Yiran: </p>
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<div></div>Zhang Yiranhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021&diff=134122Introduction to Translation Studies 20212021-12-21T15:28:41Z<p>Zhang Yiran: /* Presentations Dec 22 on Decriptive Studies, Culture, Invisibility, Constructivism */</p>
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<div>Quicklinks: [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021|This course homepage]] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal#Frequently_asked_questions_FAQ FAQ] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal Manual] [[20210926_homework|all homework webpages]] <br />
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<center><span style="color:red">'''Deadline Dec 9, 2021 [[20220112_final_exam|final exam page]] - final deadline after correction: Dec 15, 2021'''</span></center><br />
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Welcome to our course website '''Introduction to Translation Studies 2021'''. Whenever you visit this site, please see if there is anything in English not yet translated into Chinese and make a Chinese translation beneath (one paragraph English, one paragraph Chinese). Any correction or improvement of earlier translations is mostly welcome!<br />
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欢迎访问我们“翻译导论课”的网页。…………<br />
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=Session 1 Sep 26, 2021=<br />
Today is international day of languages!<br />
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Introduction to the course. Organizational things. Working with the Wiki.<br />
==Organizational Things==<br />
*Please register for the Course Wiki http://bit.ly/WIKIREG. Username is your Pinyin Name (“Wang Jianguo” – no Chinese characters) and email, for your real name also write your Pinyin Name (Wang Jianguo), no Chinese characters. If the name is taken, write "Wang Jianguo1". Write a sentence about yourself in the bio info. Please check the box that you abide to the Terms of Service and type in the password “wikicaptcha”. You will receive an email with a link. Please confirm the link. After confirmation, please allow a few days that I can approve your username. After that, you can access the course wiki http://bit.ly/TransStud and edit the contents. You need to edit the course website every week to prepare the upcoming session. <br />
*Please prepare each session during the week before, so that you come prepared to class.<br />
*In the WeChat group, please write your name as "Wang Jianguo 王建国 21级 英语口译". If possible, please use a profile photo of yourself where you can be recognized. 麻烦各位同学修改一下自己的备注，改成自己的姓名（拼音、汉字、21级、方向）就好。<br />
*We meet Wednesdays 7 pm - 8:40 pm online on http://bit.ly/ZOOMCOURSE (573 941 6744, course). Please leave your camera ON, so that we actually see each other. In the classroom, we also see each other.<br />
*Please note that you can only participate with a good internet connection, with a smart device which is able to run Zoom and with a running camera. Therefore, please make sure that you have a working device. If your phone’s camera is broken, please borrow a different phone or contact us that we can help you to get a second hand phone for free.<br />
* Please take the weekly survey http://bit.ly/EU-SURVEY<br />
* Please store the pdf material you get from the teacher. Please prepare the material for each session in advance.<br />
<br />
==Edits==<br />
Every student is required to edit something every week. This can be:<br />
* Translate any English paragraph on this website from English to Chinese.<br />
* Correct an earlier translation of your fellow student beneath.<br />
* Prepare an article (please link to from this page) and/or a powerpoint (please upload here) on a topic you will present during the semester.<br />
* Prepare the final exam paper as early as possible by writing a chapter for a book on "History of Translations", "History of Translation Theories", "Machine translation - A challenge or a chance for human translators?", "Culture loaded words", "The cultural turn in Translation History", "Appropriateness Theory" ... For this, please organize yourself, find groups who want to write the same book together, and think together about the necessary chapters and the structure etc. of the book. The paper needs to be delivered until November 1. Then we jointly work on copy editing, grading etc.<br />
* The Teaching Assistants should write the grades every week in a table, so that you can see the results of your quizzes/surveys etc., your performance in class and final exam paper grades.<br />
<br />
==Topics, Sessions and Material==<br />
<br />
'''Which paper or book should I read to prepare my presentation?'''<br />
<br />
Please also mention in this list beneath, '''who''' is presenting the topic with '''ppt''' and '''handout'''.<br />
<br />
1 Sep 26 Introduction <br />
<br />
2 Sep 29 Emergence I<br />
*Teacher presentation<br />
<br />
3 Oct 13 Emergence II<br />
*3a Xu, Jun 许钧, Mu Lei 穆雷. "翻译学概论 [Introduction to Translation Studies]." 南京: 译林出版社2009:195 pp., here 180-192.<br />
*3b=7c Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜. Translation Studies 翻译学. 复旦大学出版社, 2017, here the beginning about the emergence<br />
<br />
4 Oct 20 History of Translation <br />
*4a History of Western Translation 谭载喜.西方翻译简史[M]. 北京:商务印书馆, 1991年.<br />
*4b History of Translation in China – before May Fourth 马祖毅. 中国翻译简史——“五四”以前部分（修订本）[M]. 中国对外翻译出版公司，1998年.<br />
<br />
5 Oct 27 Early understanding<br />
<br />
The early understanding next session refers to the very early theoretical understanding of the Translation process from ancient times until Maybe up to the middle of the 20th century. There are no elaborated theories yet, but at least some discussions About principles, strategies etc.<br />
<br />
*5a Holmes, James. 1972. The Name and Nature of Translation Studies. Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies[M]. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1988: 67-80.<br />
*5b Sourcebook Lefevere, Andre. Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook[M]. London and New York：Routledge, 1990.<br />
*5c Textbook Newmark, Peter. A Text Book of Translation[M]. UK: Prentice Hall International Ltd, 1988.<br />
*5d Translation Basics 刘宓庆. 翻译基础[M]. 上海：华东师范大学出版社，2008年.<br />
<br />
6 Nov 3 Linguistics and Equivalence (Nida)<br />
*6a Early linguistic theory Catford, J. A Linguistic Theory of Translation[M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1965.<br />
*6b Early important understanding Nida, E. A. Toward a Science of Translating[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br />
<br />
7 Nov 10 Translation Studies<br />
*7a Bassnett, Susan. Translation Studies[M]. London and New York: Methuen, 1980. <br />
*7b Translation Studies 许钧，穆雷. 翻译学概论[M]. 南京：译林出版社，2009年.<br />
*7c=3b Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. Translation Studies 翻译学[M]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社，2000年. (the 2nd part contains a lot of English papers)<br />
*7d Categories of Contemporary Western Translation Studies 2002_Pan_Wenguo_潘文国_当代西方的翻译学研究_2002<br />
<br />
8 Nov 17 Translation Theories<br />
*8a Western theory 刘军平. 西方翻译理论通史[M]. 武汉：武汉大学出版社，2009年.<br />
*8b Theories Gentzler, E. Contemporary Translation Theories[M]. London and New York: Routledge, 1993.<br />
*8c Contemp. West. theories 廖七一. 当代西方翻译理论探索[M]. 南京：译林出版社, 2000年.<br />
*8d Xu, Jun 许钧. Translation Theories 翻译论. 湖北教育出版社, 2003<br />
*8e Pan_Wenguo_Cont_West_Trans_Stud_当代西方的翻译学研究_兼谈_翻译学的学科性问题_潘文国<br />
<br />
9 Nov 24 History of Chinese Translation Theories<br />
*9a 陈福康.中国译学理论史稿（修订本）[M]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社，2000年.<br />
*9b 许钧. 翻译论[M]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社，2003年.<br />
<br />
10 Dec 1 Appropriateness Theory<br />
*10a Moratto, Woesler: Current Dynamics, Springer 2021<br />
<br />
11 Dec 8 Methods and Style<br />
*11a Methods Wilss, Wolfram. The Science of Translation: Problems and Methods[M]. Gunter Narr Verlag Tubinger, 1982.<br />
*11b Style 刘宓庆. 文体与翻译[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司：北京，1998年.<br />
*11c Trans_Stud_Problems_and_Methods_翻译学问题与方法<br />
<br />
12 Dec 15 Theory and Practice <br />
*12a Bell, Roger T. Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice[M]. London and New York: Longman, 1991.<br />
*12b Theory and Practice Munday, Jermy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications[M]. London and NewYork: Routledge, 2001.<br />
*12c Theory and Practice Nida, Eugene A. and Charles R. Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1969.<br />
<br />
13 Dec 22 Decriptive Studies, Culture, Invisibility, Constructivism<br />
*13a “descriptive” Toury, Gideon. Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M]. Amsterdam/ Philadelphia: John BenjaminB Publishing company, 1995.<br />
*13b Culture Toury, Gideon. Translation Across Cultures[M]. NewDelhi: Bahri Publications, 1987.<br />
*13c Invisibility Venuti, L. The Translator 's Invisibility[M]. London and NewYork: Routledge, 1995.<br />
*13d Constructivism Research 易经. 翻译学体系构建研究[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社，2012年.<br />
*13e Art or Science? Different papers by Huang Zhending Trans_Stud_Art_and_Scient_Theory_翻译学艺术论与科学论的统一<br />
<br />
14 Dec 29 East-West Comparison<br />
*14a East-West comparison 刘宓庆. 中西翻译思想比较研究[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司, 2005年.<br />
*14b English-Chinese TS 蒋坚松. 英汉对比与汉译英研究[M]. 长沙：湖南人民出版社，2002年.<br />
<br />
15 Jan 5 Review in Preparation of final exam<br />
<br />
16 Jan 12 Final Exam<br />
<br />
Please download several pdfs with monographs and articles about translation studies history and theories from our WeChat group.<br />
<br />
*Bassnett, Susan. Translation studies. Routledge, 2013<br />
*Bell, Roger T., and Christopher Candlin. Translation and translating: Theory and practice. Vol. 298. London: Longman, 1991 <br />
*Catford, John Cunnison. A linguistic theory of translation. Oxford University Press, 1978.<br />
*Chen, Fukang. "Zhongguo yixue lilun shi gao (A History of Chinese Translation Theory)." (1992).<br />
*Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary translation theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br />
*Holmes, James S. The name and nature of translation studies. Translation Studies Section, Department of General Literary Studies, University of Amsterdam, 1975.<br />
*Huang, Chending黄振定. "文学翻译评价的科学性及其科学论." 外国语 4 (1999): 49-56.<br />
*Huang, Chending 黄振定. "翻译学是一门人文科学." 外语与外语教学 2 (1999): 33-35.<br />
*Huang, Chending 黄振定.翻译学: 艺术论与科学论的统一. 上海外语教育出版社, 2008<br />
*Lefevere, André, ed. Translation/history/culture: A sourcebook. Routledge, 2002.<br />
*Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications, Routledge 2013<br />
*Nida, Eugene Albert, and Charles Russell Taber, eds. The theory and practice of translation. Vol. 8. Brill Archive, 1982.<br />
*Nida, Eugene Albert. Toward a science of translating: with special reference to principles and procedures involved in Bible translating. Brill Archive, 1964.<br />
*Pan Wenguo 潘文国. "当代西方的翻译学研究——兼谈 “翻译学” 的学科性问题." 中国翻译 23.1 (2002): 31-34.<br />
*Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜. Translation Studies 翻译学. 复旦大学出版社, 2017<br />
*Toury, Gideon. "Descriptive Translation Studies–and beyond John Benjamins Publishing Company." Amsterdam/Philadelphia (1995).<br />
*Venuti, Lawrence. The translator's invisibility: A history of translation. Routledge, 2017.<br />
*Wilss, Wolfram. The science of translation: problems and methods. Vol. 180. John Benjamins Pub Co, 1982. 翻译学问题与方法 Shanghai: SFLEP (2001).<br />
*Xu, Jun 许钧, Mu Lei 穆雷. "翻译学概论 [Introduction to Translation Studies]." 南京: 译林出版社 10 (2009): 180-192.<br />
*Xu, Jun 许钧. Translation Theories 翻译论. 湖北教育出版社, 2003<br />
*Zhao, Wei 赵巍. "翻译学学科性质与研究方法反思." 解放军外国语学院学报 28.6 (2005): 69-72.<br />
<br />
(We use Chicago Social Sciences Citation Style [https://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide/citation-guide-2.html Chicago Style].)<br />
<br />
==Final exam class projects==<br />
<br />
Please help to edit one of the following book publications (please write your name behind the topics and organize the book with a proposal for the press and a chapter in the form of a journal paper by each participant):<br />
*[[History of Translation Studies]] (Sample from last year.)<br />
*[[History of Translations]] <br />
Rouabah Soumaya( History of translation in the Middle Ages) 李习长 (History of Modern and Contemporary Chinese Translation) 黄柱梁（The Translation of Buddihist Sutra in China） 王镇隆 叶维杰 李雯( The Translation theory after the establishment of the People's Republic of China)李怡(Modern Western Translation History) 李新星 刘沛婷(Western Translation history in Renaissance) 刘薇(Contemporary American Translation History) 周俊辉 周玖 钟雨露 钟义菲 魏楚璇(western translation history in the modern and contemporary Age)<br />
*[[History of Translation Theories]] 李瑞洋（Development of Translation Theories in Modern China）、陈心怡 张扬、曾俊霖 张怡然(History of Translation Theories from early Russia to the Soviet Union) 尹媛（The Brief Introduction of American structural school of translation theory) 李双 杨堃 刘运心 魏兆妍(The Development of Humanism Trend in Western Translation Theory) 吴婧悦(History of Translation Theories in the Soviet Union) 杨爱江<br />
*[[Machine translation]] - A challenge or a chance for human translators? 卫怡雯 肖毅瑶 王李菲 徐敏赟 颜莉莉 颜静 谢佳芬 熊敏 陈惠妮 蔡珠凤 陈湘琼 Nadia<br />
*[[Culture loaded words]] 羊叶（中文电影英译字幕中文化负载词的翻译——以《霸王别姬》为例）、谢庆琳、罗曦（The translation methods of culture loaded words） 何芩、孙雅诗、杜莉娜（跨文化交际视角下旅游文本中文化负载词的英汉翻译研究）、宫博雅（俄语成语中文化负载词的中文翻译分析）、周小雪(《药》英日译本中文化负载词的翻译对比研究）、付诗雨（博物馆文物解说词中文化负载词的日译研究）、丁旋(Translation of Culture-Loaded Words in ''The Concubine Market of Yangchow '' of Lin Yutang's Version from the Perspective of Newmark’s Translation Theory)、高蜜、殷慧珍、程杨、胡舒情<br />
*[[The cultural turn]] in Translation History 金晓童 李爱璇 李文璇 黄锦云 李姗 黄逸妍<br />
*[[Appropriateness Theory]] - Ei Mon Kyaw (Creating Appropriateness Theory). I need more students here. You can write papers criticizing existing theories here and suggest what needs to be improved to develop a new theory! This is cutting edge research here! I expect the best students to participate and we may try to submit the papers to real academic journals!Ei Mon Kyaw (Creating Appropriateness Theory). 殷美达 易扬帆（Appropriateness in Lyrics Translation -- A Case Study of Lana Del Rey's Lyrics Translation in QQ Music）<br />
*[[Translation types, strategies, styles, methods]] 刘晓（纽马克翻译理论指导下旅游文本中翻译策略与翻译技巧的使用——以''Everglades National Park, Florida (Excerpt)''为例） 刘越 毛雅文 毛优（俄语政论语体翻译策略及翻译技巧的使用——以“2019年俄罗斯政府工作报告”为例 彭瑞雪 秦建安（功能对等翻译视角下的鲁迅短篇小说翻译研究——以杨、戴夫妇的《孔乙己》英译本为例） 颜子涵 邝艳丽 阳佳颖 杨柳青（卞之琳的文学翻译理论和实践 ——以其浪漫主义诗歌译作为例）Atta Ur Rahman、Zohaib Chand、Muhammad Numan、Muhammad Saqib Mehran 刘胜楠（浅析目的论视角下《哪吒之魔童降世》字幕翻译策略）<br />
*[[Aesthetic Appreciation of Literary Translations]] 朱素珍 邹岳丽 邱婷婷(Three beauties embodied in Xu Yuanchong's English translation of ''Tang Poetry'') 吴映红(A comparative study of aesthetic reproduction in Chinese versions of snow country from the perspective of translation aesthetics)<br />
*[[Translation Theories Apllied to Literary Translations]] 周巧 付红岩 詹若萱（Chinese Translation of Subtitles of "Jane Eyre" from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory）<br />
*[[Comparative Studies in Translation]] 石丽青 牟一心 饶金盈 罗安怡 马新 王逸凡 张秋怡 朱壬铎<br />
<br />
(We use Chicago Social Sciences Citation Style [https://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide/citation-guide-2.html Chicago Style].)<br />
<br />
==Schedule==<br />
Please add your name, presentation form (ppt, handout) and subtopic here.<br />
<br />
'''All sessions''': <br />
*1 Sep 26 Introduction<br />
*2 Sep 29 Emergence I<br />
*3 Oct 13 Emergence II <br />
(中国翻译的起源 The Emergence of Translation Studies in China) ppt by Chen Xiangqiong 陈湘琼 and handout by Xie Qinglin 谢庆琳.<br />
<br />
(机器翻译的起源与发展 The Origin of Machine Translation) ppt by Yan Jing 颜静 and handout by Xu Minyun 徐敏赟.<br />
<br />
*4 Oct 20 History of Translation <br />
(中国翻译简史 The Brief History of Chinese Translation) ppt by Hu Shuqing 胡舒情 and handout by Gong Boya 宫博雅. <br />
<br />
(西方翻译简史 The Brief History of Western Translation) ppt by Ding Xuan 丁旋 and handout by Fu Shiyu 付诗雨.<br />
<br />
(中国译场中佛经翻译的历史 The History of Buddhist Scripture Translation in Chinese Translation Center) PPT by Ye Weijie 叶维杰 and handout by Wang Zhenlong 王镇隆. <br />
<br />
(中国诗歌翻译简史 A Brief History of Chinese Poetry Translation) ppt by Rao Jinying 饶金盈 202120081520 and handout by Mou Yixin 牟一心.<br />
<br />
(2000年以来的大中华文库翻译历史 The Translation History of Library of Chinese Classics Since 2000) ppt by Zhang Yang 张扬 and handout by Zeng Junlin曾俊霖.<br />
<br />
*5 Oct 27 Early understanding <br />
The early understanding next session refers to the very early theoretical understanding of the Translation process from ancient times until Maybe up to the middle of the 20th century. There are no elaborated theories yet, but at least some discussions About principles, strategies etc.<br />
<br />
(佛经翻译的文质之争 The Debates Between Wen and Zhi on Buddhist Scriptures Translation) ppt by He Qin 何芩 202120081489 and handout by Gao Mi高蜜.<br />
<br />
(林语堂的翻译 Translation by Lin Yutang) ppt by Xie Jiafen 谢佳芬 and handout by Yan Lili 颜莉莉.<br />
<br />
*6 Nov 3 Linguistics and Equivalence (Nida) <span style="color:red"><br />
<br />
(J.C.Catford's Translation Equivalence Theory) ppt by Huang Yiyan 黄逸妍 and handout by Huang Jinyun 黄锦云.<br />
<br />
(Two Types of Equivalence by Eugene A. Nida) ppt by Du Lina 杜莉娜 and handout by Ma Xin 马新.<br />
<br />
(The Three Essences of Functional Equivalence and Its Application) ppt by Yi Yangfan 易扬帆 and handout by Yin Yuan 尹媛.<br />
<br />
(Eugene Nida's Principles of Correspondence Theory) ppt by Chen Huini 陈慧妮 and handout by Cai Zhufeng 蔡珠凤.<br />
<br />
*6 Nov 10 Translation Studies<br />
(The Name and Nature of Translation Studies)ppt by Liu Shengnan刘胜楠; handout by Li Yi李怡 <br />
<br />
(Five Approaches to Translation)ppt by Li Wenxuan李文璇; handout by Li Shan 李姗 <br />
<br />
(Principles of Translation)ppt by Xiao Yiyao肖毅瑶; handout by Wu Yinghong吴映红<br />
<br />
(Cultural and Ideological Approaches in Translation)ppt by Mahzad Heydarian; handout by Mahzad Heydarian<br />
<br />
(Roman Jacobson's Categories of Translation)ppt by Xiong Min熊敏; handout by Sun Yashi孙雅诗<br />
<br />
(Lin Yutang' s Translation Aesthetics )ppt by Luo Anyi罗安怡; handout by Shi Liqing石丽青<br />
<br />
*8 Nov 17 Translation Theories <br />
(Translation Theories of George Steiner)ppt by Yang Liuqing 杨柳青; handout by Yin Huizhen 殷慧珍<br />
<br />
(The Functional Translation Theory of Reiss, Vermeer and Nord)ppt by Peng Ruixue 彭瑞雪;handout by Qin Jianan 秦建安.<br />
<br />
(Translation Theories of Peter Newmark) ppt by Liu Xiao 刘晓; handout by Liu Yue 刘越.<br />
<br />
(Yan Fu's Translation Thoughts)ppt by Wang Lifei 王李菲; handout by Wei Chuxuan 魏楚璇<br />
<br />
(Translation theorie of Xu Yuanchong) ppt by Zhouqing周清; handout by Zou Yueli邹岳丽.<br />
<br />
*9 Nov 24 History of Chinese Translation Theories <br />
(The History of Chinese Translation Theories in Qing Dynasty)ppt by Cheng Yang 程杨 and handout by Li Shuang 李双.<br />
<br />
(The History of Chinese Buddhist Translation Theories)ppt by Qiu Tingting邱婷婷; handout by Wei Yiwen 卫怡雯<br />
<br />
(The Chinese Translation Theories During the Period of the May Forth Movement)ppt by Li Wen 李雯; handout by Zhou Xiaoxue 周小雪<br />
<br />
(The History of Chinese Translation Theories from 1949 to Present)ppt by Yang Aijiang 杨爱江; handout by Yang Kun 杨堃<br />
<br />
*10 Dec 1 Appropriateness Theory - this is a new theory suggested by M. Woesler in 2020. Everybody is invited to help to develop this theory or to criticize other theories and suggesting what a new theory (like the appropriateness theory) needs to do better.<br />
<br />
(Appropriateness Theory) ppt by Yin Meida殷美达 and handout by Ei Mon Kyaw 艾梦觉<br />
<br />
*11 Dec 8 Methods and Style<br />
(The Literal Translation and Free Translation)ppt by Zhong Yifei钟义菲; handout by Zhong Yulu钟雨露.<br />
<br />
(The Amplification and Omission in Translation)ppt by Zhou Jiu周玖; handout by Zhou Junhui周俊辉.<br />
<br />
(Zhu Shenghao's Translation Style Take the Translation of Shakespeare's Plays for Example)ppt by Li Aixuan李爱璇；handout by Jing Xiaotong金晓童.<br />
<br />
(Translation Methods of Idioms)ppt by Liu Yunxin 刘运心; handout by Li Ruiyang 李瑞洋<br />
<br />
(Domestication and Foreignization)pptx by Chen Jing 陈静; handout by Chen Xinyi 陈心怡<br />
<br />
*12 Dec 15 Theory and Practice. <br />
(The value and limits of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in its Application of Literature) ppt by 詹若萱 and handout by 罗曦<br />
(Catford's Translation Shift Theory and its practice)ppt by 周巧and handout by 朱素珍<br />
(An Analysis of Different Versions on the Basis of the Three Beauties of Xu Yuanchong) ppt by 邝艳丽 and handout by 付红岩<br />
(庞德的翻译理论及其在《华夏集》中的应用 Ezra Pound's translation theory and its application in Cathay) handout by 张秋怡 and ppt by 王逸凡<br />
() Skopos Theory and its Application ppt by 刘沛婷 and handout by 李新星<br />
<br />
*13 Dec 22 Decriptive Studies, Culture, Invisibility, Constructivism<br />
() ppt by 殷美达 and handout by 张怡然<br />
<br />
*14 Dec 29 East-West Comparison<br />
()ppt by刘薇 and handout by黄柱梁<br />
()ppt by魏兆妍 and handout by 吴婧悦<br />
()ppt by阳佳颖 and handout by 颜子涵<br />
(韦努蒂与鲁迅异化翻译策略之比较 A Comparison of Venuti's and Lu Xun's Foreignization Translation Strategy) ppt by毛优 and handout by 毛雅文<br />
*15 Jan 5 Review in Preparation of final exam<br />
*16 Jan 12 Final Exam<br />
<br />
== Homework from Session 1 Sep 26 due on Sep 29, 2021 ==<br />
<br />
1. Take the survey after session 1: http://bit.ly/EU-SURVEY<br />
<br />
2. Please fill in the 2nd quiz (to show that you have read the texts for session 2) before session 2. (Will be added later.)<br />
<br />
3. Every student should translate 1 sentence. Here is the [[20210929_homework|homework page]]. - IN PREPARATION...<br />
<br />
*[[20210929_homework|homework of session 1 for session 2 Sep 29]]<br />
<br />
4. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation is once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20210929_homework|here]].<br />
<br />
*[[20210929_homework|homework of session 1 for session 2 Sep 29]]<br />
<br />
5. Please pick a topic from the pdf material, the general session topics or your own thoughts to do a presentation on. For the first topics, you need to do the presentation already in 1 week!<br />
<br />
===Homework for later===<br />
4. Write a final exam paper as a chapter of the book "Translation Studies", ... It has to be a topic, not yet chosen by any other student in the book. I will upload the book here later. You can participate in writing this book.<br />
<br />
5. Get familiar with the pdfs I send you on WeChat group as learning material.<br />
<br />
=Session 2, Sep 29: Emergence I=<br />
*Teacher presentation<br />
*Survey http://bit.ly/Eval-01<br />
*Please select a topic to do a ppt or handout on<br />
*Review homework<br />
*Prepare final exam<br />
<br />
===Homework for this session Sep 29===<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 2 (Emergence I)<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20210929_homework|homework of session 1 for session 2 Sep 29]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
==Session 2, Sep 29, Topic 1: Emergence I - Emergence in China==<br />
*Teacher presentation: [[Media:Emergence_I.pptx|Teacher presentation on the Emergence of Translation]] by Martin Woesler --[[User:Root|Root]] ([[User talk:Root|talk]]) 11:44, 13 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Homework for next session Oct 13==<br />
<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 3 (Emergence II)<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211013_homework|homework of session 2 for session 3 Oct 13]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211013_homework|homework of session 2 for session 3 Oct 13]]<br />
<br />
4. Please write your name behind one of the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Final_exam_class_projects|book projects]] where you want to write a chapter as your final exam paper. Also indicate the topic of your chapter in this book project.<br />
<br />
5. (Only for students who do presentation on Oct 13: Emergence II (中国新时期翻译研究发展的起源 The origin of translation studies in China in the new Era) ppt by Chen Xiangqiong 陈湘琼 and handout by Xie Qinglin 谢庆琳. (Emergence of Oral Interpretation) ppt by Shan Gongfei:) Prepare ppt or handout.(机器翻译的起源 The Origin of Machine Translation) handout by Xu Minyun 徐敏赟 202120081535 and powerpoint by Yan Jing 颜静 202120081536.<br />
<br />
=Session 3, Oct 13, Topic 2: Emergence II - Emergence in China=<br />
==Homework for this session Oct 13==<br />
<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 3 (Emergence II)<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211013_homework|homework of session 2 for session 3 Oct 13]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211013_homework|homework of session 2 for session 3 Oct 13]]<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Oct 13:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
==Presentations in Session 3, Emergence of Translation II==<br />
<br />
*ppt: [[Media:03 Emergence of translations in China by Xie Qinglin.pptx|Presentation on Emergence of translation study in China 中国翻译的起源]] by Chen Xiangqiong 陈湘琼; handout [[Media:03_Xie_Qinglin_Emergence_of_translations_in_China.docx|Emergence of translation studies in China]] by Xie Qinglin 谢庆琳<br />
<br />
Tip: Since the topics are sorted roughly chronologically, this topic should be the emergence of translation rather than emergence of translation studies.<br />
<br />
*ppt: [[Media:The_Origin_of_Machine_Translation_by_Yan_Jing.pptx|Presentation on Origin of Machine Translation 机器翻译的起源与发展]] by Yan Jing 颜静; handout [[Media:The_Origin_of_Machine_Translation_by_Xu_Minyun.docx|Origin of Machine Translation handout]] by Xu Minyun 徐敏赟<br />
<br />
Tip: This topic is also very modern, it should be presented at the end of the semester.<br />
<br />
==Homework for next session Oct 20==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 3 (Emergence II)<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211020_homework|homework of session 3 for session 4 Oct 20]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Oct 13:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
=Session 4, Oct 20, Topic 3=<br />
==Homework for this session Oct 20==<br />
<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 4<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211020_homework|homework of session 3 for session 4 Oct 20]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Oct 20:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
==Presentations on History of Translation, session 4==<br />
* ppt: [[Media: The brief history of western translation_by_Ding_Xuan.pptx|Presentation on The brief history of western translation]] by Ding Xuan; handout [[Media:The brief history of Western translation.doc| The brief history of western translation]] by Fu Shiyu<br />
*ppt: [[Media: The brief history of Chinese translation.pptx|Presentation on The brief history of Chinese translation]] by Hu Shuqing; handout [[Media:The brief history of Chinese translation_by_Gong_Boya.doc| The brief history of Chinese translation]] by Gong Boya<br />
* ppt:[[Media: A brief history of Chinese poetry translation.pptx|Presentation on A brief history of Chinese poetry translation]] by Rao Jinying; handout: [[Media: A brief history of Chinese poetry translation.doc| A brief history of Chinese poetry translation]] by Mou Yixin<br />
* ppt:[[Media: The Translation history of Library of Chinese Classics Since 2000.pptx|Presentation on The Translation history of Library of Chinese Classics Since 2000]] by Zhang Yang; handout: [[Media: The Translation history of Library of Chinese Classics Since 2000_by_Zeng_Junlin.doc| The Translation history of Library of Chinese Classics]] by Zeng Junlin<br />
* ppt:[[Media: The History of Buddhist Scripture Translation in Chinese Translation Center.pptx|Presentation on The History of Buddhist Scripture Translation in Chinese Translation Center]] by Ye Weijie; handout: [[Media: The History of Buddhist Scripture Translation in Chinese Translation Center.docx| The History of Buddhist Scripture Translation in Chinese Translation Center]] by Wang Zhenlong<br />
<br />
==Homework for next session Oct 27==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 5<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211027_homework|homework of session 4 for session 5 Oct 27]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Oct 27:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
=Session 5, Oct 27, Topic 4 Early Understanding of Translation (no elaborated theories yet)=<br />
==Homework for this session Oct 27==<br />
<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 5<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211027_homework|homework of session 4 for session 5 Oct 27]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Oct 27:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
==Presentations Oct 27 on Early Understanding==<br />
<br />
* Teacher presentation: [[Media:05_Transl_Studies_Emergence2_History.pptx|Powerpoint for the Sessions 3-5 by Martin Woesler, please download from this link]]<br />
<br />
The early understanding next session refers to the very early theoretical understanding of the Translation process from ancient times until maybe up to the middle of the 20th century. There are no elaborated theories yet, but at least some discussions about principles, strategies etc.<br />
<br />
* ppt: [[Media: Tranlation by Lin Yutang.pptx|Translation by Lin Yutang]] by Xie Jiafen; handout [[Media: Tranlation by Lin Yutang(handout).docx| Translation by Lin Yutang(handout)]] by Yan Lili<br />
* ppt: [[Media: The Debates Between Wen and Zhi on Buddhist Scriptures Translation.pptx|The Debates Between Wen and Zhi on Buddhist Scriptures Translation]] by He Qin; handout [[Media: The Wen-Zhi Debate in the history of sutra translation (handout).docx| The Wen-Zhi Debate in the History of Sutra Translation (handout)]] by Gao Mi<br />
<br />
==Homework for next session 6, Nov 3==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 6<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211103_homework|homework of session 5 for session 6, Nov 3]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Nov 3:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
<br />
=Session 6, Nov 3, Topic 5 Translation Equivalence, Nida and Linguistics=<br />
==Homework for this session Nov 3==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 6<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211103_homework|homework of session 5 for session 6 Nov 3]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Nov 3:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
==Presentations Nov 3 on Linguistics and Equivalence(Nida)==<br />
<br />
* ppt: [[Media:J.C.Catford's Translation Equivalence Theory(ppt).pptx|J.C.Catford's Translation Equivalence Theory(ppt)]] by Huang Yiyan; handout [[Media:Translation Equivalence Theory.docx|J.C.Catford's Translation Equivalence Theory]] by Huang Jinyun<br />
* ppt: [[Media:Two Types of Equivalence by Eugene A. Nida(ppt).pptx|Two Types of Equivalence by Eugene A. Nida(ppt)]] by Du Lina; handout [[Media: Two Types of Equivalence by Eugene A. Nida.docx|Two Types of Equivalence by Eugene A. Nida]] by Ma Xin<br />
* ppt: [[Media:The Three Essences of Functional Equivalence and Its Application.pptx|The Three Essences of Functional Equivalence and Its Application]] by Yi Yangfan; handout [[Media: The Three Essences of Functional Equivalence and Its Application.docx|The Three Essences of Functional Equivalence and Its Application]] by Yin Yuan<br />
* ppt: [[Media:Eugene Nida ‘s Principles of Correspondence Theory(ppt).pptx|Eugene Nida ‘s Principles of Correspondence Theory(ppt)]] by Chen Huini; handout [[Media:Eugene Nida ‘s Principles of Correspondence Theory.docx|Eugene Nida ‘s Principles of Correspondence Theory]] by Cai Zhufeng<br />
<br />
==Homework for next session 7, Nov 10==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 7<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211110_homework|homework of session 6 for session 7, Nov 10]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Nov 10:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
5. WRITE A DRAFT OF YOUR FINAL EXAM PAPER!<br />
*[[20220112_final_exam|Final Exam paper page]]<br />
<br />
=Session 7, Nov 10, Topic 6 Translation Studies=<br />
==Homework for this session Nov 10==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 7<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211110_homework|homework of session 6 for session 7 Nov 10]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Nov 3:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
==Presentations Nov 10 on Translation Studies==<br />
<br />
* ppt 1: [[Media:The Name and Nature of Translation Studies(ppt).pptx|The Name and Nature of Translation Studies(ppt)]] by Liu Shengnan; handout [[Media: The Name and Nature of Translation Studies.docx| The Name and Nature of Translation Studies]] by Li Yi<br />
<br />
* ppt 2: [[Media:Five Approaches to Translation.pptx|Five Approaches to Translation]] by Li Wenxuan; handout [[Media:Five Approaches to Translation(handout).docx|Five Approaches to Translation()]] by Li Shan<br />
<br />
* ppt 3: [[Media:Principles of Translation(ppt).pptx|Principles of Translation(ppt)]] by Xiao Yiyao; handout [[Media:Principles of Translation.docx|Principles of Translation]] by Wu Yinghong<br />
<br />
* ppt 4: [[Media:Cultural and Ideological Approaches in Translation(ppt).pptx|Cultural and Ideological Approaches in Translation]] by Mahzad Heydarian; handout [[Media:Cultural and Ideological Approaches in Translation.docx| Cultural and Ideological Approaches in Translation ]] by Mahzad Heydarian<br />
<br />
* ppt 5: [[Media:Roman Jacobson's Categories of Translation(ppt).pptx|Roman Jacobson's Categories of Translation(ppt)]] by Xiong Min; handout [[Media: Roman Jacobson's Categories of Translation.docx| Roman Jacobson's Categories of Translation]] by Sun Yashi<br />
<br />
* ppt 6: [[Media:Lin Yutang' s Translation Aesthetics(ppt).pptx|Lin Yutang' s Translation Aesthetics]] by Luo Anyi; handout [[Media:Lin Yutang' s Translation Aesthetics.docx| Lin Yutang' s Translation Aesthetics]] by Shi Liqing<br />
<br />
==Homework for next session 8, Nov 17==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 8<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211117_homework|homework of session 6 for session 8, Nov 17]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Nov 17:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
=Session 8, Nov 17, Translation Theories =<br />
==Homework for this session Nov 17==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 8<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211117_homework|homework of session 7 for session 8, Nov 17]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Nov 17:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
==Presentations Nov 17 on Translation Theories==<br />
* ppt 1: [[Media:Translation Theories of George Steiner(ppt).pptx|Translation Theories of George Steiner(ppt)]] by Yang Liuqing 杨柳青; handout [[Media: Translation Theories of George Steiner.docx| Translation Theories of George Steiner]] by Yin Huizhen 殷慧珍<br />
* ppt 2: [[Media:The Functional Translation Theory of Reiss, Vermeer and Nord(ppt).pptx|The Functional Translation Theory of Reiss, Vermeer and Nord(ppt)]] by Peng Ruixue 彭瑞雪; [[Media:The Functional Translation Theory of Reiss, Vermeer and Nord (handout).docx|The Functional Translation Theory of Reiss, Vermeer and Nord (handout).docx]] by Qin Jianan 秦建安. <br />
* ppt 3: [[Media:Translation Theories of Peter Newmark.pptx|Translation Theories of Peter Newmark]] ppt by Liu Xiao 刘晓; [[Media:Translation Theories of Peter Newmark.docx|Translation Theories of Peter Newmark .docx]] handout by Liu Yue 刘越.<br />
<br />
* ppt 4:[[Media:Yan Fu's Translation Thoughts(ppt).pptx|Yan Fu's Translation Thoughts(ppt)]] by Wang Lifei 王李菲; handout [[Media: Yan Fu's Translation Thoughts.docx| Yan Fu's Translation Thoughts]] by Wei Chuxuan 魏楚璇<br />
* ppt 5: [[Media:Translation of Xu Yuanchong.pptx|Translation theorie of Xu Yuanchong]] ppt by Zhouqing周清; [[Media:Translation of Xu Yuanchong.docx|Translation theorie of Xu Yuanchong]]handout by Zou Yueli邹岳丽.<br />
<br />
==Homework for next session 9, Nov 24==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 9<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211124_homework|homework of session 8 for session 9, Nov 24]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Nov 24:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
=Session 9, Nov 24, History of Chinese Translation Theories =<br />
<br />
==Homework for this session Nov 24==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 9<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211124_homework|homework of session 8 for session 9, Nov 24]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Nov 24:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
==Presentations Nov 24 on Chinese Translation Theories ==<br />
* ppt 1: [[Media:The History of Chinese Translation Theories in Qing Dynasty(ppt).pptx|The History of Chinese Translation Theories in Qing Dynasty(ppt)]]ppt by Cheng Yang 程杨 and [[Media: The History of Chinese Translation Theories in Qing Dynasty.docx| The History of Chinese Translation Theories in Qing Dynasty]]handout by Li Shuang 李双. <br />
* ppt 2: [[Media:The History of Chinese Buddhist Translation Theories(ppt).pptx|The History of Chinese Buddhist Translation Theories(ppt)]] by Qiu Tingting邱婷婷; handout [[Media: The History of Chinese Buddhist Translation Theories.docx| The History of Chinese Buddhist Translation Theories]] by Wei Yiwen 卫怡雯 <br />
* ppt 3: [[Media:The Chinese Translation Theories During the Period of the May Forth Movement(ppt).pptx|The Chinese Translation Theories During the Period of the May Forth Movement(ppt)]]by Li Wen 李雯; [[Media: The Chinese Translation Theories During the Period of the May Forth Movement.docx|The Chinese Translation Theories During the Period of the May Forth Movement]] handout by Zhou Xiaoxue 周小雪<br />
* ppt 4: [[Media: The History of Chinese Translation Theories from 1949 to Present(ppt).pptx|The History of Chinese Translation Theories from 1949 to Present(ppt)]]by Yang Aijiang 杨爱江 [[Media: The History of Chinese Translation Theories from 1949 to Present.docx|The History of Chinese Translation Theories from 1949 to Present]] handout by Yang Kun 杨堃<br />
<br />
==Homework for next session 10, Dec 1==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 10<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211201_homework|homework of session 9 for session 10, Dec 1]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 1:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
=Session 10, Dec 1, Appropriateness Theory=<br />
This is a new theory suggested by M. Woesler in 2020. Everybody is invited to help to develop this theory or to criticize other theories and suggesting what a new theory (like the appropriateness theory) needs to do better.<br />
<br />
==Homework for this session Dec 1==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 10<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211201_homework|homework of session 9 for session 10, Dec 1]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 1:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
==Presentations Dec 1==<br />
* handout 1: [[Media: Appropriateness Theory.docx| Appropriateness Theory]] by Ei Mon Kyaw 艾梦觉;ppt 1: [[Media:Appropriateness Theory(ppt).pptx|Appropriateness Theory(ppt)]] by Yin Meida殷美达;<br />
* Topic 2: [[Media: The Appropriateness Theory.docx| The Appropriateness Theory]] by Asep Budiman;ppt 1: [[Media:Appropriateness Theory<br />
(ppt).pptx|Appropriateness Theory(ppt)]] by Asep Budiman;<br />
*Teacher presentation [[Media:10_Translation_Studies_Discipline.pptx|10_Translation_Studies_Discipline.pptx]]<br />
*Teacher presentation [[Media:Appropriateness_Theory_Teacher_Presentation.pptx|Appropriateness_Theory_Teacher_Presentation.pptx]]<br />
<br />
==Homework for next session 11, Dec 8==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 11<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211208_homework|homework of session 10 for session 11, Dec 8]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 8:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
=Session 11, Dec 8, Methods and Style=<br />
==Homework for this session Dec 8==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 11<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211208_homework|homework of session 10 for session 11, Dec 8]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 8:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
==Presentations Dec 8 on Methods and Style==<br />
* ppt 1: [[Media:The Literal Translation and Free Translation(ppt).pptx|The Literal Translation and Free Translation(ppt)]] by Zhong Yifei钟义菲; handout [[Media: The Literal Translation and Free Translation.docx| The Literal Translation and Free Translation]] by Zhong Yulu钟雨露.<br />
* ppt 1: [[Media:The Amplification and Omission in Translation(ppt).pptx|The Amplification and Omission in Translation(ppt)]] by Zhou Jiu周玖; handout [[Media: The Amplification and Omission in Translation.docx| The Amplification and Omission in Translation]] by Zhou Junhui周俊辉.<br />
* ppt 3: [[Media:Zhu Shenghao's Translation Style Take the Translation of Shakespeare's Plays for Example(ppt).pptx|Zhu Shenghao's Translation Style Take the Translation of Shakespeare's Plays for Example(ppt)]] by Li Aixuan李爱璇；handout [[Media:Zhu Shenghao's Translation Style Take the Translation of Shakespeare's Plays for Example.docx|Zhu Shenghao's Translation Style Take the Translation of Shakespeare's Plays for Example]] by Jing Xiaotong金晓童.<br />
* ppt 4: [[File:Translation Methods of Idioms.pptx|Translation Methods of Idioms(ppt)]] by Liu Yunxin 刘运心; handout [[File:Translation Methods of Idioms.docx|Translation Methods of Idioms(handout)]] by Li Ruiyang 李瑞洋<br />
* ppt 5: [[Media:11_Chen_Jing_Domestication_and_Foreignization.pptx|Domestication and Foreignization(pptx)]] by Chen Jing 陈静; handout [[File:Domestication and Foreignization.docx|Domestication and Foreignization(handout)]] by Chen Xinyi 陈心怡<br />
*Teacher presentation [[Media:11_Translation_Studies_Discipline.pptx|11_Translation_Studies_Discipline.pptx]]<br />
<br />
[[File:Translation Methods of Idioms.pptx]]<br />
<br />
==Homework for next session 12, Dec 15==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 12<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211215_homework|homework of session 11 for session 12, Dec 15]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 15:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
=Session 12, Dec 15, Theory and Practice.=<br />
<br />
==Homework for this session Dec 15==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 12<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211215_homework|homework of session 11 for session 12, Dec 15]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 15:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
==Presentations Dec 15 on Theory and Practice==<br />
* ppt 1: [[Media:Catford Translation Shift Theory and Tts Practice(ppt).pptx|Catford Translation Shift Theory and Its Practice(ppt)]] by Zhou Qiao 周巧; handout [[Media:Catford Translation Shift Theory and Its Practice.docx|Catford Translation Shift Theory and Its Practice]] by Zhu Suzhen 朱素珍.<br />
<br />
* ppt 2: [[Media: The value and limits of Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory in its Application of Literature(ppt).pptx| The value and limits of Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory in its Application of Literature（ppt）]] by Zhan Ruoxuan 詹若萱;handout [[Media:The value and limits of Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory in its Application of Literature.docx|The value and limits of Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory in its Application of Literature]] by Luo Xi 罗曦.<br />
<br />
* ppt 3：[[Media:Ezra Pound's translation theory and its application in Cathay(ppt).pptx|Ezra Pound's translation theory and its application in Cathay(ppt)]] by Wang Yifan 王逸凡; handout [[Media:Ezra Pound's translation theory and its application in Cathay.docx|Ezra Pound's translation theory and its application in Cathay]] by Zhang Qiuyi 张秋怡.<br />
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* ppt 4：[[Media:Skopos Theory and its application by Jawad and Liu Peiting.pptx|Skopos Theory and its application by Jawad and Liu Peiting]] by Jawad Ahmad; handout [[Media:Skopos Theory and Its Application.docx|Skopos Theory and Its Application]] by Liu Peiting 刘沛婷.<br />
<br />
==Homework for next session 13, Dec 22==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 13<br />
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2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
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*[[20211222_homework|homework of session 12 for session 13, Dec 22]]<br />
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3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
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4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 22:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
=Session 13, Dec 22, Decriptive Studies, Culture, Invisibility, Constructivism=<br />
<br />
==Homework for this session Dec 22==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 13<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211222_homework|homework of session 12 for session 13, Dec 22]]<br />
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3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
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4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 22:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
==Presentations Dec 22 on Decriptive Studies, Culture, Invisibility, Constructivism==<br />
<br />
* ppt 1: [[Media:Gideon Toury's Descriptive Translation Studies(ppt).pptx|Gideon Toury's Descriptive Translation Studies(ppt)]]ppt by Benjamin Wellsand; handout [[Media:Gideon Toury's Descriptive Translation Studies.docx|Gideon Toury's Descriptive Translation Studies]] by Bi bi Nadia.<br />
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* ppt 2: [[Media:Gideon Toury's Descriptive Study of Norms in Translation Presentation(ppt).pptx|Gideon Toury's Descriptive Study of Norms in Translation Presentation(ppt)]]ppt by Rouabah Soumaya; handout [[Media:.docx|.docx]] by Bi bi Nadia.<br />
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* ppt 3: [[Media:Presentation on Cultural Aspects of Translation Studies(ppt).pptx|Presentation on Cultural Aspects of Translation Studies(ppt)]]ppt by Zhang Yiran; handout [[Media:Presentation on Cultural Aspects of Translation Studies.docx|Presentation on Cultural Aspects of Translation Studies]] by Atta Ur Rahman.<br />
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==Homework for next session 14, Dec 29==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 14<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211229_homework|homework of session 13 for session 14, Dec 29]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
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4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 29:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
=Session 14, Dec 29, East-West Comparison=<br />
<br />
==Homework for this session Dec 29==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 14<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211229_homework|homework of session 13 for session 14, Dec 29]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 29:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
==Presentations Dec 29 on East-West Comparison==<br />
*ppt 1: A Comparison of Venuti's and Lu Xun's Foreignization Translation Strategy ppt by Mao You 毛优; [[Media: A Comparison of Venuti's and Lu Xun's Foreignization Translation Strategy(Handout).docx|A Comparison of Venuti's and Lu Xun's Foreignization Translation Strategy(Handout).docx]] handout by Mao Yawen 毛雅文.<br />
<br />
*ppt 2: A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western Contemporary Cultural Translation——Taking the Translation Concepts of Liu Miqing(刘宓庆) and Susan Bassnett as an Example. [[File:A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western Contemporary Cultural Translation.pptx]] by Wei Zhaoyan魏兆妍；[[File:A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western Contemporary Cultural Translation(handout).docx]] by Wu Jingyue吴婧悦<br />
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*ppt 3: [[Media:(ppt).pptx|(ppt)]]ppt by ; handout [[Media:Hypotactic and Paratactic.docx|Hypotactic and Paratactic]] by Huang Zhuliang黄柱梁.<br />
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==Homework for next session 15, Jan 5==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 15<br />
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2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20210105_homework|homework of session 14 for session 15, Jan 5]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
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4. (Only for students who do presentation on Jan 5:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
=Session 15, Jan 5, Review in Preparation of final exam=<br />
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=Session 16, Jan 12, Final Exam=<br />
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<br />
=Samples from last year: 人类起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation=<br />
Please note: All the sessions (2-16) here are copies of the 2020 course. <br />
<br />
You can have a look how the fellow students did it last year, <br />
<br />
but you have to write everything new here for 2021.<br />
<br />
*Teacher presentation<br />
<br />
*Student presentations<br />
<br />
OLD (2020):<br />
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*Handout for download [[Media:The_emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation.docx|Global Emergence of Interpretation and Translation]] by 彭锐宏<br />
*Classroom presentation for download [[Media:The_emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_by_Peng_Ruihong.pptx|Presentation on Emergence of translation]] by 彭锐宏--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 07:05, 28 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 2, Topic 2: 西方起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation in the West===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:The_Emergence_of_Translation_and_Interpretation_in_Western_Countries.docx|Handout on The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation in Western Countries]]--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 05:43, 28 September 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou by 聂晓楼<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The_Emergence_of_Translation_and_Interpretation_in_Western_Countries.pptx|Powerpoint on The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation in Western Countries]]--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 05:43, 28 September 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou by 聂晓楼<br />
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===Session 2, Topic 3: 中国起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation in China===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:Emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_in_China.docx| Handout on Emergence of translation and interpretation in China]]--Mashuya by 马淑雅<br />
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_in_China.pptx|PowerPoint on Emergence of translation and interpretation in China]]--Mashuya by 马淑雅<br />
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===Session 2, Topic 4: 日本起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation in Japan===<br />
*Handout for download: [[Media:The_Emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_in_Japan.docx|The Emergence of translation and interpretation in Japan]] by 孟莹 --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 16:10, 27 September 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The_Emergence_of_Translation_and_Interpretation_in_Japan.ppt|Powerpoint on the Emergence of Translation and Interpretation in Japan]] by 孟莹--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 16:10, 27 September 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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===Homework from Session 2 (Sep 28, 2020), due on (Oct 5, 2020)===<br />
1. Every student should translate 1 paragraph of an English book on Contemporary Chinese Literature INTO CHINESE. Link: [[20200928_trans|here]].<br />
<br />
2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20200928_trans|here]].<br />
<br />
==3rd Session: History==<br />
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===Session 3, Topic 1:中国古代翻译史History of Translation in Ancient China===<br />
*Handout for download：[[Media:Handout for History of Translation in Ancient China.doc]]--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 09:14, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media: History of Translation in Ancient China.pptx]]--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 09:14, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 3, Topic 2: 中国翻译史代表人物The Representatives in Chinese Translation History===<br />
*Handout for download: [[Media:Chin_Trans_Hist_Rep.docx|The Representatives in Chinese Translation History]] --[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 11:35, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:....pptx|The Representatives in Chinese Translation History]] --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:36, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 3, Topic 3: 中国翻译史的四个阶段 The Four Stages of Chinese Translation History===<br />
*Handout for download: [[Media:The four stages of Chinese translation history.docx|Description of the file]] PLEASE UPLOAD by --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:08, 5 October 2020 (UTC)XX<br />
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The_four_stages_of_Chinese_translation_history.pptx|The Four Stages of Chinese Translation History]] by --[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 16:16, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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===Session 3, Topic 4: 当代中国之翻译 Translation in Contemporary China===<br />
*Handout for download: [[Media:Handout for Translation in Contemporary China.docx|Translation in today's China]] by --[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 02:08, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Translation in Contemporary China(1).pptx|Presentation on translation in China today]] --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 01:05, 5 October 2020 (UTC) Zhang Yuxing by 张宇星<br />
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==='''Homework from Session 3 (Oct 5, 2020), for Session 4 due on (Oct 12, 2020)'''===<br />
<br />
1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book "Translation Studies". <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201005_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
<br />
2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201005_trans|here]].<br />
<br />
==Session 4: Development==<br />
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===Session 4, Topic 1: 西方翻译史 Western translation history===<br />
*Handout for download: [[Media:....docx|Western translation history]] by Zhou Siqing--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:57, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Western translation history.pptx|Western translation history]] by Zhang Qi [[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 07:46, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 4, Topic 2: 中国佛经翻译的发展 The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures.docx]] by Jiang Qiwei--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:26, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures.ppt|The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures]] by Hu Jin--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:26, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 4, Topic 3:西方翻译理论史History of Western Translation Theory===<br />
*Handout for download: [[Media:...docx|History of Western Translation Theory]] by --[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 13:19, 4 October 2020 (UTC)XX<br />
* Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:...pptx| Brief History of Western Translation Theory]] by --[[User:Zhou Shiqing|Zhou Shiqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shiqing|talk]]) 13:19, 4 October 2020 (UTC)XX<br />
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===Session 4, Topic 4:口译未来的发展 Prospect of Interpreting===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Prospect of Interpreting.docx]]-by Zhang Yinliu--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 08:30, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Prospect of Interpreting.pptx]]--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 08:23, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 4, Topic 5:新中国成立后翻译的发展 Translation Development of New China===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:Translation Development of New China.pdf]] by Li Luyi --[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:47, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Translation Development .pptx]] by Zheng Huajun--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:47, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 4, Topic 6:圣经翻译的发展 The Development of Bible Translation===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Development of Bible Translation.docx]]--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:05, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Development of Bible Translation.pptx]] by Han Haiyang--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 02:01, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 4, Topic 7:机器翻译的发展 The Development of Machine Translation===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:Handout-The Development of Machine Translation.docx]] by Deng Jinxia----[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 12:42, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:PPT The Development of Machine Translation.pptx]] by Han Wanzhen--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 06:31, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 4, Topic 8:视听翻译的发展 The Development of Audiovisual Translation===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Development of Audiovisual Translation-Handout.docx]]--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 16:01, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Development of Audiovisual Translation-PPT.pptx]] by Cheng Yusi--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 16:04, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Homework from Session 4 (Oct 12, 2020), for Session 5 due on (Oct 19, 2020)'''===<br />
<br />
1. Every student should translate a short passage of a paper on the Chinese essay. <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201012_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
<br />
2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. [[20201012_trans|here]].<br />
<br />
3. Take part in an online survey. The survey is currently prepared by the fellow students.<br />
<br />
==Session 5: ==<br />
<br />
===Session 5, Topic 1:林纾的翻译 Lin Shu's translation===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:Translation by Lin Shu.docx]]--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:50, 29 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation by Lin Shu(After correcting).pptx]]--Xu Pengfei<br />
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===Session 5, Topic 2:茅盾的翻译 Mao Dun's Translation===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:Mao Dun's Translation.docx]]--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 02:44, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[[Media:translations by Mao Dun.pptx]]--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 13:14, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 5, Topic 3:严复和天演论 Yan Fu and Tianyan Lun===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:YAN Fu and Tianyan Lun.docx]]--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 09:53, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Yuan Yuchen<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:YAN Fu and Tianyan Lun.pptx]]--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 10:28, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
Please stick to your 5 minutes with your presentation. We are 3 presentations behind. Thank you for your cooperation.<br />
<br />
===Session 5, Topic 4:《红楼梦》的英译 The Translation of ''The Red Chamber Dreams''===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Translation of ''The Red Chamber Dreams''.docx]]--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 13:38, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Translation of ''The Red Chamber Dreams''.pptx]]----[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 03:59, 24 October 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
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===Session 5, Topic 5:《圣经》的早期汉译 The Early Translation of the Bible into Chinese===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Early Translation of the Bible into Chinese.docx]]--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 15:22, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Early Translation of the Bible into Chinese.ppt]]--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 14:55, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 5, Topic 6:梁实秋的翻译 The Translation of Liang Shiqiu===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Liang Shiqiu's Translation.pdf]]--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]]([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:32, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media: Liang Shiqiu.pdf]]--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]]([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 00:32, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Session 6: Early Theories==<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''Homework from Session 5 (Oct 19, 2020), for Session 6 due on (Oct 26, 2020)'''===<br />
<br />
1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book "Translation Studies". <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201019_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
<br />
2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201019_trans|here]].<br />
<br />
===Session 6, Topic 1: 巴斯奈特文化翻译观 The Cultural Translation Theory of Bassnett===<br />
<br />
Handout for download: [[Media:The Cultural Translatioin Theory of Susan Bassnett.pdf]]--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]]([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 16:36, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Cultural Translatioin Theory of Bassnett.ppt]]--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 05:07, 24 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
===Session 6, Topic 2: 中国早期代表性佛经翻译理论 Early Representative Theories of Buddhist Scriptures Translation in China===<br />
<br />
Handout for download:[[Media:Early Representative Theories of Buddhist Scriptures Translation in China.docx]]--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:23, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Early Representative Theories of Buddhist Scriptures Translation in China.pptx]]--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 00:43, 26 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 6, Topic 3: 两种西方早期翻译模式的比较分析:贺拉斯模式和杰罗姆模式 The Comparative Analysis of Two Early Western Translation Models: Horace Model and Jerome Model===<br />
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Handout for download:[[Media:The Comparative Analysis of Two Translation Models.docx]]--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 09:41, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The_Comparative_Analysis_of_Two_Translation_Models.pptx]]--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 09:24, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br />
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===Session 6, Topic 4: 卡特福德的《翻译的语言学理论》 A Linguistic Theory of Translation of J.C.Catford===<br />
<br />
Handout for download:[[Media:A Linguistic Theory of Translation of Catford.docx]]--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 12:30, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:A Linguistic Theory of Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 12:38, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 6, Topic 5: 中西早期译论对比 The Comparison between Chinese and Western Early Translation Theories===<br />
Handout for download:[[Media:Comparison of Early Translation Theories between China and the West.docx]]--[[User:QiKai|Qi Kai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 14:04, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Classroom Presentation for download:[[Media:Chinese and Western Early Theories Comparison.pptx]]--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 13:26, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 6, Topic 6: 系统翻译理论的早期尝试 Early Attempts at Systematic Translation Theory===<br />
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Handout for download: [[Media:Early Attempts at Systematic Translation Theory.docx]]--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 12:40, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Early Attempts at Systematic Translation Theory.ppt]]--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]])03:52, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Session 7: Western theories==. 周巧 presentation PowerPoint 朱素珍 handout Cat ford Translation Shift Theory<br />
<br />
===Homework from Session 6 (Oct 26, 2020), for Session 6 due on (Nov 2, 2020)===<br />
<br />
1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book "Translation Studies". <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201026_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
<br />
2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201026_trans|here]].<br />
<br />
===Session 7, Topic 1: 奈达功能对等理论 Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
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Handout for download:[[Media:Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory.docx]]<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory ppt.pptx]]--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 02:59, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 7, Topic 2: 多元系统理论 Polysystem Theory===<br />
<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Polysystem Theory ppt.pptx]]--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 11:35, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Handout for download:[[Media:Polysystem Theory.docx]]--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 11:21, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 7, Topic 3： 后殖民主义翻译理论 Post-colonial Translation Theory===<br />
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Handout for download:[[Media:Post-colonial Translation Theory.doc]]--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 12:27, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Post-colonial Translation Theory.pptx]]--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 01:29, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 7, Topic 4： 布拉格学派 Prague School===<br />
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Handout for download: [[Media:Prague_School-Handout.doc]]--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 14:48, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Prague School.pptx]]--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:08, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 7, Topic 5： 目的论 Skopos Theory===<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Skopos Theory.pptx]]--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 07:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
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Handout for download:[[Media:Skopos Theory.docx]]--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:21, 2 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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===Session 7, Topic 6： 语言学派 Linguistic School===<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Linguistic School.pptx]]----[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Handout for download: [[Media:Linguistic School-Handout.doc]]----[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:48, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Session 8: Methods==<br />
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===Homework from Session 7 (Nov 2, 2020), for Session 8 due on (Nov 9, 2020)===<br />
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1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book "Translation Studies". <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201102_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
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2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201102_trans|here]].<br />
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===Session 8, Topic 1： 正说反译与反说正译 Negation===<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Negation-Gan Fengyu.pptx]][[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 13:01, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Handout for download:[[Media:Negation.docx]]--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 12:56, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 8, Topic 2：异化策略下的翻译方法 Translation Methods of Foreignization Strategy ===<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation Methods of Foreignization Strategy-Zhao Xiaoyan.pptx]]--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 15:35, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Handout for download:[[Media:Translation Methods of Foreignization Strategy-Zhang Hui.docx]]--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 15:33, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 8, Topic 3： 交际翻译与语义翻译 Communicative Translation and Semantic Translation===<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Communicative Translation and Semantic Translation.pptx]]by Zhang Yu--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 13:01, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Handout for download:[[Media:Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation-handout.docx]]--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 13:49, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 8, Topic 4： 直译与意译 Literal Translation and Free translation===<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Literal Translation and Free translation.pptx]]--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:45, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
Handout for download:[[Media:Literal Translation and Free translation Handout.docx]]--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 01:22, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 8, Topic 5： 增译与减译 Amplification and Omission===<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Amplification and Omission.pptx]]--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 03:06, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Amplification And Omission.docx]]--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 05:05, 9 November 2020 (UTC)Wensixing<br />
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===Session 8, Topic 6： 影视字幕的翻译方法-以《肖申克的救赎》为例 The Translation Method of Film and Television Subtitles——Taking Shawshank’s Redemption as an Example===<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Translation Method of Film and Television Subtitles—Taking Shawshank’s Redemption as an Example.pptx]]--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 01:21, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
Handout for download:[[Media:The Translation Method of Film and Television Subtitles—Taking Shawshank’s Redemption as an Example Handout.docx]]--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 01:16, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Session 9: Style==<br />
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===Homework from Session 8 (Nov 9, 2020), for Session 9 due on (Nov 16, 2020)===<br />
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1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201116_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
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2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201116_trans|here]].<br />
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===Session 9, Topic 1: 源语风格和翻译 Style of Source Text and Translation===<br />
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Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Style of Source Text and Translation.docx]]--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 06:48, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Style of Source Text and Translation1.pptx]]--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 07:03, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 9, Topic2 : 科技翻译 Scientific Style===<br />
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Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Scientific Style.docx]]--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 01:42, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Scientific Style.pptx]]--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:17, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 9,Topic 3:不同翻译风格对比 Comparison among Different Translation Styles===<br />
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Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Handout Session 9 Comparison among Different Translation Styles.docx]]--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 14:40, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Session 9 Comparison among Different Translation Styles.pptx]]--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 14:40, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 9,Topic 4: 文学风格可译与不可译 On Literary Style from a Translatable View and Untranslatable View===<br />
Classroom handout for download:[[Media:On Literary Style from a Translatable View and Untranslatable View.docx]]--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:49, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:On Literary Style from a Translatable View and Untranslatable View.pptx]] by Li Yongshan --[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:49, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 9,Topic 5: 翻译与风格 Translation and Style= ==<br />
Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Translation_and_Style.docx]]--Hu Huifang<br />
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Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Translation_and_Style.pptx]]--Zeng Yanhu<br />
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[[Media:Example.ogg]]<br />
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==Session 10: Translation Studies==<br />
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===Homework from Session 9 (Nov 16, 2020), for Session 10 due on (Nov 23, 2020)===<br />
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1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201123_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
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2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201123_trans|here]].<br />
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===Session 10,Topic 1: 翻译转换 Translation Shifts===<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation_Shifts.pptx]]--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 14:51, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Translation_Shifts_handout.docx]]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 15:05, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 10,Topic 2: 解码和重新编码 Decoding and Recoding===<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Decoding and Recoding.pptx]]--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 08:33, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Decoding and Recoding.docx]]--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 04:32, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 10,Topic 3: 视听翻译 Audiovisual Translation===<br />
Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Audiovisual Translation.docx]]--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 13:19, 22 November 2020 (UTC) - READ BY NIE XIAOLOU<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Audiovisual Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 00:26, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 10,Topic 4: 对钱钟书“化境说”的理论研究 The Translation Studies of Qian Zhongshu’s Theory of Huajing===<br />
[[Media:Handout-The Translation Studies of Qian Zhongshu’s theory of Huajing.docx]]--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 05:38, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[[Media:The Translation Studies of Qian Zhongshu’s theory of Huajing.pptx]]--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 05:40, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 10, Topic 5: 英汉被动语态对比研究及其翻译策略 Contrastive Studies of Passive Voice(C&E) and its Translation Strategies===<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Contrastive Studies of Passive Voice(C&E) and its Translation Strategies.pptx]] --[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 09:20, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Contrastive Studies of Passive Voice(C&E) and its Translation Strategies.docx]]--[[User:Blank|Zhang Hu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hu|talk]]) 10:23, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 10,Topic 6: 不可译性及其转化策略 Untranslatability and Translation Strategies====<br />
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Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Untranslatability and Translation Strategies.docx]]--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 12:03, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Untranslatability & Translation Strategies.pptx]]--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 12:45, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Session 11: Theory and Practice==<br />
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===Homework from Session 10 (Nov 23, 2020), for Session 11 due on (Nov 30, 2020)===<br />
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1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201130_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
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2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201130_trans|here]].<br />
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===Session 11,Topic 1: 功能对等理论对商标翻译的影响 The Effect of the Equivalence Theory on Trademark Translation===<br />
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Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Handout.The Theory and Practice.docx]]--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 07:38, 30 November 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Effect of the Equivalence Theory on Trademark Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 08:08, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 11,Topic 2: 归化和异化在翻译中的实践 Translation practice in domestication and foreignization===<br />
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Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Handout.The Practice of Foreignization and Domestication.docx]]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 01:21, 30 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation practice in domestication and foreignization.pptx]]--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 09:00, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
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===Session 11,Topic 3: 目的论及其应用 Skopos Theory and its Applications===<br />
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Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Skopos Theory and its Applications.docx]]--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 05:08, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download：[[Media:Skopos Theory and its Applications.pptx]]--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 05:16, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 11,Topic 4:语义翻译与交际翻译 The Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation=== <br />
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Classroom handout for download:[[Media:The Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation.docx]]--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 16:30, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation.ppt]]--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 06:56, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 11,Topic 5: 奈达的功能对等理论及其在科技文英译汉中的应用 Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory and its Application in E-C Translation of EST===<br />
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Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Nida’s_Functional_Equivalence_Theory_and_its_Application_in E-C_Translation_of_EST.docx]]--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 02:03, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory and its Application in E-C Translation of EST.pptx]]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 03:25, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 11,Topic 6:女性主义翻译 The Feminist Translation===<br />
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Handout for download：[[Media:Feminist Translation.doc]]--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:07, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation：[[Media:Feminist Translation.pptx]]<br />
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==Session 12: Different Aspects==<br />
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===Homework from Session 11 (Nov 30, 2020), for Session 12 due on (Dec 7, 2020)===<br />
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1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201207_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
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2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201207_trans|here]].<br />
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===Session 12, Topic 1: 政论文翻译 Translation of Political Text===<br />
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Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Translation of Political Text.docx]]--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 12:21, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Translation of Political Text.pptx]] By Chen Jiaxin --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 12:30, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 12, Topic 2: 诗歌翻译 Poem Translation===<br />
Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Poem Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 14:59, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[[Media:Poem_Translation_handout.docx]] by Zhang Yujie& Yang Hairong--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 03:14, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 12, Topic 3: 旅游翻译 Tourism Translation===<br />
Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Tourism Translation.pptx]] by Tan Xinjie & Wei Yafei --[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 09:53, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei <br />
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[[Media:Tourism_Translation_handout.docx]] by Tan Xinjie & Wei Yafei--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 10:06, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Wei Yafei<br />
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==Session 13: East West comparison==<br />
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===Homework from Session 12 (Nov 30, 2020), for Session 13 due on (Dec 14, 2020)===<br />
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1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201214_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
<br />
2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201214_trans|here]].<br />
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===Topic 1:严复和泰特勒翻译标准之对比 A Comparison between Yan Fu's and Tytler's Translation Criteria===<br />
[[Media:A Comparison Between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s Translation Criteria.pptx]]--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 07:15, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
[[Media:A Comparison Between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s Translation Criteria.docx]]--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 06:52, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
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===Topic 2:中西翻译发展比较Comparison of the Development of Chinese and Western Translation===<br />
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[[Media:Comparison of the Development of Chinese and Western Translation.pptx]] by Liu Yi.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 15:38, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[[Media:Comparison of the Development of Chinese and Western Translation.doc]] by Tan Yuanyuan.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 15:47, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Topic 3:中西文化差异对翻译的影响The Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on Translation===<br />
[[Media:Handout-The Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on Translation.doc]] by Yang Yue--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 05:10, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
[[Media:The Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on Translation.pptx]] by Yi Zichu--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 05:01, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Topic 4:中国佛经翻译与圣经翻译的比较Comparison Between the translation of Buddhist scriptures of China and Bible translation===<br />
[[Media:The Comparison of the Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures and Bible translation.pptx]]by Xiao Ting--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 00:54, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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[[Media:The Comparison of the Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures and Bible Translation.docx]]--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 02:07, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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===Topic 5:20世纪中叶以来中西翻译理论对比 Comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century===<br />
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[[Media:Comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century by Mo Ling.pptx]]--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 09:38, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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[[Media:Handout of comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century by Yuan Tianyi.doc]]<br />
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===Topic 6；中西思维方式差异在翻译中的体现——以习语为例 The Embodiment of the Differences between Chinese and Western Thinking Modes in Translation -- Taking Idioms as an Example===<br />
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Classroom handout for download: [[Media:The Embodiment of the Differences between Chinese and Western Thinking Modes in Translation -- Taking Idioms as an Example.docx]]--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Sha]] --[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Sha]] ([[User talk:Chen Sha|talk]]) 14:43, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The Embodiment of the Differences between Chinese and Western Thinking Modes in Translation -- Taking Idioms as an Example.pptx]] By Chen Jiangning --[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Jiangning]]--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 14:43, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Session 14: Strategies==<br />
===Homework from Session 13 (Dec 14, 2020), for Session 14 due on (Dec 21, 2020)===<br />
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1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201221_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
<br />
2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201221_trans|here]].<br />
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===Topic 1；阿拉伯大征服时代与翻译学 The Era of Arab Conquest and Translatology===<br />
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Classroom handout for download: [[Media:The Era of Arab Conquest and Translatology.docx]] Ma Zhixing＆Wu kai --[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 10:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The Era of Arab Conquest and Translatology.ppt]] Ma Zhixing＆Wu kai --[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 10:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Topic 2；韦努蒂的抵抗式翻译策略 Resistancy Translation Strategy—Lawrence Venuti===<br />
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Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Resistancy Translation Strategy—Lawrence Venuti.docx]] Tang Yiran&Yang Ziling --[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 23:34, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Resistancy Translation Strategy—Lawrence Venuti.ppt]] Tang Yiran&Yang Ziling --[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 23:34, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Topic 3；英日译本对照--以《雪国》为例The Contrast of Japanese-English Translation--Taking "Snow Country" as an Example===<br />
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Classroom handout for download: [[Media:The Contrast of Differences in Japanese-English Xie Ziyi& Peng Yongliang.docx]] <br />
--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 05:48, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The Contrast of Differences in Japanese-English Xie Ziyi& Peng Yongliang.pptx]] <br />
--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 05:48, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Session 15: Contemporary Translation Theories==<br />
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===Homework from Session 14 (Dec 21, 2020), for Session 15 due on (Dec 28, 2020)===<br />
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1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201228_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
<br />
2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201228_trans|here]].<br />
<br />
<br />
===Topic 1 Contemporary Translation Theories ===<br />
<br />
Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Contemporary Translation Theories.docx]] <br />
<br />
<br />
Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Contemporary Translation Theories.pptx]] <br />
--[[User:Sagara Seydou 3|Sagara Seydou 3]] ([[User talk:Sagara Seydou 3|talk]]) 08:07, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Session 16: Final Discussion==<br />
<br />
==List of topics for presentations and handouts in class==<br />
1 Emergence: <br />
孟莹: 日本起源, 聂晓楼: 西方起源, 马淑雅: 中国起源, 彭锐宏: 人类起源<br />
<br />
2 History: <br />
周思庆 张琪: 西方翻译史; 马娟 刘智伟: 历史上中国著名的翻译家; 解帆 张宇星: 现当代中国翻译演变; 凌子瑾 李玉: 中国古代翻译史; 杨晨婷 余妮: 中国近代翻译史; 周诗卿 纪甜甜: 西方翻译理论简史<br />
<br />
3 Development: <br />
韩宛真 邓锦霞: 机器翻译的发展; 蒋淇玮 胡瑾：中国佛经翻译的发展; 吴琼 张银柳: 口译未来的发展; 成于思 龚钰冕: 翻译实践的发展; 郑华君 李璐伊: 新中国成立后翻译的发展; 韩海洋 彭育志：圣经翻译的发展<br />
<br />
4 Early Literary Examples: <br />
许鹏飞 肖伊宁: 林纾的翻译; 许晶 李凌月; 袁诗琦 姚佳; 邹鑫雨 曹润鑫:《红楼梦》的英译; 袁雨晨 肖茜: 严复和《天演论》; 苏琳 周玉娟<br />
<br />
5 Early Theories: <br />
徐梦蝶 杨逸; 陈涵 曾心媛; 陈静静 高明珠; 文晓艺 韦洪朗: 严复与林纾的翻译理论; 康浩宇 漆凯: 玄奘翻译理论; 刘洋诺 邬香: 系统翻译理论的早期尝试<br />
<br />
6 (Western) Theories: <br />
康灵凤 莫南: 功能对等理论; 吴琪 常慧月：多元系统理论; 纪甜甜 姜好: 后殖民翻译理论; 许静 游雨婷; 布拉格学派; 肖双玲 王轩: 目的论; 李丽丽 王源: 语言学派<br />
<br />
7 Methods: <br />
甘奉玉 丁代凤; 赵晓燕 张慧: 异化策略下的翻译方法; 张瑜 谭星越: 语义翻译和交际翻译; 吴一露 司妤: 直译和意译; 文偲荇 李梦: 增译和减译; 林敏 刘金惺琦<br />
<br />
8 Style: <br />
孔祥慧 孔亚楠; 罗雨晴 娄灿灿; 管钦清：不同翻译风格对比； 林鑫 李泳珊：文学风格可译与不可译; 曾雁湖 胡慧芳<br />
<br />
9 Translation Studies: <br />
罗维嘉 桂一枝; 彭小玲 彭丹; 全美欣 宋建茹:视听翻译;石迪文 易欢; 姚诚 张虎：中英语态对比及其翻译策略; 刘欧 陈永相：不可译性及其转化策略<br />
<br />
10 Theory and Practice: <br />
彭娟 陶冶; 吴子佳 雷旷溪: 归化异化在翻译中的实践; 汤蓓 王美玲; 蒋凤仪 顾东方; 周园曲 祝美梅; 阳慧 张佩闻; <br />
<br />
11 Different Aspects: <br />
周艺文 陈佳欣; 谭鑫洁 魏亚菲; 张毓婕 杨海容; <br />
<br />
12 East West Comparison: <br />
唐铭 欧蓉; 谭媛媛 刘艺: 中西翻译发展史及比较; 杨悦 义子楚: 中西文化差异对翻译的影响; 肖婷 徐佳：中国佛经翻译和圣经翻译的比较; 莫玲 袁天翼; 陈莎 陈江宁：中西方思维方式差异在翻译中的体现--以习语为例。<br />
<br />
13 Strategies: <br />
吴恺 马智星: 阿拉伯大征服时代与翻译学; 汤伊然 杨子泠(劳伦斯·韦努蒂的异化翻译策略); 彭永亮 谢子熠<br />
<br />
14 Contemporary translation Theories: <br />
Sagara Seydo Nguyen, Thuy Hien (Helen)<br />
<br />
==List of Topics for final exam papers in Translation Studies==<br />
<br />
学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
Ideas<br />
*literal vs. free<br />
*Faithful/loyal/foreignization/alienation/exotization vs. domestication/localization<br />
*unit of translation<br />
*contrastive analysis<br />
*the equivalence problem (functional, dynamic)<br />
*translatability vs untranslatability <br />
*SLT vs TLT relation<br />
*translation types, strategies, styles, methods<br />
*communication factors, translator role in social setting<br />
*cognitive factors<br />
*machine translation<br />
*translation quality assessment<br />
*translation ethics / manipulation etc.<br />
<br />
<br />
Suggested topics for final exam papers (chapters of book on translation studies)<br />
<br />
Each student needs to prepare one small topic for a 5-min. classroom presentation (with a fellow student, who writes a handout about it) and needs to find a topic for a chapter of a book on Translation Studies. Alternatively to the classroom presentation, the student can also assist the teacher by preparing class, sorting the wiki page etc.<br />
<br />
Here is the link to the list: [[Topics in Translation Studies]]<br />
<br />
=Final Exam Papers=<br />
<span style="color:red">The deadline has been extended to '''Dec 21, 2020'''. Please find a paper you want to proof read, contact the author, proof read (by copying each paragraph and make corrections/suggestions in the copy) and sign until Dec 19. The author then finalizes (works in the suggestions) until the final deadline Dec 21!</span><br />
==Structure==<br />
需要有topic、学生姓名、学号、专业、Abstract、Key words、题目、摘要、关键词、不同的章回（比如1. Introduction、2. Nida’s Theory、3. ……、4.……、5. Conclusion、References)、然后还需要每个阶段以后有来源。一个阶段不要超过100英文词。每个章回会有几个阶段没问题。每个阶段以后需要一个同学的这个阶段的修改。<br />
<br />
==Tips for writing your final exam paper: How to indicate your references==<br />
*You can use the existing book chapters here as an example.<br />
*Please write the text and indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. And then, you need to add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: East China Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
*Do '''not''' write any references like in one of the sample chapters:<br />
<br />
[1] dsalkfkdsa<br />
<br />
[2] adsfadsfag<br />
<br />
But only the following way:<br />
<br />
(Liu Miqing 2010, 17) in the text<br />
<br />
and then<br />
<br />
'''References'''<br />
*Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
*Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: East China Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
<br />
Also, please avoid using the three apostrophes like ' ' ' (without spaces). Use the equal signs to mark headers and subheaders instead. If your paper topic has two equal signs at the beginning and end of your topic, then use three equal signs for your sub headers. Example (without spaces):<br />
= = Topic = =<br />
< c e n t e r > Student Name, Student no. < / c e n t e r ><br />
= = = Abstract = = =<br />
This chapter is on ....<br />
= = = Key Words = = =<br />
Egg, Hen<br />
= = = 题目 = = =<br />
= = = 摘要 = = =<br />
= = = 关键词 = = =<br />
= = = Introduction = = =<br />
Here starts the normal text of the chapter. Please remember to indicate the source of EACH PARAGRAPH, sometimes even of single sentences. You can indicate it like this. (Woesler 2020, 345) And don't forget to mention the full bibliographical entry beneath under ''References''.<br />
= = = The Egg = = =<br />
Bla, bla, bla<br />
= = = The Hen = = =<br />
Bla, bla, bla<br />
= = = Conclusion = = =<br />
Bla, bla, bla<br />
= = = References = = =<br />
Woesler, Martin. (2020). Responsibility and Ethics in Times of Corona. Woesler, Martin and Hans-Martin Sass eds. ''Medicine and Ethics in Times of Corona'' Muenster: LIT<br />
<br />
==Sample papers==<br />
You can find the full papers also on the Webpage [[History of Translation Studies]]). They are marked with "Sample paper".<br />
* A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories<br />
* An Analysis of the Book of Contemporary Translation Theories and Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications<br />
* Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theroy<br />
* Comparison of Derrida’s and Benjamin’s Translation View<br />
* Impacts of Western Translation Theories on The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish<br />
* On the Comparison between "Sublimation" an "Functonal Equivalence" Theories<br />
* Study on Gladys’ Translation of The Border Town from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics<br />
* The Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Communication<br />
* Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior<br />
<br />
==Website to write your final exam paper on==<br />
[[20220112_final_exam|final exam page]]<br />
<br />
As a reference, here is the information about last year's final exam papers:<br />
<br />
The website where everybody wrote their final exam paper on became too big and produced a database error. Therefore we split the website into 10 small websites. They are sorted like the chapters in the book. Please look for your name and find the right of the 10 small websites to edit your book chapter. Everybody also needs to help to improve other book chapters (copy a paragraph, paste it beneath, make your corrections in the paragraph and sign it).<br />
<br />
Here you can write your Final Exam Papers:<br />
<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1, (samples)]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2, (samples)]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3, students: 蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi， 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi, 郑华君 Zheng Huajun, 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi, 陶冶 Tao Ye, 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4, students: 杨海容 Yang Hairong，游雨婷 You Yuting，王源 Wang Yuan，徐佳 Xu Jia，凌子瑾 Ling Zijin，石迪文 Shi Diwen，张玲 Zhang Ling，曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan，姚诚 Yao Cheng，朱旭 Zhu Xu，许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei，赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan，张琪 Zhang Qi，周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5, students: 李玉 Li Yu，林敏 Lin Min，文偲荇 Wen Sixing， 周诗卿 Zhou Shiqing，朱素瑶 Zhu Suyao，胡百辉 Hu Baihui，马智星 Ma Zhixing, 胡瑾 Hu Jin，张毓婕 Zhang Yujie，顾东方 Gu Dongfang，高明珠 Gao Mingzhu，张虎 Zhang Hu，李璐伊 Li Luyi，袁诗琦 Yuan Shiqi，王美玲 Wang Meiling，康浩宇 Kang Haoyu，王轩 Wang Xuan，陈永相 Chen Yongxiang，莫玲 Mo Ling，袁天翼 Yuan Tianyi]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6, students:汤蓓 Tang Bei欧蓉 Ou Rong，谭星越 Tan Xingyue，周罗平 Zhou Luoping，龚钰冕 Gong Yumian，邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu， 陈惠 Chen Hui，罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing，谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7, students:曾雁湖 Zeng Yanhu，邓锦霞 Deng Jinxia，姜好 Jiang Hao，管钦清 Guan Qinqing，唐铭 Tang Ming，娄灿灿 Lou Cancan，丁代凤 Ding Daifeng，苏琳 Su Lin，徐佳 Xu Jia， 刘艺 Liu Yi，李凌月 Li Lingyue，马娟 Ma Juan，吴琪 Wu Qi，姚佳 Yao Jia，李海泉 Li Haiquan，吴琼 Wu Qiong，杨子泠 Yang Ziling，林敏 Lin Min，彭锐宏 Peng Ruihong ，汤伊然 Tang Yiran，阳慧 Yang Hui，刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8, students: 王煜 Wang Yu，方洁玲 Fang Jieling，许静 Xu Jing，周书尧 Zhou Shuyao，彭永亮 Peng Yongliang，宋建茹 Song Jianru，韦洪朗 Wei Honglang，魏亚菲 Wei Yafei，张雪仪 Zhang Xueyi，甘奉玉 Gan Fengyu，赵茜 Zhao Xi，吴恺 Wu Kai，周艺文 Zhou Yiwen，张维虹 Zhang Weihong，司妤 Si Yu]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9, students: 易欢 Yi Huan，曾良 Zeng Liang，义子楚 Yi Zichu，欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling，石海瑶 Shi Haiyao，胡慧芳 Hu Huifang，吴一露 Wu Yilu，纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian, 桂一枝 Gui Yizhi，刘欧 Liu Ou，祝美梅 Zhu Meimei，谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan，张银柳 Zhang Yinliu，李泳珊 Li Yongshan，聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10, students:陈静静 Chen Jingjing， Thuy Hien Nguyen Thuy Hien，肖茜 Xiao Xi，余妮 Yu Ni，韩宛真 Han Wanzhen，陈佳欣 Chen Jiaxin，成于思 Cheng Yusi，方洁玲 Fang Jieling，张慧 Zhang Hui，吴子佳 Wu Zijia，孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui，许晶 Xu Jing，周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan，曹润鑫 Cao Runxin，肖伊宁 Xiao Yining, Sagara Seydou，欧阳静兰 Ouyang Jinglan]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_11 Part 11, students:李丽琴 Li Liqin, 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 刘怡瑜 Liu Yiyu, 李梦 Li Meng, 林鑫 Lin Xin, 罗维嘉 Luo Weijia, 漆凯 Qi Kai, 郭露 Guo Lu，张宇星 Zhang Yuxing, 陈涵 Chen Han, 李丽丽 Li Lili, 刘柳 Liu Liu, 陈莎 Chen Sha, 徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie,彭丹 Peng Dan， 谢子熠 Xie Ziyi，莫南 Mo Nan]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_12 Part 12, students: 全美欣 Quan Meixin，何长琦 He Changqi，刘博 Liu Bo，刘金惺琦 liu Jinxingqi，谌孙福 Chen Sunfu，曾芳缘 Zeng Fangyuan，肖婷 Xiao Ting，常慧月 Chang Huiyue，彭娟 Peng Juan，彭小玲 Peng Xiaoling，杨悦 Yang Yue，肖双玲 Xiao Shuangling，彭育志 Peng Yuzhi，孟莹 Meng Ying]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_13 Part 13, students: 杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng，杨逸 Yang Yi, 马淑雅 Ma Shuya, 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan, 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_14 Part 14, students:周思庆 Zhou Siqing，蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei，瞿淼 Qu Miao，韩海洋 Han Haiyang，刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi，解帆 Xie Fan，刘洋诺 Liu Yangnuo，袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen，邬香 Wu Xiang]<br />
<br />
=Benefits=<br />
This course is registered as a "EU Expert" diploma supplement course. Collect 10 such courses during your study and you receive a certificate by the Jean Monnet Chair.<br />
<br />
=Misplaced things=<br />
Handout 4 of Ren Xin --<br />
贺骥.“世界文学”概念:维兰德首创：<br />
Summary： 主要讲述了人们发现维兰德首次提出“世界文学”的过程，维兰德对“世界文学”的概念以及与歌德的比较。<br />
<br />
一、为何说维兰德首创“世界文学”？<br />
1987 年，德国学者魏茨( Hans-Joachim Weitz，1904—2001) 在《阿卡迪亚》杂志上发表了一篇题为《维兰德是“世界文学”一词的首创者》的短文。魏茨声称他发现了德国作家维兰德( Christoph Martin Wieland，1733—1813) 在1790 至1813 年间亲笔书写的一则手记中首次提到“世界文学”。但维兰德于1813 年1 月20 日去世，他的同时代人并不知道他写有这则手记，歌德在不知情的情况下从1827 年1 月15 日起多次使用了“世界文学”这个词。维兰德与歌德对于“世界文学”的概念相近，但他没有详细论证。所以说，“世界文学”一次是维兰德首创，歌德第一次明确提出的<br />
二、维兰德“世界文学”的概念与歌德的比较<br />
1. 维兰德在创作早期作品时：世界文学就是世界各民族的文学名作的总集。该观点体现在《民族文学》文学是世界各民族的共同精神财富，世界文学就是所有时代所有民族的典范作品总集。<br />
2. 和歌德一样，维兰德的世界文学概念带有言必称希腊的欧洲中心主义色彩，他的世界文学乃是以古希腊罗马文学为正典、以欧洲文学为核心的世界各民族文学经典的总集。“阅读最优秀的作家的杰作”乃是维兰德“世界文学”概念的核心: 杰作即古往今来世界各民族的文学经典。<br />
3. 维兰德认为优秀作品的形成过程: 首先作家必须以阅世高人的文化修养和娴熟的艺术技巧创造有审美价值的“文学杰作”；其次是后世“最优秀的人们”对这些杰作的“宣扬”和“奉为样板”。<br />
<br />
三、“世界文学”概念有三种定义: <br />
( 1) 广义的“世界文学”指的是所有民族和所有时代文学作品的总和( Gesamtliteratur) ; <br />
( 2) 狭义的“世界文学”指的是超时代的、具有普遍审美价值的世界各民族文学的典范作品总集( Kanon) ，换言之，“世界文学”就是具有世界声誉的文学杰作的荟萃，这种精英主义意义上的“世界文学”概念在当今学界占据了主导地位; <br />
( 3) 歌德于1827 年提出的文学发展蓝图，它指的是国际性的文学交往( Kommunikation der Literatur) 和文化接触，交往的结果就是具有特性的各民族文学的融合。<br />
<br />
Reference: <br />
贺骥.“世界文学”概念:维兰德首创[J].社会科学,2014(07):176-182. --[[User:ImRx|ImRx]] ([[User talk:ImRx|talk]]) 13:24, 13 April 2018 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[1]文飙.阿拉伯民间文学的珍品《一千零一夜》.<br />
1.流传情况： <br />
《一千零一夜》早在公元六世纪左右已在波斯、伊拉克和埃及产生并流传着。公元十世纪阿拨斯王朝统治时代汇集成书,后又经过数百年不断搜集、整理、加工和修改；大约到十六世纪才形成比较完整的总集。<br />
2.故事发生的地点：多在当时阿拉伯世界两大中心城市— 巴格达及开罗。<br />
3.《一千零一夜》，中文另一译名为《天方夜谭( 谈) 》的原因：<br />
这个译名的来源说明中世纪时期阿拉伯帝国与中国的关系。阿拉伯半岛的麦加城在帝国中称为“ 圣城”, 城内有古庙名“ 天房”, 中国古嫂都译为“ 天方”, 实即“ 天房”之误。我国明朝以前称阿拉伯为黑衣大食国，明朝以后则称为“ 天方国”, 这就是旧译本称为《天方夜谭》的原因。<br />
4.故事内容： 《一千零一夜》是一部包罗万象的民间故事集, 有格言、谚语、童话, 王子公主的恋爱故事, 及市民冒险故事。这些故事的主角从底层的劳苦大众到最高的统治者哈里发。能够比较全面而深刻地反映中世纪东方的社会生活。<br />
5.《一千零一夜》的起源：<br />
在古代印度和中国为海岛中,有一个萨桑国。残暴的国王山鲁亚尔每夜娶一王后,翌晨即杀掉再娶。老百姓受此威胁,十分恐怖,纷纷携儿带女逃走,致使城中十室九空。然而国王仍照例命令宰相寻找女子供他虐杀。一天，宰相找遍民间，没找到一个,便满怀恐惧、忧郁地转回府邸来。宰相的大女儿山鲁佐德见父亲情状,问明情由,执意让父亲把她嫁给国王,宰相不得已才把女儿送进宫去。山鲁佐德一见国王,就悲伤地哭泣起来，她希望国王允许她在死之前能和妹妹再见一面,国王同意了,派人到宰相家召敦亚佐德进宫。姐妹俩高高兴兴地坐在床脚下谈笑。其时,敦亚佐德请求姐姐讲个故事消磨时间。山鲁佐德便征得国王许可,开始讲起故事来,借以引动国王的好奇心和兴趣,从而免遭杀戮。这样,日复一日,山鲁佐德一直讲了一千零一个夜晚,最后，终于使国王悔悟。<br />
6.影响：<br />
《一千零一夜》在世界各国广为传播。<br />
它最早介绍到欧洲,对西方文化起过一定的积极作用,许多欧美文学艺术家,如但丁、乔叟、薄伽丘、莎士比亚、塞万提斯、莱辛等都或多或少地受到它的直接或间接的影响。 <br />
在我国，早在六十多年以前就有了《一千零一夜》的译本。<br />
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[2]冯辉.略论《一千零一夜》对世界文学的借鉴与影响.<br />
摘要：《一千零一夜》对世界文学的借鉴与影响。荷马史诗中的巨人故事对《一千零一夜》的启发 ,《一千零一夜》对法国、英国、德国、中国作家的影响。 <br />
一、流传情况：<br />
1.流传时间：多数学者认为:它的故事和手抄本在中近东地区开始流传的年代约在8 世纪中叶—9 世纪中叶。一些世界文学史家则认为:大约在十字军东征时期(1095— 1291), 《一千零一夜》的故事已通过民间传到欧洲。<br />
2.流传情况： <br />
a. 18 世纪初, 法国人加朗根据叙利亚抄本, 首次把《一千零一夜》译成法文出版, 以后在欧洲出现了各种文字的译本。<br />
b. 中国1900 年有过译本, 以后不断的出现多种白话文本。新中国成立后, 纳训选译的3 卷本以及80 年代出版的全译本1 —6 卷, 收集了275 个故事。<br />
二、《一千零一夜》对古希腊荷马史诗巨人故事的借鉴<br />
《一千零一夜》第4 卷第172 个故事《辛伯达航海的故事》写三次航海的故事, 可以看出受到古希腊荷马史诗《奥德修纪》中独眼巨人故事的影响, 又带有阿拉伯民族的特色。<br />
三、《一千零一夜》对世界文学的影响：<br />
1.文艺复兴人文主义作家对《一千零一夜》中故事的扬弃与创新<br />
a)法国：《一千零一夜》第2 卷第75 个故事《阿里·艾尔哲明的故事》与法国文艺复兴时期拉伯雷《巨人传》中第三代国王庞大固埃出生时的行囊装载十分相似。<br />
b)英国：在《一千零一夜》第3 卷第152 个故事的《亚历山大大帝和弱小民族的故事》与英国文艺复兴时期的作家莎士比亚的《哈姆雷特》中有类似的情节，两个故事有历史延续性与巧妙的联系。<br />
《一千零一夜》：<br />
东征西讨的希腊国王亚历山大,一次路过一个弱小国家, 其民众各自门前准备好了坟墓, 家家一贫如洗, 安贫乐道, 所以并不怕亚历山大来争夺地盘。亚历山大十分好奇, 亲自见他们的国王。国王拿了两个头骨, 告诉他这是两个国王的头骨, 一个生前暴虐, 死后安拉让他下地狱;一个生前公正廉明, 爱护百姓, 死后安拉让他升入天堂。国王又问亚历山大:“ 到底你是这两个帝王中的哪一个呢?”年青的亚历山大受了感动, 要这个国王做他的宰相。国王拒绝了他, 说他虽拥有一个大帝国, 却有许多仇敌。国王虽穷, 他所有的一切“ 仅仅是知足” 。亚历山大感慨万千,告辞归去, 不再侵犯他们。<br />
《哈姆雷特》：第五幕第一场墓地对话中 <br />
哈姆雷特面对死人头骨说道:“ 要是我们用想像推测下去, 谁知道亚历山大的高贵的尸体, 不就是塞在酒桶口上的泥土?”“ 凯撒死了, 你尊严的尸体, 也许变了泥把破墙填砌, 啊! 他从前是何等的英雄, 现在只好替人挡风遮雨。”<br />
c)意大利：意大利文艺复兴时期的小说家卜伽丘的《十日谈》中的贵妇宴请国王吃鸡宴, 以打退国王邪念的故事, 在《一千零一夜》第4 卷第175 个故事《宰相夫人的故事》中有类似情节。<br />
2.对18 世纪英国现实主义小说家笛福《鲁宾逊飘流记》的影响<br />
把《辛伯达航海的故事》与《鲁宾逊飘流记》相比较, 辛伯达可以说是鲁宾逊典型的雏型与前身, 鲁宾逊则更加丰富, 更带时代特点。<br />
1)不同点： <br />
辛伯达是中世纪阿拉伯人中积极进取, 发展海外贸易,不断向外开拓勇于冒险的新兴商人, 他开初坐享父亲遗产,挥霍一空, 最后决定变卖家产七次到海上做冒险生意。<br />
鲁宾逊是18 世纪英国资本主义原始积累时期的新资产阶级商人的代表, 父亲没有给他丰厚的资产, 他本人是不满现状的小商人, 三次海外冒险；<br />
辛伯达是在第7次航海时在一个岛国居住了27 年才返回故乡, 鲁宾逊是在第三次航海时在一个荒岛上度过了28 年, 才返回故乡。<br />
2)相似点：<br />
两人都曾遭到过毁灭性的打击, 死里逃生,但每次都以顽强的毅力, 惊人的应变能力, 沉着应付, 化险为夷；发财致富的欲望, 对海外世界的好奇与向往, 每次都促使他们不安现状, 敢于做一次又一次的冒险。<br />
3.对中国作家的影响<br />
《一千零一夜》第1 卷第12 个故事《脚夫和巴格达三个女人的故事》中，脚夫诵的表达自己忠信的诗同中国现代作家钱钟书的长篇小说《围城》中的苏小姐自己写的诗相似。这里已改造成一首爱情诗, 方鸿渐当时并不知道是苏小姐自己写的诗, 说这首诗是借的外债,<br />
四、小结<br />
因为国别不同, 语言不通, 翻译技术有限，后来的作家们不一定能亲自看到这些《一千零一夜》中的故事原文。但阿拉伯文化与文学对欧洲文艺复兴运动及后来的世界文学的发展起到的推动作用和所作的贡献是世界发展史上所公认的事实。<br />
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[3]陆英英.《一千零一夜》在欧洲.<br />
摘要： 介绍了欧洲许多国家早期对《一千零一夜》的译本。《一千零一夜》译成欧洲各种文字后, 引起了欧洲人收集和研究东方文学的热望, 激起了他们了解东方的兴趣。《一千零一夜》对欧洲文学包括戏剧、小说、诗歌、诗剧都产生了巨大影响。<br />
1.法国译本：<br />
A.1704-1717年出现的法国安东尼·加仑的译本是《一千零一夜》——最著名的译本。为了迎合读者掺杂了许多自己想象的情节<br />
B.1828年法国出版特雷布梯的译本 —— 增加情节，接近原版<br />
C.1969年出版了勒内赫瓦姆的《一千零一夜》译本 —— 忠于原作<br />
2.英国译本（几乎都是从法国译本转译而来）： <br />
A.1811年乔纳森·斯科特出版的译本 —— 最突出<br />
B.1838年，亨利·托伦斯打算给译文加注释, 但他只译了五十夜就死了<br />
C.1839-1841年，爱德华·威廉·莱恩的《一千零一夜》三卷本（从阿文直译），删去了当时英国的道德传统所不能接受的故事, 并写了许多注释 —— 极具参考价值<br />
D.1885年，理查德·伯顿的译本出版 —— 最完备的译本<br />
E.英国军官伯顿（会讲阿拉伯语）—— 强烈殖民主义色彩<br />
3.德国译本：<br />
A.第一个把《一千零一夜》译成德文的是东方学家冯哈曼尔。<br />
B.1837-1841年之间出现了凡勒的德译本 ——忠实原文，生涩<br />
C.东方学家莱塔马教授 —— 德国最著名的译本<br />
4.罗马尼亚译本：<br />
A.1771年，出版的《哈伦·拉希德的故事》——罗马尼亚最早<br />
B.1783年，修道院主教罗法伊勒出版了根据希腊文译出的全译本<br />
C.1835-1838年格拉西姆·哥嘉出版《哈利曼或者阿拉伯神话故事》四卷本译本<br />
D.1966-1976，罗马尼亚最大出版社——梅纳法出版社出版了十四卷本的《一千零一夜》<br />
5.俄文译本：<br />
A.萨利尔译的，东方学家卡利姆斯基出版的。<br />
B.高尔基于1904年也译过。<br />
C.列夫·托尔斯泰也译过几篇，如《皇帝和衬衣的故事》等。<br />
6.捷克译本：<br />
1958-1963年捷克斯洛伐克科学院出版的塔瓦外孜授译的《一千零一夜》全集。<br />
7.波兰译本：<br />
1774年出版了第一本——《阿拉伯传奇或一千零一夜》<br />
8.威尼斯译本：<br />
1757-1762年，出版了四卷本的《一千零一夜》和《一千零一日》故事集, 书名为《阿拉伯故事》。<br />
9.希腊译本：<br />
译者为布利兹威斯，译本分三卷。<br />
10.此外还有葡萄牙语、荷兰语、丹麦语、瑞典语、匈牙利语等译本。<br />
东方学家朝温在《阿拉伯著作一览》一书中用了一百二十页专门介绍《一千零一夜》的各种版本和文本。<br />
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参考文献：<br />
[1]文飙. 阿拉伯民间文学的珍品《一千零一夜》[J].徐州师范学院学报,1978(02):59-64.<br />
[2]冯辉. 略论《一千零一夜》对世界文学的借鉴与影响[J].河南教育学院学报(哲学社会科学版),2001(01):110-112.<br />
[3]陆英英.《一千零一夜》在欧洲[J].阿拉伯世界,1983(02):84-90. --[[User:ImRx|ImRx]] ([[User talk:ImRx|talk]]) 13:34, 16 April 2018 (UTC)<br />
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[1]杨晓雨.佛经翻译与圣经翻译比较[J].考试周刊,2017(74):192. <br />
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摘要： 中国翻译史的源头是佛经翻译，而西方翻译史则始于另一部宗教巨著———圣经翻译。中国的佛经翻译和西方的圣经翻译虽然在具体内容、翻译分期、信徒和对应的时代背景等方面有所差异，但两者都经历了直译、意译、直意译相结合的发展历程。本文对比了佛经翻译和圣经翻译，探求宗教类文献翻译中的共同特点。<br />
1.佛经翻译<br />
A.四个时期：<br />
a. 创立时期（东汉末年到西晋），代表人物有安世高和支谦；<br />
b.初步发展阶段是（晋代到隋朝），代表人物有道安和鸠摩罗什；<br />
c.鼎盛时期（唐朝），代表人物为玄奘、不空；<br />
d.逐渐结束于北宋。<br />
B.翻译形式<br />
最初由西域僧人的梵语口授，再找汉人加以润饰。音译。<br />
后来出现精通汉语的印度高僧和熟练掌握梵语的中国高僧。直译为主。<br />
C.翻译大家<br />
三藏法师，从数量和翻译成就都无人能比。直译&意译结合。<br />
2.圣经翻译<br />
A.概况<br />
圣经翻译是西方翻译史的起源。经历了希伯来文－希腊文－拉丁文的过程。<br />
B.流传形式：手写本。<br />
C.最早的圣经译本：公元前3-2世纪《圣经·旧约》（据《西方翻译简史》记载。后世也叫《七十子希腊文本》。<br />
缺点：用词晦涩难懂，不易理解，跟当时的希腊语有较大的出入。<br />
优点：此译本特别完整准确地还原了圣经原籍的内容。<br />
D.翻译大家：a. 西塞罗—西方翻译史上最早的翻译理论家，主张活译。<br />
b. 圣哲罗姆—翻译了第一部标准拉丁语圣经。直译和意译相结合。<br />
3.佛经翻译和圣经翻译的相似性：<br />
经历了直译—意译—直意译结合的过程。<br />
A.最初翻译时，中西译者都是逐字逐句的直译。<br />
原因：宗教经典神圣不可侵犯，译经僧侣对宗教经典抱有虔诚态度；<br />
由于译者身份的局限性，缺乏专业的语言翻译基础。<br />
B.随着经验的累积，译者们开始倡导意译。<br />
代表人物：马丁路德<br />
原因：受众人群都是普通老百姓，需要简单流畅、明晓易懂的语言才能让教义被大众所通晓。<br />
C.主张直译&意译相结合。<br />
代表人物：玄奘大师—《钦定本圣经》<br />
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[2]顾颍.从佛经与《圣经》翻译看中西方翻译思想——《中西方翻译思想比较》评析[J].常熟理工学院学报,2008(03):122-124.<br />
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摘要：作者认为比利时学者安德烈勒菲弗尔（当代文学翻译学术带头人，较有影响力）由于对中国翻译史缺乏深入研究，对中国的佛经翻译了解不透彻，在《中西方翻译思想比较》中提出“西方译者更为忠实原文, 而中国译者则倾向于归化原文”的观点较为片面。并提出佛经翻译和圣经翻译的共有规律：直译、意译两原则交替主导翻译活动并趋于成熟，直至最终实现两者的有机融合。<br />
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[3]姜晏.译介学视角下的中西方《圣经》翻译[J].青岛大学师范学院学报,2011,28(02):125-128.<br />
摘要：《圣经》翻译的主要功能是服务于宗教的传播。但译者们对其“创造性叛逆”的翻译，使得《圣经》对世界各民族语言，包括对中国语言文学都产生了深远影响，同时推动各国文化交流、促进不同思想的包容。<br />
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1.翻译不只是语言文字的转换，而是应关注原文在外语和本族语转换过程中的信息的失落、变形、增添、扩散等问题。<br />
2.《圣经》翻译对西方各国（民族）语言的影响 —— 不分析译本翻译的好坏，而是分析译本对译入语国家或民族的文化和语言所产生的影响。<br />
A.4世纪，乌裴拉主教翻译成东日耳曼语。<br />
8、9世纪，阿尔弗雷得等翻译成古英语。<br />
这些标志着民族语言翻译的开始。<br />
B.《圣经》翻译在13世纪达到了新的高潮。<br />
C.马丁路德：把《圣经》新约和旧约翻译成德语，并且翻译成能被大众所接受的语言。他认为翻译就是让外语成为译者的本土化语言。<br />
作用：消除了普通人对《圣经》的语言障碍，对统一德语和发展德语做出贡献。<br />
D.威廉廷代尔的译本成为英国翻译史上最著名的英王钦定本的主要参照本。<br />
作用：完全符合英语的用法习惯，增加了英语的表现力；<br />
对英国散文、语言和文化发展起到了不可估量的作用。<br />
3.《圣经》在汉译中的创造性叛逆<br />
A.创造的叛逆性翻译是为了使《圣经》在新的环境中易于被受众接受。<br />
B.特征：<br />
a.显著的归化特征：吴经熊采用骚体，把外国的体裁中国化。<br />
吴经熊翻译的《新约全集》:“天主聖子耶穌基督福音之濫觴，正如《意灑雅先知書》之所記云:吾遣使者，以先啟行; 為爾前驅，備爾行程。”<br />
b.误译：严复的译本以中国士大夫为主要读者，因此他的译本符合士大夫的价值观，同时也降低阅读难度。<br />
c.改编或删节：严复考虑到中国读者几千年来的儒家文化熏陶，迎合中国道德伦理和文化。<br />
4.《圣经》汉译对中国语言文学的影响<br />
a.丰富了汉语词汇，为现代汉语带来许多新意象和表达方式。如，天堂、伊甸园等。<br />
b.影响中国现代文学的创作主体，许多意象来源于《圣经》中的典故。<br />
c.影响许多中国著名的作家和文学理论家。如，鲁迅、冰心、徐志摩等。<br />
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<br />
[4] 曾志琼.浅析“圣经故事”包含的男权思想及其危害[J].西昌学院学报(自然科学版),2004(04):21-23.<br />
<br />
《圣经》中包含的男权思想：<br />
1.创世纪故事中包含的男权思想。<br />
a.在上帝创世的神话中，男性亚当是用象征承载人类生命的泥土按上帝的形象创造出来的，而女性夏娃是作为男性的附属品用亚当的肋骨而创造出来的，目的是为亚当消除孤独寂寞。<br />
b.创世纪故事中，包含“女人是祸水”思想。作为女性象征的夏娃经不住蛇的诱惑，偷吃了禁果，使人类受到上帝的惩罚，开始了苦难。<br />
2.“圣经故事”中的先知先觉、基督英雄们都是男性。<br />
人类历史的英雄史都是谱写男性的。整个圣经故事都是以男性英雄为主线而描绘基督教历史的。从最早制造方舟振救人类的挪亚，到带领以色列人出埃及，使以色列人摆脱埃及法老贵族奴役的摩西，到带领以色列人力战外族，为以色列人开缰拓土的约书亚，再到带领以色列人雪耻，赶走外族，使以色列人建国的大卫以及拯救人类的耶稣等等。<br />
3.婚姻家庭中的男权思想、夫权思想 <br />
a.嫡长子制，忽视女性后代的存在。<br />
b.多妻制。基督英雄们都是妻妾成群，可以主人的身份任意拥有女人。<br />
c.休妻制。女性不论犯不犯错都可能被休。甚至可以被男性当财产、畜生一样送人。<br />
<br />
<br />
[5]菲利斯·特丽波,周辉.女性主义诠释学与圣经研究[J].圣经文学研究, 2009(00):35-44.<br />
摘要：作者认为出现在父权制社会的圣经充满了男性形象和语言，对《圣经》进行重新的诠释，以挑战圣经中的父权制。焦点是希伯来圣经，重点不仅仅落在不利于女性的事例上。 考量了圣经中女性研究的三条女性主义进路。<br />
1.阐释了一些不利于女性的故事。希伯来女子从生到死都属于男人，遭受到男性权威的虐待、凌辱。<br />
2.重申被忽视的女性作为上帝的篇章和反抗父权制文化的女性形象。<br />
3.利用前两种方式，同情地重新讲述关于妇女的故事<br />
（作者菲利斯·特丽波被认为是在圣经文本基础上探索妇女与性别问题的领袖人物）<br />
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<br />
[6]林燕.女性主义圣经诠释概述[J].宗教学研究,2013(04):213-219.<br />
女性经验是重新阐释圣经的基点。<br />
女性主义圣经诠释随着女性神学的繁荣而发展。女性圣经诠释是不同于女性主义神学的独立学科，它具有独立的研究前提和范畴。<br />
核心内容：对传统的圣经诠释和基督神学所建构的两性关系提出质疑和批判；寻找、重建圣经中被忽视、被遗忘的女性形象，恢复重建女性的地位和尊严；为争取女性在教会中担任圣职而斗争。<br />
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参考文献：<br />
[1]杨晓雨.佛经翻译与圣经翻译比较[J].考试周刊,2017(74):192. <br />
[2]顾颍.从佛经与《圣经》翻译看中西方翻译思想——《中西方翻译思想比较》评析[J].常熟理工学院学报,2008(03):122-124.<br />
[3]姜晏.译介学视角下的中西方《圣经》翻译[J].青岛大学师范学院学报,2011,28(02):125-128.<br />
[4]曾志琼.浅析“圣经故事”包含的男权思想及其危害[J].西昌学院学报(自然科学版),2004(04):21-23. <br />
[5]菲利斯·特丽波,周辉.女性主义诠释学与圣经研究[J].圣经文学研究,2009(00):35-44.<br />
[6]林燕.女性主义圣经诠释概述[J].宗教学研究,2013(04):213-219.--[[User:ImRx|ImRx]] ([[User talk:ImRx|talk]]) 02:42, 4 June 2018 (UTC)<br />
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《霍乱时期的爱情》<br />
加夫列尔·加西亚·马尔克斯——拉美魔幻现实主义的领军人物<br />
1967年，《百年孤独》；1982年， 获诺贝尔奖；1985年，《霍乱时期的爱情》<br />
故事是以费尔明娜和阿里萨、乌尔比诺医生爱恨悲欢的三角恋为主线，以阿里萨与其余622名女性形形色色的性欲与真情为副线。小说采用了顺时叙述。以乌尔比诺的棋友之死为故事的开始，先后讲述了：医生的婚后生活；阿里萨和费尔明娜如诗如梦的初恋，乌尔比诺追求费尔明娜并与之结婚；阿里萨的失望心情和纵欲寻欢；费尔明娜婚后生活的不快和孀居的孤独；阿里萨耐心点燃费尔明娜心中的爱火。<br />
一.主要人物：<br />
1.阿里萨：喜欢阅读、喜欢写诗。多愁善感，阴郁。一生中有过623个女人，但费尔明娜是他一生的挚爱。最后在他并不怎么上心的航运公司里获得了董事长的职位。<br />
“费尔明娜，我等待这个机会，已经有51年9个月零4天了，在这段时间里，我一直爱着你，从我第一眼见到你，直到现在，我第一次向你表达我的誓言，我永远爱你，忠贞不渝。”这句话是在等待了半个世纪终于等到费尔明娜的丈夫死去后，阿里萨在葬礼之后再一次对费尔明娜隔了51年的第二次表白。<br />
2.费尔明娜：她是骡子商人的女儿，美丽、智慧并且高傲。被阿里萨追求却遭到父亲的强烈反对，后来嫁给医生乌尔比诺。<br />
3.乌尔比诺医生：擅长治疗霍乱的医生，黄金单身汉，知识渊博，外表帅气（虽然电影里图片很猥琐），热爱城市并致力于为他的城市他的家乡奉献，但实际上骨子里较懦弱，在和费尔明娜的婚姻里婆媳关系不合，他不敢冲撞他的母亲。“只有上帝知道我有多爱你。”<br />
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二.爱情&霍乱的隐喻关系<br />
1.在追求费尔明娜的过程中，阿里萨生理和心理都经受了如霍乱症状一般的痛苦。在阿里萨对费尔明娜一见钟情后，“他开始寡言少语，茶饭不思，辗转反侧，彻夜难眠”。<br />
等待费尔明娜回第一封信的时候“他腹泻，吐绿水，晕头转向，常常突然昏厥，脉搏微弱，呼吸沉重，像垂死之人一样冒着虚汗…”这些症状和霍乱的症状很相似。但事实上阿里萨并没有患上霍乱，后边医生的检查也可以证实。<br />
所以，我们可以这样认为：爱情，在阿里萨身上的表现就如同霍乱对人的侵袭一样。在这本书中，霍乱也就代表爱情，所有的症状都是变相的爱。<br />
但不同的是：疾病带来的恐惧是自私的，是从自我角度出发的，是害怕失去自己；而爱情带来的恐惧常常源自于所爱之人，是害怕失去对方。<br />
<br />
2.在中国古代文学里也有关于爱情对疾病的意象。<br />
在中国，因爱情引起的疾病叫做“相思病”，一般是因对某人的思念而生病。表现为焦虑、食欲不振、失眠、幻想、晕厥等类似生病的身体状态。<br />
很著名的例子就是《红楼梦》中的林黛玉人物形象。 还有《西厢记》张生为崔莺莺“为伊消得人憔悴”也是“相思病”的例子。这样的例证还有很多。<br />
问题：如果爱情是一种病，能致病，那么医生能不能诊断并治愈因爱情引起的疾病呢？<br />
大家都知道，林黛玉的身体一向比较弱，但是住在大观园中可以让黛玉有很好的物质条件治疗或者从中医角度来讲“调养”她的身体。看当时最好的医生, 吃的是最难得到的药材做成的药。可是在听到宝玉和宝钗成亲的消息后还是郁郁而终。说明在中国的古典文学中，医生并不可以治愈爱情引起的相思病。<br />
我们再看西方文学里《变形记》——“所有人都知道, 真正的疾病和爱情疾病是很相似的: 意识变得虚弱, 眼神变得憔悴,膝盖变得无力… 上帝啊! 医生们真是无知啊! ”<br />
还有《霍乱》里，母亲担心阿里萨得了霍乱,去看了医生。做了很多必要的医疗检查, 最后通过对阿里萨的性格了解以及与阿里萨的谈话确定了病因。医生最后能确诊阿里萨的爱情疾病并不是因为他高超的医术或者他的各种医学常识, 而是因为他本人的年纪来带的阅历以及对爱情和对阿里萨的了解得出的结论。<br />
以及小说里医术高超的乌比尔诺医生, 虽然有广博深人的医学知识储量, 他研究霍乱是为了在医学层面上彻彻底底的治疗它。他一点也不懂爱, 不懂爱情。所以，乌比尔诺医生也不具有诊断爱情疾病的能力。<br />
所以，中西方古典的文学作品中, 医生是并不赋有能力来诊断和治疗爱情所引起的疾病的。<br />
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三.主人公的青年、中年、老年三个阶段他们的爱情。<br />
a.青年阶段——浪漫疯狂，以阿里萨和费尔明娜的初恋为主。因费尔明娜的醒悟接着拒绝阿里萨而结束——“不，请别这样，忘了吧”、“今天见到您，我发现我们之间不过是一场幻觉”。这个时期，阿里萨是以等待、信还有音乐追求费尔明娜的，我认为这三项几乎是在所有的爱情中都会或多或少起到作用的。<br />
等待。自从阿里萨对费尔明娜一见倾心之后，他就每天在费尔明娜上学必经的道路上，捧着一本诗集在一棵杏树下假装看书，只为了一天能匆匆忙忙地看上她四次，风雨无阻。<br />
信。最初阿里萨缺乏勇气向费尔明娜说出自己的爱意，于是开始给费尔明娜写信，从一张便条最后变成了70页的情书。也是在频繁通信中，打动了费尔明娜。<br />
音乐。在因费尔明娜失眠的夜晚，他在费尔明娜的窗外演奏自创的爱的华尔兹。费尔明娜也是在他的音乐中更深刻的了解他。<br />
总的来说，青年时期：他们的相爱过程短，不成熟，更多的是幻想。<br />
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b.中年阶段，主要是费尔明娜与乌尔比诺医生的婚姻以及阿里萨漫长的等待中的孤独狩猎生涯。<br />
费&阿：隐秘顽强。阿里萨单相思，对抗时间和死亡。<br />
阿里萨在被拒绝：先是自虐，后转移对费尔明娜及她丈夫的怨恨与诅咒，随后又对费尔明娜宽恕，决定和费尔明娜留在同一个城市，并且开始新一轮漫长的等待，他的单相思——对抗时间和死亡，等乌比尔诺医生死去。<br />
爱情的失败也让阿里萨意识到自己的身份和社会地位配不上费尔明娜，逼迫着自己去经营生活，改变自己的社会地位。<br />
阿里萨猎艳：通过性寻找爱，消除内心孤独感<br />
同时他和众多女人发生肉体关系。但其实正是通过和其他女人的相处，来消除内心的孤独感，弥补得不到费尔明娜爱情的缺失。他也更加确认费尔明娜对他的不可替代，是他一生唯一的挚爱。<br />
费&乌：世俗婚姻。陪伴，稳定、平淡。<br />
在费尔明娜与乌尔比诺医生的婚姻中，他们互相陪伴，平淡也稳定。只有一次例外，就是乌尔比诺出轨芭芭拉林奇小姐，被费尔明娜发现后，医生经过长时间的内心矛盾并最终坦白。<br />
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c.老年阶段——理性智慧，以费尔明娜和阿里萨的黄昏恋为主。<br />
阿里萨一直坚持到了医生去世。他以他的坚持和耐心打动了费尔明娜，让费尔明娜愿意接受他。他们开始了一段旅行，旅行结束的时候因为他们不愿面对现实所以不愿回去，最后乘着以霍乱为帆的船继续航行。<br />
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四.小说里讲述的各种各样的爱情可能。<br />
开篇摄影师赫雷米亚与黑白混血女人之间隐蔽的恋情；<br />
阿里萨和费尔明娜持续了半个世纪的柏拉图式的精神恋爱（包括他们青涩纯粹的初恋与年老时的黄昏恋）；<br />
阿里萨对费尔明娜忠贞不渝的单相思；<br />
费尔明娜与乌尔比诺医生的世俗婚姻爱情；<br />
乌尔比诺与林奇小姐战战兢兢的婚外恋；<br />
阿里萨和众多女人们纯粹的肉欲追逐的露水爱情；<br />
阿里萨与14岁少女的洛丽塔式的忘年恋…<br />
忠贞的爱、雀跃的爱、逃离的爱、私通的爱、狂热的爱、转瞬即逝的爱、生死相依的爱…<br />
不同层次不同角色不同性质的爱情，这篇小说也堪称是“爱情的教科书”“陈列爱情的博物馆”<br />
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五.除了爱情之外的其他主题。<br />
1.衰老。儿童摄影师赫雷米亚德圣阿莫尔的自杀；<br />
岁月加于人的痕迹——表现在岁月加于主人公身上的痕迹（蹒跚的步态、上楼梯的速度、意外的跌倒、满是皱纹的皮肤、稀疏的头发）；<br />
乌尔比诺医生、阿里萨想尽办法延缓衰老 <br />
2.死亡。小说中提到最多的是霍乱，也是整个故事发生的宏大背景。<br />
借以描写这种难以治愈、神秘莫测的疾病来写死亡。因为霍乱预示着死亡，而且在当时几乎就等于死亡，当时地的生产力水平和医学发展不足以让人们去抗衡。<br />
当人们被生理上的痛楚折磨时，往往无力也无心开出精神上的花朵。然而小说中描写的就是这样一种稀有的生命之花，因为爱情有勇气与苦难和死亡的疾病抗争。<br />
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阿里萨一生都在追求费尔米纳的爱情，即使面临死亡的抉择也义无反顾: 冷酷无情的费尔米纳的父亲最初阻挠女儿与他的爱情时，甚至用死亡来威胁阿里萨，但是阿里萨毫无畏惧，“‘朝我开枪吧!’他说，把一只手放在胸口上，‘没有比为爱情而死更光荣的事情了’”。因为有了爱情，所以阿里萨充满了无畏的勇气。他为了爱情不怕死，并且崇尚为爱而死。<br />
同时阿里萨的爱情之路实质上是一直与死亡作斗争，他到年老时害怕衰老和死亡，因为他明白，只有乌尔比诺医生死去，他才有机会再接近费尔米纳，因此，他努力与时间、衰老、死亡作斗争，他要为爱好好活着，战胜时间，战胜衰老，跨越死亡，他要活过乌尔比诺，才能重获费尔明娜。<br />
所以说这两个主题实际上也是与爱情密切相关的，因爱情而起的，可以归结到爱情主题上。<br />
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参考文献：<br />
1.於珍珍.《霍乱时期的爱情》中的医生形象分析[J].才智,2014(32):318-319.<br />
2.荣利. “滥情”的痴情者[D].浙江师范大学,2015.<br />
3.谈清妍.爱情的乌托邦——解读《霍乱时期的爱情》中的爱情与死亡[J].襄樊学院学报,2009,30(06):51-54.<br />
4.高小斐,孙世友.悲欢离合五十年——浅论《霍乱时期的爱情》中的爱情[J].才智, 2014(16):288.<br />
5.李贞琤.疾病缠绕下的爱情——马尔克斯小说爱情主题与疾病主题关系探究[J].开封教育学院学报,2017,37(12):38-39+42.<br />
6.姚婧.情感的疾病化书写——解读《霍乱时期的爱情》[J].名作欣赏,2015(17):125-128.--[[User:ImRx|ImRx]] ([[User talk:ImRx|talk]]) 03:00, 4 June 2018 (UTC)<br />
<br />
handout of张传伟<br />
世界主义与世界文学<br />
一、世界主义<br />
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1、世界文学的定义：<br />
(1) 各民族优秀文学的经典之总汇；<br />
(2) 一种用于从总体上研究、评价和批评文学的全球的、跨文化的和比较的视角；(3)不同语言中的文学生产、流通、翻译和批评性选择的发展演变过程。<br />
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2、形成和发展<br />
（1）词源探究<br />
作为一个跨学科的理论概念和批评话语，世界主义可以追踪到古希腊的哲学思想那里，甚至这个术语本身就出自希腊语。我们今天在英文中所描述的世界主义( cosmopolitanism) 是由两个词组成的:cosmos在希腊语中，意为宇宙或世界，polis意为城市或城邦。这样我们就有了“世界”这个词。那些信仰其伦理道德的人便被人称为“世界主义者”( cosmopolites)，而他们的主张和理论教义便被称为“世界主义”。这就是世界主义概念就其字面意义而言的形成。<br />
（2）后世发展<br />
世界主义通常在三个层面得到讨论:哲学的、政治学和社会学的以及文化和文学的层面。哲学维度的世界主义可以追溯到柏拉图和亚里士多德的著作，这两位希腊先哲本质上并不赞成世界主义，在他们看来，人们通常生活在自己的城邦，并且依恋特定的政治教义，所以很容易与之相认同。当他们的城邦遭受外敌入侵时，公民们便会奋起抗击，保卫自己的城邦。对这些古希腊人来说，好的公民不应当与外邦人分享过多的利益。这一观点后来逐步发展为爱国主义和民族主义。在中国，爱国主义和民族主义对那些试图形成独特的中华民族和文化认同的知识分子一直有着极大的吸引力，一个特例就是五四时期，当时虽曾有人鼓吹过世界主义，但很快就销声匿迹，淹没在民族主义的汪洋大海中了，其原因恰在于当时的中国文化土壤和时代精神并不适合世界主义驻足。<br />
但并不是所有古希腊先哲们都反对世界主义，另一些思想较为开放且见多识广的古希腊知识分子，尤其是犬儒派哲人迪奥格尼斯(Diogenes)则鼓吹一种较为普世的伦理道德，因为他并不把自己局限于特定的城邦，甚至公开宣称:“我是一个世界公民。”从此，“世界公民”(citizen of the world)便成了所有信奉世界主义的人所致力于追求的理想。当然，他们所追求的并非是特定的民族—国家的利益，而更是一种普世价值和全人类的共同利益。他们的这种理想和追求并不满足于局限在哲学和社会政治层面，他们还试图将其推而广之。<br />
当代学者在讨论世界主义时很少引证这些远古时期的观点，但其中的某些观点却依然在现代哲学家的著作中得到响应和发展。启蒙时期的哲学家如康德则表示了对其的莫大兴趣，提出一种世界主义的法律或权利。19 世纪以前的不同形式的世界主义仅仅停留在哲学家的假想和论辩层面上的话，那么自19 世纪以来，那些有远大抱负的人便逐渐开始将世界主义付诸实践了，从哥伦布发现“新大陆”到世界贸易航线形成等都为全球化的进程奠定了基础。<br />
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二、世界文学<br />
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1、源起<br />
歌德是德语“世界文学”( Weltliteratur) 一词的创制者，也是第一个明确提出世界文学观念的人。歌德关于世界文学的论述集中在1827-1830年间，归纳起来有三个要点: 其一，世界文学是一个对话和流通的平台，各民族文学可以通过进入这个平台相互交流、取长补短、相得益彰。其二，世界文学是一个合乎世界主义的理想，能够推动各民族文学逐渐打破孤立割裂状态，影响融合而形成一个有机的统一体。其三，世界文学是彰显民族文学价值的场所。歌德就站在德国的角度谈论世界文学，他渴望本民族文学在推动世界文学形成过程中扮演“光荣的”、“美好的”角色，对其他民族文学(例如法国文学) 所处的优势地位则十分敏感。<br />
<br />
2、“世界文学”内涵<br />
在《什么是世界文学？》一书中，丹穆若什以世界、文本和读者为中心，进一步阐释“世界文学”的三重定义：“世界文学是民族文学间的椭圆折射”“世界文学是从翻译中获益的文学”“世界文学不是指一套经典文本，而是指一种阅读模式——一种以超然的态度进入与我们自身时空不同的世界的形式”。首先，“椭圆折射”利用椭圆具备两个焦点的特性，指代世界文学的双重性质。世界文学具有两个核心要点——源文化和主体文化。一部文学作品如果想成为世界文学的一部分，需要从源文化出发，被他国文化空间接受。“接受”过程与接受主体的民族文化传统和价值需求相关。因此，世界文学既与源文化相关，又与主体文化相关，是一种双重折射。仔细分析，世界文学双重折射特性表明世界文学作品并非静止、孤立，而是在不同国家、不同文化间互相流通、交流、传播、碰撞。世界文学作品，不仅受到源文化熏陶，也经过主体文化的接受和改造。其次，由于语言障碍，世界文学作品的传播和流通必须依赖文学翻译。但是，文学语言在翻译过程中会有得失。丹穆若什认为翻译中对于得失的衡量是区分民族文学与世界文学的标志。具体来看，在翻译中受损的文学，“通常局限于本民族或本地区的传统内”；从翻译中获益的文学，“进入世界文学的范畴”。他进一步指出，民族文学进入世界文学，当范围扩大后，“风格上的损失会被深度上的扩张所抵消”。由此看出，世界文学作品源于民族文学而高于民族文学，价值取向超越民族特性，拥有“世界性”。最后，丹穆若什认为世界文学并非经典文本的简单集合，而是通过一种阅读，使读者超越自身时空，进入更加广阔的世界。作为阅读模式，一部作品能否成为世界文学，取决于其他国家、民族读者的阅读效果。一旦外国作品开始在读者脑中发生共鸣，世界文学就开始活动。这种“共鸣”，实际是不同民族文学作品的相同价值取向的融汇。作品自身价值取向被本国以外读者认可，超越民族性，成为世界性价值。由此看来，世界文学不代表文学作品数量的多少，而是作为一种阅读模式，“可以通过少量作品来深入体验，也可以通过大量作品来广泛探寻”，在世界范围内寻找共鸣。<br />
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3、“世界文学”与“世界的文学”<br />
一般而言，“世界文学”和“世界的文学”这两个概念多半是在明确的不同语境中被运用：若说“世界文学”依然意味着作品之无可非议的重要性，那么，“世界的文学”则更多地指向世界上那些不怎么有名、却能展示新方向的文学；它们不同凡响、颇有魅力，却还未在读者意识中占有重要位置。也就是说，“世界的文学”未必就是审美和经典意义的上乘之作，或得到广泛接受的作品。谈论“世界的文学”，人们面对的是浩繁的书卷，无数作品和文化传统，难以把握的界线，并在挑选时怀有开放态度。<br />
20 世纪70 年代，世界体系理论( World System Theory) 兴起于美国，对世界文学观念产生重大影响。以美国著名社会学家伊曼纽尔·沃勒斯坦( Immanuel Wallerstein) 为代表的世界体系理论的核心，是把人类社会看成一个由结构性经济联系及各种内在制度制约的一体化的体系，以此作为考察社会发展变迁的分析单位。这是对20 世纪五六十年代兴盛的以民族国家为分析单位、研究人类社会发展变迁的经典现代化理论的反拨。<br />
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4、世界文学与比较文学<br />
世界文学与比较文学的关系引起西方学者的重视。一种声音认为，世界文学相比于比较文学，只是在原有学科体系基础上扩大比较范围。如大卫·费里斯指出：“比较文学应成为世界文学，只是扩大比较范围，比较方法不变。”另一种声音认为，比较文学与世界文学并行不悖，相互作用。“国别文学、比较文学和世界文学彼此间保持动态相互作用关系，都无法完全取代对方。”②对于读者来讲，世界文学仅存于国家空间。比如中国读者阅读海明威《老人与海》，即使该作品在世界范围内得到广泛认可，作为世界文学作品享誉中外，但对于中国读者而言，阅读的只是一部美国小说而已。比较研究作为方法，通用于国别文学、比较文学和世界文学研究。但是，如库班指出，“世界文学接受文本，即使代表特别的国家精神……也能穿过甚至超越他们的国家，语言和历史起源，有效解域本身”，世界文学关注世界性，超越民族性。今天西方学者老话重提，有一些新的阐释，但是，作为克服比较文学危机、面向未来的比较文学学科理论，尚缺乏指导性意义。全世界比较文学学者必须寻求比较文学理论的新突破。<br />
<br />
三、中国文学的世界化与世界文学的中国化<br />
<br />
1、中国文学的世界化<br />
中国文学世界化并不只是中国作家获得国际大奖或是中国作家作品被翻译介绍到外国。世界化是中国文学作为全球化时代世界文学的主体之一，在世界文学中体现出中国主体性。<br />
马克思《路易·波拿巴的雾月十八日》中说：“就像一个刚学会一种新语言的人总是要把它翻译成本国语言一样；只有当他能够不必在心里把新语言翻译成本国语言，当他能够忘掉本国语言来运用新语言的时候，他才算领会了新语言的精神，才算是运用自如。”后现代批评家们奉为圭臬的这篇名著中，马克思的话说出了中国的世界文学认证的真正价值。全球化时代中，世界文学是对自我认证，也是对他人的认证，中国文学从世界文学得到认证，同样，世界文学从中国文学得到认证。<br />
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2、世界文学的“中国化”<br />
世界文学的“中国化”指很多学者表示怀疑，以为是将世界文学作品按中国的观念进行改造，甚至变成“红色经典”。我们必须解释清楚：世界文学的中国化并不是用中国文学标准来“化”世界文学，而是建构中国的世界文学阐释理论体系。这是完全正当的无可非议的，中国文学从不追求“文化权力中心”。但是中国文学必须建立中国的世界文学视域，中国如何看待世界文学史理论、世界文学经典的选编与世界文学翻译，这三大要素，缺一不可。<br />
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参考文献<br />
[1]方维规.何谓世界文学?[J].文艺研究,2017(01):5-18.<br />
[2]曹顺庆,李斌.比较文学未来发展之路——世界文学与比较文学变异学[J].中国高校社会科学,2016(06):39-47+154.<br />
[3]方汉文.中国文学的世界化与世界文学的中国化[J].江南大学学报(人文社会科学版),2016,15(01):93-98.<br />
[4]王宁.世界文学语境中的中国当代文学[J].当代作家评论,2014(06):4-16+2.<br />
[5]王宁.世界主义、世界文学以及中国文学的世界性[J].中国比较文学,2014(01):11-26.<br />
[6]刘洪涛.世界文学观念的嬗变及其在中国的意义[J].中国比较文学,2012(04):9-21.<br />
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西方文学的翻译<br />
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<br />
一、翻译内容、技法叙事<br />
清末颇为兴盛的外国小说翻译一方面介绍了西方的文化思想,另一方面明显的汉民族文化特征仍不容忽视。因为近代译者多具有根深蒂固的中国文化观念,因此他们在翻译过程中对原著进行特殊的、比较主观的处理是特定历史阶段的产物。<br />
在西方小说文化思想内容的翻译方面,“西方宗教观、伦理观与中国具体国情不同,其文学作品必然与中国文化发生抵悟,翻译者趋于沟通的心理,尽可能地使译作。与中国文化相通。”<br />
在叙事技法的传递方面,“早期小说译者的文学修养主要源于中国传统文化,其译作的小说文体形式必然采用中国原有的通俗小说文体——章回体。在原著风格的翻译方面,“早期小说译者在翻译小说时非常注重小说的读者群,这些读者多属具有一定文化修养的文人阶层,其思维方式、审美习惯皆己定型。翻译者如果想拥有庞大的读者群,其译作就应该考虑到中国读者的阅读习惯与审美情趣,突出小说消闲、怡情的文学特征。因此,外国小说译作的汉化便成了翻译者有意追求的一种语言风格。<br />
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二、翻译方法和翻译文体<br />
由于文学意识的不自觉、白话语体表达的幼稚性以及受众对象的特殊性等原因,在近代的文学翻译中,归化的手法、文言的文体和意译的方法颇受青睐。因此,“这种译述、意译的风气使得早期文学翻译的体例很不完备。”文学革命爆发后,文学翻译的目标读者出现“平民化”倾向,文学翻译文体走向通俗化、大众化,同时由于文学翻译中文学意识的不断增强,直译方法逐渐为越来越多的译者所使用,文学翻译开始走向异化。<br />
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三、近代翻译与意识形态的相互关系<br />
译入语文化中的主流意识形态对中国近代翻译选材有着不容忽视的影响和操控作用。1840年—1919年的中国翻译史印证了勒菲弗尔的翻译理论。通过研究这个时期的翻译史,我们可以清楚看到,翻译作品的兴盛是随着各个历史阶段的主流意识形态的变化而变化的。例如“甲午战争的失败把中华民族的生死存亡摆在每个人的面前，……此时的意识形态可以归纳为‘开民智、求变革’,其目的是为了唤醒全体国民,进行思想和现代意识启蒙。小说因为其易普及<br />
性被选作变革工具,成为资产阶级改良派医治`社会病'的良方。”<br />
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四、近代翻译在文化和语言方面的属性<br />
中国近代翻译有层次区别,早期的科技翻译不同于后来的社科、文学翻译,前者主要是技术问题,后者主要是文化和语言问题。众所周知，文化翻译往往涉及到深层的语言体系问题。近代社会译者所深谙的古代汉语体系决定了近代翻译文学从根本上具有中国“古代性”。这样,“翻译者总是用旧思想、旧思维来理解和表达西方新思想、新思维,总是在旧有的语言体系中寻找相对应或相似的术语、概念、范畴和话语方式,因此,西方思想文化在翻译的过程就不知不觉地变了形,变得本土化、民族化了。<br />
五、近代翻译的动机及其所带来的影响<br />
近代译者为了让时人了解西方民主思想和先进的科技知识,大多有目的地选择政治小说、科学小说、侦探小说加以引进,其翻译动机就是要救国启民,因此他们的翻译观明显具有功利主义的性质。这一点对于我们理解近代的小说翻译理论和翻译策略大有裨益,对于译文中普遍存在的删改现象也就能够给予合理的解释。他明确地谈到“他们企图用中国传统文化和文学的规范去干预原文本,以此来调整读者对译文的反应,避免可能造成的文化障碍。运用这种策略和方法的目的,无非是趋利避害,把原文本中有利于译文读者的信息翻译出来,对那些不利于一译文读者或不实用的信息避而不译。”<br />
参考文献<br />
【1】吴莎,屠国元.论中国近代翻译选材与意识形态的关系(1840-1919)[J].外语与外语教学,2007(11):38-40.<br />
【2】顾建新.清末民初文学翻译方法与文学翻译文体的发展[J].外语教学,2004(06):50-54.<br />
【3】韩永芝.从文化排斥与文化认同看清末外国小说翻译[J].解放军外国语学院学报,2001(05):66-69.<br />
【4】高玉.论中国近代翻译文学的“古代性”[J].华中师范大学学报(人文社会科学版),2000(04):66-72.<br />
【5】陆国飞.近代外国小说译介中的功利主义思想[J].学术界,2007(04):236-239.<br />
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外国诗歌翻译<br />
[1]郭建辉.外国诗歌的审美特征与外国诗歌的鉴赏[J].重庆工业高等专科学校学报,2001(03):93-95.<br />
由于各民族的文化传统的不同影响，外国诗歌也呈现出不同的特点，详细分析了从《荷马史诗》与《圣经》到现代主义艾略特的《荒原》特点，以把握外国诗歌的审美特征。<br />
<br />
[2]河洛易.中国现代诗歌翻译概述[J].解放军外国语学院学报,2000(05):105-108.<br />
作为中国20世纪的诗歌翻译来说, 大致可分为七个阶段：1、诗歌翻译的前奏曲——近代诗歌翻译 (1840 年鸦片战争到 1919年“五四”运动)；2、现代诗歌翻译的开创期 (从1919 年新青年社到 1930年“左联”成立)；3、现代诗歌翻译的中期 (从 1930 年“左联”成立到 1937 年抗战开始)；4、现代诗歌翻译的后期 (从 1937年抗战开始到1949年中华人民共和国成立)；5、当代“十七年”的诗歌翻译 (从 1949 年新中国成立到“文化大革命”前夕)；6、当代“文革十年”的诗歌翻译 (文革十年)；7、当代新时期的诗歌翻译 (1976 年至今)。<br />
外国诗歌的翻译不是一个自我封闭的静态系统，而是一个不断自我调整和适应的开放系统。<br />
<br />
[3]熊辉.翻译诗歌对诗人创作的影响[J].文艺争鸣,2017(09):7-12.<br />
翻译诗歌为百年新诗发展注入了生机和活力，学界目前多从创作技巧、形式艺术或思想情感的角度去论述前者对后者的影响，较少从创作实践的层面去思考二者的关联。实际上，新诗创作者由于接受了不同的文化而具有各自特殊的写作背景，翻译诗歌对新诗创作的影响也因为创作主体的多元化而呈现出复杂的格局：部分诗人直接阅读并翻译了外国诗歌，译诗对他们创作的影响主要停留在翻译过程或思维转换上；也有部分诗人通过阅读其他人翻译的作品而受到了译诗文本的影响，这部分人也包括那些参与翻译的诗人，因为他们自己在翻译诗歌的同时也可能会阅读别人的译作。<br />
<br />
[4]熊辉.外国诗歌的翻译与中国现代新诗的文体创新[J].上海师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2013,42(03):70-76.<br />
外国诗歌的翻译有助于中国新诗的文体创新,作者从语言层面的创造新字、改进语言句法和表达方式,形式层面的创造新形式、引入新形式等方面展开论述。在此基础上分析了这种在翻译的过程中创新的文体所具有的文体特征和文化属性,进而表明外国诗歌的翻译对中国新诗文体创新具有带动作用。<br />
<br />
[5]李特夫,李国林.诗歌翻译研究:传统思路与现代视野[J].天津外国语学院学报,2004(01):31-36+47. <br />
随着译学研究范式的转向、开拓与创新 ,各种译学思想得以不断重诂和修订，为我国诗歌翻译研究带来了新的启示。在对传统译诗观念进行简要回顾和思考的基础上，针对当前一些争议和疑难性问题提出了个人看法，并借鉴西方译论，就未来诗歌翻译研究有关问题进行了探讨。<br />
<br />
[[Media:Earliest_translations_from_the_West_to_Chinese_presentation_by_Lin_Li.pdf]]<br />
<br />
[[Media:The Arabian Nights_by_Wang_Xinyi.pdf]]<br />
<br />
[[Media:Lecture_The Arabian Nights_by_Wang_Xinyi.pdf]]</div>Zhang Yiranhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021&diff=134121Introduction to Translation Studies 20212021-12-21T15:27:32Z<p>Zhang Yiran: /* Presentations Dec 22 on Decriptive Studies, Culture, Invisibility, Constructivism */</p>
<hr />
<div>Quicklinks: [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021|This course homepage]] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal#Frequently_asked_questions_FAQ FAQ] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal Manual] [[20210926_homework|all homework webpages]] <br />
<br />
<center><span style="color:red">'''Deadline Dec 9, 2021 [[20220112_final_exam|final exam page]] - final deadline after correction: Dec 15, 2021'''</span></center><br />
<br />
Welcome to our course website '''Introduction to Translation Studies 2021'''. Whenever you visit this site, please see if there is anything in English not yet translated into Chinese and make a Chinese translation beneath (one paragraph English, one paragraph Chinese). Any correction or improvement of earlier translations is mostly welcome!<br />
<br />
欢迎访问我们“翻译导论课”的网页。…………<br />
<br />
=Session 1 Sep 26, 2021=<br />
Today is international day of languages!<br />
<br />
Introduction to the course. Organizational things. Working with the Wiki.<br />
==Organizational Things==<br />
*Please register for the Course Wiki http://bit.ly/WIKIREG. Username is your Pinyin Name (“Wang Jianguo” – no Chinese characters) and email, for your real name also write your Pinyin Name (Wang Jianguo), no Chinese characters. If the name is taken, write "Wang Jianguo1". Write a sentence about yourself in the bio info. Please check the box that you abide to the Terms of Service and type in the password “wikicaptcha”. You will receive an email with a link. Please confirm the link. After confirmation, please allow a few days that I can approve your username. After that, you can access the course wiki http://bit.ly/TransStud and edit the contents. You need to edit the course website every week to prepare the upcoming session. <br />
*Please prepare each session during the week before, so that you come prepared to class.<br />
*In the WeChat group, please write your name as "Wang Jianguo 王建国 21级 英语口译". If possible, please use a profile photo of yourself where you can be recognized. 麻烦各位同学修改一下自己的备注，改成自己的姓名（拼音、汉字、21级、方向）就好。<br />
*We meet Wednesdays 7 pm - 8:40 pm online on http://bit.ly/ZOOMCOURSE (573 941 6744, course). Please leave your camera ON, so that we actually see each other. In the classroom, we also see each other.<br />
*Please note that you can only participate with a good internet connection, with a smart device which is able to run Zoom and with a running camera. Therefore, please make sure that you have a working device. If your phone’s camera is broken, please borrow a different phone or contact us that we can help you to get a second hand phone for free.<br />
* Please take the weekly survey http://bit.ly/EU-SURVEY<br />
* Please store the pdf material you get from the teacher. Please prepare the material for each session in advance.<br />
<br />
==Edits==<br />
Every student is required to edit something every week. This can be:<br />
* Translate any English paragraph on this website from English to Chinese.<br />
* Correct an earlier translation of your fellow student beneath.<br />
* Prepare an article (please link to from this page) and/or a powerpoint (please upload here) on a topic you will present during the semester.<br />
* Prepare the final exam paper as early as possible by writing a chapter for a book on "History of Translations", "History of Translation Theories", "Machine translation - A challenge or a chance for human translators?", "Culture loaded words", "The cultural turn in Translation History", "Appropriateness Theory" ... For this, please organize yourself, find groups who want to write the same book together, and think together about the necessary chapters and the structure etc. of the book. The paper needs to be delivered until November 1. Then we jointly work on copy editing, grading etc.<br />
* The Teaching Assistants should write the grades every week in a table, so that you can see the results of your quizzes/surveys etc., your performance in class and final exam paper grades.<br />
<br />
==Topics, Sessions and Material==<br />
<br />
'''Which paper or book should I read to prepare my presentation?'''<br />
<br />
Please also mention in this list beneath, '''who''' is presenting the topic with '''ppt''' and '''handout'''.<br />
<br />
1 Sep 26 Introduction <br />
<br />
2 Sep 29 Emergence I<br />
*Teacher presentation<br />
<br />
3 Oct 13 Emergence II<br />
*3a Xu, Jun 许钧, Mu Lei 穆雷. "翻译学概论 [Introduction to Translation Studies]." 南京: 译林出版社2009:195 pp., here 180-192.<br />
*3b=7c Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜. Translation Studies 翻译学. 复旦大学出版社, 2017, here the beginning about the emergence<br />
<br />
4 Oct 20 History of Translation <br />
*4a History of Western Translation 谭载喜.西方翻译简史[M]. 北京:商务印书馆, 1991年.<br />
*4b History of Translation in China – before May Fourth 马祖毅. 中国翻译简史——“五四”以前部分（修订本）[M]. 中国对外翻译出版公司，1998年.<br />
<br />
5 Oct 27 Early understanding<br />
<br />
The early understanding next session refers to the very early theoretical understanding of the Translation process from ancient times until Maybe up to the middle of the 20th century. There are no elaborated theories yet, but at least some discussions About principles, strategies etc.<br />
<br />
*5a Holmes, James. 1972. The Name and Nature of Translation Studies. Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies[M]. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1988: 67-80.<br />
*5b Sourcebook Lefevere, Andre. Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook[M]. London and New York：Routledge, 1990.<br />
*5c Textbook Newmark, Peter. A Text Book of Translation[M]. UK: Prentice Hall International Ltd, 1988.<br />
*5d Translation Basics 刘宓庆. 翻译基础[M]. 上海：华东师范大学出版社，2008年.<br />
<br />
6 Nov 3 Linguistics and Equivalence (Nida)<br />
*6a Early linguistic theory Catford, J. A Linguistic Theory of Translation[M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1965.<br />
*6b Early important understanding Nida, E. A. Toward a Science of Translating[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br />
<br />
7 Nov 10 Translation Studies<br />
*7a Bassnett, Susan. Translation Studies[M]. London and New York: Methuen, 1980. <br />
*7b Translation Studies 许钧，穆雷. 翻译学概论[M]. 南京：译林出版社，2009年.<br />
*7c=3b Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. Translation Studies 翻译学[M]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社，2000年. (the 2nd part contains a lot of English papers)<br />
*7d Categories of Contemporary Western Translation Studies 2002_Pan_Wenguo_潘文国_当代西方的翻译学研究_2002<br />
<br />
8 Nov 17 Translation Theories<br />
*8a Western theory 刘军平. 西方翻译理论通史[M]. 武汉：武汉大学出版社，2009年.<br />
*8b Theories Gentzler, E. Contemporary Translation Theories[M]. London and New York: Routledge, 1993.<br />
*8c Contemp. West. theories 廖七一. 当代西方翻译理论探索[M]. 南京：译林出版社, 2000年.<br />
*8d Xu, Jun 许钧. Translation Theories 翻译论. 湖北教育出版社, 2003<br />
*8e Pan_Wenguo_Cont_West_Trans_Stud_当代西方的翻译学研究_兼谈_翻译学的学科性问题_潘文国<br />
<br />
9 Nov 24 History of Chinese Translation Theories<br />
*9a 陈福康.中国译学理论史稿（修订本）[M]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社，2000年.<br />
*9b 许钧. 翻译论[M]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社，2003年.<br />
<br />
10 Dec 1 Appropriateness Theory<br />
*10a Moratto, Woesler: Current Dynamics, Springer 2021<br />
<br />
11 Dec 8 Methods and Style<br />
*11a Methods Wilss, Wolfram. The Science of Translation: Problems and Methods[M]. Gunter Narr Verlag Tubinger, 1982.<br />
*11b Style 刘宓庆. 文体与翻译[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司：北京，1998年.<br />
*11c Trans_Stud_Problems_and_Methods_翻译学问题与方法<br />
<br />
12 Dec 15 Theory and Practice <br />
*12a Bell, Roger T. Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice[M]. London and New York: Longman, 1991.<br />
*12b Theory and Practice Munday, Jermy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications[M]. London and NewYork: Routledge, 2001.<br />
*12c Theory and Practice Nida, Eugene A. and Charles R. Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1969.<br />
<br />
13 Dec 22 Decriptive Studies, Culture, Invisibility, Constructivism<br />
*13a “descriptive” Toury, Gideon. Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M]. Amsterdam/ Philadelphia: John BenjaminB Publishing company, 1995.<br />
*13b Culture Toury, Gideon. Translation Across Cultures[M]. NewDelhi: Bahri Publications, 1987.<br />
*13c Invisibility Venuti, L. The Translator 's Invisibility[M]. London and NewYork: Routledge, 1995.<br />
*13d Constructivism Research 易经. 翻译学体系构建研究[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社，2012年.<br />
*13e Art or Science? Different papers by Huang Zhending Trans_Stud_Art_and_Scient_Theory_翻译学艺术论与科学论的统一<br />
<br />
14 Dec 29 East-West Comparison<br />
*14a East-West comparison 刘宓庆. 中西翻译思想比较研究[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司, 2005年.<br />
*14b English-Chinese TS 蒋坚松. 英汉对比与汉译英研究[M]. 长沙：湖南人民出版社，2002年.<br />
<br />
15 Jan 5 Review in Preparation of final exam<br />
<br />
16 Jan 12 Final Exam<br />
<br />
Please download several pdfs with monographs and articles about translation studies history and theories from our WeChat group.<br />
<br />
*Bassnett, Susan. Translation studies. Routledge, 2013<br />
*Bell, Roger T., and Christopher Candlin. Translation and translating: Theory and practice. Vol. 298. London: Longman, 1991 <br />
*Catford, John Cunnison. A linguistic theory of translation. Oxford University Press, 1978.<br />
*Chen, Fukang. "Zhongguo yixue lilun shi gao (A History of Chinese Translation Theory)." (1992).<br />
*Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary translation theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br />
*Holmes, James S. The name and nature of translation studies. Translation Studies Section, Department of General Literary Studies, University of Amsterdam, 1975.<br />
*Huang, Chending黄振定. "文学翻译评价的科学性及其科学论." 外国语 4 (1999): 49-56.<br />
*Huang, Chending 黄振定. "翻译学是一门人文科学." 外语与外语教学 2 (1999): 33-35.<br />
*Huang, Chending 黄振定.翻译学: 艺术论与科学论的统一. 上海外语教育出版社, 2008<br />
*Lefevere, André, ed. Translation/history/culture: A sourcebook. Routledge, 2002.<br />
*Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications, Routledge 2013<br />
*Nida, Eugene Albert, and Charles Russell Taber, eds. The theory and practice of translation. Vol. 8. Brill Archive, 1982.<br />
*Nida, Eugene Albert. Toward a science of translating: with special reference to principles and procedures involved in Bible translating. Brill Archive, 1964.<br />
*Pan Wenguo 潘文国. "当代西方的翻译学研究——兼谈 “翻译学” 的学科性问题." 中国翻译 23.1 (2002): 31-34.<br />
*Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜. Translation Studies 翻译学. 复旦大学出版社, 2017<br />
*Toury, Gideon. "Descriptive Translation Studies–and beyond John Benjamins Publishing Company." Amsterdam/Philadelphia (1995).<br />
*Venuti, Lawrence. The translator's invisibility: A history of translation. Routledge, 2017.<br />
*Wilss, Wolfram. The science of translation: problems and methods. Vol. 180. John Benjamins Pub Co, 1982. 翻译学问题与方法 Shanghai: SFLEP (2001).<br />
*Xu, Jun 许钧, Mu Lei 穆雷. "翻译学概论 [Introduction to Translation Studies]." 南京: 译林出版社 10 (2009): 180-192.<br />
*Xu, Jun 许钧. Translation Theories 翻译论. 湖北教育出版社, 2003<br />
*Zhao, Wei 赵巍. "翻译学学科性质与研究方法反思." 解放军外国语学院学报 28.6 (2005): 69-72.<br />
<br />
(We use Chicago Social Sciences Citation Style [https://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide/citation-guide-2.html Chicago Style].)<br />
<br />
==Final exam class projects==<br />
<br />
Please help to edit one of the following book publications (please write your name behind the topics and organize the book with a proposal for the press and a chapter in the form of a journal paper by each participant):<br />
*[[History of Translation Studies]] (Sample from last year.)<br />
*[[History of Translations]] <br />
Rouabah Soumaya( History of translation in the Middle Ages) 李习长 (History of Modern and Contemporary Chinese Translation) 黄柱梁（The Translation of Buddihist Sutra in China） 王镇隆 叶维杰 李雯( The Translation theory after the establishment of the People's Republic of China)李怡(Modern Western Translation History) 李新星 刘沛婷(Western Translation history in Renaissance) 刘薇(Contemporary American Translation History) 周俊辉 周玖 钟雨露 钟义菲 魏楚璇(western translation history in the modern and contemporary Age)<br />
*[[History of Translation Theories]] 李瑞洋（Development of Translation Theories in Modern China）、陈心怡 张扬、曾俊霖 张怡然(History of Translation Theories from early Russia to the Soviet Union) 尹媛（The Brief Introduction of American structural school of translation theory) 李双 杨堃 刘运心 魏兆妍(The Development of Humanism Trend in Western Translation Theory) 吴婧悦(History of Translation Theories in the Soviet Union) 杨爱江<br />
*[[Machine translation]] - A challenge or a chance for human translators? 卫怡雯 肖毅瑶 王李菲 徐敏赟 颜莉莉 颜静 谢佳芬 熊敏 陈惠妮 蔡珠凤 陈湘琼 Nadia<br />
*[[Culture loaded words]] 羊叶（中文电影英译字幕中文化负载词的翻译——以《霸王别姬》为例）、谢庆琳、罗曦（The translation methods of culture loaded words） 何芩、孙雅诗、杜莉娜（跨文化交际视角下旅游文本中文化负载词的英汉翻译研究）、宫博雅（俄语成语中文化负载词的中文翻译分析）、周小雪(《药》英日译本中文化负载词的翻译对比研究）、付诗雨（博物馆文物解说词中文化负载词的日译研究）、丁旋(Translation of Culture-Loaded Words in ''The Concubine Market of Yangchow '' of Lin Yutang's Version from the Perspective of Newmark’s Translation Theory)、高蜜、殷慧珍、程杨、胡舒情<br />
*[[The cultural turn]] in Translation History 金晓童 李爱璇 李文璇 黄锦云 李姗 黄逸妍<br />
*[[Appropriateness Theory]] - Ei Mon Kyaw (Creating Appropriateness Theory). I need more students here. You can write papers criticizing existing theories here and suggest what needs to be improved to develop a new theory! This is cutting edge research here! I expect the best students to participate and we may try to submit the papers to real academic journals!Ei Mon Kyaw (Creating Appropriateness Theory). 殷美达 易扬帆（Appropriateness in Lyrics Translation -- A Case Study of Lana Del Rey's Lyrics Translation in QQ Music）<br />
*[[Translation types, strategies, styles, methods]] 刘晓（纽马克翻译理论指导下旅游文本中翻译策略与翻译技巧的使用——以''Everglades National Park, Florida (Excerpt)''为例） 刘越 毛雅文 毛优（俄语政论语体翻译策略及翻译技巧的使用——以“2019年俄罗斯政府工作报告”为例 彭瑞雪 秦建安（功能对等翻译视角下的鲁迅短篇小说翻译研究——以杨、戴夫妇的《孔乙己》英译本为例） 颜子涵 邝艳丽 阳佳颖 杨柳青（卞之琳的文学翻译理论和实践 ——以其浪漫主义诗歌译作为例）Atta Ur Rahman、Zohaib Chand、Muhammad Numan、Muhammad Saqib Mehran 刘胜楠（浅析目的论视角下《哪吒之魔童降世》字幕翻译策略）<br />
*[[Aesthetic Appreciation of Literary Translations]] 朱素珍 邹岳丽 邱婷婷(Three beauties embodied in Xu Yuanchong's English translation of ''Tang Poetry'') 吴映红(A comparative study of aesthetic reproduction in Chinese versions of snow country from the perspective of translation aesthetics)<br />
*[[Translation Theories Apllied to Literary Translations]] 周巧 付红岩 詹若萱（Chinese Translation of Subtitles of "Jane Eyre" from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory）<br />
*[[Comparative Studies in Translation]] 石丽青 牟一心 饶金盈 罗安怡 马新 王逸凡 张秋怡 朱壬铎<br />
<br />
(We use Chicago Social Sciences Citation Style [https://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide/citation-guide-2.html Chicago Style].)<br />
<br />
==Schedule==<br />
Please add your name, presentation form (ppt, handout) and subtopic here.<br />
<br />
'''All sessions''': <br />
*1 Sep 26 Introduction<br />
*2 Sep 29 Emergence I<br />
*3 Oct 13 Emergence II <br />
(中国翻译的起源 The Emergence of Translation Studies in China) ppt by Chen Xiangqiong 陈湘琼 and handout by Xie Qinglin 谢庆琳.<br />
<br />
(机器翻译的起源与发展 The Origin of Machine Translation) ppt by Yan Jing 颜静 and handout by Xu Minyun 徐敏赟.<br />
<br />
*4 Oct 20 History of Translation <br />
(中国翻译简史 The Brief History of Chinese Translation) ppt by Hu Shuqing 胡舒情 and handout by Gong Boya 宫博雅. <br />
<br />
(西方翻译简史 The Brief History of Western Translation) ppt by Ding Xuan 丁旋 and handout by Fu Shiyu 付诗雨.<br />
<br />
(中国译场中佛经翻译的历史 The History of Buddhist Scripture Translation in Chinese Translation Center) PPT by Ye Weijie 叶维杰 and handout by Wang Zhenlong 王镇隆. <br />
<br />
(中国诗歌翻译简史 A Brief History of Chinese Poetry Translation) ppt by Rao Jinying 饶金盈 202120081520 and handout by Mou Yixin 牟一心.<br />
<br />
(2000年以来的大中华文库翻译历史 The Translation History of Library of Chinese Classics Since 2000) ppt by Zhang Yang 张扬 and handout by Zeng Junlin曾俊霖.<br />
<br />
*5 Oct 27 Early understanding <br />
The early understanding next session refers to the very early theoretical understanding of the Translation process from ancient times until Maybe up to the middle of the 20th century. There are no elaborated theories yet, but at least some discussions About principles, strategies etc.<br />
<br />
(佛经翻译的文质之争 The Debates Between Wen and Zhi on Buddhist Scriptures Translation) ppt by He Qin 何芩 202120081489 and handout by Gao Mi高蜜.<br />
<br />
(林语堂的翻译 Translation by Lin Yutang) ppt by Xie Jiafen 谢佳芬 and handout by Yan Lili 颜莉莉.<br />
<br />
*6 Nov 3 Linguistics and Equivalence (Nida) <span style="color:red"><br />
<br />
(J.C.Catford's Translation Equivalence Theory) ppt by Huang Yiyan 黄逸妍 and handout by Huang Jinyun 黄锦云.<br />
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(Two Types of Equivalence by Eugene A. Nida) ppt by Du Lina 杜莉娜 and handout by Ma Xin 马新.<br />
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(The Three Essences of Functional Equivalence and Its Application) ppt by Yi Yangfan 易扬帆 and handout by Yin Yuan 尹媛.<br />
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(Eugene Nida's Principles of Correspondence Theory) ppt by Chen Huini 陈慧妮 and handout by Cai Zhufeng 蔡珠凤.<br />
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*6 Nov 10 Translation Studies<br />
(The Name and Nature of Translation Studies)ppt by Liu Shengnan刘胜楠; handout by Li Yi李怡 <br />
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(Five Approaches to Translation)ppt by Li Wenxuan李文璇; handout by Li Shan 李姗 <br />
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(Principles of Translation)ppt by Xiao Yiyao肖毅瑶; handout by Wu Yinghong吴映红<br />
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(Cultural and Ideological Approaches in Translation)ppt by Mahzad Heydarian; handout by Mahzad Heydarian<br />
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(Roman Jacobson's Categories of Translation)ppt by Xiong Min熊敏; handout by Sun Yashi孙雅诗<br />
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(Lin Yutang' s Translation Aesthetics )ppt by Luo Anyi罗安怡; handout by Shi Liqing石丽青<br />
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*8 Nov 17 Translation Theories <br />
(Translation Theories of George Steiner)ppt by Yang Liuqing 杨柳青; handout by Yin Huizhen 殷慧珍<br />
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(The Functional Translation Theory of Reiss, Vermeer and Nord)ppt by Peng Ruixue 彭瑞雪;handout by Qin Jianan 秦建安.<br />
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(Translation Theories of Peter Newmark) ppt by Liu Xiao 刘晓; handout by Liu Yue 刘越.<br />
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(Yan Fu's Translation Thoughts)ppt by Wang Lifei 王李菲; handout by Wei Chuxuan 魏楚璇<br />
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(Translation theorie of Xu Yuanchong) ppt by Zhouqing周清; handout by Zou Yueli邹岳丽.<br />
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*9 Nov 24 History of Chinese Translation Theories <br />
(The History of Chinese Translation Theories in Qing Dynasty)ppt by Cheng Yang 程杨 and handout by Li Shuang 李双.<br />
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(The History of Chinese Buddhist Translation Theories)ppt by Qiu Tingting邱婷婷; handout by Wei Yiwen 卫怡雯<br />
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(The Chinese Translation Theories During the Period of the May Forth Movement)ppt by Li Wen 李雯; handout by Zhou Xiaoxue 周小雪<br />
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(The History of Chinese Translation Theories from 1949 to Present)ppt by Yang Aijiang 杨爱江; handout by Yang Kun 杨堃<br />
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*10 Dec 1 Appropriateness Theory - this is a new theory suggested by M. Woesler in 2020. Everybody is invited to help to develop this theory or to criticize other theories and suggesting what a new theory (like the appropriateness theory) needs to do better.<br />
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(Appropriateness Theory) ppt by Yin Meida殷美达 and handout by Ei Mon Kyaw 艾梦觉<br />
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*11 Dec 8 Methods and Style<br />
(The Literal Translation and Free Translation)ppt by Zhong Yifei钟义菲; handout by Zhong Yulu钟雨露.<br />
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(The Amplification and Omission in Translation)ppt by Zhou Jiu周玖; handout by Zhou Junhui周俊辉.<br />
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(Zhu Shenghao's Translation Style Take the Translation of Shakespeare's Plays for Example)ppt by Li Aixuan李爱璇；handout by Jing Xiaotong金晓童.<br />
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(Translation Methods of Idioms)ppt by Liu Yunxin 刘运心; handout by Li Ruiyang 李瑞洋<br />
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(Domestication and Foreignization)pptx by Chen Jing 陈静; handout by Chen Xinyi 陈心怡<br />
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*12 Dec 15 Theory and Practice. <br />
(The value and limits of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in its Application of Literature) ppt by 詹若萱 and handout by 罗曦<br />
(Catford's Translation Shift Theory and its practice)ppt by 周巧and handout by 朱素珍<br />
(An Analysis of Different Versions on the Basis of the Three Beauties of Xu Yuanchong) ppt by 邝艳丽 and handout by 付红岩<br />
(庞德的翻译理论及其在《华夏集》中的应用 Ezra Pound's translation theory and its application in Cathay) handout by 张秋怡 and ppt by 王逸凡<br />
() Skopos Theory and its Application ppt by 刘沛婷 and handout by 李新星<br />
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*13 Dec 22 Decriptive Studies, Culture, Invisibility, Constructivism<br />
() ppt by 殷美达 and handout by 张怡然<br />
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*14 Dec 29 East-West Comparison<br />
()ppt by刘薇 and handout by黄柱梁<br />
()ppt by魏兆妍 and handout by 吴婧悦<br />
()ppt by阳佳颖 and handout by 颜子涵<br />
(韦努蒂与鲁迅异化翻译策略之比较 A Comparison of Venuti's and Lu Xun's Foreignization Translation Strategy) ppt by毛优 and handout by 毛雅文<br />
*15 Jan 5 Review in Preparation of final exam<br />
*16 Jan 12 Final Exam<br />
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== Homework from Session 1 Sep 26 due on Sep 29, 2021 ==<br />
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1. Take the survey after session 1: http://bit.ly/EU-SURVEY<br />
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2. Please fill in the 2nd quiz (to show that you have read the texts for session 2) before session 2. (Will be added later.)<br />
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3. Every student should translate 1 sentence. Here is the [[20210929_homework|homework page]]. - IN PREPARATION...<br />
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*[[20210929_homework|homework of session 1 for session 2 Sep 29]]<br />
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4. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation is once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20210929_homework|here]].<br />
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*[[20210929_homework|homework of session 1 for session 2 Sep 29]]<br />
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5. Please pick a topic from the pdf material, the general session topics or your own thoughts to do a presentation on. For the first topics, you need to do the presentation already in 1 week!<br />
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===Homework for later===<br />
4. Write a final exam paper as a chapter of the book "Translation Studies", ... It has to be a topic, not yet chosen by any other student in the book. I will upload the book here later. You can participate in writing this book.<br />
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5. Get familiar with the pdfs I send you on WeChat group as learning material.<br />
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=Session 2, Sep 29: Emergence I=<br />
*Teacher presentation<br />
*Survey http://bit.ly/Eval-01<br />
*Please select a topic to do a ppt or handout on<br />
*Review homework<br />
*Prepare final exam<br />
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===Homework for this session Sep 29===<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 2 (Emergence I)<br />
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2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
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*[[20210929_homework|homework of session 1 for session 2 Sep 29]]<br />
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3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
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==Session 2, Sep 29, Topic 1: Emergence I - Emergence in China==<br />
*Teacher presentation: [[Media:Emergence_I.pptx|Teacher presentation on the Emergence of Translation]] by Martin Woesler --[[User:Root|Root]] ([[User talk:Root|talk]]) 11:44, 13 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==Homework for next session Oct 13==<br />
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1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 3 (Emergence II)<br />
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2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
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*[[20211013_homework|homework of session 2 for session 3 Oct 13]]<br />
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3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
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*[[20211013_homework|homework of session 2 for session 3 Oct 13]]<br />
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4. Please write your name behind one of the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Final_exam_class_projects|book projects]] where you want to write a chapter as your final exam paper. Also indicate the topic of your chapter in this book project.<br />
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5. (Only for students who do presentation on Oct 13: Emergence II (中国新时期翻译研究发展的起源 The origin of translation studies in China in the new Era) ppt by Chen Xiangqiong 陈湘琼 and handout by Xie Qinglin 谢庆琳. (Emergence of Oral Interpretation) ppt by Shan Gongfei:) Prepare ppt or handout.(机器翻译的起源 The Origin of Machine Translation) handout by Xu Minyun 徐敏赟 202120081535 and powerpoint by Yan Jing 颜静 202120081536.<br />
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=Session 3, Oct 13, Topic 2: Emergence II - Emergence in China=<br />
==Homework for this session Oct 13==<br />
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1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 3 (Emergence II)<br />
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2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
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*[[20211013_homework|homework of session 2 for session 3 Oct 13]]<br />
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3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
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*[[20211013_homework|homework of session 2 for session 3 Oct 13]]<br />
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4. (Only for students who do presentation on Oct 13:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
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==Presentations in Session 3, Emergence of Translation II==<br />
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*ppt: [[Media:03 Emergence of translations in China by Xie Qinglin.pptx|Presentation on Emergence of translation study in China 中国翻译的起源]] by Chen Xiangqiong 陈湘琼; handout [[Media:03_Xie_Qinglin_Emergence_of_translations_in_China.docx|Emergence of translation studies in China]] by Xie Qinglin 谢庆琳<br />
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Tip: Since the topics are sorted roughly chronologically, this topic should be the emergence of translation rather than emergence of translation studies.<br />
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*ppt: [[Media:The_Origin_of_Machine_Translation_by_Yan_Jing.pptx|Presentation on Origin of Machine Translation 机器翻译的起源与发展]] by Yan Jing 颜静; handout [[Media:The_Origin_of_Machine_Translation_by_Xu_Minyun.docx|Origin of Machine Translation handout]] by Xu Minyun 徐敏赟<br />
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Tip: This topic is also very modern, it should be presented at the end of the semester.<br />
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==Homework for next session Oct 20==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 3 (Emergence II)<br />
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2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
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*[[20211020_homework|homework of session 3 for session 4 Oct 20]]<br />
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3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
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4. (Only for students who do presentation on Oct 13:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
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=Session 4, Oct 20, Topic 3=<br />
==Homework for this session Oct 20==<br />
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1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 4<br />
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2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
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*[[20211020_homework|homework of session 3 for session 4 Oct 20]]<br />
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3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
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4. (Only for students who do presentation on Oct 20:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
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==Presentations on History of Translation, session 4==<br />
* ppt: [[Media: The brief history of western translation_by_Ding_Xuan.pptx|Presentation on The brief history of western translation]] by Ding Xuan; handout [[Media:The brief history of Western translation.doc| The brief history of western translation]] by Fu Shiyu<br />
*ppt: [[Media: The brief history of Chinese translation.pptx|Presentation on The brief history of Chinese translation]] by Hu Shuqing; handout [[Media:The brief history of Chinese translation_by_Gong_Boya.doc| The brief history of Chinese translation]] by Gong Boya<br />
* ppt:[[Media: A brief history of Chinese poetry translation.pptx|Presentation on A brief history of Chinese poetry translation]] by Rao Jinying; handout: [[Media: A brief history of Chinese poetry translation.doc| A brief history of Chinese poetry translation]] by Mou Yixin<br />
* ppt:[[Media: The Translation history of Library of Chinese Classics Since 2000.pptx|Presentation on The Translation history of Library of Chinese Classics Since 2000]] by Zhang Yang; handout: [[Media: The Translation history of Library of Chinese Classics Since 2000_by_Zeng_Junlin.doc| The Translation history of Library of Chinese Classics]] by Zeng Junlin<br />
* ppt:[[Media: The History of Buddhist Scripture Translation in Chinese Translation Center.pptx|Presentation on The History of Buddhist Scripture Translation in Chinese Translation Center]] by Ye Weijie; handout: [[Media: The History of Buddhist Scripture Translation in Chinese Translation Center.docx| The History of Buddhist Scripture Translation in Chinese Translation Center]] by Wang Zhenlong<br />
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==Homework for next session Oct 27==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 5<br />
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2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
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*[[20211027_homework|homework of session 4 for session 5 Oct 27]]<br />
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3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
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4. (Only for students who do presentation on Oct 27:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
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=Session 5, Oct 27, Topic 4 Early Understanding of Translation (no elaborated theories yet)=<br />
==Homework for this session Oct 27==<br />
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1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 5<br />
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2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
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*[[20211027_homework|homework of session 4 for session 5 Oct 27]]<br />
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3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
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4. (Only for students who do presentation on Oct 27:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
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==Presentations Oct 27 on Early Understanding==<br />
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* Teacher presentation: [[Media:05_Transl_Studies_Emergence2_History.pptx|Powerpoint for the Sessions 3-5 by Martin Woesler, please download from this link]]<br />
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The early understanding next session refers to the very early theoretical understanding of the Translation process from ancient times until maybe up to the middle of the 20th century. There are no elaborated theories yet, but at least some discussions about principles, strategies etc.<br />
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* ppt: [[Media: Tranlation by Lin Yutang.pptx|Translation by Lin Yutang]] by Xie Jiafen; handout [[Media: Tranlation by Lin Yutang(handout).docx| Translation by Lin Yutang(handout)]] by Yan Lili<br />
* ppt: [[Media: The Debates Between Wen and Zhi on Buddhist Scriptures Translation.pptx|The Debates Between Wen and Zhi on Buddhist Scriptures Translation]] by He Qin; handout [[Media: The Wen-Zhi Debate in the history of sutra translation (handout).docx| The Wen-Zhi Debate in the History of Sutra Translation (handout)]] by Gao Mi<br />
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==Homework for next session 6, Nov 3==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 6<br />
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2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
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*[[20211103_homework|homework of session 5 for session 6, Nov 3]]<br />
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3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
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4. (Only for students who do presentation on Nov 3:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
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=Session 6, Nov 3, Topic 5 Translation Equivalence, Nida and Linguistics=<br />
==Homework for this session Nov 3==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 6<br />
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2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
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*[[20211103_homework|homework of session 5 for session 6 Nov 3]]<br />
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3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
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4. (Only for students who do presentation on Nov 3:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
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==Presentations Nov 3 on Linguistics and Equivalence(Nida)==<br />
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* ppt: [[Media:J.C.Catford's Translation Equivalence Theory(ppt).pptx|J.C.Catford's Translation Equivalence Theory(ppt)]] by Huang Yiyan; handout [[Media:Translation Equivalence Theory.docx|J.C.Catford's Translation Equivalence Theory]] by Huang Jinyun<br />
* ppt: [[Media:Two Types of Equivalence by Eugene A. Nida(ppt).pptx|Two Types of Equivalence by Eugene A. Nida(ppt)]] by Du Lina; handout [[Media: Two Types of Equivalence by Eugene A. Nida.docx|Two Types of Equivalence by Eugene A. Nida]] by Ma Xin<br />
* ppt: [[Media:The Three Essences of Functional Equivalence and Its Application.pptx|The Three Essences of Functional Equivalence and Its Application]] by Yi Yangfan; handout [[Media: The Three Essences of Functional Equivalence and Its Application.docx|The Three Essences of Functional Equivalence and Its Application]] by Yin Yuan<br />
* ppt: [[Media:Eugene Nida ‘s Principles of Correspondence Theory(ppt).pptx|Eugene Nida ‘s Principles of Correspondence Theory(ppt)]] by Chen Huini; handout [[Media:Eugene Nida ‘s Principles of Correspondence Theory.docx|Eugene Nida ‘s Principles of Correspondence Theory]] by Cai Zhufeng<br />
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==Homework for next session 7, Nov 10==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 7<br />
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2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
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*[[20211110_homework|homework of session 6 for session 7, Nov 10]]<br />
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3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
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4. (Only for students who do presentation on Nov 10:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
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5. WRITE A DRAFT OF YOUR FINAL EXAM PAPER!<br />
*[[20220112_final_exam|Final Exam paper page]]<br />
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=Session 7, Nov 10, Topic 6 Translation Studies=<br />
==Homework for this session Nov 10==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 7<br />
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2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
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*[[20211110_homework|homework of session 6 for session 7 Nov 10]]<br />
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3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
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4. (Only for students who do presentation on Nov 3:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
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==Presentations Nov 10 on Translation Studies==<br />
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* ppt 1: [[Media:The Name and Nature of Translation Studies(ppt).pptx|The Name and Nature of Translation Studies(ppt)]] by Liu Shengnan; handout [[Media: The Name and Nature of Translation Studies.docx| The Name and Nature of Translation Studies]] by Li Yi<br />
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* ppt 2: [[Media:Five Approaches to Translation.pptx|Five Approaches to Translation]] by Li Wenxuan; handout [[Media:Five Approaches to Translation(handout).docx|Five Approaches to Translation()]] by Li Shan<br />
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* ppt 3: [[Media:Principles of Translation(ppt).pptx|Principles of Translation(ppt)]] by Xiao Yiyao; handout [[Media:Principles of Translation.docx|Principles of Translation]] by Wu Yinghong<br />
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* ppt 4: [[Media:Cultural and Ideological Approaches in Translation(ppt).pptx|Cultural and Ideological Approaches in Translation]] by Mahzad Heydarian; handout [[Media:Cultural and Ideological Approaches in Translation.docx| Cultural and Ideological Approaches in Translation ]] by Mahzad Heydarian<br />
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* ppt 5: [[Media:Roman Jacobson's Categories of Translation(ppt).pptx|Roman Jacobson's Categories of Translation(ppt)]] by Xiong Min; handout [[Media: Roman Jacobson's Categories of Translation.docx| Roman Jacobson's Categories of Translation]] by Sun Yashi<br />
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* ppt 6: [[Media:Lin Yutang' s Translation Aesthetics(ppt).pptx|Lin Yutang' s Translation Aesthetics]] by Luo Anyi; handout [[Media:Lin Yutang' s Translation Aesthetics.docx| Lin Yutang' s Translation Aesthetics]] by Shi Liqing<br />
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==Homework for next session 8, Nov 17==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 8<br />
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2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
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*[[20211117_homework|homework of session 6 for session 8, Nov 17]]<br />
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3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
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4. (Only for students who do presentation on Nov 17:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
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=Session 8, Nov 17, Translation Theories =<br />
==Homework for this session Nov 17==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 8<br />
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2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
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*[[20211117_homework|homework of session 7 for session 8, Nov 17]]<br />
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3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
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4. (Only for students who do presentation on Nov 17:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
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==Presentations Nov 17 on Translation Theories==<br />
* ppt 1: [[Media:Translation Theories of George Steiner(ppt).pptx|Translation Theories of George Steiner(ppt)]] by Yang Liuqing 杨柳青; handout [[Media: Translation Theories of George Steiner.docx| Translation Theories of George Steiner]] by Yin Huizhen 殷慧珍<br />
* ppt 2: [[Media:The Functional Translation Theory of Reiss, Vermeer and Nord(ppt).pptx|The Functional Translation Theory of Reiss, Vermeer and Nord(ppt)]] by Peng Ruixue 彭瑞雪; [[Media:The Functional Translation Theory of Reiss, Vermeer and Nord (handout).docx|The Functional Translation Theory of Reiss, Vermeer and Nord (handout).docx]] by Qin Jianan 秦建安. <br />
* ppt 3: [[Media:Translation Theories of Peter Newmark.pptx|Translation Theories of Peter Newmark]] ppt by Liu Xiao 刘晓; [[Media:Translation Theories of Peter Newmark.docx|Translation Theories of Peter Newmark .docx]] handout by Liu Yue 刘越.<br />
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* ppt 4:[[Media:Yan Fu's Translation Thoughts(ppt).pptx|Yan Fu's Translation Thoughts(ppt)]] by Wang Lifei 王李菲; handout [[Media: Yan Fu's Translation Thoughts.docx| Yan Fu's Translation Thoughts]] by Wei Chuxuan 魏楚璇<br />
* ppt 5: [[Media:Translation of Xu Yuanchong.pptx|Translation theorie of Xu Yuanchong]] ppt by Zhouqing周清; [[Media:Translation of Xu Yuanchong.docx|Translation theorie of Xu Yuanchong]]handout by Zou Yueli邹岳丽.<br />
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==Homework for next session 9, Nov 24==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 9<br />
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2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
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*[[20211124_homework|homework of session 8 for session 9, Nov 24]]<br />
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3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
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4. (Only for students who do presentation on Nov 24:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
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=Session 9, Nov 24, History of Chinese Translation Theories =<br />
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==Homework for this session Nov 24==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 9<br />
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2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
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*[[20211124_homework|homework of session 8 for session 9, Nov 24]]<br />
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3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
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4. (Only for students who do presentation on Nov 24:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
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==Presentations Nov 24 on Chinese Translation Theories ==<br />
* ppt 1: [[Media:The History of Chinese Translation Theories in Qing Dynasty(ppt).pptx|The History of Chinese Translation Theories in Qing Dynasty(ppt)]]ppt by Cheng Yang 程杨 and [[Media: The History of Chinese Translation Theories in Qing Dynasty.docx| The History of Chinese Translation Theories in Qing Dynasty]]handout by Li Shuang 李双. <br />
* ppt 2: [[Media:The History of Chinese Buddhist Translation Theories(ppt).pptx|The History of Chinese Buddhist Translation Theories(ppt)]] by Qiu Tingting邱婷婷; handout [[Media: The History of Chinese Buddhist Translation Theories.docx| The History of Chinese Buddhist Translation Theories]] by Wei Yiwen 卫怡雯 <br />
* ppt 3: [[Media:The Chinese Translation Theories During the Period of the May Forth Movement(ppt).pptx|The Chinese Translation Theories During the Period of the May Forth Movement(ppt)]]by Li Wen 李雯; [[Media: The Chinese Translation Theories During the Period of the May Forth Movement.docx|The Chinese Translation Theories During the Period of the May Forth Movement]] handout by Zhou Xiaoxue 周小雪<br />
* ppt 4: [[Media: The History of Chinese Translation Theories from 1949 to Present(ppt).pptx|The History of Chinese Translation Theories from 1949 to Present(ppt)]]by Yang Aijiang 杨爱江 [[Media: The History of Chinese Translation Theories from 1949 to Present.docx|The History of Chinese Translation Theories from 1949 to Present]] handout by Yang Kun 杨堃<br />
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==Homework for next session 10, Dec 1==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 10<br />
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2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
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*[[20211201_homework|homework of session 9 for session 10, Dec 1]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 1:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
=Session 10, Dec 1, Appropriateness Theory=<br />
This is a new theory suggested by M. Woesler in 2020. Everybody is invited to help to develop this theory or to criticize other theories and suggesting what a new theory (like the appropriateness theory) needs to do better.<br />
<br />
==Homework for this session Dec 1==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 10<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211201_homework|homework of session 9 for session 10, Dec 1]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 1:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
==Presentations Dec 1==<br />
* handout 1: [[Media: Appropriateness Theory.docx| Appropriateness Theory]] by Ei Mon Kyaw 艾梦觉;ppt 1: [[Media:Appropriateness Theory(ppt).pptx|Appropriateness Theory(ppt)]] by Yin Meida殷美达;<br />
* Topic 2: [[Media: The Appropriateness Theory.docx| The Appropriateness Theory]] by Asep Budiman;ppt 1: [[Media:Appropriateness Theory<br />
(ppt).pptx|Appropriateness Theory(ppt)]] by Asep Budiman;<br />
*Teacher presentation [[Media:10_Translation_Studies_Discipline.pptx|10_Translation_Studies_Discipline.pptx]]<br />
*Teacher presentation [[Media:Appropriateness_Theory_Teacher_Presentation.pptx|Appropriateness_Theory_Teacher_Presentation.pptx]]<br />
<br />
==Homework for next session 11, Dec 8==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 11<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211208_homework|homework of session 10 for session 11, Dec 8]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 8:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
=Session 11, Dec 8, Methods and Style=<br />
==Homework for this session Dec 8==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 11<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211208_homework|homework of session 10 for session 11, Dec 8]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 8:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
==Presentations Dec 8 on Methods and Style==<br />
* ppt 1: [[Media:The Literal Translation and Free Translation(ppt).pptx|The Literal Translation and Free Translation(ppt)]] by Zhong Yifei钟义菲; handout [[Media: The Literal Translation and Free Translation.docx| The Literal Translation and Free Translation]] by Zhong Yulu钟雨露.<br />
* ppt 1: [[Media:The Amplification and Omission in Translation(ppt).pptx|The Amplification and Omission in Translation(ppt)]] by Zhou Jiu周玖; handout [[Media: The Amplification and Omission in Translation.docx| The Amplification and Omission in Translation]] by Zhou Junhui周俊辉.<br />
* ppt 3: [[Media:Zhu Shenghao's Translation Style Take the Translation of Shakespeare's Plays for Example(ppt).pptx|Zhu Shenghao's Translation Style Take the Translation of Shakespeare's Plays for Example(ppt)]] by Li Aixuan李爱璇；handout [[Media:Zhu Shenghao's Translation Style Take the Translation of Shakespeare's Plays for Example.docx|Zhu Shenghao's Translation Style Take the Translation of Shakespeare's Plays for Example]] by Jing Xiaotong金晓童.<br />
* ppt 4: [[File:Translation Methods of Idioms.pptx|Translation Methods of Idioms(ppt)]] by Liu Yunxin 刘运心; handout [[File:Translation Methods of Idioms.docx|Translation Methods of Idioms(handout)]] by Li Ruiyang 李瑞洋<br />
* ppt 5: [[Media:11_Chen_Jing_Domestication_and_Foreignization.pptx|Domestication and Foreignization(pptx)]] by Chen Jing 陈静; handout [[File:Domestication and Foreignization.docx|Domestication and Foreignization(handout)]] by Chen Xinyi 陈心怡<br />
*Teacher presentation [[Media:11_Translation_Studies_Discipline.pptx|11_Translation_Studies_Discipline.pptx]]<br />
<br />
[[File:Translation Methods of Idioms.pptx]]<br />
<br />
==Homework for next session 12, Dec 15==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 12<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211215_homework|homework of session 11 for session 12, Dec 15]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 15:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
=Session 12, Dec 15, Theory and Practice.=<br />
<br />
==Homework for this session Dec 15==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 12<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211215_homework|homework of session 11 for session 12, Dec 15]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 15:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
==Presentations Dec 15 on Theory and Practice==<br />
* ppt 1: [[Media:Catford Translation Shift Theory and Tts Practice(ppt).pptx|Catford Translation Shift Theory and Its Practice(ppt)]] by Zhou Qiao 周巧; handout [[Media:Catford Translation Shift Theory and Its Practice.docx|Catford Translation Shift Theory and Its Practice]] by Zhu Suzhen 朱素珍.<br />
<br />
* ppt 2: [[Media: The value and limits of Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory in its Application of Literature(ppt).pptx| The value and limits of Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory in its Application of Literature（ppt）]] by Zhan Ruoxuan 詹若萱;handout [[Media:The value and limits of Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory in its Application of Literature.docx|The value and limits of Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory in its Application of Literature]] by Luo Xi 罗曦.<br />
<br />
* ppt 3：[[Media:Ezra Pound's translation theory and its application in Cathay(ppt).pptx|Ezra Pound's translation theory and its application in Cathay(ppt)]] by Wang Yifan 王逸凡; handout [[Media:Ezra Pound's translation theory and its application in Cathay.docx|Ezra Pound's translation theory and its application in Cathay]] by Zhang Qiuyi 张秋怡.<br />
<br />
* ppt 4：[[Media:Skopos Theory and its application by Jawad and Liu Peiting.pptx|Skopos Theory and its application by Jawad and Liu Peiting]] by Jawad Ahmad; handout [[Media:Skopos Theory and Its Application.docx|Skopos Theory and Its Application]] by Liu Peiting 刘沛婷.<br />
<br />
==Homework for next session 13, Dec 22==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 13<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211222_homework|homework of session 12 for session 13, Dec 22]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 22:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
=Session 13, Dec 22, Decriptive Studies, Culture, Invisibility, Constructivism=<br />
<br />
==Homework for this session Dec 22==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 13<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211222_homework|homework of session 12 for session 13, Dec 22]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 22:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
==Presentations Dec 22 on Decriptive Studies, Culture, Invisibility, Constructivism==<br />
<br />
* ppt 1: [[Media:Gideon Toury's Descriptive Translation Studies(ppt).pptx|Gideon Toury's Descriptive Translation Studies(ppt)]]ppt by Benjamin Wellsand; handout [[Media:Gideon Toury's Descriptive Translation Studies.docx|Gideon Toury's Descriptive Translation Studies]] by Bi bi Nadia.<br />
<br />
* ppt 2: [[Media:Gideon Toury's Descriptive Study of Norms in Translation Presentation(ppt).pptx|Gideon Toury's Descriptive Study of Norms in Translation Presentation(ppt)]]ppt by Rouabah Soumaya; handout [[Media:.docx|.docx]] by Bi bi Nadia.<br />
<br />
* ppt 3: [[Media:Presentation on Cultural Aspects of Translation Studies(ppt).pptx|Presentation on Cultural Aspects of Translation Studies(ppt)]]ppt by Zhang Yiran; handout [[Media:Gideon Toury's Descriptive Translation Studies.docx|Presentation on Cultural Aspects of Translation Studies]] by Atta Ur Rahman.<br />
<br />
==Homework for next session 14, Dec 29==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 14<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211229_homework|homework of session 13 for session 14, Dec 29]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 29:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
=Session 14, Dec 29, East-West Comparison=<br />
<br />
==Homework for this session Dec 29==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 14<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211229_homework|homework of session 13 for session 14, Dec 29]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 29:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
==Presentations Dec 29 on East-West Comparison==<br />
*ppt 1: A Comparison of Venuti's and Lu Xun's Foreignization Translation Strategy ppt by Mao You 毛优; [[Media: A Comparison of Venuti's and Lu Xun's Foreignization Translation Strategy(Handout).docx|A Comparison of Venuti's and Lu Xun's Foreignization Translation Strategy(Handout).docx]] handout by Mao Yawen 毛雅文.<br />
<br />
*ppt 2: A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western Contemporary Cultural Translation——Taking the Translation Concepts of Liu Miqing(刘宓庆) and Susan Bassnett as an Example. [[File:A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western Contemporary Cultural Translation.pptx]] by Wei Zhaoyan魏兆妍；[[File:A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western Contemporary Cultural Translation(handout).docx]] by Wu Jingyue吴婧悦<br />
<br />
*ppt 3: [[Media:(ppt).pptx|(ppt)]]ppt by ; handout [[Media:Hypotactic and Paratactic.docx|Hypotactic and Paratactic]] by Huang Zhuliang黄柱梁.<br />
<br />
==Homework for next session 15, Jan 5==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 15<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20210105_homework|homework of session 14 for session 15, Jan 5]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Jan 5:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
=Session 15, Jan 5, Review in Preparation of final exam=<br />
<br />
=Session 16, Jan 12, Final Exam=<br />
<br />
<br />
=Samples from last year: 人类起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation=<br />
Please note: All the sessions (2-16) here are copies of the 2020 course. <br />
<br />
You can have a look how the fellow students did it last year, <br />
<br />
but you have to write everything new here for 2021.<br />
<br />
*Teacher presentation<br />
<br />
*Student presentations<br />
<br />
OLD (2020):<br />
<br />
*Handout for download [[Media:The_emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation.docx|Global Emergence of Interpretation and Translation]] by 彭锐宏<br />
*Classroom presentation for download [[Media:The_emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_by_Peng_Ruihong.pptx|Presentation on Emergence of translation]] by 彭锐宏--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 07:05, 28 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 2, Topic 2: 西方起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation in the West===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:The_Emergence_of_Translation_and_Interpretation_in_Western_Countries.docx|Handout on The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation in Western Countries]]--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 05:43, 28 September 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou by 聂晓楼<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The_Emergence_of_Translation_and_Interpretation_in_Western_Countries.pptx|Powerpoint on The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation in Western Countries]]--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 05:43, 28 September 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou by 聂晓楼<br />
<br />
===Session 2, Topic 3: 中国起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation in China===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:Emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_in_China.docx| Handout on Emergence of translation and interpretation in China]]--Mashuya by 马淑雅<br />
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_in_China.pptx|PowerPoint on Emergence of translation and interpretation in China]]--Mashuya by 马淑雅<br />
<br />
===Session 2, Topic 4: 日本起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation in Japan===<br />
*Handout for download: [[Media:The_Emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_in_Japan.docx|The Emergence of translation and interpretation in Japan]] by 孟莹 --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 16:10, 27 September 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The_Emergence_of_Translation_and_Interpretation_in_Japan.ppt|Powerpoint on the Emergence of Translation and Interpretation in Japan]] by 孟莹--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 16:10, 27 September 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
===Homework from Session 2 (Sep 28, 2020), due on (Oct 5, 2020)===<br />
1. Every student should translate 1 paragraph of an English book on Contemporary Chinese Literature INTO CHINESE. Link: [[20200928_trans|here]].<br />
<br />
2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20200928_trans|here]].<br />
<br />
==3rd Session: History==<br />
<br />
===Session 3, Topic 1:中国古代翻译史History of Translation in Ancient China===<br />
*Handout for download：[[Media:Handout for History of Translation in Ancient China.doc]]--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 09:14, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media: History of Translation in Ancient China.pptx]]--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 09:14, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 3, Topic 2: 中国翻译史代表人物The Representatives in Chinese Translation History===<br />
*Handout for download: [[Media:Chin_Trans_Hist_Rep.docx|The Representatives in Chinese Translation History]] --[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 11:35, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:....pptx|The Representatives in Chinese Translation History]] --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:36, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 3, Topic 3: 中国翻译史的四个阶段 The Four Stages of Chinese Translation History===<br />
*Handout for download: [[Media:The four stages of Chinese translation history.docx|Description of the file]] PLEASE UPLOAD by --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:08, 5 October 2020 (UTC)XX<br />
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The_four_stages_of_Chinese_translation_history.pptx|The Four Stages of Chinese Translation History]] by --[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 16:16, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
===Session 3, Topic 4: 当代中国之翻译 Translation in Contemporary China===<br />
*Handout for download: [[Media:Handout for Translation in Contemporary China.docx|Translation in today's China]] by --[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 02:08, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Translation in Contemporary China(1).pptx|Presentation on translation in China today]] --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 01:05, 5 October 2020 (UTC) Zhang Yuxing by 张宇星<br />
<br />
==='''Homework from Session 3 (Oct 5, 2020), for Session 4 due on (Oct 12, 2020)'''===<br />
<br />
1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book "Translation Studies". <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201005_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
<br />
2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201005_trans|here]].<br />
<br />
==Session 4: Development==<br />
<br />
===Session 4, Topic 1: 西方翻译史 Western translation history===<br />
*Handout for download: [[Media:....docx|Western translation history]] by Zhou Siqing--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:57, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Western translation history.pptx|Western translation history]] by Zhang Qi [[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 07:46, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 4, Topic 2: 中国佛经翻译的发展 The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures.docx]] by Jiang Qiwei--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:26, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures.ppt|The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures]] by Hu Jin--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:26, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 4, Topic 3:西方翻译理论史History of Western Translation Theory===<br />
*Handout for download: [[Media:...docx|History of Western Translation Theory]] by --[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 13:19, 4 October 2020 (UTC)XX<br />
* Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:...pptx| Brief History of Western Translation Theory]] by --[[User:Zhou Shiqing|Zhou Shiqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shiqing|talk]]) 13:19, 4 October 2020 (UTC)XX<br />
<br />
===Session 4, Topic 4:口译未来的发展 Prospect of Interpreting===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Prospect of Interpreting.docx]]-by Zhang Yinliu--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 08:30, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Prospect of Interpreting.pptx]]--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 08:23, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 4, Topic 5:新中国成立后翻译的发展 Translation Development of New China===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:Translation Development of New China.pdf]] by Li Luyi --[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:47, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Translation Development .pptx]] by Zheng Huajun--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:47, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 4, Topic 6:圣经翻译的发展 The Development of Bible Translation===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Development of Bible Translation.docx]]--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:05, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Development of Bible Translation.pptx]] by Han Haiyang--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 02:01, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 4, Topic 7:机器翻译的发展 The Development of Machine Translation===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:Handout-The Development of Machine Translation.docx]] by Deng Jinxia----[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 12:42, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:PPT The Development of Machine Translation.pptx]] by Han Wanzhen--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 06:31, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 4, Topic 8:视听翻译的发展 The Development of Audiovisual Translation===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Development of Audiovisual Translation-Handout.docx]]--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 16:01, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Development of Audiovisual Translation-PPT.pptx]] by Cheng Yusi--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 16:04, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Homework from Session 4 (Oct 12, 2020), for Session 5 due on (Oct 19, 2020)'''===<br />
<br />
1. Every student should translate a short passage of a paper on the Chinese essay. <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201012_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
<br />
2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. [[20201012_trans|here]].<br />
<br />
3. Take part in an online survey. The survey is currently prepared by the fellow students.<br />
<br />
==Session 5: ==<br />
<br />
===Session 5, Topic 1:林纾的翻译 Lin Shu's translation===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:Translation by Lin Shu.docx]]--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:50, 29 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation by Lin Shu(After correcting).pptx]]--Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
===Session 5, Topic 2:茅盾的翻译 Mao Dun's Translation===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:Mao Dun's Translation.docx]]--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 02:44, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
[[Media:translations by Mao Dun.pptx]]--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 13:14, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 5, Topic 3:严复和天演论 Yan Fu and Tianyan Lun===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:YAN Fu and Tianyan Lun.docx]]--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 09:53, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Yuan Yuchen<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:YAN Fu and Tianyan Lun.pptx]]--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 10:28, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
Please stick to your 5 minutes with your presentation. We are 3 presentations behind. Thank you for your cooperation.<br />
<br />
===Session 5, Topic 4:《红楼梦》的英译 The Translation of ''The Red Chamber Dreams''===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Translation of ''The Red Chamber Dreams''.docx]]--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 13:38, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Translation of ''The Red Chamber Dreams''.pptx]]----[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 03:59, 24 October 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
===Session 5, Topic 5:《圣经》的早期汉译 The Early Translation of the Bible into Chinese===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Early Translation of the Bible into Chinese.docx]]--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 15:22, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Early Translation of the Bible into Chinese.ppt]]--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 14:55, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 5, Topic 6:梁实秋的翻译 The Translation of Liang Shiqiu===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Liang Shiqiu's Translation.pdf]]--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]]([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:32, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media: Liang Shiqiu.pdf]]--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]]([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 00:32, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Session 6: Early Theories==<br />
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==='''Homework from Session 5 (Oct 19, 2020), for Session 6 due on (Oct 26, 2020)'''===<br />
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1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book "Translation Studies". <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201019_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
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2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201019_trans|here]].<br />
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===Session 6, Topic 1: 巴斯奈特文化翻译观 The Cultural Translation Theory of Bassnett===<br />
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Handout for download: [[Media:The Cultural Translatioin Theory of Susan Bassnett.pdf]]--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]]([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 16:36, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Cultural Translatioin Theory of Bassnett.ppt]]--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 05:07, 24 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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===Session 6, Topic 2: 中国早期代表性佛经翻译理论 Early Representative Theories of Buddhist Scriptures Translation in China===<br />
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Handout for download:[[Media:Early Representative Theories of Buddhist Scriptures Translation in China.docx]]--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:23, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Early Representative Theories of Buddhist Scriptures Translation in China.pptx]]--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 00:43, 26 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 6, Topic 3: 两种西方早期翻译模式的比较分析:贺拉斯模式和杰罗姆模式 The Comparative Analysis of Two Early Western Translation Models: Horace Model and Jerome Model===<br />
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Handout for download:[[Media:The Comparative Analysis of Two Translation Models.docx]]--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 09:41, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The_Comparative_Analysis_of_Two_Translation_Models.pptx]]--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 09:24, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br />
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===Session 6, Topic 4: 卡特福德的《翻译的语言学理论》 A Linguistic Theory of Translation of J.C.Catford===<br />
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Handout for download:[[Media:A Linguistic Theory of Translation of Catford.docx]]--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 12:30, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:A Linguistic Theory of Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 12:38, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 6, Topic 5: 中西早期译论对比 The Comparison between Chinese and Western Early Translation Theories===<br />
Handout for download:[[Media:Comparison of Early Translation Theories between China and the West.docx]]--[[User:QiKai|Qi Kai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 14:04, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom Presentation for download:[[Media:Chinese and Western Early Theories Comparison.pptx]]--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 13:26, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 6, Topic 6: 系统翻译理论的早期尝试 Early Attempts at Systematic Translation Theory===<br />
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Handout for download: [[Media:Early Attempts at Systematic Translation Theory.docx]]--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 12:40, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Early Attempts at Systematic Translation Theory.ppt]]--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]])03:52, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Session 7: Western theories==. 周巧 presentation PowerPoint 朱素珍 handout Cat ford Translation Shift Theory<br />
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===Homework from Session 6 (Oct 26, 2020), for Session 6 due on (Nov 2, 2020)===<br />
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1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book "Translation Studies". <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201026_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
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2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201026_trans|here]].<br />
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===Session 7, Topic 1: 奈达功能对等理论 Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
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Handout for download:[[Media:Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory.docx]]<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory ppt.pptx]]--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 02:59, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 7, Topic 2: 多元系统理论 Polysystem Theory===<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Polysystem Theory ppt.pptx]]--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 11:35, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Handout for download:[[Media:Polysystem Theory.docx]]--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 11:21, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 7, Topic 3： 后殖民主义翻译理论 Post-colonial Translation Theory===<br />
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Handout for download:[[Media:Post-colonial Translation Theory.doc]]--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 12:27, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Post-colonial Translation Theory.pptx]]--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 01:29, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 7, Topic 4： 布拉格学派 Prague School===<br />
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Handout for download: [[Media:Prague_School-Handout.doc]]--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 14:48, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Prague School.pptx]]--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:08, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 7, Topic 5： 目的论 Skopos Theory===<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Skopos Theory.pptx]]--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 07:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
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Handout for download:[[Media:Skopos Theory.docx]]--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:21, 2 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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===Session 7, Topic 6： 语言学派 Linguistic School===<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Linguistic School.pptx]]----[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Handout for download: [[Media:Linguistic School-Handout.doc]]----[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:48, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Session 8: Methods==<br />
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===Homework from Session 7 (Nov 2, 2020), for Session 8 due on (Nov 9, 2020)===<br />
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1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book "Translation Studies". <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201102_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
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2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201102_trans|here]].<br />
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===Session 8, Topic 1： 正说反译与反说正译 Negation===<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Negation-Gan Fengyu.pptx]][[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 13:01, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Handout for download:[[Media:Negation.docx]]--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 12:56, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 8, Topic 2：异化策略下的翻译方法 Translation Methods of Foreignization Strategy ===<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation Methods of Foreignization Strategy-Zhao Xiaoyan.pptx]]--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 15:35, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Handout for download:[[Media:Translation Methods of Foreignization Strategy-Zhang Hui.docx]]--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 15:33, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 8, Topic 3： 交际翻译与语义翻译 Communicative Translation and Semantic Translation===<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Communicative Translation and Semantic Translation.pptx]]by Zhang Yu--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 13:01, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Handout for download:[[Media:Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation-handout.docx]]--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 13:49, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 8, Topic 4： 直译与意译 Literal Translation and Free translation===<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Literal Translation and Free translation.pptx]]--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:45, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
Handout for download:[[Media:Literal Translation and Free translation Handout.docx]]--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 01:22, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 8, Topic 5： 增译与减译 Amplification and Omission===<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Amplification and Omission.pptx]]--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 03:06, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Amplification And Omission.docx]]--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 05:05, 9 November 2020 (UTC)Wensixing<br />
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===Session 8, Topic 6： 影视字幕的翻译方法-以《肖申克的救赎》为例 The Translation Method of Film and Television Subtitles——Taking Shawshank’s Redemption as an Example===<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Translation Method of Film and Television Subtitles—Taking Shawshank’s Redemption as an Example.pptx]]--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 01:21, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
Handout for download:[[Media:The Translation Method of Film and Television Subtitles—Taking Shawshank’s Redemption as an Example Handout.docx]]--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 01:16, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Session 9: Style==<br />
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===Homework from Session 8 (Nov 9, 2020), for Session 9 due on (Nov 16, 2020)===<br />
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1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201116_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
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2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201116_trans|here]].<br />
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===Session 9, Topic 1: 源语风格和翻译 Style of Source Text and Translation===<br />
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Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Style of Source Text and Translation.docx]]--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 06:48, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Style of Source Text and Translation1.pptx]]--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 07:03, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 9, Topic2 : 科技翻译 Scientific Style===<br />
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Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Scientific Style.docx]]--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 01:42, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Scientific Style.pptx]]--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:17, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 9,Topic 3:不同翻译风格对比 Comparison among Different Translation Styles===<br />
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Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Handout Session 9 Comparison among Different Translation Styles.docx]]--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 14:40, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Session 9 Comparison among Different Translation Styles.pptx]]--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 14:40, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 9,Topic 4: 文学风格可译与不可译 On Literary Style from a Translatable View and Untranslatable View===<br />
Classroom handout for download:[[Media:On Literary Style from a Translatable View and Untranslatable View.docx]]--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:49, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:On Literary Style from a Translatable View and Untranslatable View.pptx]] by Li Yongshan --[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:49, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 9,Topic 5: 翻译与风格 Translation and Style= ==<br />
Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Translation_and_Style.docx]]--Hu Huifang<br />
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Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Translation_and_Style.pptx]]--Zeng Yanhu<br />
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[[Media:Example.ogg]]<br />
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==Session 10: Translation Studies==<br />
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===Homework from Session 9 (Nov 16, 2020), for Session 10 due on (Nov 23, 2020)===<br />
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1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201123_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
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2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201123_trans|here]].<br />
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===Session 10,Topic 1: 翻译转换 Translation Shifts===<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation_Shifts.pptx]]--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 14:51, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Translation_Shifts_handout.docx]]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 15:05, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 10,Topic 2: 解码和重新编码 Decoding and Recoding===<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Decoding and Recoding.pptx]]--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 08:33, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Decoding and Recoding.docx]]--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 04:32, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 10,Topic 3: 视听翻译 Audiovisual Translation===<br />
Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Audiovisual Translation.docx]]--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 13:19, 22 November 2020 (UTC) - READ BY NIE XIAOLOU<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Audiovisual Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 00:26, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 10,Topic 4: 对钱钟书“化境说”的理论研究 The Translation Studies of Qian Zhongshu’s Theory of Huajing===<br />
[[Media:Handout-The Translation Studies of Qian Zhongshu’s theory of Huajing.docx]]--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 05:38, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[[Media:The Translation Studies of Qian Zhongshu’s theory of Huajing.pptx]]--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 05:40, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 10, Topic 5: 英汉被动语态对比研究及其翻译策略 Contrastive Studies of Passive Voice(C&E) and its Translation Strategies===<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Contrastive Studies of Passive Voice(C&E) and its Translation Strategies.pptx]] --[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 09:20, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Contrastive Studies of Passive Voice(C&E) and its Translation Strategies.docx]]--[[User:Blank|Zhang Hu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hu|talk]]) 10:23, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 10,Topic 6: 不可译性及其转化策略 Untranslatability and Translation Strategies====<br />
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Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Untranslatability and Translation Strategies.docx]]--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 12:03, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Untranslatability & Translation Strategies.pptx]]--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 12:45, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Session 11: Theory and Practice==<br />
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===Homework from Session 10 (Nov 23, 2020), for Session 11 due on (Nov 30, 2020)===<br />
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1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201130_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
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2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201130_trans|here]].<br />
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===Session 11,Topic 1: 功能对等理论对商标翻译的影响 The Effect of the Equivalence Theory on Trademark Translation===<br />
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Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Handout.The Theory and Practice.docx]]--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 07:38, 30 November 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Effect of the Equivalence Theory on Trademark Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 08:08, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 11,Topic 2: 归化和异化在翻译中的实践 Translation practice in domestication and foreignization===<br />
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Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Handout.The Practice of Foreignization and Domestication.docx]]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 01:21, 30 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation practice in domestication and foreignization.pptx]]--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 09:00, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
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===Session 11,Topic 3: 目的论及其应用 Skopos Theory and its Applications===<br />
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Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Skopos Theory and its Applications.docx]]--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 05:08, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download：[[Media:Skopos Theory and its Applications.pptx]]--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 05:16, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 11,Topic 4:语义翻译与交际翻译 The Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation=== <br />
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Classroom handout for download:[[Media:The Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation.docx]]--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 16:30, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation.ppt]]--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 06:56, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 11,Topic 5: 奈达的功能对等理论及其在科技文英译汉中的应用 Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory and its Application in E-C Translation of EST===<br />
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Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Nida’s_Functional_Equivalence_Theory_and_its_Application_in E-C_Translation_of_EST.docx]]--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 02:03, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory and its Application in E-C Translation of EST.pptx]]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 03:25, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 11,Topic 6:女性主义翻译 The Feminist Translation===<br />
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Handout for download：[[Media:Feminist Translation.doc]]--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:07, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation：[[Media:Feminist Translation.pptx]]<br />
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==Session 12: Different Aspects==<br />
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===Homework from Session 11 (Nov 30, 2020), for Session 12 due on (Dec 7, 2020)===<br />
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1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201207_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
<br />
2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201207_trans|here]].<br />
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===Session 12, Topic 1: 政论文翻译 Translation of Political Text===<br />
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Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Translation of Political Text.docx]]--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 12:21, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Translation of Political Text.pptx]] By Chen Jiaxin --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 12:30, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 12, Topic 2: 诗歌翻译 Poem Translation===<br />
Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Poem Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 14:59, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[[Media:Poem_Translation_handout.docx]] by Zhang Yujie& Yang Hairong--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 03:14, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 12, Topic 3: 旅游翻译 Tourism Translation===<br />
Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Tourism Translation.pptx]] by Tan Xinjie & Wei Yafei --[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 09:53, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei <br />
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[[Media:Tourism_Translation_handout.docx]] by Tan Xinjie & Wei Yafei--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 10:06, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Wei Yafei<br />
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==Session 13: East West comparison==<br />
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===Homework from Session 12 (Nov 30, 2020), for Session 13 due on (Dec 14, 2020)===<br />
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1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201214_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
<br />
2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201214_trans|here]].<br />
<br />
===Topic 1:严复和泰特勒翻译标准之对比 A Comparison between Yan Fu's and Tytler's Translation Criteria===<br />
[[Media:A Comparison Between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s Translation Criteria.pptx]]--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 07:15, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
[[Media:A Comparison Between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s Translation Criteria.docx]]--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 06:52, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
<br />
===Topic 2:中西翻译发展比较Comparison of the Development of Chinese and Western Translation===<br />
<br />
[[Media:Comparison of the Development of Chinese and Western Translation.pptx]] by Liu Yi.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 15:38, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
[[Media:Comparison of the Development of Chinese and Western Translation.doc]] by Tan Yuanyuan.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 15:47, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Topic 3:中西文化差异对翻译的影响The Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on Translation===<br />
[[Media:Handout-The Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on Translation.doc]] by Yang Yue--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 05:10, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
[[Media:The Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on Translation.pptx]] by Yi Zichu--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 05:01, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Topic 4:中国佛经翻译与圣经翻译的比较Comparison Between the translation of Buddhist scriptures of China and Bible translation===<br />
[[Media:The Comparison of the Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures and Bible translation.pptx]]by Xiao Ting--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 00:54, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
[[Media:The Comparison of the Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures and Bible Translation.docx]]--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 02:07, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
===Topic 5:20世纪中叶以来中西翻译理论对比 Comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century===<br />
<br />
[[Media:Comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century by Mo Ling.pptx]]--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 09:38, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
[[Media:Handout of comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century by Yuan Tianyi.doc]]<br />
<br />
===Topic 6；中西思维方式差异在翻译中的体现——以习语为例 The Embodiment of the Differences between Chinese and Western Thinking Modes in Translation -- Taking Idioms as an Example===<br />
<br />
Classroom handout for download: [[Media:The Embodiment of the Differences between Chinese and Western Thinking Modes in Translation -- Taking Idioms as an Example.docx]]--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Sha]] --[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Sha]] ([[User talk:Chen Sha|talk]]) 14:43, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The Embodiment of the Differences between Chinese and Western Thinking Modes in Translation -- Taking Idioms as an Example.pptx]] By Chen Jiangning --[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Jiangning]]--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 14:43, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Session 14: Strategies==<br />
===Homework from Session 13 (Dec 14, 2020), for Session 14 due on (Dec 21, 2020)===<br />
<br />
1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201221_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
<br />
2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201221_trans|here]].<br />
<br />
===Topic 1；阿拉伯大征服时代与翻译学 The Era of Arab Conquest and Translatology===<br />
<br />
Classroom handout for download: [[Media:The Era of Arab Conquest and Translatology.docx]] Ma Zhixing＆Wu kai --[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 10:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The Era of Arab Conquest and Translatology.ppt]] Ma Zhixing＆Wu kai --[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 10:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Topic 2；韦努蒂的抵抗式翻译策略 Resistancy Translation Strategy—Lawrence Venuti===<br />
<br />
Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Resistancy Translation Strategy—Lawrence Venuti.docx]] Tang Yiran&Yang Ziling --[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 23:34, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Resistancy Translation Strategy—Lawrence Venuti.ppt]] Tang Yiran&Yang Ziling --[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 23:34, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Topic 3；英日译本对照--以《雪国》为例The Contrast of Japanese-English Translation--Taking "Snow Country" as an Example===<br />
<br />
Classroom handout for download: [[Media:The Contrast of Differences in Japanese-English Xie Ziyi& Peng Yongliang.docx]] <br />
--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 05:48, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The Contrast of Differences in Japanese-English Xie Ziyi& Peng Yongliang.pptx]] <br />
--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 05:48, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Session 15: Contemporary Translation Theories==<br />
<br />
===Homework from Session 14 (Dec 21, 2020), for Session 15 due on (Dec 28, 2020)===<br />
<br />
1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201228_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
<br />
2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201228_trans|here]].<br />
<br />
<br />
===Topic 1 Contemporary Translation Theories ===<br />
<br />
Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Contemporary Translation Theories.docx]] <br />
<br />
<br />
Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Contemporary Translation Theories.pptx]] <br />
--[[User:Sagara Seydou 3|Sagara Seydou 3]] ([[User talk:Sagara Seydou 3|talk]]) 08:07, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Session 16: Final Discussion==<br />
<br />
==List of topics for presentations and handouts in class==<br />
1 Emergence: <br />
孟莹: 日本起源, 聂晓楼: 西方起源, 马淑雅: 中国起源, 彭锐宏: 人类起源<br />
<br />
2 History: <br />
周思庆 张琪: 西方翻译史; 马娟 刘智伟: 历史上中国著名的翻译家; 解帆 张宇星: 现当代中国翻译演变; 凌子瑾 李玉: 中国古代翻译史; 杨晨婷 余妮: 中国近代翻译史; 周诗卿 纪甜甜: 西方翻译理论简史<br />
<br />
3 Development: <br />
韩宛真 邓锦霞: 机器翻译的发展; 蒋淇玮 胡瑾：中国佛经翻译的发展; 吴琼 张银柳: 口译未来的发展; 成于思 龚钰冕: 翻译实践的发展; 郑华君 李璐伊: 新中国成立后翻译的发展; 韩海洋 彭育志：圣经翻译的发展<br />
<br />
4 Early Literary Examples: <br />
许鹏飞 肖伊宁: 林纾的翻译; 许晶 李凌月; 袁诗琦 姚佳; 邹鑫雨 曹润鑫:《红楼梦》的英译; 袁雨晨 肖茜: 严复和《天演论》; 苏琳 周玉娟<br />
<br />
5 Early Theories: <br />
徐梦蝶 杨逸; 陈涵 曾心媛; 陈静静 高明珠; 文晓艺 韦洪朗: 严复与林纾的翻译理论; 康浩宇 漆凯: 玄奘翻译理论; 刘洋诺 邬香: 系统翻译理论的早期尝试<br />
<br />
6 (Western) Theories: <br />
康灵凤 莫南: 功能对等理论; 吴琪 常慧月：多元系统理论; 纪甜甜 姜好: 后殖民翻译理论; 许静 游雨婷; 布拉格学派; 肖双玲 王轩: 目的论; 李丽丽 王源: 语言学派<br />
<br />
7 Methods: <br />
甘奉玉 丁代凤; 赵晓燕 张慧: 异化策略下的翻译方法; 张瑜 谭星越: 语义翻译和交际翻译; 吴一露 司妤: 直译和意译; 文偲荇 李梦: 增译和减译; 林敏 刘金惺琦<br />
<br />
8 Style: <br />
孔祥慧 孔亚楠; 罗雨晴 娄灿灿; 管钦清：不同翻译风格对比； 林鑫 李泳珊：文学风格可译与不可译; 曾雁湖 胡慧芳<br />
<br />
9 Translation Studies: <br />
罗维嘉 桂一枝; 彭小玲 彭丹; 全美欣 宋建茹:视听翻译;石迪文 易欢; 姚诚 张虎：中英语态对比及其翻译策略; 刘欧 陈永相：不可译性及其转化策略<br />
<br />
10 Theory and Practice: <br />
彭娟 陶冶; 吴子佳 雷旷溪: 归化异化在翻译中的实践; 汤蓓 王美玲; 蒋凤仪 顾东方; 周园曲 祝美梅; 阳慧 张佩闻; <br />
<br />
11 Different Aspects: <br />
周艺文 陈佳欣; 谭鑫洁 魏亚菲; 张毓婕 杨海容; <br />
<br />
12 East West Comparison: <br />
唐铭 欧蓉; 谭媛媛 刘艺: 中西翻译发展史及比较; 杨悦 义子楚: 中西文化差异对翻译的影响; 肖婷 徐佳：中国佛经翻译和圣经翻译的比较; 莫玲 袁天翼; 陈莎 陈江宁：中西方思维方式差异在翻译中的体现--以习语为例。<br />
<br />
13 Strategies: <br />
吴恺 马智星: 阿拉伯大征服时代与翻译学; 汤伊然 杨子泠(劳伦斯·韦努蒂的异化翻译策略); 彭永亮 谢子熠<br />
<br />
14 Contemporary translation Theories: <br />
Sagara Seydo Nguyen, Thuy Hien (Helen)<br />
<br />
==List of Topics for final exam papers in Translation Studies==<br />
<br />
学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
Ideas<br />
*literal vs. free<br />
*Faithful/loyal/foreignization/alienation/exotization vs. domestication/localization<br />
*unit of translation<br />
*contrastive analysis<br />
*the equivalence problem (functional, dynamic)<br />
*translatability vs untranslatability <br />
*SLT vs TLT relation<br />
*translation types, strategies, styles, methods<br />
*communication factors, translator role in social setting<br />
*cognitive factors<br />
*machine translation<br />
*translation quality assessment<br />
*translation ethics / manipulation etc.<br />
<br />
<br />
Suggested topics for final exam papers (chapters of book on translation studies)<br />
<br />
Each student needs to prepare one small topic for a 5-min. classroom presentation (with a fellow student, who writes a handout about it) and needs to find a topic for a chapter of a book on Translation Studies. Alternatively to the classroom presentation, the student can also assist the teacher by preparing class, sorting the wiki page etc.<br />
<br />
Here is the link to the list: [[Topics in Translation Studies]]<br />
<br />
=Final Exam Papers=<br />
<span style="color:red">The deadline has been extended to '''Dec 21, 2020'''. Please find a paper you want to proof read, contact the author, proof read (by copying each paragraph and make corrections/suggestions in the copy) and sign until Dec 19. The author then finalizes (works in the suggestions) until the final deadline Dec 21!</span><br />
==Structure==<br />
需要有topic、学生姓名、学号、专业、Abstract、Key words、题目、摘要、关键词、不同的章回（比如1. Introduction、2. Nida’s Theory、3. ……、4.……、5. Conclusion、References)、然后还需要每个阶段以后有来源。一个阶段不要超过100英文词。每个章回会有几个阶段没问题。每个阶段以后需要一个同学的这个阶段的修改。<br />
<br />
==Tips for writing your final exam paper: How to indicate your references==<br />
*You can use the existing book chapters here as an example.<br />
*Please write the text and indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. And then, you need to add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: East China Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
*Do '''not''' write any references like in one of the sample chapters:<br />
<br />
[1] dsalkfkdsa<br />
<br />
[2] adsfadsfag<br />
<br />
But only the following way:<br />
<br />
(Liu Miqing 2010, 17) in the text<br />
<br />
and then<br />
<br />
'''References'''<br />
*Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
*Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: East China Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
<br />
Also, please avoid using the three apostrophes like ' ' ' (without spaces). Use the equal signs to mark headers and subheaders instead. If your paper topic has two equal signs at the beginning and end of your topic, then use three equal signs for your sub headers. Example (without spaces):<br />
= = Topic = =<br />
< c e n t e r > Student Name, Student no. < / c e n t e r ><br />
= = = Abstract = = =<br />
This chapter is on ....<br />
= = = Key Words = = =<br />
Egg, Hen<br />
= = = 题目 = = =<br />
= = = 摘要 = = =<br />
= = = 关键词 = = =<br />
= = = Introduction = = =<br />
Here starts the normal text of the chapter. Please remember to indicate the source of EACH PARAGRAPH, sometimes even of single sentences. You can indicate it like this. (Woesler 2020, 345) And don't forget to mention the full bibliographical entry beneath under ''References''.<br />
= = = The Egg = = =<br />
Bla, bla, bla<br />
= = = The Hen = = =<br />
Bla, bla, bla<br />
= = = Conclusion = = =<br />
Bla, bla, bla<br />
= = = References = = =<br />
Woesler, Martin. (2020). Responsibility and Ethics in Times of Corona. Woesler, Martin and Hans-Martin Sass eds. ''Medicine and Ethics in Times of Corona'' Muenster: LIT<br />
<br />
==Sample papers==<br />
You can find the full papers also on the Webpage [[History of Translation Studies]]). They are marked with "Sample paper".<br />
* A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories<br />
* An Analysis of the Book of Contemporary Translation Theories and Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications<br />
* Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theroy<br />
* Comparison of Derrida’s and Benjamin’s Translation View<br />
* Impacts of Western Translation Theories on The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish<br />
* On the Comparison between "Sublimation" an "Functonal Equivalence" Theories<br />
* Study on Gladys’ Translation of The Border Town from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics<br />
* The Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Communication<br />
* Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior<br />
<br />
==Website to write your final exam paper on==<br />
[[20220112_final_exam|final exam page]]<br />
<br />
As a reference, here is the information about last year's final exam papers:<br />
<br />
The website where everybody wrote their final exam paper on became too big and produced a database error. Therefore we split the website into 10 small websites. They are sorted like the chapters in the book. Please look for your name and find the right of the 10 small websites to edit your book chapter. Everybody also needs to help to improve other book chapters (copy a paragraph, paste it beneath, make your corrections in the paragraph and sign it).<br />
<br />
Here you can write your Final Exam Papers:<br />
<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1, (samples)]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2, (samples)]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3, students: 蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi， 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi, 郑华君 Zheng Huajun, 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi, 陶冶 Tao Ye, 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4, students: 杨海容 Yang Hairong，游雨婷 You Yuting，王源 Wang Yuan，徐佳 Xu Jia，凌子瑾 Ling Zijin，石迪文 Shi Diwen，张玲 Zhang Ling，曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan，姚诚 Yao Cheng，朱旭 Zhu Xu，许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei，赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan，张琪 Zhang Qi，周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5, students: 李玉 Li Yu，林敏 Lin Min，文偲荇 Wen Sixing， 周诗卿 Zhou Shiqing，朱素瑶 Zhu Suyao，胡百辉 Hu Baihui，马智星 Ma Zhixing, 胡瑾 Hu Jin，张毓婕 Zhang Yujie，顾东方 Gu Dongfang，高明珠 Gao Mingzhu，张虎 Zhang Hu，李璐伊 Li Luyi，袁诗琦 Yuan Shiqi，王美玲 Wang Meiling，康浩宇 Kang Haoyu，王轩 Wang Xuan，陈永相 Chen Yongxiang，莫玲 Mo Ling，袁天翼 Yuan Tianyi]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6, students:汤蓓 Tang Bei欧蓉 Ou Rong，谭星越 Tan Xingyue，周罗平 Zhou Luoping，龚钰冕 Gong Yumian，邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu， 陈惠 Chen Hui，罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing，谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7, students:曾雁湖 Zeng Yanhu，邓锦霞 Deng Jinxia，姜好 Jiang Hao，管钦清 Guan Qinqing，唐铭 Tang Ming，娄灿灿 Lou Cancan，丁代凤 Ding Daifeng，苏琳 Su Lin，徐佳 Xu Jia， 刘艺 Liu Yi，李凌月 Li Lingyue，马娟 Ma Juan，吴琪 Wu Qi，姚佳 Yao Jia，李海泉 Li Haiquan，吴琼 Wu Qiong，杨子泠 Yang Ziling，林敏 Lin Min，彭锐宏 Peng Ruihong ，汤伊然 Tang Yiran，阳慧 Yang Hui，刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8, students: 王煜 Wang Yu，方洁玲 Fang Jieling，许静 Xu Jing，周书尧 Zhou Shuyao，彭永亮 Peng Yongliang，宋建茹 Song Jianru，韦洪朗 Wei Honglang，魏亚菲 Wei Yafei，张雪仪 Zhang Xueyi，甘奉玉 Gan Fengyu，赵茜 Zhao Xi，吴恺 Wu Kai，周艺文 Zhou Yiwen，张维虹 Zhang Weihong，司妤 Si Yu]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9, students: 易欢 Yi Huan，曾良 Zeng Liang，义子楚 Yi Zichu，欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling，石海瑶 Shi Haiyao，胡慧芳 Hu Huifang，吴一露 Wu Yilu，纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian, 桂一枝 Gui Yizhi，刘欧 Liu Ou，祝美梅 Zhu Meimei，谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan，张银柳 Zhang Yinliu，李泳珊 Li Yongshan，聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10, students:陈静静 Chen Jingjing， Thuy Hien Nguyen Thuy Hien，肖茜 Xiao Xi，余妮 Yu Ni，韩宛真 Han Wanzhen，陈佳欣 Chen Jiaxin，成于思 Cheng Yusi，方洁玲 Fang Jieling，张慧 Zhang Hui，吴子佳 Wu Zijia，孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui，许晶 Xu Jing，周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan，曹润鑫 Cao Runxin，肖伊宁 Xiao Yining, Sagara Seydou，欧阳静兰 Ouyang Jinglan]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_11 Part 11, students:李丽琴 Li Liqin, 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 刘怡瑜 Liu Yiyu, 李梦 Li Meng, 林鑫 Lin Xin, 罗维嘉 Luo Weijia, 漆凯 Qi Kai, 郭露 Guo Lu，张宇星 Zhang Yuxing, 陈涵 Chen Han, 李丽丽 Li Lili, 刘柳 Liu Liu, 陈莎 Chen Sha, 徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie,彭丹 Peng Dan， 谢子熠 Xie Ziyi，莫南 Mo Nan]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_12 Part 12, students: 全美欣 Quan Meixin，何长琦 He Changqi，刘博 Liu Bo，刘金惺琦 liu Jinxingqi，谌孙福 Chen Sunfu，曾芳缘 Zeng Fangyuan，肖婷 Xiao Ting，常慧月 Chang Huiyue，彭娟 Peng Juan，彭小玲 Peng Xiaoling，杨悦 Yang Yue，肖双玲 Xiao Shuangling，彭育志 Peng Yuzhi，孟莹 Meng Ying]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_13 Part 13, students: 杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng，杨逸 Yang Yi, 马淑雅 Ma Shuya, 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan, 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_14 Part 14, students:周思庆 Zhou Siqing，蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei，瞿淼 Qu Miao，韩海洋 Han Haiyang，刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi，解帆 Xie Fan，刘洋诺 Liu Yangnuo，袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen，邬香 Wu Xiang]<br />
<br />
=Benefits=<br />
This course is registered as a "EU Expert" diploma supplement course. Collect 10 such courses during your study and you receive a certificate by the Jean Monnet Chair.<br />
<br />
=Misplaced things=<br />
Handout 4 of Ren Xin --<br />
贺骥.“世界文学”概念:维兰德首创：<br />
Summary： 主要讲述了人们发现维兰德首次提出“世界文学”的过程，维兰德对“世界文学”的概念以及与歌德的比较。<br />
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一、为何说维兰德首创“世界文学”？<br />
1987 年，德国学者魏茨( Hans-Joachim Weitz，1904—2001) 在《阿卡迪亚》杂志上发表了一篇题为《维兰德是“世界文学”一词的首创者》的短文。魏茨声称他发现了德国作家维兰德( Christoph Martin Wieland，1733—1813) 在1790 至1813 年间亲笔书写的一则手记中首次提到“世界文学”。但维兰德于1813 年1 月20 日去世，他的同时代人并不知道他写有这则手记，歌德在不知情的情况下从1827 年1 月15 日起多次使用了“世界文学”这个词。维兰德与歌德对于“世界文学”的概念相近，但他没有详细论证。所以说，“世界文学”一次是维兰德首创，歌德第一次明确提出的<br />
二、维兰德“世界文学”的概念与歌德的比较<br />
1. 维兰德在创作早期作品时：世界文学就是世界各民族的文学名作的总集。该观点体现在《民族文学》文学是世界各民族的共同精神财富，世界文学就是所有时代所有民族的典范作品总集。<br />
2. 和歌德一样，维兰德的世界文学概念带有言必称希腊的欧洲中心主义色彩，他的世界文学乃是以古希腊罗马文学为正典、以欧洲文学为核心的世界各民族文学经典的总集。“阅读最优秀的作家的杰作”乃是维兰德“世界文学”概念的核心: 杰作即古往今来世界各民族的文学经典。<br />
3. 维兰德认为优秀作品的形成过程: 首先作家必须以阅世高人的文化修养和娴熟的艺术技巧创造有审美价值的“文学杰作”；其次是后世“最优秀的人们”对这些杰作的“宣扬”和“奉为样板”。<br />
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三、“世界文学”概念有三种定义: <br />
( 1) 广义的“世界文学”指的是所有民族和所有时代文学作品的总和( Gesamtliteratur) ; <br />
( 2) 狭义的“世界文学”指的是超时代的、具有普遍审美价值的世界各民族文学的典范作品总集( Kanon) ，换言之，“世界文学”就是具有世界声誉的文学杰作的荟萃，这种精英主义意义上的“世界文学”概念在当今学界占据了主导地位; <br />
( 3) 歌德于1827 年提出的文学发展蓝图，它指的是国际性的文学交往( Kommunikation der Literatur) 和文化接触，交往的结果就是具有特性的各民族文学的融合。<br />
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Reference: <br />
贺骥.“世界文学”概念:维兰德首创[J].社会科学,2014(07):176-182. --[[User:ImRx|ImRx]] ([[User talk:ImRx|talk]]) 13:24, 13 April 2018 (UTC)<br />
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[1]文飙.阿拉伯民间文学的珍品《一千零一夜》.<br />
1.流传情况： <br />
《一千零一夜》早在公元六世纪左右已在波斯、伊拉克和埃及产生并流传着。公元十世纪阿拨斯王朝统治时代汇集成书,后又经过数百年不断搜集、整理、加工和修改；大约到十六世纪才形成比较完整的总集。<br />
2.故事发生的地点：多在当时阿拉伯世界两大中心城市— 巴格达及开罗。<br />
3.《一千零一夜》，中文另一译名为《天方夜谭( 谈) 》的原因：<br />
这个译名的来源说明中世纪时期阿拉伯帝国与中国的关系。阿拉伯半岛的麦加城在帝国中称为“ 圣城”, 城内有古庙名“ 天房”, 中国古嫂都译为“ 天方”, 实即“ 天房”之误。我国明朝以前称阿拉伯为黑衣大食国，明朝以后则称为“ 天方国”, 这就是旧译本称为《天方夜谭》的原因。<br />
4.故事内容： 《一千零一夜》是一部包罗万象的民间故事集, 有格言、谚语、童话, 王子公主的恋爱故事, 及市民冒险故事。这些故事的主角从底层的劳苦大众到最高的统治者哈里发。能够比较全面而深刻地反映中世纪东方的社会生活。<br />
5.《一千零一夜》的起源：<br />
在古代印度和中国为海岛中,有一个萨桑国。残暴的国王山鲁亚尔每夜娶一王后,翌晨即杀掉再娶。老百姓受此威胁,十分恐怖,纷纷携儿带女逃走,致使城中十室九空。然而国王仍照例命令宰相寻找女子供他虐杀。一天，宰相找遍民间，没找到一个,便满怀恐惧、忧郁地转回府邸来。宰相的大女儿山鲁佐德见父亲情状,问明情由,执意让父亲把她嫁给国王,宰相不得已才把女儿送进宫去。山鲁佐德一见国王,就悲伤地哭泣起来，她希望国王允许她在死之前能和妹妹再见一面,国王同意了,派人到宰相家召敦亚佐德进宫。姐妹俩高高兴兴地坐在床脚下谈笑。其时,敦亚佐德请求姐姐讲个故事消磨时间。山鲁佐德便征得国王许可,开始讲起故事来,借以引动国王的好奇心和兴趣,从而免遭杀戮。这样,日复一日,山鲁佐德一直讲了一千零一个夜晚,最后，终于使国王悔悟。<br />
6.影响：<br />
《一千零一夜》在世界各国广为传播。<br />
它最早介绍到欧洲,对西方文化起过一定的积极作用,许多欧美文学艺术家,如但丁、乔叟、薄伽丘、莎士比亚、塞万提斯、莱辛等都或多或少地受到它的直接或间接的影响。 <br />
在我国，早在六十多年以前就有了《一千零一夜》的译本。<br />
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[2]冯辉.略论《一千零一夜》对世界文学的借鉴与影响.<br />
摘要：《一千零一夜》对世界文学的借鉴与影响。荷马史诗中的巨人故事对《一千零一夜》的启发 ,《一千零一夜》对法国、英国、德国、中国作家的影响。 <br />
一、流传情况：<br />
1.流传时间：多数学者认为:它的故事和手抄本在中近东地区开始流传的年代约在8 世纪中叶—9 世纪中叶。一些世界文学史家则认为:大约在十字军东征时期(1095— 1291), 《一千零一夜》的故事已通过民间传到欧洲。<br />
2.流传情况： <br />
a. 18 世纪初, 法国人加朗根据叙利亚抄本, 首次把《一千零一夜》译成法文出版, 以后在欧洲出现了各种文字的译本。<br />
b. 中国1900 年有过译本, 以后不断的出现多种白话文本。新中国成立后, 纳训选译的3 卷本以及80 年代出版的全译本1 —6 卷, 收集了275 个故事。<br />
二、《一千零一夜》对古希腊荷马史诗巨人故事的借鉴<br />
《一千零一夜》第4 卷第172 个故事《辛伯达航海的故事》写三次航海的故事, 可以看出受到古希腊荷马史诗《奥德修纪》中独眼巨人故事的影响, 又带有阿拉伯民族的特色。<br />
三、《一千零一夜》对世界文学的影响：<br />
1.文艺复兴人文主义作家对《一千零一夜》中故事的扬弃与创新<br />
a)法国：《一千零一夜》第2 卷第75 个故事《阿里·艾尔哲明的故事》与法国文艺复兴时期拉伯雷《巨人传》中第三代国王庞大固埃出生时的行囊装载十分相似。<br />
b)英国：在《一千零一夜》第3 卷第152 个故事的《亚历山大大帝和弱小民族的故事》与英国文艺复兴时期的作家莎士比亚的《哈姆雷特》中有类似的情节，两个故事有历史延续性与巧妙的联系。<br />
《一千零一夜》：<br />
东征西讨的希腊国王亚历山大,一次路过一个弱小国家, 其民众各自门前准备好了坟墓, 家家一贫如洗, 安贫乐道, 所以并不怕亚历山大来争夺地盘。亚历山大十分好奇, 亲自见他们的国王。国王拿了两个头骨, 告诉他这是两个国王的头骨, 一个生前暴虐, 死后安拉让他下地狱;一个生前公正廉明, 爱护百姓, 死后安拉让他升入天堂。国王又问亚历山大:“ 到底你是这两个帝王中的哪一个呢?”年青的亚历山大受了感动, 要这个国王做他的宰相。国王拒绝了他, 说他虽拥有一个大帝国, 却有许多仇敌。国王虽穷, 他所有的一切“ 仅仅是知足” 。亚历山大感慨万千,告辞归去, 不再侵犯他们。<br />
《哈姆雷特》：第五幕第一场墓地对话中 <br />
哈姆雷特面对死人头骨说道:“ 要是我们用想像推测下去, 谁知道亚历山大的高贵的尸体, 不就是塞在酒桶口上的泥土?”“ 凯撒死了, 你尊严的尸体, 也许变了泥把破墙填砌, 啊! 他从前是何等的英雄, 现在只好替人挡风遮雨。”<br />
c)意大利：意大利文艺复兴时期的小说家卜伽丘的《十日谈》中的贵妇宴请国王吃鸡宴, 以打退国王邪念的故事, 在《一千零一夜》第4 卷第175 个故事《宰相夫人的故事》中有类似情节。<br />
2.对18 世纪英国现实主义小说家笛福《鲁宾逊飘流记》的影响<br />
把《辛伯达航海的故事》与《鲁宾逊飘流记》相比较, 辛伯达可以说是鲁宾逊典型的雏型与前身, 鲁宾逊则更加丰富, 更带时代特点。<br />
1)不同点： <br />
辛伯达是中世纪阿拉伯人中积极进取, 发展海外贸易,不断向外开拓勇于冒险的新兴商人, 他开初坐享父亲遗产,挥霍一空, 最后决定变卖家产七次到海上做冒险生意。<br />
鲁宾逊是18 世纪英国资本主义原始积累时期的新资产阶级商人的代表, 父亲没有给他丰厚的资产, 他本人是不满现状的小商人, 三次海外冒险；<br />
辛伯达是在第7次航海时在一个岛国居住了27 年才返回故乡, 鲁宾逊是在第三次航海时在一个荒岛上度过了28 年, 才返回故乡。<br />
2)相似点：<br />
两人都曾遭到过毁灭性的打击, 死里逃生,但每次都以顽强的毅力, 惊人的应变能力, 沉着应付, 化险为夷；发财致富的欲望, 对海外世界的好奇与向往, 每次都促使他们不安现状, 敢于做一次又一次的冒险。<br />
3.对中国作家的影响<br />
《一千零一夜》第1 卷第12 个故事《脚夫和巴格达三个女人的故事》中，脚夫诵的表达自己忠信的诗同中国现代作家钱钟书的长篇小说《围城》中的苏小姐自己写的诗相似。这里已改造成一首爱情诗, 方鸿渐当时并不知道是苏小姐自己写的诗, 说这首诗是借的外债,<br />
四、小结<br />
因为国别不同, 语言不通, 翻译技术有限，后来的作家们不一定能亲自看到这些《一千零一夜》中的故事原文。但阿拉伯文化与文学对欧洲文艺复兴运动及后来的世界文学的发展起到的推动作用和所作的贡献是世界发展史上所公认的事实。<br />
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[3]陆英英.《一千零一夜》在欧洲.<br />
摘要： 介绍了欧洲许多国家早期对《一千零一夜》的译本。《一千零一夜》译成欧洲各种文字后, 引起了欧洲人收集和研究东方文学的热望, 激起了他们了解东方的兴趣。《一千零一夜》对欧洲文学包括戏剧、小说、诗歌、诗剧都产生了巨大影响。<br />
1.法国译本：<br />
A.1704-1717年出现的法国安东尼·加仑的译本是《一千零一夜》——最著名的译本。为了迎合读者掺杂了许多自己想象的情节<br />
B.1828年法国出版特雷布梯的译本 —— 增加情节，接近原版<br />
C.1969年出版了勒内赫瓦姆的《一千零一夜》译本 —— 忠于原作<br />
2.英国译本（几乎都是从法国译本转译而来）： <br />
A.1811年乔纳森·斯科特出版的译本 —— 最突出<br />
B.1838年，亨利·托伦斯打算给译文加注释, 但他只译了五十夜就死了<br />
C.1839-1841年，爱德华·威廉·莱恩的《一千零一夜》三卷本（从阿文直译），删去了当时英国的道德传统所不能接受的故事, 并写了许多注释 —— 极具参考价值<br />
D.1885年，理查德·伯顿的译本出版 —— 最完备的译本<br />
E.英国军官伯顿（会讲阿拉伯语）—— 强烈殖民主义色彩<br />
3.德国译本：<br />
A.第一个把《一千零一夜》译成德文的是东方学家冯哈曼尔。<br />
B.1837-1841年之间出现了凡勒的德译本 ——忠实原文，生涩<br />
C.东方学家莱塔马教授 —— 德国最著名的译本<br />
4.罗马尼亚译本：<br />
A.1771年，出版的《哈伦·拉希德的故事》——罗马尼亚最早<br />
B.1783年，修道院主教罗法伊勒出版了根据希腊文译出的全译本<br />
C.1835-1838年格拉西姆·哥嘉出版《哈利曼或者阿拉伯神话故事》四卷本译本<br />
D.1966-1976，罗马尼亚最大出版社——梅纳法出版社出版了十四卷本的《一千零一夜》<br />
5.俄文译本：<br />
A.萨利尔译的，东方学家卡利姆斯基出版的。<br />
B.高尔基于1904年也译过。<br />
C.列夫·托尔斯泰也译过几篇，如《皇帝和衬衣的故事》等。<br />
6.捷克译本：<br />
1958-1963年捷克斯洛伐克科学院出版的塔瓦外孜授译的《一千零一夜》全集。<br />
7.波兰译本：<br />
1774年出版了第一本——《阿拉伯传奇或一千零一夜》<br />
8.威尼斯译本：<br />
1757-1762年，出版了四卷本的《一千零一夜》和《一千零一日》故事集, 书名为《阿拉伯故事》。<br />
9.希腊译本：<br />
译者为布利兹威斯，译本分三卷。<br />
10.此外还有葡萄牙语、荷兰语、丹麦语、瑞典语、匈牙利语等译本。<br />
东方学家朝温在《阿拉伯著作一览》一书中用了一百二十页专门介绍《一千零一夜》的各种版本和文本。<br />
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参考文献：<br />
[1]文飙. 阿拉伯民间文学的珍品《一千零一夜》[J].徐州师范学院学报,1978(02):59-64.<br />
[2]冯辉. 略论《一千零一夜》对世界文学的借鉴与影响[J].河南教育学院学报(哲学社会科学版),2001(01):110-112.<br />
[3]陆英英.《一千零一夜》在欧洲[J].阿拉伯世界,1983(02):84-90. --[[User:ImRx|ImRx]] ([[User talk:ImRx|talk]]) 13:34, 16 April 2018 (UTC)<br />
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[1]杨晓雨.佛经翻译与圣经翻译比较[J].考试周刊,2017(74):192. <br />
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摘要： 中国翻译史的源头是佛经翻译，而西方翻译史则始于另一部宗教巨著———圣经翻译。中国的佛经翻译和西方的圣经翻译虽然在具体内容、翻译分期、信徒和对应的时代背景等方面有所差异，但两者都经历了直译、意译、直意译相结合的发展历程。本文对比了佛经翻译和圣经翻译，探求宗教类文献翻译中的共同特点。<br />
1.佛经翻译<br />
A.四个时期：<br />
a. 创立时期（东汉末年到西晋），代表人物有安世高和支谦；<br />
b.初步发展阶段是（晋代到隋朝），代表人物有道安和鸠摩罗什；<br />
c.鼎盛时期（唐朝），代表人物为玄奘、不空；<br />
d.逐渐结束于北宋。<br />
B.翻译形式<br />
最初由西域僧人的梵语口授，再找汉人加以润饰。音译。<br />
后来出现精通汉语的印度高僧和熟练掌握梵语的中国高僧。直译为主。<br />
C.翻译大家<br />
三藏法师，从数量和翻译成就都无人能比。直译&意译结合。<br />
2.圣经翻译<br />
A.概况<br />
圣经翻译是西方翻译史的起源。经历了希伯来文－希腊文－拉丁文的过程。<br />
B.流传形式：手写本。<br />
C.最早的圣经译本：公元前3-2世纪《圣经·旧约》（据《西方翻译简史》记载。后世也叫《七十子希腊文本》。<br />
缺点：用词晦涩难懂，不易理解，跟当时的希腊语有较大的出入。<br />
优点：此译本特别完整准确地还原了圣经原籍的内容。<br />
D.翻译大家：a. 西塞罗—西方翻译史上最早的翻译理论家，主张活译。<br />
b. 圣哲罗姆—翻译了第一部标准拉丁语圣经。直译和意译相结合。<br />
3.佛经翻译和圣经翻译的相似性：<br />
经历了直译—意译—直意译结合的过程。<br />
A.最初翻译时，中西译者都是逐字逐句的直译。<br />
原因：宗教经典神圣不可侵犯，译经僧侣对宗教经典抱有虔诚态度；<br />
由于译者身份的局限性，缺乏专业的语言翻译基础。<br />
B.随着经验的累积，译者们开始倡导意译。<br />
代表人物：马丁路德<br />
原因：受众人群都是普通老百姓，需要简单流畅、明晓易懂的语言才能让教义被大众所通晓。<br />
C.主张直译&意译相结合。<br />
代表人物：玄奘大师—《钦定本圣经》<br />
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[2]顾颍.从佛经与《圣经》翻译看中西方翻译思想——《中西方翻译思想比较》评析[J].常熟理工学院学报,2008(03):122-124.<br />
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摘要：作者认为比利时学者安德烈勒菲弗尔（当代文学翻译学术带头人，较有影响力）由于对中国翻译史缺乏深入研究，对中国的佛经翻译了解不透彻，在《中西方翻译思想比较》中提出“西方译者更为忠实原文, 而中国译者则倾向于归化原文”的观点较为片面。并提出佛经翻译和圣经翻译的共有规律：直译、意译两原则交替主导翻译活动并趋于成熟，直至最终实现两者的有机融合。<br />
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[3]姜晏.译介学视角下的中西方《圣经》翻译[J].青岛大学师范学院学报,2011,28(02):125-128.<br />
摘要：《圣经》翻译的主要功能是服务于宗教的传播。但译者们对其“创造性叛逆”的翻译，使得《圣经》对世界各民族语言，包括对中国语言文学都产生了深远影响，同时推动各国文化交流、促进不同思想的包容。<br />
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1.翻译不只是语言文字的转换，而是应关注原文在外语和本族语转换过程中的信息的失落、变形、增添、扩散等问题。<br />
2.《圣经》翻译对西方各国（民族）语言的影响 —— 不分析译本翻译的好坏，而是分析译本对译入语国家或民族的文化和语言所产生的影响。<br />
A.4世纪，乌裴拉主教翻译成东日耳曼语。<br />
8、9世纪，阿尔弗雷得等翻译成古英语。<br />
这些标志着民族语言翻译的开始。<br />
B.《圣经》翻译在13世纪达到了新的高潮。<br />
C.马丁路德：把《圣经》新约和旧约翻译成德语，并且翻译成能被大众所接受的语言。他认为翻译就是让外语成为译者的本土化语言。<br />
作用：消除了普通人对《圣经》的语言障碍，对统一德语和发展德语做出贡献。<br />
D.威廉廷代尔的译本成为英国翻译史上最著名的英王钦定本的主要参照本。<br />
作用：完全符合英语的用法习惯，增加了英语的表现力；<br />
对英国散文、语言和文化发展起到了不可估量的作用。<br />
3.《圣经》在汉译中的创造性叛逆<br />
A.创造的叛逆性翻译是为了使《圣经》在新的环境中易于被受众接受。<br />
B.特征：<br />
a.显著的归化特征：吴经熊采用骚体，把外国的体裁中国化。<br />
吴经熊翻译的《新约全集》:“天主聖子耶穌基督福音之濫觴，正如《意灑雅先知書》之所記云:吾遣使者，以先啟行; 為爾前驅，備爾行程。”<br />
b.误译：严复的译本以中国士大夫为主要读者，因此他的译本符合士大夫的价值观，同时也降低阅读难度。<br />
c.改编或删节：严复考虑到中国读者几千年来的儒家文化熏陶，迎合中国道德伦理和文化。<br />
4.《圣经》汉译对中国语言文学的影响<br />
a.丰富了汉语词汇，为现代汉语带来许多新意象和表达方式。如，天堂、伊甸园等。<br />
b.影响中国现代文学的创作主体，许多意象来源于《圣经》中的典故。<br />
c.影响许多中国著名的作家和文学理论家。如，鲁迅、冰心、徐志摩等。<br />
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[4] 曾志琼.浅析“圣经故事”包含的男权思想及其危害[J].西昌学院学报(自然科学版),2004(04):21-23.<br />
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《圣经》中包含的男权思想：<br />
1.创世纪故事中包含的男权思想。<br />
a.在上帝创世的神话中，男性亚当是用象征承载人类生命的泥土按上帝的形象创造出来的，而女性夏娃是作为男性的附属品用亚当的肋骨而创造出来的，目的是为亚当消除孤独寂寞。<br />
b.创世纪故事中，包含“女人是祸水”思想。作为女性象征的夏娃经不住蛇的诱惑，偷吃了禁果，使人类受到上帝的惩罚，开始了苦难。<br />
2.“圣经故事”中的先知先觉、基督英雄们都是男性。<br />
人类历史的英雄史都是谱写男性的。整个圣经故事都是以男性英雄为主线而描绘基督教历史的。从最早制造方舟振救人类的挪亚，到带领以色列人出埃及，使以色列人摆脱埃及法老贵族奴役的摩西，到带领以色列人力战外族，为以色列人开缰拓土的约书亚，再到带领以色列人雪耻，赶走外族，使以色列人建国的大卫以及拯救人类的耶稣等等。<br />
3.婚姻家庭中的男权思想、夫权思想 <br />
a.嫡长子制，忽视女性后代的存在。<br />
b.多妻制。基督英雄们都是妻妾成群，可以主人的身份任意拥有女人。<br />
c.休妻制。女性不论犯不犯错都可能被休。甚至可以被男性当财产、畜生一样送人。<br />
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[5]菲利斯·特丽波,周辉.女性主义诠释学与圣经研究[J].圣经文学研究, 2009(00):35-44.<br />
摘要：作者认为出现在父权制社会的圣经充满了男性形象和语言，对《圣经》进行重新的诠释，以挑战圣经中的父权制。焦点是希伯来圣经，重点不仅仅落在不利于女性的事例上。 考量了圣经中女性研究的三条女性主义进路。<br />
1.阐释了一些不利于女性的故事。希伯来女子从生到死都属于男人，遭受到男性权威的虐待、凌辱。<br />
2.重申被忽视的女性作为上帝的篇章和反抗父权制文化的女性形象。<br />
3.利用前两种方式，同情地重新讲述关于妇女的故事<br />
（作者菲利斯·特丽波被认为是在圣经文本基础上探索妇女与性别问题的领袖人物）<br />
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[6]林燕.女性主义圣经诠释概述[J].宗教学研究,2013(04):213-219.<br />
女性经验是重新阐释圣经的基点。<br />
女性主义圣经诠释随着女性神学的繁荣而发展。女性圣经诠释是不同于女性主义神学的独立学科，它具有独立的研究前提和范畴。<br />
核心内容：对传统的圣经诠释和基督神学所建构的两性关系提出质疑和批判；寻找、重建圣经中被忽视、被遗忘的女性形象，恢复重建女性的地位和尊严；为争取女性在教会中担任圣职而斗争。<br />
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参考文献：<br />
[1]杨晓雨.佛经翻译与圣经翻译比较[J].考试周刊,2017(74):192. <br />
[2]顾颍.从佛经与《圣经》翻译看中西方翻译思想——《中西方翻译思想比较》评析[J].常熟理工学院学报,2008(03):122-124.<br />
[3]姜晏.译介学视角下的中西方《圣经》翻译[J].青岛大学师范学院学报,2011,28(02):125-128.<br />
[4]曾志琼.浅析“圣经故事”包含的男权思想及其危害[J].西昌学院学报(自然科学版),2004(04):21-23. <br />
[5]菲利斯·特丽波,周辉.女性主义诠释学与圣经研究[J].圣经文学研究,2009(00):35-44.<br />
[6]林燕.女性主义圣经诠释概述[J].宗教学研究,2013(04):213-219.--[[User:ImRx|ImRx]] ([[User talk:ImRx|talk]]) 02:42, 4 June 2018 (UTC)<br />
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《霍乱时期的爱情》<br />
加夫列尔·加西亚·马尔克斯——拉美魔幻现实主义的领军人物<br />
1967年，《百年孤独》；1982年， 获诺贝尔奖；1985年，《霍乱时期的爱情》<br />
故事是以费尔明娜和阿里萨、乌尔比诺医生爱恨悲欢的三角恋为主线，以阿里萨与其余622名女性形形色色的性欲与真情为副线。小说采用了顺时叙述。以乌尔比诺的棋友之死为故事的开始，先后讲述了：医生的婚后生活；阿里萨和费尔明娜如诗如梦的初恋，乌尔比诺追求费尔明娜并与之结婚；阿里萨的失望心情和纵欲寻欢；费尔明娜婚后生活的不快和孀居的孤独；阿里萨耐心点燃费尔明娜心中的爱火。<br />
一.主要人物：<br />
1.阿里萨：喜欢阅读、喜欢写诗。多愁善感，阴郁。一生中有过623个女人，但费尔明娜是他一生的挚爱。最后在他并不怎么上心的航运公司里获得了董事长的职位。<br />
“费尔明娜，我等待这个机会，已经有51年9个月零4天了，在这段时间里，我一直爱着你，从我第一眼见到你，直到现在，我第一次向你表达我的誓言，我永远爱你，忠贞不渝。”这句话是在等待了半个世纪终于等到费尔明娜的丈夫死去后，阿里萨在葬礼之后再一次对费尔明娜隔了51年的第二次表白。<br />
2.费尔明娜：她是骡子商人的女儿，美丽、智慧并且高傲。被阿里萨追求却遭到父亲的强烈反对，后来嫁给医生乌尔比诺。<br />
3.乌尔比诺医生：擅长治疗霍乱的医生，黄金单身汉，知识渊博，外表帅气（虽然电影里图片很猥琐），热爱城市并致力于为他的城市他的家乡奉献，但实际上骨子里较懦弱，在和费尔明娜的婚姻里婆媳关系不合，他不敢冲撞他的母亲。“只有上帝知道我有多爱你。”<br />
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二.爱情&霍乱的隐喻关系<br />
1.在追求费尔明娜的过程中，阿里萨生理和心理都经受了如霍乱症状一般的痛苦。在阿里萨对费尔明娜一见钟情后，“他开始寡言少语，茶饭不思，辗转反侧，彻夜难眠”。<br />
等待费尔明娜回第一封信的时候“他腹泻，吐绿水，晕头转向，常常突然昏厥，脉搏微弱，呼吸沉重，像垂死之人一样冒着虚汗…”这些症状和霍乱的症状很相似。但事实上阿里萨并没有患上霍乱，后边医生的检查也可以证实。<br />
所以，我们可以这样认为：爱情，在阿里萨身上的表现就如同霍乱对人的侵袭一样。在这本书中，霍乱也就代表爱情，所有的症状都是变相的爱。<br />
但不同的是：疾病带来的恐惧是自私的，是从自我角度出发的，是害怕失去自己；而爱情带来的恐惧常常源自于所爱之人，是害怕失去对方。<br />
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2.在中国古代文学里也有关于爱情对疾病的意象。<br />
在中国，因爱情引起的疾病叫做“相思病”，一般是因对某人的思念而生病。表现为焦虑、食欲不振、失眠、幻想、晕厥等类似生病的身体状态。<br />
很著名的例子就是《红楼梦》中的林黛玉人物形象。 还有《西厢记》张生为崔莺莺“为伊消得人憔悴”也是“相思病”的例子。这样的例证还有很多。<br />
问题：如果爱情是一种病，能致病，那么医生能不能诊断并治愈因爱情引起的疾病呢？<br />
大家都知道，林黛玉的身体一向比较弱，但是住在大观园中可以让黛玉有很好的物质条件治疗或者从中医角度来讲“调养”她的身体。看当时最好的医生, 吃的是最难得到的药材做成的药。可是在听到宝玉和宝钗成亲的消息后还是郁郁而终。说明在中国的古典文学中，医生并不可以治愈爱情引起的相思病。<br />
我们再看西方文学里《变形记》——“所有人都知道, 真正的疾病和爱情疾病是很相似的: 意识变得虚弱, 眼神变得憔悴,膝盖变得无力… 上帝啊! 医生们真是无知啊! ”<br />
还有《霍乱》里，母亲担心阿里萨得了霍乱,去看了医生。做了很多必要的医疗检查, 最后通过对阿里萨的性格了解以及与阿里萨的谈话确定了病因。医生最后能确诊阿里萨的爱情疾病并不是因为他高超的医术或者他的各种医学常识, 而是因为他本人的年纪来带的阅历以及对爱情和对阿里萨的了解得出的结论。<br />
以及小说里医术高超的乌比尔诺医生, 虽然有广博深人的医学知识储量, 他研究霍乱是为了在医学层面上彻彻底底的治疗它。他一点也不懂爱, 不懂爱情。所以，乌比尔诺医生也不具有诊断爱情疾病的能力。<br />
所以，中西方古典的文学作品中, 医生是并不赋有能力来诊断和治疗爱情所引起的疾病的。<br />
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三.主人公的青年、中年、老年三个阶段他们的爱情。<br />
a.青年阶段——浪漫疯狂，以阿里萨和费尔明娜的初恋为主。因费尔明娜的醒悟接着拒绝阿里萨而结束——“不，请别这样，忘了吧”、“今天见到您，我发现我们之间不过是一场幻觉”。这个时期，阿里萨是以等待、信还有音乐追求费尔明娜的，我认为这三项几乎是在所有的爱情中都会或多或少起到作用的。<br />
等待。自从阿里萨对费尔明娜一见倾心之后，他就每天在费尔明娜上学必经的道路上，捧着一本诗集在一棵杏树下假装看书，只为了一天能匆匆忙忙地看上她四次，风雨无阻。<br />
信。最初阿里萨缺乏勇气向费尔明娜说出自己的爱意，于是开始给费尔明娜写信，从一张便条最后变成了70页的情书。也是在频繁通信中，打动了费尔明娜。<br />
音乐。在因费尔明娜失眠的夜晚，他在费尔明娜的窗外演奏自创的爱的华尔兹。费尔明娜也是在他的音乐中更深刻的了解他。<br />
总的来说，青年时期：他们的相爱过程短，不成熟，更多的是幻想。<br />
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b.中年阶段，主要是费尔明娜与乌尔比诺医生的婚姻以及阿里萨漫长的等待中的孤独狩猎生涯。<br />
费&阿：隐秘顽强。阿里萨单相思，对抗时间和死亡。<br />
阿里萨在被拒绝：先是自虐，后转移对费尔明娜及她丈夫的怨恨与诅咒，随后又对费尔明娜宽恕，决定和费尔明娜留在同一个城市，并且开始新一轮漫长的等待，他的单相思——对抗时间和死亡，等乌比尔诺医生死去。<br />
爱情的失败也让阿里萨意识到自己的身份和社会地位配不上费尔明娜，逼迫着自己去经营生活，改变自己的社会地位。<br />
阿里萨猎艳：通过性寻找爱，消除内心孤独感<br />
同时他和众多女人发生肉体关系。但其实正是通过和其他女人的相处，来消除内心的孤独感，弥补得不到费尔明娜爱情的缺失。他也更加确认费尔明娜对他的不可替代，是他一生唯一的挚爱。<br />
费&乌：世俗婚姻。陪伴，稳定、平淡。<br />
在费尔明娜与乌尔比诺医生的婚姻中，他们互相陪伴，平淡也稳定。只有一次例外，就是乌尔比诺出轨芭芭拉林奇小姐，被费尔明娜发现后，医生经过长时间的内心矛盾并最终坦白。<br />
<br />
c.老年阶段——理性智慧，以费尔明娜和阿里萨的黄昏恋为主。<br />
阿里萨一直坚持到了医生去世。他以他的坚持和耐心打动了费尔明娜，让费尔明娜愿意接受他。他们开始了一段旅行，旅行结束的时候因为他们不愿面对现实所以不愿回去，最后乘着以霍乱为帆的船继续航行。<br />
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四.小说里讲述的各种各样的爱情可能。<br />
开篇摄影师赫雷米亚与黑白混血女人之间隐蔽的恋情；<br />
阿里萨和费尔明娜持续了半个世纪的柏拉图式的精神恋爱（包括他们青涩纯粹的初恋与年老时的黄昏恋）；<br />
阿里萨对费尔明娜忠贞不渝的单相思；<br />
费尔明娜与乌尔比诺医生的世俗婚姻爱情；<br />
乌尔比诺与林奇小姐战战兢兢的婚外恋；<br />
阿里萨和众多女人们纯粹的肉欲追逐的露水爱情；<br />
阿里萨与14岁少女的洛丽塔式的忘年恋…<br />
忠贞的爱、雀跃的爱、逃离的爱、私通的爱、狂热的爱、转瞬即逝的爱、生死相依的爱…<br />
不同层次不同角色不同性质的爱情，这篇小说也堪称是“爱情的教科书”“陈列爱情的博物馆”<br />
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五.除了爱情之外的其他主题。<br />
1.衰老。儿童摄影师赫雷米亚德圣阿莫尔的自杀；<br />
岁月加于人的痕迹——表现在岁月加于主人公身上的痕迹（蹒跚的步态、上楼梯的速度、意外的跌倒、满是皱纹的皮肤、稀疏的头发）；<br />
乌尔比诺医生、阿里萨想尽办法延缓衰老 <br />
2.死亡。小说中提到最多的是霍乱，也是整个故事发生的宏大背景。<br />
借以描写这种难以治愈、神秘莫测的疾病来写死亡。因为霍乱预示着死亡，而且在当时几乎就等于死亡，当时地的生产力水平和医学发展不足以让人们去抗衡。<br />
当人们被生理上的痛楚折磨时，往往无力也无心开出精神上的花朵。然而小说中描写的就是这样一种稀有的生命之花，因为爱情有勇气与苦难和死亡的疾病抗争。<br />
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阿里萨一生都在追求费尔米纳的爱情，即使面临死亡的抉择也义无反顾: 冷酷无情的费尔米纳的父亲最初阻挠女儿与他的爱情时，甚至用死亡来威胁阿里萨，但是阿里萨毫无畏惧，“‘朝我开枪吧!’他说，把一只手放在胸口上，‘没有比为爱情而死更光荣的事情了’”。因为有了爱情，所以阿里萨充满了无畏的勇气。他为了爱情不怕死，并且崇尚为爱而死。<br />
同时阿里萨的爱情之路实质上是一直与死亡作斗争，他到年老时害怕衰老和死亡，因为他明白，只有乌尔比诺医生死去，他才有机会再接近费尔米纳，因此，他努力与时间、衰老、死亡作斗争，他要为爱好好活着，战胜时间，战胜衰老，跨越死亡，他要活过乌尔比诺，才能重获费尔明娜。<br />
所以说这两个主题实际上也是与爱情密切相关的，因爱情而起的，可以归结到爱情主题上。<br />
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参考文献：<br />
1.於珍珍.《霍乱时期的爱情》中的医生形象分析[J].才智,2014(32):318-319.<br />
2.荣利. “滥情”的痴情者[D].浙江师范大学,2015.<br />
3.谈清妍.爱情的乌托邦——解读《霍乱时期的爱情》中的爱情与死亡[J].襄樊学院学报,2009,30(06):51-54.<br />
4.高小斐,孙世友.悲欢离合五十年——浅论《霍乱时期的爱情》中的爱情[J].才智, 2014(16):288.<br />
5.李贞琤.疾病缠绕下的爱情——马尔克斯小说爱情主题与疾病主题关系探究[J].开封教育学院学报,2017,37(12):38-39+42.<br />
6.姚婧.情感的疾病化书写——解读《霍乱时期的爱情》[J].名作欣赏,2015(17):125-128.--[[User:ImRx|ImRx]] ([[User talk:ImRx|talk]]) 03:00, 4 June 2018 (UTC)<br />
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handout of张传伟<br />
世界主义与世界文学<br />
一、世界主义<br />
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1、世界文学的定义：<br />
(1) 各民族优秀文学的经典之总汇；<br />
(2) 一种用于从总体上研究、评价和批评文学的全球的、跨文化的和比较的视角；(3)不同语言中的文学生产、流通、翻译和批评性选择的发展演变过程。<br />
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2、形成和发展<br />
（1）词源探究<br />
作为一个跨学科的理论概念和批评话语，世界主义可以追踪到古希腊的哲学思想那里，甚至这个术语本身就出自希腊语。我们今天在英文中所描述的世界主义( cosmopolitanism) 是由两个词组成的:cosmos在希腊语中，意为宇宙或世界，polis意为城市或城邦。这样我们就有了“世界”这个词。那些信仰其伦理道德的人便被人称为“世界主义者”( cosmopolites)，而他们的主张和理论教义便被称为“世界主义”。这就是世界主义概念就其字面意义而言的形成。<br />
（2）后世发展<br />
世界主义通常在三个层面得到讨论:哲学的、政治学和社会学的以及文化和文学的层面。哲学维度的世界主义可以追溯到柏拉图和亚里士多德的著作，这两位希腊先哲本质上并不赞成世界主义，在他们看来，人们通常生活在自己的城邦，并且依恋特定的政治教义，所以很容易与之相认同。当他们的城邦遭受外敌入侵时，公民们便会奋起抗击，保卫自己的城邦。对这些古希腊人来说，好的公民不应当与外邦人分享过多的利益。这一观点后来逐步发展为爱国主义和民族主义。在中国，爱国主义和民族主义对那些试图形成独特的中华民族和文化认同的知识分子一直有着极大的吸引力，一个特例就是五四时期，当时虽曾有人鼓吹过世界主义，但很快就销声匿迹，淹没在民族主义的汪洋大海中了，其原因恰在于当时的中国文化土壤和时代精神并不适合世界主义驻足。<br />
但并不是所有古希腊先哲们都反对世界主义，另一些思想较为开放且见多识广的古希腊知识分子，尤其是犬儒派哲人迪奥格尼斯(Diogenes)则鼓吹一种较为普世的伦理道德，因为他并不把自己局限于特定的城邦，甚至公开宣称:“我是一个世界公民。”从此，“世界公民”(citizen of the world)便成了所有信奉世界主义的人所致力于追求的理想。当然，他们所追求的并非是特定的民族—国家的利益，而更是一种普世价值和全人类的共同利益。他们的这种理想和追求并不满足于局限在哲学和社会政治层面，他们还试图将其推而广之。<br />
当代学者在讨论世界主义时很少引证这些远古时期的观点，但其中的某些观点却依然在现代哲学家的著作中得到响应和发展。启蒙时期的哲学家如康德则表示了对其的莫大兴趣，提出一种世界主义的法律或权利。19 世纪以前的不同形式的世界主义仅仅停留在哲学家的假想和论辩层面上的话，那么自19 世纪以来，那些有远大抱负的人便逐渐开始将世界主义付诸实践了，从哥伦布发现“新大陆”到世界贸易航线形成等都为全球化的进程奠定了基础。<br />
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二、世界文学<br />
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1、源起<br />
歌德是德语“世界文学”( Weltliteratur) 一词的创制者，也是第一个明确提出世界文学观念的人。歌德关于世界文学的论述集中在1827-1830年间，归纳起来有三个要点: 其一，世界文学是一个对话和流通的平台，各民族文学可以通过进入这个平台相互交流、取长补短、相得益彰。其二，世界文学是一个合乎世界主义的理想，能够推动各民族文学逐渐打破孤立割裂状态，影响融合而形成一个有机的统一体。其三，世界文学是彰显民族文学价值的场所。歌德就站在德国的角度谈论世界文学，他渴望本民族文学在推动世界文学形成过程中扮演“光荣的”、“美好的”角色，对其他民族文学(例如法国文学) 所处的优势地位则十分敏感。<br />
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2、“世界文学”内涵<br />
在《什么是世界文学？》一书中，丹穆若什以世界、文本和读者为中心，进一步阐释“世界文学”的三重定义：“世界文学是民族文学间的椭圆折射”“世界文学是从翻译中获益的文学”“世界文学不是指一套经典文本，而是指一种阅读模式——一种以超然的态度进入与我们自身时空不同的世界的形式”。首先，“椭圆折射”利用椭圆具备两个焦点的特性，指代世界文学的双重性质。世界文学具有两个核心要点——源文化和主体文化。一部文学作品如果想成为世界文学的一部分，需要从源文化出发，被他国文化空间接受。“接受”过程与接受主体的民族文化传统和价值需求相关。因此，世界文学既与源文化相关，又与主体文化相关，是一种双重折射。仔细分析，世界文学双重折射特性表明世界文学作品并非静止、孤立，而是在不同国家、不同文化间互相流通、交流、传播、碰撞。世界文学作品，不仅受到源文化熏陶，也经过主体文化的接受和改造。其次，由于语言障碍，世界文学作品的传播和流通必须依赖文学翻译。但是，文学语言在翻译过程中会有得失。丹穆若什认为翻译中对于得失的衡量是区分民族文学与世界文学的标志。具体来看，在翻译中受损的文学，“通常局限于本民族或本地区的传统内”；从翻译中获益的文学，“进入世界文学的范畴”。他进一步指出，民族文学进入世界文学，当范围扩大后，“风格上的损失会被深度上的扩张所抵消”。由此看出，世界文学作品源于民族文学而高于民族文学，价值取向超越民族特性，拥有“世界性”。最后，丹穆若什认为世界文学并非经典文本的简单集合，而是通过一种阅读，使读者超越自身时空，进入更加广阔的世界。作为阅读模式，一部作品能否成为世界文学，取决于其他国家、民族读者的阅读效果。一旦外国作品开始在读者脑中发生共鸣，世界文学就开始活动。这种“共鸣”，实际是不同民族文学作品的相同价值取向的融汇。作品自身价值取向被本国以外读者认可，超越民族性，成为世界性价值。由此看来，世界文学不代表文学作品数量的多少，而是作为一种阅读模式，“可以通过少量作品来深入体验，也可以通过大量作品来广泛探寻”，在世界范围内寻找共鸣。<br />
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3、“世界文学”与“世界的文学”<br />
一般而言，“世界文学”和“世界的文学”这两个概念多半是在明确的不同语境中被运用：若说“世界文学”依然意味着作品之无可非议的重要性，那么，“世界的文学”则更多地指向世界上那些不怎么有名、却能展示新方向的文学；它们不同凡响、颇有魅力，却还未在读者意识中占有重要位置。也就是说，“世界的文学”未必就是审美和经典意义的上乘之作，或得到广泛接受的作品。谈论“世界的文学”，人们面对的是浩繁的书卷，无数作品和文化传统，难以把握的界线，并在挑选时怀有开放态度。<br />
20 世纪70 年代，世界体系理论( World System Theory) 兴起于美国，对世界文学观念产生重大影响。以美国著名社会学家伊曼纽尔·沃勒斯坦( Immanuel Wallerstein) 为代表的世界体系理论的核心，是把人类社会看成一个由结构性经济联系及各种内在制度制约的一体化的体系，以此作为考察社会发展变迁的分析单位。这是对20 世纪五六十年代兴盛的以民族国家为分析单位、研究人类社会发展变迁的经典现代化理论的反拨。<br />
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4、世界文学与比较文学<br />
世界文学与比较文学的关系引起西方学者的重视。一种声音认为，世界文学相比于比较文学，只是在原有学科体系基础上扩大比较范围。如大卫·费里斯指出：“比较文学应成为世界文学，只是扩大比较范围，比较方法不变。”另一种声音认为，比较文学与世界文学并行不悖，相互作用。“国别文学、比较文学和世界文学彼此间保持动态相互作用关系，都无法完全取代对方。”②对于读者来讲，世界文学仅存于国家空间。比如中国读者阅读海明威《老人与海》，即使该作品在世界范围内得到广泛认可，作为世界文学作品享誉中外，但对于中国读者而言，阅读的只是一部美国小说而已。比较研究作为方法，通用于国别文学、比较文学和世界文学研究。但是，如库班指出，“世界文学接受文本，即使代表特别的国家精神……也能穿过甚至超越他们的国家，语言和历史起源，有效解域本身”，世界文学关注世界性，超越民族性。今天西方学者老话重提，有一些新的阐释，但是，作为克服比较文学危机、面向未来的比较文学学科理论，尚缺乏指导性意义。全世界比较文学学者必须寻求比较文学理论的新突破。<br />
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三、中国文学的世界化与世界文学的中国化<br />
<br />
1、中国文学的世界化<br />
中国文学世界化并不只是中国作家获得国际大奖或是中国作家作品被翻译介绍到外国。世界化是中国文学作为全球化时代世界文学的主体之一，在世界文学中体现出中国主体性。<br />
马克思《路易·波拿巴的雾月十八日》中说：“就像一个刚学会一种新语言的人总是要把它翻译成本国语言一样；只有当他能够不必在心里把新语言翻译成本国语言，当他能够忘掉本国语言来运用新语言的时候，他才算领会了新语言的精神，才算是运用自如。”后现代批评家们奉为圭臬的这篇名著中，马克思的话说出了中国的世界文学认证的真正价值。全球化时代中，世界文学是对自我认证，也是对他人的认证，中国文学从世界文学得到认证，同样，世界文学从中国文学得到认证。<br />
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2、世界文学的“中国化”<br />
世界文学的“中国化”指很多学者表示怀疑，以为是将世界文学作品按中国的观念进行改造，甚至变成“红色经典”。我们必须解释清楚：世界文学的中国化并不是用中国文学标准来“化”世界文学，而是建构中国的世界文学阐释理论体系。这是完全正当的无可非议的，中国文学从不追求“文化权力中心”。但是中国文学必须建立中国的世界文学视域，中国如何看待世界文学史理论、世界文学经典的选编与世界文学翻译，这三大要素，缺一不可。<br />
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参考文献<br />
[1]方维规.何谓世界文学?[J].文艺研究,2017(01):5-18.<br />
[2]曹顺庆,李斌.比较文学未来发展之路——世界文学与比较文学变异学[J].中国高校社会科学,2016(06):39-47+154.<br />
[3]方汉文.中国文学的世界化与世界文学的中国化[J].江南大学学报(人文社会科学版),2016,15(01):93-98.<br />
[4]王宁.世界文学语境中的中国当代文学[J].当代作家评论,2014(06):4-16+2.<br />
[5]王宁.世界主义、世界文学以及中国文学的世界性[J].中国比较文学,2014(01):11-26.<br />
[6]刘洪涛.世界文学观念的嬗变及其在中国的意义[J].中国比较文学,2012(04):9-21.<br />
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西方文学的翻译<br />
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一、翻译内容、技法叙事<br />
清末颇为兴盛的外国小说翻译一方面介绍了西方的文化思想,另一方面明显的汉民族文化特征仍不容忽视。因为近代译者多具有根深蒂固的中国文化观念,因此他们在翻译过程中对原著进行特殊的、比较主观的处理是特定历史阶段的产物。<br />
在西方小说文化思想内容的翻译方面,“西方宗教观、伦理观与中国具体国情不同,其文学作品必然与中国文化发生抵悟,翻译者趋于沟通的心理,尽可能地使译作。与中国文化相通。”<br />
在叙事技法的传递方面,“早期小说译者的文学修养主要源于中国传统文化,其译作的小说文体形式必然采用中国原有的通俗小说文体——章回体。在原著风格的翻译方面,“早期小说译者在翻译小说时非常注重小说的读者群,这些读者多属具有一定文化修养的文人阶层,其思维方式、审美习惯皆己定型。翻译者如果想拥有庞大的读者群,其译作就应该考虑到中国读者的阅读习惯与审美情趣,突出小说消闲、怡情的文学特征。因此,外国小说译作的汉化便成了翻译者有意追求的一种语言风格。<br />
<br />
二、翻译方法和翻译文体<br />
由于文学意识的不自觉、白话语体表达的幼稚性以及受众对象的特殊性等原因,在近代的文学翻译中,归化的手法、文言的文体和意译的方法颇受青睐。因此,“这种译述、意译的风气使得早期文学翻译的体例很不完备。”文学革命爆发后,文学翻译的目标读者出现“平民化”倾向,文学翻译文体走向通俗化、大众化,同时由于文学翻译中文学意识的不断增强,直译方法逐渐为越来越多的译者所使用,文学翻译开始走向异化。<br />
<br />
三、近代翻译与意识形态的相互关系<br />
译入语文化中的主流意识形态对中国近代翻译选材有着不容忽视的影响和操控作用。1840年—1919年的中国翻译史印证了勒菲弗尔的翻译理论。通过研究这个时期的翻译史,我们可以清楚看到,翻译作品的兴盛是随着各个历史阶段的主流意识形态的变化而变化的。例如“甲午战争的失败把中华民族的生死存亡摆在每个人的面前，……此时的意识形态可以归纳为‘开民智、求变革’,其目的是为了唤醒全体国民,进行思想和现代意识启蒙。小说因为其易普及<br />
性被选作变革工具,成为资产阶级改良派医治`社会病'的良方。”<br />
<br />
四、近代翻译在文化和语言方面的属性<br />
中国近代翻译有层次区别,早期的科技翻译不同于后来的社科、文学翻译,前者主要是技术问题,后者主要是文化和语言问题。众所周知，文化翻译往往涉及到深层的语言体系问题。近代社会译者所深谙的古代汉语体系决定了近代翻译文学从根本上具有中国“古代性”。这样,“翻译者总是用旧思想、旧思维来理解和表达西方新思想、新思维,总是在旧有的语言体系中寻找相对应或相似的术语、概念、范畴和话语方式,因此,西方思想文化在翻译的过程就不知不觉地变了形,变得本土化、民族化了。<br />
五、近代翻译的动机及其所带来的影响<br />
近代译者为了让时人了解西方民主思想和先进的科技知识,大多有目的地选择政治小说、科学小说、侦探小说加以引进,其翻译动机就是要救国启民,因此他们的翻译观明显具有功利主义的性质。这一点对于我们理解近代的小说翻译理论和翻译策略大有裨益,对于译文中普遍存在的删改现象也就能够给予合理的解释。他明确地谈到“他们企图用中国传统文化和文学的规范去干预原文本,以此来调整读者对译文的反应,避免可能造成的文化障碍。运用这种策略和方法的目的,无非是趋利避害,把原文本中有利于译文读者的信息翻译出来,对那些不利于一译文读者或不实用的信息避而不译。”<br />
参考文献<br />
【1】吴莎,屠国元.论中国近代翻译选材与意识形态的关系(1840-1919)[J].外语与外语教学,2007(11):38-40.<br />
【2】顾建新.清末民初文学翻译方法与文学翻译文体的发展[J].外语教学,2004(06):50-54.<br />
【3】韩永芝.从文化排斥与文化认同看清末外国小说翻译[J].解放军外国语学院学报,2001(05):66-69.<br />
【4】高玉.论中国近代翻译文学的“古代性”[J].华中师范大学学报(人文社会科学版),2000(04):66-72.<br />
【5】陆国飞.近代外国小说译介中的功利主义思想[J].学术界,2007(04):236-239.<br />
<br />
<br />
外国诗歌翻译<br />
[1]郭建辉.外国诗歌的审美特征与外国诗歌的鉴赏[J].重庆工业高等专科学校学报,2001(03):93-95.<br />
由于各民族的文化传统的不同影响，外国诗歌也呈现出不同的特点，详细分析了从《荷马史诗》与《圣经》到现代主义艾略特的《荒原》特点，以把握外国诗歌的审美特征。<br />
<br />
[2]河洛易.中国现代诗歌翻译概述[J].解放军外国语学院学报,2000(05):105-108.<br />
作为中国20世纪的诗歌翻译来说, 大致可分为七个阶段：1、诗歌翻译的前奏曲——近代诗歌翻译 (1840 年鸦片战争到 1919年“五四”运动)；2、现代诗歌翻译的开创期 (从1919 年新青年社到 1930年“左联”成立)；3、现代诗歌翻译的中期 (从 1930 年“左联”成立到 1937 年抗战开始)；4、现代诗歌翻译的后期 (从 1937年抗战开始到1949年中华人民共和国成立)；5、当代“十七年”的诗歌翻译 (从 1949 年新中国成立到“文化大革命”前夕)；6、当代“文革十年”的诗歌翻译 (文革十年)；7、当代新时期的诗歌翻译 (1976 年至今)。<br />
外国诗歌的翻译不是一个自我封闭的静态系统，而是一个不断自我调整和适应的开放系统。<br />
<br />
[3]熊辉.翻译诗歌对诗人创作的影响[J].文艺争鸣,2017(09):7-12.<br />
翻译诗歌为百年新诗发展注入了生机和活力，学界目前多从创作技巧、形式艺术或思想情感的角度去论述前者对后者的影响，较少从创作实践的层面去思考二者的关联。实际上，新诗创作者由于接受了不同的文化而具有各自特殊的写作背景，翻译诗歌对新诗创作的影响也因为创作主体的多元化而呈现出复杂的格局：部分诗人直接阅读并翻译了外国诗歌，译诗对他们创作的影响主要停留在翻译过程或思维转换上；也有部分诗人通过阅读其他人翻译的作品而受到了译诗文本的影响，这部分人也包括那些参与翻译的诗人，因为他们自己在翻译诗歌的同时也可能会阅读别人的译作。<br />
<br />
[4]熊辉.外国诗歌的翻译与中国现代新诗的文体创新[J].上海师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2013,42(03):70-76.<br />
外国诗歌的翻译有助于中国新诗的文体创新,作者从语言层面的创造新字、改进语言句法和表达方式,形式层面的创造新形式、引入新形式等方面展开论述。在此基础上分析了这种在翻译的过程中创新的文体所具有的文体特征和文化属性,进而表明外国诗歌的翻译对中国新诗文体创新具有带动作用。<br />
<br />
[5]李特夫,李国林.诗歌翻译研究:传统思路与现代视野[J].天津外国语学院学报,2004(01):31-36+47. <br />
随着译学研究范式的转向、开拓与创新 ,各种译学思想得以不断重诂和修订，为我国诗歌翻译研究带来了新的启示。在对传统译诗观念进行简要回顾和思考的基础上，针对当前一些争议和疑难性问题提出了个人看法，并借鉴西方译论，就未来诗歌翻译研究有关问题进行了探讨。<br />
<br />
[[Media:Earliest_translations_from_the_West_to_Chinese_presentation_by_Lin_Li.pdf]]<br />
<br />
[[Media:The Arabian Nights_by_Wang_Xinyi.pdf]]<br />
<br />
[[Media:Lecture_The Arabian Nights_by_Wang_Xinyi.pdf]]</div>Zhang Yiranhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=File:Presentation_on_Cultural_Aspects_of_Translation_Studies(ppt).pptx&diff=134120File:Presentation on Cultural Aspects of Translation Studies(ppt).pptx2021-12-21T15:22:07Z<p>Zhang Yiran: Zhang Yiran uploaded a new version of &quot;File:Presentation on Cultural Aspects of Translation Studies(ppt).pptx&quot;</p>
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<div></div>Zhang Yiranhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=File:Presentation_on_Cultural_Aspects_of_Translation_Studies(ppt).pptx&diff=134119File:Presentation on Cultural Aspects of Translation Studies(ppt).pptx2021-12-21T15:18:04Z<p>Zhang Yiran: </p>
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<div></div>Zhang Yiranhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021&diff=134118Introduction to Translation Studies 20212021-12-21T15:17:17Z<p>Zhang Yiran: /* Presentations Dec 22 on Decriptive Studies, Culture, Invisibility, Constructivism */</p>
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<div>Quicklinks: [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021|This course homepage]] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal#Frequently_asked_questions_FAQ FAQ] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal Manual] [[20210926_homework|all homework webpages]] <br />
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<center><span style="color:red">'''Deadline Dec 9, 2021 [[20220112_final_exam|final exam page]] - final deadline after correction: Dec 15, 2021'''</span></center><br />
<br />
Welcome to our course website '''Introduction to Translation Studies 2021'''. Whenever you visit this site, please see if there is anything in English not yet translated into Chinese and make a Chinese translation beneath (one paragraph English, one paragraph Chinese). Any correction or improvement of earlier translations is mostly welcome!<br />
<br />
欢迎访问我们“翻译导论课”的网页。…………<br />
<br />
=Session 1 Sep 26, 2021=<br />
Today is international day of languages!<br />
<br />
Introduction to the course. Organizational things. Working with the Wiki.<br />
==Organizational Things==<br />
*Please register for the Course Wiki http://bit.ly/WIKIREG. Username is your Pinyin Name (“Wang Jianguo” – no Chinese characters) and email, for your real name also write your Pinyin Name (Wang Jianguo), no Chinese characters. If the name is taken, write "Wang Jianguo1". Write a sentence about yourself in the bio info. Please check the box that you abide to the Terms of Service and type in the password “wikicaptcha”. You will receive an email with a link. Please confirm the link. After confirmation, please allow a few days that I can approve your username. After that, you can access the course wiki http://bit.ly/TransStud and edit the contents. You need to edit the course website every week to prepare the upcoming session. <br />
*Please prepare each session during the week before, so that you come prepared to class.<br />
*In the WeChat group, please write your name as "Wang Jianguo 王建国 21级 英语口译". If possible, please use a profile photo of yourself where you can be recognized. 麻烦各位同学修改一下自己的备注，改成自己的姓名（拼音、汉字、21级、方向）就好。<br />
*We meet Wednesdays 7 pm - 8:40 pm online on http://bit.ly/ZOOMCOURSE (573 941 6744, course). Please leave your camera ON, so that we actually see each other. In the classroom, we also see each other.<br />
*Please note that you can only participate with a good internet connection, with a smart device which is able to run Zoom and with a running camera. Therefore, please make sure that you have a working device. If your phone’s camera is broken, please borrow a different phone or contact us that we can help you to get a second hand phone for free.<br />
* Please take the weekly survey http://bit.ly/EU-SURVEY<br />
* Please store the pdf material you get from the teacher. Please prepare the material for each session in advance.<br />
<br />
==Edits==<br />
Every student is required to edit something every week. This can be:<br />
* Translate any English paragraph on this website from English to Chinese.<br />
* Correct an earlier translation of your fellow student beneath.<br />
* Prepare an article (please link to from this page) and/or a powerpoint (please upload here) on a topic you will present during the semester.<br />
* Prepare the final exam paper as early as possible by writing a chapter for a book on "History of Translations", "History of Translation Theories", "Machine translation - A challenge or a chance for human translators?", "Culture loaded words", "The cultural turn in Translation History", "Appropriateness Theory" ... For this, please organize yourself, find groups who want to write the same book together, and think together about the necessary chapters and the structure etc. of the book. The paper needs to be delivered until November 1. Then we jointly work on copy editing, grading etc.<br />
* The Teaching Assistants should write the grades every week in a table, so that you can see the results of your quizzes/surveys etc., your performance in class and final exam paper grades.<br />
<br />
==Topics, Sessions and Material==<br />
<br />
'''Which paper or book should I read to prepare my presentation?'''<br />
<br />
Please also mention in this list beneath, '''who''' is presenting the topic with '''ppt''' and '''handout'''.<br />
<br />
1 Sep 26 Introduction <br />
<br />
2 Sep 29 Emergence I<br />
*Teacher presentation<br />
<br />
3 Oct 13 Emergence II<br />
*3a Xu, Jun 许钧, Mu Lei 穆雷. "翻译学概论 [Introduction to Translation Studies]." 南京: 译林出版社2009:195 pp., here 180-192.<br />
*3b=7c Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜. Translation Studies 翻译学. 复旦大学出版社, 2017, here the beginning about the emergence<br />
<br />
4 Oct 20 History of Translation <br />
*4a History of Western Translation 谭载喜.西方翻译简史[M]. 北京:商务印书馆, 1991年.<br />
*4b History of Translation in China – before May Fourth 马祖毅. 中国翻译简史——“五四”以前部分（修订本）[M]. 中国对外翻译出版公司，1998年.<br />
<br />
5 Oct 27 Early understanding<br />
<br />
The early understanding next session refers to the very early theoretical understanding of the Translation process from ancient times until Maybe up to the middle of the 20th century. There are no elaborated theories yet, but at least some discussions About principles, strategies etc.<br />
<br />
*5a Holmes, James. 1972. The Name and Nature of Translation Studies. Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies[M]. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1988: 67-80.<br />
*5b Sourcebook Lefevere, Andre. Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook[M]. London and New York：Routledge, 1990.<br />
*5c Textbook Newmark, Peter. A Text Book of Translation[M]. UK: Prentice Hall International Ltd, 1988.<br />
*5d Translation Basics 刘宓庆. 翻译基础[M]. 上海：华东师范大学出版社，2008年.<br />
<br />
6 Nov 3 Linguistics and Equivalence (Nida)<br />
*6a Early linguistic theory Catford, J. A Linguistic Theory of Translation[M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1965.<br />
*6b Early important understanding Nida, E. A. Toward a Science of Translating[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br />
<br />
7 Nov 10 Translation Studies<br />
*7a Bassnett, Susan. Translation Studies[M]. London and New York: Methuen, 1980. <br />
*7b Translation Studies 许钧，穆雷. 翻译学概论[M]. 南京：译林出版社，2009年.<br />
*7c=3b Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. Translation Studies 翻译学[M]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社，2000年. (the 2nd part contains a lot of English papers)<br />
*7d Categories of Contemporary Western Translation Studies 2002_Pan_Wenguo_潘文国_当代西方的翻译学研究_2002<br />
<br />
8 Nov 17 Translation Theories<br />
*8a Western theory 刘军平. 西方翻译理论通史[M]. 武汉：武汉大学出版社，2009年.<br />
*8b Theories Gentzler, E. Contemporary Translation Theories[M]. London and New York: Routledge, 1993.<br />
*8c Contemp. West. theories 廖七一. 当代西方翻译理论探索[M]. 南京：译林出版社, 2000年.<br />
*8d Xu, Jun 许钧. Translation Theories 翻译论. 湖北教育出版社, 2003<br />
*8e Pan_Wenguo_Cont_West_Trans_Stud_当代西方的翻译学研究_兼谈_翻译学的学科性问题_潘文国<br />
<br />
9 Nov 24 History of Chinese Translation Theories<br />
*9a 陈福康.中国译学理论史稿（修订本）[M]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社，2000年.<br />
*9b 许钧. 翻译论[M]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社，2003年.<br />
<br />
10 Dec 1 Appropriateness Theory<br />
*10a Moratto, Woesler: Current Dynamics, Springer 2021<br />
<br />
11 Dec 8 Methods and Style<br />
*11a Methods Wilss, Wolfram. The Science of Translation: Problems and Methods[M]. Gunter Narr Verlag Tubinger, 1982.<br />
*11b Style 刘宓庆. 文体与翻译[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司：北京，1998年.<br />
*11c Trans_Stud_Problems_and_Methods_翻译学问题与方法<br />
<br />
12 Dec 15 Theory and Practice <br />
*12a Bell, Roger T. Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice[M]. London and New York: Longman, 1991.<br />
*12b Theory and Practice Munday, Jermy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications[M]. London and NewYork: Routledge, 2001.<br />
*12c Theory and Practice Nida, Eugene A. and Charles R. Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1969.<br />
<br />
13 Dec 22 Decriptive Studies, Culture, Invisibility, Constructivism<br />
*13a “descriptive” Toury, Gideon. Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M]. Amsterdam/ Philadelphia: John BenjaminB Publishing company, 1995.<br />
*13b Culture Toury, Gideon. Translation Across Cultures[M]. NewDelhi: Bahri Publications, 1987.<br />
*13c Invisibility Venuti, L. The Translator 's Invisibility[M]. London and NewYork: Routledge, 1995.<br />
*13d Constructivism Research 易经. 翻译学体系构建研究[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社，2012年.<br />
*13e Art or Science? Different papers by Huang Zhending Trans_Stud_Art_and_Scient_Theory_翻译学艺术论与科学论的统一<br />
<br />
14 Dec 29 East-West Comparison<br />
*14a East-West comparison 刘宓庆. 中西翻译思想比较研究[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司, 2005年.<br />
*14b English-Chinese TS 蒋坚松. 英汉对比与汉译英研究[M]. 长沙：湖南人民出版社，2002年.<br />
<br />
15 Jan 5 Review in Preparation of final exam<br />
<br />
16 Jan 12 Final Exam<br />
<br />
Please download several pdfs with monographs and articles about translation studies history and theories from our WeChat group.<br />
<br />
*Bassnett, Susan. Translation studies. Routledge, 2013<br />
*Bell, Roger T., and Christopher Candlin. Translation and translating: Theory and practice. Vol. 298. London: Longman, 1991 <br />
*Catford, John Cunnison. A linguistic theory of translation. Oxford University Press, 1978.<br />
*Chen, Fukang. "Zhongguo yixue lilun shi gao (A History of Chinese Translation Theory)." (1992).<br />
*Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary translation theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br />
*Holmes, James S. The name and nature of translation studies. Translation Studies Section, Department of General Literary Studies, University of Amsterdam, 1975.<br />
*Huang, Chending黄振定. "文学翻译评价的科学性及其科学论." 外国语 4 (1999): 49-56.<br />
*Huang, Chending 黄振定. "翻译学是一门人文科学." 外语与外语教学 2 (1999): 33-35.<br />
*Huang, Chending 黄振定.翻译学: 艺术论与科学论的统一. 上海外语教育出版社, 2008<br />
*Lefevere, André, ed. Translation/history/culture: A sourcebook. Routledge, 2002.<br />
*Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications, Routledge 2013<br />
*Nida, Eugene Albert, and Charles Russell Taber, eds. The theory and practice of translation. Vol. 8. Brill Archive, 1982.<br />
*Nida, Eugene Albert. Toward a science of translating: with special reference to principles and procedures involved in Bible translating. Brill Archive, 1964.<br />
*Pan Wenguo 潘文国. "当代西方的翻译学研究——兼谈 “翻译学” 的学科性问题." 中国翻译 23.1 (2002): 31-34.<br />
*Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜. Translation Studies 翻译学. 复旦大学出版社, 2017<br />
*Toury, Gideon. "Descriptive Translation Studies–and beyond John Benjamins Publishing Company." Amsterdam/Philadelphia (1995).<br />
*Venuti, Lawrence. The translator's invisibility: A history of translation. Routledge, 2017.<br />
*Wilss, Wolfram. The science of translation: problems and methods. Vol. 180. John Benjamins Pub Co, 1982. 翻译学问题与方法 Shanghai: SFLEP (2001).<br />
*Xu, Jun 许钧, Mu Lei 穆雷. "翻译学概论 [Introduction to Translation Studies]." 南京: 译林出版社 10 (2009): 180-192.<br />
*Xu, Jun 许钧. Translation Theories 翻译论. 湖北教育出版社, 2003<br />
*Zhao, Wei 赵巍. "翻译学学科性质与研究方法反思." 解放军外国语学院学报 28.6 (2005): 69-72.<br />
<br />
(We use Chicago Social Sciences Citation Style [https://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide/citation-guide-2.html Chicago Style].)<br />
<br />
==Final exam class projects==<br />
<br />
Please help to edit one of the following book publications (please write your name behind the topics and organize the book with a proposal for the press and a chapter in the form of a journal paper by each participant):<br />
*[[History of Translation Studies]] (Sample from last year.)<br />
*[[History of Translations]] <br />
Rouabah Soumaya( History of translation in the Middle Ages) 李习长 (History of Modern and Contemporary Chinese Translation) 黄柱梁（The Translation of Buddihist Sutra in China） 王镇隆 叶维杰 李雯( The Translation theory after the establishment of the People's Republic of China)李怡(Modern Western Translation History) 李新星 刘沛婷(Western Translation history in Renaissance) 刘薇(Contemporary American Translation History) 周俊辉 周玖 钟雨露 钟义菲 魏楚璇(western translation history in the modern and contemporary Age)<br />
*[[History of Translation Theories]] 李瑞洋（Development of Translation Theories in Modern China）、陈心怡 张扬、曾俊霖 张怡然(History of Translation Theories from early Russia to the Soviet Union) 尹媛（The Brief Introduction of American structural school of translation theory) 李双 杨堃 刘运心 魏兆妍(The Development of Humanism Trend in Western Translation Theory) 吴婧悦(History of Translation Theories in the Soviet Union) 杨爱江<br />
*[[Machine translation]] - A challenge or a chance for human translators? 卫怡雯 肖毅瑶 王李菲 徐敏赟 颜莉莉 颜静 谢佳芬 熊敏 陈惠妮 蔡珠凤 陈湘琼 Nadia<br />
*[[Culture loaded words]] 羊叶（中文电影英译字幕中文化负载词的翻译——以《霸王别姬》为例）、谢庆琳、罗曦（The translation methods of culture loaded words） 何芩、孙雅诗、杜莉娜（跨文化交际视角下旅游文本中文化负载词的英汉翻译研究）、宫博雅（俄语成语中文化负载词的中文翻译分析）、周小雪(《药》英日译本中文化负载词的翻译对比研究）、付诗雨（博物馆文物解说词中文化负载词的日译研究）、丁旋(Translation of Culture-Loaded Words in ''The Concubine Market of Yangchow '' of Lin Yutang's Version from the Perspective of Newmark’s Translation Theory)、高蜜、殷慧珍、程杨、胡舒情<br />
*[[The cultural turn]] in Translation History 金晓童 李爱璇 李文璇 黄锦云 李姗 黄逸妍<br />
*[[Appropriateness Theory]] - Ei Mon Kyaw (Creating Appropriateness Theory). I need more students here. You can write papers criticizing existing theories here and suggest what needs to be improved to develop a new theory! This is cutting edge research here! I expect the best students to participate and we may try to submit the papers to real academic journals!Ei Mon Kyaw (Creating Appropriateness Theory). 殷美达 易扬帆（Appropriateness in Lyrics Translation -- A Case Study of Lana Del Rey's Lyrics Translation in QQ Music）<br />
*[[Translation types, strategies, styles, methods]] 刘晓（纽马克翻译理论指导下旅游文本中翻译策略与翻译技巧的使用——以''Everglades National Park, Florida (Excerpt)''为例） 刘越 毛雅文 毛优（俄语政论语体翻译策略及翻译技巧的使用——以“2019年俄罗斯政府工作报告”为例 彭瑞雪 秦建安（功能对等翻译视角下的鲁迅短篇小说翻译研究——以杨、戴夫妇的《孔乙己》英译本为例） 颜子涵 邝艳丽 阳佳颖 杨柳青（卞之琳的文学翻译理论和实践 ——以其浪漫主义诗歌译作为例）Atta Ur Rahman、Zohaib Chand、Muhammad Numan、Muhammad Saqib Mehran 刘胜楠（浅析目的论视角下《哪吒之魔童降世》字幕翻译策略）<br />
*[[Aesthetic Appreciation of Literary Translations]] 朱素珍 邹岳丽 邱婷婷(Three beauties embodied in Xu Yuanchong's English translation of ''Tang Poetry'') 吴映红(A comparative study of aesthetic reproduction in Chinese versions of snow country from the perspective of translation aesthetics)<br />
*[[Translation Theories Apllied to Literary Translations]] 周巧 付红岩 詹若萱（Chinese Translation of Subtitles of "Jane Eyre" from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory）<br />
*[[Comparative Studies in Translation]] 石丽青 牟一心 饶金盈 罗安怡 马新 王逸凡 张秋怡 朱壬铎<br />
<br />
(We use Chicago Social Sciences Citation Style [https://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide/citation-guide-2.html Chicago Style].)<br />
<br />
==Schedule==<br />
Please add your name, presentation form (ppt, handout) and subtopic here.<br />
<br />
'''All sessions''': <br />
*1 Sep 26 Introduction<br />
*2 Sep 29 Emergence I<br />
*3 Oct 13 Emergence II <br />
(中国翻译的起源 The Emergence of Translation Studies in China) ppt by Chen Xiangqiong 陈湘琼 and handout by Xie Qinglin 谢庆琳.<br />
<br />
(机器翻译的起源与发展 The Origin of Machine Translation) ppt by Yan Jing 颜静 and handout by Xu Minyun 徐敏赟.<br />
<br />
*4 Oct 20 History of Translation <br />
(中国翻译简史 The Brief History of Chinese Translation) ppt by Hu Shuqing 胡舒情 and handout by Gong Boya 宫博雅. <br />
<br />
(西方翻译简史 The Brief History of Western Translation) ppt by Ding Xuan 丁旋 and handout by Fu Shiyu 付诗雨.<br />
<br />
(中国译场中佛经翻译的历史 The History of Buddhist Scripture Translation in Chinese Translation Center) PPT by Ye Weijie 叶维杰 and handout by Wang Zhenlong 王镇隆. <br />
<br />
(中国诗歌翻译简史 A Brief History of Chinese Poetry Translation) ppt by Rao Jinying 饶金盈 202120081520 and handout by Mou Yixin 牟一心.<br />
<br />
(2000年以来的大中华文库翻译历史 The Translation History of Library of Chinese Classics Since 2000) ppt by Zhang Yang 张扬 and handout by Zeng Junlin曾俊霖.<br />
<br />
*5 Oct 27 Early understanding <br />
The early understanding next session refers to the very early theoretical understanding of the Translation process from ancient times until Maybe up to the middle of the 20th century. There are no elaborated theories yet, but at least some discussions About principles, strategies etc.<br />
<br />
(佛经翻译的文质之争 The Debates Between Wen and Zhi on Buddhist Scriptures Translation) ppt by He Qin 何芩 202120081489 and handout by Gao Mi高蜜.<br />
<br />
(林语堂的翻译 Translation by Lin Yutang) ppt by Xie Jiafen 谢佳芬 and handout by Yan Lili 颜莉莉.<br />
<br />
*6 Nov 3 Linguistics and Equivalence (Nida) <span style="color:red"><br />
<br />
(J.C.Catford's Translation Equivalence Theory) ppt by Huang Yiyan 黄逸妍 and handout by Huang Jinyun 黄锦云.<br />
<br />
(Two Types of Equivalence by Eugene A. Nida) ppt by Du Lina 杜莉娜 and handout by Ma Xin 马新.<br />
<br />
(The Three Essences of Functional Equivalence and Its Application) ppt by Yi Yangfan 易扬帆 and handout by Yin Yuan 尹媛.<br />
<br />
(Eugene Nida's Principles of Correspondence Theory) ppt by Chen Huini 陈慧妮 and handout by Cai Zhufeng 蔡珠凤.<br />
<br />
*6 Nov 10 Translation Studies<br />
(The Name and Nature of Translation Studies)ppt by Liu Shengnan刘胜楠; handout by Li Yi李怡 <br />
<br />
(Five Approaches to Translation)ppt by Li Wenxuan李文璇; handout by Li Shan 李姗 <br />
<br />
(Principles of Translation)ppt by Xiao Yiyao肖毅瑶; handout by Wu Yinghong吴映红<br />
<br />
(Cultural and Ideological Approaches in Translation)ppt by Mahzad Heydarian; handout by Mahzad Heydarian<br />
<br />
(Roman Jacobson's Categories of Translation)ppt by Xiong Min熊敏; handout by Sun Yashi孙雅诗<br />
<br />
(Lin Yutang' s Translation Aesthetics )ppt by Luo Anyi罗安怡; handout by Shi Liqing石丽青<br />
<br />
*8 Nov 17 Translation Theories <br />
(Translation Theories of George Steiner)ppt by Yang Liuqing 杨柳青; handout by Yin Huizhen 殷慧珍<br />
<br />
(The Functional Translation Theory of Reiss, Vermeer and Nord)ppt by Peng Ruixue 彭瑞雪;handout by Qin Jianan 秦建安.<br />
<br />
(Translation Theories of Peter Newmark) ppt by Liu Xiao 刘晓; handout by Liu Yue 刘越.<br />
<br />
(Yan Fu's Translation Thoughts)ppt by Wang Lifei 王李菲; handout by Wei Chuxuan 魏楚璇<br />
<br />
(Translation theorie of Xu Yuanchong) ppt by Zhouqing周清; handout by Zou Yueli邹岳丽.<br />
<br />
*9 Nov 24 History of Chinese Translation Theories <br />
(The History of Chinese Translation Theories in Qing Dynasty)ppt by Cheng Yang 程杨 and handout by Li Shuang 李双.<br />
<br />
(The History of Chinese Buddhist Translation Theories)ppt by Qiu Tingting邱婷婷; handout by Wei Yiwen 卫怡雯<br />
<br />
(The Chinese Translation Theories During the Period of the May Forth Movement)ppt by Li Wen 李雯; handout by Zhou Xiaoxue 周小雪<br />
<br />
(The History of Chinese Translation Theories from 1949 to Present)ppt by Yang Aijiang 杨爱江; handout by Yang Kun 杨堃<br />
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*10 Dec 1 Appropriateness Theory - this is a new theory suggested by M. Woesler in 2020. Everybody is invited to help to develop this theory or to criticize other theories and suggesting what a new theory (like the appropriateness theory) needs to do better.<br />
<br />
(Appropriateness Theory) ppt by Yin Meida殷美达 and handout by Ei Mon Kyaw 艾梦觉<br />
<br />
*11 Dec 8 Methods and Style<br />
(The Literal Translation and Free Translation)ppt by Zhong Yifei钟义菲; handout by Zhong Yulu钟雨露.<br />
<br />
(The Amplification and Omission in Translation)ppt by Zhou Jiu周玖; handout by Zhou Junhui周俊辉.<br />
<br />
(Zhu Shenghao's Translation Style Take the Translation of Shakespeare's Plays for Example)ppt by Li Aixuan李爱璇；handout by Jing Xiaotong金晓童.<br />
<br />
(Translation Methods of Idioms)ppt by Liu Yunxin 刘运心; handout by Li Ruiyang 李瑞洋<br />
<br />
(Domestication and Foreignization)pptx by Chen Jing 陈静; handout by Chen Xinyi 陈心怡<br />
<br />
*12 Dec 15 Theory and Practice. <br />
(The value and limits of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in its Application of Literature) ppt by 詹若萱 and handout by 罗曦<br />
(Catford's Translation Shift Theory and its practice)ppt by 周巧and handout by 朱素珍<br />
(An Analysis of Different Versions on the Basis of the Three Beauties of Xu Yuanchong) ppt by 邝艳丽 and handout by 付红岩<br />
(庞德的翻译理论及其在《华夏集》中的应用 Ezra Pound's translation theory and its application in Cathay) handout by 张秋怡 and ppt by 王逸凡<br />
() Skopos Theory and its Application ppt by 刘沛婷 and handout by 李新星<br />
<br />
*13 Dec 22 Decriptive Studies, Culture, Invisibility, Constructivism<br />
() ppt by 殷美达 and handout by 张怡然<br />
<br />
*14 Dec 29 East-West Comparison<br />
()ppt by刘薇 and handout by黄柱梁<br />
()ppt by魏兆妍 and handout by 吴婧悦<br />
()ppt by阳佳颖 and handout by 颜子涵<br />
(韦努蒂与鲁迅异化翻译策略之比较 A Comparison of Venuti's and Lu Xun's Foreignization Translation Strategy) ppt by毛优 and handout by 毛雅文<br />
*15 Jan 5 Review in Preparation of final exam<br />
*16 Jan 12 Final Exam<br />
<br />
== Homework from Session 1 Sep 26 due on Sep 29, 2021 ==<br />
<br />
1. Take the survey after session 1: http://bit.ly/EU-SURVEY<br />
<br />
2. Please fill in the 2nd quiz (to show that you have read the texts for session 2) before session 2. (Will be added later.)<br />
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3. Every student should translate 1 sentence. Here is the [[20210929_homework|homework page]]. - IN PREPARATION...<br />
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*[[20210929_homework|homework of session 1 for session 2 Sep 29]]<br />
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4. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation is once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20210929_homework|here]].<br />
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*[[20210929_homework|homework of session 1 for session 2 Sep 29]]<br />
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5. Please pick a topic from the pdf material, the general session topics or your own thoughts to do a presentation on. For the first topics, you need to do the presentation already in 1 week!<br />
<br />
===Homework for later===<br />
4. Write a final exam paper as a chapter of the book "Translation Studies", ... It has to be a topic, not yet chosen by any other student in the book. I will upload the book here later. You can participate in writing this book.<br />
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5. Get familiar with the pdfs I send you on WeChat group as learning material.<br />
<br />
=Session 2, Sep 29: Emergence I=<br />
*Teacher presentation<br />
*Survey http://bit.ly/Eval-01<br />
*Please select a topic to do a ppt or handout on<br />
*Review homework<br />
*Prepare final exam<br />
<br />
===Homework for this session Sep 29===<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 2 (Emergence I)<br />
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2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
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*[[20210929_homework|homework of session 1 for session 2 Sep 29]]<br />
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3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
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==Session 2, Sep 29, Topic 1: Emergence I - Emergence in China==<br />
*Teacher presentation: [[Media:Emergence_I.pptx|Teacher presentation on the Emergence of Translation]] by Martin Woesler --[[User:Root|Root]] ([[User talk:Root|talk]]) 11:44, 13 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Homework for next session Oct 13==<br />
<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 3 (Emergence II)<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211013_homework|homework of session 2 for session 3 Oct 13]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
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*[[20211013_homework|homework of session 2 for session 3 Oct 13]]<br />
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4. Please write your name behind one of the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Final_exam_class_projects|book projects]] where you want to write a chapter as your final exam paper. Also indicate the topic of your chapter in this book project.<br />
<br />
5. (Only for students who do presentation on Oct 13: Emergence II (中国新时期翻译研究发展的起源 The origin of translation studies in China in the new Era) ppt by Chen Xiangqiong 陈湘琼 and handout by Xie Qinglin 谢庆琳. (Emergence of Oral Interpretation) ppt by Shan Gongfei:) Prepare ppt or handout.(机器翻译的起源 The Origin of Machine Translation) handout by Xu Minyun 徐敏赟 202120081535 and powerpoint by Yan Jing 颜静 202120081536.<br />
<br />
=Session 3, Oct 13, Topic 2: Emergence II - Emergence in China=<br />
==Homework for this session Oct 13==<br />
<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 3 (Emergence II)<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211013_homework|homework of session 2 for session 3 Oct 13]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211013_homework|homework of session 2 for session 3 Oct 13]]<br />
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4. (Only for students who do presentation on Oct 13:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
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==Presentations in Session 3, Emergence of Translation II==<br />
<br />
*ppt: [[Media:03 Emergence of translations in China by Xie Qinglin.pptx|Presentation on Emergence of translation study in China 中国翻译的起源]] by Chen Xiangqiong 陈湘琼; handout [[Media:03_Xie_Qinglin_Emergence_of_translations_in_China.docx|Emergence of translation studies in China]] by Xie Qinglin 谢庆琳<br />
<br />
Tip: Since the topics are sorted roughly chronologically, this topic should be the emergence of translation rather than emergence of translation studies.<br />
<br />
*ppt: [[Media:The_Origin_of_Machine_Translation_by_Yan_Jing.pptx|Presentation on Origin of Machine Translation 机器翻译的起源与发展]] by Yan Jing 颜静; handout [[Media:The_Origin_of_Machine_Translation_by_Xu_Minyun.docx|Origin of Machine Translation handout]] by Xu Minyun 徐敏赟<br />
<br />
Tip: This topic is also very modern, it should be presented at the end of the semester.<br />
<br />
==Homework for next session Oct 20==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 3 (Emergence II)<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211020_homework|homework of session 3 for session 4 Oct 20]]<br />
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3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
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4. (Only for students who do presentation on Oct 13:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
=Session 4, Oct 20, Topic 3=<br />
==Homework for this session Oct 20==<br />
<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 4<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211020_homework|homework of session 3 for session 4 Oct 20]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
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4. (Only for students who do presentation on Oct 20:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
==Presentations on History of Translation, session 4==<br />
* ppt: [[Media: The brief history of western translation_by_Ding_Xuan.pptx|Presentation on The brief history of western translation]] by Ding Xuan; handout [[Media:The brief history of Western translation.doc| The brief history of western translation]] by Fu Shiyu<br />
*ppt: [[Media: The brief history of Chinese translation.pptx|Presentation on The brief history of Chinese translation]] by Hu Shuqing; handout [[Media:The brief history of Chinese translation_by_Gong_Boya.doc| The brief history of Chinese translation]] by Gong Boya<br />
* ppt:[[Media: A brief history of Chinese poetry translation.pptx|Presentation on A brief history of Chinese poetry translation]] by Rao Jinying; handout: [[Media: A brief history of Chinese poetry translation.doc| A brief history of Chinese poetry translation]] by Mou Yixin<br />
* ppt:[[Media: The Translation history of Library of Chinese Classics Since 2000.pptx|Presentation on The Translation history of Library of Chinese Classics Since 2000]] by Zhang Yang; handout: [[Media: The Translation history of Library of Chinese Classics Since 2000_by_Zeng_Junlin.doc| The Translation history of Library of Chinese Classics]] by Zeng Junlin<br />
* ppt:[[Media: The History of Buddhist Scripture Translation in Chinese Translation Center.pptx|Presentation on The History of Buddhist Scripture Translation in Chinese Translation Center]] by Ye Weijie; handout: [[Media: The History of Buddhist Scripture Translation in Chinese Translation Center.docx| The History of Buddhist Scripture Translation in Chinese Translation Center]] by Wang Zhenlong<br />
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==Homework for next session Oct 27==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 5<br />
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2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211027_homework|homework of session 4 for session 5 Oct 27]]<br />
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3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
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4. (Only for students who do presentation on Oct 27:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
=Session 5, Oct 27, Topic 4 Early Understanding of Translation (no elaborated theories yet)=<br />
==Homework for this session Oct 27==<br />
<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 5<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211027_homework|homework of session 4 for session 5 Oct 27]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Oct 27:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
==Presentations Oct 27 on Early Understanding==<br />
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* Teacher presentation: [[Media:05_Transl_Studies_Emergence2_History.pptx|Powerpoint for the Sessions 3-5 by Martin Woesler, please download from this link]]<br />
<br />
The early understanding next session refers to the very early theoretical understanding of the Translation process from ancient times until maybe up to the middle of the 20th century. There are no elaborated theories yet, but at least some discussions about principles, strategies etc.<br />
<br />
* ppt: [[Media: Tranlation by Lin Yutang.pptx|Translation by Lin Yutang]] by Xie Jiafen; handout [[Media: Tranlation by Lin Yutang(handout).docx| Translation by Lin Yutang(handout)]] by Yan Lili<br />
* ppt: [[Media: The Debates Between Wen and Zhi on Buddhist Scriptures Translation.pptx|The Debates Between Wen and Zhi on Buddhist Scriptures Translation]] by He Qin; handout [[Media: The Wen-Zhi Debate in the history of sutra translation (handout).docx| The Wen-Zhi Debate in the History of Sutra Translation (handout)]] by Gao Mi<br />
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==Homework for next session 6, Nov 3==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 6<br />
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2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211103_homework|homework of session 5 for session 6, Nov 3]]<br />
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3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
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4. (Only for students who do presentation on Nov 3:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
<br />
=Session 6, Nov 3, Topic 5 Translation Equivalence, Nida and Linguistics=<br />
==Homework for this session Nov 3==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 6<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211103_homework|homework of session 5 for session 6 Nov 3]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Nov 3:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
==Presentations Nov 3 on Linguistics and Equivalence(Nida)==<br />
<br />
* ppt: [[Media:J.C.Catford's Translation Equivalence Theory(ppt).pptx|J.C.Catford's Translation Equivalence Theory(ppt)]] by Huang Yiyan; handout [[Media:Translation Equivalence Theory.docx|J.C.Catford's Translation Equivalence Theory]] by Huang Jinyun<br />
* ppt: [[Media:Two Types of Equivalence by Eugene A. Nida(ppt).pptx|Two Types of Equivalence by Eugene A. Nida(ppt)]] by Du Lina; handout [[Media: Two Types of Equivalence by Eugene A. Nida.docx|Two Types of Equivalence by Eugene A. Nida]] by Ma Xin<br />
* ppt: [[Media:The Three Essences of Functional Equivalence and Its Application.pptx|The Three Essences of Functional Equivalence and Its Application]] by Yi Yangfan; handout [[Media: The Three Essences of Functional Equivalence and Its Application.docx|The Three Essences of Functional Equivalence and Its Application]] by Yin Yuan<br />
* ppt: [[Media:Eugene Nida ‘s Principles of Correspondence Theory(ppt).pptx|Eugene Nida ‘s Principles of Correspondence Theory(ppt)]] by Chen Huini; handout [[Media:Eugene Nida ‘s Principles of Correspondence Theory.docx|Eugene Nida ‘s Principles of Correspondence Theory]] by Cai Zhufeng<br />
<br />
==Homework for next session 7, Nov 10==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 7<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211110_homework|homework of session 6 for session 7, Nov 10]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Nov 10:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
5. WRITE A DRAFT OF YOUR FINAL EXAM PAPER!<br />
*[[20220112_final_exam|Final Exam paper page]]<br />
<br />
=Session 7, Nov 10, Topic 6 Translation Studies=<br />
==Homework for this session Nov 10==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 7<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211110_homework|homework of session 6 for session 7 Nov 10]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Nov 3:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
==Presentations Nov 10 on Translation Studies==<br />
<br />
* ppt 1: [[Media:The Name and Nature of Translation Studies(ppt).pptx|The Name and Nature of Translation Studies(ppt)]] by Liu Shengnan; handout [[Media: The Name and Nature of Translation Studies.docx| The Name and Nature of Translation Studies]] by Li Yi<br />
<br />
* ppt 2: [[Media:Five Approaches to Translation.pptx|Five Approaches to Translation]] by Li Wenxuan; handout [[Media:Five Approaches to Translation(handout).docx|Five Approaches to Translation()]] by Li Shan<br />
<br />
* ppt 3: [[Media:Principles of Translation(ppt).pptx|Principles of Translation(ppt)]] by Xiao Yiyao; handout [[Media:Principles of Translation.docx|Principles of Translation]] by Wu Yinghong<br />
<br />
* ppt 4: [[Media:Cultural and Ideological Approaches in Translation(ppt).pptx|Cultural and Ideological Approaches in Translation]] by Mahzad Heydarian; handout [[Media:Cultural and Ideological Approaches in Translation.docx| Cultural and Ideological Approaches in Translation ]] by Mahzad Heydarian<br />
<br />
* ppt 5: [[Media:Roman Jacobson's Categories of Translation(ppt).pptx|Roman Jacobson's Categories of Translation(ppt)]] by Xiong Min; handout [[Media: Roman Jacobson's Categories of Translation.docx| Roman Jacobson's Categories of Translation]] by Sun Yashi<br />
<br />
* ppt 6: [[Media:Lin Yutang' s Translation Aesthetics(ppt).pptx|Lin Yutang' s Translation Aesthetics]] by Luo Anyi; handout [[Media:Lin Yutang' s Translation Aesthetics.docx| Lin Yutang' s Translation Aesthetics]] by Shi Liqing<br />
<br />
==Homework for next session 8, Nov 17==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 8<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211117_homework|homework of session 6 for session 8, Nov 17]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Nov 17:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
=Session 8, Nov 17, Translation Theories =<br />
==Homework for this session Nov 17==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 8<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211117_homework|homework of session 7 for session 8, Nov 17]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Nov 17:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
==Presentations Nov 17 on Translation Theories==<br />
* ppt 1: [[Media:Translation Theories of George Steiner(ppt).pptx|Translation Theories of George Steiner(ppt)]] by Yang Liuqing 杨柳青; handout [[Media: Translation Theories of George Steiner.docx| Translation Theories of George Steiner]] by Yin Huizhen 殷慧珍<br />
* ppt 2: [[Media:The Functional Translation Theory of Reiss, Vermeer and Nord(ppt).pptx|The Functional Translation Theory of Reiss, Vermeer and Nord(ppt)]] by Peng Ruixue 彭瑞雪; [[Media:The Functional Translation Theory of Reiss, Vermeer and Nord (handout).docx|The Functional Translation Theory of Reiss, Vermeer and Nord (handout).docx]] by Qin Jianan 秦建安. <br />
* ppt 3: [[Media:Translation Theories of Peter Newmark.pptx|Translation Theories of Peter Newmark]] ppt by Liu Xiao 刘晓; [[Media:Translation Theories of Peter Newmark.docx|Translation Theories of Peter Newmark .docx]] handout by Liu Yue 刘越.<br />
<br />
* ppt 4:[[Media:Yan Fu's Translation Thoughts(ppt).pptx|Yan Fu's Translation Thoughts(ppt)]] by Wang Lifei 王李菲; handout [[Media: Yan Fu's Translation Thoughts.docx| Yan Fu's Translation Thoughts]] by Wei Chuxuan 魏楚璇<br />
* ppt 5: [[Media:Translation of Xu Yuanchong.pptx|Translation theorie of Xu Yuanchong]] ppt by Zhouqing周清; [[Media:Translation of Xu Yuanchong.docx|Translation theorie of Xu Yuanchong]]handout by Zou Yueli邹岳丽.<br />
<br />
==Homework for next session 9, Nov 24==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 9<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211124_homework|homework of session 8 for session 9, Nov 24]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Nov 24:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
=Session 9, Nov 24, History of Chinese Translation Theories =<br />
<br />
==Homework for this session Nov 24==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 9<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211124_homework|homework of session 8 for session 9, Nov 24]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Nov 24:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
==Presentations Nov 24 on Chinese Translation Theories ==<br />
* ppt 1: [[Media:The History of Chinese Translation Theories in Qing Dynasty(ppt).pptx|The History of Chinese Translation Theories in Qing Dynasty(ppt)]]ppt by Cheng Yang 程杨 and [[Media: The History of Chinese Translation Theories in Qing Dynasty.docx| The History of Chinese Translation Theories in Qing Dynasty]]handout by Li Shuang 李双. <br />
* ppt 2: [[Media:The History of Chinese Buddhist Translation Theories(ppt).pptx|The History of Chinese Buddhist Translation Theories(ppt)]] by Qiu Tingting邱婷婷; handout [[Media: The History of Chinese Buddhist Translation Theories.docx| The History of Chinese Buddhist Translation Theories]] by Wei Yiwen 卫怡雯 <br />
* ppt 3: [[Media:The Chinese Translation Theories During the Period of the May Forth Movement(ppt).pptx|The Chinese Translation Theories During the Period of the May Forth Movement(ppt)]]by Li Wen 李雯; [[Media: The Chinese Translation Theories During the Period of the May Forth Movement.docx|The Chinese Translation Theories During the Period of the May Forth Movement]] handout by Zhou Xiaoxue 周小雪<br />
* ppt 4: [[Media: The History of Chinese Translation Theories from 1949 to Present(ppt).pptx|The History of Chinese Translation Theories from 1949 to Present(ppt)]]by Yang Aijiang 杨爱江 [[Media: The History of Chinese Translation Theories from 1949 to Present.docx|The History of Chinese Translation Theories from 1949 to Present]] handout by Yang Kun 杨堃<br />
<br />
==Homework for next session 10, Dec 1==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 10<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211201_homework|homework of session 9 for session 10, Dec 1]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 1:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
=Session 10, Dec 1, Appropriateness Theory=<br />
This is a new theory suggested by M. Woesler in 2020. Everybody is invited to help to develop this theory or to criticize other theories and suggesting what a new theory (like the appropriateness theory) needs to do better.<br />
<br />
==Homework for this session Dec 1==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 10<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211201_homework|homework of session 9 for session 10, Dec 1]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 1:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
==Presentations Dec 1==<br />
* handout 1: [[Media: Appropriateness Theory.docx| Appropriateness Theory]] by Ei Mon Kyaw 艾梦觉;ppt 1: [[Media:Appropriateness Theory(ppt).pptx|Appropriateness Theory(ppt)]] by Yin Meida殷美达;<br />
* Topic 2: [[Media: The Appropriateness Theory.docx| The Appropriateness Theory]] by Asep Budiman;ppt 1: [[Media:Appropriateness Theory<br />
(ppt).pptx|Appropriateness Theory(ppt)]] by Asep Budiman;<br />
*Teacher presentation [[Media:10_Translation_Studies_Discipline.pptx|10_Translation_Studies_Discipline.pptx]]<br />
*Teacher presentation [[Media:Appropriateness_Theory_Teacher_Presentation.pptx|Appropriateness_Theory_Teacher_Presentation.pptx]]<br />
<br />
==Homework for next session 11, Dec 8==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 11<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211208_homework|homework of session 10 for session 11, Dec 8]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 8:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
=Session 11, Dec 8, Methods and Style=<br />
==Homework for this session Dec 8==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 11<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211208_homework|homework of session 10 for session 11, Dec 8]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 8:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
==Presentations Dec 8 on Methods and Style==<br />
* ppt 1: [[Media:The Literal Translation and Free Translation(ppt).pptx|The Literal Translation and Free Translation(ppt)]] by Zhong Yifei钟义菲; handout [[Media: The Literal Translation and Free Translation.docx| The Literal Translation and Free Translation]] by Zhong Yulu钟雨露.<br />
* ppt 1: [[Media:The Amplification and Omission in Translation(ppt).pptx|The Amplification and Omission in Translation(ppt)]] by Zhou Jiu周玖; handout [[Media: The Amplification and Omission in Translation.docx| The Amplification and Omission in Translation]] by Zhou Junhui周俊辉.<br />
* ppt 3: [[Media:Zhu Shenghao's Translation Style Take the Translation of Shakespeare's Plays for Example(ppt).pptx|Zhu Shenghao's Translation Style Take the Translation of Shakespeare's Plays for Example(ppt)]] by Li Aixuan李爱璇；handout [[Media:Zhu Shenghao's Translation Style Take the Translation of Shakespeare's Plays for Example.docx|Zhu Shenghao's Translation Style Take the Translation of Shakespeare's Plays for Example]] by Jing Xiaotong金晓童.<br />
* ppt 4: [[File:Translation Methods of Idioms.pptx|Translation Methods of Idioms(ppt)]] by Liu Yunxin 刘运心; handout [[File:Translation Methods of Idioms.docx|Translation Methods of Idioms(handout)]] by Li Ruiyang 李瑞洋<br />
* ppt 5: [[Media:11_Chen_Jing_Domestication_and_Foreignization.pptx|Domestication and Foreignization(pptx)]] by Chen Jing 陈静; handout [[File:Domestication and Foreignization.docx|Domestication and Foreignization(handout)]] by Chen Xinyi 陈心怡<br />
*Teacher presentation [[Media:11_Translation_Studies_Discipline.pptx|11_Translation_Studies_Discipline.pptx]]<br />
<br />
[[File:Translation Methods of Idioms.pptx]]<br />
<br />
==Homework for next session 12, Dec 15==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 12<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211215_homework|homework of session 11 for session 12, Dec 15]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 15:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
=Session 12, Dec 15, Theory and Practice.=<br />
<br />
==Homework for this session Dec 15==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 12<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211215_homework|homework of session 11 for session 12, Dec 15]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 15:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
==Presentations Dec 15 on Theory and Practice==<br />
* ppt 1: [[Media:Catford Translation Shift Theory and Tts Practice(ppt).pptx|Catford Translation Shift Theory and Its Practice(ppt)]] by Zhou Qiao 周巧; handout [[Media:Catford Translation Shift Theory and Its Practice.docx|Catford Translation Shift Theory and Its Practice]] by Zhu Suzhen 朱素珍.<br />
<br />
* ppt 2: [[Media: The value and limits of Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory in its Application of Literature(ppt).pptx| The value and limits of Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory in its Application of Literature（ppt）]] by Zhan Ruoxuan 詹若萱;handout [[Media:The value and limits of Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory in its Application of Literature.docx|The value and limits of Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory in its Application of Literature]] by Luo Xi 罗曦.<br />
<br />
* ppt 3：[[Media:Ezra Pound's translation theory and its application in Cathay(ppt).pptx|Ezra Pound's translation theory and its application in Cathay(ppt)]] by Wang Yifan 王逸凡; handout [[Media:Ezra Pound's translation theory and its application in Cathay.docx|Ezra Pound's translation theory and its application in Cathay]] by Zhang Qiuyi 张秋怡.<br />
<br />
* ppt 4：[[Media:Skopos Theory and its application by Jawad and Liu Peiting.pptx|Skopos Theory and its application by Jawad and Liu Peiting]] by Jawad Ahmad; handout [[Media:Skopos Theory and Its Application.docx|Skopos Theory and Its Application]] by Liu Peiting 刘沛婷.<br />
<br />
==Homework for next session 13, Dec 22==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 13<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211222_homework|homework of session 12 for session 13, Dec 22]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 22:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
=Session 13, Dec 22, Decriptive Studies, Culture, Invisibility, Constructivism=<br />
<br />
==Homework for this session Dec 22==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 13<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211222_homework|homework of session 12 for session 13, Dec 22]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 22:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
==Presentations Dec 22 on Decriptive Studies, Culture, Invisibility, Constructivism==<br />
<br />
* ppt 1: [[Media:Gideon Toury's Descriptive Translation Studies(ppt).pptx|Gideon Toury's Descriptive Translation Studies(ppt)]]ppt by Benjamin Wellsand; handout [[Media:Gideon Toury's Descriptive Translation Studies.docx|Gideon Toury's Descriptive Translation Studies]] by Bi bi Nadia.<br />
<br />
* ppt 2: [[Media:Gideon Toury's Descriptive Study of Norms in Translation Presentation(ppt).pptx|Gideon Toury's Descriptive Study of Norms in Translation Presentation(ppt)]]ppt by Rouabah Soumaya; handout [[Media:.docx|.docx]] by Bi bi Nadia.<br />
<br />
* ppt 3: [[Media:Presentation on Cultural Aspects of Translation Studies(ppt).pptx|Presentation on Cultural Aspects of Translation Studies(ppt)]]ppt by Benjamin Wellsand; handout [[Media:Gideon Toury's Descriptive Translation Studies.docx|Gideon Toury's Descriptive Translation Studies]] by Bi bi Nadia.<br />
<br />
==Homework for next session 14, Dec 29==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 14<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211229_homework|homework of session 13 for session 14, Dec 29]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 29:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
=Session 14, Dec 29, East-West Comparison=<br />
<br />
==Homework for this session Dec 29==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 14<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211229_homework|homework of session 13 for session 14, Dec 29]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 29:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
==Presentations Dec 29 on East-West Comparison==<br />
*ppt 1: A Comparison of Venuti's and Lu Xun's Foreignization Translation Strategy ppt by Mao You 毛优; [[Media: A Comparison of Venuti's and Lu Xun's Foreignization Translation Strategy(Handout).docx|A Comparison of Venuti's and Lu Xun's Foreignization Translation Strategy(Handout).docx]] handout by Mao Yawen 毛雅文.<br />
<br />
*ppt 2: A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western Contemporary Cultural Translation——Taking the Translation Concepts of Liu Miqing(刘宓庆) and Susan Bassnett as an Example. [[File:A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western Contemporary Cultural Translation.pptx]] by Wei Zhaoyan魏兆妍；[[File:A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western Contemporary Cultural Translation(handout).docx]] by Wu Jingyue吴婧悦<br />
<br />
*ppt 3: [[Media:(ppt).pptx|(ppt)]]ppt by ; handout [[Media:Hypotactic and Paratactic.docx|Hypotactic and Paratactic]] by Huang Zhuliang黄柱梁.<br />
<br />
==Homework for next session 15, Jan 5==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 15<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20210105_homework|homework of session 14 for session 15, Jan 5]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Jan 5:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
=Session 15, Jan 5, Review in Preparation of final exam=<br />
<br />
=Session 16, Jan 12, Final Exam=<br />
<br />
<br />
=Samples from last year: 人类起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation=<br />
Please note: All the sessions (2-16) here are copies of the 2020 course. <br />
<br />
You can have a look how the fellow students did it last year, <br />
<br />
but you have to write everything new here for 2021.<br />
<br />
*Teacher presentation<br />
<br />
*Student presentations<br />
<br />
OLD (2020):<br />
<br />
*Handout for download [[Media:The_emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation.docx|Global Emergence of Interpretation and Translation]] by 彭锐宏<br />
*Classroom presentation for download [[Media:The_emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_by_Peng_Ruihong.pptx|Presentation on Emergence of translation]] by 彭锐宏--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 07:05, 28 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 2, Topic 2: 西方起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation in the West===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:The_Emergence_of_Translation_and_Interpretation_in_Western_Countries.docx|Handout on The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation in Western Countries]]--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 05:43, 28 September 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou by 聂晓楼<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The_Emergence_of_Translation_and_Interpretation_in_Western_Countries.pptx|Powerpoint on The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation in Western Countries]]--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 05:43, 28 September 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou by 聂晓楼<br />
<br />
===Session 2, Topic 3: 中国起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation in China===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:Emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_in_China.docx| Handout on Emergence of translation and interpretation in China]]--Mashuya by 马淑雅<br />
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_in_China.pptx|PowerPoint on Emergence of translation and interpretation in China]]--Mashuya by 马淑雅<br />
<br />
===Session 2, Topic 4: 日本起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation in Japan===<br />
*Handout for download: [[Media:The_Emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_in_Japan.docx|The Emergence of translation and interpretation in Japan]] by 孟莹 --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 16:10, 27 September 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The_Emergence_of_Translation_and_Interpretation_in_Japan.ppt|Powerpoint on the Emergence of Translation and Interpretation in Japan]] by 孟莹--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 16:10, 27 September 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
===Homework from Session 2 (Sep 28, 2020), due on (Oct 5, 2020)===<br />
1. Every student should translate 1 paragraph of an English book on Contemporary Chinese Literature INTO CHINESE. Link: [[20200928_trans|here]].<br />
<br />
2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20200928_trans|here]].<br />
<br />
==3rd Session: History==<br />
<br />
===Session 3, Topic 1:中国古代翻译史History of Translation in Ancient China===<br />
*Handout for download：[[Media:Handout for History of Translation in Ancient China.doc]]--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 09:14, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media: History of Translation in Ancient China.pptx]]--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 09:14, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 3, Topic 2: 中国翻译史代表人物The Representatives in Chinese Translation History===<br />
*Handout for download: [[Media:Chin_Trans_Hist_Rep.docx|The Representatives in Chinese Translation History]] --[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 11:35, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:....pptx|The Representatives in Chinese Translation History]] --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:36, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 3, Topic 3: 中国翻译史的四个阶段 The Four Stages of Chinese Translation History===<br />
*Handout for download: [[Media:The four stages of Chinese translation history.docx|Description of the file]] PLEASE UPLOAD by --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:08, 5 October 2020 (UTC)XX<br />
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The_four_stages_of_Chinese_translation_history.pptx|The Four Stages of Chinese Translation History]] by --[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 16:16, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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===Session 3, Topic 4: 当代中国之翻译 Translation in Contemporary China===<br />
*Handout for download: [[Media:Handout for Translation in Contemporary China.docx|Translation in today's China]] by --[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 02:08, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Translation in Contemporary China(1).pptx|Presentation on translation in China today]] --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 01:05, 5 October 2020 (UTC) Zhang Yuxing by 张宇星<br />
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==='''Homework from Session 3 (Oct 5, 2020), for Session 4 due on (Oct 12, 2020)'''===<br />
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1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book "Translation Studies". <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201005_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
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2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201005_trans|here]].<br />
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==Session 4: Development==<br />
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===Session 4, Topic 1: 西方翻译史 Western translation history===<br />
*Handout for download: [[Media:....docx|Western translation history]] by Zhou Siqing--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:57, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Western translation history.pptx|Western translation history]] by Zhang Qi [[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 07:46, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 4, Topic 2: 中国佛经翻译的发展 The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures.docx]] by Jiang Qiwei--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:26, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures.ppt|The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures]] by Hu Jin--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:26, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 4, Topic 3:西方翻译理论史History of Western Translation Theory===<br />
*Handout for download: [[Media:...docx|History of Western Translation Theory]] by --[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 13:19, 4 October 2020 (UTC)XX<br />
* Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:...pptx| Brief History of Western Translation Theory]] by --[[User:Zhou Shiqing|Zhou Shiqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shiqing|talk]]) 13:19, 4 October 2020 (UTC)XX<br />
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===Session 4, Topic 4:口译未来的发展 Prospect of Interpreting===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Prospect of Interpreting.docx]]-by Zhang Yinliu--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 08:30, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Prospect of Interpreting.pptx]]--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 08:23, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 4, Topic 5:新中国成立后翻译的发展 Translation Development of New China===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:Translation Development of New China.pdf]] by Li Luyi --[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:47, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Translation Development .pptx]] by Zheng Huajun--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:47, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 4, Topic 6:圣经翻译的发展 The Development of Bible Translation===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Development of Bible Translation.docx]]--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:05, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Development of Bible Translation.pptx]] by Han Haiyang--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 02:01, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 4, Topic 7:机器翻译的发展 The Development of Machine Translation===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:Handout-The Development of Machine Translation.docx]] by Deng Jinxia----[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 12:42, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:PPT The Development of Machine Translation.pptx]] by Han Wanzhen--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 06:31, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 4, Topic 8:视听翻译的发展 The Development of Audiovisual Translation===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Development of Audiovisual Translation-Handout.docx]]--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 16:01, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Development of Audiovisual Translation-PPT.pptx]] by Cheng Yusi--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 16:04, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==='''Homework from Session 4 (Oct 12, 2020), for Session 5 due on (Oct 19, 2020)'''===<br />
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1. Every student should translate a short passage of a paper on the Chinese essay. <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201012_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
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2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. [[20201012_trans|here]].<br />
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3. Take part in an online survey. The survey is currently prepared by the fellow students.<br />
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==Session 5: ==<br />
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===Session 5, Topic 1:林纾的翻译 Lin Shu's translation===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:Translation by Lin Shu.docx]]--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:50, 29 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation by Lin Shu(After correcting).pptx]]--Xu Pengfei<br />
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===Session 5, Topic 2:茅盾的翻译 Mao Dun's Translation===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:Mao Dun's Translation.docx]]--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 02:44, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[[Media:translations by Mao Dun.pptx]]--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 13:14, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 5, Topic 3:严复和天演论 Yan Fu and Tianyan Lun===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:YAN Fu and Tianyan Lun.docx]]--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 09:53, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Yuan Yuchen<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:YAN Fu and Tianyan Lun.pptx]]--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 10:28, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
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Please stick to your 5 minutes with your presentation. We are 3 presentations behind. Thank you for your cooperation.<br />
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===Session 5, Topic 4:《红楼梦》的英译 The Translation of ''The Red Chamber Dreams''===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Translation of ''The Red Chamber Dreams''.docx]]--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 13:38, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Translation of ''The Red Chamber Dreams''.pptx]]----[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 03:59, 24 October 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
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===Session 5, Topic 5:《圣经》的早期汉译 The Early Translation of the Bible into Chinese===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Early Translation of the Bible into Chinese.docx]]--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 15:22, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Early Translation of the Bible into Chinese.ppt]]--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 14:55, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 5, Topic 6:梁实秋的翻译 The Translation of Liang Shiqiu===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Liang Shiqiu's Translation.pdf]]--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]]([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:32, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media: Liang Shiqiu.pdf]]--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]]([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 00:32, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Session 6: Early Theories==<br />
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==='''Homework from Session 5 (Oct 19, 2020), for Session 6 due on (Oct 26, 2020)'''===<br />
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1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book "Translation Studies". <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201019_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
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2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201019_trans|here]].<br />
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===Session 6, Topic 1: 巴斯奈特文化翻译观 The Cultural Translation Theory of Bassnett===<br />
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Handout for download: [[Media:The Cultural Translatioin Theory of Susan Bassnett.pdf]]--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]]([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 16:36, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Cultural Translatioin Theory of Bassnett.ppt]]--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 05:07, 24 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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===Session 6, Topic 2: 中国早期代表性佛经翻译理论 Early Representative Theories of Buddhist Scriptures Translation in China===<br />
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Handout for download:[[Media:Early Representative Theories of Buddhist Scriptures Translation in China.docx]]--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:23, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Early Representative Theories of Buddhist Scriptures Translation in China.pptx]]--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 00:43, 26 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 6, Topic 3: 两种西方早期翻译模式的比较分析:贺拉斯模式和杰罗姆模式 The Comparative Analysis of Two Early Western Translation Models: Horace Model and Jerome Model===<br />
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Handout for download:[[Media:The Comparative Analysis of Two Translation Models.docx]]--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 09:41, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The_Comparative_Analysis_of_Two_Translation_Models.pptx]]--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 09:24, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br />
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===Session 6, Topic 4: 卡特福德的《翻译的语言学理论》 A Linguistic Theory of Translation of J.C.Catford===<br />
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Handout for download:[[Media:A Linguistic Theory of Translation of Catford.docx]]--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 12:30, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:A Linguistic Theory of Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 12:38, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 6, Topic 5: 中西早期译论对比 The Comparison between Chinese and Western Early Translation Theories===<br />
Handout for download:[[Media:Comparison of Early Translation Theories between China and the West.docx]]--[[User:QiKai|Qi Kai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 14:04, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom Presentation for download:[[Media:Chinese and Western Early Theories Comparison.pptx]]--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 13:26, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 6, Topic 6: 系统翻译理论的早期尝试 Early Attempts at Systematic Translation Theory===<br />
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Handout for download: [[Media:Early Attempts at Systematic Translation Theory.docx]]--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 12:40, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Early Attempts at Systematic Translation Theory.ppt]]--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]])03:52, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Session 7: Western theories==. 周巧 presentation PowerPoint 朱素珍 handout Cat ford Translation Shift Theory<br />
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===Homework from Session 6 (Oct 26, 2020), for Session 6 due on (Nov 2, 2020)===<br />
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1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book "Translation Studies". <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201026_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
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2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201026_trans|here]].<br />
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===Session 7, Topic 1: 奈达功能对等理论 Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
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Handout for download:[[Media:Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory.docx]]<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory ppt.pptx]]--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 02:59, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 7, Topic 2: 多元系统理论 Polysystem Theory===<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Polysystem Theory ppt.pptx]]--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 11:35, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Handout for download:[[Media:Polysystem Theory.docx]]--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 11:21, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 7, Topic 3： 后殖民主义翻译理论 Post-colonial Translation Theory===<br />
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Handout for download:[[Media:Post-colonial Translation Theory.doc]]--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 12:27, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Post-colonial Translation Theory.pptx]]--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 01:29, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 7, Topic 4： 布拉格学派 Prague School===<br />
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Handout for download: [[Media:Prague_School-Handout.doc]]--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 14:48, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Prague School.pptx]]--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:08, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 7, Topic 5： 目的论 Skopos Theory===<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Skopos Theory.pptx]]--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 07:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
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Handout for download:[[Media:Skopos Theory.docx]]--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:21, 2 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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===Session 7, Topic 6： 语言学派 Linguistic School===<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Linguistic School.pptx]]----[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Handout for download: [[Media:Linguistic School-Handout.doc]]----[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:48, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Session 8: Methods==<br />
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===Homework from Session 7 (Nov 2, 2020), for Session 8 due on (Nov 9, 2020)===<br />
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1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book "Translation Studies". <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201102_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
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2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201102_trans|here]].<br />
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===Session 8, Topic 1： 正说反译与反说正译 Negation===<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Negation-Gan Fengyu.pptx]][[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 13:01, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Handout for download:[[Media:Negation.docx]]--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 12:56, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 8, Topic 2：异化策略下的翻译方法 Translation Methods of Foreignization Strategy ===<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation Methods of Foreignization Strategy-Zhao Xiaoyan.pptx]]--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 15:35, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Handout for download:[[Media:Translation Methods of Foreignization Strategy-Zhang Hui.docx]]--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 15:33, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 8, Topic 3： 交际翻译与语义翻译 Communicative Translation and Semantic Translation===<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Communicative Translation and Semantic Translation.pptx]]by Zhang Yu--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 13:01, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Handout for download:[[Media:Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation-handout.docx]]--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 13:49, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 8, Topic 4： 直译与意译 Literal Translation and Free translation===<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Literal Translation and Free translation.pptx]]--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:45, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
Handout for download:[[Media:Literal Translation and Free translation Handout.docx]]--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 01:22, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 8, Topic 5： 增译与减译 Amplification and Omission===<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Amplification and Omission.pptx]]--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 03:06, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Amplification And Omission.docx]]--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 05:05, 9 November 2020 (UTC)Wensixing<br />
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===Session 8, Topic 6： 影视字幕的翻译方法-以《肖申克的救赎》为例 The Translation Method of Film and Television Subtitles——Taking Shawshank’s Redemption as an Example===<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Translation Method of Film and Television Subtitles—Taking Shawshank’s Redemption as an Example.pptx]]--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 01:21, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
Handout for download:[[Media:The Translation Method of Film and Television Subtitles—Taking Shawshank’s Redemption as an Example Handout.docx]]--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 01:16, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Session 9: Style==<br />
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===Homework from Session 8 (Nov 9, 2020), for Session 9 due on (Nov 16, 2020)===<br />
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1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201116_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
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2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201116_trans|here]].<br />
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===Session 9, Topic 1: 源语风格和翻译 Style of Source Text and Translation===<br />
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Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Style of Source Text and Translation.docx]]--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 06:48, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Style of Source Text and Translation1.pptx]]--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 07:03, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 9, Topic2 : 科技翻译 Scientific Style===<br />
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Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Scientific Style.docx]]--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 01:42, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Scientific Style.pptx]]--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:17, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 9,Topic 3:不同翻译风格对比 Comparison among Different Translation Styles===<br />
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Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Handout Session 9 Comparison among Different Translation Styles.docx]]--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 14:40, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Session 9 Comparison among Different Translation Styles.pptx]]--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 14:40, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 9,Topic 4: 文学风格可译与不可译 On Literary Style from a Translatable View and Untranslatable View===<br />
Classroom handout for download:[[Media:On Literary Style from a Translatable View and Untranslatable View.docx]]--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:49, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:On Literary Style from a Translatable View and Untranslatable View.pptx]] by Li Yongshan --[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:49, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 9,Topic 5: 翻译与风格 Translation and Style= ==<br />
Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Translation_and_Style.docx]]--Hu Huifang<br />
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Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Translation_and_Style.pptx]]--Zeng Yanhu<br />
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[[Media:Example.ogg]]<br />
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==Session 10: Translation Studies==<br />
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===Homework from Session 9 (Nov 16, 2020), for Session 10 due on (Nov 23, 2020)===<br />
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1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201123_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
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2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201123_trans|here]].<br />
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===Session 10,Topic 1: 翻译转换 Translation Shifts===<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation_Shifts.pptx]]--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 14:51, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Translation_Shifts_handout.docx]]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 15:05, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 10,Topic 2: 解码和重新编码 Decoding and Recoding===<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Decoding and Recoding.pptx]]--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 08:33, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Decoding and Recoding.docx]]--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 04:32, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 10,Topic 3: 视听翻译 Audiovisual Translation===<br />
Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Audiovisual Translation.docx]]--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 13:19, 22 November 2020 (UTC) - READ BY NIE XIAOLOU<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Audiovisual Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 00:26, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 10,Topic 4: 对钱钟书“化境说”的理论研究 The Translation Studies of Qian Zhongshu’s Theory of Huajing===<br />
[[Media:Handout-The Translation Studies of Qian Zhongshu’s theory of Huajing.docx]]--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 05:38, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[[Media:The Translation Studies of Qian Zhongshu’s theory of Huajing.pptx]]--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 05:40, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 10, Topic 5: 英汉被动语态对比研究及其翻译策略 Contrastive Studies of Passive Voice(C&E) and its Translation Strategies===<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Contrastive Studies of Passive Voice(C&E) and its Translation Strategies.pptx]] --[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 09:20, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Contrastive Studies of Passive Voice(C&E) and its Translation Strategies.docx]]--[[User:Blank|Zhang Hu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hu|talk]]) 10:23, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 10,Topic 6: 不可译性及其转化策略 Untranslatability and Translation Strategies====<br />
<br />
Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Untranslatability and Translation Strategies.docx]]--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 12:03, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Untranslatability & Translation Strategies.pptx]]--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 12:45, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Session 11: Theory and Practice==<br />
<br />
===Homework from Session 10 (Nov 23, 2020), for Session 11 due on (Nov 30, 2020)===<br />
<br />
1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201130_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
<br />
2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201130_trans|here]].<br />
<br />
===Session 11,Topic 1: 功能对等理论对商标翻译的影响 The Effect of the Equivalence Theory on Trademark Translation===<br />
<br />
Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Handout.The Theory and Practice.docx]]--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 07:38, 30 November 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Effect of the Equivalence Theory on Trademark Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 08:08, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 11,Topic 2: 归化和异化在翻译中的实践 Translation practice in domestication and foreignization===<br />
<br />
Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Handout.The Practice of Foreignization and Domestication.docx]]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 01:21, 30 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation practice in domestication and foreignization.pptx]]--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 09:00, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
<br />
===Session 11,Topic 3: 目的论及其应用 Skopos Theory and its Applications===<br />
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Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Skopos Theory and its Applications.docx]]--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 05:08, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download：[[Media:Skopos Theory and its Applications.pptx]]--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 05:16, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 11,Topic 4:语义翻译与交际翻译 The Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation=== <br />
<br />
Classroom handout for download:[[Media:The Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation.docx]]--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 16:30, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation.ppt]]--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 06:56, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 11,Topic 5: 奈达的功能对等理论及其在科技文英译汉中的应用 Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory and its Application in E-C Translation of EST===<br />
<br />
Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Nida’s_Functional_Equivalence_Theory_and_its_Application_in E-C_Translation_of_EST.docx]]--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 02:03, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory and its Application in E-C Translation of EST.pptx]]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 03:25, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 11,Topic 6:女性主义翻译 The Feminist Translation===<br />
<br />
Handout for download：[[Media:Feminist Translation.doc]]--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:07, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Classroom presentation：[[Media:Feminist Translation.pptx]]<br />
<br />
==Session 12: Different Aspects==<br />
<br />
===Homework from Session 11 (Nov 30, 2020), for Session 12 due on (Dec 7, 2020)===<br />
<br />
1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201207_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
<br />
2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201207_trans|here]].<br />
<br />
===Session 12, Topic 1: 政论文翻译 Translation of Political Text===<br />
<br />
Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Translation of Political Text.docx]]--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 12:21, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Translation of Political Text.pptx]] By Chen Jiaxin --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 12:30, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 12, Topic 2: 诗歌翻译 Poem Translation===<br />
Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Poem Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 14:59, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Media:Poem_Translation_handout.docx]] by Zhang Yujie& Yang Hairong--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 03:14, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 12, Topic 3: 旅游翻译 Tourism Translation===<br />
Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Tourism Translation.pptx]] by Tan Xinjie & Wei Yafei --[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 09:53, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei <br />
<br />
<br />
[[Media:Tourism_Translation_handout.docx]] by Tan Xinjie & Wei Yafei--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 10:06, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Wei Yafei<br />
<br />
==Session 13: East West comparison==<br />
<br />
===Homework from Session 12 (Nov 30, 2020), for Session 13 due on (Dec 14, 2020)===<br />
<br />
1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201214_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
<br />
2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201214_trans|here]].<br />
<br />
===Topic 1:严复和泰特勒翻译标准之对比 A Comparison between Yan Fu's and Tytler's Translation Criteria===<br />
[[Media:A Comparison Between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s Translation Criteria.pptx]]--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 07:15, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
[[Media:A Comparison Between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s Translation Criteria.docx]]--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 06:52, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
<br />
===Topic 2:中西翻译发展比较Comparison of the Development of Chinese and Western Translation===<br />
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[[Media:Comparison of the Development of Chinese and Western Translation.pptx]] by Liu Yi.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 15:38, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
[[Media:Comparison of the Development of Chinese and Western Translation.doc]] by Tan Yuanyuan.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 15:47, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Topic 3:中西文化差异对翻译的影响The Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on Translation===<br />
[[Media:Handout-The Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on Translation.doc]] by Yang Yue--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 05:10, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
[[Media:The Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on Translation.pptx]] by Yi Zichu--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 05:01, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Topic 4:中国佛经翻译与圣经翻译的比较Comparison Between the translation of Buddhist scriptures of China and Bible translation===<br />
[[Media:The Comparison of the Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures and Bible translation.pptx]]by Xiao Ting--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 00:54, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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[[Media:The Comparison of the Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures and Bible Translation.docx]]--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 02:07, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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===Topic 5:20世纪中叶以来中西翻译理论对比 Comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century===<br />
<br />
[[Media:Comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century by Mo Ling.pptx]]--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 09:38, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
[[Media:Handout of comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century by Yuan Tianyi.doc]]<br />
<br />
===Topic 6；中西思维方式差异在翻译中的体现——以习语为例 The Embodiment of the Differences between Chinese and Western Thinking Modes in Translation -- Taking Idioms as an Example===<br />
<br />
Classroom handout for download: [[Media:The Embodiment of the Differences between Chinese and Western Thinking Modes in Translation -- Taking Idioms as an Example.docx]]--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Sha]] --[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Sha]] ([[User talk:Chen Sha|talk]]) 14:43, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The Embodiment of the Differences between Chinese and Western Thinking Modes in Translation -- Taking Idioms as an Example.pptx]] By Chen Jiangning --[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Jiangning]]--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 14:43, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Session 14: Strategies==<br />
===Homework from Session 13 (Dec 14, 2020), for Session 14 due on (Dec 21, 2020)===<br />
<br />
1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201221_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
<br />
2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201221_trans|here]].<br />
<br />
===Topic 1；阿拉伯大征服时代与翻译学 The Era of Arab Conquest and Translatology===<br />
<br />
Classroom handout for download: [[Media:The Era of Arab Conquest and Translatology.docx]] Ma Zhixing＆Wu kai --[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 10:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The Era of Arab Conquest and Translatology.ppt]] Ma Zhixing＆Wu kai --[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 10:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Topic 2；韦努蒂的抵抗式翻译策略 Resistancy Translation Strategy—Lawrence Venuti===<br />
<br />
Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Resistancy Translation Strategy—Lawrence Venuti.docx]] Tang Yiran&Yang Ziling --[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 23:34, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Resistancy Translation Strategy—Lawrence Venuti.ppt]] Tang Yiran&Yang Ziling --[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 23:34, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Topic 3；英日译本对照--以《雪国》为例The Contrast of Japanese-English Translation--Taking "Snow Country" as an Example===<br />
<br />
Classroom handout for download: [[Media:The Contrast of Differences in Japanese-English Xie Ziyi& Peng Yongliang.docx]] <br />
--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 05:48, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The Contrast of Differences in Japanese-English Xie Ziyi& Peng Yongliang.pptx]] <br />
--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 05:48, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Session 15: Contemporary Translation Theories==<br />
<br />
===Homework from Session 14 (Dec 21, 2020), for Session 15 due on (Dec 28, 2020)===<br />
<br />
1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201228_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
<br />
2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201228_trans|here]].<br />
<br />
<br />
===Topic 1 Contemporary Translation Theories ===<br />
<br />
Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Contemporary Translation Theories.docx]] <br />
<br />
<br />
Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Contemporary Translation Theories.pptx]] <br />
--[[User:Sagara Seydou 3|Sagara Seydou 3]] ([[User talk:Sagara Seydou 3|talk]]) 08:07, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Session 16: Final Discussion==<br />
<br />
==List of topics for presentations and handouts in class==<br />
1 Emergence: <br />
孟莹: 日本起源, 聂晓楼: 西方起源, 马淑雅: 中国起源, 彭锐宏: 人类起源<br />
<br />
2 History: <br />
周思庆 张琪: 西方翻译史; 马娟 刘智伟: 历史上中国著名的翻译家; 解帆 张宇星: 现当代中国翻译演变; 凌子瑾 李玉: 中国古代翻译史; 杨晨婷 余妮: 中国近代翻译史; 周诗卿 纪甜甜: 西方翻译理论简史<br />
<br />
3 Development: <br />
韩宛真 邓锦霞: 机器翻译的发展; 蒋淇玮 胡瑾：中国佛经翻译的发展; 吴琼 张银柳: 口译未来的发展; 成于思 龚钰冕: 翻译实践的发展; 郑华君 李璐伊: 新中国成立后翻译的发展; 韩海洋 彭育志：圣经翻译的发展<br />
<br />
4 Early Literary Examples: <br />
许鹏飞 肖伊宁: 林纾的翻译; 许晶 李凌月; 袁诗琦 姚佳; 邹鑫雨 曹润鑫:《红楼梦》的英译; 袁雨晨 肖茜: 严复和《天演论》; 苏琳 周玉娟<br />
<br />
5 Early Theories: <br />
徐梦蝶 杨逸; 陈涵 曾心媛; 陈静静 高明珠; 文晓艺 韦洪朗: 严复与林纾的翻译理论; 康浩宇 漆凯: 玄奘翻译理论; 刘洋诺 邬香: 系统翻译理论的早期尝试<br />
<br />
6 (Western) Theories: <br />
康灵凤 莫南: 功能对等理论; 吴琪 常慧月：多元系统理论; 纪甜甜 姜好: 后殖民翻译理论; 许静 游雨婷; 布拉格学派; 肖双玲 王轩: 目的论; 李丽丽 王源: 语言学派<br />
<br />
7 Methods: <br />
甘奉玉 丁代凤; 赵晓燕 张慧: 异化策略下的翻译方法; 张瑜 谭星越: 语义翻译和交际翻译; 吴一露 司妤: 直译和意译; 文偲荇 李梦: 增译和减译; 林敏 刘金惺琦<br />
<br />
8 Style: <br />
孔祥慧 孔亚楠; 罗雨晴 娄灿灿; 管钦清：不同翻译风格对比； 林鑫 李泳珊：文学风格可译与不可译; 曾雁湖 胡慧芳<br />
<br />
9 Translation Studies: <br />
罗维嘉 桂一枝; 彭小玲 彭丹; 全美欣 宋建茹:视听翻译;石迪文 易欢; 姚诚 张虎：中英语态对比及其翻译策略; 刘欧 陈永相：不可译性及其转化策略<br />
<br />
10 Theory and Practice: <br />
彭娟 陶冶; 吴子佳 雷旷溪: 归化异化在翻译中的实践; 汤蓓 王美玲; 蒋凤仪 顾东方; 周园曲 祝美梅; 阳慧 张佩闻; <br />
<br />
11 Different Aspects: <br />
周艺文 陈佳欣; 谭鑫洁 魏亚菲; 张毓婕 杨海容; <br />
<br />
12 East West Comparison: <br />
唐铭 欧蓉; 谭媛媛 刘艺: 中西翻译发展史及比较; 杨悦 义子楚: 中西文化差异对翻译的影响; 肖婷 徐佳：中国佛经翻译和圣经翻译的比较; 莫玲 袁天翼; 陈莎 陈江宁：中西方思维方式差异在翻译中的体现--以习语为例。<br />
<br />
13 Strategies: <br />
吴恺 马智星: 阿拉伯大征服时代与翻译学; 汤伊然 杨子泠(劳伦斯·韦努蒂的异化翻译策略); 彭永亮 谢子熠<br />
<br />
14 Contemporary translation Theories: <br />
Sagara Seydo Nguyen, Thuy Hien (Helen)<br />
<br />
==List of Topics for final exam papers in Translation Studies==<br />
<br />
学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
Ideas<br />
*literal vs. free<br />
*Faithful/loyal/foreignization/alienation/exotization vs. domestication/localization<br />
*unit of translation<br />
*contrastive analysis<br />
*the equivalence problem (functional, dynamic)<br />
*translatability vs untranslatability <br />
*SLT vs TLT relation<br />
*translation types, strategies, styles, methods<br />
*communication factors, translator role in social setting<br />
*cognitive factors<br />
*machine translation<br />
*translation quality assessment<br />
*translation ethics / manipulation etc.<br />
<br />
<br />
Suggested topics for final exam papers (chapters of book on translation studies)<br />
<br />
Each student needs to prepare one small topic for a 5-min. classroom presentation (with a fellow student, who writes a handout about it) and needs to find a topic for a chapter of a book on Translation Studies. Alternatively to the classroom presentation, the student can also assist the teacher by preparing class, sorting the wiki page etc.<br />
<br />
Here is the link to the list: [[Topics in Translation Studies]]<br />
<br />
=Final Exam Papers=<br />
<span style="color:red">The deadline has been extended to '''Dec 21, 2020'''. Please find a paper you want to proof read, contact the author, proof read (by copying each paragraph and make corrections/suggestions in the copy) and sign until Dec 19. The author then finalizes (works in the suggestions) until the final deadline Dec 21!</span><br />
==Structure==<br />
需要有topic、学生姓名、学号、专业、Abstract、Key words、题目、摘要、关键词、不同的章回（比如1. Introduction、2. Nida’s Theory、3. ……、4.……、5. Conclusion、References)、然后还需要每个阶段以后有来源。一个阶段不要超过100英文词。每个章回会有几个阶段没问题。每个阶段以后需要一个同学的这个阶段的修改。<br />
<br />
==Tips for writing your final exam paper: How to indicate your references==<br />
*You can use the existing book chapters here as an example.<br />
*Please write the text and indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. And then, you need to add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: East China Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
*Do '''not''' write any references like in one of the sample chapters:<br />
<br />
[1] dsalkfkdsa<br />
<br />
[2] adsfadsfag<br />
<br />
But only the following way:<br />
<br />
(Liu Miqing 2010, 17) in the text<br />
<br />
and then<br />
<br />
'''References'''<br />
*Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
*Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: East China Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
<br />
Also, please avoid using the three apostrophes like ' ' ' (without spaces). Use the equal signs to mark headers and subheaders instead. If your paper topic has two equal signs at the beginning and end of your topic, then use three equal signs for your sub headers. Example (without spaces):<br />
= = Topic = =<br />
< c e n t e r > Student Name, Student no. < / c e n t e r ><br />
= = = Abstract = = =<br />
This chapter is on ....<br />
= = = Key Words = = =<br />
Egg, Hen<br />
= = = 题目 = = =<br />
= = = 摘要 = = =<br />
= = = 关键词 = = =<br />
= = = Introduction = = =<br />
Here starts the normal text of the chapter. Please remember to indicate the source of EACH PARAGRAPH, sometimes even of single sentences. You can indicate it like this. (Woesler 2020, 345) And don't forget to mention the full bibliographical entry beneath under ''References''.<br />
= = = The Egg = = =<br />
Bla, bla, bla<br />
= = = The Hen = = =<br />
Bla, bla, bla<br />
= = = Conclusion = = =<br />
Bla, bla, bla<br />
= = = References = = =<br />
Woesler, Martin. (2020). Responsibility and Ethics in Times of Corona. Woesler, Martin and Hans-Martin Sass eds. ''Medicine and Ethics in Times of Corona'' Muenster: LIT<br />
<br />
==Sample papers==<br />
You can find the full papers also on the Webpage [[History of Translation Studies]]). They are marked with "Sample paper".<br />
* A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories<br />
* An Analysis of the Book of Contemporary Translation Theories and Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications<br />
* Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theroy<br />
* Comparison of Derrida’s and Benjamin’s Translation View<br />
* Impacts of Western Translation Theories on The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish<br />
* On the Comparison between "Sublimation" an "Functonal Equivalence" Theories<br />
* Study on Gladys’ Translation of The Border Town from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics<br />
* The Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Communication<br />
* Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior<br />
<br />
==Website to write your final exam paper on==<br />
[[20220112_final_exam|final exam page]]<br />
<br />
As a reference, here is the information about last year's final exam papers:<br />
<br />
The website where everybody wrote their final exam paper on became too big and produced a database error. Therefore we split the website into 10 small websites. They are sorted like the chapters in the book. Please look for your name and find the right of the 10 small websites to edit your book chapter. Everybody also needs to help to improve other book chapters (copy a paragraph, paste it beneath, make your corrections in the paragraph and sign it).<br />
<br />
Here you can write your Final Exam Papers:<br />
<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1, (samples)]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2, (samples)]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3, students: 蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi， 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi, 郑华君 Zheng Huajun, 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi, 陶冶 Tao Ye, 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4, students: 杨海容 Yang Hairong，游雨婷 You Yuting，王源 Wang Yuan，徐佳 Xu Jia，凌子瑾 Ling Zijin，石迪文 Shi Diwen，张玲 Zhang Ling，曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan，姚诚 Yao Cheng，朱旭 Zhu Xu，许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei，赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan，张琪 Zhang Qi，周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5, students: 李玉 Li Yu，林敏 Lin Min，文偲荇 Wen Sixing， 周诗卿 Zhou Shiqing，朱素瑶 Zhu Suyao，胡百辉 Hu Baihui，马智星 Ma Zhixing, 胡瑾 Hu Jin，张毓婕 Zhang Yujie，顾东方 Gu Dongfang，高明珠 Gao Mingzhu，张虎 Zhang Hu，李璐伊 Li Luyi，袁诗琦 Yuan Shiqi，王美玲 Wang Meiling，康浩宇 Kang Haoyu，王轩 Wang Xuan，陈永相 Chen Yongxiang，莫玲 Mo Ling，袁天翼 Yuan Tianyi]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6, students:汤蓓 Tang Bei欧蓉 Ou Rong，谭星越 Tan Xingyue，周罗平 Zhou Luoping，龚钰冕 Gong Yumian，邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu， 陈惠 Chen Hui，罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing，谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7, students:曾雁湖 Zeng Yanhu，邓锦霞 Deng Jinxia，姜好 Jiang Hao，管钦清 Guan Qinqing，唐铭 Tang Ming，娄灿灿 Lou Cancan，丁代凤 Ding Daifeng，苏琳 Su Lin，徐佳 Xu Jia， 刘艺 Liu Yi，李凌月 Li Lingyue，马娟 Ma Juan，吴琪 Wu Qi，姚佳 Yao Jia，李海泉 Li Haiquan，吴琼 Wu Qiong，杨子泠 Yang Ziling，林敏 Lin Min，彭锐宏 Peng Ruihong ，汤伊然 Tang Yiran，阳慧 Yang Hui，刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8, students: 王煜 Wang Yu，方洁玲 Fang Jieling，许静 Xu Jing，周书尧 Zhou Shuyao，彭永亮 Peng Yongliang，宋建茹 Song Jianru，韦洪朗 Wei Honglang，魏亚菲 Wei Yafei，张雪仪 Zhang Xueyi，甘奉玉 Gan Fengyu，赵茜 Zhao Xi，吴恺 Wu Kai，周艺文 Zhou Yiwen，张维虹 Zhang Weihong，司妤 Si Yu]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9, students: 易欢 Yi Huan，曾良 Zeng Liang，义子楚 Yi Zichu，欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling，石海瑶 Shi Haiyao，胡慧芳 Hu Huifang，吴一露 Wu Yilu，纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian, 桂一枝 Gui Yizhi，刘欧 Liu Ou，祝美梅 Zhu Meimei，谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan，张银柳 Zhang Yinliu，李泳珊 Li Yongshan，聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10, students:陈静静 Chen Jingjing， Thuy Hien Nguyen Thuy Hien，肖茜 Xiao Xi，余妮 Yu Ni，韩宛真 Han Wanzhen，陈佳欣 Chen Jiaxin，成于思 Cheng Yusi，方洁玲 Fang Jieling，张慧 Zhang Hui，吴子佳 Wu Zijia，孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui，许晶 Xu Jing，周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan，曹润鑫 Cao Runxin，肖伊宁 Xiao Yining, Sagara Seydou，欧阳静兰 Ouyang Jinglan]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_11 Part 11, students:李丽琴 Li Liqin, 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 刘怡瑜 Liu Yiyu, 李梦 Li Meng, 林鑫 Lin Xin, 罗维嘉 Luo Weijia, 漆凯 Qi Kai, 郭露 Guo Lu，张宇星 Zhang Yuxing, 陈涵 Chen Han, 李丽丽 Li Lili, 刘柳 Liu Liu, 陈莎 Chen Sha, 徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie,彭丹 Peng Dan， 谢子熠 Xie Ziyi，莫南 Mo Nan]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_12 Part 12, students: 全美欣 Quan Meixin，何长琦 He Changqi，刘博 Liu Bo，刘金惺琦 liu Jinxingqi，谌孙福 Chen Sunfu，曾芳缘 Zeng Fangyuan，肖婷 Xiao Ting，常慧月 Chang Huiyue，彭娟 Peng Juan，彭小玲 Peng Xiaoling，杨悦 Yang Yue，肖双玲 Xiao Shuangling，彭育志 Peng Yuzhi，孟莹 Meng Ying]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_13 Part 13, students: 杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng，杨逸 Yang Yi, 马淑雅 Ma Shuya, 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan, 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_14 Part 14, students:周思庆 Zhou Siqing，蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei，瞿淼 Qu Miao，韩海洋 Han Haiyang，刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi，解帆 Xie Fan，刘洋诺 Liu Yangnuo，袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen，邬香 Wu Xiang]<br />
<br />
=Benefits=<br />
This course is registered as a "EU Expert" diploma supplement course. Collect 10 such courses during your study and you receive a certificate by the Jean Monnet Chair.<br />
<br />
=Misplaced things=<br />
Handout 4 of Ren Xin --<br />
贺骥.“世界文学”概念:维兰德首创：<br />
Summary： 主要讲述了人们发现维兰德首次提出“世界文学”的过程，维兰德对“世界文学”的概念以及与歌德的比较。<br />
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一、为何说维兰德首创“世界文学”？<br />
1987 年，德国学者魏茨( Hans-Joachim Weitz，1904—2001) 在《阿卡迪亚》杂志上发表了一篇题为《维兰德是“世界文学”一词的首创者》的短文。魏茨声称他发现了德国作家维兰德( Christoph Martin Wieland，1733—1813) 在1790 至1813 年间亲笔书写的一则手记中首次提到“世界文学”。但维兰德于1813 年1 月20 日去世，他的同时代人并不知道他写有这则手记，歌德在不知情的情况下从1827 年1 月15 日起多次使用了“世界文学”这个词。维兰德与歌德对于“世界文学”的概念相近，但他没有详细论证。所以说，“世界文学”一次是维兰德首创，歌德第一次明确提出的<br />
二、维兰德“世界文学”的概念与歌德的比较<br />
1. 维兰德在创作早期作品时：世界文学就是世界各民族的文学名作的总集。该观点体现在《民族文学》文学是世界各民族的共同精神财富，世界文学就是所有时代所有民族的典范作品总集。<br />
2. 和歌德一样，维兰德的世界文学概念带有言必称希腊的欧洲中心主义色彩，他的世界文学乃是以古希腊罗马文学为正典、以欧洲文学为核心的世界各民族文学经典的总集。“阅读最优秀的作家的杰作”乃是维兰德“世界文学”概念的核心: 杰作即古往今来世界各民族的文学经典。<br />
3. 维兰德认为优秀作品的形成过程: 首先作家必须以阅世高人的文化修养和娴熟的艺术技巧创造有审美价值的“文学杰作”；其次是后世“最优秀的人们”对这些杰作的“宣扬”和“奉为样板”。<br />
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三、“世界文学”概念有三种定义: <br />
( 1) 广义的“世界文学”指的是所有民族和所有时代文学作品的总和( Gesamtliteratur) ; <br />
( 2) 狭义的“世界文学”指的是超时代的、具有普遍审美价值的世界各民族文学的典范作品总集( Kanon) ，换言之，“世界文学”就是具有世界声誉的文学杰作的荟萃，这种精英主义意义上的“世界文学”概念在当今学界占据了主导地位; <br />
( 3) 歌德于1827 年提出的文学发展蓝图，它指的是国际性的文学交往( Kommunikation der Literatur) 和文化接触，交往的结果就是具有特性的各民族文学的融合。<br />
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Reference: <br />
贺骥.“世界文学”概念:维兰德首创[J].社会科学,2014(07):176-182. --[[User:ImRx|ImRx]] ([[User talk:ImRx|talk]]) 13:24, 13 April 2018 (UTC)<br />
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[1]文飙.阿拉伯民间文学的珍品《一千零一夜》.<br />
1.流传情况： <br />
《一千零一夜》早在公元六世纪左右已在波斯、伊拉克和埃及产生并流传着。公元十世纪阿拨斯王朝统治时代汇集成书,后又经过数百年不断搜集、整理、加工和修改；大约到十六世纪才形成比较完整的总集。<br />
2.故事发生的地点：多在当时阿拉伯世界两大中心城市— 巴格达及开罗。<br />
3.《一千零一夜》，中文另一译名为《天方夜谭( 谈) 》的原因：<br />
这个译名的来源说明中世纪时期阿拉伯帝国与中国的关系。阿拉伯半岛的麦加城在帝国中称为“ 圣城”, 城内有古庙名“ 天房”, 中国古嫂都译为“ 天方”, 实即“ 天房”之误。我国明朝以前称阿拉伯为黑衣大食国，明朝以后则称为“ 天方国”, 这就是旧译本称为《天方夜谭》的原因。<br />
4.故事内容： 《一千零一夜》是一部包罗万象的民间故事集, 有格言、谚语、童话, 王子公主的恋爱故事, 及市民冒险故事。这些故事的主角从底层的劳苦大众到最高的统治者哈里发。能够比较全面而深刻地反映中世纪东方的社会生活。<br />
5.《一千零一夜》的起源：<br />
在古代印度和中国为海岛中,有一个萨桑国。残暴的国王山鲁亚尔每夜娶一王后,翌晨即杀掉再娶。老百姓受此威胁,十分恐怖,纷纷携儿带女逃走,致使城中十室九空。然而国王仍照例命令宰相寻找女子供他虐杀。一天，宰相找遍民间，没找到一个,便满怀恐惧、忧郁地转回府邸来。宰相的大女儿山鲁佐德见父亲情状,问明情由,执意让父亲把她嫁给国王,宰相不得已才把女儿送进宫去。山鲁佐德一见国王,就悲伤地哭泣起来，她希望国王允许她在死之前能和妹妹再见一面,国王同意了,派人到宰相家召敦亚佐德进宫。姐妹俩高高兴兴地坐在床脚下谈笑。其时,敦亚佐德请求姐姐讲个故事消磨时间。山鲁佐德便征得国王许可,开始讲起故事来,借以引动国王的好奇心和兴趣,从而免遭杀戮。这样,日复一日,山鲁佐德一直讲了一千零一个夜晚,最后，终于使国王悔悟。<br />
6.影响：<br />
《一千零一夜》在世界各国广为传播。<br />
它最早介绍到欧洲,对西方文化起过一定的积极作用,许多欧美文学艺术家,如但丁、乔叟、薄伽丘、莎士比亚、塞万提斯、莱辛等都或多或少地受到它的直接或间接的影响。 <br />
在我国，早在六十多年以前就有了《一千零一夜》的译本。<br />
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[2]冯辉.略论《一千零一夜》对世界文学的借鉴与影响.<br />
摘要：《一千零一夜》对世界文学的借鉴与影响。荷马史诗中的巨人故事对《一千零一夜》的启发 ,《一千零一夜》对法国、英国、德国、中国作家的影响。 <br />
一、流传情况：<br />
1.流传时间：多数学者认为:它的故事和手抄本在中近东地区开始流传的年代约在8 世纪中叶—9 世纪中叶。一些世界文学史家则认为:大约在十字军东征时期(1095— 1291), 《一千零一夜》的故事已通过民间传到欧洲。<br />
2.流传情况： <br />
a. 18 世纪初, 法国人加朗根据叙利亚抄本, 首次把《一千零一夜》译成法文出版, 以后在欧洲出现了各种文字的译本。<br />
b. 中国1900 年有过译本, 以后不断的出现多种白话文本。新中国成立后, 纳训选译的3 卷本以及80 年代出版的全译本1 —6 卷, 收集了275 个故事。<br />
二、《一千零一夜》对古希腊荷马史诗巨人故事的借鉴<br />
《一千零一夜》第4 卷第172 个故事《辛伯达航海的故事》写三次航海的故事, 可以看出受到古希腊荷马史诗《奥德修纪》中独眼巨人故事的影响, 又带有阿拉伯民族的特色。<br />
三、《一千零一夜》对世界文学的影响：<br />
1.文艺复兴人文主义作家对《一千零一夜》中故事的扬弃与创新<br />
a)法国：《一千零一夜》第2 卷第75 个故事《阿里·艾尔哲明的故事》与法国文艺复兴时期拉伯雷《巨人传》中第三代国王庞大固埃出生时的行囊装载十分相似。<br />
b)英国：在《一千零一夜》第3 卷第152 个故事的《亚历山大大帝和弱小民族的故事》与英国文艺复兴时期的作家莎士比亚的《哈姆雷特》中有类似的情节，两个故事有历史延续性与巧妙的联系。<br />
《一千零一夜》：<br />
东征西讨的希腊国王亚历山大,一次路过一个弱小国家, 其民众各自门前准备好了坟墓, 家家一贫如洗, 安贫乐道, 所以并不怕亚历山大来争夺地盘。亚历山大十分好奇, 亲自见他们的国王。国王拿了两个头骨, 告诉他这是两个国王的头骨, 一个生前暴虐, 死后安拉让他下地狱;一个生前公正廉明, 爱护百姓, 死后安拉让他升入天堂。国王又问亚历山大:“ 到底你是这两个帝王中的哪一个呢?”年青的亚历山大受了感动, 要这个国王做他的宰相。国王拒绝了他, 说他虽拥有一个大帝国, 却有许多仇敌。国王虽穷, 他所有的一切“ 仅仅是知足” 。亚历山大感慨万千,告辞归去, 不再侵犯他们。<br />
《哈姆雷特》：第五幕第一场墓地对话中 <br />
哈姆雷特面对死人头骨说道:“ 要是我们用想像推测下去, 谁知道亚历山大的高贵的尸体, 不就是塞在酒桶口上的泥土?”“ 凯撒死了, 你尊严的尸体, 也许变了泥把破墙填砌, 啊! 他从前是何等的英雄, 现在只好替人挡风遮雨。”<br />
c)意大利：意大利文艺复兴时期的小说家卜伽丘的《十日谈》中的贵妇宴请国王吃鸡宴, 以打退国王邪念的故事, 在《一千零一夜》第4 卷第175 个故事《宰相夫人的故事》中有类似情节。<br />
2.对18 世纪英国现实主义小说家笛福《鲁宾逊飘流记》的影响<br />
把《辛伯达航海的故事》与《鲁宾逊飘流记》相比较, 辛伯达可以说是鲁宾逊典型的雏型与前身, 鲁宾逊则更加丰富, 更带时代特点。<br />
1)不同点： <br />
辛伯达是中世纪阿拉伯人中积极进取, 发展海外贸易,不断向外开拓勇于冒险的新兴商人, 他开初坐享父亲遗产,挥霍一空, 最后决定变卖家产七次到海上做冒险生意。<br />
鲁宾逊是18 世纪英国资本主义原始积累时期的新资产阶级商人的代表, 父亲没有给他丰厚的资产, 他本人是不满现状的小商人, 三次海外冒险；<br />
辛伯达是在第7次航海时在一个岛国居住了27 年才返回故乡, 鲁宾逊是在第三次航海时在一个荒岛上度过了28 年, 才返回故乡。<br />
2)相似点：<br />
两人都曾遭到过毁灭性的打击, 死里逃生,但每次都以顽强的毅力, 惊人的应变能力, 沉着应付, 化险为夷；发财致富的欲望, 对海外世界的好奇与向往, 每次都促使他们不安现状, 敢于做一次又一次的冒险。<br />
3.对中国作家的影响<br />
《一千零一夜》第1 卷第12 个故事《脚夫和巴格达三个女人的故事》中，脚夫诵的表达自己忠信的诗同中国现代作家钱钟书的长篇小说《围城》中的苏小姐自己写的诗相似。这里已改造成一首爱情诗, 方鸿渐当时并不知道是苏小姐自己写的诗, 说这首诗是借的外债,<br />
四、小结<br />
因为国别不同, 语言不通, 翻译技术有限，后来的作家们不一定能亲自看到这些《一千零一夜》中的故事原文。但阿拉伯文化与文学对欧洲文艺复兴运动及后来的世界文学的发展起到的推动作用和所作的贡献是世界发展史上所公认的事实。<br />
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[3]陆英英.《一千零一夜》在欧洲.<br />
摘要： 介绍了欧洲许多国家早期对《一千零一夜》的译本。《一千零一夜》译成欧洲各种文字后, 引起了欧洲人收集和研究东方文学的热望, 激起了他们了解东方的兴趣。《一千零一夜》对欧洲文学包括戏剧、小说、诗歌、诗剧都产生了巨大影响。<br />
1.法国译本：<br />
A.1704-1717年出现的法国安东尼·加仑的译本是《一千零一夜》——最著名的译本。为了迎合读者掺杂了许多自己想象的情节<br />
B.1828年法国出版特雷布梯的译本 —— 增加情节，接近原版<br />
C.1969年出版了勒内赫瓦姆的《一千零一夜》译本 —— 忠于原作<br />
2.英国译本（几乎都是从法国译本转译而来）： <br />
A.1811年乔纳森·斯科特出版的译本 —— 最突出<br />
B.1838年，亨利·托伦斯打算给译文加注释, 但他只译了五十夜就死了<br />
C.1839-1841年，爱德华·威廉·莱恩的《一千零一夜》三卷本（从阿文直译），删去了当时英国的道德传统所不能接受的故事, 并写了许多注释 —— 极具参考价值<br />
D.1885年，理查德·伯顿的译本出版 —— 最完备的译本<br />
E.英国军官伯顿（会讲阿拉伯语）—— 强烈殖民主义色彩<br />
3.德国译本：<br />
A.第一个把《一千零一夜》译成德文的是东方学家冯哈曼尔。<br />
B.1837-1841年之间出现了凡勒的德译本 ——忠实原文，生涩<br />
C.东方学家莱塔马教授 —— 德国最著名的译本<br />
4.罗马尼亚译本：<br />
A.1771年，出版的《哈伦·拉希德的故事》——罗马尼亚最早<br />
B.1783年，修道院主教罗法伊勒出版了根据希腊文译出的全译本<br />
C.1835-1838年格拉西姆·哥嘉出版《哈利曼或者阿拉伯神话故事》四卷本译本<br />
D.1966-1976，罗马尼亚最大出版社——梅纳法出版社出版了十四卷本的《一千零一夜》<br />
5.俄文译本：<br />
A.萨利尔译的，东方学家卡利姆斯基出版的。<br />
B.高尔基于1904年也译过。<br />
C.列夫·托尔斯泰也译过几篇，如《皇帝和衬衣的故事》等。<br />
6.捷克译本：<br />
1958-1963年捷克斯洛伐克科学院出版的塔瓦外孜授译的《一千零一夜》全集。<br />
7.波兰译本：<br />
1774年出版了第一本——《阿拉伯传奇或一千零一夜》<br />
8.威尼斯译本：<br />
1757-1762年，出版了四卷本的《一千零一夜》和《一千零一日》故事集, 书名为《阿拉伯故事》。<br />
9.希腊译本：<br />
译者为布利兹威斯，译本分三卷。<br />
10.此外还有葡萄牙语、荷兰语、丹麦语、瑞典语、匈牙利语等译本。<br />
东方学家朝温在《阿拉伯著作一览》一书中用了一百二十页专门介绍《一千零一夜》的各种版本和文本。<br />
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参考文献：<br />
[1]文飙. 阿拉伯民间文学的珍品《一千零一夜》[J].徐州师范学院学报,1978(02):59-64.<br />
[2]冯辉. 略论《一千零一夜》对世界文学的借鉴与影响[J].河南教育学院学报(哲学社会科学版),2001(01):110-112.<br />
[3]陆英英.《一千零一夜》在欧洲[J].阿拉伯世界,1983(02):84-90. --[[User:ImRx|ImRx]] ([[User talk:ImRx|talk]]) 13:34, 16 April 2018 (UTC)<br />
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[1]杨晓雨.佛经翻译与圣经翻译比较[J].考试周刊,2017(74):192. <br />
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摘要： 中国翻译史的源头是佛经翻译，而西方翻译史则始于另一部宗教巨著———圣经翻译。中国的佛经翻译和西方的圣经翻译虽然在具体内容、翻译分期、信徒和对应的时代背景等方面有所差异，但两者都经历了直译、意译、直意译相结合的发展历程。本文对比了佛经翻译和圣经翻译，探求宗教类文献翻译中的共同特点。<br />
1.佛经翻译<br />
A.四个时期：<br />
a. 创立时期（东汉末年到西晋），代表人物有安世高和支谦；<br />
b.初步发展阶段是（晋代到隋朝），代表人物有道安和鸠摩罗什；<br />
c.鼎盛时期（唐朝），代表人物为玄奘、不空；<br />
d.逐渐结束于北宋。<br />
B.翻译形式<br />
最初由西域僧人的梵语口授，再找汉人加以润饰。音译。<br />
后来出现精通汉语的印度高僧和熟练掌握梵语的中国高僧。直译为主。<br />
C.翻译大家<br />
三藏法师，从数量和翻译成就都无人能比。直译&意译结合。<br />
2.圣经翻译<br />
A.概况<br />
圣经翻译是西方翻译史的起源。经历了希伯来文－希腊文－拉丁文的过程。<br />
B.流传形式：手写本。<br />
C.最早的圣经译本：公元前3-2世纪《圣经·旧约》（据《西方翻译简史》记载。后世也叫《七十子希腊文本》。<br />
缺点：用词晦涩难懂，不易理解，跟当时的希腊语有较大的出入。<br />
优点：此译本特别完整准确地还原了圣经原籍的内容。<br />
D.翻译大家：a. 西塞罗—西方翻译史上最早的翻译理论家，主张活译。<br />
b. 圣哲罗姆—翻译了第一部标准拉丁语圣经。直译和意译相结合。<br />
3.佛经翻译和圣经翻译的相似性：<br />
经历了直译—意译—直意译结合的过程。<br />
A.最初翻译时，中西译者都是逐字逐句的直译。<br />
原因：宗教经典神圣不可侵犯，译经僧侣对宗教经典抱有虔诚态度；<br />
由于译者身份的局限性，缺乏专业的语言翻译基础。<br />
B.随着经验的累积，译者们开始倡导意译。<br />
代表人物：马丁路德<br />
原因：受众人群都是普通老百姓，需要简单流畅、明晓易懂的语言才能让教义被大众所通晓。<br />
C.主张直译&意译相结合。<br />
代表人物：玄奘大师—《钦定本圣经》<br />
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[2]顾颍.从佛经与《圣经》翻译看中西方翻译思想——《中西方翻译思想比较》评析[J].常熟理工学院学报,2008(03):122-124.<br />
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摘要：作者认为比利时学者安德烈勒菲弗尔（当代文学翻译学术带头人，较有影响力）由于对中国翻译史缺乏深入研究，对中国的佛经翻译了解不透彻，在《中西方翻译思想比较》中提出“西方译者更为忠实原文, 而中国译者则倾向于归化原文”的观点较为片面。并提出佛经翻译和圣经翻译的共有规律：直译、意译两原则交替主导翻译活动并趋于成熟，直至最终实现两者的有机融合。<br />
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[3]姜晏.译介学视角下的中西方《圣经》翻译[J].青岛大学师范学院学报,2011,28(02):125-128.<br />
摘要：《圣经》翻译的主要功能是服务于宗教的传播。但译者们对其“创造性叛逆”的翻译，使得《圣经》对世界各民族语言，包括对中国语言文学都产生了深远影响，同时推动各国文化交流、促进不同思想的包容。<br />
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1.翻译不只是语言文字的转换，而是应关注原文在外语和本族语转换过程中的信息的失落、变形、增添、扩散等问题。<br />
2.《圣经》翻译对西方各国（民族）语言的影响 —— 不分析译本翻译的好坏，而是分析译本对译入语国家或民族的文化和语言所产生的影响。<br />
A.4世纪，乌裴拉主教翻译成东日耳曼语。<br />
8、9世纪，阿尔弗雷得等翻译成古英语。<br />
这些标志着民族语言翻译的开始。<br />
B.《圣经》翻译在13世纪达到了新的高潮。<br />
C.马丁路德：把《圣经》新约和旧约翻译成德语，并且翻译成能被大众所接受的语言。他认为翻译就是让外语成为译者的本土化语言。<br />
作用：消除了普通人对《圣经》的语言障碍，对统一德语和发展德语做出贡献。<br />
D.威廉廷代尔的译本成为英国翻译史上最著名的英王钦定本的主要参照本。<br />
作用：完全符合英语的用法习惯，增加了英语的表现力；<br />
对英国散文、语言和文化发展起到了不可估量的作用。<br />
3.《圣经》在汉译中的创造性叛逆<br />
A.创造的叛逆性翻译是为了使《圣经》在新的环境中易于被受众接受。<br />
B.特征：<br />
a.显著的归化特征：吴经熊采用骚体，把外国的体裁中国化。<br />
吴经熊翻译的《新约全集》:“天主聖子耶穌基督福音之濫觴，正如《意灑雅先知書》之所記云:吾遣使者，以先啟行; 為爾前驅，備爾行程。”<br />
b.误译：严复的译本以中国士大夫为主要读者，因此他的译本符合士大夫的价值观，同时也降低阅读难度。<br />
c.改编或删节：严复考虑到中国读者几千年来的儒家文化熏陶，迎合中国道德伦理和文化。<br />
4.《圣经》汉译对中国语言文学的影响<br />
a.丰富了汉语词汇，为现代汉语带来许多新意象和表达方式。如，天堂、伊甸园等。<br />
b.影响中国现代文学的创作主体，许多意象来源于《圣经》中的典故。<br />
c.影响许多中国著名的作家和文学理论家。如，鲁迅、冰心、徐志摩等。<br />
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[4] 曾志琼.浅析“圣经故事”包含的男权思想及其危害[J].西昌学院学报(自然科学版),2004(04):21-23.<br />
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《圣经》中包含的男权思想：<br />
1.创世纪故事中包含的男权思想。<br />
a.在上帝创世的神话中，男性亚当是用象征承载人类生命的泥土按上帝的形象创造出来的，而女性夏娃是作为男性的附属品用亚当的肋骨而创造出来的，目的是为亚当消除孤独寂寞。<br />
b.创世纪故事中，包含“女人是祸水”思想。作为女性象征的夏娃经不住蛇的诱惑，偷吃了禁果，使人类受到上帝的惩罚，开始了苦难。<br />
2.“圣经故事”中的先知先觉、基督英雄们都是男性。<br />
人类历史的英雄史都是谱写男性的。整个圣经故事都是以男性英雄为主线而描绘基督教历史的。从最早制造方舟振救人类的挪亚，到带领以色列人出埃及，使以色列人摆脱埃及法老贵族奴役的摩西，到带领以色列人力战外族，为以色列人开缰拓土的约书亚，再到带领以色列人雪耻，赶走外族，使以色列人建国的大卫以及拯救人类的耶稣等等。<br />
3.婚姻家庭中的男权思想、夫权思想 <br />
a.嫡长子制，忽视女性后代的存在。<br />
b.多妻制。基督英雄们都是妻妾成群，可以主人的身份任意拥有女人。<br />
c.休妻制。女性不论犯不犯错都可能被休。甚至可以被男性当财产、畜生一样送人。<br />
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[5]菲利斯·特丽波,周辉.女性主义诠释学与圣经研究[J].圣经文学研究, 2009(00):35-44.<br />
摘要：作者认为出现在父权制社会的圣经充满了男性形象和语言，对《圣经》进行重新的诠释，以挑战圣经中的父权制。焦点是希伯来圣经，重点不仅仅落在不利于女性的事例上。 考量了圣经中女性研究的三条女性主义进路。<br />
1.阐释了一些不利于女性的故事。希伯来女子从生到死都属于男人，遭受到男性权威的虐待、凌辱。<br />
2.重申被忽视的女性作为上帝的篇章和反抗父权制文化的女性形象。<br />
3.利用前两种方式，同情地重新讲述关于妇女的故事<br />
（作者菲利斯·特丽波被认为是在圣经文本基础上探索妇女与性别问题的领袖人物）<br />
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[6]林燕.女性主义圣经诠释概述[J].宗教学研究,2013(04):213-219.<br />
女性经验是重新阐释圣经的基点。<br />
女性主义圣经诠释随着女性神学的繁荣而发展。女性圣经诠释是不同于女性主义神学的独立学科，它具有独立的研究前提和范畴。<br />
核心内容：对传统的圣经诠释和基督神学所建构的两性关系提出质疑和批判；寻找、重建圣经中被忽视、被遗忘的女性形象，恢复重建女性的地位和尊严；为争取女性在教会中担任圣职而斗争。<br />
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参考文献：<br />
[1]杨晓雨.佛经翻译与圣经翻译比较[J].考试周刊,2017(74):192. <br />
[2]顾颍.从佛经与《圣经》翻译看中西方翻译思想——《中西方翻译思想比较》评析[J].常熟理工学院学报,2008(03):122-124.<br />
[3]姜晏.译介学视角下的中西方《圣经》翻译[J].青岛大学师范学院学报,2011,28(02):125-128.<br />
[4]曾志琼.浅析“圣经故事”包含的男权思想及其危害[J].西昌学院学报(自然科学版),2004(04):21-23. <br />
[5]菲利斯·特丽波,周辉.女性主义诠释学与圣经研究[J].圣经文学研究,2009(00):35-44.<br />
[6]林燕.女性主义圣经诠释概述[J].宗教学研究,2013(04):213-219.--[[User:ImRx|ImRx]] ([[User talk:ImRx|talk]]) 02:42, 4 June 2018 (UTC)<br />
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《霍乱时期的爱情》<br />
加夫列尔·加西亚·马尔克斯——拉美魔幻现实主义的领军人物<br />
1967年，《百年孤独》；1982年， 获诺贝尔奖；1985年，《霍乱时期的爱情》<br />
故事是以费尔明娜和阿里萨、乌尔比诺医生爱恨悲欢的三角恋为主线，以阿里萨与其余622名女性形形色色的性欲与真情为副线。小说采用了顺时叙述。以乌尔比诺的棋友之死为故事的开始，先后讲述了：医生的婚后生活；阿里萨和费尔明娜如诗如梦的初恋，乌尔比诺追求费尔明娜并与之结婚；阿里萨的失望心情和纵欲寻欢；费尔明娜婚后生活的不快和孀居的孤独；阿里萨耐心点燃费尔明娜心中的爱火。<br />
一.主要人物：<br />
1.阿里萨：喜欢阅读、喜欢写诗。多愁善感，阴郁。一生中有过623个女人，但费尔明娜是他一生的挚爱。最后在他并不怎么上心的航运公司里获得了董事长的职位。<br />
“费尔明娜，我等待这个机会，已经有51年9个月零4天了，在这段时间里，我一直爱着你，从我第一眼见到你，直到现在，我第一次向你表达我的誓言，我永远爱你，忠贞不渝。”这句话是在等待了半个世纪终于等到费尔明娜的丈夫死去后，阿里萨在葬礼之后再一次对费尔明娜隔了51年的第二次表白。<br />
2.费尔明娜：她是骡子商人的女儿，美丽、智慧并且高傲。被阿里萨追求却遭到父亲的强烈反对，后来嫁给医生乌尔比诺。<br />
3.乌尔比诺医生：擅长治疗霍乱的医生，黄金单身汉，知识渊博，外表帅气（虽然电影里图片很猥琐），热爱城市并致力于为他的城市他的家乡奉献，但实际上骨子里较懦弱，在和费尔明娜的婚姻里婆媳关系不合，他不敢冲撞他的母亲。“只有上帝知道我有多爱你。”<br />
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二.爱情&霍乱的隐喻关系<br />
1.在追求费尔明娜的过程中，阿里萨生理和心理都经受了如霍乱症状一般的痛苦。在阿里萨对费尔明娜一见钟情后，“他开始寡言少语，茶饭不思，辗转反侧，彻夜难眠”。<br />
等待费尔明娜回第一封信的时候“他腹泻，吐绿水，晕头转向，常常突然昏厥，脉搏微弱，呼吸沉重，像垂死之人一样冒着虚汗…”这些症状和霍乱的症状很相似。但事实上阿里萨并没有患上霍乱，后边医生的检查也可以证实。<br />
所以，我们可以这样认为：爱情，在阿里萨身上的表现就如同霍乱对人的侵袭一样。在这本书中，霍乱也就代表爱情，所有的症状都是变相的爱。<br />
但不同的是：疾病带来的恐惧是自私的，是从自我角度出发的，是害怕失去自己；而爱情带来的恐惧常常源自于所爱之人，是害怕失去对方。<br />
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2.在中国古代文学里也有关于爱情对疾病的意象。<br />
在中国，因爱情引起的疾病叫做“相思病”，一般是因对某人的思念而生病。表现为焦虑、食欲不振、失眠、幻想、晕厥等类似生病的身体状态。<br />
很著名的例子就是《红楼梦》中的林黛玉人物形象。 还有《西厢记》张生为崔莺莺“为伊消得人憔悴”也是“相思病”的例子。这样的例证还有很多。<br />
问题：如果爱情是一种病，能致病，那么医生能不能诊断并治愈因爱情引起的疾病呢？<br />
大家都知道，林黛玉的身体一向比较弱，但是住在大观园中可以让黛玉有很好的物质条件治疗或者从中医角度来讲“调养”她的身体。看当时最好的医生, 吃的是最难得到的药材做成的药。可是在听到宝玉和宝钗成亲的消息后还是郁郁而终。说明在中国的古典文学中，医生并不可以治愈爱情引起的相思病。<br />
我们再看西方文学里《变形记》——“所有人都知道, 真正的疾病和爱情疾病是很相似的: 意识变得虚弱, 眼神变得憔悴,膝盖变得无力… 上帝啊! 医生们真是无知啊! ”<br />
还有《霍乱》里，母亲担心阿里萨得了霍乱,去看了医生。做了很多必要的医疗检查, 最后通过对阿里萨的性格了解以及与阿里萨的谈话确定了病因。医生最后能确诊阿里萨的爱情疾病并不是因为他高超的医术或者他的各种医学常识, 而是因为他本人的年纪来带的阅历以及对爱情和对阿里萨的了解得出的结论。<br />
以及小说里医术高超的乌比尔诺医生, 虽然有广博深人的医学知识储量, 他研究霍乱是为了在医学层面上彻彻底底的治疗它。他一点也不懂爱, 不懂爱情。所以，乌比尔诺医生也不具有诊断爱情疾病的能力。<br />
所以，中西方古典的文学作品中, 医生是并不赋有能力来诊断和治疗爱情所引起的疾病的。<br />
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三.主人公的青年、中年、老年三个阶段他们的爱情。<br />
a.青年阶段——浪漫疯狂，以阿里萨和费尔明娜的初恋为主。因费尔明娜的醒悟接着拒绝阿里萨而结束——“不，请别这样，忘了吧”、“今天见到您，我发现我们之间不过是一场幻觉”。这个时期，阿里萨是以等待、信还有音乐追求费尔明娜的，我认为这三项几乎是在所有的爱情中都会或多或少起到作用的。<br />
等待。自从阿里萨对费尔明娜一见倾心之后，他就每天在费尔明娜上学必经的道路上，捧着一本诗集在一棵杏树下假装看书，只为了一天能匆匆忙忙地看上她四次，风雨无阻。<br />
信。最初阿里萨缺乏勇气向费尔明娜说出自己的爱意，于是开始给费尔明娜写信，从一张便条最后变成了70页的情书。也是在频繁通信中，打动了费尔明娜。<br />
音乐。在因费尔明娜失眠的夜晚，他在费尔明娜的窗外演奏自创的爱的华尔兹。费尔明娜也是在他的音乐中更深刻的了解他。<br />
总的来说，青年时期：他们的相爱过程短，不成熟，更多的是幻想。<br />
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b.中年阶段，主要是费尔明娜与乌尔比诺医生的婚姻以及阿里萨漫长的等待中的孤独狩猎生涯。<br />
费&阿：隐秘顽强。阿里萨单相思，对抗时间和死亡。<br />
阿里萨在被拒绝：先是自虐，后转移对费尔明娜及她丈夫的怨恨与诅咒，随后又对费尔明娜宽恕，决定和费尔明娜留在同一个城市，并且开始新一轮漫长的等待，他的单相思——对抗时间和死亡，等乌比尔诺医生死去。<br />
爱情的失败也让阿里萨意识到自己的身份和社会地位配不上费尔明娜，逼迫着自己去经营生活，改变自己的社会地位。<br />
阿里萨猎艳：通过性寻找爱，消除内心孤独感<br />
同时他和众多女人发生肉体关系。但其实正是通过和其他女人的相处，来消除内心的孤独感，弥补得不到费尔明娜爱情的缺失。他也更加确认费尔明娜对他的不可替代，是他一生唯一的挚爱。<br />
费&乌：世俗婚姻。陪伴，稳定、平淡。<br />
在费尔明娜与乌尔比诺医生的婚姻中，他们互相陪伴，平淡也稳定。只有一次例外，就是乌尔比诺出轨芭芭拉林奇小姐，被费尔明娜发现后，医生经过长时间的内心矛盾并最终坦白。<br />
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c.老年阶段——理性智慧，以费尔明娜和阿里萨的黄昏恋为主。<br />
阿里萨一直坚持到了医生去世。他以他的坚持和耐心打动了费尔明娜，让费尔明娜愿意接受他。他们开始了一段旅行，旅行结束的时候因为他们不愿面对现实所以不愿回去，最后乘着以霍乱为帆的船继续航行。<br />
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四.小说里讲述的各种各样的爱情可能。<br />
开篇摄影师赫雷米亚与黑白混血女人之间隐蔽的恋情；<br />
阿里萨和费尔明娜持续了半个世纪的柏拉图式的精神恋爱（包括他们青涩纯粹的初恋与年老时的黄昏恋）；<br />
阿里萨对费尔明娜忠贞不渝的单相思；<br />
费尔明娜与乌尔比诺医生的世俗婚姻爱情；<br />
乌尔比诺与林奇小姐战战兢兢的婚外恋；<br />
阿里萨和众多女人们纯粹的肉欲追逐的露水爱情；<br />
阿里萨与14岁少女的洛丽塔式的忘年恋…<br />
忠贞的爱、雀跃的爱、逃离的爱、私通的爱、狂热的爱、转瞬即逝的爱、生死相依的爱…<br />
不同层次不同角色不同性质的爱情，这篇小说也堪称是“爱情的教科书”“陈列爱情的博物馆”<br />
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五.除了爱情之外的其他主题。<br />
1.衰老。儿童摄影师赫雷米亚德圣阿莫尔的自杀；<br />
岁月加于人的痕迹——表现在岁月加于主人公身上的痕迹（蹒跚的步态、上楼梯的速度、意外的跌倒、满是皱纹的皮肤、稀疏的头发）；<br />
乌尔比诺医生、阿里萨想尽办法延缓衰老 <br />
2.死亡。小说中提到最多的是霍乱，也是整个故事发生的宏大背景。<br />
借以描写这种难以治愈、神秘莫测的疾病来写死亡。因为霍乱预示着死亡，而且在当时几乎就等于死亡，当时地的生产力水平和医学发展不足以让人们去抗衡。<br />
当人们被生理上的痛楚折磨时，往往无力也无心开出精神上的花朵。然而小说中描写的就是这样一种稀有的生命之花，因为爱情有勇气与苦难和死亡的疾病抗争。<br />
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阿里萨一生都在追求费尔米纳的爱情，即使面临死亡的抉择也义无反顾: 冷酷无情的费尔米纳的父亲最初阻挠女儿与他的爱情时，甚至用死亡来威胁阿里萨，但是阿里萨毫无畏惧，“‘朝我开枪吧!’他说，把一只手放在胸口上，‘没有比为爱情而死更光荣的事情了’”。因为有了爱情，所以阿里萨充满了无畏的勇气。他为了爱情不怕死，并且崇尚为爱而死。<br />
同时阿里萨的爱情之路实质上是一直与死亡作斗争，他到年老时害怕衰老和死亡，因为他明白，只有乌尔比诺医生死去，他才有机会再接近费尔米纳，因此，他努力与时间、衰老、死亡作斗争，他要为爱好好活着，战胜时间，战胜衰老，跨越死亡，他要活过乌尔比诺，才能重获费尔明娜。<br />
所以说这两个主题实际上也是与爱情密切相关的，因爱情而起的，可以归结到爱情主题上。<br />
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参考文献：<br />
1.於珍珍.《霍乱时期的爱情》中的医生形象分析[J].才智,2014(32):318-319.<br />
2.荣利. “滥情”的痴情者[D].浙江师范大学,2015.<br />
3.谈清妍.爱情的乌托邦——解读《霍乱时期的爱情》中的爱情与死亡[J].襄樊学院学报,2009,30(06):51-54.<br />
4.高小斐,孙世友.悲欢离合五十年——浅论《霍乱时期的爱情》中的爱情[J].才智, 2014(16):288.<br />
5.李贞琤.疾病缠绕下的爱情——马尔克斯小说爱情主题与疾病主题关系探究[J].开封教育学院学报,2017,37(12):38-39+42.<br />
6.姚婧.情感的疾病化书写——解读《霍乱时期的爱情》[J].名作欣赏,2015(17):125-128.--[[User:ImRx|ImRx]] ([[User talk:ImRx|talk]]) 03:00, 4 June 2018 (UTC)<br />
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handout of张传伟<br />
世界主义与世界文学<br />
一、世界主义<br />
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1、世界文学的定义：<br />
(1) 各民族优秀文学的经典之总汇；<br />
(2) 一种用于从总体上研究、评价和批评文学的全球的、跨文化的和比较的视角；(3)不同语言中的文学生产、流通、翻译和批评性选择的发展演变过程。<br />
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2、形成和发展<br />
（1）词源探究<br />
作为一个跨学科的理论概念和批评话语，世界主义可以追踪到古希腊的哲学思想那里，甚至这个术语本身就出自希腊语。我们今天在英文中所描述的世界主义( cosmopolitanism) 是由两个词组成的:cosmos在希腊语中，意为宇宙或世界，polis意为城市或城邦。这样我们就有了“世界”这个词。那些信仰其伦理道德的人便被人称为“世界主义者”( cosmopolites)，而他们的主张和理论教义便被称为“世界主义”。这就是世界主义概念就其字面意义而言的形成。<br />
（2）后世发展<br />
世界主义通常在三个层面得到讨论:哲学的、政治学和社会学的以及文化和文学的层面。哲学维度的世界主义可以追溯到柏拉图和亚里士多德的著作，这两位希腊先哲本质上并不赞成世界主义，在他们看来，人们通常生活在自己的城邦，并且依恋特定的政治教义，所以很容易与之相认同。当他们的城邦遭受外敌入侵时，公民们便会奋起抗击，保卫自己的城邦。对这些古希腊人来说，好的公民不应当与外邦人分享过多的利益。这一观点后来逐步发展为爱国主义和民族主义。在中国，爱国主义和民族主义对那些试图形成独特的中华民族和文化认同的知识分子一直有着极大的吸引力，一个特例就是五四时期，当时虽曾有人鼓吹过世界主义，但很快就销声匿迹，淹没在民族主义的汪洋大海中了，其原因恰在于当时的中国文化土壤和时代精神并不适合世界主义驻足。<br />
但并不是所有古希腊先哲们都反对世界主义，另一些思想较为开放且见多识广的古希腊知识分子，尤其是犬儒派哲人迪奥格尼斯(Diogenes)则鼓吹一种较为普世的伦理道德，因为他并不把自己局限于特定的城邦，甚至公开宣称:“我是一个世界公民。”从此，“世界公民”(citizen of the world)便成了所有信奉世界主义的人所致力于追求的理想。当然，他们所追求的并非是特定的民族—国家的利益，而更是一种普世价值和全人类的共同利益。他们的这种理想和追求并不满足于局限在哲学和社会政治层面，他们还试图将其推而广之。<br />
当代学者在讨论世界主义时很少引证这些远古时期的观点，但其中的某些观点却依然在现代哲学家的著作中得到响应和发展。启蒙时期的哲学家如康德则表示了对其的莫大兴趣，提出一种世界主义的法律或权利。19 世纪以前的不同形式的世界主义仅仅停留在哲学家的假想和论辩层面上的话，那么自19 世纪以来，那些有远大抱负的人便逐渐开始将世界主义付诸实践了，从哥伦布发现“新大陆”到世界贸易航线形成等都为全球化的进程奠定了基础。<br />
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二、世界文学<br />
<br />
1、源起<br />
歌德是德语“世界文学”( Weltliteratur) 一词的创制者，也是第一个明确提出世界文学观念的人。歌德关于世界文学的论述集中在1827-1830年间，归纳起来有三个要点: 其一，世界文学是一个对话和流通的平台，各民族文学可以通过进入这个平台相互交流、取长补短、相得益彰。其二，世界文学是一个合乎世界主义的理想，能够推动各民族文学逐渐打破孤立割裂状态，影响融合而形成一个有机的统一体。其三，世界文学是彰显民族文学价值的场所。歌德就站在德国的角度谈论世界文学，他渴望本民族文学在推动世界文学形成过程中扮演“光荣的”、“美好的”角色，对其他民族文学(例如法国文学) 所处的优势地位则十分敏感。<br />
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2、“世界文学”内涵<br />
在《什么是世界文学？》一书中，丹穆若什以世界、文本和读者为中心，进一步阐释“世界文学”的三重定义：“世界文学是民族文学间的椭圆折射”“世界文学是从翻译中获益的文学”“世界文学不是指一套经典文本，而是指一种阅读模式——一种以超然的态度进入与我们自身时空不同的世界的形式”。首先，“椭圆折射”利用椭圆具备两个焦点的特性，指代世界文学的双重性质。世界文学具有两个核心要点——源文化和主体文化。一部文学作品如果想成为世界文学的一部分，需要从源文化出发，被他国文化空间接受。“接受”过程与接受主体的民族文化传统和价值需求相关。因此，世界文学既与源文化相关，又与主体文化相关，是一种双重折射。仔细分析，世界文学双重折射特性表明世界文学作品并非静止、孤立，而是在不同国家、不同文化间互相流通、交流、传播、碰撞。世界文学作品，不仅受到源文化熏陶，也经过主体文化的接受和改造。其次，由于语言障碍，世界文学作品的传播和流通必须依赖文学翻译。但是，文学语言在翻译过程中会有得失。丹穆若什认为翻译中对于得失的衡量是区分民族文学与世界文学的标志。具体来看，在翻译中受损的文学，“通常局限于本民族或本地区的传统内”；从翻译中获益的文学，“进入世界文学的范畴”。他进一步指出，民族文学进入世界文学，当范围扩大后，“风格上的损失会被深度上的扩张所抵消”。由此看出，世界文学作品源于民族文学而高于民族文学，价值取向超越民族特性，拥有“世界性”。最后，丹穆若什认为世界文学并非经典文本的简单集合，而是通过一种阅读，使读者超越自身时空，进入更加广阔的世界。作为阅读模式，一部作品能否成为世界文学，取决于其他国家、民族读者的阅读效果。一旦外国作品开始在读者脑中发生共鸣，世界文学就开始活动。这种“共鸣”，实际是不同民族文学作品的相同价值取向的融汇。作品自身价值取向被本国以外读者认可，超越民族性，成为世界性价值。由此看来，世界文学不代表文学作品数量的多少，而是作为一种阅读模式，“可以通过少量作品来深入体验，也可以通过大量作品来广泛探寻”，在世界范围内寻找共鸣。<br />
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3、“世界文学”与“世界的文学”<br />
一般而言，“世界文学”和“世界的文学”这两个概念多半是在明确的不同语境中被运用：若说“世界文学”依然意味着作品之无可非议的重要性，那么，“世界的文学”则更多地指向世界上那些不怎么有名、却能展示新方向的文学；它们不同凡响、颇有魅力，却还未在读者意识中占有重要位置。也就是说，“世界的文学”未必就是审美和经典意义的上乘之作，或得到广泛接受的作品。谈论“世界的文学”，人们面对的是浩繁的书卷，无数作品和文化传统，难以把握的界线，并在挑选时怀有开放态度。<br />
20 世纪70 年代，世界体系理论( World System Theory) 兴起于美国，对世界文学观念产生重大影响。以美国著名社会学家伊曼纽尔·沃勒斯坦( Immanuel Wallerstein) 为代表的世界体系理论的核心，是把人类社会看成一个由结构性经济联系及各种内在制度制约的一体化的体系，以此作为考察社会发展变迁的分析单位。这是对20 世纪五六十年代兴盛的以民族国家为分析单位、研究人类社会发展变迁的经典现代化理论的反拨。<br />
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4、世界文学与比较文学<br />
世界文学与比较文学的关系引起西方学者的重视。一种声音认为，世界文学相比于比较文学，只是在原有学科体系基础上扩大比较范围。如大卫·费里斯指出：“比较文学应成为世界文学，只是扩大比较范围，比较方法不变。”另一种声音认为，比较文学与世界文学并行不悖，相互作用。“国别文学、比较文学和世界文学彼此间保持动态相互作用关系，都无法完全取代对方。”②对于读者来讲，世界文学仅存于国家空间。比如中国读者阅读海明威《老人与海》，即使该作品在世界范围内得到广泛认可，作为世界文学作品享誉中外，但对于中国读者而言，阅读的只是一部美国小说而已。比较研究作为方法，通用于国别文学、比较文学和世界文学研究。但是，如库班指出，“世界文学接受文本，即使代表特别的国家精神……也能穿过甚至超越他们的国家，语言和历史起源，有效解域本身”，世界文学关注世界性，超越民族性。今天西方学者老话重提，有一些新的阐释，但是，作为克服比较文学危机、面向未来的比较文学学科理论，尚缺乏指导性意义。全世界比较文学学者必须寻求比较文学理论的新突破。<br />
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三、中国文学的世界化与世界文学的中国化<br />
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1、中国文学的世界化<br />
中国文学世界化并不只是中国作家获得国际大奖或是中国作家作品被翻译介绍到外国。世界化是中国文学作为全球化时代世界文学的主体之一，在世界文学中体现出中国主体性。<br />
马克思《路易·波拿巴的雾月十八日》中说：“就像一个刚学会一种新语言的人总是要把它翻译成本国语言一样；只有当他能够不必在心里把新语言翻译成本国语言，当他能够忘掉本国语言来运用新语言的时候，他才算领会了新语言的精神，才算是运用自如。”后现代批评家们奉为圭臬的这篇名著中，马克思的话说出了中国的世界文学认证的真正价值。全球化时代中，世界文学是对自我认证，也是对他人的认证，中国文学从世界文学得到认证，同样，世界文学从中国文学得到认证。<br />
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2、世界文学的“中国化”<br />
世界文学的“中国化”指很多学者表示怀疑，以为是将世界文学作品按中国的观念进行改造，甚至变成“红色经典”。我们必须解释清楚：世界文学的中国化并不是用中国文学标准来“化”世界文学，而是建构中国的世界文学阐释理论体系。这是完全正当的无可非议的，中国文学从不追求“文化权力中心”。但是中国文学必须建立中国的世界文学视域，中国如何看待世界文学史理论、世界文学经典的选编与世界文学翻译，这三大要素，缺一不可。<br />
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参考文献<br />
[1]方维规.何谓世界文学?[J].文艺研究,2017(01):5-18.<br />
[2]曹顺庆,李斌.比较文学未来发展之路——世界文学与比较文学变异学[J].中国高校社会科学,2016(06):39-47+154.<br />
[3]方汉文.中国文学的世界化与世界文学的中国化[J].江南大学学报(人文社会科学版),2016,15(01):93-98.<br />
[4]王宁.世界文学语境中的中国当代文学[J].当代作家评论,2014(06):4-16+2.<br />
[5]王宁.世界主义、世界文学以及中国文学的世界性[J].中国比较文学,2014(01):11-26.<br />
[6]刘洪涛.世界文学观念的嬗变及其在中国的意义[J].中国比较文学,2012(04):9-21.<br />
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西方文学的翻译<br />
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一、翻译内容、技法叙事<br />
清末颇为兴盛的外国小说翻译一方面介绍了西方的文化思想,另一方面明显的汉民族文化特征仍不容忽视。因为近代译者多具有根深蒂固的中国文化观念,因此他们在翻译过程中对原著进行特殊的、比较主观的处理是特定历史阶段的产物。<br />
在西方小说文化思想内容的翻译方面,“西方宗教观、伦理观与中国具体国情不同,其文学作品必然与中国文化发生抵悟,翻译者趋于沟通的心理,尽可能地使译作。与中国文化相通。”<br />
在叙事技法的传递方面,“早期小说译者的文学修养主要源于中国传统文化,其译作的小说文体形式必然采用中国原有的通俗小说文体——章回体。在原著风格的翻译方面,“早期小说译者在翻译小说时非常注重小说的读者群,这些读者多属具有一定文化修养的文人阶层,其思维方式、审美习惯皆己定型。翻译者如果想拥有庞大的读者群,其译作就应该考虑到中国读者的阅读习惯与审美情趣,突出小说消闲、怡情的文学特征。因此,外国小说译作的汉化便成了翻译者有意追求的一种语言风格。<br />
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二、翻译方法和翻译文体<br />
由于文学意识的不自觉、白话语体表达的幼稚性以及受众对象的特殊性等原因,在近代的文学翻译中,归化的手法、文言的文体和意译的方法颇受青睐。因此,“这种译述、意译的风气使得早期文学翻译的体例很不完备。”文学革命爆发后,文学翻译的目标读者出现“平民化”倾向,文学翻译文体走向通俗化、大众化,同时由于文学翻译中文学意识的不断增强,直译方法逐渐为越来越多的译者所使用,文学翻译开始走向异化。<br />
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三、近代翻译与意识形态的相互关系<br />
译入语文化中的主流意识形态对中国近代翻译选材有着不容忽视的影响和操控作用。1840年—1919年的中国翻译史印证了勒菲弗尔的翻译理论。通过研究这个时期的翻译史,我们可以清楚看到,翻译作品的兴盛是随着各个历史阶段的主流意识形态的变化而变化的。例如“甲午战争的失败把中华民族的生死存亡摆在每个人的面前，……此时的意识形态可以归纳为‘开民智、求变革’,其目的是为了唤醒全体国民,进行思想和现代意识启蒙。小说因为其易普及<br />
性被选作变革工具,成为资产阶级改良派医治`社会病'的良方。”<br />
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四、近代翻译在文化和语言方面的属性<br />
中国近代翻译有层次区别,早期的科技翻译不同于后来的社科、文学翻译,前者主要是技术问题,后者主要是文化和语言问题。众所周知，文化翻译往往涉及到深层的语言体系问题。近代社会译者所深谙的古代汉语体系决定了近代翻译文学从根本上具有中国“古代性”。这样,“翻译者总是用旧思想、旧思维来理解和表达西方新思想、新思维,总是在旧有的语言体系中寻找相对应或相似的术语、概念、范畴和话语方式,因此,西方思想文化在翻译的过程就不知不觉地变了形,变得本土化、民族化了。<br />
五、近代翻译的动机及其所带来的影响<br />
近代译者为了让时人了解西方民主思想和先进的科技知识,大多有目的地选择政治小说、科学小说、侦探小说加以引进,其翻译动机就是要救国启民,因此他们的翻译观明显具有功利主义的性质。这一点对于我们理解近代的小说翻译理论和翻译策略大有裨益,对于译文中普遍存在的删改现象也就能够给予合理的解释。他明确地谈到“他们企图用中国传统文化和文学的规范去干预原文本,以此来调整读者对译文的反应,避免可能造成的文化障碍。运用这种策略和方法的目的,无非是趋利避害,把原文本中有利于译文读者的信息翻译出来,对那些不利于一译文读者或不实用的信息避而不译。”<br />
参考文献<br />
【1】吴莎,屠国元.论中国近代翻译选材与意识形态的关系(1840-1919)[J].外语与外语教学,2007(11):38-40.<br />
【2】顾建新.清末民初文学翻译方法与文学翻译文体的发展[J].外语教学,2004(06):50-54.<br />
【3】韩永芝.从文化排斥与文化认同看清末外国小说翻译[J].解放军外国语学院学报,2001(05):66-69.<br />
【4】高玉.论中国近代翻译文学的“古代性”[J].华中师范大学学报(人文社会科学版),2000(04):66-72.<br />
【5】陆国飞.近代外国小说译介中的功利主义思想[J].学术界,2007(04):236-239.<br />
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外国诗歌翻译<br />
[1]郭建辉.外国诗歌的审美特征与外国诗歌的鉴赏[J].重庆工业高等专科学校学报,2001(03):93-95.<br />
由于各民族的文化传统的不同影响，外国诗歌也呈现出不同的特点，详细分析了从《荷马史诗》与《圣经》到现代主义艾略特的《荒原》特点，以把握外国诗歌的审美特征。<br />
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[2]河洛易.中国现代诗歌翻译概述[J].解放军外国语学院学报,2000(05):105-108.<br />
作为中国20世纪的诗歌翻译来说, 大致可分为七个阶段：1、诗歌翻译的前奏曲——近代诗歌翻译 (1840 年鸦片战争到 1919年“五四”运动)；2、现代诗歌翻译的开创期 (从1919 年新青年社到 1930年“左联”成立)；3、现代诗歌翻译的中期 (从 1930 年“左联”成立到 1937 年抗战开始)；4、现代诗歌翻译的后期 (从 1937年抗战开始到1949年中华人民共和国成立)；5、当代“十七年”的诗歌翻译 (从 1949 年新中国成立到“文化大革命”前夕)；6、当代“文革十年”的诗歌翻译 (文革十年)；7、当代新时期的诗歌翻译 (1976 年至今)。<br />
外国诗歌的翻译不是一个自我封闭的静态系统，而是一个不断自我调整和适应的开放系统。<br />
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[3]熊辉.翻译诗歌对诗人创作的影响[J].文艺争鸣,2017(09):7-12.<br />
翻译诗歌为百年新诗发展注入了生机和活力，学界目前多从创作技巧、形式艺术或思想情感的角度去论述前者对后者的影响，较少从创作实践的层面去思考二者的关联。实际上，新诗创作者由于接受了不同的文化而具有各自特殊的写作背景，翻译诗歌对新诗创作的影响也因为创作主体的多元化而呈现出复杂的格局：部分诗人直接阅读并翻译了外国诗歌，译诗对他们创作的影响主要停留在翻译过程或思维转换上；也有部分诗人通过阅读其他人翻译的作品而受到了译诗文本的影响，这部分人也包括那些参与翻译的诗人，因为他们自己在翻译诗歌的同时也可能会阅读别人的译作。<br />
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[4]熊辉.外国诗歌的翻译与中国现代新诗的文体创新[J].上海师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2013,42(03):70-76.<br />
外国诗歌的翻译有助于中国新诗的文体创新,作者从语言层面的创造新字、改进语言句法和表达方式,形式层面的创造新形式、引入新形式等方面展开论述。在此基础上分析了这种在翻译的过程中创新的文体所具有的文体特征和文化属性,进而表明外国诗歌的翻译对中国新诗文体创新具有带动作用。<br />
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[5]李特夫,李国林.诗歌翻译研究:传统思路与现代视野[J].天津外国语学院学报,2004(01):31-36+47. <br />
随着译学研究范式的转向、开拓与创新 ,各种译学思想得以不断重诂和修订，为我国诗歌翻译研究带来了新的启示。在对传统译诗观念进行简要回顾和思考的基础上，针对当前一些争议和疑难性问题提出了个人看法，并借鉴西方译论，就未来诗歌翻译研究有关问题进行了探讨。<br />
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[[Media:Earliest_translations_from_the_West_to_Chinese_presentation_by_Lin_Li.pdf]]<br />
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[[Media:The Arabian Nights_by_Wang_Xinyi.pdf]]<br />
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[[Media:Lecture_The Arabian Nights_by_Wang_Xinyi.pdf]]</div>Zhang Yiranhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021&diff=134117Introduction to Translation Studies 20212021-12-21T15:15:50Z<p>Zhang Yiran: /* Presentations Dec 22 on Decriptive Studies, Culture, Invisibility, Constructivism */</p>
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<div>Quicklinks: [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021|This course homepage]] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal#Frequently_asked_questions_FAQ FAQ] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal Manual] [[20210926_homework|all homework webpages]] <br />
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<center><span style="color:red">'''Deadline Dec 9, 2021 [[20220112_final_exam|final exam page]] - final deadline after correction: Dec 15, 2021'''</span></center><br />
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Welcome to our course website '''Introduction to Translation Studies 2021'''. Whenever you visit this site, please see if there is anything in English not yet translated into Chinese and make a Chinese translation beneath (one paragraph English, one paragraph Chinese). Any correction or improvement of earlier translations is mostly welcome!<br />
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欢迎访问我们“翻译导论课”的网页。…………<br />
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=Session 1 Sep 26, 2021=<br />
Today is international day of languages!<br />
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Introduction to the course. Organizational things. Working with the Wiki.<br />
==Organizational Things==<br />
*Please register for the Course Wiki http://bit.ly/WIKIREG. Username is your Pinyin Name (“Wang Jianguo” – no Chinese characters) and email, for your real name also write your Pinyin Name (Wang Jianguo), no Chinese characters. If the name is taken, write "Wang Jianguo1". Write a sentence about yourself in the bio info. Please check the box that you abide to the Terms of Service and type in the password “wikicaptcha”. You will receive an email with a link. Please confirm the link. After confirmation, please allow a few days that I can approve your username. After that, you can access the course wiki http://bit.ly/TransStud and edit the contents. You need to edit the course website every week to prepare the upcoming session. <br />
*Please prepare each session during the week before, so that you come prepared to class.<br />
*In the WeChat group, please write your name as "Wang Jianguo 王建国 21级 英语口译". If possible, please use a profile photo of yourself where you can be recognized. 麻烦各位同学修改一下自己的备注，改成自己的姓名（拼音、汉字、21级、方向）就好。<br />
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*Please note that you can only participate with a good internet connection, with a smart device which is able to run Zoom and with a running camera. Therefore, please make sure that you have a working device. If your phone’s camera is broken, please borrow a different phone or contact us that we can help you to get a second hand phone for free.<br />
* Please take the weekly survey http://bit.ly/EU-SURVEY<br />
* Please store the pdf material you get from the teacher. Please prepare the material for each session in advance.<br />
<br />
==Edits==<br />
Every student is required to edit something every week. This can be:<br />
* Translate any English paragraph on this website from English to Chinese.<br />
* Correct an earlier translation of your fellow student beneath.<br />
* Prepare an article (please link to from this page) and/or a powerpoint (please upload here) on a topic you will present during the semester.<br />
* Prepare the final exam paper as early as possible by writing a chapter for a book on "History of Translations", "History of Translation Theories", "Machine translation - A challenge or a chance for human translators?", "Culture loaded words", "The cultural turn in Translation History", "Appropriateness Theory" ... For this, please organize yourself, find groups who want to write the same book together, and think together about the necessary chapters and the structure etc. of the book. The paper needs to be delivered until November 1. Then we jointly work on copy editing, grading etc.<br />
* The Teaching Assistants should write the grades every week in a table, so that you can see the results of your quizzes/surveys etc., your performance in class and final exam paper grades.<br />
<br />
==Topics, Sessions and Material==<br />
<br />
'''Which paper or book should I read to prepare my presentation?'''<br />
<br />
Please also mention in this list beneath, '''who''' is presenting the topic with '''ppt''' and '''handout'''.<br />
<br />
1 Sep 26 Introduction <br />
<br />
2 Sep 29 Emergence I<br />
*Teacher presentation<br />
<br />
3 Oct 13 Emergence II<br />
*3a Xu, Jun 许钧, Mu Lei 穆雷. "翻译学概论 [Introduction to Translation Studies]." 南京: 译林出版社2009:195 pp., here 180-192.<br />
*3b=7c Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜. Translation Studies 翻译学. 复旦大学出版社, 2017, here the beginning about the emergence<br />
<br />
4 Oct 20 History of Translation <br />
*4a History of Western Translation 谭载喜.西方翻译简史[M]. 北京:商务印书馆, 1991年.<br />
*4b History of Translation in China – before May Fourth 马祖毅. 中国翻译简史——“五四”以前部分（修订本）[M]. 中国对外翻译出版公司，1998年.<br />
<br />
5 Oct 27 Early understanding<br />
<br />
The early understanding next session refers to the very early theoretical understanding of the Translation process from ancient times until Maybe up to the middle of the 20th century. There are no elaborated theories yet, but at least some discussions About principles, strategies etc.<br />
<br />
*5a Holmes, James. 1972. The Name and Nature of Translation Studies. Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies[M]. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1988: 67-80.<br />
*5b Sourcebook Lefevere, Andre. Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook[M]. London and New York：Routledge, 1990.<br />
*5c Textbook Newmark, Peter. A Text Book of Translation[M]. UK: Prentice Hall International Ltd, 1988.<br />
*5d Translation Basics 刘宓庆. 翻译基础[M]. 上海：华东师范大学出版社，2008年.<br />
<br />
6 Nov 3 Linguistics and Equivalence (Nida)<br />
*6a Early linguistic theory Catford, J. A Linguistic Theory of Translation[M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1965.<br />
*6b Early important understanding Nida, E. A. Toward a Science of Translating[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br />
<br />
7 Nov 10 Translation Studies<br />
*7a Bassnett, Susan. Translation Studies[M]. London and New York: Methuen, 1980. <br />
*7b Translation Studies 许钧，穆雷. 翻译学概论[M]. 南京：译林出版社，2009年.<br />
*7c=3b Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. Translation Studies 翻译学[M]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社，2000年. (the 2nd part contains a lot of English papers)<br />
*7d Categories of Contemporary Western Translation Studies 2002_Pan_Wenguo_潘文国_当代西方的翻译学研究_2002<br />
<br />
8 Nov 17 Translation Theories<br />
*8a Western theory 刘军平. 西方翻译理论通史[M]. 武汉：武汉大学出版社，2009年.<br />
*8b Theories Gentzler, E. Contemporary Translation Theories[M]. London and New York: Routledge, 1993.<br />
*8c Contemp. West. theories 廖七一. 当代西方翻译理论探索[M]. 南京：译林出版社, 2000年.<br />
*8d Xu, Jun 许钧. Translation Theories 翻译论. 湖北教育出版社, 2003<br />
*8e Pan_Wenguo_Cont_West_Trans_Stud_当代西方的翻译学研究_兼谈_翻译学的学科性问题_潘文国<br />
<br />
9 Nov 24 History of Chinese Translation Theories<br />
*9a 陈福康.中国译学理论史稿（修订本）[M]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社，2000年.<br />
*9b 许钧. 翻译论[M]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社，2003年.<br />
<br />
10 Dec 1 Appropriateness Theory<br />
*10a Moratto, Woesler: Current Dynamics, Springer 2021<br />
<br />
11 Dec 8 Methods and Style<br />
*11a Methods Wilss, Wolfram. The Science of Translation: Problems and Methods[M]. Gunter Narr Verlag Tubinger, 1982.<br />
*11b Style 刘宓庆. 文体与翻译[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司：北京，1998年.<br />
*11c Trans_Stud_Problems_and_Methods_翻译学问题与方法<br />
<br />
12 Dec 15 Theory and Practice <br />
*12a Bell, Roger T. Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice[M]. London and New York: Longman, 1991.<br />
*12b Theory and Practice Munday, Jermy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications[M]. London and NewYork: Routledge, 2001.<br />
*12c Theory and Practice Nida, Eugene A. and Charles R. Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1969.<br />
<br />
13 Dec 22 Decriptive Studies, Culture, Invisibility, Constructivism<br />
*13a “descriptive” Toury, Gideon. Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M]. Amsterdam/ Philadelphia: John BenjaminB Publishing company, 1995.<br />
*13b Culture Toury, Gideon. Translation Across Cultures[M]. NewDelhi: Bahri Publications, 1987.<br />
*13c Invisibility Venuti, L. The Translator 's Invisibility[M]. London and NewYork: Routledge, 1995.<br />
*13d Constructivism Research 易经. 翻译学体系构建研究[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社，2012年.<br />
*13e Art or Science? Different papers by Huang Zhending Trans_Stud_Art_and_Scient_Theory_翻译学艺术论与科学论的统一<br />
<br />
14 Dec 29 East-West Comparison<br />
*14a East-West comparison 刘宓庆. 中西翻译思想比较研究[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司, 2005年.<br />
*14b English-Chinese TS 蒋坚松. 英汉对比与汉译英研究[M]. 长沙：湖南人民出版社，2002年.<br />
<br />
15 Jan 5 Review in Preparation of final exam<br />
<br />
16 Jan 12 Final Exam<br />
<br />
Please download several pdfs with monographs and articles about translation studies history and theories from our WeChat group.<br />
<br />
*Bassnett, Susan. Translation studies. Routledge, 2013<br />
*Bell, Roger T., and Christopher Candlin. Translation and translating: Theory and practice. Vol. 298. London: Longman, 1991 <br />
*Catford, John Cunnison. A linguistic theory of translation. Oxford University Press, 1978.<br />
*Chen, Fukang. "Zhongguo yixue lilun shi gao (A History of Chinese Translation Theory)." (1992).<br />
*Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary translation theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br />
*Holmes, James S. The name and nature of translation studies. Translation Studies Section, Department of General Literary Studies, University of Amsterdam, 1975.<br />
*Huang, Chending黄振定. "文学翻译评价的科学性及其科学论." 外国语 4 (1999): 49-56.<br />
*Huang, Chending 黄振定. "翻译学是一门人文科学." 外语与外语教学 2 (1999): 33-35.<br />
*Huang, Chending 黄振定.翻译学: 艺术论与科学论的统一. 上海外语教育出版社, 2008<br />
*Lefevere, André, ed. Translation/history/culture: A sourcebook. Routledge, 2002.<br />
*Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications, Routledge 2013<br />
*Nida, Eugene Albert, and Charles Russell Taber, eds. The theory and practice of translation. Vol. 8. Brill Archive, 1982.<br />
*Nida, Eugene Albert. Toward a science of translating: with special reference to principles and procedures involved in Bible translating. Brill Archive, 1964.<br />
*Pan Wenguo 潘文国. "当代西方的翻译学研究——兼谈 “翻译学” 的学科性问题." 中国翻译 23.1 (2002): 31-34.<br />
*Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜. Translation Studies 翻译学. 复旦大学出版社, 2017<br />
*Toury, Gideon. "Descriptive Translation Studies–and beyond John Benjamins Publishing Company." Amsterdam/Philadelphia (1995).<br />
*Venuti, Lawrence. The translator's invisibility: A history of translation. Routledge, 2017.<br />
*Wilss, Wolfram. The science of translation: problems and methods. Vol. 180. John Benjamins Pub Co, 1982. 翻译学问题与方法 Shanghai: SFLEP (2001).<br />
*Xu, Jun 许钧, Mu Lei 穆雷. "翻译学概论 [Introduction to Translation Studies]." 南京: 译林出版社 10 (2009): 180-192.<br />
*Xu, Jun 许钧. Translation Theories 翻译论. 湖北教育出版社, 2003<br />
*Zhao, Wei 赵巍. "翻译学学科性质与研究方法反思." 解放军外国语学院学报 28.6 (2005): 69-72.<br />
<br />
(We use Chicago Social Sciences Citation Style [https://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide/citation-guide-2.html Chicago Style].)<br />
<br />
==Final exam class projects==<br />
<br />
Please help to edit one of the following book publications (please write your name behind the topics and organize the book with a proposal for the press and a chapter in the form of a journal paper by each participant):<br />
*[[History of Translation Studies]] (Sample from last year.)<br />
*[[History of Translations]] <br />
Rouabah Soumaya( History of translation in the Middle Ages) 李习长 (History of Modern and Contemporary Chinese Translation) 黄柱梁（The Translation of Buddihist Sutra in China） 王镇隆 叶维杰 李雯( The Translation theory after the establishment of the People's Republic of China)李怡(Modern Western Translation History) 李新星 刘沛婷(Western Translation history in Renaissance) 刘薇(Contemporary American Translation History) 周俊辉 周玖 钟雨露 钟义菲 魏楚璇(western translation history in the modern and contemporary Age)<br />
*[[History of Translation Theories]] 李瑞洋（Development of Translation Theories in Modern China）、陈心怡 张扬、曾俊霖 张怡然(History of Translation Theories from early Russia to the Soviet Union) 尹媛（The Brief Introduction of American structural school of translation theory) 李双 杨堃 刘运心 魏兆妍(The Development of Humanism Trend in Western Translation Theory) 吴婧悦(History of Translation Theories in the Soviet Union) 杨爱江<br />
*[[Machine translation]] - A challenge or a chance for human translators? 卫怡雯 肖毅瑶 王李菲 徐敏赟 颜莉莉 颜静 谢佳芬 熊敏 陈惠妮 蔡珠凤 陈湘琼 Nadia<br />
*[[Culture loaded words]] 羊叶（中文电影英译字幕中文化负载词的翻译——以《霸王别姬》为例）、谢庆琳、罗曦（The translation methods of culture loaded words） 何芩、孙雅诗、杜莉娜（跨文化交际视角下旅游文本中文化负载词的英汉翻译研究）、宫博雅（俄语成语中文化负载词的中文翻译分析）、周小雪(《药》英日译本中文化负载词的翻译对比研究）、付诗雨（博物馆文物解说词中文化负载词的日译研究）、丁旋(Translation of Culture-Loaded Words in ''The Concubine Market of Yangchow '' of Lin Yutang's Version from the Perspective of Newmark’s Translation Theory)、高蜜、殷慧珍、程杨、胡舒情<br />
*[[The cultural turn]] in Translation History 金晓童 李爱璇 李文璇 黄锦云 李姗 黄逸妍<br />
*[[Appropriateness Theory]] - Ei Mon Kyaw (Creating Appropriateness Theory). I need more students here. You can write papers criticizing existing theories here and suggest what needs to be improved to develop a new theory! This is cutting edge research here! I expect the best students to participate and we may try to submit the papers to real academic journals!Ei Mon Kyaw (Creating Appropriateness Theory). 殷美达 易扬帆（Appropriateness in Lyrics Translation -- A Case Study of Lana Del Rey's Lyrics Translation in QQ Music）<br />
*[[Translation types, strategies, styles, methods]] 刘晓（纽马克翻译理论指导下旅游文本中翻译策略与翻译技巧的使用——以''Everglades National Park, Florida (Excerpt)''为例） 刘越 毛雅文 毛优（俄语政论语体翻译策略及翻译技巧的使用——以“2019年俄罗斯政府工作报告”为例 彭瑞雪 秦建安（功能对等翻译视角下的鲁迅短篇小说翻译研究——以杨、戴夫妇的《孔乙己》英译本为例） 颜子涵 邝艳丽 阳佳颖 杨柳青（卞之琳的文学翻译理论和实践 ——以其浪漫主义诗歌译作为例）Atta Ur Rahman、Zohaib Chand、Muhammad Numan、Muhammad Saqib Mehran 刘胜楠（浅析目的论视角下《哪吒之魔童降世》字幕翻译策略）<br />
*[[Aesthetic Appreciation of Literary Translations]] 朱素珍 邹岳丽 邱婷婷(Three beauties embodied in Xu Yuanchong's English translation of ''Tang Poetry'') 吴映红(A comparative study of aesthetic reproduction in Chinese versions of snow country from the perspective of translation aesthetics)<br />
*[[Translation Theories Apllied to Literary Translations]] 周巧 付红岩 詹若萱（Chinese Translation of Subtitles of "Jane Eyre" from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory）<br />
*[[Comparative Studies in Translation]] 石丽青 牟一心 饶金盈 罗安怡 马新 王逸凡 张秋怡 朱壬铎<br />
<br />
(We use Chicago Social Sciences Citation Style [https://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide/citation-guide-2.html Chicago Style].)<br />
<br />
==Schedule==<br />
Please add your name, presentation form (ppt, handout) and subtopic here.<br />
<br />
'''All sessions''': <br />
*1 Sep 26 Introduction<br />
*2 Sep 29 Emergence I<br />
*3 Oct 13 Emergence II <br />
(中国翻译的起源 The Emergence of Translation Studies in China) ppt by Chen Xiangqiong 陈湘琼 and handout by Xie Qinglin 谢庆琳.<br />
<br />
(机器翻译的起源与发展 The Origin of Machine Translation) ppt by Yan Jing 颜静 and handout by Xu Minyun 徐敏赟.<br />
<br />
*4 Oct 20 History of Translation <br />
(中国翻译简史 The Brief History of Chinese Translation) ppt by Hu Shuqing 胡舒情 and handout by Gong Boya 宫博雅. <br />
<br />
(西方翻译简史 The Brief History of Western Translation) ppt by Ding Xuan 丁旋 and handout by Fu Shiyu 付诗雨.<br />
<br />
(中国译场中佛经翻译的历史 The History of Buddhist Scripture Translation in Chinese Translation Center) PPT by Ye Weijie 叶维杰 and handout by Wang Zhenlong 王镇隆. <br />
<br />
(中国诗歌翻译简史 A Brief History of Chinese Poetry Translation) ppt by Rao Jinying 饶金盈 202120081520 and handout by Mou Yixin 牟一心.<br />
<br />
(2000年以来的大中华文库翻译历史 The Translation History of Library of Chinese Classics Since 2000) ppt by Zhang Yang 张扬 and handout by Zeng Junlin曾俊霖.<br />
<br />
*5 Oct 27 Early understanding <br />
The early understanding next session refers to the very early theoretical understanding of the Translation process from ancient times until Maybe up to the middle of the 20th century. There are no elaborated theories yet, but at least some discussions About principles, strategies etc.<br />
<br />
(佛经翻译的文质之争 The Debates Between Wen and Zhi on Buddhist Scriptures Translation) ppt by He Qin 何芩 202120081489 and handout by Gao Mi高蜜.<br />
<br />
(林语堂的翻译 Translation by Lin Yutang) ppt by Xie Jiafen 谢佳芬 and handout by Yan Lili 颜莉莉.<br />
<br />
*6 Nov 3 Linguistics and Equivalence (Nida) <span style="color:red"><br />
<br />
(J.C.Catford's Translation Equivalence Theory) ppt by Huang Yiyan 黄逸妍 and handout by Huang Jinyun 黄锦云.<br />
<br />
(Two Types of Equivalence by Eugene A. Nida) ppt by Du Lina 杜莉娜 and handout by Ma Xin 马新.<br />
<br />
(The Three Essences of Functional Equivalence and Its Application) ppt by Yi Yangfan 易扬帆 and handout by Yin Yuan 尹媛.<br />
<br />
(Eugene Nida's Principles of Correspondence Theory) ppt by Chen Huini 陈慧妮 and handout by Cai Zhufeng 蔡珠凤.<br />
<br />
*6 Nov 10 Translation Studies<br />
(The Name and Nature of Translation Studies)ppt by Liu Shengnan刘胜楠; handout by Li Yi李怡 <br />
<br />
(Five Approaches to Translation)ppt by Li Wenxuan李文璇; handout by Li Shan 李姗 <br />
<br />
(Principles of Translation)ppt by Xiao Yiyao肖毅瑶; handout by Wu Yinghong吴映红<br />
<br />
(Cultural and Ideological Approaches in Translation)ppt by Mahzad Heydarian; handout by Mahzad Heydarian<br />
<br />
(Roman Jacobson's Categories of Translation)ppt by Xiong Min熊敏; handout by Sun Yashi孙雅诗<br />
<br />
(Lin Yutang' s Translation Aesthetics )ppt by Luo Anyi罗安怡; handout by Shi Liqing石丽青<br />
<br />
*8 Nov 17 Translation Theories <br />
(Translation Theories of George Steiner)ppt by Yang Liuqing 杨柳青; handout by Yin Huizhen 殷慧珍<br />
<br />
(The Functional Translation Theory of Reiss, Vermeer and Nord)ppt by Peng Ruixue 彭瑞雪;handout by Qin Jianan 秦建安.<br />
<br />
(Translation Theories of Peter Newmark) ppt by Liu Xiao 刘晓; handout by Liu Yue 刘越.<br />
<br />
(Yan Fu's Translation Thoughts)ppt by Wang Lifei 王李菲; handout by Wei Chuxuan 魏楚璇<br />
<br />
(Translation theorie of Xu Yuanchong) ppt by Zhouqing周清; handout by Zou Yueli邹岳丽.<br />
<br />
*9 Nov 24 History of Chinese Translation Theories <br />
(The History of Chinese Translation Theories in Qing Dynasty)ppt by Cheng Yang 程杨 and handout by Li Shuang 李双.<br />
<br />
(The History of Chinese Buddhist Translation Theories)ppt by Qiu Tingting邱婷婷; handout by Wei Yiwen 卫怡雯<br />
<br />
(The Chinese Translation Theories During the Period of the May Forth Movement)ppt by Li Wen 李雯; handout by Zhou Xiaoxue 周小雪<br />
<br />
(The History of Chinese Translation Theories from 1949 to Present)ppt by Yang Aijiang 杨爱江; handout by Yang Kun 杨堃<br />
<br />
*10 Dec 1 Appropriateness Theory - this is a new theory suggested by M. Woesler in 2020. Everybody is invited to help to develop this theory or to criticize other theories and suggesting what a new theory (like the appropriateness theory) needs to do better.<br />
<br />
(Appropriateness Theory) ppt by Yin Meida殷美达 and handout by Ei Mon Kyaw 艾梦觉<br />
<br />
*11 Dec 8 Methods and Style<br />
(The Literal Translation and Free Translation)ppt by Zhong Yifei钟义菲; handout by Zhong Yulu钟雨露.<br />
<br />
(The Amplification and Omission in Translation)ppt by Zhou Jiu周玖; handout by Zhou Junhui周俊辉.<br />
<br />
(Zhu Shenghao's Translation Style Take the Translation of Shakespeare's Plays for Example)ppt by Li Aixuan李爱璇；handout by Jing Xiaotong金晓童.<br />
<br />
(Translation Methods of Idioms)ppt by Liu Yunxin 刘运心; handout by Li Ruiyang 李瑞洋<br />
<br />
(Domestication and Foreignization)pptx by Chen Jing 陈静; handout by Chen Xinyi 陈心怡<br />
<br />
*12 Dec 15 Theory and Practice. <br />
(The value and limits of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory in its Application of Literature) ppt by 詹若萱 and handout by 罗曦<br />
(Catford's Translation Shift Theory and its practice)ppt by 周巧and handout by 朱素珍<br />
(An Analysis of Different Versions on the Basis of the Three Beauties of Xu Yuanchong) ppt by 邝艳丽 and handout by 付红岩<br />
(庞德的翻译理论及其在《华夏集》中的应用 Ezra Pound's translation theory and its application in Cathay) handout by 张秋怡 and ppt by 王逸凡<br />
() Skopos Theory and its Application ppt by 刘沛婷 and handout by 李新星<br />
<br />
*13 Dec 22 Decriptive Studies, Culture, Invisibility, Constructivism<br />
() ppt by 殷美达 and handout by 张怡然<br />
<br />
*14 Dec 29 East-West Comparison<br />
()ppt by刘薇 and handout by黄柱梁<br />
()ppt by魏兆妍 and handout by 吴婧悦<br />
()ppt by阳佳颖 and handout by 颜子涵<br />
(韦努蒂与鲁迅异化翻译策略之比较 A Comparison of Venuti's and Lu Xun's Foreignization Translation Strategy) ppt by毛优 and handout by 毛雅文<br />
*15 Jan 5 Review in Preparation of final exam<br />
*16 Jan 12 Final Exam<br />
<br />
== Homework from Session 1 Sep 26 due on Sep 29, 2021 ==<br />
<br />
1. Take the survey after session 1: http://bit.ly/EU-SURVEY<br />
<br />
2. Please fill in the 2nd quiz (to show that you have read the texts for session 2) before session 2. (Will be added later.)<br />
<br />
3. Every student should translate 1 sentence. Here is the [[20210929_homework|homework page]]. - IN PREPARATION...<br />
<br />
*[[20210929_homework|homework of session 1 for session 2 Sep 29]]<br />
<br />
4. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation is once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20210929_homework|here]].<br />
<br />
*[[20210929_homework|homework of session 1 for session 2 Sep 29]]<br />
<br />
5. Please pick a topic from the pdf material, the general session topics or your own thoughts to do a presentation on. For the first topics, you need to do the presentation already in 1 week!<br />
<br />
===Homework for later===<br />
4. Write a final exam paper as a chapter of the book "Translation Studies", ... It has to be a topic, not yet chosen by any other student in the book. I will upload the book here later. You can participate in writing this book.<br />
<br />
5. Get familiar with the pdfs I send you on WeChat group as learning material.<br />
<br />
=Session 2, Sep 29: Emergence I=<br />
*Teacher presentation<br />
*Survey http://bit.ly/Eval-01<br />
*Please select a topic to do a ppt or handout on<br />
*Review homework<br />
*Prepare final exam<br />
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===Homework for this session Sep 29===<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 2 (Emergence I)<br />
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2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
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*[[20210929_homework|homework of session 1 for session 2 Sep 29]]<br />
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3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
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==Session 2, Sep 29, Topic 1: Emergence I - Emergence in China==<br />
*Teacher presentation: [[Media:Emergence_I.pptx|Teacher presentation on the Emergence of Translation]] by Martin Woesler --[[User:Root|Root]] ([[User talk:Root|talk]]) 11:44, 13 October 2021 (UTC)<br />
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==Homework for next session Oct 13==<br />
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1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 3 (Emergence II)<br />
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2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
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*[[20211013_homework|homework of session 2 for session 3 Oct 13]]<br />
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3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
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*[[20211013_homework|homework of session 2 for session 3 Oct 13]]<br />
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4. Please write your name behind one of the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Final_exam_class_projects|book projects]] where you want to write a chapter as your final exam paper. Also indicate the topic of your chapter in this book project.<br />
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5. (Only for students who do presentation on Oct 13: Emergence II (中国新时期翻译研究发展的起源 The origin of translation studies in China in the new Era) ppt by Chen Xiangqiong 陈湘琼 and handout by Xie Qinglin 谢庆琳. (Emergence of Oral Interpretation) ppt by Shan Gongfei:) Prepare ppt or handout.(机器翻译的起源 The Origin of Machine Translation) handout by Xu Minyun 徐敏赟 202120081535 and powerpoint by Yan Jing 颜静 202120081536.<br />
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=Session 3, Oct 13, Topic 2: Emergence II - Emergence in China=<br />
==Homework for this session Oct 13==<br />
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1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 3 (Emergence II)<br />
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2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
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*[[20211013_homework|homework of session 2 for session 3 Oct 13]]<br />
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3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
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*[[20211013_homework|homework of session 2 for session 3 Oct 13]]<br />
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4. (Only for students who do presentation on Oct 13:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
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==Presentations in Session 3, Emergence of Translation II==<br />
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*ppt: [[Media:03 Emergence of translations in China by Xie Qinglin.pptx|Presentation on Emergence of translation study in China 中国翻译的起源]] by Chen Xiangqiong 陈湘琼; handout [[Media:03_Xie_Qinglin_Emergence_of_translations_in_China.docx|Emergence of translation studies in China]] by Xie Qinglin 谢庆琳<br />
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Tip: Since the topics are sorted roughly chronologically, this topic should be the emergence of translation rather than emergence of translation studies.<br />
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*ppt: [[Media:The_Origin_of_Machine_Translation_by_Yan_Jing.pptx|Presentation on Origin of Machine Translation 机器翻译的起源与发展]] by Yan Jing 颜静; handout [[Media:The_Origin_of_Machine_Translation_by_Xu_Minyun.docx|Origin of Machine Translation handout]] by Xu Minyun 徐敏赟<br />
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Tip: This topic is also very modern, it should be presented at the end of the semester.<br />
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==Homework for next session Oct 20==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 3 (Emergence II)<br />
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2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
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*[[20211020_homework|homework of session 3 for session 4 Oct 20]]<br />
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3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
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4. (Only for students who do presentation on Oct 13:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
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=Session 4, Oct 20, Topic 3=<br />
==Homework for this session Oct 20==<br />
<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 4<br />
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2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
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*[[20211020_homework|homework of session 3 for session 4 Oct 20]]<br />
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3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
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4. (Only for students who do presentation on Oct 20:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
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==Presentations on History of Translation, session 4==<br />
* ppt: [[Media: The brief history of western translation_by_Ding_Xuan.pptx|Presentation on The brief history of western translation]] by Ding Xuan; handout [[Media:The brief history of Western translation.doc| The brief history of western translation]] by Fu Shiyu<br />
*ppt: [[Media: The brief history of Chinese translation.pptx|Presentation on The brief history of Chinese translation]] by Hu Shuqing; handout [[Media:The brief history of Chinese translation_by_Gong_Boya.doc| The brief history of Chinese translation]] by Gong Boya<br />
* ppt:[[Media: A brief history of Chinese poetry translation.pptx|Presentation on A brief history of Chinese poetry translation]] by Rao Jinying; handout: [[Media: A brief history of Chinese poetry translation.doc| A brief history of Chinese poetry translation]] by Mou Yixin<br />
* ppt:[[Media: The Translation history of Library of Chinese Classics Since 2000.pptx|Presentation on The Translation history of Library of Chinese Classics Since 2000]] by Zhang Yang; handout: [[Media: The Translation history of Library of Chinese Classics Since 2000_by_Zeng_Junlin.doc| The Translation history of Library of Chinese Classics]] by Zeng Junlin<br />
* ppt:[[Media: The History of Buddhist Scripture Translation in Chinese Translation Center.pptx|Presentation on The History of Buddhist Scripture Translation in Chinese Translation Center]] by Ye Weijie; handout: [[Media: The History of Buddhist Scripture Translation in Chinese Translation Center.docx| The History of Buddhist Scripture Translation in Chinese Translation Center]] by Wang Zhenlong<br />
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==Homework for next session Oct 27==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 5<br />
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2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
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*[[20211027_homework|homework of session 4 for session 5 Oct 27]]<br />
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3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
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4. (Only for students who do presentation on Oct 27:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
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=Session 5, Oct 27, Topic 4 Early Understanding of Translation (no elaborated theories yet)=<br />
==Homework for this session Oct 27==<br />
<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 5<br />
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2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
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*[[20211027_homework|homework of session 4 for session 5 Oct 27]]<br />
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3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
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4. (Only for students who do presentation on Oct 27:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
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==Presentations Oct 27 on Early Understanding==<br />
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* Teacher presentation: [[Media:05_Transl_Studies_Emergence2_History.pptx|Powerpoint for the Sessions 3-5 by Martin Woesler, please download from this link]]<br />
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The early understanding next session refers to the very early theoretical understanding of the Translation process from ancient times until maybe up to the middle of the 20th century. There are no elaborated theories yet, but at least some discussions about principles, strategies etc.<br />
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* ppt: [[Media: Tranlation by Lin Yutang.pptx|Translation by Lin Yutang]] by Xie Jiafen; handout [[Media: Tranlation by Lin Yutang(handout).docx| Translation by Lin Yutang(handout)]] by Yan Lili<br />
* ppt: [[Media: The Debates Between Wen and Zhi on Buddhist Scriptures Translation.pptx|The Debates Between Wen and Zhi on Buddhist Scriptures Translation]] by He Qin; handout [[Media: The Wen-Zhi Debate in the history of sutra translation (handout).docx| The Wen-Zhi Debate in the History of Sutra Translation (handout)]] by Gao Mi<br />
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==Homework for next session 6, Nov 3==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 6<br />
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2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
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*[[20211103_homework|homework of session 5 for session 6, Nov 3]]<br />
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3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
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4. (Only for students who do presentation on Nov 3:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
<br />
=Session 6, Nov 3, Topic 5 Translation Equivalence, Nida and Linguistics=<br />
==Homework for this session Nov 3==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 6<br />
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2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
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*[[20211103_homework|homework of session 5 for session 6 Nov 3]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
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4. (Only for students who do presentation on Nov 3:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
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==Presentations Nov 3 on Linguistics and Equivalence(Nida)==<br />
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* ppt: [[Media:J.C.Catford's Translation Equivalence Theory(ppt).pptx|J.C.Catford's Translation Equivalence Theory(ppt)]] by Huang Yiyan; handout [[Media:Translation Equivalence Theory.docx|J.C.Catford's Translation Equivalence Theory]] by Huang Jinyun<br />
* ppt: [[Media:Two Types of Equivalence by Eugene A. Nida(ppt).pptx|Two Types of Equivalence by Eugene A. Nida(ppt)]] by Du Lina; handout [[Media: Two Types of Equivalence by Eugene A. Nida.docx|Two Types of Equivalence by Eugene A. Nida]] by Ma Xin<br />
* ppt: [[Media:The Three Essences of Functional Equivalence and Its Application.pptx|The Three Essences of Functional Equivalence and Its Application]] by Yi Yangfan; handout [[Media: The Three Essences of Functional Equivalence and Its Application.docx|The Three Essences of Functional Equivalence and Its Application]] by Yin Yuan<br />
* ppt: [[Media:Eugene Nida ‘s Principles of Correspondence Theory(ppt).pptx|Eugene Nida ‘s Principles of Correspondence Theory(ppt)]] by Chen Huini; handout [[Media:Eugene Nida ‘s Principles of Correspondence Theory.docx|Eugene Nida ‘s Principles of Correspondence Theory]] by Cai Zhufeng<br />
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==Homework for next session 7, Nov 10==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 7<br />
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2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
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*[[20211110_homework|homework of session 6 for session 7, Nov 10]]<br />
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3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
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4. (Only for students who do presentation on Nov 10:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
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5. WRITE A DRAFT OF YOUR FINAL EXAM PAPER!<br />
*[[20220112_final_exam|Final Exam paper page]]<br />
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=Session 7, Nov 10, Topic 6 Translation Studies=<br />
==Homework for this session Nov 10==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 7<br />
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2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
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*[[20211110_homework|homework of session 6 for session 7 Nov 10]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
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4. (Only for students who do presentation on Nov 3:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
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==Presentations Nov 10 on Translation Studies==<br />
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* ppt 1: [[Media:The Name and Nature of Translation Studies(ppt).pptx|The Name and Nature of Translation Studies(ppt)]] by Liu Shengnan; handout [[Media: The Name and Nature of Translation Studies.docx| The Name and Nature of Translation Studies]] by Li Yi<br />
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* ppt 2: [[Media:Five Approaches to Translation.pptx|Five Approaches to Translation]] by Li Wenxuan; handout [[Media:Five Approaches to Translation(handout).docx|Five Approaches to Translation()]] by Li Shan<br />
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* ppt 3: [[Media:Principles of Translation(ppt).pptx|Principles of Translation(ppt)]] by Xiao Yiyao; handout [[Media:Principles of Translation.docx|Principles of Translation]] by Wu Yinghong<br />
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* ppt 4: [[Media:Cultural and Ideological Approaches in Translation(ppt).pptx|Cultural and Ideological Approaches in Translation]] by Mahzad Heydarian; handout [[Media:Cultural and Ideological Approaches in Translation.docx| Cultural and Ideological Approaches in Translation ]] by Mahzad Heydarian<br />
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* ppt 5: [[Media:Roman Jacobson's Categories of Translation(ppt).pptx|Roman Jacobson's Categories of Translation(ppt)]] by Xiong Min; handout [[Media: Roman Jacobson's Categories of Translation.docx| Roman Jacobson's Categories of Translation]] by Sun Yashi<br />
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* ppt 6: [[Media:Lin Yutang' s Translation Aesthetics(ppt).pptx|Lin Yutang' s Translation Aesthetics]] by Luo Anyi; handout [[Media:Lin Yutang' s Translation Aesthetics.docx| Lin Yutang' s Translation Aesthetics]] by Shi Liqing<br />
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==Homework for next session 8, Nov 17==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 8<br />
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2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
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*[[20211117_homework|homework of session 6 for session 8, Nov 17]]<br />
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3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
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4. (Only for students who do presentation on Nov 17:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
=Session 8, Nov 17, Translation Theories =<br />
==Homework for this session Nov 17==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 8<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
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*[[20211117_homework|homework of session 7 for session 8, Nov 17]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
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4. (Only for students who do presentation on Nov 17:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
==Presentations Nov 17 on Translation Theories==<br />
* ppt 1: [[Media:Translation Theories of George Steiner(ppt).pptx|Translation Theories of George Steiner(ppt)]] by Yang Liuqing 杨柳青; handout [[Media: Translation Theories of George Steiner.docx| Translation Theories of George Steiner]] by Yin Huizhen 殷慧珍<br />
* ppt 2: [[Media:The Functional Translation Theory of Reiss, Vermeer and Nord(ppt).pptx|The Functional Translation Theory of Reiss, Vermeer and Nord(ppt)]] by Peng Ruixue 彭瑞雪; [[Media:The Functional Translation Theory of Reiss, Vermeer and Nord (handout).docx|The Functional Translation Theory of Reiss, Vermeer and Nord (handout).docx]] by Qin Jianan 秦建安. <br />
* ppt 3: [[Media:Translation Theories of Peter Newmark.pptx|Translation Theories of Peter Newmark]] ppt by Liu Xiao 刘晓; [[Media:Translation Theories of Peter Newmark.docx|Translation Theories of Peter Newmark .docx]] handout by Liu Yue 刘越.<br />
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* ppt 4:[[Media:Yan Fu's Translation Thoughts(ppt).pptx|Yan Fu's Translation Thoughts(ppt)]] by Wang Lifei 王李菲; handout [[Media: Yan Fu's Translation Thoughts.docx| Yan Fu's Translation Thoughts]] by Wei Chuxuan 魏楚璇<br />
* ppt 5: [[Media:Translation of Xu Yuanchong.pptx|Translation theorie of Xu Yuanchong]] ppt by Zhouqing周清; [[Media:Translation of Xu Yuanchong.docx|Translation theorie of Xu Yuanchong]]handout by Zou Yueli邹岳丽.<br />
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==Homework for next session 9, Nov 24==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 9<br />
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2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211124_homework|homework of session 8 for session 9, Nov 24]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
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4. (Only for students who do presentation on Nov 24:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
=Session 9, Nov 24, History of Chinese Translation Theories =<br />
<br />
==Homework for this session Nov 24==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 9<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211124_homework|homework of session 8 for session 9, Nov 24]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Nov 24:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
==Presentations Nov 24 on Chinese Translation Theories ==<br />
* ppt 1: [[Media:The History of Chinese Translation Theories in Qing Dynasty(ppt).pptx|The History of Chinese Translation Theories in Qing Dynasty(ppt)]]ppt by Cheng Yang 程杨 and [[Media: The History of Chinese Translation Theories in Qing Dynasty.docx| The History of Chinese Translation Theories in Qing Dynasty]]handout by Li Shuang 李双. <br />
* ppt 2: [[Media:The History of Chinese Buddhist Translation Theories(ppt).pptx|The History of Chinese Buddhist Translation Theories(ppt)]] by Qiu Tingting邱婷婷; handout [[Media: The History of Chinese Buddhist Translation Theories.docx| The History of Chinese Buddhist Translation Theories]] by Wei Yiwen 卫怡雯 <br />
* ppt 3: [[Media:The Chinese Translation Theories During the Period of the May Forth Movement(ppt).pptx|The Chinese Translation Theories During the Period of the May Forth Movement(ppt)]]by Li Wen 李雯; [[Media: The Chinese Translation Theories During the Period of the May Forth Movement.docx|The Chinese Translation Theories During the Period of the May Forth Movement]] handout by Zhou Xiaoxue 周小雪<br />
* ppt 4: [[Media: The History of Chinese Translation Theories from 1949 to Present(ppt).pptx|The History of Chinese Translation Theories from 1949 to Present(ppt)]]by Yang Aijiang 杨爱江 [[Media: The History of Chinese Translation Theories from 1949 to Present.docx|The History of Chinese Translation Theories from 1949 to Present]] handout by Yang Kun 杨堃<br />
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==Homework for next session 10, Dec 1==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 10<br />
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2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211201_homework|homework of session 9 for session 10, Dec 1]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
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4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 1:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
=Session 10, Dec 1, Appropriateness Theory=<br />
This is a new theory suggested by M. Woesler in 2020. Everybody is invited to help to develop this theory or to criticize other theories and suggesting what a new theory (like the appropriateness theory) needs to do better.<br />
<br />
==Homework for this session Dec 1==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 10<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211201_homework|homework of session 9 for session 10, Dec 1]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 1:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
==Presentations Dec 1==<br />
* handout 1: [[Media: Appropriateness Theory.docx| Appropriateness Theory]] by Ei Mon Kyaw 艾梦觉;ppt 1: [[Media:Appropriateness Theory(ppt).pptx|Appropriateness Theory(ppt)]] by Yin Meida殷美达;<br />
* Topic 2: [[Media: The Appropriateness Theory.docx| The Appropriateness Theory]] by Asep Budiman;ppt 1: [[Media:Appropriateness Theory<br />
(ppt).pptx|Appropriateness Theory(ppt)]] by Asep Budiman;<br />
*Teacher presentation [[Media:10_Translation_Studies_Discipline.pptx|10_Translation_Studies_Discipline.pptx]]<br />
*Teacher presentation [[Media:Appropriateness_Theory_Teacher_Presentation.pptx|Appropriateness_Theory_Teacher_Presentation.pptx]]<br />
<br />
==Homework for next session 11, Dec 8==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 11<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211208_homework|homework of session 10 for session 11, Dec 8]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 8:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
=Session 11, Dec 8, Methods and Style=<br />
==Homework for this session Dec 8==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 11<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211208_homework|homework of session 10 for session 11, Dec 8]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 8:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
==Presentations Dec 8 on Methods and Style==<br />
* ppt 1: [[Media:The Literal Translation and Free Translation(ppt).pptx|The Literal Translation and Free Translation(ppt)]] by Zhong Yifei钟义菲; handout [[Media: The Literal Translation and Free Translation.docx| The Literal Translation and Free Translation]] by Zhong Yulu钟雨露.<br />
* ppt 1: [[Media:The Amplification and Omission in Translation(ppt).pptx|The Amplification and Omission in Translation(ppt)]] by Zhou Jiu周玖; handout [[Media: The Amplification and Omission in Translation.docx| The Amplification and Omission in Translation]] by Zhou Junhui周俊辉.<br />
* ppt 3: [[Media:Zhu Shenghao's Translation Style Take the Translation of Shakespeare's Plays for Example(ppt).pptx|Zhu Shenghao's Translation Style Take the Translation of Shakespeare's Plays for Example(ppt)]] by Li Aixuan李爱璇；handout [[Media:Zhu Shenghao's Translation Style Take the Translation of Shakespeare's Plays for Example.docx|Zhu Shenghao's Translation Style Take the Translation of Shakespeare's Plays for Example]] by Jing Xiaotong金晓童.<br />
* ppt 4: [[File:Translation Methods of Idioms.pptx|Translation Methods of Idioms(ppt)]] by Liu Yunxin 刘运心; handout [[File:Translation Methods of Idioms.docx|Translation Methods of Idioms(handout)]] by Li Ruiyang 李瑞洋<br />
* ppt 5: [[Media:11_Chen_Jing_Domestication_and_Foreignization.pptx|Domestication and Foreignization(pptx)]] by Chen Jing 陈静; handout [[File:Domestication and Foreignization.docx|Domestication and Foreignization(handout)]] by Chen Xinyi 陈心怡<br />
*Teacher presentation [[Media:11_Translation_Studies_Discipline.pptx|11_Translation_Studies_Discipline.pptx]]<br />
<br />
[[File:Translation Methods of Idioms.pptx]]<br />
<br />
==Homework for next session 12, Dec 15==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 12<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211215_homework|homework of session 11 for session 12, Dec 15]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 15:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
=Session 12, Dec 15, Theory and Practice.=<br />
<br />
==Homework for this session Dec 15==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 12<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211215_homework|homework of session 11 for session 12, Dec 15]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 15:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
==Presentations Dec 15 on Theory and Practice==<br />
* ppt 1: [[Media:Catford Translation Shift Theory and Tts Practice(ppt).pptx|Catford Translation Shift Theory and Its Practice(ppt)]] by Zhou Qiao 周巧; handout [[Media:Catford Translation Shift Theory and Its Practice.docx|Catford Translation Shift Theory and Its Practice]] by Zhu Suzhen 朱素珍.<br />
<br />
* ppt 2: [[Media: The value and limits of Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory in its Application of Literature(ppt).pptx| The value and limits of Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory in its Application of Literature（ppt）]] by Zhan Ruoxuan 詹若萱;handout [[Media:The value and limits of Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory in its Application of Literature.docx|The value and limits of Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory in its Application of Literature]] by Luo Xi 罗曦.<br />
<br />
* ppt 3：[[Media:Ezra Pound's translation theory and its application in Cathay(ppt).pptx|Ezra Pound's translation theory and its application in Cathay(ppt)]] by Wang Yifan 王逸凡; handout [[Media:Ezra Pound's translation theory and its application in Cathay.docx|Ezra Pound's translation theory and its application in Cathay]] by Zhang Qiuyi 张秋怡.<br />
<br />
* ppt 4：[[Media:Skopos Theory and its application by Jawad and Liu Peiting.pptx|Skopos Theory and its application by Jawad and Liu Peiting]] by Jawad Ahmad; handout [[Media:Skopos Theory and Its Application.docx|Skopos Theory and Its Application]] by Liu Peiting 刘沛婷.<br />
<br />
==Homework for next session 13, Dec 22==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 13<br />
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2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211222_homework|homework of session 12 for session 13, Dec 22]]<br />
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3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
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4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 22:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
=Session 13, Dec 22, Decriptive Studies, Culture, Invisibility, Constructivism=<br />
<br />
==Homework for this session Dec 22==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 13<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211222_homework|homework of session 12 for session 13, Dec 22]]<br />
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3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
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4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 22:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
==Presentations Dec 22 on Decriptive Studies, Culture, Invisibility, Constructivism==<br />
<br />
* ppt 1: [[Media:Gideon Toury's Descriptive Translation Studies(ppt).pptx|Gideon Toury's Descriptive Translation Studies(ppt)]]ppt by Benjamin Wellsand; handout [[Media:Gideon Toury's Descriptive Translation Studies.docx|Gideon Toury's Descriptive Translation Studies]] by Bi bi Nadia.<br />
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* ppt 2: [[Media:Gideon Toury's Descriptive Study of Norms in Translation Presentation(ppt).pptx|Gideon Toury's Descriptive Study of Norms in Translation Presentation(ppt)]]ppt by Rouabah Soumaya; handout [[Media:.docx|.docx]] by Bi bi Nadia.<br />
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* ppt 3: [[Media:Gideon Toury's Descriptive Translation Studies(ppt).pptx|Presentation on Cultural Aspects of Translation Studies(ppt)]]ppt by Benjamin Wellsand; handout [[Media:Gideon Toury's Descriptive Translation Studies.docx|Gideon Toury's Descriptive Translation Studies]] by Bi bi Nadia.<br />
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==Homework for next session 14, Dec 29==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 14<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211229_homework|homework of session 13 for session 14, Dec 29]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
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4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 29:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
=Session 14, Dec 29, East-West Comparison=<br />
<br />
==Homework for this session Dec 29==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 14<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20211229_homework|homework of session 13 for session 14, Dec 29]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
<br />
4. (Only for students who do presentation on Dec 29:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
==Presentations Dec 29 on East-West Comparison==<br />
*ppt 1: A Comparison of Venuti's and Lu Xun's Foreignization Translation Strategy ppt by Mao You 毛优; [[Media: A Comparison of Venuti's and Lu Xun's Foreignization Translation Strategy(Handout).docx|A Comparison of Venuti's and Lu Xun's Foreignization Translation Strategy(Handout).docx]] handout by Mao Yawen 毛雅文.<br />
<br />
*ppt 2: A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western Contemporary Cultural Translation——Taking the Translation Concepts of Liu Miqing(刘宓庆) and Susan Bassnett as an Example. [[File:A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western Contemporary Cultural Translation.pptx]] by Wei Zhaoyan魏兆妍；[[File:A Comparative Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western Contemporary Cultural Translation(handout).docx]] by Wu Jingyue吴婧悦<br />
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*ppt 3: [[Media:(ppt).pptx|(ppt)]]ppt by ; handout [[Media:Hypotactic and Paratactic.docx|Hypotactic and Paratactic]] by Huang Zhuliang黄柱梁.<br />
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==Homework for next session 15, Jan 5==<br />
1. Read the [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021#Topics.2C_Sessions_and_Material|literature]] for Session 15<br />
<br />
2. Translate your passage on the homework page.<br />
<br />
*[[20210105_homework|homework of session 14 for session 15, Jan 5]]<br />
<br />
3. Correct your fellow student's translation on the homework page.<br />
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4. (Only for students who do presentation on Jan 5:) Prepare ppt or handout.<br />
<br />
=Session 15, Jan 5, Review in Preparation of final exam=<br />
<br />
=Session 16, Jan 12, Final Exam=<br />
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<br />
=Samples from last year: 人类起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation=<br />
Please note: All the sessions (2-16) here are copies of the 2020 course. <br />
<br />
You can have a look how the fellow students did it last year, <br />
<br />
but you have to write everything new here for 2021.<br />
<br />
*Teacher presentation<br />
<br />
*Student presentations<br />
<br />
OLD (2020):<br />
<br />
*Handout for download [[Media:The_emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation.docx|Global Emergence of Interpretation and Translation]] by 彭锐宏<br />
*Classroom presentation for download [[Media:The_emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_by_Peng_Ruihong.pptx|Presentation on Emergence of translation]] by 彭锐宏--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 07:05, 28 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 2, Topic 2: 西方起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation in the West===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:The_Emergence_of_Translation_and_Interpretation_in_Western_Countries.docx|Handout on The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation in Western Countries]]--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 05:43, 28 September 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou by 聂晓楼<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The_Emergence_of_Translation_and_Interpretation_in_Western_Countries.pptx|Powerpoint on The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation in Western Countries]]--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 05:43, 28 September 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou by 聂晓楼<br />
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===Session 2, Topic 3: 中国起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation in China===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:Emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_in_China.docx| Handout on Emergence of translation and interpretation in China]]--Mashuya by 马淑雅<br />
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_in_China.pptx|PowerPoint on Emergence of translation and interpretation in China]]--Mashuya by 马淑雅<br />
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===Session 2, Topic 4: 日本起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation in Japan===<br />
*Handout for download: [[Media:The_Emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_in_Japan.docx|The Emergence of translation and interpretation in Japan]] by 孟莹 --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 16:10, 27 September 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The_Emergence_of_Translation_and_Interpretation_in_Japan.ppt|Powerpoint on the Emergence of Translation and Interpretation in Japan]] by 孟莹--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 16:10, 27 September 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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===Homework from Session 2 (Sep 28, 2020), due on (Oct 5, 2020)===<br />
1. Every student should translate 1 paragraph of an English book on Contemporary Chinese Literature INTO CHINESE. Link: [[20200928_trans|here]].<br />
<br />
2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20200928_trans|here]].<br />
<br />
==3rd Session: History==<br />
<br />
===Session 3, Topic 1:中国古代翻译史History of Translation in Ancient China===<br />
*Handout for download：[[Media:Handout for History of Translation in Ancient China.doc]]--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 09:14, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media: History of Translation in Ancient China.pptx]]--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 09:14, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 3, Topic 2: 中国翻译史代表人物The Representatives in Chinese Translation History===<br />
*Handout for download: [[Media:Chin_Trans_Hist_Rep.docx|The Representatives in Chinese Translation History]] --[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 11:35, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:....pptx|The Representatives in Chinese Translation History]] --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:36, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 3, Topic 3: 中国翻译史的四个阶段 The Four Stages of Chinese Translation History===<br />
*Handout for download: [[Media:The four stages of Chinese translation history.docx|Description of the file]] PLEASE UPLOAD by --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:08, 5 October 2020 (UTC)XX<br />
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The_four_stages_of_Chinese_translation_history.pptx|The Four Stages of Chinese Translation History]] by --[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 16:16, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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===Session 3, Topic 4: 当代中国之翻译 Translation in Contemporary China===<br />
*Handout for download: [[Media:Handout for Translation in Contemporary China.docx|Translation in today's China]] by --[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 02:08, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Translation in Contemporary China(1).pptx|Presentation on translation in China today]] --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 01:05, 5 October 2020 (UTC) Zhang Yuxing by 张宇星<br />
<br />
==='''Homework from Session 3 (Oct 5, 2020), for Session 4 due on (Oct 12, 2020)'''===<br />
<br />
1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book "Translation Studies". <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201005_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
<br />
2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201005_trans|here]].<br />
<br />
==Session 4: Development==<br />
<br />
===Session 4, Topic 1: 西方翻译史 Western translation history===<br />
*Handout for download: [[Media:....docx|Western translation history]] by Zhou Siqing--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:57, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Western translation history.pptx|Western translation history]] by Zhang Qi [[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 07:46, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 4, Topic 2: 中国佛经翻译的发展 The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures.docx]] by Jiang Qiwei--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:26, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures.ppt|The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures]] by Hu Jin--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:26, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 4, Topic 3:西方翻译理论史History of Western Translation Theory===<br />
*Handout for download: [[Media:...docx|History of Western Translation Theory]] by --[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 13:19, 4 October 2020 (UTC)XX<br />
* Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:...pptx| Brief History of Western Translation Theory]] by --[[User:Zhou Shiqing|Zhou Shiqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shiqing|talk]]) 13:19, 4 October 2020 (UTC)XX<br />
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===Session 4, Topic 4:口译未来的发展 Prospect of Interpreting===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Prospect of Interpreting.docx]]-by Zhang Yinliu--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 08:30, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Prospect of Interpreting.pptx]]--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 08:23, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 4, Topic 5:新中国成立后翻译的发展 Translation Development of New China===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:Translation Development of New China.pdf]] by Li Luyi --[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:47, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Translation Development .pptx]] by Zheng Huajun--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:47, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 4, Topic 6:圣经翻译的发展 The Development of Bible Translation===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Development of Bible Translation.docx]]--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:05, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Development of Bible Translation.pptx]] by Han Haiyang--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 02:01, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 4, Topic 7:机器翻译的发展 The Development of Machine Translation===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:Handout-The Development of Machine Translation.docx]] by Deng Jinxia----[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 12:42, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:PPT The Development of Machine Translation.pptx]] by Han Wanzhen--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 06:31, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 4, Topic 8:视听翻译的发展 The Development of Audiovisual Translation===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Development of Audiovisual Translation-Handout.docx]]--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 16:01, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Development of Audiovisual Translation-PPT.pptx]] by Cheng Yusi--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 16:04, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Homework from Session 4 (Oct 12, 2020), for Session 5 due on (Oct 19, 2020)'''===<br />
<br />
1. Every student should translate a short passage of a paper on the Chinese essay. <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201012_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
<br />
2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. [[20201012_trans|here]].<br />
<br />
3. Take part in an online survey. The survey is currently prepared by the fellow students.<br />
<br />
==Session 5: ==<br />
<br />
===Session 5, Topic 1:林纾的翻译 Lin Shu's translation===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:Translation by Lin Shu.docx]]--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:50, 29 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation by Lin Shu(After correcting).pptx]]--Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
===Session 5, Topic 2:茅盾的翻译 Mao Dun's Translation===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:Mao Dun's Translation.docx]]--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 02:44, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[[Media:translations by Mao Dun.pptx]]--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 13:14, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 5, Topic 3:严复和天演论 Yan Fu and Tianyan Lun===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:YAN Fu and Tianyan Lun.docx]]--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 09:53, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Yuan Yuchen<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:YAN Fu and Tianyan Lun.pptx]]--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 10:28, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
Please stick to your 5 minutes with your presentation. We are 3 presentations behind. Thank you for your cooperation.<br />
<br />
===Session 5, Topic 4:《红楼梦》的英译 The Translation of ''The Red Chamber Dreams''===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Translation of ''The Red Chamber Dreams''.docx]]--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 13:38, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Translation of ''The Red Chamber Dreams''.pptx]]----[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 03:59, 24 October 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
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===Session 5, Topic 5:《圣经》的早期汉译 The Early Translation of the Bible into Chinese===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Early Translation of the Bible into Chinese.docx]]--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 15:22, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Early Translation of the Bible into Chinese.ppt]]--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 14:55, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 5, Topic 6:梁实秋的翻译 The Translation of Liang Shiqiu===<br />
*Handout for download:[[Media:The Liang Shiqiu's Translation.pdf]]--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]]([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:32, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
*Classroom presentation for download:[[Media: Liang Shiqiu.pdf]]--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]]([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 00:32, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Session 6: Early Theories==<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''Homework from Session 5 (Oct 19, 2020), for Session 6 due on (Oct 26, 2020)'''===<br />
<br />
1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book "Translation Studies". <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201019_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
<br />
2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201019_trans|here]].<br />
<br />
===Session 6, Topic 1: 巴斯奈特文化翻译观 The Cultural Translation Theory of Bassnett===<br />
<br />
Handout for download: [[Media:The Cultural Translatioin Theory of Susan Bassnett.pdf]]--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]]([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 16:36, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Cultural Translatioin Theory of Bassnett.ppt]]--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 05:07, 24 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
===Session 6, Topic 2: 中国早期代表性佛经翻译理论 Early Representative Theories of Buddhist Scriptures Translation in China===<br />
<br />
Handout for download:[[Media:Early Representative Theories of Buddhist Scriptures Translation in China.docx]]--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:23, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Early Representative Theories of Buddhist Scriptures Translation in China.pptx]]--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 00:43, 26 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 6, Topic 3: 两种西方早期翻译模式的比较分析:贺拉斯模式和杰罗姆模式 The Comparative Analysis of Two Early Western Translation Models: Horace Model and Jerome Model===<br />
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Handout for download:[[Media:The Comparative Analysis of Two Translation Models.docx]]--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 09:41, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The_Comparative_Analysis_of_Two_Translation_Models.pptx]]--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 09:24, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br />
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===Session 6, Topic 4: 卡特福德的《翻译的语言学理论》 A Linguistic Theory of Translation of J.C.Catford===<br />
<br />
Handout for download:[[Media:A Linguistic Theory of Translation of Catford.docx]]--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 12:30, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:A Linguistic Theory of Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 12:38, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 6, Topic 5: 中西早期译论对比 The Comparison between Chinese and Western Early Translation Theories===<br />
Handout for download:[[Media:Comparison of Early Translation Theories between China and the West.docx]]--[[User:QiKai|Qi Kai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 14:04, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Classroom Presentation for download:[[Media:Chinese and Western Early Theories Comparison.pptx]]--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 13:26, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 6, Topic 6: 系统翻译理论的早期尝试 Early Attempts at Systematic Translation Theory===<br />
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Handout for download: [[Media:Early Attempts at Systematic Translation Theory.docx]]--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 12:40, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Early Attempts at Systematic Translation Theory.ppt]]--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]])03:52, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Session 7: Western theories==. 周巧 presentation PowerPoint 朱素珍 handout Cat ford Translation Shift Theory<br />
<br />
===Homework from Session 6 (Oct 26, 2020), for Session 6 due on (Nov 2, 2020)===<br />
<br />
1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book "Translation Studies". <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201026_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
<br />
2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201026_trans|here]].<br />
<br />
===Session 7, Topic 1: 奈达功能对等理论 Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
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Handout for download:[[Media:Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory.docx]]<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory ppt.pptx]]--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 02:59, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 7, Topic 2: 多元系统理论 Polysystem Theory===<br />
<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Polysystem Theory ppt.pptx]]--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 11:35, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Handout for download:[[Media:Polysystem Theory.docx]]--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 11:21, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Session 7, Topic 3： 后殖民主义翻译理论 Post-colonial Translation Theory===<br />
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Handout for download:[[Media:Post-colonial Translation Theory.doc]]--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 12:27, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Post-colonial Translation Theory.pptx]]--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 01:29, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 7, Topic 4： 布拉格学派 Prague School===<br />
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Handout for download: [[Media:Prague_School-Handout.doc]]--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 14:48, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Prague School.pptx]]--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:08, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 7, Topic 5： 目的论 Skopos Theory===<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Skopos Theory.pptx]]--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 07:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
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Handout for download:[[Media:Skopos Theory.docx]]--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:21, 2 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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===Session 7, Topic 6： 语言学派 Linguistic School===<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Linguistic School.pptx]]----[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Handout for download: [[Media:Linguistic School-Handout.doc]]----[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:48, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Session 8: Methods==<br />
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===Homework from Session 7 (Nov 2, 2020), for Session 8 due on (Nov 9, 2020)===<br />
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1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book "Translation Studies". <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201102_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
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2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201102_trans|here]].<br />
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===Session 8, Topic 1： 正说反译与反说正译 Negation===<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Negation-Gan Fengyu.pptx]][[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 13:01, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Handout for download:[[Media:Negation.docx]]--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 12:56, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 8, Topic 2：异化策略下的翻译方法 Translation Methods of Foreignization Strategy ===<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation Methods of Foreignization Strategy-Zhao Xiaoyan.pptx]]--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 15:35, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Handout for download:[[Media:Translation Methods of Foreignization Strategy-Zhang Hui.docx]]--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 15:33, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 8, Topic 3： 交际翻译与语义翻译 Communicative Translation and Semantic Translation===<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Communicative Translation and Semantic Translation.pptx]]by Zhang Yu--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 13:01, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Handout for download:[[Media:Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation-handout.docx]]--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 13:49, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 8, Topic 4： 直译与意译 Literal Translation and Free translation===<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Literal Translation and Free translation.pptx]]--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:45, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
Handout for download:[[Media:Literal Translation and Free translation Handout.docx]]--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 01:22, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 8, Topic 5： 增译与减译 Amplification and Omission===<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Amplification and Omission.pptx]]--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 03:06, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Amplification And Omission.docx]]--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 05:05, 9 November 2020 (UTC)Wensixing<br />
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===Session 8, Topic 6： 影视字幕的翻译方法-以《肖申克的救赎》为例 The Translation Method of Film and Television Subtitles——Taking Shawshank’s Redemption as an Example===<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Translation Method of Film and Television Subtitles—Taking Shawshank’s Redemption as an Example.pptx]]--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 01:21, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
Handout for download:[[Media:The Translation Method of Film and Television Subtitles—Taking Shawshank’s Redemption as an Example Handout.docx]]--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 01:16, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Session 9: Style==<br />
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===Homework from Session 8 (Nov 9, 2020), for Session 9 due on (Nov 16, 2020)===<br />
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1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201116_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
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2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201116_trans|here]].<br />
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===Session 9, Topic 1: 源语风格和翻译 Style of Source Text and Translation===<br />
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Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Style of Source Text and Translation.docx]]--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 06:48, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Style of Source Text and Translation1.pptx]]--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 07:03, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 9, Topic2 : 科技翻译 Scientific Style===<br />
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Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Scientific Style.docx]]--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 01:42, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Scientific Style.pptx]]--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:17, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 9,Topic 3:不同翻译风格对比 Comparison among Different Translation Styles===<br />
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Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Handout Session 9 Comparison among Different Translation Styles.docx]]--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 14:40, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Session 9 Comparison among Different Translation Styles.pptx]]--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 14:40, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 9,Topic 4: 文学风格可译与不可译 On Literary Style from a Translatable View and Untranslatable View===<br />
Classroom handout for download:[[Media:On Literary Style from a Translatable View and Untranslatable View.docx]]--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:49, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:On Literary Style from a Translatable View and Untranslatable View.pptx]] by Li Yongshan --[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:49, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 9,Topic 5: 翻译与风格 Translation and Style= ==<br />
Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Translation_and_Style.docx]]--Hu Huifang<br />
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Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Translation_and_Style.pptx]]--Zeng Yanhu<br />
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[[Media:Example.ogg]]<br />
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==Session 10: Translation Studies==<br />
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===Homework from Session 9 (Nov 16, 2020), for Session 10 due on (Nov 23, 2020)===<br />
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1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201123_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
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2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201123_trans|here]].<br />
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===Session 10,Topic 1: 翻译转换 Translation Shifts===<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation_Shifts.pptx]]--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 14:51, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Translation_Shifts_handout.docx]]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 15:05, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 10,Topic 2: 解码和重新编码 Decoding and Recoding===<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Decoding and Recoding.pptx]]--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 08:33, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Decoding and Recoding.docx]]--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 04:32, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 10,Topic 3: 视听翻译 Audiovisual Translation===<br />
Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Audiovisual Translation.docx]]--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 13:19, 22 November 2020 (UTC) - READ BY NIE XIAOLOU<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Audiovisual Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 00:26, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 10,Topic 4: 对钱钟书“化境说”的理论研究 The Translation Studies of Qian Zhongshu’s Theory of Huajing===<br />
[[Media:Handout-The Translation Studies of Qian Zhongshu’s theory of Huajing.docx]]--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 05:38, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[[Media:The Translation Studies of Qian Zhongshu’s theory of Huajing.pptx]]--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 05:40, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 10, Topic 5: 英汉被动语态对比研究及其翻译策略 Contrastive Studies of Passive Voice(C&E) and its Translation Strategies===<br />
Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Contrastive Studies of Passive Voice(C&E) and its Translation Strategies.pptx]] --[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 09:20, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Contrastive Studies of Passive Voice(C&E) and its Translation Strategies.docx]]--[[User:Blank|Zhang Hu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hu|talk]]) 10:23, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 10,Topic 6: 不可译性及其转化策略 Untranslatability and Translation Strategies====<br />
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Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Untranslatability and Translation Strategies.docx]]--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 12:03, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Untranslatability & Translation Strategies.pptx]]--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 12:45, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Session 11: Theory and Practice==<br />
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===Homework from Session 10 (Nov 23, 2020), for Session 11 due on (Nov 30, 2020)===<br />
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1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201130_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
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2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201130_trans|here]].<br />
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===Session 11,Topic 1: 功能对等理论对商标翻译的影响 The Effect of the Equivalence Theory on Trademark Translation===<br />
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Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Handout.The Theory and Practice.docx]]--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 07:38, 30 November 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Effect of the Equivalence Theory on Trademark Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 08:08, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 11,Topic 2: 归化和异化在翻译中的实践 Translation practice in domestication and foreignization===<br />
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Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Handout.The Practice of Foreignization and Domestication.docx]]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 01:21, 30 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation practice in domestication and foreignization.pptx]]--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 09:00, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
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===Session 11,Topic 3: 目的论及其应用 Skopos Theory and its Applications===<br />
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Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Skopos Theory and its Applications.docx]]--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 05:08, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download：[[Media:Skopos Theory and its Applications.pptx]]--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 05:16, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 11,Topic 4:语义翻译与交际翻译 The Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation=== <br />
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Classroom handout for download:[[Media:The Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation.docx]]--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 16:30, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation.ppt]]--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 06:56, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 11,Topic 5: 奈达的功能对等理论及其在科技文英译汉中的应用 Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory and its Application in E-C Translation of EST===<br />
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Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Nida’s_Functional_Equivalence_Theory_and_its_Application_in E-C_Translation_of_EST.docx]]--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 02:03, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory and its Application in E-C Translation of EST.pptx]]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 03:25, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 11,Topic 6:女性主义翻译 The Feminist Translation===<br />
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Handout for download：[[Media:Feminist Translation.doc]]--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:07, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation：[[Media:Feminist Translation.pptx]]<br />
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==Session 12: Different Aspects==<br />
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===Homework from Session 11 (Nov 30, 2020), for Session 12 due on (Dec 7, 2020)===<br />
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1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201207_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
<br />
2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201207_trans|here]].<br />
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===Session 12, Topic 1: 政论文翻译 Translation of Political Text===<br />
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Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Translation of Political Text.docx]]--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 12:21, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Translation of Political Text.pptx]] By Chen Jiaxin --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 12:30, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 12, Topic 2: 诗歌翻译 Poem Translation===<br />
Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Poem Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 14:59, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[[Media:Poem_Translation_handout.docx]] by Zhang Yujie& Yang Hairong--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 03:14, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Session 12, Topic 3: 旅游翻译 Tourism Translation===<br />
Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Tourism Translation.pptx]] by Tan Xinjie & Wei Yafei --[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 09:53, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei <br />
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[[Media:Tourism_Translation_handout.docx]] by Tan Xinjie & Wei Yafei--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 10:06, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Wei Yafei<br />
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==Session 13: East West comparison==<br />
<br />
===Homework from Session 12 (Nov 30, 2020), for Session 13 due on (Dec 14, 2020)===<br />
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1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201214_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
<br />
2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201214_trans|here]].<br />
<br />
===Topic 1:严复和泰特勒翻译标准之对比 A Comparison between Yan Fu's and Tytler's Translation Criteria===<br />
[[Media:A Comparison Between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s Translation Criteria.pptx]]--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 07:15, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
[[Media:A Comparison Between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s Translation Criteria.docx]]--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 06:52, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
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===Topic 2:中西翻译发展比较Comparison of the Development of Chinese and Western Translation===<br />
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[[Media:Comparison of the Development of Chinese and Western Translation.pptx]] by Liu Yi.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 15:38, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[[Media:Comparison of the Development of Chinese and Western Translation.doc]] by Tan Yuanyuan.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 15:47, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Topic 3:中西文化差异对翻译的影响The Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on Translation===<br />
[[Media:Handout-The Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on Translation.doc]] by Yang Yue--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 05:10, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
[[Media:The Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on Translation.pptx]] by Yi Zichu--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 05:01, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Topic 4:中国佛经翻译与圣经翻译的比较Comparison Between the translation of Buddhist scriptures of China and Bible translation===<br />
[[Media:The Comparison of the Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures and Bible translation.pptx]]by Xiao Ting--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 00:54, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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[[Media:The Comparison of the Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures and Bible Translation.docx]]--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 02:07, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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===Topic 5:20世纪中叶以来中西翻译理论对比 Comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century===<br />
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[[Media:Comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century by Mo Ling.pptx]]--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 09:38, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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[[Media:Handout of comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century by Yuan Tianyi.doc]]<br />
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===Topic 6；中西思维方式差异在翻译中的体现——以习语为例 The Embodiment of the Differences between Chinese and Western Thinking Modes in Translation -- Taking Idioms as an Example===<br />
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Classroom handout for download: [[Media:The Embodiment of the Differences between Chinese and Western Thinking Modes in Translation -- Taking Idioms as an Example.docx]]--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Sha]] --[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Sha]] ([[User talk:Chen Sha|talk]]) 14:43, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The Embodiment of the Differences between Chinese and Western Thinking Modes in Translation -- Taking Idioms as an Example.pptx]] By Chen Jiangning --[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Jiangning]]--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 14:43, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Session 14: Strategies==<br />
===Homework from Session 13 (Dec 14, 2020), for Session 14 due on (Dec 21, 2020)===<br />
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1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201221_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
<br />
2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201221_trans|here]].<br />
<br />
===Topic 1；阿拉伯大征服时代与翻译学 The Era of Arab Conquest and Translatology===<br />
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Classroom handout for download: [[Media:The Era of Arab Conquest and Translatology.docx]] Ma Zhixing＆Wu kai --[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 10:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The Era of Arab Conquest and Translatology.ppt]] Ma Zhixing＆Wu kai --[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 10:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Topic 2；韦努蒂的抵抗式翻译策略 Resistancy Translation Strategy—Lawrence Venuti===<br />
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Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Resistancy Translation Strategy—Lawrence Venuti.docx]] Tang Yiran&Yang Ziling --[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 23:34, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Resistancy Translation Strategy—Lawrence Venuti.ppt]] Tang Yiran&Yang Ziling --[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 23:34, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Topic 3；英日译本对照--以《雪国》为例The Contrast of Japanese-English Translation--Taking "Snow Country" as an Example===<br />
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Classroom handout for download: [[Media:The Contrast of Differences in Japanese-English Xie Ziyi& Peng Yongliang.docx]] <br />
--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 05:48, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The Contrast of Differences in Japanese-English Xie Ziyi& Peng Yongliang.pptx]] <br />
--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 05:48, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Session 15: Contemporary Translation Theories==<br />
<br />
===Homework from Session 14 (Dec 21, 2020), for Session 15 due on (Dec 28, 2020)===<br />
<br />
1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. <span style="color:red">Here is the '''[[20201228_trans|homework page]]'''</span>.<br />
<br />
2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201228_trans|here]].<br />
<br />
<br />
===Topic 1 Contemporary Translation Theories ===<br />
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Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Contemporary Translation Theories.docx]] <br />
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Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Contemporary Translation Theories.pptx]] <br />
--[[User:Sagara Seydou 3|Sagara Seydou 3]] ([[User talk:Sagara Seydou 3|talk]]) 08:07, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Session 16: Final Discussion==<br />
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==List of topics for presentations and handouts in class==<br />
1 Emergence: <br />
孟莹: 日本起源, 聂晓楼: 西方起源, 马淑雅: 中国起源, 彭锐宏: 人类起源<br />
<br />
2 History: <br />
周思庆 张琪: 西方翻译史; 马娟 刘智伟: 历史上中国著名的翻译家; 解帆 张宇星: 现当代中国翻译演变; 凌子瑾 李玉: 中国古代翻译史; 杨晨婷 余妮: 中国近代翻译史; 周诗卿 纪甜甜: 西方翻译理论简史<br />
<br />
3 Development: <br />
韩宛真 邓锦霞: 机器翻译的发展; 蒋淇玮 胡瑾：中国佛经翻译的发展; 吴琼 张银柳: 口译未来的发展; 成于思 龚钰冕: 翻译实践的发展; 郑华君 李璐伊: 新中国成立后翻译的发展; 韩海洋 彭育志：圣经翻译的发展<br />
<br />
4 Early Literary Examples: <br />
许鹏飞 肖伊宁: 林纾的翻译; 许晶 李凌月; 袁诗琦 姚佳; 邹鑫雨 曹润鑫:《红楼梦》的英译; 袁雨晨 肖茜: 严复和《天演论》; 苏琳 周玉娟<br />
<br />
5 Early Theories: <br />
徐梦蝶 杨逸; 陈涵 曾心媛; 陈静静 高明珠; 文晓艺 韦洪朗: 严复与林纾的翻译理论; 康浩宇 漆凯: 玄奘翻译理论; 刘洋诺 邬香: 系统翻译理论的早期尝试<br />
<br />
6 (Western) Theories: <br />
康灵凤 莫南: 功能对等理论; 吴琪 常慧月：多元系统理论; 纪甜甜 姜好: 后殖民翻译理论; 许静 游雨婷; 布拉格学派; 肖双玲 王轩: 目的论; 李丽丽 王源: 语言学派<br />
<br />
7 Methods: <br />
甘奉玉 丁代凤; 赵晓燕 张慧: 异化策略下的翻译方法; 张瑜 谭星越: 语义翻译和交际翻译; 吴一露 司妤: 直译和意译; 文偲荇 李梦: 增译和减译; 林敏 刘金惺琦<br />
<br />
8 Style: <br />
孔祥慧 孔亚楠; 罗雨晴 娄灿灿; 管钦清：不同翻译风格对比； 林鑫 李泳珊：文学风格可译与不可译; 曾雁湖 胡慧芳<br />
<br />
9 Translation Studies: <br />
罗维嘉 桂一枝; 彭小玲 彭丹; 全美欣 宋建茹:视听翻译;石迪文 易欢; 姚诚 张虎：中英语态对比及其翻译策略; 刘欧 陈永相：不可译性及其转化策略<br />
<br />
10 Theory and Practice: <br />
彭娟 陶冶; 吴子佳 雷旷溪: 归化异化在翻译中的实践; 汤蓓 王美玲; 蒋凤仪 顾东方; 周园曲 祝美梅; 阳慧 张佩闻; <br />
<br />
11 Different Aspects: <br />
周艺文 陈佳欣; 谭鑫洁 魏亚菲; 张毓婕 杨海容; <br />
<br />
12 East West Comparison: <br />
唐铭 欧蓉; 谭媛媛 刘艺: 中西翻译发展史及比较; 杨悦 义子楚: 中西文化差异对翻译的影响; 肖婷 徐佳：中国佛经翻译和圣经翻译的比较; 莫玲 袁天翼; 陈莎 陈江宁：中西方思维方式差异在翻译中的体现--以习语为例。<br />
<br />
13 Strategies: <br />
吴恺 马智星: 阿拉伯大征服时代与翻译学; 汤伊然 杨子泠(劳伦斯·韦努蒂的异化翻译策略); 彭永亮 谢子熠<br />
<br />
14 Contemporary translation Theories: <br />
Sagara Seydo Nguyen, Thuy Hien (Helen)<br />
<br />
==List of Topics for final exam papers in Translation Studies==<br />
<br />
学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
Ideas<br />
*literal vs. free<br />
*Faithful/loyal/foreignization/alienation/exotization vs. domestication/localization<br />
*unit of translation<br />
*contrastive analysis<br />
*the equivalence problem (functional, dynamic)<br />
*translatability vs untranslatability <br />
*SLT vs TLT relation<br />
*translation types, strategies, styles, methods<br />
*communication factors, translator role in social setting<br />
*cognitive factors<br />
*machine translation<br />
*translation quality assessment<br />
*translation ethics / manipulation etc.<br />
<br />
<br />
Suggested topics for final exam papers (chapters of book on translation studies)<br />
<br />
Each student needs to prepare one small topic for a 5-min. classroom presentation (with a fellow student, who writes a handout about it) and needs to find a topic for a chapter of a book on Translation Studies. Alternatively to the classroom presentation, the student can also assist the teacher by preparing class, sorting the wiki page etc.<br />
<br />
Here is the link to the list: [[Topics in Translation Studies]]<br />
<br />
=Final Exam Papers=<br />
<span style="color:red">The deadline has been extended to '''Dec 21, 2020'''. Please find a paper you want to proof read, contact the author, proof read (by copying each paragraph and make corrections/suggestions in the copy) and sign until Dec 19. The author then finalizes (works in the suggestions) until the final deadline Dec 21!</span><br />
==Structure==<br />
需要有topic、学生姓名、学号、专业、Abstract、Key words、题目、摘要、关键词、不同的章回（比如1. Introduction、2. Nida’s Theory、3. ……、4.……、5. Conclusion、References)、然后还需要每个阶段以后有来源。一个阶段不要超过100英文词。每个章回会有几个阶段没问题。每个阶段以后需要一个同学的这个阶段的修改。<br />
<br />
==Tips for writing your final exam paper: How to indicate your references==<br />
*You can use the existing book chapters here as an example.<br />
*Please write the text and indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. And then, you need to add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: East China Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
*Do '''not''' write any references like in one of the sample chapters:<br />
<br />
[1] dsalkfkdsa<br />
<br />
[2] adsfadsfag<br />
<br />
But only the following way:<br />
<br />
(Liu Miqing 2010, 17) in the text<br />
<br />
and then<br />
<br />
'''References'''<br />
*Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
*Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: East China Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
<br />
Also, please avoid using the three apostrophes like ' ' ' (without spaces). Use the equal signs to mark headers and subheaders instead. If your paper topic has two equal signs at the beginning and end of your topic, then use three equal signs for your sub headers. Example (without spaces):<br />
= = Topic = =<br />
< c e n t e r > Student Name, Student no. < / c e n t e r ><br />
= = = Abstract = = =<br />
This chapter is on ....<br />
= = = Key Words = = =<br />
Egg, Hen<br />
= = = 题目 = = =<br />
= = = 摘要 = = =<br />
= = = 关键词 = = =<br />
= = = Introduction = = =<br />
Here starts the normal text of the chapter. Please remember to indicate the source of EACH PARAGRAPH, sometimes even of single sentences. You can indicate it like this. (Woesler 2020, 345) And don't forget to mention the full bibliographical entry beneath under ''References''.<br />
= = = The Egg = = =<br />
Bla, bla, bla<br />
= = = The Hen = = =<br />
Bla, bla, bla<br />
= = = Conclusion = = =<br />
Bla, bla, bla<br />
= = = References = = =<br />
Woesler, Martin. (2020). Responsibility and Ethics in Times of Corona. Woesler, Martin and Hans-Martin Sass eds. ''Medicine and Ethics in Times of Corona'' Muenster: LIT<br />
<br />
==Sample papers==<br />
You can find the full papers also on the Webpage [[History of Translation Studies]]). They are marked with "Sample paper".<br />
* A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories<br />
* An Analysis of the Book of Contemporary Translation Theories and Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications<br />
* Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theroy<br />
* Comparison of Derrida’s and Benjamin’s Translation View<br />
* Impacts of Western Translation Theories on The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish<br />
* On the Comparison between "Sublimation" an "Functonal Equivalence" Theories<br />
* Study on Gladys’ Translation of The Border Town from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics<br />
* The Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Communication<br />
* Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior<br />
<br />
==Website to write your final exam paper on==<br />
[[20220112_final_exam|final exam page]]<br />
<br />
As a reference, here is the information about last year's final exam papers:<br />
<br />
The website where everybody wrote their final exam paper on became too big and produced a database error. Therefore we split the website into 10 small websites. They are sorted like the chapters in the book. Please look for your name and find the right of the 10 small websites to edit your book chapter. Everybody also needs to help to improve other book chapters (copy a paragraph, paste it beneath, make your corrections in the paragraph and sign it).<br />
<br />
Here you can write your Final Exam Papers:<br />
<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1, (samples)]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2, (samples)]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3, students: 蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi， 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi, 郑华君 Zheng Huajun, 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi, 陶冶 Tao Ye, 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4, students: 杨海容 Yang Hairong，游雨婷 You Yuting，王源 Wang Yuan，徐佳 Xu Jia，凌子瑾 Ling Zijin，石迪文 Shi Diwen，张玲 Zhang Ling，曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan，姚诚 Yao Cheng，朱旭 Zhu Xu，许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei，赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan，张琪 Zhang Qi，周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5, students: 李玉 Li Yu，林敏 Lin Min，文偲荇 Wen Sixing， 周诗卿 Zhou Shiqing，朱素瑶 Zhu Suyao，胡百辉 Hu Baihui，马智星 Ma Zhixing, 胡瑾 Hu Jin，张毓婕 Zhang Yujie，顾东方 Gu Dongfang，高明珠 Gao Mingzhu，张虎 Zhang Hu，李璐伊 Li Luyi，袁诗琦 Yuan Shiqi，王美玲 Wang Meiling，康浩宇 Kang Haoyu，王轩 Wang Xuan，陈永相 Chen Yongxiang，莫玲 Mo Ling，袁天翼 Yuan Tianyi]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6, students:汤蓓 Tang Bei欧蓉 Ou Rong，谭星越 Tan Xingyue，周罗平 Zhou Luoping，龚钰冕 Gong Yumian，邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu， 陈惠 Chen Hui，罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing，谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7, students:曾雁湖 Zeng Yanhu，邓锦霞 Deng Jinxia，姜好 Jiang Hao，管钦清 Guan Qinqing，唐铭 Tang Ming，娄灿灿 Lou Cancan，丁代凤 Ding Daifeng，苏琳 Su Lin，徐佳 Xu Jia， 刘艺 Liu Yi，李凌月 Li Lingyue，马娟 Ma Juan，吴琪 Wu Qi，姚佳 Yao Jia，李海泉 Li Haiquan，吴琼 Wu Qiong，杨子泠 Yang Ziling，林敏 Lin Min，彭锐宏 Peng Ruihong ，汤伊然 Tang Yiran，阳慧 Yang Hui，刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8, students: 王煜 Wang Yu，方洁玲 Fang Jieling，许静 Xu Jing，周书尧 Zhou Shuyao，彭永亮 Peng Yongliang，宋建茹 Song Jianru，韦洪朗 Wei Honglang，魏亚菲 Wei Yafei，张雪仪 Zhang Xueyi，甘奉玉 Gan Fengyu，赵茜 Zhao Xi，吴恺 Wu Kai，周艺文 Zhou Yiwen，张维虹 Zhang Weihong，司妤 Si Yu]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9, students: 易欢 Yi Huan，曾良 Zeng Liang，义子楚 Yi Zichu，欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling，石海瑶 Shi Haiyao，胡慧芳 Hu Huifang，吴一露 Wu Yilu，纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian, 桂一枝 Gui Yizhi，刘欧 Liu Ou，祝美梅 Zhu Meimei，谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan，张银柳 Zhang Yinliu，李泳珊 Li Yongshan，聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10, students:陈静静 Chen Jingjing， Thuy Hien Nguyen Thuy Hien，肖茜 Xiao Xi，余妮 Yu Ni，韩宛真 Han Wanzhen，陈佳欣 Chen Jiaxin，成于思 Cheng Yusi，方洁玲 Fang Jieling，张慧 Zhang Hui，吴子佳 Wu Zijia，孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui，许晶 Xu Jing，周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan，曹润鑫 Cao Runxin，肖伊宁 Xiao Yining, Sagara Seydou，欧阳静兰 Ouyang Jinglan]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_11 Part 11, students:李丽琴 Li Liqin, 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 刘怡瑜 Liu Yiyu, 李梦 Li Meng, 林鑫 Lin Xin, 罗维嘉 Luo Weijia, 漆凯 Qi Kai, 郭露 Guo Lu，张宇星 Zhang Yuxing, 陈涵 Chen Han, 李丽丽 Li Lili, 刘柳 Liu Liu, 陈莎 Chen Sha, 徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie,彭丹 Peng Dan， 谢子熠 Xie Ziyi，莫南 Mo Nan]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_12 Part 12, students: 全美欣 Quan Meixin，何长琦 He Changqi，刘博 Liu Bo，刘金惺琦 liu Jinxingqi，谌孙福 Chen Sunfu，曾芳缘 Zeng Fangyuan，肖婷 Xiao Ting，常慧月 Chang Huiyue，彭娟 Peng Juan，彭小玲 Peng Xiaoling，杨悦 Yang Yue，肖双玲 Xiao Shuangling，彭育志 Peng Yuzhi，孟莹 Meng Ying]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_13 Part 13, students: 杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng，杨逸 Yang Yi, 马淑雅 Ma Shuya, 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan, 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen]<br />
*[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_14 Part 14, students:周思庆 Zhou Siqing，蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei，瞿淼 Qu Miao，韩海洋 Han Haiyang，刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi，解帆 Xie Fan，刘洋诺 Liu Yangnuo，袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen，邬香 Wu Xiang]<br />
<br />
=Benefits=<br />
This course is registered as a "EU Expert" diploma supplement course. Collect 10 such courses during your study and you receive a certificate by the Jean Monnet Chair.<br />
<br />
=Misplaced things=<br />
Handout 4 of Ren Xin --<br />
贺骥.“世界文学”概念:维兰德首创：<br />
Summary： 主要讲述了人们发现维兰德首次提出“世界文学”的过程，维兰德对“世界文学”的概念以及与歌德的比较。<br />
<br />
一、为何说维兰德首创“世界文学”？<br />
1987 年，德国学者魏茨( Hans-Joachim Weitz，1904—2001) 在《阿卡迪亚》杂志上发表了一篇题为《维兰德是“世界文学”一词的首创者》的短文。魏茨声称他发现了德国作家维兰德( Christoph Martin Wieland，1733—1813) 在1790 至1813 年间亲笔书写的一则手记中首次提到“世界文学”。但维兰德于1813 年1 月20 日去世，他的同时代人并不知道他写有这则手记，歌德在不知情的情况下从1827 年1 月15 日起多次使用了“世界文学”这个词。维兰德与歌德对于“世界文学”的概念相近，但他没有详细论证。所以说，“世界文学”一次是维兰德首创，歌德第一次明确提出的<br />
二、维兰德“世界文学”的概念与歌德的比较<br />
1. 维兰德在创作早期作品时：世界文学就是世界各民族的文学名作的总集。该观点体现在《民族文学》文学是世界各民族的共同精神财富，世界文学就是所有时代所有民族的典范作品总集。<br />
2. 和歌德一样，维兰德的世界文学概念带有言必称希腊的欧洲中心主义色彩，他的世界文学乃是以古希腊罗马文学为正典、以欧洲文学为核心的世界各民族文学经典的总集。“阅读最优秀的作家的杰作”乃是维兰德“世界文学”概念的核心: 杰作即古往今来世界各民族的文学经典。<br />
3. 维兰德认为优秀作品的形成过程: 首先作家必须以阅世高人的文化修养和娴熟的艺术技巧创造有审美价值的“文学杰作”；其次是后世“最优秀的人们”对这些杰作的“宣扬”和“奉为样板”。<br />
<br />
三、“世界文学”概念有三种定义: <br />
( 1) 广义的“世界文学”指的是所有民族和所有时代文学作品的总和( Gesamtliteratur) ; <br />
( 2) 狭义的“世界文学”指的是超时代的、具有普遍审美价值的世界各民族文学的典范作品总集( Kanon) ，换言之，“世界文学”就是具有世界声誉的文学杰作的荟萃，这种精英主义意义上的“世界文学”概念在当今学界占据了主导地位; <br />
( 3) 歌德于1827 年提出的文学发展蓝图，它指的是国际性的文学交往( Kommunikation der Literatur) 和文化接触，交往的结果就是具有特性的各民族文学的融合。<br />
<br />
Reference: <br />
贺骥.“世界文学”概念:维兰德首创[J].社会科学,2014(07):176-182. --[[User:ImRx|ImRx]] ([[User talk:ImRx|talk]]) 13:24, 13 April 2018 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[1]文飙.阿拉伯民间文学的珍品《一千零一夜》.<br />
1.流传情况： <br />
《一千零一夜》早在公元六世纪左右已在波斯、伊拉克和埃及产生并流传着。公元十世纪阿拨斯王朝统治时代汇集成书,后又经过数百年不断搜集、整理、加工和修改；大约到十六世纪才形成比较完整的总集。<br />
2.故事发生的地点：多在当时阿拉伯世界两大中心城市— 巴格达及开罗。<br />
3.《一千零一夜》，中文另一译名为《天方夜谭( 谈) 》的原因：<br />
这个译名的来源说明中世纪时期阿拉伯帝国与中国的关系。阿拉伯半岛的麦加城在帝国中称为“ 圣城”, 城内有古庙名“ 天房”, 中国古嫂都译为“ 天方”, 实即“ 天房”之误。我国明朝以前称阿拉伯为黑衣大食国，明朝以后则称为“ 天方国”, 这就是旧译本称为《天方夜谭》的原因。<br />
4.故事内容： 《一千零一夜》是一部包罗万象的民间故事集, 有格言、谚语、童话, 王子公主的恋爱故事, 及市民冒险故事。这些故事的主角从底层的劳苦大众到最高的统治者哈里发。能够比较全面而深刻地反映中世纪东方的社会生活。<br />
5.《一千零一夜》的起源：<br />
在古代印度和中国为海岛中,有一个萨桑国。残暴的国王山鲁亚尔每夜娶一王后,翌晨即杀掉再娶。老百姓受此威胁,十分恐怖,纷纷携儿带女逃走,致使城中十室九空。然而国王仍照例命令宰相寻找女子供他虐杀。一天，宰相找遍民间，没找到一个,便满怀恐惧、忧郁地转回府邸来。宰相的大女儿山鲁佐德见父亲情状,问明情由,执意让父亲把她嫁给国王,宰相不得已才把女儿送进宫去。山鲁佐德一见国王,就悲伤地哭泣起来，她希望国王允许她在死之前能和妹妹再见一面,国王同意了,派人到宰相家召敦亚佐德进宫。姐妹俩高高兴兴地坐在床脚下谈笑。其时,敦亚佐德请求姐姐讲个故事消磨时间。山鲁佐德便征得国王许可,开始讲起故事来,借以引动国王的好奇心和兴趣,从而免遭杀戮。这样,日复一日,山鲁佐德一直讲了一千零一个夜晚,最后，终于使国王悔悟。<br />
6.影响：<br />
《一千零一夜》在世界各国广为传播。<br />
它最早介绍到欧洲,对西方文化起过一定的积极作用,许多欧美文学艺术家,如但丁、乔叟、薄伽丘、莎士比亚、塞万提斯、莱辛等都或多或少地受到它的直接或间接的影响。 <br />
在我国，早在六十多年以前就有了《一千零一夜》的译本。<br />
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[2]冯辉.略论《一千零一夜》对世界文学的借鉴与影响.<br />
摘要：《一千零一夜》对世界文学的借鉴与影响。荷马史诗中的巨人故事对《一千零一夜》的启发 ,《一千零一夜》对法国、英国、德国、中国作家的影响。 <br />
一、流传情况：<br />
1.流传时间：多数学者认为:它的故事和手抄本在中近东地区开始流传的年代约在8 世纪中叶—9 世纪中叶。一些世界文学史家则认为:大约在十字军东征时期(1095— 1291), 《一千零一夜》的故事已通过民间传到欧洲。<br />
2.流传情况： <br />
a. 18 世纪初, 法国人加朗根据叙利亚抄本, 首次把《一千零一夜》译成法文出版, 以后在欧洲出现了各种文字的译本。<br />
b. 中国1900 年有过译本, 以后不断的出现多种白话文本。新中国成立后, 纳训选译的3 卷本以及80 年代出版的全译本1 —6 卷, 收集了275 个故事。<br />
二、《一千零一夜》对古希腊荷马史诗巨人故事的借鉴<br />
《一千零一夜》第4 卷第172 个故事《辛伯达航海的故事》写三次航海的故事, 可以看出受到古希腊荷马史诗《奥德修纪》中独眼巨人故事的影响, 又带有阿拉伯民族的特色。<br />
三、《一千零一夜》对世界文学的影响：<br />
1.文艺复兴人文主义作家对《一千零一夜》中故事的扬弃与创新<br />
a)法国：《一千零一夜》第2 卷第75 个故事《阿里·艾尔哲明的故事》与法国文艺复兴时期拉伯雷《巨人传》中第三代国王庞大固埃出生时的行囊装载十分相似。<br />
b)英国：在《一千零一夜》第3 卷第152 个故事的《亚历山大大帝和弱小民族的故事》与英国文艺复兴时期的作家莎士比亚的《哈姆雷特》中有类似的情节，两个故事有历史延续性与巧妙的联系。<br />
《一千零一夜》：<br />
东征西讨的希腊国王亚历山大,一次路过一个弱小国家, 其民众各自门前准备好了坟墓, 家家一贫如洗, 安贫乐道, 所以并不怕亚历山大来争夺地盘。亚历山大十分好奇, 亲自见他们的国王。国王拿了两个头骨, 告诉他这是两个国王的头骨, 一个生前暴虐, 死后安拉让他下地狱;一个生前公正廉明, 爱护百姓, 死后安拉让他升入天堂。国王又问亚历山大:“ 到底你是这两个帝王中的哪一个呢?”年青的亚历山大受了感动, 要这个国王做他的宰相。国王拒绝了他, 说他虽拥有一个大帝国, 却有许多仇敌。国王虽穷, 他所有的一切“ 仅仅是知足” 。亚历山大感慨万千,告辞归去, 不再侵犯他们。<br />
《哈姆雷特》：第五幕第一场墓地对话中 <br />
哈姆雷特面对死人头骨说道:“ 要是我们用想像推测下去, 谁知道亚历山大的高贵的尸体, 不就是塞在酒桶口上的泥土?”“ 凯撒死了, 你尊严的尸体, 也许变了泥把破墙填砌, 啊! 他从前是何等的英雄, 现在只好替人挡风遮雨。”<br />
c)意大利：意大利文艺复兴时期的小说家卜伽丘的《十日谈》中的贵妇宴请国王吃鸡宴, 以打退国王邪念的故事, 在《一千零一夜》第4 卷第175 个故事《宰相夫人的故事》中有类似情节。<br />
2.对18 世纪英国现实主义小说家笛福《鲁宾逊飘流记》的影响<br />
把《辛伯达航海的故事》与《鲁宾逊飘流记》相比较, 辛伯达可以说是鲁宾逊典型的雏型与前身, 鲁宾逊则更加丰富, 更带时代特点。<br />
1)不同点： <br />
辛伯达是中世纪阿拉伯人中积极进取, 发展海外贸易,不断向外开拓勇于冒险的新兴商人, 他开初坐享父亲遗产,挥霍一空, 最后决定变卖家产七次到海上做冒险生意。<br />
鲁宾逊是18 世纪英国资本主义原始积累时期的新资产阶级商人的代表, 父亲没有给他丰厚的资产, 他本人是不满现状的小商人, 三次海外冒险；<br />
辛伯达是在第7次航海时在一个岛国居住了27 年才返回故乡, 鲁宾逊是在第三次航海时在一个荒岛上度过了28 年, 才返回故乡。<br />
2)相似点：<br />
两人都曾遭到过毁灭性的打击, 死里逃生,但每次都以顽强的毅力, 惊人的应变能力, 沉着应付, 化险为夷；发财致富的欲望, 对海外世界的好奇与向往, 每次都促使他们不安现状, 敢于做一次又一次的冒险。<br />
3.对中国作家的影响<br />
《一千零一夜》第1 卷第12 个故事《脚夫和巴格达三个女人的故事》中，脚夫诵的表达自己忠信的诗同中国现代作家钱钟书的长篇小说《围城》中的苏小姐自己写的诗相似。这里已改造成一首爱情诗, 方鸿渐当时并不知道是苏小姐自己写的诗, 说这首诗是借的外债,<br />
四、小结<br />
因为国别不同, 语言不通, 翻译技术有限，后来的作家们不一定能亲自看到这些《一千零一夜》中的故事原文。但阿拉伯文化与文学对欧洲文艺复兴运动及后来的世界文学的发展起到的推动作用和所作的贡献是世界发展史上所公认的事实。<br />
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[3]陆英英.《一千零一夜》在欧洲.<br />
摘要： 介绍了欧洲许多国家早期对《一千零一夜》的译本。《一千零一夜》译成欧洲各种文字后, 引起了欧洲人收集和研究东方文学的热望, 激起了他们了解东方的兴趣。《一千零一夜》对欧洲文学包括戏剧、小说、诗歌、诗剧都产生了巨大影响。<br />
1.法国译本：<br />
A.1704-1717年出现的法国安东尼·加仑的译本是《一千零一夜》——最著名的译本。为了迎合读者掺杂了许多自己想象的情节<br />
B.1828年法国出版特雷布梯的译本 —— 增加情节，接近原版<br />
C.1969年出版了勒内赫瓦姆的《一千零一夜》译本 —— 忠于原作<br />
2.英国译本（几乎都是从法国译本转译而来）： <br />
A.1811年乔纳森·斯科特出版的译本 —— 最突出<br />
B.1838年，亨利·托伦斯打算给译文加注释, 但他只译了五十夜就死了<br />
C.1839-1841年，爱德华·威廉·莱恩的《一千零一夜》三卷本（从阿文直译），删去了当时英国的道德传统所不能接受的故事, 并写了许多注释 —— 极具参考价值<br />
D.1885年，理查德·伯顿的译本出版 —— 最完备的译本<br />
E.英国军官伯顿（会讲阿拉伯语）—— 强烈殖民主义色彩<br />
3.德国译本：<br />
A.第一个把《一千零一夜》译成德文的是东方学家冯哈曼尔。<br />
B.1837-1841年之间出现了凡勒的德译本 ——忠实原文，生涩<br />
C.东方学家莱塔马教授 —— 德国最著名的译本<br />
4.罗马尼亚译本：<br />
A.1771年，出版的《哈伦·拉希德的故事》——罗马尼亚最早<br />
B.1783年，修道院主教罗法伊勒出版了根据希腊文译出的全译本<br />
C.1835-1838年格拉西姆·哥嘉出版《哈利曼或者阿拉伯神话故事》四卷本译本<br />
D.1966-1976，罗马尼亚最大出版社——梅纳法出版社出版了十四卷本的《一千零一夜》<br />
5.俄文译本：<br />
A.萨利尔译的，东方学家卡利姆斯基出版的。<br />
B.高尔基于1904年也译过。<br />
C.列夫·托尔斯泰也译过几篇，如《皇帝和衬衣的故事》等。<br />
6.捷克译本：<br />
1958-1963年捷克斯洛伐克科学院出版的塔瓦外孜授译的《一千零一夜》全集。<br />
7.波兰译本：<br />
1774年出版了第一本——《阿拉伯传奇或一千零一夜》<br />
8.威尼斯译本：<br />
1757-1762年，出版了四卷本的《一千零一夜》和《一千零一日》故事集, 书名为《阿拉伯故事》。<br />
9.希腊译本：<br />
译者为布利兹威斯，译本分三卷。<br />
10.此外还有葡萄牙语、荷兰语、丹麦语、瑞典语、匈牙利语等译本。<br />
东方学家朝温在《阿拉伯著作一览》一书中用了一百二十页专门介绍《一千零一夜》的各种版本和文本。<br />
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参考文献：<br />
[1]文飙. 阿拉伯民间文学的珍品《一千零一夜》[J].徐州师范学院学报,1978(02):59-64.<br />
[2]冯辉. 略论《一千零一夜》对世界文学的借鉴与影响[J].河南教育学院学报(哲学社会科学版),2001(01):110-112.<br />
[3]陆英英.《一千零一夜》在欧洲[J].阿拉伯世界,1983(02):84-90. --[[User:ImRx|ImRx]] ([[User talk:ImRx|talk]]) 13:34, 16 April 2018 (UTC)<br />
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[1]杨晓雨.佛经翻译与圣经翻译比较[J].考试周刊,2017(74):192. <br />
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摘要： 中国翻译史的源头是佛经翻译，而西方翻译史则始于另一部宗教巨著———圣经翻译。中国的佛经翻译和西方的圣经翻译虽然在具体内容、翻译分期、信徒和对应的时代背景等方面有所差异，但两者都经历了直译、意译、直意译相结合的发展历程。本文对比了佛经翻译和圣经翻译，探求宗教类文献翻译中的共同特点。<br />
1.佛经翻译<br />
A.四个时期：<br />
a. 创立时期（东汉末年到西晋），代表人物有安世高和支谦；<br />
b.初步发展阶段是（晋代到隋朝），代表人物有道安和鸠摩罗什；<br />
c.鼎盛时期（唐朝），代表人物为玄奘、不空；<br />
d.逐渐结束于北宋。<br />
B.翻译形式<br />
最初由西域僧人的梵语口授，再找汉人加以润饰。音译。<br />
后来出现精通汉语的印度高僧和熟练掌握梵语的中国高僧。直译为主。<br />
C.翻译大家<br />
三藏法师，从数量和翻译成就都无人能比。直译&意译结合。<br />
2.圣经翻译<br />
A.概况<br />
圣经翻译是西方翻译史的起源。经历了希伯来文－希腊文－拉丁文的过程。<br />
B.流传形式：手写本。<br />
C.最早的圣经译本：公元前3-2世纪《圣经·旧约》（据《西方翻译简史》记载。后世也叫《七十子希腊文本》。<br />
缺点：用词晦涩难懂，不易理解，跟当时的希腊语有较大的出入。<br />
优点：此译本特别完整准确地还原了圣经原籍的内容。<br />
D.翻译大家：a. 西塞罗—西方翻译史上最早的翻译理论家，主张活译。<br />
b. 圣哲罗姆—翻译了第一部标准拉丁语圣经。直译和意译相结合。<br />
3.佛经翻译和圣经翻译的相似性：<br />
经历了直译—意译—直意译结合的过程。<br />
A.最初翻译时，中西译者都是逐字逐句的直译。<br />
原因：宗教经典神圣不可侵犯，译经僧侣对宗教经典抱有虔诚态度；<br />
由于译者身份的局限性，缺乏专业的语言翻译基础。<br />
B.随着经验的累积，译者们开始倡导意译。<br />
代表人物：马丁路德<br />
原因：受众人群都是普通老百姓，需要简单流畅、明晓易懂的语言才能让教义被大众所通晓。<br />
C.主张直译&意译相结合。<br />
代表人物：玄奘大师—《钦定本圣经》<br />
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[2]顾颍.从佛经与《圣经》翻译看中西方翻译思想——《中西方翻译思想比较》评析[J].常熟理工学院学报,2008(03):122-124.<br />
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摘要：作者认为比利时学者安德烈勒菲弗尔（当代文学翻译学术带头人，较有影响力）由于对中国翻译史缺乏深入研究，对中国的佛经翻译了解不透彻，在《中西方翻译思想比较》中提出“西方译者更为忠实原文, 而中国译者则倾向于归化原文”的观点较为片面。并提出佛经翻译和圣经翻译的共有规律：直译、意译两原则交替主导翻译活动并趋于成熟，直至最终实现两者的有机融合。<br />
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[3]姜晏.译介学视角下的中西方《圣经》翻译[J].青岛大学师范学院学报,2011,28(02):125-128.<br />
摘要：《圣经》翻译的主要功能是服务于宗教的传播。但译者们对其“创造性叛逆”的翻译，使得《圣经》对世界各民族语言，包括对中国语言文学都产生了深远影响，同时推动各国文化交流、促进不同思想的包容。<br />
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1.翻译不只是语言文字的转换，而是应关注原文在外语和本族语转换过程中的信息的失落、变形、增添、扩散等问题。<br />
2.《圣经》翻译对西方各国（民族）语言的影响 —— 不分析译本翻译的好坏，而是分析译本对译入语国家或民族的文化和语言所产生的影响。<br />
A.4世纪，乌裴拉主教翻译成东日耳曼语。<br />
8、9世纪，阿尔弗雷得等翻译成古英语。<br />
这些标志着民族语言翻译的开始。<br />
B.《圣经》翻译在13世纪达到了新的高潮。<br />
C.马丁路德：把《圣经》新约和旧约翻译成德语，并且翻译成能被大众所接受的语言。他认为翻译就是让外语成为译者的本土化语言。<br />
作用：消除了普通人对《圣经》的语言障碍，对统一德语和发展德语做出贡献。<br />
D.威廉廷代尔的译本成为英国翻译史上最著名的英王钦定本的主要参照本。<br />
作用：完全符合英语的用法习惯，增加了英语的表现力；<br />
对英国散文、语言和文化发展起到了不可估量的作用。<br />
3.《圣经》在汉译中的创造性叛逆<br />
A.创造的叛逆性翻译是为了使《圣经》在新的环境中易于被受众接受。<br />
B.特征：<br />
a.显著的归化特征：吴经熊采用骚体，把外国的体裁中国化。<br />
吴经熊翻译的《新约全集》:“天主聖子耶穌基督福音之濫觴，正如《意灑雅先知書》之所記云:吾遣使者，以先啟行; 為爾前驅，備爾行程。”<br />
b.误译：严复的译本以中国士大夫为主要读者，因此他的译本符合士大夫的价值观，同时也降低阅读难度。<br />
c.改编或删节：严复考虑到中国读者几千年来的儒家文化熏陶，迎合中国道德伦理和文化。<br />
4.《圣经》汉译对中国语言文学的影响<br />
a.丰富了汉语词汇，为现代汉语带来许多新意象和表达方式。如，天堂、伊甸园等。<br />
b.影响中国现代文学的创作主体，许多意象来源于《圣经》中的典故。<br />
c.影响许多中国著名的作家和文学理论家。如，鲁迅、冰心、徐志摩等。<br />
<br />
<br />
[4] 曾志琼.浅析“圣经故事”包含的男权思想及其危害[J].西昌学院学报(自然科学版),2004(04):21-23.<br />
<br />
《圣经》中包含的男权思想：<br />
1.创世纪故事中包含的男权思想。<br />
a.在上帝创世的神话中，男性亚当是用象征承载人类生命的泥土按上帝的形象创造出来的，而女性夏娃是作为男性的附属品用亚当的肋骨而创造出来的，目的是为亚当消除孤独寂寞。<br />
b.创世纪故事中，包含“女人是祸水”思想。作为女性象征的夏娃经不住蛇的诱惑，偷吃了禁果，使人类受到上帝的惩罚，开始了苦难。<br />
2.“圣经故事”中的先知先觉、基督英雄们都是男性。<br />
人类历史的英雄史都是谱写男性的。整个圣经故事都是以男性英雄为主线而描绘基督教历史的。从最早制造方舟振救人类的挪亚，到带领以色列人出埃及，使以色列人摆脱埃及法老贵族奴役的摩西，到带领以色列人力战外族，为以色列人开缰拓土的约书亚，再到带领以色列人雪耻，赶走外族，使以色列人建国的大卫以及拯救人类的耶稣等等。<br />
3.婚姻家庭中的男权思想、夫权思想 <br />
a.嫡长子制，忽视女性后代的存在。<br />
b.多妻制。基督英雄们都是妻妾成群，可以主人的身份任意拥有女人。<br />
c.休妻制。女性不论犯不犯错都可能被休。甚至可以被男性当财产、畜生一样送人。<br />
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<br />
[5]菲利斯·特丽波,周辉.女性主义诠释学与圣经研究[J].圣经文学研究, 2009(00):35-44.<br />
摘要：作者认为出现在父权制社会的圣经充满了男性形象和语言，对《圣经》进行重新的诠释，以挑战圣经中的父权制。焦点是希伯来圣经，重点不仅仅落在不利于女性的事例上。 考量了圣经中女性研究的三条女性主义进路。<br />
1.阐释了一些不利于女性的故事。希伯来女子从生到死都属于男人，遭受到男性权威的虐待、凌辱。<br />
2.重申被忽视的女性作为上帝的篇章和反抗父权制文化的女性形象。<br />
3.利用前两种方式，同情地重新讲述关于妇女的故事<br />
（作者菲利斯·特丽波被认为是在圣经文本基础上探索妇女与性别问题的领袖人物）<br />
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<br />
[6]林燕.女性主义圣经诠释概述[J].宗教学研究,2013(04):213-219.<br />
女性经验是重新阐释圣经的基点。<br />
女性主义圣经诠释随着女性神学的繁荣而发展。女性圣经诠释是不同于女性主义神学的独立学科，它具有独立的研究前提和范畴。<br />
核心内容：对传统的圣经诠释和基督神学所建构的两性关系提出质疑和批判；寻找、重建圣经中被忽视、被遗忘的女性形象，恢复重建女性的地位和尊严；为争取女性在教会中担任圣职而斗争。<br />
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参考文献：<br />
[1]杨晓雨.佛经翻译与圣经翻译比较[J].考试周刊,2017(74):192. <br />
[2]顾颍.从佛经与《圣经》翻译看中西方翻译思想——《中西方翻译思想比较》评析[J].常熟理工学院学报,2008(03):122-124.<br />
[3]姜晏.译介学视角下的中西方《圣经》翻译[J].青岛大学师范学院学报,2011,28(02):125-128.<br />
[4]曾志琼.浅析“圣经故事”包含的男权思想及其危害[J].西昌学院学报(自然科学版),2004(04):21-23. <br />
[5]菲利斯·特丽波,周辉.女性主义诠释学与圣经研究[J].圣经文学研究,2009(00):35-44.<br />
[6]林燕.女性主义圣经诠释概述[J].宗教学研究,2013(04):213-219.--[[User:ImRx|ImRx]] ([[User talk:ImRx|talk]]) 02:42, 4 June 2018 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
《霍乱时期的爱情》<br />
加夫列尔·加西亚·马尔克斯——拉美魔幻现实主义的领军人物<br />
1967年，《百年孤独》；1982年， 获诺贝尔奖；1985年，《霍乱时期的爱情》<br />
故事是以费尔明娜和阿里萨、乌尔比诺医生爱恨悲欢的三角恋为主线，以阿里萨与其余622名女性形形色色的性欲与真情为副线。小说采用了顺时叙述。以乌尔比诺的棋友之死为故事的开始，先后讲述了：医生的婚后生活；阿里萨和费尔明娜如诗如梦的初恋，乌尔比诺追求费尔明娜并与之结婚；阿里萨的失望心情和纵欲寻欢；费尔明娜婚后生活的不快和孀居的孤独；阿里萨耐心点燃费尔明娜心中的爱火。<br />
一.主要人物：<br />
1.阿里萨：喜欢阅读、喜欢写诗。多愁善感，阴郁。一生中有过623个女人，但费尔明娜是他一生的挚爱。最后在他并不怎么上心的航运公司里获得了董事长的职位。<br />
“费尔明娜，我等待这个机会，已经有51年9个月零4天了，在这段时间里，我一直爱着你，从我第一眼见到你，直到现在，我第一次向你表达我的誓言，我永远爱你，忠贞不渝。”这句话是在等待了半个世纪终于等到费尔明娜的丈夫死去后，阿里萨在葬礼之后再一次对费尔明娜隔了51年的第二次表白。<br />
2.费尔明娜：她是骡子商人的女儿，美丽、智慧并且高傲。被阿里萨追求却遭到父亲的强烈反对，后来嫁给医生乌尔比诺。<br />
3.乌尔比诺医生：擅长治疗霍乱的医生，黄金单身汉，知识渊博，外表帅气（虽然电影里图片很猥琐），热爱城市并致力于为他的城市他的家乡奉献，但实际上骨子里较懦弱，在和费尔明娜的婚姻里婆媳关系不合，他不敢冲撞他的母亲。“只有上帝知道我有多爱你。”<br />
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二.爱情&霍乱的隐喻关系<br />
1.在追求费尔明娜的过程中，阿里萨生理和心理都经受了如霍乱症状一般的痛苦。在阿里萨对费尔明娜一见钟情后，“他开始寡言少语，茶饭不思，辗转反侧，彻夜难眠”。<br />
等待费尔明娜回第一封信的时候“他腹泻，吐绿水，晕头转向，常常突然昏厥，脉搏微弱，呼吸沉重，像垂死之人一样冒着虚汗…”这些症状和霍乱的症状很相似。但事实上阿里萨并没有患上霍乱，后边医生的检查也可以证实。<br />
所以，我们可以这样认为：爱情，在阿里萨身上的表现就如同霍乱对人的侵袭一样。在这本书中，霍乱也就代表爱情，所有的症状都是变相的爱。<br />
但不同的是：疾病带来的恐惧是自私的，是从自我角度出发的，是害怕失去自己；而爱情带来的恐惧常常源自于所爱之人，是害怕失去对方。<br />
<br />
2.在中国古代文学里也有关于爱情对疾病的意象。<br />
在中国，因爱情引起的疾病叫做“相思病”，一般是因对某人的思念而生病。表现为焦虑、食欲不振、失眠、幻想、晕厥等类似生病的身体状态。<br />
很著名的例子就是《红楼梦》中的林黛玉人物形象。 还有《西厢记》张生为崔莺莺“为伊消得人憔悴”也是“相思病”的例子。这样的例证还有很多。<br />
问题：如果爱情是一种病，能致病，那么医生能不能诊断并治愈因爱情引起的疾病呢？<br />
大家都知道，林黛玉的身体一向比较弱，但是住在大观园中可以让黛玉有很好的物质条件治疗或者从中医角度来讲“调养”她的身体。看当时最好的医生, 吃的是最难得到的药材做成的药。可是在听到宝玉和宝钗成亲的消息后还是郁郁而终。说明在中国的古典文学中，医生并不可以治愈爱情引起的相思病。<br />
我们再看西方文学里《变形记》——“所有人都知道, 真正的疾病和爱情疾病是很相似的: 意识变得虚弱, 眼神变得憔悴,膝盖变得无力… 上帝啊! 医生们真是无知啊! ”<br />
还有《霍乱》里，母亲担心阿里萨得了霍乱,去看了医生。做了很多必要的医疗检查, 最后通过对阿里萨的性格了解以及与阿里萨的谈话确定了病因。医生最后能确诊阿里萨的爱情疾病并不是因为他高超的医术或者他的各种医学常识, 而是因为他本人的年纪来带的阅历以及对爱情和对阿里萨的了解得出的结论。<br />
以及小说里医术高超的乌比尔诺医生, 虽然有广博深人的医学知识储量, 他研究霍乱是为了在医学层面上彻彻底底的治疗它。他一点也不懂爱, 不懂爱情。所以，乌比尔诺医生也不具有诊断爱情疾病的能力。<br />
所以，中西方古典的文学作品中, 医生是并不赋有能力来诊断和治疗爱情所引起的疾病的。<br />
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三.主人公的青年、中年、老年三个阶段他们的爱情。<br />
a.青年阶段——浪漫疯狂，以阿里萨和费尔明娜的初恋为主。因费尔明娜的醒悟接着拒绝阿里萨而结束——“不，请别这样，忘了吧”、“今天见到您，我发现我们之间不过是一场幻觉”。这个时期，阿里萨是以等待、信还有音乐追求费尔明娜的，我认为这三项几乎是在所有的爱情中都会或多或少起到作用的。<br />
等待。自从阿里萨对费尔明娜一见倾心之后，他就每天在费尔明娜上学必经的道路上，捧着一本诗集在一棵杏树下假装看书，只为了一天能匆匆忙忙地看上她四次，风雨无阻。<br />
信。最初阿里萨缺乏勇气向费尔明娜说出自己的爱意，于是开始给费尔明娜写信，从一张便条最后变成了70页的情书。也是在频繁通信中，打动了费尔明娜。<br />
音乐。在因费尔明娜失眠的夜晚，他在费尔明娜的窗外演奏自创的爱的华尔兹。费尔明娜也是在他的音乐中更深刻的了解他。<br />
总的来说，青年时期：他们的相爱过程短，不成熟，更多的是幻想。<br />
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b.中年阶段，主要是费尔明娜与乌尔比诺医生的婚姻以及阿里萨漫长的等待中的孤独狩猎生涯。<br />
费&阿：隐秘顽强。阿里萨单相思，对抗时间和死亡。<br />
阿里萨在被拒绝：先是自虐，后转移对费尔明娜及她丈夫的怨恨与诅咒，随后又对费尔明娜宽恕，决定和费尔明娜留在同一个城市，并且开始新一轮漫长的等待，他的单相思——对抗时间和死亡，等乌比尔诺医生死去。<br />
爱情的失败也让阿里萨意识到自己的身份和社会地位配不上费尔明娜，逼迫着自己去经营生活，改变自己的社会地位。<br />
阿里萨猎艳：通过性寻找爱，消除内心孤独感<br />
同时他和众多女人发生肉体关系。但其实正是通过和其他女人的相处，来消除内心的孤独感，弥补得不到费尔明娜爱情的缺失。他也更加确认费尔明娜对他的不可替代，是他一生唯一的挚爱。<br />
费&乌：世俗婚姻。陪伴，稳定、平淡。<br />
在费尔明娜与乌尔比诺医生的婚姻中，他们互相陪伴，平淡也稳定。只有一次例外，就是乌尔比诺出轨芭芭拉林奇小姐，被费尔明娜发现后，医生经过长时间的内心矛盾并最终坦白。<br />
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c.老年阶段——理性智慧，以费尔明娜和阿里萨的黄昏恋为主。<br />
阿里萨一直坚持到了医生去世。他以他的坚持和耐心打动了费尔明娜，让费尔明娜愿意接受他。他们开始了一段旅行，旅行结束的时候因为他们不愿面对现实所以不愿回去，最后乘着以霍乱为帆的船继续航行。<br />
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四.小说里讲述的各种各样的爱情可能。<br />
开篇摄影师赫雷米亚与黑白混血女人之间隐蔽的恋情；<br />
阿里萨和费尔明娜持续了半个世纪的柏拉图式的精神恋爱（包括他们青涩纯粹的初恋与年老时的黄昏恋）；<br />
阿里萨对费尔明娜忠贞不渝的单相思；<br />
费尔明娜与乌尔比诺医生的世俗婚姻爱情；<br />
乌尔比诺与林奇小姐战战兢兢的婚外恋；<br />
阿里萨和众多女人们纯粹的肉欲追逐的露水爱情；<br />
阿里萨与14岁少女的洛丽塔式的忘年恋…<br />
忠贞的爱、雀跃的爱、逃离的爱、私通的爱、狂热的爱、转瞬即逝的爱、生死相依的爱…<br />
不同层次不同角色不同性质的爱情，这篇小说也堪称是“爱情的教科书”“陈列爱情的博物馆”<br />
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五.除了爱情之外的其他主题。<br />
1.衰老。儿童摄影师赫雷米亚德圣阿莫尔的自杀；<br />
岁月加于人的痕迹——表现在岁月加于主人公身上的痕迹（蹒跚的步态、上楼梯的速度、意外的跌倒、满是皱纹的皮肤、稀疏的头发）；<br />
乌尔比诺医生、阿里萨想尽办法延缓衰老 <br />
2.死亡。小说中提到最多的是霍乱，也是整个故事发生的宏大背景。<br />
借以描写这种难以治愈、神秘莫测的疾病来写死亡。因为霍乱预示着死亡，而且在当时几乎就等于死亡，当时地的生产力水平和医学发展不足以让人们去抗衡。<br />
当人们被生理上的痛楚折磨时，往往无力也无心开出精神上的花朵。然而小说中描写的就是这样一种稀有的生命之花，因为爱情有勇气与苦难和死亡的疾病抗争。<br />
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阿里萨一生都在追求费尔米纳的爱情，即使面临死亡的抉择也义无反顾: 冷酷无情的费尔米纳的父亲最初阻挠女儿与他的爱情时，甚至用死亡来威胁阿里萨，但是阿里萨毫无畏惧，“‘朝我开枪吧!’他说，把一只手放在胸口上，‘没有比为爱情而死更光荣的事情了’”。因为有了爱情，所以阿里萨充满了无畏的勇气。他为了爱情不怕死，并且崇尚为爱而死。<br />
同时阿里萨的爱情之路实质上是一直与死亡作斗争，他到年老时害怕衰老和死亡，因为他明白，只有乌尔比诺医生死去，他才有机会再接近费尔米纳，因此，他努力与时间、衰老、死亡作斗争，他要为爱好好活着，战胜时间，战胜衰老，跨越死亡，他要活过乌尔比诺，才能重获费尔明娜。<br />
所以说这两个主题实际上也是与爱情密切相关的，因爱情而起的，可以归结到爱情主题上。<br />
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参考文献：<br />
1.於珍珍.《霍乱时期的爱情》中的医生形象分析[J].才智,2014(32):318-319.<br />
2.荣利. “滥情”的痴情者[D].浙江师范大学,2015.<br />
3.谈清妍.爱情的乌托邦——解读《霍乱时期的爱情》中的爱情与死亡[J].襄樊学院学报,2009,30(06):51-54.<br />
4.高小斐,孙世友.悲欢离合五十年——浅论《霍乱时期的爱情》中的爱情[J].才智, 2014(16):288.<br />
5.李贞琤.疾病缠绕下的爱情——马尔克斯小说爱情主题与疾病主题关系探究[J].开封教育学院学报,2017,37(12):38-39+42.<br />
6.姚婧.情感的疾病化书写——解读《霍乱时期的爱情》[J].名作欣赏,2015(17):125-128.--[[User:ImRx|ImRx]] ([[User talk:ImRx|talk]]) 03:00, 4 June 2018 (UTC)<br />
<br />
handout of张传伟<br />
世界主义与世界文学<br />
一、世界主义<br />
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1、世界文学的定义：<br />
(1) 各民族优秀文学的经典之总汇；<br />
(2) 一种用于从总体上研究、评价和批评文学的全球的、跨文化的和比较的视角；(3)不同语言中的文学生产、流通、翻译和批评性选择的发展演变过程。<br />
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2、形成和发展<br />
（1）词源探究<br />
作为一个跨学科的理论概念和批评话语，世界主义可以追踪到古希腊的哲学思想那里，甚至这个术语本身就出自希腊语。我们今天在英文中所描述的世界主义( cosmopolitanism) 是由两个词组成的:cosmos在希腊语中，意为宇宙或世界，polis意为城市或城邦。这样我们就有了“世界”这个词。那些信仰其伦理道德的人便被人称为“世界主义者”( cosmopolites)，而他们的主张和理论教义便被称为“世界主义”。这就是世界主义概念就其字面意义而言的形成。<br />
（2）后世发展<br />
世界主义通常在三个层面得到讨论:哲学的、政治学和社会学的以及文化和文学的层面。哲学维度的世界主义可以追溯到柏拉图和亚里士多德的著作，这两位希腊先哲本质上并不赞成世界主义，在他们看来，人们通常生活在自己的城邦，并且依恋特定的政治教义，所以很容易与之相认同。当他们的城邦遭受外敌入侵时，公民们便会奋起抗击，保卫自己的城邦。对这些古希腊人来说，好的公民不应当与外邦人分享过多的利益。这一观点后来逐步发展为爱国主义和民族主义。在中国，爱国主义和民族主义对那些试图形成独特的中华民族和文化认同的知识分子一直有着极大的吸引力，一个特例就是五四时期，当时虽曾有人鼓吹过世界主义，但很快就销声匿迹，淹没在民族主义的汪洋大海中了，其原因恰在于当时的中国文化土壤和时代精神并不适合世界主义驻足。<br />
但并不是所有古希腊先哲们都反对世界主义，另一些思想较为开放且见多识广的古希腊知识分子，尤其是犬儒派哲人迪奥格尼斯(Diogenes)则鼓吹一种较为普世的伦理道德，因为他并不把自己局限于特定的城邦，甚至公开宣称:“我是一个世界公民。”从此，“世界公民”(citizen of the world)便成了所有信奉世界主义的人所致力于追求的理想。当然，他们所追求的并非是特定的民族—国家的利益，而更是一种普世价值和全人类的共同利益。他们的这种理想和追求并不满足于局限在哲学和社会政治层面，他们还试图将其推而广之。<br />
当代学者在讨论世界主义时很少引证这些远古时期的观点，但其中的某些观点却依然在现代哲学家的著作中得到响应和发展。启蒙时期的哲学家如康德则表示了对其的莫大兴趣，提出一种世界主义的法律或权利。19 世纪以前的不同形式的世界主义仅仅停留在哲学家的假想和论辩层面上的话，那么自19 世纪以来，那些有远大抱负的人便逐渐开始将世界主义付诸实践了，从哥伦布发现“新大陆”到世界贸易航线形成等都为全球化的进程奠定了基础。<br />
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二、世界文学<br />
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1、源起<br />
歌德是德语“世界文学”( Weltliteratur) 一词的创制者，也是第一个明确提出世界文学观念的人。歌德关于世界文学的论述集中在1827-1830年间，归纳起来有三个要点: 其一，世界文学是一个对话和流通的平台，各民族文学可以通过进入这个平台相互交流、取长补短、相得益彰。其二，世界文学是一个合乎世界主义的理想，能够推动各民族文学逐渐打破孤立割裂状态，影响融合而形成一个有机的统一体。其三，世界文学是彰显民族文学价值的场所。歌德就站在德国的角度谈论世界文学，他渴望本民族文学在推动世界文学形成过程中扮演“光荣的”、“美好的”角色，对其他民族文学(例如法国文学) 所处的优势地位则十分敏感。<br />
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2、“世界文学”内涵<br />
在《什么是世界文学？》一书中，丹穆若什以世界、文本和读者为中心，进一步阐释“世界文学”的三重定义：“世界文学是民族文学间的椭圆折射”“世界文学是从翻译中获益的文学”“世界文学不是指一套经典文本，而是指一种阅读模式——一种以超然的态度进入与我们自身时空不同的世界的形式”。首先，“椭圆折射”利用椭圆具备两个焦点的特性，指代世界文学的双重性质。世界文学具有两个核心要点——源文化和主体文化。一部文学作品如果想成为世界文学的一部分，需要从源文化出发，被他国文化空间接受。“接受”过程与接受主体的民族文化传统和价值需求相关。因此，世界文学既与源文化相关，又与主体文化相关，是一种双重折射。仔细分析，世界文学双重折射特性表明世界文学作品并非静止、孤立，而是在不同国家、不同文化间互相流通、交流、传播、碰撞。世界文学作品，不仅受到源文化熏陶，也经过主体文化的接受和改造。其次，由于语言障碍，世界文学作品的传播和流通必须依赖文学翻译。但是，文学语言在翻译过程中会有得失。丹穆若什认为翻译中对于得失的衡量是区分民族文学与世界文学的标志。具体来看，在翻译中受损的文学，“通常局限于本民族或本地区的传统内”；从翻译中获益的文学，“进入世界文学的范畴”。他进一步指出，民族文学进入世界文学，当范围扩大后，“风格上的损失会被深度上的扩张所抵消”。由此看出，世界文学作品源于民族文学而高于民族文学，价值取向超越民族特性，拥有“世界性”。最后，丹穆若什认为世界文学并非经典文本的简单集合，而是通过一种阅读，使读者超越自身时空，进入更加广阔的世界。作为阅读模式，一部作品能否成为世界文学，取决于其他国家、民族读者的阅读效果。一旦外国作品开始在读者脑中发生共鸣，世界文学就开始活动。这种“共鸣”，实际是不同民族文学作品的相同价值取向的融汇。作品自身价值取向被本国以外读者认可，超越民族性，成为世界性价值。由此看来，世界文学不代表文学作品数量的多少，而是作为一种阅读模式，“可以通过少量作品来深入体验，也可以通过大量作品来广泛探寻”，在世界范围内寻找共鸣。<br />
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3、“世界文学”与“世界的文学”<br />
一般而言，“世界文学”和“世界的文学”这两个概念多半是在明确的不同语境中被运用：若说“世界文学”依然意味着作品之无可非议的重要性，那么，“世界的文学”则更多地指向世界上那些不怎么有名、却能展示新方向的文学；它们不同凡响、颇有魅力，却还未在读者意识中占有重要位置。也就是说，“世界的文学”未必就是审美和经典意义的上乘之作，或得到广泛接受的作品。谈论“世界的文学”，人们面对的是浩繁的书卷，无数作品和文化传统，难以把握的界线，并在挑选时怀有开放态度。<br />
20 世纪70 年代，世界体系理论( World System Theory) 兴起于美国，对世界文学观念产生重大影响。以美国著名社会学家伊曼纽尔·沃勒斯坦( Immanuel Wallerstein) 为代表的世界体系理论的核心，是把人类社会看成一个由结构性经济联系及各种内在制度制约的一体化的体系，以此作为考察社会发展变迁的分析单位。这是对20 世纪五六十年代兴盛的以民族国家为分析单位、研究人类社会发展变迁的经典现代化理论的反拨。<br />
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4、世界文学与比较文学<br />
世界文学与比较文学的关系引起西方学者的重视。一种声音认为，世界文学相比于比较文学，只是在原有学科体系基础上扩大比较范围。如大卫·费里斯指出：“比较文学应成为世界文学，只是扩大比较范围，比较方法不变。”另一种声音认为，比较文学与世界文学并行不悖，相互作用。“国别文学、比较文学和世界文学彼此间保持动态相互作用关系，都无法完全取代对方。”②对于读者来讲，世界文学仅存于国家空间。比如中国读者阅读海明威《老人与海》，即使该作品在世界范围内得到广泛认可，作为世界文学作品享誉中外，但对于中国读者而言，阅读的只是一部美国小说而已。比较研究作为方法，通用于国别文学、比较文学和世界文学研究。但是，如库班指出，“世界文学接受文本，即使代表特别的国家精神……也能穿过甚至超越他们的国家，语言和历史起源，有效解域本身”，世界文学关注世界性，超越民族性。今天西方学者老话重提，有一些新的阐释，但是，作为克服比较文学危机、面向未来的比较文学学科理论，尚缺乏指导性意义。全世界比较文学学者必须寻求比较文学理论的新突破。<br />
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三、中国文学的世界化与世界文学的中国化<br />
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1、中国文学的世界化<br />
中国文学世界化并不只是中国作家获得国际大奖或是中国作家作品被翻译介绍到外国。世界化是中国文学作为全球化时代世界文学的主体之一，在世界文学中体现出中国主体性。<br />
马克思《路易·波拿巴的雾月十八日》中说：“就像一个刚学会一种新语言的人总是要把它翻译成本国语言一样；只有当他能够不必在心里把新语言翻译成本国语言，当他能够忘掉本国语言来运用新语言的时候，他才算领会了新语言的精神，才算是运用自如。”后现代批评家们奉为圭臬的这篇名著中，马克思的话说出了中国的世界文学认证的真正价值。全球化时代中，世界文学是对自我认证，也是对他人的认证，中国文学从世界文学得到认证，同样，世界文学从中国文学得到认证。<br />
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2、世界文学的“中国化”<br />
世界文学的“中国化”指很多学者表示怀疑，以为是将世界文学作品按中国的观念进行改造，甚至变成“红色经典”。我们必须解释清楚：世界文学的中国化并不是用中国文学标准来“化”世界文学，而是建构中国的世界文学阐释理论体系。这是完全正当的无可非议的，中国文学从不追求“文化权力中心”。但是中国文学必须建立中国的世界文学视域，中国如何看待世界文学史理论、世界文学经典的选编与世界文学翻译，这三大要素，缺一不可。<br />
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参考文献<br />
[1]方维规.何谓世界文学?[J].文艺研究,2017(01):5-18.<br />
[2]曹顺庆,李斌.比较文学未来发展之路——世界文学与比较文学变异学[J].中国高校社会科学,2016(06):39-47+154.<br />
[3]方汉文.中国文学的世界化与世界文学的中国化[J].江南大学学报(人文社会科学版),2016,15(01):93-98.<br />
[4]王宁.世界文学语境中的中国当代文学[J].当代作家评论,2014(06):4-16+2.<br />
[5]王宁.世界主义、世界文学以及中国文学的世界性[J].中国比较文学,2014(01):11-26.<br />
[6]刘洪涛.世界文学观念的嬗变及其在中国的意义[J].中国比较文学,2012(04):9-21.<br />
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西方文学的翻译<br />
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一、翻译内容、技法叙事<br />
清末颇为兴盛的外国小说翻译一方面介绍了西方的文化思想,另一方面明显的汉民族文化特征仍不容忽视。因为近代译者多具有根深蒂固的中国文化观念,因此他们在翻译过程中对原著进行特殊的、比较主观的处理是特定历史阶段的产物。<br />
在西方小说文化思想内容的翻译方面,“西方宗教观、伦理观与中国具体国情不同,其文学作品必然与中国文化发生抵悟,翻译者趋于沟通的心理,尽可能地使译作。与中国文化相通。”<br />
在叙事技法的传递方面,“早期小说译者的文学修养主要源于中国传统文化,其译作的小说文体形式必然采用中国原有的通俗小说文体——章回体。在原著风格的翻译方面,“早期小说译者在翻译小说时非常注重小说的读者群,这些读者多属具有一定文化修养的文人阶层,其思维方式、审美习惯皆己定型。翻译者如果想拥有庞大的读者群,其译作就应该考虑到中国读者的阅读习惯与审美情趣,突出小说消闲、怡情的文学特征。因此,外国小说译作的汉化便成了翻译者有意追求的一种语言风格。<br />
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二、翻译方法和翻译文体<br />
由于文学意识的不自觉、白话语体表达的幼稚性以及受众对象的特殊性等原因,在近代的文学翻译中,归化的手法、文言的文体和意译的方法颇受青睐。因此,“这种译述、意译的风气使得早期文学翻译的体例很不完备。”文学革命爆发后,文学翻译的目标读者出现“平民化”倾向,文学翻译文体走向通俗化、大众化,同时由于文学翻译中文学意识的不断增强,直译方法逐渐为越来越多的译者所使用,文学翻译开始走向异化。<br />
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三、近代翻译与意识形态的相互关系<br />
译入语文化中的主流意识形态对中国近代翻译选材有着不容忽视的影响和操控作用。1840年—1919年的中国翻译史印证了勒菲弗尔的翻译理论。通过研究这个时期的翻译史,我们可以清楚看到,翻译作品的兴盛是随着各个历史阶段的主流意识形态的变化而变化的。例如“甲午战争的失败把中华民族的生死存亡摆在每个人的面前，……此时的意识形态可以归纳为‘开民智、求变革’,其目的是为了唤醒全体国民,进行思想和现代意识启蒙。小说因为其易普及<br />
性被选作变革工具,成为资产阶级改良派医治`社会病'的良方。”<br />
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四、近代翻译在文化和语言方面的属性<br />
中国近代翻译有层次区别,早期的科技翻译不同于后来的社科、文学翻译,前者主要是技术问题,后者主要是文化和语言问题。众所周知，文化翻译往往涉及到深层的语言体系问题。近代社会译者所深谙的古代汉语体系决定了近代翻译文学从根本上具有中国“古代性”。这样,“翻译者总是用旧思想、旧思维来理解和表达西方新思想、新思维,总是在旧有的语言体系中寻找相对应或相似的术语、概念、范畴和话语方式,因此,西方思想文化在翻译的过程就不知不觉地变了形,变得本土化、民族化了。<br />
五、近代翻译的动机及其所带来的影响<br />
近代译者为了让时人了解西方民主思想和先进的科技知识,大多有目的地选择政治小说、科学小说、侦探小说加以引进,其翻译动机就是要救国启民,因此他们的翻译观明显具有功利主义的性质。这一点对于我们理解近代的小说翻译理论和翻译策略大有裨益,对于译文中普遍存在的删改现象也就能够给予合理的解释。他明确地谈到“他们企图用中国传统文化和文学的规范去干预原文本,以此来调整读者对译文的反应,避免可能造成的文化障碍。运用这种策略和方法的目的,无非是趋利避害,把原文本中有利于译文读者的信息翻译出来,对那些不利于一译文读者或不实用的信息避而不译。”<br />
参考文献<br />
【1】吴莎,屠国元.论中国近代翻译选材与意识形态的关系(1840-1919)[J].外语与外语教学,2007(11):38-40.<br />
【2】顾建新.清末民初文学翻译方法与文学翻译文体的发展[J].外语教学,2004(06):50-54.<br />
【3】韩永芝.从文化排斥与文化认同看清末外国小说翻译[J].解放军外国语学院学报,2001(05):66-69.<br />
【4】高玉.论中国近代翻译文学的“古代性”[J].华中师范大学学报(人文社会科学版),2000(04):66-72.<br />
【5】陆国飞.近代外国小说译介中的功利主义思想[J].学术界,2007(04):236-239.<br />
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外国诗歌翻译<br />
[1]郭建辉.外国诗歌的审美特征与外国诗歌的鉴赏[J].重庆工业高等专科学校学报,2001(03):93-95.<br />
由于各民族的文化传统的不同影响，外国诗歌也呈现出不同的特点，详细分析了从《荷马史诗》与《圣经》到现代主义艾略特的《荒原》特点，以把握外国诗歌的审美特征。<br />
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[2]河洛易.中国现代诗歌翻译概述[J].解放军外国语学院学报,2000(05):105-108.<br />
作为中国20世纪的诗歌翻译来说, 大致可分为七个阶段：1、诗歌翻译的前奏曲——近代诗歌翻译 (1840 年鸦片战争到 1919年“五四”运动)；2、现代诗歌翻译的开创期 (从1919 年新青年社到 1930年“左联”成立)；3、现代诗歌翻译的中期 (从 1930 年“左联”成立到 1937 年抗战开始)；4、现代诗歌翻译的后期 (从 1937年抗战开始到1949年中华人民共和国成立)；5、当代“十七年”的诗歌翻译 (从 1949 年新中国成立到“文化大革命”前夕)；6、当代“文革十年”的诗歌翻译 (文革十年)；7、当代新时期的诗歌翻译 (1976 年至今)。<br />
外国诗歌的翻译不是一个自我封闭的静态系统，而是一个不断自我调整和适应的开放系统。<br />
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[3]熊辉.翻译诗歌对诗人创作的影响[J].文艺争鸣,2017(09):7-12.<br />
翻译诗歌为百年新诗发展注入了生机和活力，学界目前多从创作技巧、形式艺术或思想情感的角度去论述前者对后者的影响，较少从创作实践的层面去思考二者的关联。实际上，新诗创作者由于接受了不同的文化而具有各自特殊的写作背景，翻译诗歌对新诗创作的影响也因为创作主体的多元化而呈现出复杂的格局：部分诗人直接阅读并翻译了外国诗歌，译诗对他们创作的影响主要停留在翻译过程或思维转换上；也有部分诗人通过阅读其他人翻译的作品而受到了译诗文本的影响，这部分人也包括那些参与翻译的诗人，因为他们自己在翻译诗歌的同时也可能会阅读别人的译作。<br />
<br />
[4]熊辉.外国诗歌的翻译与中国现代新诗的文体创新[J].上海师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2013,42(03):70-76.<br />
外国诗歌的翻译有助于中国新诗的文体创新,作者从语言层面的创造新字、改进语言句法和表达方式,形式层面的创造新形式、引入新形式等方面展开论述。在此基础上分析了这种在翻译的过程中创新的文体所具有的文体特征和文化属性,进而表明外国诗歌的翻译对中国新诗文体创新具有带动作用。<br />
<br />
[5]李特夫,李国林.诗歌翻译研究:传统思路与现代视野[J].天津外国语学院学报,2004(01):31-36+47. <br />
随着译学研究范式的转向、开拓与创新 ,各种译学思想得以不断重诂和修订，为我国诗歌翻译研究带来了新的启示。在对传统译诗观念进行简要回顾和思考的基础上，针对当前一些争议和疑难性问题提出了个人看法，并借鉴西方译论，就未来诗歌翻译研究有关问题进行了探讨。<br />
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[[Media:Earliest_translations_from_the_West_to_Chinese_presentation_by_Lin_Li.pdf]]<br />
<br />
[[Media:The Arabian Nights_by_Wang_Xinyi.pdf]]<br />
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[[Media:Lecture_The Arabian Nights_by_Wang_Xinyi.pdf]]</div>Zhang Yiranhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_5&diff=132827Hist Trans Theo EN 52021-12-14T06:44:03Z<p>Zhang Yiran: /* 5.References */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''History of Translation Theories'''<br />
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[[History_of_Translation_Theories|Overview Page of History of Translation Theories]]<br />
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[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_1]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_2]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_3]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_4]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_5]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_6]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_7]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_8]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_9]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_10]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_11]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_12]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_13]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_14]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_15]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_16]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_17]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_18]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_19]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_20]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_21]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_22]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_23]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_24]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_25]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_26]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_27]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_28]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_29]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_30]] ...<br />
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=Chapter 5 History of Translation Theories from Early Russia to the Soviet Union=<br />
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'''从古罗斯到苏联前的翻译理论史'''<br />
<br />
张怡然 Zhang Yiran,Hunan Normal University,China<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation as a means of intercultural communication, each country has a distinctive translation ideology. This article focuses on the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia. Through analyzing the history of translation, can find that Russia has formed a literary tradition of translation studies in the late 18th century. In the 19th century, Pushkin, Lermontov, Turgenev and other outstanding poets and literary scholars were keen on translation, especially in the middle of the century when Belinsky and other famous literary critics published a series of comments on literary translation, which emphasized the literary tradition of Russian translation to an unparalleled extent, which is rare in the history of translation in the world. The general principles of Russian literary translation thought were also formed during this period: namely, to insist on commenting on the merits of a translation in terms of the overall effect of the work, to emphasize the ideological content and literary value of the translation, and that the translation should serve the reader and be people-oriented. The above ideas influenced the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, a study of the history of translation theory in pre-Soviet Russia will help learners of Russian to better understand the characteristics of their translations and to improve the accuracy and peopleliness of their translations.Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 12:57, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation is a means of intercultural communication, and each country has its own distinctive translation theory system. This paper focuses on the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia. By analyzing the history of translation, it is obvious that a literary tradition of translation studies has been formed in Russia in the late 18th century. In the 19th century, Pushkin, Lermontov, Turgenev and other outstanding poets and literary scholars were keen on translation, especially in the middle of the century when Belinsky and other famous literary critics published a series of comments on literary translation, which emphasized the literary tradition of Russian translation to an unparalleled extent, which is rare in the history of translation in the world. The general principles of Russian literary translation thoughts were also formed during this period: namely, to insist on commenting on the merits and weakness of a translation in terms of the overall effect of the work, to emphasize the ideological content and literary value of the translation, and the translation should serve the reader and be people-oriented. The above ideas influenced the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, a study of the history of translation theory in pre-Soviet Russia will help learners of Russian to understand the characteristics of their translations profoundly and to improve the accuracy and fluency of their translations.Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:03, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation theories, Translation ideas，History of Translation<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译作为一种跨文化交际的手段，每个国家都有独具特色的翻译思想。本文主要探讨苏联前俄国的翻译历史。通过梳理其翻译史可发现，俄国于18世纪末期就已形成了翻译研究的文学传统。进入19世纪后, 普希金、莱蒙托夫、屠格涅夫等优秀诗人、文学家对翻译的热衷, 尤其是世纪中叶别林斯基等著名文学评论家发表一系列关于文学翻译的评论, 更是把俄国翻译的文学传统强调到无以复加的程度, 这在世界翻译史上都是罕见的。俄国文学翻译思想的总原则也在这一时期形成:即坚持从作品的整体效果上来评论译作优劣, 强调译作的思想内容和文学价值, 翻译应为读者服务, 译文应具有人民性。上述思想影响了苏联时期翻译理论的形成。因此，对苏联前俄国翻译理论史的研究有利于俄语学习者在翻译时更好的理解其翻译特点，提高翻译的准确性和人民性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译理论 翻译思想 翻译史 <br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
This essay provides a comprehensive and concise overview of the history of translation in Russia: Russian written translations began in the Kievan Rus' era, when religious subjects were the main focus of translations, especially the Bible, which was translated from Greek. Religious translations continued to flourish under the Moscow principality, represented by Maksim Gleick (МаксимГрек). At the same time, the national character of Russian translations began to emerge, and the languages of translation expanded from Greek to Latin, German and West Slavic, and the subjects covered included Western chivalric fiction, geographical literature, alchemy and medicine. In the eighteenth century, Peter the Great introduced a number of measures to focus on translation, making this period a turning point in the history of Russian translation. The proliferation of specialised translations (e.g. of legal texts) was the main feature of translation activity in the early eighteenth century. After this period Russian translators began to translate literary works.The main translators were Lomonosov (М.В. Ломоносов) and Tretyakovsky (V.K. Тредьяковский). In the second half of the eighteenth century, translation was given greater importance in Russia, and the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books was founded by Ekaterina II, in which a large number of outstanding translators emerged. The nineteenth century was a golden period in the history of Russian translation. Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин) and Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский) both produced many excellent translations. Pushkin (A.С.Пушкин) and Lermontov (M.Ю.Лермонтов) contributed greatly to the development of Russian literature in translation, while Fetter concentrated on love poetry. In the twentieth century, the Russian translation community made significant achievements in theoretical translation studies. In particular, the rapid development of the philological school and the debate between the literary and philological schools made Soviet translation theory one of the leading theories of translation in the world.(Guo Lin,2006:5)Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 12:57, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
This paper provides a comprehensive and concise overview of the history of translation in Russia: Russian written translations began in the Kievan Rus' era, when religious subjects were the main focus of translations, especially the Bible, translated from Greek. Religious translations continued to flourish under the Moscow principality, represented by Maksim Gleick (МаксимГрек). At the same time, the national character of Russian translations began to emerge, and the languages of translation expanded from Greek to Latin, German and West Slavic, and the subjects covered included Western chivalric fiction, geographical literature, alchemy and medicine. In the eighteenth century, Peter the Great introduced a number of measures to focus on translation, leading this period to a turning point in the history of Russian translation. The proliferation of specialised translations (e.g. of legal texts) was the main feature of translation activity in the early eighteenth century. After this period Russian translators began to translate literary works.The main translators were Lomonosov (М.В. Ломоносов) and Tretyakovsky (V.K. Тредьяковский). In the second half of the eighteenth century, translation was paid greater attention in Russia, and the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books was founded by Ekaterina II, in which a large number of outstanding translators emerged. The nineteenth century was a golden period in the history of Russian translation when Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин) and Rukovsky (В.А.Жуковский) both produced many excellent translations. Pushkin (A.С.Пушкин) and Lermontov (M.Ю.Лермонтов) contributed greatly to the development of Russian literature in translation, while Fetter concentrated on love poetry. In the twentieth century, the Russian translation community made significant achievements in theoretical translation studies. In particular, the rapid development of the philological school and the debate between the literary and philological schools made Soviet translation theory one of the leading theories of translation in the world. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:14, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===1.The history of Russian translation and the period of enlightenment of its translation theory. ===<br />
1. The emergence and development of literary translation.<br />
<br />
Translation activity has a long history in Russia, the beginnings of which can be traced back to the time of Kievan Rus'. A relatively sophisticated system of writing, literature and translation was already in place in ancient Russia in the ninth century AD. Frequent cultural and trade exchanges with Byzantine, German, French and Scandinavian countries contributed significantly to the development of translation in Russia at that time, as did contacts with Eastern countries. From Kievan Rus' onwards, Russian translation methods oscillated between two main tendencies, either to follow the original texts exactly, up to the point of translating them word for word, or to be arbitrary, even to the point of rewriting, adding or deleting at will. The first tendency is the main characteristic of translations of the Bible and other sacred books, while the second, though not absolute, can be said to characterize most secular works.(Feng Xin,2009:8)(Wu Keli,2006:4)<br />
<br />
2.Initiation of translation activities-religious translation. <br />
<br />
In 864 AD, the Byzantine king sent two Greek priests, Kirill (Кирилл) and Mephodi (Мефодий), to spread Christianity among the Slavic people. At the beginning of their mission, they created a new alphabet (now known as the Kirill alphabet) and used this writing system to translate many religious texts from Greek into the ancient Church Slavonic. Among the results were the New Testament, hymnals and prayer books.(Feng,2009:8)<br />
<br />
In 988 AD, Rus was baptised and Kievan Rus was converted to Christianity. A large number of translations appeared instantly to help Protestants become familiar with the new religious philosophy and ethical system and to understand the rituals and customs of the Church. These translations were in a variety of genres, including the Acts of the Saints, sermons, chronicles and so on. In addition, apocryphal books telling magical and fantastical stories were also popular, and some of them had similarities with the later 'fantasy novels'. Most of these translations were done in Bulgaria and were popularised in Rus. At that time, translations of religious texts were mostly word-for-word. There were also a small number of works that, unlike the 'elaborate copies of the original', had a separate literary value. In one case, a large number of details of Russian life were added to the storyline of a sermon (e.g. The Tales of Achild the Wise). In another case, military historical narratives are interspersed with the terminology of the ancient Russian feudal system and certain literary images from the stories of ancient Russian warriors (e.g. Joseph Flav's History of the Jewish War). This translation can be considered one of the most successful of the period. In the translation, the translator succeeded in avoiding many word-for-word translations). In a third case, the manuscripts copied by Ancient Rus, although based on Greek epic poetry (e.g. The Great Work of Digenes Akritas), often borrowed from Russian folk poetry, so that a large number of folk compositions appeared. As a result of this literary process, the translated literature was smoothly enriched by Russian manuscripts, which contributed to the development of original Russian literature and consolidated its links with the medieval literary process. Unfortunately, at that early stage in the development of translation, the translators were not signed, so it is impossible to verify whether the works were translated at home or abroad.(Feng,2009:9) <br />
<br />
During the difficult period of 'Mongol rule' (1228-1480), translations continued to play an important role in the cultural life of the country. The remaining chapters of the Bible were translated one after another, and previous translations were again proofread and revised. In addition to religious translations, more translations of non-religious subjects emerge, such as The Kingdom of India and The Trojan War. Most of the works were still translated from Greek, while works probably translated from Latin and ancient Hebrew also appeared. During this period, Russian began to take shape through the interaction of Old Slavonic (Church Slavonic) and local national languages. However, religious texts were still only translated into Church Slavonic, and the use of this language was by then restricted to ecclesiastical matters. At the same time, political and commercial exchanges with other countries were more likely to be in Russian, which was becoming increasingly sophisticated: elements of the combination of Old Slavonic and Russian can also be found in original works.（Wu,2006:6)<br />
<br />
14-15th century literature in translation by Rus was characterised by an obsession with new themes. These were mainly new works of tranquillity-abstinence literature, or works recommended by and familiar to the tranquillists. This mystical genre was introduced to Rus after it had swept through the Byzantine and Yugoslav peoples. It was reflected in the semi-secular translations popular at the time (for example, The Trojan War). <br />
<br />
In the 16th century AD, Moscow eventually became the political centre of Russia, as well as the translation centre of the country. In 1515, the Grand Duke of Moscow, Vassily III (Василий Ⅲ), asked a Greek monastery to send a learned translator to Moscow. This man, who accompanied the Greek mission to Moscow in 1516, was the historically famous Maksim Gleick (Максим Грек). Maksim Gleick worked as a translator throughout his life, studying most of the religious texts and some of the non-religious works during this period. In addition, he also proofread and annotated previously existing translations.(Wu,2006:7) <br />
<br />
At the beginning, Maksim knew neither Russian nor Old Slavonic, so he divided the translation into two steps: first, he translated from Greek to Latin, and then his assistant translated from Latin to Old Slavonic. In the process of revising existing translations, he often broke with established tradition and was therefore denounced as blasphemous. Maksim was also a prolific writer, educator and philosopher. His writings contain many insights into the art of translation - the earliest recorded treatise on translation in Russia. Maksim insisted that the original text must be carefully analysed in order to grasp its full subtleties and implications. Therefore, the translator must not only master the language of the original, but also have a broad knowledge of the language and prepare for the translation. To support his argument, Maksim used Greek lexicography, phonetic organisation and phonetics involved in translation. His other major contribution was the compilation of a dictionary containing Greek, Latin and Hebrew nouns, which was also the first of its kind in Russian history. Although it was recognised at the time that translators should have a command of both languages as well as a profound background knowledge, the practitioners of translation at the time lacked the necessary qualities and their translations were not as good as they could have been.(Wu,2006:7)Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 13:39, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
1. The emergence and development of literary translation. <br />
<br />
Translation activity has a long history in Russia, the beginnings of which can be traced back to the Time of Kievan Rus'. A relatively sophisticated system of writing, literature and translation was already in ancient Russia in the ninth century AD. Frequent cultural and trade exchanges with Byzantine, German, French and Scandinavian countries contributed significantly to the development of translation in Russia at that time, as did contacts with Eastern countries. From Kievan Rus' onwards, Russian translation methods oscillated between two main tendencies, either to follow the original texts exactly, up to the point of translating them word by word, or to be arbitrary, even to the point of rewriting, adding words or deleting at will. The first tendency is the main characteristic of translations of the Bible and other sacred books, while the second, though not absolutely, can be said to characterize most secular works.<br />
<br />
2.Initiation of translation activities-religious translation. <br />
<br />
In 864 AD, the Byzantine king sent two Greek priests, Kirill (Кирилл) and Mephodi (Мефодий), to spread Christianity among the Slavic people. At the beginning of their mission, they created a new alphabet (now known as the Kirill alphabet) and used this writing system to translate many religious texts from Greek into the ancient Church Slavonic. Among the results were the New Testament, hymnals and prayer books. In 988 AD, Rus was baptised and Kievan Rus was converted to Christianity. A large number of translations appeared instantly to help Protestants become familiar with the new religious philosophy and ethical system and to understand the rituals and customs of the Church. These translations were in a variety of genres, including the Acts of the Saints, sermons, chronicles and so on. In addition, apocryphal books telling magical and fantastical stories were also popular, and some of them had similarities with the later 'fantasy novels'. Most of these translations were done in Bulgaria and were popularised in Rus. At that time, translations of religious texts were mostly word-for-word. There were also a small number of works that, unlike the 'elaborate copies of the original', had a separate literary values. In one case, a large number of details of Russian life were added to the storyline of a sermon (e.g. The Tales of Achild the Wise). In another case, military historical narratives are interspersed with the terminology of the ancient Russian feudal system and certain literary images from the stories of ancient Russian warriors (e.g. Joseph Flav's History of the Jewish War). This translation can be considered one of the most successful of the period. In the translation, the translator succeeded in avoiding many word-for-word translations). Thirdly, the manuscripts copied by Ancient Rus, although based on Greek epic poetry (e.g. The Great Work of Digenes Akritas), often borrowed from Russian folk poetry, so that a large number of folk compositions appeared. As a result of this literary process, the translated literature was smoothly enriched by Russian manuscripts, which contributed to the development of original Russian literature and consolidated its links with the medieval literary process. Unfortunately, at that early stage in the development of translation, the translators were not signed, so it is impossible to verify whether the works were translated at home or abroad. During the difficult period of 'Mongol rule' (1228-1480), translations continued to play an important role in the cultural life of the country. The remaining chapters of the Bible were translated one after another, and previous translations were again proofread and revised. In addition to religious translations, more translations of non-religious subjects emerge, such as The Kingdom of India and The Trojan War. Most of the works were still translated from Greek, while works probably translated from Latin and ancient Hebrew also appeared. During this period, Russian began to take shape through the interaction of Old Slavonic (Church Slavonic) and local national languages. However, religious texts were still only translated into Church Slavonic, and the use of this language was by then restricted to ecclesiastical matters. At the same time, political and commercial exchanges with other countries were more likely to be in Russian, which was becoming increasingly sophisticated: elements of the combination of Old Slavonic and Russian can also be found in original works. 14-15th century literature in translation by Rus was characterised by an obsession with new themes. These were mainly new works of tranquillity-abstinence literature, or works recommended by and familiar to the tranquillists. This mystical genre was introduced to Rus after it had swept through the Byzantine and Yugoslav peoples. It was reflected in the semi-secular translations popular at the time (for example, The Trojan War). In the 16th century AD, Moscow eventually became the political center of Russia, as well as the translation center of the country. In 1515, the Grand Duke of Moscow, Vassily III (Василий Ⅲ), asked a Greek monastery to send a learned translator to Moscow. This man, who accompanied the Greek mission to Moscow in 1516, was the historically famous Maksim Grek (Максим Грек). Maxim Greek worked as a translator throughout his life, studying most of the religious texts and some of the non-religious works during this period. In addition, he also proofread and annotated previously existing translations. At the beginning, Maxim knew neither Russian nor Old Slavonic, so he divided the translation into two steps: first, he translated from Greek to Latin, and then his assistant translated from Latin to Old Slavonic. In the process of revising existing translations, he often broke with established tradition and was therefore denounced as blasphemous. Maxim was also a prolific writer, educator and philosopher. His writings contain many insights into the art of translation - the earliest recorded treatise on translation in Russia. Maxim insisted that the original text must be carefully analysed in order to grasp its full subtleties and implications. Therefore, the translator must not only master the language of the original, but also have a broad knowledge of the language and prepare for the translation. To support his argument, Maxim used Greek lexicography, phonetic organisation and phonetics involved in translation. His other major contribution was the compilation of a dictionary containing Greek, Latin and Hebrew nouns, which was also the first of its kind in Russian history. Although it was recognized at the time that translators should have a command of both languages and profound background knowledge, the practitioners of translation at the time lacked the necessary qualities and their translations were not as good as they should have been. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. Overview of the Russian school of Translation. ===<br />
===2.1 18th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The eighteenth century is an important period in the history of Russian translation. The status of translation in social culture has undergone a qualitative change, and this is due to Peter the Great's reform. At the beginning of the century, translation was still mostly related to professional documents such as laws and contracts. Later, the translator's tentacles gradually expanded to literary translation, for example, French poetry translation. The famous translators of this period are Sumarokov(А.П.Сумароков), Lomonosov(М.В.Ломоносов), Tretyakovsky (В.К.Тредьяковский) and so on. In the second half of the 18th century, the Association for the Translation of Foreign Books officially put forward the importance of translation. The organization has been active for 15 years with over 100 members.（Wu,2006:10)<br />
<br />
1.Imperial support for translation. The political reforms introduced by Peter the Great also led to intensive economic and cultural exchanges between Russia and European countries. This created a huge demand for translations of scientific and technical literature and literary works. Translators were required to produce works of a high standard.<br />
<br />
Peter the Great issued a special decree on translation, requiring "faithful" communication of the original text. In a directive issued to his subordinates in 1709, he explicitly stated that when translating foreign books, word-for-word translations were to be avoided and that the content of the original text should be clearly expressed in one's own language, based on an understanding of its content. On the other hand, Peter the Great's subversion of the written language initially caused confusion in Russian translation circles. A large number of foreign languages entered the Russian language, and the piles of foreign syntactic structures distracted attention. In any case, Peter the Great's reforms did set a new norm and a new direction for translation.(Wu,2006:11)<br />
<br />
In terms of content, Peter the Great's reforms were, from the very beginning, inextricably linked to the translation of scientific and technical texts, such as the many books on military defence engineering that he ordered to be translated and used to strengthen Russia's military forces. Peter the Great also placed great importance on the translation of prose, poetry and other literary works. During this period, the Russian language began to develop its own literary model, and many educated Russians saw translation as a way of enriching the language and enhancing its uniqueness and expressiveness. <br />
<br />
From around the 1830s, the importance of translating Western European scientific and technical texts gradually gave way to literary works such as prose and poetry. Writers who were also translators turned their attention to the work of new Western European writers, mainly poets, especially French poets. At the same time, the legacy of the Greco-Roman period also entered their minds. They began to translate the works of philosophers and historians, which - on the one hand - gave rise to difficulties in literary rhetoric and scientific terminology and, on the other, played an important role in the formation of a standard Russian language.(Feng,2009:10)(Guo,2006:8) <br />
<br />
From that time onwards, translation also became an organised activity, with the emergence of specific bodies responsible for the organisation and management of translation work. 1735 saw the establishment of the first specialised translation organisation, the Russian Society, at the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences. The Society had a professional group of translators and some of the academy's scholars, such as Lomonosov and Tretyakovsky, were among its members. The Association was responsible for selecting works, defining the rules or principles of translation, commenting on translations, and training translators. It is worth mentioning that the Academy of Sciences also set up a school of foreign languages to train official translators. In 1748, the Academy implemented Queen Elizabeth's decree to increase the number of translations of non-religious books and publicly appealed to "the nobility and other classes of intellectuals" to take an active part in the translation process.(Guo,2006:8)(Feng,2009:10) <br />
<br />
In the second half of the 18th century, Ekaterina II's efforts to create a 'civilised state' not only led to the development of literature, but also gave preferential treatment to writers. For example, in order to select the best original texts, she ordered the establishment of the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books (1768 - 1783). The Society was dedicated to providing excellent conditions for translation work throughout Russia. The purchase of manuscripts was financed out of Ekaterina's own funds. Later, the Society also discussed a proposal to establish a translation bureau under the Academy of Sciences (1790). The 114 members of the Society included such notable figures as Tretyakovsky, Sumarokov and Radishev. For 14 years the Association was active, producing numerous literary translations and likewise contributing to the discussion of theoretical issues in translation.(Guo,2006:9)<br />
<br />
2.The emergence of poetry translation. Translation of poetry also developed in Russia in the 18th century, and later became one of the jewels of the country's literature. The great Russian scholar and poet Lomonosov was a major contributor to this process. A great deal of the work created by Lomonosov and his contemporaries Sumarokov and Tretyakovsky was poetry in translation. They often translated while exploring theoretical issues in translation: they would explain in their works why they translated this way and not that way; they stressed the importance of translation work and the creative value it contained. Among the most prestigious writers and translators in Russian literature at the time, there were several interesting competitions in which two or three poets translated the same work at the same time, and their translations were published in journals. It was often the case that different translations of the same work were published at the same time, without the translator's name, for the judgement of "literary lovers and peers". This phenomenon also supports the idea that the 18th century was a period of 'experimentation' in the history of Russian translation.(Feng,2006:11) <br />
<br />
Lomonosov's translations from Latin, German, French and Greek are numerous and varied, showing his talent for both rhyming and free verse. He was keen to reproduce the rhythmic structure of the original texts, using a variety of iambic and iambic meter to convey the Alexandrian style of French epic and the hexameter style of Greek tragedy. Russian poetry was not very developed at the time and was still based on syllables. <br />
Lomonosov's innovations enriched Russian poetry and established new forms and traditions of Russian poetic style and rhyme. <br />
<br />
In contrast, Kantymir (Д.М.Кантемира) and Tretyakovsky's greatest quest was to insist on a faithful translation of the original. In the process, the translators had to contend with the problems of reams of vocabulary and rhetorical rules. Tretyakovsky became famous for his successful use of Russian rhyme to translate many verses of the original in his translation of Paul Thielmann's A Journey to Love Island. In the introduction to the novel, the translator states his approach to translation: "The translator is only one person away from the author. I would add that if the author is original, the translator should be even more original (I am not referring to myself, but to a good translator)". He believes that "prose to prose" and "poetry to poetry" can be as good as the original, and that a good translation is one that "describes the full meaning of each verse". Kantymir 's translation of Horace's Letters and other poetic works in Latin and French, although less well-known than the former, is equally valuable.(Wu,2006:16) Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:40, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The eighteenth century is an important period in the history of Russian translation. The status of translation in social culture has undergone a qualitative change, and this is due to Peter the Great's reform. At the beginning of the century, translation was still mostly related to professional documents such as laws and contracts. Later, the translator's tentacles gradually expanded to literary translation, for example, French poetry translation. The famous translators of this period are Sumarokov(А.П.Сумароков), Lomonosov(М.В.Ломоносов), Tretyakovsky (В.К.Тредьяковский) and so on. In the second half of the 18th century, the Association for the Translation of Foreign Books officially put forward the importance of translation. The organization has been active for 15 years with over 100 members. The following points reflected the reasons why translation was paid more attention in the eighteenth century.<br />
<br />
1.Imperial support for translation. <br />
<br />
The political reforms introduced by Peter the Great also led to intensive economic and cultural exchanges between Russia and European countries. This created a huge demand for translations of scientific and technical literature and literary works. Translators were required to produce works of a high standard.Peter the Great issued a special decree on translation, requiring "faithful" communication of the original text. In a directive issued to his subordinates in 1709, he explicitly stated that when translating foreign books, word-for-word translations were to be avoided and that the content of the original text should be clearly expressed in one's own language, based on an understanding of its content. On the other hand, Peter the Great's subversion of the written language initially caused confusion in Russian translation circles. A large number of foreign languages entered the Russian language, and the piles of foreign syntactic structures distracted attention. In any case, Peter the Great's reforms did set a new norm and a new direction for translation. In terms of content, Peter the Great's reforms were, from the very beginning, inextricably linked to the translation of scientific and technical texts, such as the many books on military defence engineering that he ordered to be translated and used to strengthen Russia's military forces. Peter the Great also placed great importance on the translation of prose, poetry and other literary works. During this period, the Russian language began to develop its own literary model, and many educated Russians saw translation as a way of enriching the language and enhancing its uniqueness and expressiveness. <br />
<br />
From around the 1830s, the importance of translating Western European scientific and technical texts gradually gave way to literary works such as prose and poetry. Writers who were also translators turned their attention to the work of new Western European writers, mainly poets, especially French poets. At the same time, the legacy of the Greco-Roman period also entered their minds. They began to translate the works of philosophers and historians, which - on the one hand - gave rise to difficulties in literary rhetoric and scientific terminology and, on the other, played an important role in the formation of a standard Russian language. <br />
<br />
From that time onwards, translation also became an organised activity, with the emergence of specific bodies responsible for the organisation and management of translation work. 1735 saw the establishment of the first specialised translation organisation, the Russian Society, at the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences. The Society had a professional group of translators and some of the academy's scholars, such as Lomonosov and Tretyakovsky, were among its members. The Association was responsible for selecting works, defining the rules or principles of translation, commenting on translations, and training translators. It is worth mentioning that the Academy of Sciences also set up a school of foreign languages to train official translators. In 1748, the Academy implemented Queen Elizabeth's decree to increase the number of translations of non-religious books and publicly appealed to "the nobility and other classes of intellectuals" to take an active part in the translation process. <br />
<br />
In the second half of the 18th century, Ekaterina II's efforts to create a 'civilised state' not only led to the development of literature, but also gave preferential treatment to writers. For example, in order to select the best original texts, she ordered the establishment of the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books (1768-1783). The Society was dedicated to providing excellent conditions for translation work throughout Russia. The purchase of manuscripts was financed out of Ekaterina's own funds. Later, the Society also discussed a proposal to establish a translation bureau under the Academy of Sciences (1790). The 114 members of the Society included such notable figures as Tretyakovsky, Sumarokov and Radishev. For 14 years the Association was active, producing numerous literary translations and likewise contributing to the discussion of theoretical issues in translation.<br />
<br />
2.The emergence of poetry translation.<br />
<br />
Translation of poetry also developed in Russia in the 18th century, and later became one of the jewels of the country's literature. The great Russian scholar and poet Lomonosov was a major contributor to this process. A great deal of the work created by Lomonosov and his contemporaries Sumarokov and Tretyakovsky was poetry in translation. They often translated while exploring theoretical issues in translation: they would explain in their works why they translated this way and not that way; they stressed the importance of translation work and the creative value it contained. Among the most prestigious writers and translators in Russian literature at the time, there were several interesting competitions in which two or three poets translated the same work at the same time, and their translations were published in journals. It was often the case that different translations of the same work were published at the same time, without the translator's name, for the judgement of "literary lovers and peers". This phenomenon also supports the idea that the 18th century was a period of 'experimentation' in the history of Russian translation. <br />
<br />
Lomonosov's translations works in Latin, German, French and Greek are numerous and varied, showing his talent for both rhyming and free verse. He was keen to reproduce the rhythmic structure of the original texts, using a variety of iambic and iambic meter to convey the Alexandrian style of French epic and the hexameter style of Greek tragedy. Russian poetry was not very developed at the time and was still based on syllables. <br />
Lomonosov's innovations enriched Russian poetry and established new forms and traditions of Russian poetic style and rhyme. <br />
<br />
In contrast, Kantymir (Д.М.Кантемира) and Tretyakovsky's greatest quest was to insist on a faithful translation of the original. In the process, the translators had to contend with the problems of reams of vocabulary and rhetorical rules. Tretyakovsky became famous for his successful use of Russian rhyme to translate many verses of the original in his translation of Paul Thielmann's A Journey to Love Island. In the introduction to the novel, the translator states his approach to translation: "The translator is only one person away from the author. I would add that if the author is original, the translator should be even more original (I am not referring to myself, but to a good translator)". He believes that "prose to prose" and "poetry to poetry" can be as good as the original, and that a good translation is one that "describes the full meaning of each verse". Kantymir 's translation of Horace's Letters and other poetic works in Latin and French, although less well-known than the former, is equally valuable. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 12:39, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.2 First half of the19th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The nineteenth century was a golden age in the history of Russian translation. If translation had established itself as a profession in the first hundred years, it was elevated to the level of art in this century. The nineteenth century produced a number of masters of translation, including Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин), Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский), Pushkin (А.С.Пушкин), Lermontov (М.Ю.Лермонтов) and Fetter (А.Фет).(Wu,2006:23)<br />
<br />
The new Russian school of translation owes its formation to the historian Nikolai Karamzin and the poet Zhukovsky. Karamzin published a number of translations in several magazines between the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century. He saw translations as a good help in perfecting a writer's style: a source of information that would satisfy human curiosity, inform historical facts, entertain women and provide material for new magazines. As a young man, Karamzin was strongly opposed to the alteration of and disloyalty to the original texts, but later became a champion of free translation, famously saying: "Whoever follows the author of the original text step by step is no different from a servant who serves his lord". Karamzin's translations cover an admirable range of genres and languages: he translated works by both classical and contemporaneous authors, in Greek, French, Latin, German, English, Italian and some Oriental languages.(Feng,2009:12)<br />
<br />
Pushkin called Zhukovsky "a genius of translation". After graduating from the Moscow Noble Boarding University in 1802, Zhukovsky devoted himself to translation. It was thanks to his efforts that Russian readers were able to access the works of world literary giants such as Schiller, Goethe, Byron and Walters Scott. Zhukovsky's creative translation activities also ranged from Charles Bello to Grimm's Fairy Tales. From Charles Bellow to Grimm's fairy tales, from Homer's epic Odyssey to the poetic history of ancient Rus' Igor's Expedition, all became his original texts. There is no denying that Zhukovsky is a master in the history of Russian translation. Like Karamzin, Zhukovsky was a fan of free translation, sometimes rewriting the original or even creating a new story from its subject: sometimes transferring the setting of events to Russia and giving Russian names to the characters. For example, in his 1808 translation of the German Romantic poet Bilge's narrative poem Lenore, he changed the heroine's name from Lenore to Lyudmila and moved the story to the time of the Livonian War in 16th-century Russia. Zhukovsky believed that the "unsavoury character" of the work should be weakened while retaining the original author's ideas. His talent enabled him to reproduce the style, rhythm and tone of the original poems, while some of his best works were also faithful to the original. In later years, however, his view of translation changed in response to the tendency to stay close to the original, and he retranslated several of his previous translations to make them more faithful to the original, including Lenore. The Russian school of translation owes much to the tradition of translation created by Zhukovsky.(Wu,2006:24-30)(Feng,2009:13)(Guo,2006:9)<br />
<br />
Pushkin and Lermontov are also two poets who set the stage for an epoch in the history of Russian translation. Although only a small proportion of their poetry was translated, they made a significant contribution to the improvement of the art of translation in Russia. In their rewriting and imitation of poetry, they were able to reproduce the most important features of foreign poetry, the key point being that their creative translations were no less valuable in their own right than the originals. Their free translation became a model for other translators, and in addition they established the important principle that a good artistic translation must also be a good work in the national literature of the translated language. Pushkin played an indelibly important role in the development of the Russian school of translation. He was always interested in the question of translation, and his critical views on translation were objective and profound. Before translation he stressed the importance of the choice of the original work, and in translation he demanded that the translator should be faithful to the original, while at the same time displaying his deep creative skills and his own literary style. In one of his unfinished posthumous works, 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', Pushkin wrote: 'Chateaubriand's translation (verbatim) compensates to some extent for the faults of the young French writers (free translation), for they have insulted the great man very cruelly, though in a perfectly innocent manner. There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own rhetorical conventions, its own way of expressing itself, and it is impossible to translate into another language with the corresponding vocabulary". These insights had a positive impact on the best Russian translators of the 19th and 20th centuries. In addition, Pushkin's discussion of translation coincided with a turning point in the history of Russian literature, when the Romantic era was being replaced by a new era with a predominantly realist orientation, and a process of 'separation' between translated and national literature was under way. Pushkin's discussion of the work of the translator as distinct from that of the writer contributed to the independence of literature in translation from indigenous literature.(Guo,2006:10)(Wu,2006:37-41) <br />
<br />
During this period, while most people advocated free translation, there were a few translators who insisted on maximum fidelity to the original and advocated the word-for-word method, even at the expense of the work's willingness to be translated. Among these were such well-known writers as P.A. Vyazemsky (П.А.Вяземский) and N.I. Gnedzic (Н.И.Гнедич). In fact, they did not always live up to their principles, and sometimes their talent and artistic intuition ended up breaking the bonds of verbatim translation. Vyazemsky's translations of Benjamin Constant and Adam Mickiewicz were not without literary and artistic merit, and his translation of Homer's epic Iliad in particular was highly praised by Pushkin. It was Fetter who was the most insistent on the idea of a verbatim translation. Fetter translated many famous works, and his philosophy throughout was one of sentence-for-sentence, word-for-word translation, retaining all the words of the original. Fetter's extreme word-for-word approach had a negative impact on most of his translations, although he was sometimes able to come up with some effective methods of translation.(Feng,2009:14) <br />
<br />
Free translations were also sometimes used to promote democratic ideas in the original that could not pass official scrutiny. A number of translators, such as V. Kurochkin (В.Курочкин), D. M. Minayev (Д.Минаев) and M. M. Mikhalov (М.Михайлов), achieved this by selecting appropriate original works or by using texts in their translations that were superficially imperceptible in their allusion to the conditions in Russia at the time. It was from that time onwards that the use of translation as a weapon to express dissent became part of the Russian tradition.(Feng,2009:14) Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:41, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The nineteenth century was the golden age in the history of Russian translation. If translation had established its status in the first hundred years, it was elevated to the level of art in this century. The nineteenth century produced a number of masters of translation, including Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин), Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский), Pushkin (А.С.Пушкин), Lermontov (М.Ю.Лермонтов) and Fetter (А.Фет). <br />
<br />
The new Russian school of translation owes its formation to the publishment of a number of translations of historian Nikolai Karamzin and the poet Zhukovsky. Karamzin in several magazines between the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century. He regarded translation as a good help in perfecting a writer's style: a source of information that satisfies human curiosity, informs historical facts, entertains women and provides materials for new magazines. As a young man, Karamzin was strongly opposed to the disloyalty to the original texts, but later became a champion of free translation. His famous saying was: "Whoever follows the author of the original text step by step is no different from a servant who serves his lord". Karamzin's translations cover an admirable range of genres and languages: he translated works by both classical and contemporaneous authors, in Greek, French, Latin, German, English, Italian and some Oriental languages. <br />
<br />
Pushkin called Zhukovsky "a genius of translation". After graduating from the Moscow Noble Boarding University in 1802, Zhukovsky devoted himself to translation. It was thanks to his efforts that Russian readers were able to access the works of world literary giants such as Schiller, Goethe, Byron and Walters Scott. Zhukovsky's creative translation activities also ranged from Charles Bello to Grimm's Fairy Tales. From Charles Bellow to Grimm's fairy tales, from Homer's epic Odyssey to the poetic history of ancient Rus' Igor's Expedition, all became his original texts. There is no denying that Zhukovsky is a master in the history of Russian translation. Like Karamzin, Zhukovsky was a fan of free translation, who sometimes rewrites the original or even creates a new story from its subject, transfers the setting of events to Russia and gives Russian names to the characters. For example, in his 1808 translation of the German Romantic poet Bilge's narrative poem Lenore, he changed the heroine's name from Lenore to Lyudmila and moved the story to the time of the Livonian War in 16th-century Russia. Zhukovsky believed that the "unsavoury character" of the work should be weakened while retaining the original author's ideas. His talent enabled him to reproduce the style, rhythm and tone of the original poems, while some of his best works were also faithful to the original. In later years, however, his view of translation changed in response to the tendency to stay close to the original, and he retranslated several of his previous translations to make them more faithful to the original, including Lenore. The Russian school of translation owes much to the tradition of translation created by Zhukovsky.<br />
<br />
Pushkin and Lermontov are also two poets who gave perfect preparations for an epoch in the history of Russian translation. Although only a small proportion of their poetry was translated, they made a significant contribution to the improvement of the art of translation in Russia. In their rewriting and imitation of poetry, they were able to reproduce the most important features of foreign poetry, the key point being that their creative translations were no less valuable in their own right than the originals. Their free translation became a model for other translators, and in addition they established the important principle that a good artistic translation must also be a good work in the national literature of the translated language. Pushkin played an indelibly important role in the development of the Russian school of translation. He was always interested in the question of translation, and his critical views on translation were objective and profound. Before translation he stressed the importance of the choice of the original work, and in translation he demanded that the translator should be faithful to the original, while at the same time displaying his deep creative skills and his own literary style. In one of his unfinished posthumous works, 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', Pushkin wrote: 'Chateaubriand's translation (verbatim) compensates to some extent for the faults of the young French writers (free translation), for they have insulted the great man very cruelly, though in a perfectly innocent manner. There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own rhetorical conventions, its own way of expressing itself, and it is impossible to translate into another language with the corresponding vocabulary". These insights had a positive impact on the best Russian translators of the 19th and 20th centuries. In addition, Pushkin's discussion of translation coincided with a turning point in the history of Russian literature, when the Romantic era was being replaced by a new era with a predominantly realist orientation, and a process of 'separation' between translated and national literature was under way. Pushkin's discussion of the work of the translator as distinct from that of the writer contributed to the independence of literature in translation from indigenous literature. <br />
<br />
During this period, while most people advocated free translation, there were a few translators who insisted on maximum fidelity to the original and advocated the word-for-word method, even at the expense of the work's willingness to be translated. Among these were such well-known writers as P.A. Vyazemsky (П.А.Вяземский) and N.I. Gnedzic (Н.И.Гнедич). In fact, they did not always live up to their principles, and sometimes their talent and artistic intuition ended up breaking the bonds of verbatim translation. Vyazemsky's translations of Benjamin Constant and Adam Mickiewicz were not without literary and artistic merit, and his translation of Homer's epic Iliad in particular was highly praised by Pushkin. It was Fetter who was the most insistent on the idea of a verbatim translation. Fetter translated many famous works, and his philosophy throughout was one of sentence-for-sentence, word-for-word translation, retaining all the words of the original. Fetter's extreme word-for-word approach had a negative impact on most of his translations, although he was sometimes able to come up with some effective methods of translation. <br />
<br />
Free translations were also used to promote democratic ideas in original that could not pass official scrutiny. A number of translators, such as V. Kurochkin (В.Курочкин), D. M. Minayev (Д.Минаев) and M. M. Mikhalov (М.Михайлов), achieved this by selecting appropriate original works or by using texts in their translations that were superficially imperceptible in their allusion to the conditions in Russia at the time. It was since then that the use of translation was used as a weapon to express dissent became part of the Russian tradition. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:05, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.3 Second half of the19th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The mid-nineteenth century was a period of increasingly intense political and ideological struggle in Russian literature, and a great debate raged in the Russian literary world over the question of 'art for the people' or 'art for art's sake'. The debate was mainly about the choice of material for translation and the method of translation. As far as the choice of material was concerned, the democratic and revolutionary writers who supported 'art for the people' chose to translate works with progressive ideological content and a democratic orientation, such as Heine. The aristocratic and liberal intellectual writers, on the other hand, opted for philosophical poetry with a chanting and individualistic feel. Of course, this is not absolute: "Mikhailov and Dobrolyubov of the democratic revolutionary school also translated Heine's moody love poems The Songbook, while Tolstoy of the aristocratic and liberal school translated some of Goethe's more progressive poems, such as The Fiancée of Corinth and The Whore of God. In terms of their approach to translation, the Democratic-Revolutionary translators, based on the reproduction of the original as a whole, approached their translations very liberally, even adding in many elements typical of Russian culture. The latter, on the other hand, usually adopted a direct translation, focusing on conveying the formal details of the original work. This divergence was mainly due to the different starting points of the two groups of translators, with the democratic revolutionaries seeking to convey advanced ideas to the Russian general public and the aristocratic intellectuals believing that works of art were irrelevant to the people and that artistic creations should not be exposed to "vulgar" reality.(Feng,2009:14-15)<br />
<br />
There were a large number of outstanding literary writers and literary critics who made brilliant statements about literary translation in that era, none more so than Belinsky (В.Г.Белинский), Chernyshevsky (Н.Г.Черныщевский) and Dubrolyovsky (Н.Г.Добролюбов). Belinsky was one of the greatest Russian literary critics of the 19th century. He believed that translations should not be word-for-word, but should reproduce the spirit of the original, in much the same way as Pushkin's view of translation theory. On the other hand, he also opposed arbitrary 'paraphrasing': the ideal translation should not add or delete arbitrarily to the original text, but should enable the reader to understand the foreign work truly and accurately through the translation. Such a viewpoint seems to us to be quite convincing even now. Belinsky played a decisive role in completely burying the 'rewriting' and 'adapting it to Russian custom' arguments. This issue dominates his writings. He argues that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of the translation, and this is one of the criteria by which he judges its merits. He points out, for example, that the greatest strength of Gnedzic's translation of the Iliad is that it "exudes the atmosphere of ancient life" and "the spirit of the ancient Greeks". However, the contradiction between national identity and translatability was once a problem for Belinsky. Initially believing that it was impossible to translate works with a strong national character into other languages, he was only convinced by the success of Turgenev's collaboration with Louis Viardot in translating Gogol's novels into French in 1846, and then became increasingly determined to recognise translatability in translation. Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a series of revisions that led to a complete and rigorous system of translation theory, the first of its kind in the history of Russian translation theory.(Wu,2006:58-61)(Feng,2009:15)<br />
<br />
Translation in Russia developed in the second half of the 19th century. From the 1960s onwards, the Russian readership of non-language speakers began to expand, and these readers were keen to see the translation 'replace' the original. This demand led to an unprecedented expansion in the choice of subjects and translations of Russian literature. Interest in foreign theatrical works was particularly high at this stage, and a strong interest in European classical literature also developed. Dickens, Saclay, Victor Hugo, Dumas, Balzac, Flaubert, Tudor, Maupassant and Zola, as well as lesser-known writers of today, were successively brought to the attention of a wide range of Russian readers in the form of translations. At that time, European theatre classics like Shakespeare's plays were translated into Russia in large numbers. Many professional translators were involved, the most successful being the translator P.N.V. Weinberg. He translated foreign literature from the standpoint of progressive Russian literature of the time. His translation of Othello, for example, is notable for its vividness in the Russian language, and has always been recognised as the best translation in terms of conveying the totality of scenes, plots and long dialogues, even though the translation is wordy compared to the original.(Feng,2009:15-16)<br />
<br />
Although there has been a quantitative surge in translations of Russian literature during this period, the quality has generally been poor, manifesting itself in word-for-word translations, redundant sentences and poor vocabulary, not to mention inventiveness. In addition, the language of the characters in the translation is heavily Russified, with Russian proverbs, sayings and idioms that the foreign characters could never have known, and the introduction of Russian-specific life circumstances that cause contradictions with the plot and details of the original work. For example, В Тулу со своим самоваром ехать (Bring your own samovar to Tula - it's superfluous). The reason for this is that the literary world did not attach much importance to the translation of fiction and prose, and there were no specialists working on this task. Another point is that at this stage there was little progress in the study of Russian translation theory, and no valuable theoretical insights emerged. The linguist A.A. Потебня (1835-1891) expressed his views on translation from a psychological standpoint in his essay "Language and Peopleliness ". In his view, it was impossible to express in another language what was originally intended to be expressed in a certain language. He, like many other literary scholars, denied the translatability of language.(Feng,2006:16)(Guo,2006:11)Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:41, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The mid-nineteenth century was a period of increasingly intensively political and ideological struggle in Russian literature, and a great debate raged in the Russian literary world over the question of 'art for the people' or 'art for art's sake'. The debate was mainly about the choice of materials for translation and the methods of translation. As far as the choice of material was concerned, the democratic and revolutionary writers who supported 'art for the people' chose to translate works with progressive ideological content and a democratic orientation, such as Heine. The aristocratic and liberal intellectual writers, on the other hand, opted for philosophical poetry with a chanting and individualistic feel. It's undoubtful that this is not absolute: "Mikhailov and Dobrolyubov of the democratic revolutionary school also translated Heine's moody love poems The Songbook, while Tolstoy of the aristocratic and liberal school translated some of Goethe's more progressive poems, such as The Fiancée of Corinth and The Whore of God. In terms of their approach to translation, the Democratic-Revolutionary translators, based on the reproduction of the original as a whole, approached their translations very liberally, when they even added in many elements typical of Russian culture. The latter, on the other hand, usually adopted a direct translation, focusing on conveying the formal details of the original work. This divergence was mainly due to the different starting points of the two groups of translators, with the democratic revolutionaries seeking to convey advanced ideas to the Russian general public and the aristocratic intellectuals believing that works of art were irrelevant to the people and that artistic creations should not be exposed to "vulgar" reality.<br />
<br />
There were a large number of outstanding literary writers and literary critics who made brilliant statements about literary translation in that era, none more so than Belinsky (В.Г.Белинский), Chernyshevsky (Н.Г.Черныщевский) and Dubrolyovsky (Н.Г.Добролюбов). Belinsky was one of the greatest Russian literary critics of the 19th century. He believed that translations should not be word-for-word, but should reproduce the spirit of the original text, in much the same way as Pushkin's view of translation theory. On the other hand, he also opposed arbitrary 'paraphrasing': the ideal translation should not add or delete arbitrarily to the original text, but should enable the reader to understand the foreign work truly and accurately through the translation. Such a viewpoint seems to us to be quite convincing even now. Belinsky played a decisive role in completely burying the 'rewriting' and 'adapting it to Russian custom' arguments. This issue dominates his writings. He argues that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of the translation, and this is one of the criteria by which he judges its merits. He points out, for example, that the greatest strength of Gnedzic's translation of the Iliad is that it "exudes the atmosphere of ancient life" and "the spirit of the ancient Greeks". However, the contradiction between national identity and translatability was once a problem for Belinsky. Initially believing that it was impossible to translate works with a strong national character into other languages, he was only convinced by the success of Turgenev's collaboration with Louis Viardot in translating Gogol's novels into French in 1846, and then became increasingly determined to recognise translatability in translation. Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a series of revisions that led to a complete and rigorous system of translation theory, the first of its kind in the history of Russian translation theory.<br />
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Translation in Russia developed in the second half of the 19th century. From the 1960s onwards, the Russian readership of non-language speakers began to expand, and these readers were keen to see the translation 'replace' the original. This demand led to an unprecedented expansion in the choice of subjects and translations of Russian literature. Interest in foreign theatrical works was particularly high at this stage, and a strong interest in European classical literature also developed. Dickens, Saclay, Victor Hugo, Dumas, Balzac, Flaubert, Tudor, Maupassant and Zola, as well as lesser-known writers of today, were successively brought to the attention of a wide range of Russian readers in the form of translations. At that time, European theatre classics like Shakespeare's plays were translated into Russia in large numbers. Many professional translators were involved, the most successful being the translator P.N.V. Weinberg. He translated foreign literature from the standpoint of progressive Russian literature of the time. His translation of Othello, for example, is notable for its vividness in the Russian language, and has always been recognised as the best translation in terms of conveying the totality of scenes, plots and long dialogues, even though the translation is wordy compared to the original.<br />
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Although there has been a quantitative surge in translations of Russian literature during this period, the quality has generally been poor, manifesting itself in word-for-word translations, redundant sentences and poor vocabulary, not to mention inventiveness. In addition, the language of the characters in the translation is heavily Russified, that is, contents with Russian proverbs, sayings and idioms that the foreign characters could never have known, and the introduction of Russian-specific life circumstances that cause contradictions with the plot and details of the original work. For example, В Тулу со своим самоваром ехать (Bring your own samovar to Tula - it's superfluous). The reason for this is that the literary world did not attach much importance to the translation of fiction and prose, and there were no specialists working on this task. Another point is that at this stage there was little progress in the study of Russian translation theory, and no valuable theoretical insights emerged. The linguist A.A. Потебня (1835-1891) expressed his views on translation from a psychological standpoint in his essay "Language and Peopleliness ". In his view, it was impossible to express in another language what was originally intended to be expressed in a certain language. Just like many other literary scholars, he denied the translatability of language. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:13, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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===3.Translation ideas of famous writers of the 18-19th centuries. ===<br />
===3.1. Pushkin 's ideas on translation. ===<br />
Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin (Александр Сергеевич Пушкин, 1977-1837), a famous Russian poet and writer of the nineteenth century, was also very much a translator. Although he left behind few works on translation, his ideas on translation are worth studying. Pushkin's translations of poetry were associated with classicism in the early stages of his work and later with romanticism. Although these translations are far removed from the original in a literal sense, they are almost close to composition. Pushkin's significance as a translator, however, lies in 1) the reproduction of foreign originals in the standard Russian language he established in his translations and 2) the full expression of the realist artistic method in the heyday of his compositions: the focus on typical features and the technique of outlining the historical and individual characteristics that reflect the original.(Wu,2006:37-41)(Li Zheng＆Fan Min,2010:69）<br />
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Pushkin's translations have their own characteristics and style. He did not translate all of his works word for word from the original, and in some places he deleted what he considered to be redundant sentences in order to avoid the verbosity of the original, occasionally replacing the translation with a general paraphrase. He advocates respect for the characteristics of foreign readers, while at the same time opposing word-for-word translations, which can lead to the trampling of the mother tongue. He therefore advocated translations which, on the one hand, required fidelity to the original in terms of meaning and, on the other, should preserve the original's distinctive features.<br />
As he says in his unfinished 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', commenting on Chateaubriand's translation: 'There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), has failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own conventional rhetorical devices, its own habitual expressions, and it is impossible to translate all this into another language using the corresponding vocabulary." Pushkin's rejection of word-for-word translation can be seen.(Li＆Fan,2010:69）<br />
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Pushkin's influence on the cause of translation in Russia was immense, and this influence refers neither to his few translations nor to his theoretical views, but to the fact that Pushkin pioneered the translation of Russian literature. Although his ideas on translation cannot be called a theory, they do provide certain translation ideas for later generations of literary translators.(Li＆Fan,2010:69）Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin (Александр Сергеевич Пушкин, 1977-1837), a famous Russian poet and writer of the nineteenth century, was also an outstanding translator. Besides he left behind few works on translation, his ideas on translation are worth studying. Pushkin's translations of poetry were associated with classicism in the early stages of his work and with romanticism later. Although these translations are far removed from the original in a literal sense, they are almost close to composition. Pushkin's significance as a translator, however, lies in the reproduction of foreign originalities in the standard Russian language he established in his translations and the full expression of the realist artistic method in the heyday of his compositions: the focus on typical features and the technique of outlining the historical and individual characteristics that reflect the original.<br />
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Pushkin's translations have their own distinctive characteristics and style. He did not translate all of his works literally from the original context, but in some places he deleted what he considered to be redundant sentences in order to avoid the verbosity of the original, occasionally replacing the translation with a general paraphrase. He advocates to give enough respect for the characteristics of foreign readers, while at the same time opposing word-for-word translations, which may lead to the trampling of the mother tongue. Therefore, He advocated translations which, on the one hand, required fidelity to the original text in terms of meaning and, on the other hand, should preserve the original's distinctive features.<br />
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As he says in his unfinished 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', he comments on Chateaubriand's translation: 'There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), has failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own conventional rhetorical devices, its own habitual expressions, and it is impossible to translate all this into another language using the corresponding vocabulary." Pushkin's rejection of word-for-word translation can be revealed clearly.<br />
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Pushkin's influence on the cause of translation in Russia was huge, and his influence refers neither to his few translations nor to his theoretical views, but to the fact that Pushkin pioneered the translation of Russian literature. Although his ideas on translation cannot be called a theory, they do provide certain unique and new translation ideas for later generations of literary translators. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:29, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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===3.1. Belinsky's ideas on translation. ===<br />
Vissarion Grigorievich Belinsky (Виссарион Григорьевич Белинский, 1811-1848) was a famous literary critic of the nineteenth century and one of the most involved in the world of translation among Russian literary activists of his time. Belinsky was fluent in French and as a young man translated for two magazines, Miscellany and Telescope. Later, after a career in literary criticism, he published numerous articles on translation and criticism of translated works.<br />
Belinsky's and Pushkin's views on translation were very similar, both advocating that translations should not be word-for-word. Belinsky first introduced the term 'theory' of translation, and in his 1838 review of Polevoy's translation of Hamlet, he first proposed the need for a theory of translation. He considered the role of theory: "Any object that man perceives has a theory of its own, and a theory is the knowledge of the laws by which the object exists."（Wu，2006：51-53）<br />
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Belinsky argues that in translation: "Closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original. Each <br />
language has its own distinctive expressions, characteristics and qualities; these are so distinctive that to correctly convey a certain image or sentence, it is sometimes necessary to change them completely in the translation. The corresponding image, like the corresponding sentence, does not necessarily lie in a superficial agreement of words: the inner life of the translation should be made to correspond to the inner life of the original". It can be seen that Belinsky, like Pushkin, was also opposed to word-for-word rigid translations, his view being that the task of translating a language lies in reproducing the spirit of the original. He believed that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of a translation, so the question of the interrelationship between national character and translatability has always troubled Belinsky. He pointed out that 'there is only one rule for translating a literary work - to convey the spirit of the work being translated, and this can only be done by translating it into Russian as the author himself would have written it in Russian, if he had been Russian' (The Complete Works of Belinsky Volume 2).（Wang，Yulun＆Jiang,Wanzhu，1989：53-55）<br />
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Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a number of achievements, and his view of translation as a whole is a complete and rigorous system. His view of translation was developed gradually, and in the process it was dominated by an increasingly firm recognition of the possibility of a successful solution to the task of translation, that is, of translatability. Belinsky believed that a translation must be discerning in its content and form in relation to the original. He has pointed out that "approaching the original is not the same as conveying the letters, but rather the spirit of the original." It is also suggested that the translator and the original author are two different kinds of people. But in order to convey the 'spirit' of the original in the translation, the translator's genius needs to reach a certain tacit understanding with this 'spirit'. He advocates the preservation of exoticism in translation, opposes naturalisation, the arbitrary distortion of the face of the original work, the overwhelming of the original author with the personality of the translator's style, the emphasis on both likeness and likeness, etc. However, while recognising the importance of reproducing the poetic form of the original work in translation, Belinsky also took into account the state of development of Russian literature in translation. This also led him to look favourably on translating good poetry in prose, seeing such translations as a form of transition for Russian readers to the treasures of world literature.（Wang＆Jiang，1989：53-55）<br />
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Although Belinsky wrote little about literary translation, his theoretical views contain the kernel of the realist principles of translation proposed by contemporary Soviet literary translators. His ideas on translation had a very profound influence on the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period.Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Vissarion Grigorievich Belinsky (Виссарион Григорьевич Белинский, 1811-1848) was a famous literary critic of the nineteenth century and one of the most active in the world of translation among Russian literary activists of his time. Belinsky was fluent in French and when he was a young man he translated for two magazines, Miscellany and Telescope. Later, after a career in literary criticism, he published numerous articles on translation and criticism of translated works.<br />
<br />
Belinsky's and Pushkin's views on translation were very similar, both advocating that translations should not be word-for-word. Belinsky first introduced the term 'theory' of translation, and in his 1838 review of Polevoy's translation of Hamlet, he first proposed the need for a theory of translation. He considered the role of theory: "Any object that man perceives has a theory of its own, and a theory is the knowledge of the laws by which the object exists."<br />
<br />
Belinsky argues that in translation: "Closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original. Each language has its own distinctive expressions, characteristics and qualities; these are so distinctive that to correctly convey a certain image or sentence, it is sometimes necessary to change them completely in the translation. The corresponding image, like the corresponding sentence, does not necessarily lie in a superficial agreement of words: the inner life of the translation should be made to correspond to the inner life of the original". It can be seen that Belinsky, like Pushkin, was also opposed to word-for-word rigid translations, his view being that the task of translating a language lies in reproducing the spirit of the original. He believed that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of a translation, so the question of the interrelationship between national character and translatability has always troubled Belinsky. He pointed out that 'there is only one rule for translating a literary work - to convey the spirit of the work being translated, and this can only be done by translating it into Russian as the author himself would have written it in Russian, if he had been Russian' (The Complete Works of Belinsky Volume 2).<br />
<br />
Belinsky's career as a translator had a number of achievements, and his view of translation as a whole is a complete and rigorous system. His view of translation was developed gradually, and in this process it was dominated by an increasingly firm recognition of the possibility of a successful solution to the task of translation, that is, of translatability. Belinsky believed that a translation must be discerning in its content and form in relation to the original. He has pointed out that "approaching the original is not the same as conveying the letters, but rather the spirit of the original." It is also suggested that the translator and the original author are two different kinds of people. But in order to convey the 'spirit' of the original in the translation, the translator's genius needs to reach a certain tacit understanding with this 'spirit'. He advocates the preservation of exoticism in translation, opposes naturalisation, the arbitrary distortion of the face of the original work, the overwhelming of the original author with the personality of the translator's style, the emphasis on both likeness and likeness, etc. However, while recognising the importance of reproducing the poetic form of the original work in translation, Belinsky also took into account the state of development of Russian literature in translation. This also led him to look favourably on translating good poetry in prose, seeing such translations as a form of transition for Russian readers to the treasures of world literature.<br />
<br />
Although Belinsky wrote little about literary translation, his theoretical views contain the kernel of the realist principles of translation proposed by contemporary Soviet literary translators. His ideas on translation had a very profound influence on the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:56, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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===4.Conclusion ===<br />
Translation has demonstrated its importance in social activity since antiquity, yet it was only in the twentieth century that it became a widely followed professional discipline. This article reviews Russian translation activity and translation thought in pre-Soviet Russia, exploring its development before the formation of a theoretical system. Throughout the history of translation, Russian scholars have contributed greatly to the development of translation literature in the world. Through combing through the history of Russian translation, we learn that the translation ideas of a number of outstanding writers, though not theoretical, have had an unmistakable impact on later generations. When discussing the translation ideas of 19th-century writers, we are inspired to insist on the principle that "closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original", emphasizing the ideological content and literary value of the translation, that the translation should serve the readers, and that the translation should be people-oriented. These ideas influenced, to a greater or lesser extent, the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, the study of the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia is not only conducive to sorting out Russian translation ideas Russian learners can better understand the characteristics of their translations when translating and improve the accuracy of their translations.Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:44, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
Translation has played its important role in the social activities since antiquity, yet it was until in the twentieth century that it became a widely followed professional discipline. This paper reviews Russian translators and translation thoughts in pre-Soviet Russia, exploring its development before the formation of a theoretical system. Throughout the history of translation, Russian scholars have contributed greatly to the development of translation literature in the world. By combing through the history of Russian translation, we learn that the translation ideas of a number of outstanding writers, though not very theoretical, have had an unmistakable impact on later generations. When discussing the translation ideas of 19th-century writers, we are inspired to insist on the principle that "closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original", emphasizing the ideological content and literary value of the translation that the translation should serve the readers, and that the translation should be people-oriented. These ideas influenced, to a greater or lesser extent, the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, the study of the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia not only is conducive to sorting out Russian translation ideas, but also make Russian learners better understand the characteristics of their translations when translating and improving the accuracy of their translations. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 14:02, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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===5.References ===<br />
Feng Xin 冯欣（2009）. 俄罗斯翻译理论史及其影响研究[D] A study of the history of Russian translation theory and its influence.上海外国语大学 Shanghai International Studies University.<br />
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Gaczilaser Гачечиладзе Г.Р.(1959). Вопросы теории художественного перевода Problems of Literary Theory.Тбилиси: Литература да хлебовнеба <br />
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Gotsiridze，Khukhuni Гоциридзе Д.З.,Хухуни Г.Т(1984). Очерки по истории западно-европейского перевода и русского переводов.A summary of the history of Western European and Russian translations.-Тбилиси.<br />
<br />
Guo Lin 郭琳（2006）.俄罗斯语言学派翻译理论若干问题研究[D] A Study of Some Problems of Translation Theory of the Russian School of Philology.首都师范大学 Capital Normal University.<br />
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Levin，Fedorov Левин Ю.Д.,Федоров А.В(1960). Русские писатели о переводе Russian writers on translation .- Ленииград.<br />
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Li Zheng, Fan Min 李铮,范敏（2010）. 普希金与翻译[J] Pushkin and Translation. 现代交际 Modern Intercourse Journal,(05):69.<br />
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Wang，Yulun；Jiang,Wanzhu 王育伦,姜万砫（1989).别林斯基论文学翻译[J] Belinsky on Literary Translation .中国翻译 Chinese translators Journal ,(03):53-55.<br />
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Wu, Keli 吴克礼（2006）.俄苏翻译理论流派综述 The Translation Methods and Studies in USSR. 上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 06:38, 14 December 2021 (UTC)</div>Zhang Yiranhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_5&diff=132819Hist Trans Theo EN 52021-12-14T06:38:46Z<p>Zhang Yiran: /* 5.References */</p>
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<div>'''History of Translation Theories'''<br />
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=Chapter 5 History of Translation Theories from Early Russia to the Soviet Union=<br />
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'''从古罗斯到苏联前的翻译理论史'''<br />
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张怡然 Zhang Yiran,Hunan Normal University,China<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
Translation as a means of intercultural communication, each country has a distinctive translation ideology. This article focuses on the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia. Through analyzing the history of translation, can find that Russia has formed a literary tradition of translation studies in the late 18th century. In the 19th century, Pushkin, Lermontov, Turgenev and other outstanding poets and literary scholars were keen on translation, especially in the middle of the century when Belinsky and other famous literary critics published a series of comments on literary translation, which emphasized the literary tradition of Russian translation to an unparalleled extent, which is rare in the history of translation in the world. The general principles of Russian literary translation thought were also formed during this period: namely, to insist on commenting on the merits of a translation in terms of the overall effect of the work, to emphasize the ideological content and literary value of the translation, and that the translation should serve the reader and be people-oriented. The above ideas influenced the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, a study of the history of translation theory in pre-Soviet Russia will help learners of Russian to better understand the characteristics of their translations and to improve the accuracy and peopleliness of their translations.Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 12:57, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Translation is a means of intercultural communication, and each country has its own distinctive translation theory system. This paper focuses on the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia. By analyzing the history of translation, it is obvious that a literary tradition of translation studies has been formed in Russia in the late 18th century. In the 19th century, Pushkin, Lermontov, Turgenev and other outstanding poets and literary scholars were keen on translation, especially in the middle of the century when Belinsky and other famous literary critics published a series of comments on literary translation, which emphasized the literary tradition of Russian translation to an unparalleled extent, which is rare in the history of translation in the world. The general principles of Russian literary translation thoughts were also formed during this period: namely, to insist on commenting on the merits and weakness of a translation in terms of the overall effect of the work, to emphasize the ideological content and literary value of the translation, and the translation should serve the reader and be people-oriented. The above ideas influenced the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, a study of the history of translation theory in pre-Soviet Russia will help learners of Russian to understand the characteristics of their translations profoundly and to improve the accuracy and fluency of their translations.Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:03, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Translation theories, Translation ideas，History of Translation<br />
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===摘要===<br />
翻译作为一种跨文化交际的手段，每个国家都有独具特色的翻译思想。本文主要探讨苏联前俄国的翻译历史。通过梳理其翻译史可发现，俄国于18世纪末期就已形成了翻译研究的文学传统。进入19世纪后, 普希金、莱蒙托夫、屠格涅夫等优秀诗人、文学家对翻译的热衷, 尤其是世纪中叶别林斯基等著名文学评论家发表一系列关于文学翻译的评论, 更是把俄国翻译的文学传统强调到无以复加的程度, 这在世界翻译史上都是罕见的。俄国文学翻译思想的总原则也在这一时期形成:即坚持从作品的整体效果上来评论译作优劣, 强调译作的思想内容和文学价值, 翻译应为读者服务, 译文应具有人民性。上述思想影响了苏联时期翻译理论的形成。因此，对苏联前俄国翻译理论史的研究有利于俄语学习者在翻译时更好的理解其翻译特点，提高翻译的准确性和人民性。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
翻译理论 翻译思想 翻译史 <br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
This essay provides a comprehensive and concise overview of the history of translation in Russia: Russian written translations began in the Kievan Rus' era, when religious subjects were the main focus of translations, especially the Bible, which was translated from Greek. Religious translations continued to flourish under the Moscow principality, represented by Maksim Gleick (МаксимГрек). At the same time, the national character of Russian translations began to emerge, and the languages of translation expanded from Greek to Latin, German and West Slavic, and the subjects covered included Western chivalric fiction, geographical literature, alchemy and medicine. In the eighteenth century, Peter the Great introduced a number of measures to focus on translation, making this period a turning point in the history of Russian translation. The proliferation of specialised translations (e.g. of legal texts) was the main feature of translation activity in the early eighteenth century. After this period Russian translators began to translate literary works.The main translators were Lomonosov (М.В. Ломоносов) and Tretyakovsky (V.K. Тредьяковский). In the second half of the eighteenth century, translation was given greater importance in Russia, and the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books was founded by Ekaterina II, in which a large number of outstanding translators emerged. The nineteenth century was a golden period in the history of Russian translation. Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин) and Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский) both produced many excellent translations. Pushkin (A.С.Пушкин) and Lermontov (M.Ю.Лермонтов) contributed greatly to the development of Russian literature in translation, while Fetter concentrated on love poetry. In the twentieth century, the Russian translation community made significant achievements in theoretical translation studies. In particular, the rapid development of the philological school and the debate between the literary and philological schools made Soviet translation theory one of the leading theories of translation in the world.(Guo Lin,2006:5)Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 12:57, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
This paper provides a comprehensive and concise overview of the history of translation in Russia: Russian written translations began in the Kievan Rus' era, when religious subjects were the main focus of translations, especially the Bible, translated from Greek. Religious translations continued to flourish under the Moscow principality, represented by Maksim Gleick (МаксимГрек). At the same time, the national character of Russian translations began to emerge, and the languages of translation expanded from Greek to Latin, German and West Slavic, and the subjects covered included Western chivalric fiction, geographical literature, alchemy and medicine. In the eighteenth century, Peter the Great introduced a number of measures to focus on translation, leading this period to a turning point in the history of Russian translation. The proliferation of specialised translations (e.g. of legal texts) was the main feature of translation activity in the early eighteenth century. After this period Russian translators began to translate literary works.The main translators were Lomonosov (М.В. Ломоносов) and Tretyakovsky (V.K. Тредьяковский). In the second half of the eighteenth century, translation was paid greater attention in Russia, and the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books was founded by Ekaterina II, in which a large number of outstanding translators emerged. The nineteenth century was a golden period in the history of Russian translation when Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин) and Rukovsky (В.А.Жуковский) both produced many excellent translations. Pushkin (A.С.Пушкин) and Lermontov (M.Ю.Лермонтов) contributed greatly to the development of Russian literature in translation, while Fetter concentrated on love poetry. In the twentieth century, the Russian translation community made significant achievements in theoretical translation studies. In particular, the rapid development of the philological school and the debate between the literary and philological schools made Soviet translation theory one of the leading theories of translation in the world. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:14, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===1.The history of Russian translation and the period of enlightenment of its translation theory. ===<br />
1. The emergence and development of literary translation.<br />
<br />
Translation activity has a long history in Russia, the beginnings of which can be traced back to the time of Kievan Rus'. A relatively sophisticated system of writing, literature and translation was already in place in ancient Russia in the ninth century AD. Frequent cultural and trade exchanges with Byzantine, German, French and Scandinavian countries contributed significantly to the development of translation in Russia at that time, as did contacts with Eastern countries. From Kievan Rus' onwards, Russian translation methods oscillated between two main tendencies, either to follow the original texts exactly, up to the point of translating them word for word, or to be arbitrary, even to the point of rewriting, adding or deleting at will. The first tendency is the main characteristic of translations of the Bible and other sacred books, while the second, though not absolute, can be said to characterize most secular works.(Feng Xin,2009:8)(Wu Keli,2006:4)<br />
<br />
2.Initiation of translation activities-religious translation. <br />
<br />
In 864 AD, the Byzantine king sent two Greek priests, Kirill (Кирилл) and Mephodi (Мефодий), to spread Christianity among the Slavic people. At the beginning of their mission, they created a new alphabet (now known as the Kirill alphabet) and used this writing system to translate many religious texts from Greek into the ancient Church Slavonic. Among the results were the New Testament, hymnals and prayer books.(Feng,2009:8)<br />
<br />
In 988 AD, Rus was baptised and Kievan Rus was converted to Christianity. A large number of translations appeared instantly to help Protestants become familiar with the new religious philosophy and ethical system and to understand the rituals and customs of the Church. These translations were in a variety of genres, including the Acts of the Saints, sermons, chronicles and so on. In addition, apocryphal books telling magical and fantastical stories were also popular, and some of them had similarities with the later 'fantasy novels'. Most of these translations were done in Bulgaria and were popularised in Rus. At that time, translations of religious texts were mostly word-for-word. There were also a small number of works that, unlike the 'elaborate copies of the original', had a separate literary value. In one case, a large number of details of Russian life were added to the storyline of a sermon (e.g. The Tales of Achild the Wise). In another case, military historical narratives are interspersed with the terminology of the ancient Russian feudal system and certain literary images from the stories of ancient Russian warriors (e.g. Joseph Flav's History of the Jewish War). This translation can be considered one of the most successful of the period. In the translation, the translator succeeded in avoiding many word-for-word translations). In a third case, the manuscripts copied by Ancient Rus, although based on Greek epic poetry (e.g. The Great Work of Digenes Akritas), often borrowed from Russian folk poetry, so that a large number of folk compositions appeared. As a result of this literary process, the translated literature was smoothly enriched by Russian manuscripts, which contributed to the development of original Russian literature and consolidated its links with the medieval literary process. Unfortunately, at that early stage in the development of translation, the translators were not signed, so it is impossible to verify whether the works were translated at home or abroad.(Feng,2009:9) <br />
<br />
During the difficult period of 'Mongol rule' (1228-1480), translations continued to play an important role in the cultural life of the country. The remaining chapters of the Bible were translated one after another, and previous translations were again proofread and revised. In addition to religious translations, more translations of non-religious subjects emerge, such as The Kingdom of India and The Trojan War. Most of the works were still translated from Greek, while works probably translated from Latin and ancient Hebrew also appeared. During this period, Russian began to take shape through the interaction of Old Slavonic (Church Slavonic) and local national languages. However, religious texts were still only translated into Church Slavonic, and the use of this language was by then restricted to ecclesiastical matters. At the same time, political and commercial exchanges with other countries were more likely to be in Russian, which was becoming increasingly sophisticated: elements of the combination of Old Slavonic and Russian can also be found in original works.（Wu,2006:6)<br />
<br />
14-15th century literature in translation by Rus was characterised by an obsession with new themes. These were mainly new works of tranquillity-abstinence literature, or works recommended by and familiar to the tranquillists. This mystical genre was introduced to Rus after it had swept through the Byzantine and Yugoslav peoples. It was reflected in the semi-secular translations popular at the time (for example, The Trojan War). <br />
<br />
In the 16th century AD, Moscow eventually became the political centre of Russia, as well as the translation centre of the country. In 1515, the Grand Duke of Moscow, Vassily III (Василий Ⅲ), asked a Greek monastery to send a learned translator to Moscow. This man, who accompanied the Greek mission to Moscow in 1516, was the historically famous Maksim Gleick (Максим Грек). Maksim Gleick worked as a translator throughout his life, studying most of the religious texts and some of the non-religious works during this period. In addition, he also proofread and annotated previously existing translations.(Wu,2006:7) <br />
<br />
At the beginning, Maksim knew neither Russian nor Old Slavonic, so he divided the translation into two steps: first, he translated from Greek to Latin, and then his assistant translated from Latin to Old Slavonic. In the process of revising existing translations, he often broke with established tradition and was therefore denounced as blasphemous. Maksim was also a prolific writer, educator and philosopher. His writings contain many insights into the art of translation - the earliest recorded treatise on translation in Russia. Maksim insisted that the original text must be carefully analysed in order to grasp its full subtleties and implications. Therefore, the translator must not only master the language of the original, but also have a broad knowledge of the language and prepare for the translation. To support his argument, Maksim used Greek lexicography, phonetic organisation and phonetics involved in translation. His other major contribution was the compilation of a dictionary containing Greek, Latin and Hebrew nouns, which was also the first of its kind in Russian history. Although it was recognised at the time that translators should have a command of both languages as well as a profound background knowledge, the practitioners of translation at the time lacked the necessary qualities and their translations were not as good as they could have been.(Wu,2006:7)Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 13:39, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
1. The emergence and development of literary translation. <br />
<br />
Translation activity has a long history in Russia, the beginnings of which can be traced back to the Time of Kievan Rus'. A relatively sophisticated system of writing, literature and translation was already in ancient Russia in the ninth century AD. Frequent cultural and trade exchanges with Byzantine, German, French and Scandinavian countries contributed significantly to the development of translation in Russia at that time, as did contacts with Eastern countries. From Kievan Rus' onwards, Russian translation methods oscillated between two main tendencies, either to follow the original texts exactly, up to the point of translating them word by word, or to be arbitrary, even to the point of rewriting, adding words or deleting at will. The first tendency is the main characteristic of translations of the Bible and other sacred books, while the second, though not absolutely, can be said to characterize most secular works.<br />
<br />
2.Initiation of translation activities-religious translation. <br />
<br />
In 864 AD, the Byzantine king sent two Greek priests, Kirill (Кирилл) and Mephodi (Мефодий), to spread Christianity among the Slavic people. At the beginning of their mission, they created a new alphabet (now known as the Kirill alphabet) and used this writing system to translate many religious texts from Greek into the ancient Church Slavonic. Among the results were the New Testament, hymnals and prayer books. In 988 AD, Rus was baptised and Kievan Rus was converted to Christianity. A large number of translations appeared instantly to help Protestants become familiar with the new religious philosophy and ethical system and to understand the rituals and customs of the Church. These translations were in a variety of genres, including the Acts of the Saints, sermons, chronicles and so on. In addition, apocryphal books telling magical and fantastical stories were also popular, and some of them had similarities with the later 'fantasy novels'. Most of these translations were done in Bulgaria and were popularised in Rus. At that time, translations of religious texts were mostly word-for-word. There were also a small number of works that, unlike the 'elaborate copies of the original', had a separate literary values. In one case, a large number of details of Russian life were added to the storyline of a sermon (e.g. The Tales of Achild the Wise). In another case, military historical narratives are interspersed with the terminology of the ancient Russian feudal system and certain literary images from the stories of ancient Russian warriors (e.g. Joseph Flav's History of the Jewish War). This translation can be considered one of the most successful of the period. In the translation, the translator succeeded in avoiding many word-for-word translations). Thirdly, the manuscripts copied by Ancient Rus, although based on Greek epic poetry (e.g. The Great Work of Digenes Akritas), often borrowed from Russian folk poetry, so that a large number of folk compositions appeared. As a result of this literary process, the translated literature was smoothly enriched by Russian manuscripts, which contributed to the development of original Russian literature and consolidated its links with the medieval literary process. Unfortunately, at that early stage in the development of translation, the translators were not signed, so it is impossible to verify whether the works were translated at home or abroad. During the difficult period of 'Mongol rule' (1228-1480), translations continued to play an important role in the cultural life of the country. The remaining chapters of the Bible were translated one after another, and previous translations were again proofread and revised. In addition to religious translations, more translations of non-religious subjects emerge, such as The Kingdom of India and The Trojan War. Most of the works were still translated from Greek, while works probably translated from Latin and ancient Hebrew also appeared. During this period, Russian began to take shape through the interaction of Old Slavonic (Church Slavonic) and local national languages. However, religious texts were still only translated into Church Slavonic, and the use of this language was by then restricted to ecclesiastical matters. At the same time, political and commercial exchanges with other countries were more likely to be in Russian, which was becoming increasingly sophisticated: elements of the combination of Old Slavonic and Russian can also be found in original works. 14-15th century literature in translation by Rus was characterised by an obsession with new themes. These were mainly new works of tranquillity-abstinence literature, or works recommended by and familiar to the tranquillists. This mystical genre was introduced to Rus after it had swept through the Byzantine and Yugoslav peoples. It was reflected in the semi-secular translations popular at the time (for example, The Trojan War). In the 16th century AD, Moscow eventually became the political center of Russia, as well as the translation center of the country. In 1515, the Grand Duke of Moscow, Vassily III (Василий Ⅲ), asked a Greek monastery to send a learned translator to Moscow. This man, who accompanied the Greek mission to Moscow in 1516, was the historically famous Maksim Grek (Максим Грек). Maxim Greek worked as a translator throughout his life, studying most of the religious texts and some of the non-religious works during this period. In addition, he also proofread and annotated previously existing translations. At the beginning, Maxim knew neither Russian nor Old Slavonic, so he divided the translation into two steps: first, he translated from Greek to Latin, and then his assistant translated from Latin to Old Slavonic. In the process of revising existing translations, he often broke with established tradition and was therefore denounced as blasphemous. Maxim was also a prolific writer, educator and philosopher. His writings contain many insights into the art of translation - the earliest recorded treatise on translation in Russia. Maxim insisted that the original text must be carefully analysed in order to grasp its full subtleties and implications. Therefore, the translator must not only master the language of the original, but also have a broad knowledge of the language and prepare for the translation. To support his argument, Maxim used Greek lexicography, phonetic organisation and phonetics involved in translation. His other major contribution was the compilation of a dictionary containing Greek, Latin and Hebrew nouns, which was also the first of its kind in Russian history. Although it was recognized at the time that translators should have a command of both languages and profound background knowledge, the practitioners of translation at the time lacked the necessary qualities and their translations were not as good as they should have been. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. Overview of the Russian school of Translation. ===<br />
===2.1 18th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The eighteenth century is an important period in the history of Russian translation. The status of translation in social culture has undergone a qualitative change, and this is due to Peter the Great's reform. At the beginning of the century, translation was still mostly related to professional documents such as laws and contracts. Later, the translator's tentacles gradually expanded to literary translation, for example, French poetry translation. The famous translators of this period are Sumarokov(А.П.Сумароков), Lomonosov(М.В.Ломоносов), Tretyakovsky (В.К.Тредьяковский) and so on. In the second half of the 18th century, the Association for the Translation of Foreign Books officially put forward the importance of translation. The organization has been active for 15 years with over 100 members.（Wu,2006:10)<br />
<br />
1.Imperial support for translation. The political reforms introduced by Peter the Great also led to intensive economic and cultural exchanges between Russia and European countries. This created a huge demand for translations of scientific and technical literature and literary works. Translators were required to produce works of a high standard.<br />
<br />
Peter the Great issued a special decree on translation, requiring "faithful" communication of the original text. In a directive issued to his subordinates in 1709, he explicitly stated that when translating foreign books, word-for-word translations were to be avoided and that the content of the original text should be clearly expressed in one's own language, based on an understanding of its content. On the other hand, Peter the Great's subversion of the written language initially caused confusion in Russian translation circles. A large number of foreign languages entered the Russian language, and the piles of foreign syntactic structures distracted attention. In any case, Peter the Great's reforms did set a new norm and a new direction for translation.(Wu,2006:11)<br />
<br />
In terms of content, Peter the Great's reforms were, from the very beginning, inextricably linked to the translation of scientific and technical texts, such as the many books on military defence engineering that he ordered to be translated and used to strengthen Russia's military forces. Peter the Great also placed great importance on the translation of prose, poetry and other literary works. During this period, the Russian language began to develop its own literary model, and many educated Russians saw translation as a way of enriching the language and enhancing its uniqueness and expressiveness. <br />
<br />
From around the 1830s, the importance of translating Western European scientific and technical texts gradually gave way to literary works such as prose and poetry. Writers who were also translators turned their attention to the work of new Western European writers, mainly poets, especially French poets. At the same time, the legacy of the Greco-Roman period also entered their minds. They began to translate the works of philosophers and historians, which - on the one hand - gave rise to difficulties in literary rhetoric and scientific terminology and, on the other, played an important role in the formation of a standard Russian language.(Feng,2009:10)(Guo,2006:8) <br />
<br />
From that time onwards, translation also became an organised activity, with the emergence of specific bodies responsible for the organisation and management of translation work. 1735 saw the establishment of the first specialised translation organisation, the Russian Society, at the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences. The Society had a professional group of translators and some of the academy's scholars, such as Lomonosov and Tretyakovsky, were among its members. The Association was responsible for selecting works, defining the rules or principles of translation, commenting on translations, and training translators. It is worth mentioning that the Academy of Sciences also set up a school of foreign languages to train official translators. In 1748, the Academy implemented Queen Elizabeth's decree to increase the number of translations of non-religious books and publicly appealed to "the nobility and other classes of intellectuals" to take an active part in the translation process.(Guo,2006:8)(Feng,2009:10) <br />
<br />
In the second half of the 18th century, Ekaterina II's efforts to create a 'civilised state' not only led to the development of literature, but also gave preferential treatment to writers. For example, in order to select the best original texts, she ordered the establishment of the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books (1768 - 1783). The Society was dedicated to providing excellent conditions for translation work throughout Russia. The purchase of manuscripts was financed out of Ekaterina's own funds. Later, the Society also discussed a proposal to establish a translation bureau under the Academy of Sciences (1790). The 114 members of the Society included such notable figures as Tretyakovsky, Sumarokov and Radishev. For 14 years the Association was active, producing numerous literary translations and likewise contributing to the discussion of theoretical issues in translation.(Guo,2006:9)<br />
<br />
2.The emergence of poetry translation. Translation of poetry also developed in Russia in the 18th century, and later became one of the jewels of the country's literature. The great Russian scholar and poet Lomonosov was a major contributor to this process. A great deal of the work created by Lomonosov and his contemporaries Sumarokov and Tretyakovsky was poetry in translation. They often translated while exploring theoretical issues in translation: they would explain in their works why they translated this way and not that way; they stressed the importance of translation work and the creative value it contained. Among the most prestigious writers and translators in Russian literature at the time, there were several interesting competitions in which two or three poets translated the same work at the same time, and their translations were published in journals. It was often the case that different translations of the same work were published at the same time, without the translator's name, for the judgement of "literary lovers and peers". This phenomenon also supports the idea that the 18th century was a period of 'experimentation' in the history of Russian translation.(Feng,2006:11) <br />
<br />
Lomonosov's translations from Latin, German, French and Greek are numerous and varied, showing his talent for both rhyming and free verse. He was keen to reproduce the rhythmic structure of the original texts, using a variety of iambic and iambic meter to convey the Alexandrian style of French epic and the hexameter style of Greek tragedy. Russian poetry was not very developed at the time and was still based on syllables. <br />
Lomonosov's innovations enriched Russian poetry and established new forms and traditions of Russian poetic style and rhyme. <br />
<br />
In contrast, Kantymir (Д.М.Кантемира) and Tretyakovsky's greatest quest was to insist on a faithful translation of the original. In the process, the translators had to contend with the problems of reams of vocabulary and rhetorical rules. Tretyakovsky became famous for his successful use of Russian rhyme to translate many verses of the original in his translation of Paul Thielmann's A Journey to Love Island. In the introduction to the novel, the translator states his approach to translation: "The translator is only one person away from the author. I would add that if the author is original, the translator should be even more original (I am not referring to myself, but to a good translator)". He believes that "prose to prose" and "poetry to poetry" can be as good as the original, and that a good translation is one that "describes the full meaning of each verse". Kantymir 's translation of Horace's Letters and other poetic works in Latin and French, although less well-known than the former, is equally valuable.(Wu,2006:16) Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:40, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The eighteenth century is an important period in the history of Russian translation. The status of translation in social culture has undergone a qualitative change, and this is due to Peter the Great's reform. At the beginning of the century, translation was still mostly related to professional documents such as laws and contracts. Later, the translator's tentacles gradually expanded to literary translation, for example, French poetry translation. The famous translators of this period are Sumarokov(А.П.Сумароков), Lomonosov(М.В.Ломоносов), Tretyakovsky (В.К.Тредьяковский) and so on. In the second half of the 18th century, the Association for the Translation of Foreign Books officially put forward the importance of translation. The organization has been active for 15 years with over 100 members. The following points reflected the reasons why translation was paid more attention in the eighteenth century.<br />
<br />
1.Imperial support for translation. <br />
<br />
The political reforms introduced by Peter the Great also led to intensive economic and cultural exchanges between Russia and European countries. This created a huge demand for translations of scientific and technical literature and literary works. Translators were required to produce works of a high standard.Peter the Great issued a special decree on translation, requiring "faithful" communication of the original text. In a directive issued to his subordinates in 1709, he explicitly stated that when translating foreign books, word-for-word translations were to be avoided and that the content of the original text should be clearly expressed in one's own language, based on an understanding of its content. On the other hand, Peter the Great's subversion of the written language initially caused confusion in Russian translation circles. A large number of foreign languages entered the Russian language, and the piles of foreign syntactic structures distracted attention. In any case, Peter the Great's reforms did set a new norm and a new direction for translation. In terms of content, Peter the Great's reforms were, from the very beginning, inextricably linked to the translation of scientific and technical texts, such as the many books on military defence engineering that he ordered to be translated and used to strengthen Russia's military forces. Peter the Great also placed great importance on the translation of prose, poetry and other literary works. During this period, the Russian language began to develop its own literary model, and many educated Russians saw translation as a way of enriching the language and enhancing its uniqueness and expressiveness. <br />
<br />
From around the 1830s, the importance of translating Western European scientific and technical texts gradually gave way to literary works such as prose and poetry. Writers who were also translators turned their attention to the work of new Western European writers, mainly poets, especially French poets. At the same time, the legacy of the Greco-Roman period also entered their minds. They began to translate the works of philosophers and historians, which - on the one hand - gave rise to difficulties in literary rhetoric and scientific terminology and, on the other, played an important role in the formation of a standard Russian language. <br />
<br />
From that time onwards, translation also became an organised activity, with the emergence of specific bodies responsible for the organisation and management of translation work. 1735 saw the establishment of the first specialised translation organisation, the Russian Society, at the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences. The Society had a professional group of translators and some of the academy's scholars, such as Lomonosov and Tretyakovsky, were among its members. The Association was responsible for selecting works, defining the rules or principles of translation, commenting on translations, and training translators. It is worth mentioning that the Academy of Sciences also set up a school of foreign languages to train official translators. In 1748, the Academy implemented Queen Elizabeth's decree to increase the number of translations of non-religious books and publicly appealed to "the nobility and other classes of intellectuals" to take an active part in the translation process. <br />
<br />
In the second half of the 18th century, Ekaterina II's efforts to create a 'civilised state' not only led to the development of literature, but also gave preferential treatment to writers. For example, in order to select the best original texts, she ordered the establishment of the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books (1768-1783). The Society was dedicated to providing excellent conditions for translation work throughout Russia. The purchase of manuscripts was financed out of Ekaterina's own funds. Later, the Society also discussed a proposal to establish a translation bureau under the Academy of Sciences (1790). The 114 members of the Society included such notable figures as Tretyakovsky, Sumarokov and Radishev. For 14 years the Association was active, producing numerous literary translations and likewise contributing to the discussion of theoretical issues in translation.<br />
<br />
2.The emergence of poetry translation.<br />
<br />
Translation of poetry also developed in Russia in the 18th century, and later became one of the jewels of the country's literature. The great Russian scholar and poet Lomonosov was a major contributor to this process. A great deal of the work created by Lomonosov and his contemporaries Sumarokov and Tretyakovsky was poetry in translation. They often translated while exploring theoretical issues in translation: they would explain in their works why they translated this way and not that way; they stressed the importance of translation work and the creative value it contained. Among the most prestigious writers and translators in Russian literature at the time, there were several interesting competitions in which two or three poets translated the same work at the same time, and their translations were published in journals. It was often the case that different translations of the same work were published at the same time, without the translator's name, for the judgement of "literary lovers and peers". This phenomenon also supports the idea that the 18th century was a period of 'experimentation' in the history of Russian translation. <br />
<br />
Lomonosov's translations works in Latin, German, French and Greek are numerous and varied, showing his talent for both rhyming and free verse. He was keen to reproduce the rhythmic structure of the original texts, using a variety of iambic and iambic meter to convey the Alexandrian style of French epic and the hexameter style of Greek tragedy. Russian poetry was not very developed at the time and was still based on syllables. <br />
Lomonosov's innovations enriched Russian poetry and established new forms and traditions of Russian poetic style and rhyme. <br />
<br />
In contrast, Kantymir (Д.М.Кантемира) and Tretyakovsky's greatest quest was to insist on a faithful translation of the original. In the process, the translators had to contend with the problems of reams of vocabulary and rhetorical rules. Tretyakovsky became famous for his successful use of Russian rhyme to translate many verses of the original in his translation of Paul Thielmann's A Journey to Love Island. In the introduction to the novel, the translator states his approach to translation: "The translator is only one person away from the author. I would add that if the author is original, the translator should be even more original (I am not referring to myself, but to a good translator)". He believes that "prose to prose" and "poetry to poetry" can be as good as the original, and that a good translation is one that "describes the full meaning of each verse". Kantymir 's translation of Horace's Letters and other poetic works in Latin and French, although less well-known than the former, is equally valuable. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 12:39, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.2 First half of the19th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The nineteenth century was a golden age in the history of Russian translation. If translation had established itself as a profession in the first hundred years, it was elevated to the level of art in this century. The nineteenth century produced a number of masters of translation, including Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин), Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский), Pushkin (А.С.Пушкин), Lermontov (М.Ю.Лермонтов) and Fetter (А.Фет).(Wu,2006:23)<br />
<br />
The new Russian school of translation owes its formation to the historian Nikolai Karamzin and the poet Zhukovsky. Karamzin published a number of translations in several magazines between the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century. He saw translations as a good help in perfecting a writer's style: a source of information that would satisfy human curiosity, inform historical facts, entertain women and provide material for new magazines. As a young man, Karamzin was strongly opposed to the alteration of and disloyalty to the original texts, but later became a champion of free translation, famously saying: "Whoever follows the author of the original text step by step is no different from a servant who serves his lord". Karamzin's translations cover an admirable range of genres and languages: he translated works by both classical and contemporaneous authors, in Greek, French, Latin, German, English, Italian and some Oriental languages.(Feng,2009:12)<br />
<br />
Pushkin called Zhukovsky "a genius of translation". After graduating from the Moscow Noble Boarding University in 1802, Zhukovsky devoted himself to translation. It was thanks to his efforts that Russian readers were able to access the works of world literary giants such as Schiller, Goethe, Byron and Walters Scott. Zhukovsky's creative translation activities also ranged from Charles Bello to Grimm's Fairy Tales. From Charles Bellow to Grimm's fairy tales, from Homer's epic Odyssey to the poetic history of ancient Rus' Igor's Expedition, all became his original texts. There is no denying that Zhukovsky is a master in the history of Russian translation. Like Karamzin, Zhukovsky was a fan of free translation, sometimes rewriting the original or even creating a new story from its subject: sometimes transferring the setting of events to Russia and giving Russian names to the characters. For example, in his 1808 translation of the German Romantic poet Bilge's narrative poem Lenore, he changed the heroine's name from Lenore to Lyudmila and moved the story to the time of the Livonian War in 16th-century Russia. Zhukovsky believed that the "unsavoury character" of the work should be weakened while retaining the original author's ideas. His talent enabled him to reproduce the style, rhythm and tone of the original poems, while some of his best works were also faithful to the original. In later years, however, his view of translation changed in response to the tendency to stay close to the original, and he retranslated several of his previous translations to make them more faithful to the original, including Lenore. The Russian school of translation owes much to the tradition of translation created by Zhukovsky.(Wu,2006:24-30)(Feng,2009:13)(Guo,2006:9)<br />
<br />
Pushkin and Lermontov are also two poets who set the stage for an epoch in the history of Russian translation. Although only a small proportion of their poetry was translated, they made a significant contribution to the improvement of the art of translation in Russia. In their rewriting and imitation of poetry, they were able to reproduce the most important features of foreign poetry, the key point being that their creative translations were no less valuable in their own right than the originals. Their free translation became a model for other translators, and in addition they established the important principle that a good artistic translation must also be a good work in the national literature of the translated language. Pushkin played an indelibly important role in the development of the Russian school of translation. He was always interested in the question of translation, and his critical views on translation were objective and profound. Before translation he stressed the importance of the choice of the original work, and in translation he demanded that the translator should be faithful to the original, while at the same time displaying his deep creative skills and his own literary style. In one of his unfinished posthumous works, 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', Pushkin wrote: 'Chateaubriand's translation (verbatim) compensates to some extent for the faults of the young French writers (free translation), for they have insulted the great man very cruelly, though in a perfectly innocent manner. There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own rhetorical conventions, its own way of expressing itself, and it is impossible to translate into another language with the corresponding vocabulary". These insights had a positive impact on the best Russian translators of the 19th and 20th centuries. In addition, Pushkin's discussion of translation coincided with a turning point in the history of Russian literature, when the Romantic era was being replaced by a new era with a predominantly realist orientation, and a process of 'separation' between translated and national literature was under way. Pushkin's discussion of the work of the translator as distinct from that of the writer contributed to the independence of literature in translation from indigenous literature.(Guo,2006:10)(Wu,2006:37-41) <br />
<br />
During this period, while most people advocated free translation, there were a few translators who insisted on maximum fidelity to the original and advocated the word-for-word method, even at the expense of the work's willingness to be translated. Among these were such well-known writers as P.A. Vyazemsky (П.А.Вяземский) and N.I. Gnedzic (Н.И.Гнедич). In fact, they did not always live up to their principles, and sometimes their talent and artistic intuition ended up breaking the bonds of verbatim translation. Vyazemsky's translations of Benjamin Constant and Adam Mickiewicz were not without literary and artistic merit, and his translation of Homer's epic Iliad in particular was highly praised by Pushkin. It was Fetter who was the most insistent on the idea of a verbatim translation. Fetter translated many famous works, and his philosophy throughout was one of sentence-for-sentence, word-for-word translation, retaining all the words of the original. Fetter's extreme word-for-word approach had a negative impact on most of his translations, although he was sometimes able to come up with some effective methods of translation.(Feng,2009:14) <br />
<br />
Free translations were also sometimes used to promote democratic ideas in the original that could not pass official scrutiny. A number of translators, such as V. Kurochkin (В.Курочкин), D. M. Minayev (Д.Минаев) and M. M. Mikhalov (М.Михайлов), achieved this by selecting appropriate original works or by using texts in their translations that were superficially imperceptible in their allusion to the conditions in Russia at the time. It was from that time onwards that the use of translation as a weapon to express dissent became part of the Russian tradition.(Feng,2009:14) Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:41, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The nineteenth century was the golden age in the history of Russian translation. If translation had established its status in the first hundred years, it was elevated to the level of art in this century. The nineteenth century produced a number of masters of translation, including Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин), Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский), Pushkin (А.С.Пушкин), Lermontov (М.Ю.Лермонтов) and Fetter (А.Фет). <br />
<br />
The new Russian school of translation owes its formation to the publishment of a number of translations of historian Nikolai Karamzin and the poet Zhukovsky. Karamzin in several magazines between the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century. He regarded translation as a good help in perfecting a writer's style: a source of information that satisfies human curiosity, informs historical facts, entertains women and provides materials for new magazines. As a young man, Karamzin was strongly opposed to the disloyalty to the original texts, but later became a champion of free translation. His famous saying was: "Whoever follows the author of the original text step by step is no different from a servant who serves his lord". Karamzin's translations cover an admirable range of genres and languages: he translated works by both classical and contemporaneous authors, in Greek, French, Latin, German, English, Italian and some Oriental languages. <br />
<br />
Pushkin called Zhukovsky "a genius of translation". After graduating from the Moscow Noble Boarding University in 1802, Zhukovsky devoted himself to translation. It was thanks to his efforts that Russian readers were able to access the works of world literary giants such as Schiller, Goethe, Byron and Walters Scott. Zhukovsky's creative translation activities also ranged from Charles Bello to Grimm's Fairy Tales. From Charles Bellow to Grimm's fairy tales, from Homer's epic Odyssey to the poetic history of ancient Rus' Igor's Expedition, all became his original texts. There is no denying that Zhukovsky is a master in the history of Russian translation. Like Karamzin, Zhukovsky was a fan of free translation, who sometimes rewrites the original or even creates a new story from its subject, transfers the setting of events to Russia and gives Russian names to the characters. For example, in his 1808 translation of the German Romantic poet Bilge's narrative poem Lenore, he changed the heroine's name from Lenore to Lyudmila and moved the story to the time of the Livonian War in 16th-century Russia. Zhukovsky believed that the "unsavoury character" of the work should be weakened while retaining the original author's ideas. His talent enabled him to reproduce the style, rhythm and tone of the original poems, while some of his best works were also faithful to the original. In later years, however, his view of translation changed in response to the tendency to stay close to the original, and he retranslated several of his previous translations to make them more faithful to the original, including Lenore. The Russian school of translation owes much to the tradition of translation created by Zhukovsky.<br />
<br />
Pushkin and Lermontov are also two poets who gave perfect preparations for an epoch in the history of Russian translation. Although only a small proportion of their poetry was translated, they made a significant contribution to the improvement of the art of translation in Russia. In their rewriting and imitation of poetry, they were able to reproduce the most important features of foreign poetry, the key point being that their creative translations were no less valuable in their own right than the originals. Their free translation became a model for other translators, and in addition they established the important principle that a good artistic translation must also be a good work in the national literature of the translated language. Pushkin played an indelibly important role in the development of the Russian school of translation. He was always interested in the question of translation, and his critical views on translation were objective and profound. Before translation he stressed the importance of the choice of the original work, and in translation he demanded that the translator should be faithful to the original, while at the same time displaying his deep creative skills and his own literary style. In one of his unfinished posthumous works, 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', Pushkin wrote: 'Chateaubriand's translation (verbatim) compensates to some extent for the faults of the young French writers (free translation), for they have insulted the great man very cruelly, though in a perfectly innocent manner. There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own rhetorical conventions, its own way of expressing itself, and it is impossible to translate into another language with the corresponding vocabulary". These insights had a positive impact on the best Russian translators of the 19th and 20th centuries. In addition, Pushkin's discussion of translation coincided with a turning point in the history of Russian literature, when the Romantic era was being replaced by a new era with a predominantly realist orientation, and a process of 'separation' between translated and national literature was under way. Pushkin's discussion of the work of the translator as distinct from that of the writer contributed to the independence of literature in translation from indigenous literature. <br />
<br />
During this period, while most people advocated free translation, there were a few translators who insisted on maximum fidelity to the original and advocated the word-for-word method, even at the expense of the work's willingness to be translated. Among these were such well-known writers as P.A. Vyazemsky (П.А.Вяземский) and N.I. Gnedzic (Н.И.Гнедич). In fact, they did not always live up to their principles, and sometimes their talent and artistic intuition ended up breaking the bonds of verbatim translation. Vyazemsky's translations of Benjamin Constant and Adam Mickiewicz were not without literary and artistic merit, and his translation of Homer's epic Iliad in particular was highly praised by Pushkin. It was Fetter who was the most insistent on the idea of a verbatim translation. Fetter translated many famous works, and his philosophy throughout was one of sentence-for-sentence, word-for-word translation, retaining all the words of the original. Fetter's extreme word-for-word approach had a negative impact on most of his translations, although he was sometimes able to come up with some effective methods of translation. <br />
<br />
Free translations were also used to promote democratic ideas in original that could not pass official scrutiny. A number of translators, such as V. Kurochkin (В.Курочкин), D. M. Minayev (Д.Минаев) and M. M. Mikhalov (М.Михайлов), achieved this by selecting appropriate original works or by using texts in their translations that were superficially imperceptible in their allusion to the conditions in Russia at the time. It was since then that the use of translation was used as a weapon to express dissent became part of the Russian tradition. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:05, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.3 Second half of the19th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The mid-nineteenth century was a period of increasingly intense political and ideological struggle in Russian literature, and a great debate raged in the Russian literary world over the question of 'art for the people' or 'art for art's sake'. The debate was mainly about the choice of material for translation and the method of translation. As far as the choice of material was concerned, the democratic and revolutionary writers who supported 'art for the people' chose to translate works with progressive ideological content and a democratic orientation, such as Heine. The aristocratic and liberal intellectual writers, on the other hand, opted for philosophical poetry with a chanting and individualistic feel. Of course, this is not absolute: "Mikhailov and Dobrolyubov of the democratic revolutionary school also translated Heine's moody love poems The Songbook, while Tolstoy of the aristocratic and liberal school translated some of Goethe's more progressive poems, such as The Fiancée of Corinth and The Whore of God. In terms of their approach to translation, the Democratic-Revolutionary translators, based on the reproduction of the original as a whole, approached their translations very liberally, even adding in many elements typical of Russian culture. The latter, on the other hand, usually adopted a direct translation, focusing on conveying the formal details of the original work. This divergence was mainly due to the different starting points of the two groups of translators, with the democratic revolutionaries seeking to convey advanced ideas to the Russian general public and the aristocratic intellectuals believing that works of art were irrelevant to the people and that artistic creations should not be exposed to "vulgar" reality.(Feng,2009:14-15)<br />
<br />
There were a large number of outstanding literary writers and literary critics who made brilliant statements about literary translation in that era, none more so than Belinsky (В.Г.Белинский), Chernyshevsky (Н.Г.Черныщевский) and Dubrolyovsky (Н.Г.Добролюбов). Belinsky was one of the greatest Russian literary critics of the 19th century. He believed that translations should not be word-for-word, but should reproduce the spirit of the original, in much the same way as Pushkin's view of translation theory. On the other hand, he also opposed arbitrary 'paraphrasing': the ideal translation should not add or delete arbitrarily to the original text, but should enable the reader to understand the foreign work truly and accurately through the translation. Such a viewpoint seems to us to be quite convincing even now. Belinsky played a decisive role in completely burying the 'rewriting' and 'adapting it to Russian custom' arguments. This issue dominates his writings. He argues that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of the translation, and this is one of the criteria by which he judges its merits. He points out, for example, that the greatest strength of Gnedzic's translation of the Iliad is that it "exudes the atmosphere of ancient life" and "the spirit of the ancient Greeks". However, the contradiction between national identity and translatability was once a problem for Belinsky. Initially believing that it was impossible to translate works with a strong national character into other languages, he was only convinced by the success of Turgenev's collaboration with Louis Viardot in translating Gogol's novels into French in 1846, and then became increasingly determined to recognise translatability in translation. Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a series of revisions that led to a complete and rigorous system of translation theory, the first of its kind in the history of Russian translation theory.(Wu,2006:58-61)(Feng,2009:15)<br />
<br />
Translation in Russia developed in the second half of the 19th century. From the 1960s onwards, the Russian readership of non-language speakers began to expand, and these readers were keen to see the translation 'replace' the original. This demand led to an unprecedented expansion in the choice of subjects and translations of Russian literature. Interest in foreign theatrical works was particularly high at this stage, and a strong interest in European classical literature also developed. Dickens, Saclay, Victor Hugo, Dumas, Balzac, Flaubert, Tudor, Maupassant and Zola, as well as lesser-known writers of today, were successively brought to the attention of a wide range of Russian readers in the form of translations. At that time, European theatre classics like Shakespeare's plays were translated into Russia in large numbers. Many professional translators were involved, the most successful being the translator P.N.V. Weinberg. He translated foreign literature from the standpoint of progressive Russian literature of the time. His translation of Othello, for example, is notable for its vividness in the Russian language, and has always been recognised as the best translation in terms of conveying the totality of scenes, plots and long dialogues, even though the translation is wordy compared to the original.(Feng,2009:15-16)<br />
<br />
Although there has been a quantitative surge in translations of Russian literature during this period, the quality has generally been poor, manifesting itself in word-for-word translations, redundant sentences and poor vocabulary, not to mention inventiveness. In addition, the language of the characters in the translation is heavily Russified, with Russian proverbs, sayings and idioms that the foreign characters could never have known, and the introduction of Russian-specific life circumstances that cause contradictions with the plot and details of the original work. For example, В Тулу со своим самоваром ехать (Bring your own samovar to Tula - it's superfluous). The reason for this is that the literary world did not attach much importance to the translation of fiction and prose, and there were no specialists working on this task. Another point is that at this stage there was little progress in the study of Russian translation theory, and no valuable theoretical insights emerged. The linguist A.A. Потебня (1835-1891) expressed his views on translation from a psychological standpoint in his essay "Language and Peopleliness ". In his view, it was impossible to express in another language what was originally intended to be expressed in a certain language. He, like many other literary scholars, denied the translatability of language.(Feng,2006:16)(Guo,2006:11)Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:41, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The mid-nineteenth century was a period of increasingly intensively political and ideological struggle in Russian literature, and a great debate raged in the Russian literary world over the question of 'art for the people' or 'art for art's sake'. The debate was mainly about the choice of materials for translation and the methods of translation. As far as the choice of material was concerned, the democratic and revolutionary writers who supported 'art for the people' chose to translate works with progressive ideological content and a democratic orientation, such as Heine. The aristocratic and liberal intellectual writers, on the other hand, opted for philosophical poetry with a chanting and individualistic feel. It's undoubtful that this is not absolute: "Mikhailov and Dobrolyubov of the democratic revolutionary school also translated Heine's moody love poems The Songbook, while Tolstoy of the aristocratic and liberal school translated some of Goethe's more progressive poems, such as The Fiancée of Corinth and The Whore of God. In terms of their approach to translation, the Democratic-Revolutionary translators, based on the reproduction of the original as a whole, approached their translations very liberally, when they even added in many elements typical of Russian culture. The latter, on the other hand, usually adopted a direct translation, focusing on conveying the formal details of the original work. This divergence was mainly due to the different starting points of the two groups of translators, with the democratic revolutionaries seeking to convey advanced ideas to the Russian general public and the aristocratic intellectuals believing that works of art were irrelevant to the people and that artistic creations should not be exposed to "vulgar" reality.<br />
<br />
There were a large number of outstanding literary writers and literary critics who made brilliant statements about literary translation in that era, none more so than Belinsky (В.Г.Белинский), Chernyshevsky (Н.Г.Черныщевский) and Dubrolyovsky (Н.Г.Добролюбов). Belinsky was one of the greatest Russian literary critics of the 19th century. He believed that translations should not be word-for-word, but should reproduce the spirit of the original text, in much the same way as Pushkin's view of translation theory. On the other hand, he also opposed arbitrary 'paraphrasing': the ideal translation should not add or delete arbitrarily to the original text, but should enable the reader to understand the foreign work truly and accurately through the translation. Such a viewpoint seems to us to be quite convincing even now. Belinsky played a decisive role in completely burying the 'rewriting' and 'adapting it to Russian custom' arguments. This issue dominates his writings. He argues that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of the translation, and this is one of the criteria by which he judges its merits. He points out, for example, that the greatest strength of Gnedzic's translation of the Iliad is that it "exudes the atmosphere of ancient life" and "the spirit of the ancient Greeks". However, the contradiction between national identity and translatability was once a problem for Belinsky. Initially believing that it was impossible to translate works with a strong national character into other languages, he was only convinced by the success of Turgenev's collaboration with Louis Viardot in translating Gogol's novels into French in 1846, and then became increasingly determined to recognise translatability in translation. Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a series of revisions that led to a complete and rigorous system of translation theory, the first of its kind in the history of Russian translation theory.<br />
<br />
Translation in Russia developed in the second half of the 19th century. From the 1960s onwards, the Russian readership of non-language speakers began to expand, and these readers were keen to see the translation 'replace' the original. This demand led to an unprecedented expansion in the choice of subjects and translations of Russian literature. Interest in foreign theatrical works was particularly high at this stage, and a strong interest in European classical literature also developed. Dickens, Saclay, Victor Hugo, Dumas, Balzac, Flaubert, Tudor, Maupassant and Zola, as well as lesser-known writers of today, were successively brought to the attention of a wide range of Russian readers in the form of translations. At that time, European theatre classics like Shakespeare's plays were translated into Russia in large numbers. Many professional translators were involved, the most successful being the translator P.N.V. Weinberg. He translated foreign literature from the standpoint of progressive Russian literature of the time. His translation of Othello, for example, is notable for its vividness in the Russian language, and has always been recognised as the best translation in terms of conveying the totality of scenes, plots and long dialogues, even though the translation is wordy compared to the original.<br />
<br />
Although there has been a quantitative surge in translations of Russian literature during this period, the quality has generally been poor, manifesting itself in word-for-word translations, redundant sentences and poor vocabulary, not to mention inventiveness. In addition, the language of the characters in the translation is heavily Russified, that is, contents with Russian proverbs, sayings and idioms that the foreign characters could never have known, and the introduction of Russian-specific life circumstances that cause contradictions with the plot and details of the original work. For example, В Тулу со своим самоваром ехать (Bring your own samovar to Tula - it's superfluous). The reason for this is that the literary world did not attach much importance to the translation of fiction and prose, and there were no specialists working on this task. Another point is that at this stage there was little progress in the study of Russian translation theory, and no valuable theoretical insights emerged. The linguist A.A. Потебня (1835-1891) expressed his views on translation from a psychological standpoint in his essay "Language and Peopleliness ". In his view, it was impossible to express in another language what was originally intended to be expressed in a certain language. Just like many other literary scholars, he denied the translatability of language. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:13, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.Translation ideas of famous writers of the 18-19th centuries. ===<br />
===3.1. Pushkin 's ideas on translation. ===<br />
Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin (Александр Сергеевич Пушкин, 1977-1837), a famous Russian poet and writer of the nineteenth century, was also very much a translator. Although he left behind few works on translation, his ideas on translation are worth studying. Pushkin's translations of poetry were associated with classicism in the early stages of his work and later with romanticism. Although these translations are far removed from the original in a literal sense, they are almost close to composition. Pushkin's significance as a translator, however, lies in 1) the reproduction of foreign originals in the standard Russian language he established in his translations and 2) the full expression of the realist artistic method in the heyday of his compositions: the focus on typical features and the technique of outlining the historical and individual characteristics that reflect the original.(Wu,2006:37-41)(Li Zheng＆Fan Min,2010:69）<br />
<br />
Pushkin's translations have their own characteristics and style. He did not translate all of his works word for word from the original, and in some places he deleted what he considered to be redundant sentences in order to avoid the verbosity of the original, occasionally replacing the translation with a general paraphrase. He advocates respect for the characteristics of foreign readers, while at the same time opposing word-for-word translations, which can lead to the trampling of the mother tongue. He therefore advocated translations which, on the one hand, required fidelity to the original in terms of meaning and, on the other, should preserve the original's distinctive features.<br />
As he says in his unfinished 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', commenting on Chateaubriand's translation: 'There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), has failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own conventional rhetorical devices, its own habitual expressions, and it is impossible to translate all this into another language using the corresponding vocabulary." Pushkin's rejection of word-for-word translation can be seen.(Li＆Fan,2010:69）<br />
<br />
Pushkin's influence on the cause of translation in Russia was immense, and this influence refers neither to his few translations nor to his theoretical views, but to the fact that Pushkin pioneered the translation of Russian literature. Although his ideas on translation cannot be called a theory, they do provide certain translation ideas for later generations of literary translators.(Li＆Fan,2010:69）Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin (Александр Сергеевич Пушкин, 1977-1837), a famous Russian poet and writer of the nineteenth century, was also an outstanding translator. Besides he left behind few works on translation, his ideas on translation are worth studying. Pushkin's translations of poetry were associated with classicism in the early stages of his work and with romanticism later. Although these translations are far removed from the original in a literal sense, they are almost close to composition. Pushkin's significance as a translator, however, lies in the reproduction of foreign originalities in the standard Russian language he established in his translations and the full expression of the realist artistic method in the heyday of his compositions: the focus on typical features and the technique of outlining the historical and individual characteristics that reflect the original.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's translations have their own distinctive characteristics and style. He did not translate all of his works literally from the original context, but in some places he deleted what he considered to be redundant sentences in order to avoid the verbosity of the original, occasionally replacing the translation with a general paraphrase. He advocates to give enough respect for the characteristics of foreign readers, while at the same time opposing word-for-word translations, which may lead to the trampling of the mother tongue. Therefore, He advocated translations which, on the one hand, required fidelity to the original text in terms of meaning and, on the other hand, should preserve the original's distinctive features.<br />
<br />
As he says in his unfinished 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', he comments on Chateaubriand's translation: 'There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), has failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own conventional rhetorical devices, its own habitual expressions, and it is impossible to translate all this into another language using the corresponding vocabulary." Pushkin's rejection of word-for-word translation can be revealed clearly.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's influence on the cause of translation in Russia was huge, and his influence refers neither to his few translations nor to his theoretical views, but to the fact that Pushkin pioneered the translation of Russian literature. Although his ideas on translation cannot be called a theory, they do provide certain unique and new translation ideas for later generations of literary translators. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:29, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.1. Belinsky's ideas on translation. ===<br />
Vissarion Grigorievich Belinsky (Виссарион Григорьевич Белинский, 1811-1848) was a famous literary critic of the nineteenth century and one of the most involved in the world of translation among Russian literary activists of his time. Belinsky was fluent in French and as a young man translated for two magazines, Miscellany and Telescope. Later, after a career in literary criticism, he published numerous articles on translation and criticism of translated works.<br />
Belinsky's and Pushkin's views on translation were very similar, both advocating that translations should not be word-for-word. Belinsky first introduced the term 'theory' of translation, and in his 1838 review of Polevoy's translation of Hamlet, he first proposed the need for a theory of translation. He considered the role of theory: "Any object that man perceives has a theory of its own, and a theory is the knowledge of the laws by which the object exists."（Wu，2006：51-53）<br />
<br />
Belinsky argues that in translation: "Closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original. Each <br />
language has its own distinctive expressions, characteristics and qualities; these are so distinctive that to correctly convey a certain image or sentence, it is sometimes necessary to change them completely in the translation. The corresponding image, like the corresponding sentence, does not necessarily lie in a superficial agreement of words: the inner life of the translation should be made to correspond to the inner life of the original". It can be seen that Belinsky, like Pushkin, was also opposed to word-for-word rigid translations, his view being that the task of translating a language lies in reproducing the spirit of the original. He believed that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of a translation, so the question of the interrelationship between national character and translatability has always troubled Belinsky. He pointed out that 'there is only one rule for translating a literary work - to convey the spirit of the work being translated, and this can only be done by translating it into Russian as the author himself would have written it in Russian, if he had been Russian' (The Complete Works of Belinsky Volume 2).（Wang，Yulun＆Jiang,Wanzhu，1989：53-55）<br />
<br />
Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a number of achievements, and his view of translation as a whole is a complete and rigorous system. His view of translation was developed gradually, and in the process it was dominated by an increasingly firm recognition of the possibility of a successful solution to the task of translation, that is, of translatability. Belinsky believed that a translation must be discerning in its content and form in relation to the original. He has pointed out that "approaching the original is not the same as conveying the letters, but rather the spirit of the original." It is also suggested that the translator and the original author are two different kinds of people. But in order to convey the 'spirit' of the original in the translation, the translator's genius needs to reach a certain tacit understanding with this 'spirit'. He advocates the preservation of exoticism in translation, opposes naturalisation, the arbitrary distortion of the face of the original work, the overwhelming of the original author with the personality of the translator's style, the emphasis on both likeness and likeness, etc. However, while recognising the importance of reproducing the poetic form of the original work in translation, Belinsky also took into account the state of development of Russian literature in translation. This also led him to look favourably on translating good poetry in prose, seeing such translations as a form of transition for Russian readers to the treasures of world literature.（Wang＆Jiang，1989：53-55）<br />
<br />
Although Belinsky wrote little about literary translation, his theoretical views contain the kernel of the realist principles of translation proposed by contemporary Soviet literary translators. His ideas on translation had a very profound influence on the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period.Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Vissarion Grigorievich Belinsky (Виссарион Григорьевич Белинский, 1811-1848) was a famous literary critic of the nineteenth century and one of the most active in the world of translation among Russian literary activists of his time. Belinsky was fluent in French and when he was a young man he translated for two magazines, Miscellany and Telescope. Later, after a career in literary criticism, he published numerous articles on translation and criticism of translated works.<br />
<br />
Belinsky's and Pushkin's views on translation were very similar, both advocating that translations should not be word-for-word. Belinsky first introduced the term 'theory' of translation, and in his 1838 review of Polevoy's translation of Hamlet, he first proposed the need for a theory of translation. He considered the role of theory: "Any object that man perceives has a theory of its own, and a theory is the knowledge of the laws by which the object exists."<br />
<br />
Belinsky argues that in translation: "Closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original. Each language has its own distinctive expressions, characteristics and qualities; these are so distinctive that to correctly convey a certain image or sentence, it is sometimes necessary to change them completely in the translation. The corresponding image, like the corresponding sentence, does not necessarily lie in a superficial agreement of words: the inner life of the translation should be made to correspond to the inner life of the original". It can be seen that Belinsky, like Pushkin, was also opposed to word-for-word rigid translations, his view being that the task of translating a language lies in reproducing the spirit of the original. He believed that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of a translation, so the question of the interrelationship between national character and translatability has always troubled Belinsky. He pointed out that 'there is only one rule for translating a literary work - to convey the spirit of the work being translated, and this can only be done by translating it into Russian as the author himself would have written it in Russian, if he had been Russian' (The Complete Works of Belinsky Volume 2).<br />
<br />
Belinsky's career as a translator had a number of achievements, and his view of translation as a whole is a complete and rigorous system. His view of translation was developed gradually, and in this process it was dominated by an increasingly firm recognition of the possibility of a successful solution to the task of translation, that is, of translatability. Belinsky believed that a translation must be discerning in its content and form in relation to the original. He has pointed out that "approaching the original is not the same as conveying the letters, but rather the spirit of the original." It is also suggested that the translator and the original author are two different kinds of people. But in order to convey the 'spirit' of the original in the translation, the translator's genius needs to reach a certain tacit understanding with this 'spirit'. He advocates the preservation of exoticism in translation, opposes naturalisation, the arbitrary distortion of the face of the original work, the overwhelming of the original author with the personality of the translator's style, the emphasis on both likeness and likeness, etc. However, while recognising the importance of reproducing the poetic form of the original work in translation, Belinsky also took into account the state of development of Russian literature in translation. This also led him to look favourably on translating good poetry in prose, seeing such translations as a form of transition for Russian readers to the treasures of world literature.<br />
<br />
Although Belinsky wrote little about literary translation, his theoretical views contain the kernel of the realist principles of translation proposed by contemporary Soviet literary translators. His ideas on translation had a very profound influence on the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:56, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.Conclusion ===<br />
Translation has demonstrated its importance in social activity since antiquity, yet it was only in the twentieth century that it became a widely followed professional discipline. This article reviews Russian translation activity and translation thought in pre-Soviet Russia, exploring its development before the formation of a theoretical system. Throughout the history of translation, Russian scholars have contributed greatly to the development of translation literature in the world. Through combing through the history of Russian translation, we learn that the translation ideas of a number of outstanding writers, though not theoretical, have had an unmistakable impact on later generations. When discussing the translation ideas of 19th-century writers, we are inspired to insist on the principle that "closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original", emphasizing the ideological content and literary value of the translation, that the translation should serve the readers, and that the translation should be people-oriented. These ideas influenced, to a greater or lesser extent, the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, the study of the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia is not only conducive to sorting out Russian translation ideas Russian learners can better understand the characteristics of their translations when translating and improve the accuracy of their translations.Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:44, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Translation has played its important role in the social activities since antiquity, yet it was until in the twentieth century that it became a widely followed professional discipline. This paper reviews Russian translators and translation thoughts in pre-Soviet Russia, exploring its development before the formation of a theoretical system. Throughout the history of translation, Russian scholars have contributed greatly to the development of translation literature in the world. By combing through the history of Russian translation, we learn that the translation ideas of a number of outstanding writers, though not very theoretical, have had an unmistakable impact on later generations. When discussing the translation ideas of 19th-century writers, we are inspired to insist on the principle that "closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original", emphasizing the ideological content and literary value of the translation that the translation should serve the readers, and that the translation should be people-oriented. These ideas influenced, to a greater or lesser extent, the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, the study of the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia not only is conducive to sorting out Russian translation ideas, but also make Russian learners better understand the characteristics of their translations when translating and improving the accuracy of their translations. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 14:02, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.References ===<br />
Feng Xin 冯欣（2009）. 俄罗斯翻译理论史及其影响研究[D] A study of the history of Russian translation theory and its influence.上海外国语大学 Shanghai International Studies University.<br />
<br />
Gaczilaser Гачечиладзе Г.Р.(1959). Вопросы теории художественного перевода Problems of Literary Theory.Тбилиси: Литература да хлебовнеба <br />
<br />
Gotsiridze；Khukhuni Гоциридзе Д.З.,Хухуни Г.Т(1984). Очерки по истории западно-европейского перевода и русского переводов.A summary of the history of Western European and Russian translations.-Тбилиси.<br />
<br />
Guo Lin 郭琳（2006）.俄罗斯语言学派翻译理论若干问题研究[D] A Study of Some Problems of Translation Theory of the Russian School of Philology.首都师范大学 Capital Normal University.<br />
<br />
Levin；Fedorov Левин Ю.Д.,Федоров А.В(1960). Русские писатели о переводе Russian writers on translation .- Ленииград.<br />
<br />
Li Zheng, Fan Min 李铮,范敏（2010）. 普希金与翻译[J] Pushkin and Translation. 现代交际 Modern Intercourse Journal,(05):69.<br />
<br />
Wang，Yulun；Jiang,Wanzhu 王育伦,姜万砫（1989).别林斯基论文学翻译[J] Belinsky on Literary Translation .中国翻译 Chinese translators Journal ,(03):53-55.<br />
<br />
Wu, Keli 吴克礼（2006）.俄苏翻译理论流派综述 The Translation Methods and Studies in USSR. 上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 06:38, 14 December 2021 (UTC)</div>Zhang Yiranhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_5&diff=132817Hist Trans Theo EN 52021-12-14T06:37:51Z<p>Zhang Yiran: /* 5.References */</p>
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=Chapter 5 History of Translation Theories from Early Russia to the Soviet Union=<br />
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'''从古罗斯到苏联前的翻译理论史'''<br />
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张怡然 Zhang Yiran,Hunan Normal University,China<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
Translation as a means of intercultural communication, each country has a distinctive translation ideology. This article focuses on the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia. Through analyzing the history of translation, can find that Russia has formed a literary tradition of translation studies in the late 18th century. In the 19th century, Pushkin, Lermontov, Turgenev and other outstanding poets and literary scholars were keen on translation, especially in the middle of the century when Belinsky and other famous literary critics published a series of comments on literary translation, which emphasized the literary tradition of Russian translation to an unparalleled extent, which is rare in the history of translation in the world. The general principles of Russian literary translation thought were also formed during this period: namely, to insist on commenting on the merits of a translation in terms of the overall effect of the work, to emphasize the ideological content and literary value of the translation, and that the translation should serve the reader and be people-oriented. The above ideas influenced the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, a study of the history of translation theory in pre-Soviet Russia will help learners of Russian to better understand the characteristics of their translations and to improve the accuracy and peopleliness of their translations.Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 12:57, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation is a means of intercultural communication, and each country has its own distinctive translation theory system. This paper focuses on the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia. By analyzing the history of translation, it is obvious that a literary tradition of translation studies has been formed in Russia in the late 18th century. In the 19th century, Pushkin, Lermontov, Turgenev and other outstanding poets and literary scholars were keen on translation, especially in the middle of the century when Belinsky and other famous literary critics published a series of comments on literary translation, which emphasized the literary tradition of Russian translation to an unparalleled extent, which is rare in the history of translation in the world. The general principles of Russian literary translation thoughts were also formed during this period: namely, to insist on commenting on the merits and weakness of a translation in terms of the overall effect of the work, to emphasize the ideological content and literary value of the translation, and the translation should serve the reader and be people-oriented. The above ideas influenced the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, a study of the history of translation theory in pre-Soviet Russia will help learners of Russian to understand the characteristics of their translations profoundly and to improve the accuracy and fluency of their translations.Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:03, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Translation theories, Translation ideas，History of Translation<br />
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===摘要===<br />
翻译作为一种跨文化交际的手段，每个国家都有独具特色的翻译思想。本文主要探讨苏联前俄国的翻译历史。通过梳理其翻译史可发现，俄国于18世纪末期就已形成了翻译研究的文学传统。进入19世纪后, 普希金、莱蒙托夫、屠格涅夫等优秀诗人、文学家对翻译的热衷, 尤其是世纪中叶别林斯基等著名文学评论家发表一系列关于文学翻译的评论, 更是把俄国翻译的文学传统强调到无以复加的程度, 这在世界翻译史上都是罕见的。俄国文学翻译思想的总原则也在这一时期形成:即坚持从作品的整体效果上来评论译作优劣, 强调译作的思想内容和文学价值, 翻译应为读者服务, 译文应具有人民性。上述思想影响了苏联时期翻译理论的形成。因此，对苏联前俄国翻译理论史的研究有利于俄语学习者在翻译时更好的理解其翻译特点，提高翻译的准确性和人民性。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
翻译理论 翻译思想 翻译史 <br />
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===Introduction===<br />
This essay provides a comprehensive and concise overview of the history of translation in Russia: Russian written translations began in the Kievan Rus' era, when religious subjects were the main focus of translations, especially the Bible, which was translated from Greek. Religious translations continued to flourish under the Moscow principality, represented by Maksim Gleick (МаксимГрек). At the same time, the national character of Russian translations began to emerge, and the languages of translation expanded from Greek to Latin, German and West Slavic, and the subjects covered included Western chivalric fiction, geographical literature, alchemy and medicine. In the eighteenth century, Peter the Great introduced a number of measures to focus on translation, making this period a turning point in the history of Russian translation. The proliferation of specialised translations (e.g. of legal texts) was the main feature of translation activity in the early eighteenth century. After this period Russian translators began to translate literary works.The main translators were Lomonosov (М.В. Ломоносов) and Tretyakovsky (V.K. Тредьяковский). In the second half of the eighteenth century, translation was given greater importance in Russia, and the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books was founded by Ekaterina II, in which a large number of outstanding translators emerged. The nineteenth century was a golden period in the history of Russian translation. Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин) and Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский) both produced many excellent translations. Pushkin (A.С.Пушкин) and Lermontov (M.Ю.Лермонтов) contributed greatly to the development of Russian literature in translation, while Fetter concentrated on love poetry. In the twentieth century, the Russian translation community made significant achievements in theoretical translation studies. In particular, the rapid development of the philological school and the debate between the literary and philological schools made Soviet translation theory one of the leading theories of translation in the world.(Guo Lin,2006:5)Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 12:57, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
This paper provides a comprehensive and concise overview of the history of translation in Russia: Russian written translations began in the Kievan Rus' era, when religious subjects were the main focus of translations, especially the Bible, translated from Greek. Religious translations continued to flourish under the Moscow principality, represented by Maksim Gleick (МаксимГрек). At the same time, the national character of Russian translations began to emerge, and the languages of translation expanded from Greek to Latin, German and West Slavic, and the subjects covered included Western chivalric fiction, geographical literature, alchemy and medicine. In the eighteenth century, Peter the Great introduced a number of measures to focus on translation, leading this period to a turning point in the history of Russian translation. The proliferation of specialised translations (e.g. of legal texts) was the main feature of translation activity in the early eighteenth century. After this period Russian translators began to translate literary works.The main translators were Lomonosov (М.В. Ломоносов) and Tretyakovsky (V.K. Тредьяковский). In the second half of the eighteenth century, translation was paid greater attention in Russia, and the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books was founded by Ekaterina II, in which a large number of outstanding translators emerged. The nineteenth century was a golden period in the history of Russian translation when Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин) and Rukovsky (В.А.Жуковский) both produced many excellent translations. Pushkin (A.С.Пушкин) and Lermontov (M.Ю.Лермонтов) contributed greatly to the development of Russian literature in translation, while Fetter concentrated on love poetry. In the twentieth century, the Russian translation community made significant achievements in theoretical translation studies. In particular, the rapid development of the philological school and the debate between the literary and philological schools made Soviet translation theory one of the leading theories of translation in the world. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:14, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===1.The history of Russian translation and the period of enlightenment of its translation theory. ===<br />
1. The emergence and development of literary translation.<br />
<br />
Translation activity has a long history in Russia, the beginnings of which can be traced back to the time of Kievan Rus'. A relatively sophisticated system of writing, literature and translation was already in place in ancient Russia in the ninth century AD. Frequent cultural and trade exchanges with Byzantine, German, French and Scandinavian countries contributed significantly to the development of translation in Russia at that time, as did contacts with Eastern countries. From Kievan Rus' onwards, Russian translation methods oscillated between two main tendencies, either to follow the original texts exactly, up to the point of translating them word for word, or to be arbitrary, even to the point of rewriting, adding or deleting at will. The first tendency is the main characteristic of translations of the Bible and other sacred books, while the second, though not absolute, can be said to characterize most secular works.(Feng Xin,2009:8)(Wu Keli,2006:4)<br />
<br />
2.Initiation of translation activities-religious translation. <br />
<br />
In 864 AD, the Byzantine king sent two Greek priests, Kirill (Кирилл) and Mephodi (Мефодий), to spread Christianity among the Slavic people. At the beginning of their mission, they created a new alphabet (now known as the Kirill alphabet) and used this writing system to translate many religious texts from Greek into the ancient Church Slavonic. Among the results were the New Testament, hymnals and prayer books.(Feng,2009:8)<br />
<br />
In 988 AD, Rus was baptised and Kievan Rus was converted to Christianity. A large number of translations appeared instantly to help Protestants become familiar with the new religious philosophy and ethical system and to understand the rituals and customs of the Church. These translations were in a variety of genres, including the Acts of the Saints, sermons, chronicles and so on. In addition, apocryphal books telling magical and fantastical stories were also popular, and some of them had similarities with the later 'fantasy novels'. Most of these translations were done in Bulgaria and were popularised in Rus. At that time, translations of religious texts were mostly word-for-word. There were also a small number of works that, unlike the 'elaborate copies of the original', had a separate literary value. In one case, a large number of details of Russian life were added to the storyline of a sermon (e.g. The Tales of Achild the Wise). In another case, military historical narratives are interspersed with the terminology of the ancient Russian feudal system and certain literary images from the stories of ancient Russian warriors (e.g. Joseph Flav's History of the Jewish War). This translation can be considered one of the most successful of the period. In the translation, the translator succeeded in avoiding many word-for-word translations). In a third case, the manuscripts copied by Ancient Rus, although based on Greek epic poetry (e.g. The Great Work of Digenes Akritas), often borrowed from Russian folk poetry, so that a large number of folk compositions appeared. As a result of this literary process, the translated literature was smoothly enriched by Russian manuscripts, which contributed to the development of original Russian literature and consolidated its links with the medieval literary process. Unfortunately, at that early stage in the development of translation, the translators were not signed, so it is impossible to verify whether the works were translated at home or abroad.(Feng,2009:9) <br />
<br />
During the difficult period of 'Mongol rule' (1228-1480), translations continued to play an important role in the cultural life of the country. The remaining chapters of the Bible were translated one after another, and previous translations were again proofread and revised. In addition to religious translations, more translations of non-religious subjects emerge, such as The Kingdom of India and The Trojan War. Most of the works were still translated from Greek, while works probably translated from Latin and ancient Hebrew also appeared. During this period, Russian began to take shape through the interaction of Old Slavonic (Church Slavonic) and local national languages. However, religious texts were still only translated into Church Slavonic, and the use of this language was by then restricted to ecclesiastical matters. At the same time, political and commercial exchanges with other countries were more likely to be in Russian, which was becoming increasingly sophisticated: elements of the combination of Old Slavonic and Russian can also be found in original works.（Wu,2006:6)<br />
<br />
14-15th century literature in translation by Rus was characterised by an obsession with new themes. These were mainly new works of tranquillity-abstinence literature, or works recommended by and familiar to the tranquillists. This mystical genre was introduced to Rus after it had swept through the Byzantine and Yugoslav peoples. It was reflected in the semi-secular translations popular at the time (for example, The Trojan War). <br />
<br />
In the 16th century AD, Moscow eventually became the political centre of Russia, as well as the translation centre of the country. In 1515, the Grand Duke of Moscow, Vassily III (Василий Ⅲ), asked a Greek monastery to send a learned translator to Moscow. This man, who accompanied the Greek mission to Moscow in 1516, was the historically famous Maksim Gleick (Максим Грек). Maksim Gleick worked as a translator throughout his life, studying most of the religious texts and some of the non-religious works during this period. In addition, he also proofread and annotated previously existing translations.(Wu,2006:7) <br />
<br />
At the beginning, Maksim knew neither Russian nor Old Slavonic, so he divided the translation into two steps: first, he translated from Greek to Latin, and then his assistant translated from Latin to Old Slavonic. In the process of revising existing translations, he often broke with established tradition and was therefore denounced as blasphemous. Maksim was also a prolific writer, educator and philosopher. His writings contain many insights into the art of translation - the earliest recorded treatise on translation in Russia. Maksim insisted that the original text must be carefully analysed in order to grasp its full subtleties and implications. Therefore, the translator must not only master the language of the original, but also have a broad knowledge of the language and prepare for the translation. To support his argument, Maksim used Greek lexicography, phonetic organisation and phonetics involved in translation. His other major contribution was the compilation of a dictionary containing Greek, Latin and Hebrew nouns, which was also the first of its kind in Russian history. Although it was recognised at the time that translators should have a command of both languages as well as a profound background knowledge, the practitioners of translation at the time lacked the necessary qualities and their translations were not as good as they could have been.(Wu,2006:7)Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 13:39, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
1. The emergence and development of literary translation. <br />
<br />
Translation activity has a long history in Russia, the beginnings of which can be traced back to the Time of Kievan Rus'. A relatively sophisticated system of writing, literature and translation was already in ancient Russia in the ninth century AD. Frequent cultural and trade exchanges with Byzantine, German, French and Scandinavian countries contributed significantly to the development of translation in Russia at that time, as did contacts with Eastern countries. From Kievan Rus' onwards, Russian translation methods oscillated between two main tendencies, either to follow the original texts exactly, up to the point of translating them word by word, or to be arbitrary, even to the point of rewriting, adding words or deleting at will. The first tendency is the main characteristic of translations of the Bible and other sacred books, while the second, though not absolutely, can be said to characterize most secular works.<br />
<br />
2.Initiation of translation activities-religious translation. <br />
<br />
In 864 AD, the Byzantine king sent two Greek priests, Kirill (Кирилл) and Mephodi (Мефодий), to spread Christianity among the Slavic people. At the beginning of their mission, they created a new alphabet (now known as the Kirill alphabet) and used this writing system to translate many religious texts from Greek into the ancient Church Slavonic. Among the results were the New Testament, hymnals and prayer books. In 988 AD, Rus was baptised and Kievan Rus was converted to Christianity. A large number of translations appeared instantly to help Protestants become familiar with the new religious philosophy and ethical system and to understand the rituals and customs of the Church. These translations were in a variety of genres, including the Acts of the Saints, sermons, chronicles and so on. In addition, apocryphal books telling magical and fantastical stories were also popular, and some of them had similarities with the later 'fantasy novels'. Most of these translations were done in Bulgaria and were popularised in Rus. At that time, translations of religious texts were mostly word-for-word. There were also a small number of works that, unlike the 'elaborate copies of the original', had a separate literary values. In one case, a large number of details of Russian life were added to the storyline of a sermon (e.g. The Tales of Achild the Wise). In another case, military historical narratives are interspersed with the terminology of the ancient Russian feudal system and certain literary images from the stories of ancient Russian warriors (e.g. Joseph Flav's History of the Jewish War). This translation can be considered one of the most successful of the period. In the translation, the translator succeeded in avoiding many word-for-word translations). Thirdly, the manuscripts copied by Ancient Rus, although based on Greek epic poetry (e.g. The Great Work of Digenes Akritas), often borrowed from Russian folk poetry, so that a large number of folk compositions appeared. As a result of this literary process, the translated literature was smoothly enriched by Russian manuscripts, which contributed to the development of original Russian literature and consolidated its links with the medieval literary process. Unfortunately, at that early stage in the development of translation, the translators were not signed, so it is impossible to verify whether the works were translated at home or abroad. During the difficult period of 'Mongol rule' (1228-1480), translations continued to play an important role in the cultural life of the country. The remaining chapters of the Bible were translated one after another, and previous translations were again proofread and revised. In addition to religious translations, more translations of non-religious subjects emerge, such as The Kingdom of India and The Trojan War. Most of the works were still translated from Greek, while works probably translated from Latin and ancient Hebrew also appeared. During this period, Russian began to take shape through the interaction of Old Slavonic (Church Slavonic) and local national languages. However, religious texts were still only translated into Church Slavonic, and the use of this language was by then restricted to ecclesiastical matters. At the same time, political and commercial exchanges with other countries were more likely to be in Russian, which was becoming increasingly sophisticated: elements of the combination of Old Slavonic and Russian can also be found in original works. 14-15th century literature in translation by Rus was characterised by an obsession with new themes. These were mainly new works of tranquillity-abstinence literature, or works recommended by and familiar to the tranquillists. This mystical genre was introduced to Rus after it had swept through the Byzantine and Yugoslav peoples. It was reflected in the semi-secular translations popular at the time (for example, The Trojan War). In the 16th century AD, Moscow eventually became the political center of Russia, as well as the translation center of the country. In 1515, the Grand Duke of Moscow, Vassily III (Василий Ⅲ), asked a Greek monastery to send a learned translator to Moscow. This man, who accompanied the Greek mission to Moscow in 1516, was the historically famous Maksim Grek (Максим Грек). Maxim Greek worked as a translator throughout his life, studying most of the religious texts and some of the non-religious works during this period. In addition, he also proofread and annotated previously existing translations. At the beginning, Maxim knew neither Russian nor Old Slavonic, so he divided the translation into two steps: first, he translated from Greek to Latin, and then his assistant translated from Latin to Old Slavonic. In the process of revising existing translations, he often broke with established tradition and was therefore denounced as blasphemous. Maxim was also a prolific writer, educator and philosopher. His writings contain many insights into the art of translation - the earliest recorded treatise on translation in Russia. Maxim insisted that the original text must be carefully analysed in order to grasp its full subtleties and implications. Therefore, the translator must not only master the language of the original, but also have a broad knowledge of the language and prepare for the translation. To support his argument, Maxim used Greek lexicography, phonetic organisation and phonetics involved in translation. His other major contribution was the compilation of a dictionary containing Greek, Latin and Hebrew nouns, which was also the first of its kind in Russian history. Although it was recognized at the time that translators should have a command of both languages and profound background knowledge, the practitioners of translation at the time lacked the necessary qualities and their translations were not as good as they should have been. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. Overview of the Russian school of Translation. ===<br />
===2.1 18th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The eighteenth century is an important period in the history of Russian translation. The status of translation in social culture has undergone a qualitative change, and this is due to Peter the Great's reform. At the beginning of the century, translation was still mostly related to professional documents such as laws and contracts. Later, the translator's tentacles gradually expanded to literary translation, for example, French poetry translation. The famous translators of this period are Sumarokov(А.П.Сумароков), Lomonosov(М.В.Ломоносов), Tretyakovsky (В.К.Тредьяковский) and so on. In the second half of the 18th century, the Association for the Translation of Foreign Books officially put forward the importance of translation. The organization has been active for 15 years with over 100 members.（Wu,2006:10)<br />
<br />
1.Imperial support for translation. The political reforms introduced by Peter the Great also led to intensive economic and cultural exchanges between Russia and European countries. This created a huge demand for translations of scientific and technical literature and literary works. Translators were required to produce works of a high standard.<br />
<br />
Peter the Great issued a special decree on translation, requiring "faithful" communication of the original text. In a directive issued to his subordinates in 1709, he explicitly stated that when translating foreign books, word-for-word translations were to be avoided and that the content of the original text should be clearly expressed in one's own language, based on an understanding of its content. On the other hand, Peter the Great's subversion of the written language initially caused confusion in Russian translation circles. A large number of foreign languages entered the Russian language, and the piles of foreign syntactic structures distracted attention. In any case, Peter the Great's reforms did set a new norm and a new direction for translation.(Wu,2006:11)<br />
<br />
In terms of content, Peter the Great's reforms were, from the very beginning, inextricably linked to the translation of scientific and technical texts, such as the many books on military defence engineering that he ordered to be translated and used to strengthen Russia's military forces. Peter the Great also placed great importance on the translation of prose, poetry and other literary works. During this period, the Russian language began to develop its own literary model, and many educated Russians saw translation as a way of enriching the language and enhancing its uniqueness and expressiveness. <br />
<br />
From around the 1830s, the importance of translating Western European scientific and technical texts gradually gave way to literary works such as prose and poetry. Writers who were also translators turned their attention to the work of new Western European writers, mainly poets, especially French poets. At the same time, the legacy of the Greco-Roman period also entered their minds. They began to translate the works of philosophers and historians, which - on the one hand - gave rise to difficulties in literary rhetoric and scientific terminology and, on the other, played an important role in the formation of a standard Russian language.(Feng,2009:10)(Guo,2006:8) <br />
<br />
From that time onwards, translation also became an organised activity, with the emergence of specific bodies responsible for the organisation and management of translation work. 1735 saw the establishment of the first specialised translation organisation, the Russian Society, at the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences. The Society had a professional group of translators and some of the academy's scholars, such as Lomonosov and Tretyakovsky, were among its members. The Association was responsible for selecting works, defining the rules or principles of translation, commenting on translations, and training translators. It is worth mentioning that the Academy of Sciences also set up a school of foreign languages to train official translators. In 1748, the Academy implemented Queen Elizabeth's decree to increase the number of translations of non-religious books and publicly appealed to "the nobility and other classes of intellectuals" to take an active part in the translation process.(Guo,2006:8)(Feng,2009:10) <br />
<br />
In the second half of the 18th century, Ekaterina II's efforts to create a 'civilised state' not only led to the development of literature, but also gave preferential treatment to writers. For example, in order to select the best original texts, she ordered the establishment of the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books (1768 - 1783). The Society was dedicated to providing excellent conditions for translation work throughout Russia. The purchase of manuscripts was financed out of Ekaterina's own funds. Later, the Society also discussed a proposal to establish a translation bureau under the Academy of Sciences (1790). The 114 members of the Society included such notable figures as Tretyakovsky, Sumarokov and Radishev. For 14 years the Association was active, producing numerous literary translations and likewise contributing to the discussion of theoretical issues in translation.(Guo,2006:9)<br />
<br />
2.The emergence of poetry translation. Translation of poetry also developed in Russia in the 18th century, and later became one of the jewels of the country's literature. The great Russian scholar and poet Lomonosov was a major contributor to this process. A great deal of the work created by Lomonosov and his contemporaries Sumarokov and Tretyakovsky was poetry in translation. They often translated while exploring theoretical issues in translation: they would explain in their works why they translated this way and not that way; they stressed the importance of translation work and the creative value it contained. Among the most prestigious writers and translators in Russian literature at the time, there were several interesting competitions in which two or three poets translated the same work at the same time, and their translations were published in journals. It was often the case that different translations of the same work were published at the same time, without the translator's name, for the judgement of "literary lovers and peers". This phenomenon also supports the idea that the 18th century was a period of 'experimentation' in the history of Russian translation.(Feng,2006:11) <br />
<br />
Lomonosov's translations from Latin, German, French and Greek are numerous and varied, showing his talent for both rhyming and free verse. He was keen to reproduce the rhythmic structure of the original texts, using a variety of iambic and iambic meter to convey the Alexandrian style of French epic and the hexameter style of Greek tragedy. Russian poetry was not very developed at the time and was still based on syllables. <br />
Lomonosov's innovations enriched Russian poetry and established new forms and traditions of Russian poetic style and rhyme. <br />
<br />
In contrast, Kantymir (Д.М.Кантемира) and Tretyakovsky's greatest quest was to insist on a faithful translation of the original. In the process, the translators had to contend with the problems of reams of vocabulary and rhetorical rules. Tretyakovsky became famous for his successful use of Russian rhyme to translate many verses of the original in his translation of Paul Thielmann's A Journey to Love Island. In the introduction to the novel, the translator states his approach to translation: "The translator is only one person away from the author. I would add that if the author is original, the translator should be even more original (I am not referring to myself, but to a good translator)". He believes that "prose to prose" and "poetry to poetry" can be as good as the original, and that a good translation is one that "describes the full meaning of each verse". Kantymir 's translation of Horace's Letters and other poetic works in Latin and French, although less well-known than the former, is equally valuable.(Wu,2006:16) Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:40, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The eighteenth century is an important period in the history of Russian translation. The status of translation in social culture has undergone a qualitative change, and this is due to Peter the Great's reform. At the beginning of the century, translation was still mostly related to professional documents such as laws and contracts. Later, the translator's tentacles gradually expanded to literary translation, for example, French poetry translation. The famous translators of this period are Sumarokov(А.П.Сумароков), Lomonosov(М.В.Ломоносов), Tretyakovsky (В.К.Тредьяковский) and so on. In the second half of the 18th century, the Association for the Translation of Foreign Books officially put forward the importance of translation. The organization has been active for 15 years with over 100 members. The following points reflected the reasons why translation was paid more attention in the eighteenth century.<br />
<br />
1.Imperial support for translation. <br />
<br />
The political reforms introduced by Peter the Great also led to intensive economic and cultural exchanges between Russia and European countries. This created a huge demand for translations of scientific and technical literature and literary works. Translators were required to produce works of a high standard.Peter the Great issued a special decree on translation, requiring "faithful" communication of the original text. In a directive issued to his subordinates in 1709, he explicitly stated that when translating foreign books, word-for-word translations were to be avoided and that the content of the original text should be clearly expressed in one's own language, based on an understanding of its content. On the other hand, Peter the Great's subversion of the written language initially caused confusion in Russian translation circles. A large number of foreign languages entered the Russian language, and the piles of foreign syntactic structures distracted attention. In any case, Peter the Great's reforms did set a new norm and a new direction for translation. In terms of content, Peter the Great's reforms were, from the very beginning, inextricably linked to the translation of scientific and technical texts, such as the many books on military defence engineering that he ordered to be translated and used to strengthen Russia's military forces. Peter the Great also placed great importance on the translation of prose, poetry and other literary works. During this period, the Russian language began to develop its own literary model, and many educated Russians saw translation as a way of enriching the language and enhancing its uniqueness and expressiveness. <br />
<br />
From around the 1830s, the importance of translating Western European scientific and technical texts gradually gave way to literary works such as prose and poetry. Writers who were also translators turned their attention to the work of new Western European writers, mainly poets, especially French poets. At the same time, the legacy of the Greco-Roman period also entered their minds. They began to translate the works of philosophers and historians, which - on the one hand - gave rise to difficulties in literary rhetoric and scientific terminology and, on the other, played an important role in the formation of a standard Russian language. <br />
<br />
From that time onwards, translation also became an organised activity, with the emergence of specific bodies responsible for the organisation and management of translation work. 1735 saw the establishment of the first specialised translation organisation, the Russian Society, at the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences. The Society had a professional group of translators and some of the academy's scholars, such as Lomonosov and Tretyakovsky, were among its members. The Association was responsible for selecting works, defining the rules or principles of translation, commenting on translations, and training translators. It is worth mentioning that the Academy of Sciences also set up a school of foreign languages to train official translators. In 1748, the Academy implemented Queen Elizabeth's decree to increase the number of translations of non-religious books and publicly appealed to "the nobility and other classes of intellectuals" to take an active part in the translation process. <br />
<br />
In the second half of the 18th century, Ekaterina II's efforts to create a 'civilised state' not only led to the development of literature, but also gave preferential treatment to writers. For example, in order to select the best original texts, she ordered the establishment of the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books (1768-1783). The Society was dedicated to providing excellent conditions for translation work throughout Russia. The purchase of manuscripts was financed out of Ekaterina's own funds. Later, the Society also discussed a proposal to establish a translation bureau under the Academy of Sciences (1790). The 114 members of the Society included such notable figures as Tretyakovsky, Sumarokov and Radishev. For 14 years the Association was active, producing numerous literary translations and likewise contributing to the discussion of theoretical issues in translation.<br />
<br />
2.The emergence of poetry translation.<br />
<br />
Translation of poetry also developed in Russia in the 18th century, and later became one of the jewels of the country's literature. The great Russian scholar and poet Lomonosov was a major contributor to this process. A great deal of the work created by Lomonosov and his contemporaries Sumarokov and Tretyakovsky was poetry in translation. They often translated while exploring theoretical issues in translation: they would explain in their works why they translated this way and not that way; they stressed the importance of translation work and the creative value it contained. Among the most prestigious writers and translators in Russian literature at the time, there were several interesting competitions in which two or three poets translated the same work at the same time, and their translations were published in journals. It was often the case that different translations of the same work were published at the same time, without the translator's name, for the judgement of "literary lovers and peers". This phenomenon also supports the idea that the 18th century was a period of 'experimentation' in the history of Russian translation. <br />
<br />
Lomonosov's translations works in Latin, German, French and Greek are numerous and varied, showing his talent for both rhyming and free verse. He was keen to reproduce the rhythmic structure of the original texts, using a variety of iambic and iambic meter to convey the Alexandrian style of French epic and the hexameter style of Greek tragedy. Russian poetry was not very developed at the time and was still based on syllables. <br />
Lomonosov's innovations enriched Russian poetry and established new forms and traditions of Russian poetic style and rhyme. <br />
<br />
In contrast, Kantymir (Д.М.Кантемира) and Tretyakovsky's greatest quest was to insist on a faithful translation of the original. In the process, the translators had to contend with the problems of reams of vocabulary and rhetorical rules. Tretyakovsky became famous for his successful use of Russian rhyme to translate many verses of the original in his translation of Paul Thielmann's A Journey to Love Island. In the introduction to the novel, the translator states his approach to translation: "The translator is only one person away from the author. I would add that if the author is original, the translator should be even more original (I am not referring to myself, but to a good translator)". He believes that "prose to prose" and "poetry to poetry" can be as good as the original, and that a good translation is one that "describes the full meaning of each verse". Kantymir 's translation of Horace's Letters and other poetic works in Latin and French, although less well-known than the former, is equally valuable. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 12:39, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.2 First half of the19th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The nineteenth century was a golden age in the history of Russian translation. If translation had established itself as a profession in the first hundred years, it was elevated to the level of art in this century. The nineteenth century produced a number of masters of translation, including Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин), Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский), Pushkin (А.С.Пушкин), Lermontov (М.Ю.Лермонтов) and Fetter (А.Фет).(Wu,2006:23)<br />
<br />
The new Russian school of translation owes its formation to the historian Nikolai Karamzin and the poet Zhukovsky. Karamzin published a number of translations in several magazines between the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century. He saw translations as a good help in perfecting a writer's style: a source of information that would satisfy human curiosity, inform historical facts, entertain women and provide material for new magazines. As a young man, Karamzin was strongly opposed to the alteration of and disloyalty to the original texts, but later became a champion of free translation, famously saying: "Whoever follows the author of the original text step by step is no different from a servant who serves his lord". Karamzin's translations cover an admirable range of genres and languages: he translated works by both classical and contemporaneous authors, in Greek, French, Latin, German, English, Italian and some Oriental languages.(Feng,2009:12)<br />
<br />
Pushkin called Zhukovsky "a genius of translation". After graduating from the Moscow Noble Boarding University in 1802, Zhukovsky devoted himself to translation. It was thanks to his efforts that Russian readers were able to access the works of world literary giants such as Schiller, Goethe, Byron and Walters Scott. Zhukovsky's creative translation activities also ranged from Charles Bello to Grimm's Fairy Tales. From Charles Bellow to Grimm's fairy tales, from Homer's epic Odyssey to the poetic history of ancient Rus' Igor's Expedition, all became his original texts. There is no denying that Zhukovsky is a master in the history of Russian translation. Like Karamzin, Zhukovsky was a fan of free translation, sometimes rewriting the original or even creating a new story from its subject: sometimes transferring the setting of events to Russia and giving Russian names to the characters. For example, in his 1808 translation of the German Romantic poet Bilge's narrative poem Lenore, he changed the heroine's name from Lenore to Lyudmila and moved the story to the time of the Livonian War in 16th-century Russia. Zhukovsky believed that the "unsavoury character" of the work should be weakened while retaining the original author's ideas. His talent enabled him to reproduce the style, rhythm and tone of the original poems, while some of his best works were also faithful to the original. In later years, however, his view of translation changed in response to the tendency to stay close to the original, and he retranslated several of his previous translations to make them more faithful to the original, including Lenore. The Russian school of translation owes much to the tradition of translation created by Zhukovsky.(Wu,2006:24-30)(Feng,2009:13)(Guo,2006:9)<br />
<br />
Pushkin and Lermontov are also two poets who set the stage for an epoch in the history of Russian translation. Although only a small proportion of their poetry was translated, they made a significant contribution to the improvement of the art of translation in Russia. In their rewriting and imitation of poetry, they were able to reproduce the most important features of foreign poetry, the key point being that their creative translations were no less valuable in their own right than the originals. Their free translation became a model for other translators, and in addition they established the important principle that a good artistic translation must also be a good work in the national literature of the translated language. Pushkin played an indelibly important role in the development of the Russian school of translation. He was always interested in the question of translation, and his critical views on translation were objective and profound. Before translation he stressed the importance of the choice of the original work, and in translation he demanded that the translator should be faithful to the original, while at the same time displaying his deep creative skills and his own literary style. In one of his unfinished posthumous works, 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', Pushkin wrote: 'Chateaubriand's translation (verbatim) compensates to some extent for the faults of the young French writers (free translation), for they have insulted the great man very cruelly, though in a perfectly innocent manner. There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own rhetorical conventions, its own way of expressing itself, and it is impossible to translate into another language with the corresponding vocabulary". These insights had a positive impact on the best Russian translators of the 19th and 20th centuries. In addition, Pushkin's discussion of translation coincided with a turning point in the history of Russian literature, when the Romantic era was being replaced by a new era with a predominantly realist orientation, and a process of 'separation' between translated and national literature was under way. Pushkin's discussion of the work of the translator as distinct from that of the writer contributed to the independence of literature in translation from indigenous literature.(Guo,2006:10)(Wu,2006:37-41) <br />
<br />
During this period, while most people advocated free translation, there were a few translators who insisted on maximum fidelity to the original and advocated the word-for-word method, even at the expense of the work's willingness to be translated. Among these were such well-known writers as P.A. Vyazemsky (П.А.Вяземский) and N.I. Gnedzic (Н.И.Гнедич). In fact, they did not always live up to their principles, and sometimes their talent and artistic intuition ended up breaking the bonds of verbatim translation. Vyazemsky's translations of Benjamin Constant and Adam Mickiewicz were not without literary and artistic merit, and his translation of Homer's epic Iliad in particular was highly praised by Pushkin. It was Fetter who was the most insistent on the idea of a verbatim translation. Fetter translated many famous works, and his philosophy throughout was one of sentence-for-sentence, word-for-word translation, retaining all the words of the original. Fetter's extreme word-for-word approach had a negative impact on most of his translations, although he was sometimes able to come up with some effective methods of translation.(Feng,2009:14) <br />
<br />
Free translations were also sometimes used to promote democratic ideas in the original that could not pass official scrutiny. A number of translators, such as V. Kurochkin (В.Курочкин), D. M. Minayev (Д.Минаев) and M. M. Mikhalov (М.Михайлов), achieved this by selecting appropriate original works or by using texts in their translations that were superficially imperceptible in their allusion to the conditions in Russia at the time. It was from that time onwards that the use of translation as a weapon to express dissent became part of the Russian tradition.(Feng,2009:14) Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:41, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The nineteenth century was the golden age in the history of Russian translation. If translation had established its status in the first hundred years, it was elevated to the level of art in this century. The nineteenth century produced a number of masters of translation, including Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин), Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский), Pushkin (А.С.Пушкин), Lermontov (М.Ю.Лермонтов) and Fetter (А.Фет). <br />
<br />
The new Russian school of translation owes its formation to the publishment of a number of translations of historian Nikolai Karamzin and the poet Zhukovsky. Karamzin in several magazines between the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century. He regarded translation as a good help in perfecting a writer's style: a source of information that satisfies human curiosity, informs historical facts, entertains women and provides materials for new magazines. As a young man, Karamzin was strongly opposed to the disloyalty to the original texts, but later became a champion of free translation. His famous saying was: "Whoever follows the author of the original text step by step is no different from a servant who serves his lord". Karamzin's translations cover an admirable range of genres and languages: he translated works by both classical and contemporaneous authors, in Greek, French, Latin, German, English, Italian and some Oriental languages. <br />
<br />
Pushkin called Zhukovsky "a genius of translation". After graduating from the Moscow Noble Boarding University in 1802, Zhukovsky devoted himself to translation. It was thanks to his efforts that Russian readers were able to access the works of world literary giants such as Schiller, Goethe, Byron and Walters Scott. Zhukovsky's creative translation activities also ranged from Charles Bello to Grimm's Fairy Tales. From Charles Bellow to Grimm's fairy tales, from Homer's epic Odyssey to the poetic history of ancient Rus' Igor's Expedition, all became his original texts. There is no denying that Zhukovsky is a master in the history of Russian translation. Like Karamzin, Zhukovsky was a fan of free translation, who sometimes rewrites the original or even creates a new story from its subject, transfers the setting of events to Russia and gives Russian names to the characters. For example, in his 1808 translation of the German Romantic poet Bilge's narrative poem Lenore, he changed the heroine's name from Lenore to Lyudmila and moved the story to the time of the Livonian War in 16th-century Russia. Zhukovsky believed that the "unsavoury character" of the work should be weakened while retaining the original author's ideas. His talent enabled him to reproduce the style, rhythm and tone of the original poems, while some of his best works were also faithful to the original. In later years, however, his view of translation changed in response to the tendency to stay close to the original, and he retranslated several of his previous translations to make them more faithful to the original, including Lenore. The Russian school of translation owes much to the tradition of translation created by Zhukovsky.<br />
<br />
Pushkin and Lermontov are also two poets who gave perfect preparations for an epoch in the history of Russian translation. Although only a small proportion of their poetry was translated, they made a significant contribution to the improvement of the art of translation in Russia. In their rewriting and imitation of poetry, they were able to reproduce the most important features of foreign poetry, the key point being that their creative translations were no less valuable in their own right than the originals. Their free translation became a model for other translators, and in addition they established the important principle that a good artistic translation must also be a good work in the national literature of the translated language. Pushkin played an indelibly important role in the development of the Russian school of translation. He was always interested in the question of translation, and his critical views on translation were objective and profound. Before translation he stressed the importance of the choice of the original work, and in translation he demanded that the translator should be faithful to the original, while at the same time displaying his deep creative skills and his own literary style. In one of his unfinished posthumous works, 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', Pushkin wrote: 'Chateaubriand's translation (verbatim) compensates to some extent for the faults of the young French writers (free translation), for they have insulted the great man very cruelly, though in a perfectly innocent manner. There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own rhetorical conventions, its own way of expressing itself, and it is impossible to translate into another language with the corresponding vocabulary". These insights had a positive impact on the best Russian translators of the 19th and 20th centuries. In addition, Pushkin's discussion of translation coincided with a turning point in the history of Russian literature, when the Romantic era was being replaced by a new era with a predominantly realist orientation, and a process of 'separation' between translated and national literature was under way. Pushkin's discussion of the work of the translator as distinct from that of the writer contributed to the independence of literature in translation from indigenous literature. <br />
<br />
During this period, while most people advocated free translation, there were a few translators who insisted on maximum fidelity to the original and advocated the word-for-word method, even at the expense of the work's willingness to be translated. Among these were such well-known writers as P.A. Vyazemsky (П.А.Вяземский) and N.I. Gnedzic (Н.И.Гнедич). In fact, they did not always live up to their principles, and sometimes their talent and artistic intuition ended up breaking the bonds of verbatim translation. Vyazemsky's translations of Benjamin Constant and Adam Mickiewicz were not without literary and artistic merit, and his translation of Homer's epic Iliad in particular was highly praised by Pushkin. It was Fetter who was the most insistent on the idea of a verbatim translation. Fetter translated many famous works, and his philosophy throughout was one of sentence-for-sentence, word-for-word translation, retaining all the words of the original. Fetter's extreme word-for-word approach had a negative impact on most of his translations, although he was sometimes able to come up with some effective methods of translation. <br />
<br />
Free translations were also used to promote democratic ideas in original that could not pass official scrutiny. A number of translators, such as V. Kurochkin (В.Курочкин), D. M. Minayev (Д.Минаев) and M. M. Mikhalov (М.Михайлов), achieved this by selecting appropriate original works or by using texts in their translations that were superficially imperceptible in their allusion to the conditions in Russia at the time. It was since then that the use of translation was used as a weapon to express dissent became part of the Russian tradition. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:05, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.3 Second half of the19th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The mid-nineteenth century was a period of increasingly intense political and ideological struggle in Russian literature, and a great debate raged in the Russian literary world over the question of 'art for the people' or 'art for art's sake'. The debate was mainly about the choice of material for translation and the method of translation. As far as the choice of material was concerned, the democratic and revolutionary writers who supported 'art for the people' chose to translate works with progressive ideological content and a democratic orientation, such as Heine. The aristocratic and liberal intellectual writers, on the other hand, opted for philosophical poetry with a chanting and individualistic feel. Of course, this is not absolute: "Mikhailov and Dobrolyubov of the democratic revolutionary school also translated Heine's moody love poems The Songbook, while Tolstoy of the aristocratic and liberal school translated some of Goethe's more progressive poems, such as The Fiancée of Corinth and The Whore of God. In terms of their approach to translation, the Democratic-Revolutionary translators, based on the reproduction of the original as a whole, approached their translations very liberally, even adding in many elements typical of Russian culture. The latter, on the other hand, usually adopted a direct translation, focusing on conveying the formal details of the original work. This divergence was mainly due to the different starting points of the two groups of translators, with the democratic revolutionaries seeking to convey advanced ideas to the Russian general public and the aristocratic intellectuals believing that works of art were irrelevant to the people and that artistic creations should not be exposed to "vulgar" reality.(Feng,2009:14-15)<br />
<br />
There were a large number of outstanding literary writers and literary critics who made brilliant statements about literary translation in that era, none more so than Belinsky (В.Г.Белинский), Chernyshevsky (Н.Г.Черныщевский) and Dubrolyovsky (Н.Г.Добролюбов). Belinsky was one of the greatest Russian literary critics of the 19th century. He believed that translations should not be word-for-word, but should reproduce the spirit of the original, in much the same way as Pushkin's view of translation theory. On the other hand, he also opposed arbitrary 'paraphrasing': the ideal translation should not add or delete arbitrarily to the original text, but should enable the reader to understand the foreign work truly and accurately through the translation. Such a viewpoint seems to us to be quite convincing even now. Belinsky played a decisive role in completely burying the 'rewriting' and 'adapting it to Russian custom' arguments. This issue dominates his writings. He argues that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of the translation, and this is one of the criteria by which he judges its merits. He points out, for example, that the greatest strength of Gnedzic's translation of the Iliad is that it "exudes the atmosphere of ancient life" and "the spirit of the ancient Greeks". However, the contradiction between national identity and translatability was once a problem for Belinsky. Initially believing that it was impossible to translate works with a strong national character into other languages, he was only convinced by the success of Turgenev's collaboration with Louis Viardot in translating Gogol's novels into French in 1846, and then became increasingly determined to recognise translatability in translation. Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a series of revisions that led to a complete and rigorous system of translation theory, the first of its kind in the history of Russian translation theory.(Wu,2006:58-61)(Feng,2009:15)<br />
<br />
Translation in Russia developed in the second half of the 19th century. From the 1960s onwards, the Russian readership of non-language speakers began to expand, and these readers were keen to see the translation 'replace' the original. This demand led to an unprecedented expansion in the choice of subjects and translations of Russian literature. Interest in foreign theatrical works was particularly high at this stage, and a strong interest in European classical literature also developed. Dickens, Saclay, Victor Hugo, Dumas, Balzac, Flaubert, Tudor, Maupassant and Zola, as well as lesser-known writers of today, were successively brought to the attention of a wide range of Russian readers in the form of translations. At that time, European theatre classics like Shakespeare's plays were translated into Russia in large numbers. Many professional translators were involved, the most successful being the translator P.N.V. Weinberg. He translated foreign literature from the standpoint of progressive Russian literature of the time. His translation of Othello, for example, is notable for its vividness in the Russian language, and has always been recognised as the best translation in terms of conveying the totality of scenes, plots and long dialogues, even though the translation is wordy compared to the original.(Feng,2009:15-16)<br />
<br />
Although there has been a quantitative surge in translations of Russian literature during this period, the quality has generally been poor, manifesting itself in word-for-word translations, redundant sentences and poor vocabulary, not to mention inventiveness. In addition, the language of the characters in the translation is heavily Russified, with Russian proverbs, sayings and idioms that the foreign characters could never have known, and the introduction of Russian-specific life circumstances that cause contradictions with the plot and details of the original work. For example, В Тулу со своим самоваром ехать (Bring your own samovar to Tula - it's superfluous). The reason for this is that the literary world did not attach much importance to the translation of fiction and prose, and there were no specialists working on this task. Another point is that at this stage there was little progress in the study of Russian translation theory, and no valuable theoretical insights emerged. The linguist A.A. Потебня (1835-1891) expressed his views on translation from a psychological standpoint in his essay "Language and Peopleliness ". In his view, it was impossible to express in another language what was originally intended to be expressed in a certain language. He, like many other literary scholars, denied the translatability of language.(Feng,2006:16)(Guo,2006:11)Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:41, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The mid-nineteenth century was a period of increasingly intensively political and ideological struggle in Russian literature, and a great debate raged in the Russian literary world over the question of 'art for the people' or 'art for art's sake'. The debate was mainly about the choice of materials for translation and the methods of translation. As far as the choice of material was concerned, the democratic and revolutionary writers who supported 'art for the people' chose to translate works with progressive ideological content and a democratic orientation, such as Heine. The aristocratic and liberal intellectual writers, on the other hand, opted for philosophical poetry with a chanting and individualistic feel. It's undoubtful that this is not absolute: "Mikhailov and Dobrolyubov of the democratic revolutionary school also translated Heine's moody love poems The Songbook, while Tolstoy of the aristocratic and liberal school translated some of Goethe's more progressive poems, such as The Fiancée of Corinth and The Whore of God. In terms of their approach to translation, the Democratic-Revolutionary translators, based on the reproduction of the original as a whole, approached their translations very liberally, when they even added in many elements typical of Russian culture. The latter, on the other hand, usually adopted a direct translation, focusing on conveying the formal details of the original work. This divergence was mainly due to the different starting points of the two groups of translators, with the democratic revolutionaries seeking to convey advanced ideas to the Russian general public and the aristocratic intellectuals believing that works of art were irrelevant to the people and that artistic creations should not be exposed to "vulgar" reality.<br />
<br />
There were a large number of outstanding literary writers and literary critics who made brilliant statements about literary translation in that era, none more so than Belinsky (В.Г.Белинский), Chernyshevsky (Н.Г.Черныщевский) and Dubrolyovsky (Н.Г.Добролюбов). Belinsky was one of the greatest Russian literary critics of the 19th century. He believed that translations should not be word-for-word, but should reproduce the spirit of the original text, in much the same way as Pushkin's view of translation theory. On the other hand, he also opposed arbitrary 'paraphrasing': the ideal translation should not add or delete arbitrarily to the original text, but should enable the reader to understand the foreign work truly and accurately through the translation. Such a viewpoint seems to us to be quite convincing even now. Belinsky played a decisive role in completely burying the 'rewriting' and 'adapting it to Russian custom' arguments. This issue dominates his writings. He argues that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of the translation, and this is one of the criteria by which he judges its merits. He points out, for example, that the greatest strength of Gnedzic's translation of the Iliad is that it "exudes the atmosphere of ancient life" and "the spirit of the ancient Greeks". However, the contradiction between national identity and translatability was once a problem for Belinsky. Initially believing that it was impossible to translate works with a strong national character into other languages, he was only convinced by the success of Turgenev's collaboration with Louis Viardot in translating Gogol's novels into French in 1846, and then became increasingly determined to recognise translatability in translation. Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a series of revisions that led to a complete and rigorous system of translation theory, the first of its kind in the history of Russian translation theory.<br />
<br />
Translation in Russia developed in the second half of the 19th century. From the 1960s onwards, the Russian readership of non-language speakers began to expand, and these readers were keen to see the translation 'replace' the original. This demand led to an unprecedented expansion in the choice of subjects and translations of Russian literature. Interest in foreign theatrical works was particularly high at this stage, and a strong interest in European classical literature also developed. Dickens, Saclay, Victor Hugo, Dumas, Balzac, Flaubert, Tudor, Maupassant and Zola, as well as lesser-known writers of today, were successively brought to the attention of a wide range of Russian readers in the form of translations. At that time, European theatre classics like Shakespeare's plays were translated into Russia in large numbers. Many professional translators were involved, the most successful being the translator P.N.V. Weinberg. He translated foreign literature from the standpoint of progressive Russian literature of the time. His translation of Othello, for example, is notable for its vividness in the Russian language, and has always been recognised as the best translation in terms of conveying the totality of scenes, plots and long dialogues, even though the translation is wordy compared to the original.<br />
<br />
Although there has been a quantitative surge in translations of Russian literature during this period, the quality has generally been poor, manifesting itself in word-for-word translations, redundant sentences and poor vocabulary, not to mention inventiveness. In addition, the language of the characters in the translation is heavily Russified, that is, contents with Russian proverbs, sayings and idioms that the foreign characters could never have known, and the introduction of Russian-specific life circumstances that cause contradictions with the plot and details of the original work. For example, В Тулу со своим самоваром ехать (Bring your own samovar to Tula - it's superfluous). The reason for this is that the literary world did not attach much importance to the translation of fiction and prose, and there were no specialists working on this task. Another point is that at this stage there was little progress in the study of Russian translation theory, and no valuable theoretical insights emerged. The linguist A.A. Потебня (1835-1891) expressed his views on translation from a psychological standpoint in his essay "Language and Peopleliness ". In his view, it was impossible to express in another language what was originally intended to be expressed in a certain language. Just like many other literary scholars, he denied the translatability of language. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:13, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.Translation ideas of famous writers of the 18-19th centuries. ===<br />
===3.1. Pushkin 's ideas on translation. ===<br />
Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin (Александр Сергеевич Пушкин, 1977-1837), a famous Russian poet and writer of the nineteenth century, was also very much a translator. Although he left behind few works on translation, his ideas on translation are worth studying. Pushkin's translations of poetry were associated with classicism in the early stages of his work and later with romanticism. Although these translations are far removed from the original in a literal sense, they are almost close to composition. Pushkin's significance as a translator, however, lies in 1) the reproduction of foreign originals in the standard Russian language he established in his translations and 2) the full expression of the realist artistic method in the heyday of his compositions: the focus on typical features and the technique of outlining the historical and individual characteristics that reflect the original.(Wu,2006:37-41)(Li Zheng＆Fan Min,2010:69）<br />
<br />
Pushkin's translations have their own characteristics and style. He did not translate all of his works word for word from the original, and in some places he deleted what he considered to be redundant sentences in order to avoid the verbosity of the original, occasionally replacing the translation with a general paraphrase. He advocates respect for the characteristics of foreign readers, while at the same time opposing word-for-word translations, which can lead to the trampling of the mother tongue. He therefore advocated translations which, on the one hand, required fidelity to the original in terms of meaning and, on the other, should preserve the original's distinctive features.<br />
As he says in his unfinished 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', commenting on Chateaubriand's translation: 'There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), has failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own conventional rhetorical devices, its own habitual expressions, and it is impossible to translate all this into another language using the corresponding vocabulary." Pushkin's rejection of word-for-word translation can be seen.(Li＆Fan,2010:69）<br />
<br />
Pushkin's influence on the cause of translation in Russia was immense, and this influence refers neither to his few translations nor to his theoretical views, but to the fact that Pushkin pioneered the translation of Russian literature. Although his ideas on translation cannot be called a theory, they do provide certain translation ideas for later generations of literary translators.(Li＆Fan,2010:69）Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin (Александр Сергеевич Пушкин, 1977-1837), a famous Russian poet and writer of the nineteenth century, was also an outstanding translator. Besides he left behind few works on translation, his ideas on translation are worth studying. Pushkin's translations of poetry were associated with classicism in the early stages of his work and with romanticism later. Although these translations are far removed from the original in a literal sense, they are almost close to composition. Pushkin's significance as a translator, however, lies in the reproduction of foreign originalities in the standard Russian language he established in his translations and the full expression of the realist artistic method in the heyday of his compositions: the focus on typical features and the technique of outlining the historical and individual characteristics that reflect the original.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's translations have their own distinctive characteristics and style. He did not translate all of his works literally from the original context, but in some places he deleted what he considered to be redundant sentences in order to avoid the verbosity of the original, occasionally replacing the translation with a general paraphrase. He advocates to give enough respect for the characteristics of foreign readers, while at the same time opposing word-for-word translations, which may lead to the trampling of the mother tongue. Therefore, He advocated translations which, on the one hand, required fidelity to the original text in terms of meaning and, on the other hand, should preserve the original's distinctive features.<br />
<br />
As he says in his unfinished 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', he comments on Chateaubriand's translation: 'There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), has failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own conventional rhetorical devices, its own habitual expressions, and it is impossible to translate all this into another language using the corresponding vocabulary." Pushkin's rejection of word-for-word translation can be revealed clearly.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's influence on the cause of translation in Russia was huge, and his influence refers neither to his few translations nor to his theoretical views, but to the fact that Pushkin pioneered the translation of Russian literature. Although his ideas on translation cannot be called a theory, they do provide certain unique and new translation ideas for later generations of literary translators. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:29, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.1. Belinsky's ideas on translation. ===<br />
Vissarion Grigorievich Belinsky (Виссарион Григорьевич Белинский, 1811-1848) was a famous literary critic of the nineteenth century and one of the most involved in the world of translation among Russian literary activists of his time. Belinsky was fluent in French and as a young man translated for two magazines, Miscellany and Telescope. Later, after a career in literary criticism, he published numerous articles on translation and criticism of translated works.<br />
Belinsky's and Pushkin's views on translation were very similar, both advocating that translations should not be word-for-word. Belinsky first introduced the term 'theory' of translation, and in his 1838 review of Polevoy's translation of Hamlet, he first proposed the need for a theory of translation. He considered the role of theory: "Any object that man perceives has a theory of its own, and a theory is the knowledge of the laws by which the object exists."（Wu，2006：51-53）<br />
<br />
Belinsky argues that in translation: "Closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original. Each <br />
language has its own distinctive expressions, characteristics and qualities; these are so distinctive that to correctly convey a certain image or sentence, it is sometimes necessary to change them completely in the translation. The corresponding image, like the corresponding sentence, does not necessarily lie in a superficial agreement of words: the inner life of the translation should be made to correspond to the inner life of the original". It can be seen that Belinsky, like Pushkin, was also opposed to word-for-word rigid translations, his view being that the task of translating a language lies in reproducing the spirit of the original. He believed that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of a translation, so the question of the interrelationship between national character and translatability has always troubled Belinsky. He pointed out that 'there is only one rule for translating a literary work - to convey the spirit of the work being translated, and this can only be done by translating it into Russian as the author himself would have written it in Russian, if he had been Russian' (The Complete Works of Belinsky Volume 2).（Wang，Yulun＆Jiang,Wanzhu，1989：53-55）<br />
<br />
Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a number of achievements, and his view of translation as a whole is a complete and rigorous system. His view of translation was developed gradually, and in the process it was dominated by an increasingly firm recognition of the possibility of a successful solution to the task of translation, that is, of translatability. Belinsky believed that a translation must be discerning in its content and form in relation to the original. He has pointed out that "approaching the original is not the same as conveying the letters, but rather the spirit of the original." It is also suggested that the translator and the original author are two different kinds of people. But in order to convey the 'spirit' of the original in the translation, the translator's genius needs to reach a certain tacit understanding with this 'spirit'. He advocates the preservation of exoticism in translation, opposes naturalisation, the arbitrary distortion of the face of the original work, the overwhelming of the original author with the personality of the translator's style, the emphasis on both likeness and likeness, etc. However, while recognising the importance of reproducing the poetic form of the original work in translation, Belinsky also took into account the state of development of Russian literature in translation. This also led him to look favourably on translating good poetry in prose, seeing such translations as a form of transition for Russian readers to the treasures of world literature.（Wang＆Jiang，1989：53-55）<br />
<br />
Although Belinsky wrote little about literary translation, his theoretical views contain the kernel of the realist principles of translation proposed by contemporary Soviet literary translators. His ideas on translation had a very profound influence on the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period.Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Vissarion Grigorievich Belinsky (Виссарион Григорьевич Белинский, 1811-1848) was a famous literary critic of the nineteenth century and one of the most active in the world of translation among Russian literary activists of his time. Belinsky was fluent in French and when he was a young man he translated for two magazines, Miscellany and Telescope. Later, after a career in literary criticism, he published numerous articles on translation and criticism of translated works.<br />
<br />
Belinsky's and Pushkin's views on translation were very similar, both advocating that translations should not be word-for-word. Belinsky first introduced the term 'theory' of translation, and in his 1838 review of Polevoy's translation of Hamlet, he first proposed the need for a theory of translation. He considered the role of theory: "Any object that man perceives has a theory of its own, and a theory is the knowledge of the laws by which the object exists."<br />
<br />
Belinsky argues that in translation: "Closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original. Each language has its own distinctive expressions, characteristics and qualities; these are so distinctive that to correctly convey a certain image or sentence, it is sometimes necessary to change them completely in the translation. The corresponding image, like the corresponding sentence, does not necessarily lie in a superficial agreement of words: the inner life of the translation should be made to correspond to the inner life of the original". It can be seen that Belinsky, like Pushkin, was also opposed to word-for-word rigid translations, his view being that the task of translating a language lies in reproducing the spirit of the original. He believed that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of a translation, so the question of the interrelationship between national character and translatability has always troubled Belinsky. He pointed out that 'there is only one rule for translating a literary work - to convey the spirit of the work being translated, and this can only be done by translating it into Russian as the author himself would have written it in Russian, if he had been Russian' (The Complete Works of Belinsky Volume 2).<br />
<br />
Belinsky's career as a translator had a number of achievements, and his view of translation as a whole is a complete and rigorous system. His view of translation was developed gradually, and in this process it was dominated by an increasingly firm recognition of the possibility of a successful solution to the task of translation, that is, of translatability. Belinsky believed that a translation must be discerning in its content and form in relation to the original. He has pointed out that "approaching the original is not the same as conveying the letters, but rather the spirit of the original." It is also suggested that the translator and the original author are two different kinds of people. But in order to convey the 'spirit' of the original in the translation, the translator's genius needs to reach a certain tacit understanding with this 'spirit'. He advocates the preservation of exoticism in translation, opposes naturalisation, the arbitrary distortion of the face of the original work, the overwhelming of the original author with the personality of the translator's style, the emphasis on both likeness and likeness, etc. However, while recognising the importance of reproducing the poetic form of the original work in translation, Belinsky also took into account the state of development of Russian literature in translation. This also led him to look favourably on translating good poetry in prose, seeing such translations as a form of transition for Russian readers to the treasures of world literature.<br />
<br />
Although Belinsky wrote little about literary translation, his theoretical views contain the kernel of the realist principles of translation proposed by contemporary Soviet literary translators. His ideas on translation had a very profound influence on the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:56, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.Conclusion ===<br />
Translation has demonstrated its importance in social activity since antiquity, yet it was only in the twentieth century that it became a widely followed professional discipline. This article reviews Russian translation activity and translation thought in pre-Soviet Russia, exploring its development before the formation of a theoretical system. Throughout the history of translation, Russian scholars have contributed greatly to the development of translation literature in the world. Through combing through the history of Russian translation, we learn that the translation ideas of a number of outstanding writers, though not theoretical, have had an unmistakable impact on later generations. When discussing the translation ideas of 19th-century writers, we are inspired to insist on the principle that "closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original", emphasizing the ideological content and literary value of the translation, that the translation should serve the readers, and that the translation should be people-oriented. These ideas influenced, to a greater or lesser extent, the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, the study of the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia is not only conducive to sorting out Russian translation ideas Russian learners can better understand the characteristics of their translations when translating and improve the accuracy of their translations.Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:44, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Translation has played its important role in the social activities since antiquity, yet it was until in the twentieth century that it became a widely followed professional discipline. This paper reviews Russian translators and translation thoughts in pre-Soviet Russia, exploring its development before the formation of a theoretical system. Throughout the history of translation, Russian scholars have contributed greatly to the development of translation literature in the world. By combing through the history of Russian translation, we learn that the translation ideas of a number of outstanding writers, though not very theoretical, have had an unmistakable impact on later generations. When discussing the translation ideas of 19th-century writers, we are inspired to insist on the principle that "closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original", emphasizing the ideological content and literary value of the translation that the translation should serve the readers, and that the translation should be people-oriented. These ideas influenced, to a greater or lesser extent, the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, the study of the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia not only is conducive to sorting out Russian translation ideas, but also make Russian learners better understand the characteristics of their translations when translating and improving the accuracy of their translations. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 14:02, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.References ===<br />
Feng Xin 冯欣（2009）. 俄罗斯翻译理论史及其影响研究[D] A study of the history of Russian translation theory and its influence.上海外国语大学 Shanghai International Studies University.<br />
<br />
Gaczilaser Гачечиладзе Г.Р.(1959). Вопросы теории художественного перевода Problems of Literary Theory.Тбилиси: Литература да хлебовнеба <br />
<br />
Gotsiridze；Khukhuni Гоциридзе Д.З.,Хухуни Г.Т(1984). Очерки по истории западно-европейского перевода и русского переводов.A summary of the history of Western European and Russian translations.-Тбилиси.<br />
<br />
Guo Lin 郭琳（2006）.俄罗斯语言学派翻译理论若干问题研究[D] A Study of Some Problems of Translation Theory of the Russian School of Philology.首都师范大学 Capital Normal University.<br />
<br />
Levin；Fedorov Левин Ю.Д.,Федоров А.В(1960). Русские писатели о переводе Russian writers on translation .- Ленииград.<br />
<br />
Li Zheng, Fan Min 李铮,范敏（2010）. 普希金与翻译[J] Pushkin and Translation. 现代交际 Modern Intercourse Journal,(05):69.<br />
<br />
Wang，Yulun；Jiang,Wanzhu 王育伦,姜万砫（1989).别林斯基论文学翻译[J] Belinsky on Literary Translation .中国翻译 Chinese translators Journal ,(03):53-55.<br />
<br />
Wu, Keli 吴克礼（2006）.俄苏翻译理论流派综述 The Translation Methods and Studies in USSR. 上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.</div>Zhang Yiranhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Theories&diff=132689History of Translation Theories2021-12-14T03:45:20Z<p>Zhang Yiran: /* An Overview of the Development of Western Translation Theories */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''History of Translation Theories'''<br />
<br />
[[History_of_Translation_Theories|Overview Page of History of Translation Theories]]<br />
<br />
30 Chapters（0/30)<br />
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[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_1]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_2]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_3]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_4]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_5]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_6]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_7]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_8]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_9]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_10]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_11]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_12]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_13]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_14]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_15]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_16]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_17]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_18]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_19]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_20]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_21]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_22]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_23]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_24]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_25]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_26]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_27]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_28]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_29]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_30]] ...<br />
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[[Book_projects|Back to translation project overview]]<br />
<br />
[[DCG-To-Do|To the To Do List]]<br />
<br />
=1 李瑞洋 A Brief Introduction of Contemporary Chinese Translation Theories--from 1949 to Present=<br />
[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_1]]<br />
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=2 陈心怡 History of Translation Theories of Russia after the collapse of Soviet Union =<br />
[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_2]]<br />
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=3 张扬 An Overview of Contemporary American Translation Theory——The American Translation Workshop=<br />
[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_3]]<br />
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=An Overview of the Development of Western Translation Theories =<br />
'''西方翻译理论发展概述'''<br />
<br />
Zeng Junlin，曾俊霖, Hunan Normal University, China<br />
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[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_4]]<br />
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=History of Translation Theories from early Russia to the Soviet Union=<br />
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'''从古罗斯到苏联前的翻译理论史'''<br />
<br />
张怡然 Zhang Yiran,Hunan Normal University,China<br />
<br />
[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_5]]<br />
<br />
=A Brief Introduction of Contemporary American Translation Theory——Examplified mainly by Nida=<br />
'''简析当代美国翻译理论——以奈达为例'''<br />
<br />
尹媛 Yin Yuan, Hunan Normal University, China<br />
<br />
[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_8]]<br />
<br />
=9 李双 History of translation theory of France from 20th century to the present=<br />
[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_9]]<br />
<br />
=10 杨堃:French Translation Theories From 16th Century to 18th Century = <br />
[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_10]]<br />
<br />
=11 刘运心= A Brief Introduction to Translation Theories of Ancient Rome=<br />
<br />
'''古罗马翻译理论<br />
'''<br />
<br />
Liu Yunxin,刘运心, Hunan Normal University, China<br />
<br />
[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_11]]<br />
<br />
=12 魏兆妍 The Humanistic Trend in Western Translation Theory from the 14th to the 19th Century=<br />
[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_12]]<br />
<br />
=13 吴婧悦 History of Translation Theories in the Soviet Union=<br />
[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_13]]<br />
<br />
=14 杨爱江 History of Chinese Translation Theories from 1919 to 1949=<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_14]]</div>Zhang Yiranhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Theories&diff=132688History of Translation Theories2021-12-14T03:45:04Z<p>Zhang Yiran: /* 4 曾俊霖 An Overview of the Development of Western Translation Theories */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''History of Translation Theories'''<br />
<br />
[[History_of_Translation_Theories|Overview Page of History of Translation Theories]]<br />
<br />
30 Chapters（0/30)<br />
<br />
[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_1]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_2]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_3]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_4]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_5]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_6]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_7]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_8]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_9]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_10]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_11]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_12]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_13]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_14]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_15]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_16]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_17]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_18]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_19]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_20]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_21]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_22]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_23]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_24]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_25]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_26]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_27]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_28]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_29]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_30]] ...<br />
<br />
[[Book_projects|Back to translation project overview]]<br />
<br />
[[DCG-To-Do|To the To Do List]]<br />
<br />
=1 李瑞洋 A Brief Introduction of Contemporary Chinese Translation Theories--from 1949 to Present=<br />
[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_1]]<br />
<br />
=2 陈心怡 History of Translation Theories of Russia after the collapse of Soviet Union =<br />
[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_2]]<br />
<br />
=3 张扬 An Overview of Contemporary American Translation Theory——The American Translation Workshop=<br />
[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_3]]<br />
<br />
=An Overview of the Development of Western Translation Theories =<br />
'''西方翻译理论发展概述'''<br />
Zeng Junlin，曾俊霖, Hunan Normal University, China<br />
<br />
[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_4]]<br />
<br />
=History of Translation Theories from early Russia to the Soviet Union=<br />
<br />
'''从古罗斯到苏联前的翻译理论史'''<br />
<br />
张怡然 Zhang Yiran,Hunan Normal University,China<br />
<br />
[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_5]]<br />
<br />
=A Brief Introduction of Contemporary American Translation Theory——Examplified mainly by Nida=<br />
'''简析当代美国翻译理论——以奈达为例'''<br />
<br />
尹媛 Yin Yuan, Hunan Normal University, China<br />
<br />
[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_8]]<br />
<br />
=9 李双 History of translation theory of France from 20th century to the present=<br />
[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_9]]<br />
<br />
=10 杨堃:French Translation Theories From 16th Century to 18th Century = <br />
[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_10]]<br />
<br />
=11 刘运心= A Brief Introduction to Translation Theories of Ancient Rome=<br />
<br />
'''古罗马翻译理论<br />
'''<br />
<br />
Liu Yunxin,刘运心, Hunan Normal University, China<br />
<br />
[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_11]]<br />
<br />
=12 魏兆妍 The Humanistic Trend in Western Translation Theory from the 14th to the 19th Century=<br />
[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_12]]<br />
<br />
=13 吴婧悦 History of Translation Theories in the Soviet Union=<br />
[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_13]]<br />
<br />
=14 杨爱江 History of Chinese Translation Theories from 1919 to 1949=<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_14]]</div>Zhang Yiranhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_4&diff=132682Hist Trans Theo EN 42021-12-14T03:42:34Z<p>Zhang Yiran: /* Conclusion */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''History of Translation Theories'''<br />
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[[History_of_Translation_Theories|Overview Page of History of Translation Theories]]<br />
<br />
30 Chapters（0/30)<br />
<br />
[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_1]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_2]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_3]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_4]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_5]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_6]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_7]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_8]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_9]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_10]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_11]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_12]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_13]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_14]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_15]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_16]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_17]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_18]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_19]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_20]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_21]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_22]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_23]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_24]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_25]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_26]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_27]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_28]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_29]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_30]] ...<br />
<br />
[[Book_projects|Back to translation project overview]] [[DCG-To-Do|Zur To-Do-Liste]]<br />
=Chapter 4 An Overview of the Development of Western Translation Theories =<br />
===西方翻译理论发展概述===<br />
'''Zeng Junlin，曾俊霖, Hunan Normal University, China'''<br />
<br />
=== Abstract ===<br />
<br />
Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and modern translation theory period. The main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who represent the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. Translation theory in the period of ancient translation theory, accompanied by the Renaissance and religious reform, is characterized by literary translation and religious translation. The most important cultural phenomenon affecting translation theory in the pre-modern period is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. It can be said that contemporary western translation theory has entered a period of comprehensive development of social sciences such as linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, language philosophy, logic and aesthetics, as well as translation theories such as information theory and computer science. Western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. The basis of western translation theory is relatively broad, and the scope of translation theory is relatively wide, but it always focuses on linguistics.<br />
<br />
Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and contemporary translation theory period. The main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who represent the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. Translation theory in the period of ancient translation theory, accompanied by the Renaissance and religious reform, is characterized by literary translation and religious translation. The most important cultural phenomenon affecting translation theory in the pre-modern period is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. It can be said that contemporary western translation theory has entered a period of comprehensive development of social sciences such as linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, language philosophy, logic and aesthetics, as well as translation theories such as information theory and computer science. Western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. The basis of western translation theory is relatively broad, and the scope of translation theory is relatively wide, but it always focuses on linguistics.Corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:32, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Key Words ===<br />
<br />
Western translation theory，classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period，modern translation theory period<br />
<br />
=== 摘要 ===<br />
<br />
西方译论可以大致分为古典译论期、古代译论期、近代译论期、现代译论期等四个时期。古典译论期的主要译论家是西塞罗、霍拉斯和杰罗姆，他们代表了西方译论长达2000年发展史的源头。古代译论期的译论伴随文艺复兴和宗教改革，以文艺翻译和宗教翻译为特征。前现代期在文化上影响译论的最重要的现象是启蒙中古代语文学和诠释学派的发展。当代西方译论可以说进入了一个综合利用语言学各学科、后现代文论、符号学、修辞学、语言哲学、逻辑学、美学等社会科学以及信息理论、计算机科学等翻译理论综合开发期。西方翻译发轫于古罗马对希腊文明的渴求，即所谓爱琴海文明的西进。西方译论的立论依据比较广，译论范围也比较宽，但始终围绕语言学展开。<br />
<br />
===关键词 ===<br />
<br />
西方译论，古典译论期，古代译论期，近代译论期，现代译论期<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
From the overall historical development process, Chinese and western translation theories have an indissoluble bond with aesthetics from the beginning.<br />
<br />
However, the development of translation theory in the west is different from that in China. Western translation theory and Chinese translation theory are in very different historical and social conditions, in very different national cultural soil and social ecological environment. They have very different philosophical and aesthetic origins, and provide them with theoretical ideas as the driving force of evolution and development. Therefore, western translation theory and Chinese translation theory must move forward along their respective development tracks. No matter from the diachronic vertical or synchronic section, the dependence between western translation theory and philosophy aesthetics is far less than that of Chinese traditional translation theory.<br />
<br />
We can first analyze it from the historical development. Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and modern translation theory period.<br />
<br />
George Steiner divides Western translation theory into the following four periods in his famous book After Babel: The first period is from Cicero and Horace to Taitler, and the later book Essay on the Principles of Translation is published ( 1791) as a symbol; the second period is from the end of the 19th century to the 1940s, with Valery as a representative; the third period is marked by the advent and development of machine translation technology and theory in the 1940s; the fourth period Generally parallel to the third period, it is marked by hermeneutic and metaphysical inquiries (hermeneutic and metaphysical inquiries). Steiner's periodization has been criticized by Western translation theory circles.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
From the overall historical development process, Chinese and western translation theories have an indissoluble bond with aesthetics from the beginning.<br />
<br />
However, the development of translation theory in the west is different from that in China. Western translation theory and Chinese translation theory are in very different historical and social conditions, in very different national cultural background and social ecological environment. They have very different philosophical and aesthetic origins, and provide them with theoretical ideas as the driving force of evolution and development. Therefore, western translation theory and Chinese translation theory must move forward along their respective development tracks. No matter from the diachronic vertical or synchronic section, the dependence between western translation theory and philosophy aesthetics is far less than that of Chinese traditional translation theory.<br />
<br />
We can first analyze it from the historical development. Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and contemporary translation theory period.<br />
<br />
George Steiner divides Western translation theory into the following four periods in his famous book After Babel: The first period is from Cicero and Horace to Taitler, and the later book Essay on the Principles of Translation is published ( 1791) as a symbol; the second period is from the end of the 19th century to the 1940s, with Valery as a representative; the third period is marked by the advent and development of machine translation technology and theory in the 1940s; the fourth period Generally parallel to the third period, it is marked by hermeneutic and metaphysical inquiries (hermeneutic and metaphysical inquiries). Steiner's periodization has been criticized by Western translation theory circles.Corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:38, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Period of classical translation theory ===<br />
<br />
This is the initial period of western translation theory. According to the textual research of Rosetta Stone (discovered in 1799) by Western Egyptologists, western translation activities may have started in 2000 BC. Due to the long history and lack of historical evidence, it is impossible to test whether there were translation theories in 1900 before Cicero. There are four main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory. The first three are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who is the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. The western translation theory in the classical period is mainly based on the ancient Greek philosophers, especially the rhetoric and poetics written by Aristotle. These are two classic works that have a deep impact on Western literary aesthetics. Rhetoric expounds oratory by using the methodology of ancient psychology. Its main purpose is to emphasize the power of language infection and the means to achieve the effect of language infection - language style, and points out that only a beautiful article style can have the power of sensing and imparting. Therefore, speakers must abide by the principle that the use of language should strive to be clear and appropriate, and should not be artificial, so as not to damage the momentum of language due to affectation, and the conditions to ensure the momentum of language are accurate and relevant. In addition, Aristotle believes that the momentum of the article is also closely related to the form of writing. Speakers should adopt prose form. They should neither rhyme, nor ignore the rhythm, nor ignore the vividness of the words. No matter what style is adopted, or slow or high, the writing is naturally the first important meaning. Aristotle is the first classical aesthetic master in the west to affirm "the perceptual reality of beauty".<br />
<br />
Under the influence of ancient Greek philosophers such as Thales, Plato and Aristotle, Cicero put forward the naturalism and momentum theory of translation, opposed the translation of "word for word" and advocated the translation of "sense for sense". This argument has a profound impact on western translation studies. In philosophy, Cicero was influenced by Plato to maintain "reason", but in translation theory, he opposed to damaging the natural beauty and momentum beauty of the translation with "rigid application of reason".Horace agrees with Cicero's proposition, opposes the standard of "rigid notes of" fidelity "as the translation, opposes the translator becoming a slave translator who only follows the mandate of the original text, and advocates the use of" aesthetic criteria "in translation. It can be seen that what is valuable is the methodological dialectical view of Xi and Huo. Jerome was the first translator to translate the Hebrew Bible into Latin, the translator of the Vulgate, and the successor of Cicero's translation style. Jerome advocates the natural theory of translation and maintains Cicero's legacy. He believes that the translator has the right to break through the formal constraints of the original syntax, but must abide by the correspondence of words at the morpheme level and be faithful to the original text. Therefore, Jerome was a popular translation theorist in the 5th century. Augustine, the fourth representative figure in the classical period, plays a connecting role, that is, from Cicero, Horace and Jerome to Thomas Aquinas (c1225 – 1274ad), the most important scholastic philosopher in the middle ages. As a classical ancient translation theorist, Augustine's first achievement is to inherit and develop Aristotle's semiotic theory. When discussing "symbols", Aristotle aims to develop its rhetorical function. For "free word order languages" such as Latin, the beauty of symbolic form obviously has rhetorical visual value. Augustine expanded Aristotle's symbolic formal framework from the signifier function of the symbol to the signified layer, and pointed out that the "signifier", the human psychological structure, is derived from human's "perception of reality", and the "signifier" is a "sound set" associated with it (the group of vocal sounds); as far as words are concerned, it only represents the sign of the reference, which is arbitrary. It can be seen that Austen's views on symbols pointed out the direction for the modern semiotic theory in the early 20th century. Unfortunately, Austen's research was not valued by the translation theorists until the second half of the middle ages. Augustine's second achievement is that he put forward aesthetic propositions such as "beauty is suitability", "order", "harmony" and "unity". Based on his aesthetics, he advocates the advantages of translation. He pays more attention to the problem of form than Jerome. At the same time, he is persistent in the correspondence of semantics at the level of semantic morpheme or sememe. Augustine is a transitional figure entering the Middle Ages in the history of European aesthetics, as well as in translation theory. （Susan Bassnett-Mcquire,1980,43–44）<br />
<br />
The period of classical translation theory is a very important period in the history of western translation studies. At that time, the focus of translation circles was to introduce the culture of ancient Greece, which is called "Hellenization" in history. Classical "Greek culture" is as bright as stars, which makes translators and translation theorists energetic and aspire to it. This is different from Chinese classical translation theory (Buddhist Scripture Translation in China). The introduction of Greek culture by the ancient Romans has nothing to do with religion, but involves epic, lyric poetry, philosophy aesthetics, architecture, rhetoric, literature and art (Poetics), drama, history, war history and so on. Its similarity with Chinese classical translation theory is that they all turn to aesthetic ideas and principles. As far as aesthetic ontology is concerned, Western classical aesthetics involves a wide range of categories, and there are a large number of talents. Thales is the first Western philosopher to replace mythological thinking (ignorant thinking) with rational thinking. He advocates the theory that "the most beautiful is the universe" and advocates nature. Pythagoras (c580 – c500bc) is regarded as the discoverer of the golden section and advocates the "beauty of harmony". Herakleitus (c540 – 470bc) put forward the subjective aesthetic view of "looking for oneself", holding that "harmony comes from opposition", which is the germination of Classical Dialectics. Hester also raised the issue of the relativity of beauty, advocated rationality, and advocated thinking, understanding and the control of the mind. Demokritus (C460 – 370bc) is the first natural science philosopher in the West and the first aesthetician to demonstrate sensory experience and image. These four people are the so-called "pre Socrates" in ancient Greece. Together with Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, they form the origin of western academic thought. Of course, it is natural that the sprouting of translation studies is attached to the theory of sages.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
This is the origin period of western translation theory. According to the textual research of Rosetta Stone (discovered in 1799) by Western Egyptologists, western translation activities may have started in 2000 BC. Due to the long history and lack of historical evidence, it is impossible to test whether there were translation theories in 1900 before Cicero. There are four main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory. The first three are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who is the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. The western translation theory in the classical period is mainly based on the ancient Greek philosophers, especially the rhetoric and poetics written by Aristotle. These are two classic works that have a deep impact on Western literary aesthetics. Rhetoric expounds oratory by using the methodology of ancient psychology. Its main purpose is to emphasize the power of language infection and the means to achieve the effect of language infection - language style, and points out that only a beautiful article style can have the power of sensing and imparting. Therefore, speakers must abide by the principle that the use of language should strive to be clear and appropriate, and should not be artificial, so as not to damage the momentum of language due to affectation, and the conditions to ensure the momentum of language are accurate and relevant. In addition, Aristotle believes that the momentum of the article is also closely related to the form of writing. Speakers should adopt prose form. They should neither rhyme, nor ignore the rhythm, nor ignore the vividness of the words. No matter what style is adopted, or slow or high, the writing is naturally the first important meaning. Aristotle is the first classical aesthetic master in the west to affirm "the perceptual reality of beauty".<br />
<br />
Under the influence of ancient Greek philosophers such as Thales, Plato and Aristotle, Cicero put forward the naturalism and momentum theory of translation, opposed the translation of "word for word" and advocated the translation of "sense for sense". This argument has a profound impact on western translation studies. In philosophy, Cicero was influenced by Plato to maintain "reason", but in translation theory, he opposed to damaging the natural beauty and momentum beauty of the translation with "rigid application of reason".Horace agrees with Cicero's proposition, opposes the standard of "rigid notes of" fidelity "as the translation, opposes the translator becoming a slave translator who only follows the mandate of the original text, and advocates the use of" aesthetic criteria "in translation. It can be seen that what is valuable is the methodological dialectical view of Xi and Huo. Jerome was the first translator to translate the Hebrew Bible into Latin, the translator of the Vulgate, and the successor of Cicero's translation style. Jerome advocates the natural theory of translation and maintains Cicero's legacy. He believes that the translator has the right to break through the formal constraints of the original syntax, but must abide by the correspondence of words at the morpheme level and be faithful to the original text. Therefore, Jerome was a popular translation theorist in the 5th century. Augustine, the fourth representative figure in the classical period, plays a connecting role, that is, from Cicero, Horace and Jerome to Thomas Aquinas (c1225 – 1274ad), the most important scholastic philosopher in the middle ages. As a classical ancient translation theorist, Augustine's first achievement is to inherit and develop Aristotle's semiotic theory. When discussing "symbols", Aristotle aims to develop its rhetorical function. For "free word order languages" such as Latin, the beauty of symbolic form obviously has rhetorical visual value. Augustine expanded Aristotle's symbolic formal framework from the signifier function of the symbol to the signified layer, and pointed out that the "signifier", the human psychological structure, is derived from human's "perception of reality", and the "signifier" is a "sound set" associated with it (the group of vocal sounds); as far as words are concerned, it only represents the sign of the reference, which is arbitrary. It can be seen that Austen's views on symbols pointed out the direction for the modern semiotic theory in the early 20th century. Unfortunately, Austen's research was not valued by the translation theorists until the second half of the middle ages. Augustine's second achievement is that he put forward aesthetic propositions such as "beauty is suitability", "order", "harmony" and "unity". Based on his aesthetics, he advocates the advantages of translation. He pays more attention to the problem of form than Jerome. At the same time, he is persistent in the correspondence of semantics at the level of semantic morpheme or sememe. Augustine is a transitional figure entering the Middle Ages in the history of European aesthetics, as well as in translation theory. （Susan Bassnett-Mcquire,1980,43–44）<br />
<br />
The period of classical translation theory is a very important period in the history of western translation studies. At that time, the focus of translation circles was to introduce the culture of ancient Greece, which is called "Hellenization" in history. Classical "Greek culture" is as bright as stars, which makes translators and translation theorists energetic and aspire to it. This is different from Chinese classical translation theory (Buddhist Scripture Translation in China). The introduction of Greek culture by the ancient Romans has nothing to do with religion, but involves epic, lyric poetry, philosophy aesthetics, architecture, rhetoric, literature and art (Poetics), drama, history, war history and so on. Its similarity with Chinese classical translation theory is that they all turn to aesthetic ideas and principles. As far as aesthetic ontology is concerned, Western classical aesthetics involves a wide range of categories, and there are a large number of talents. Thales is the first Western philosopher to replace mythological thinking (ignorant thinking) with rational thinking. He advocates the theory that "the most beautiful is the universe" and advocates nature. Pythagoras (c580 – c500bc) is regarded as the discoverer of the golden section and advocates the "beauty of harmony". Herakleitus (c540 – 470bc) put forward the subjective aesthetic view of "looking for oneself", holding that "harmony comes from opposition", which is the germination of Classical Dialectics. Hester also raised the issue of the relativity of beauty, advocated rationality, and advocated thinking, understanding and the control of the mind. Demokritus (C460 – 370bc) is the first natural science philosopher in the West and the first aesthetician to demonstrate sensory experience and image. These four people are the so-called "pre Socrates" in ancient Greece. Together with Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, they form the origin of western academic thought. Of course, it is natural that the sprouting of translation studies is attached to the theory of sages.Correted by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:54, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Period of ancient translation theory ===<br />
<br />
The second period of western translation theory, the ancient period, lasted a long time, from the "post Augustine" period at the end of the 5th century to the eve of the European industrial revolution, that is, the late 18th century, covering the whole Middle Ages and about 300 years later (500-1795). Translation theory in this period was accompanied by two great historical achievements: the Renaissance and the religious reform. Therefore, the translation theory in this period is characterized by cultural literary translation and religious (Scripture) translation.<br />
The prelude to the European Renaissance (which began in the 14th century, peaked in the 15th and 16th centuries and ended in the mid-17th century) is the flourishing of Christian civilization, marked by the so-called "edict of Milan" issued by Constantine I (C280 – 337ad). The imperial edict authorized Christianity to obtain legal status in the Roman Empire. Since then, Christianity has become more and more popular through the influence of the Holy See. The Scriptures have been proofread and translated by Jerome and Augustine. Christian civilization has flourished all over Europe in the early Middle Ages.<br />
<br />
At the same time, European social economy also appeared commercialization and handicrafts under the framework of medieval Christian civilization, leading to the emergence of city-state politics and urban landscape, which was the initial light of the Renaissance. By the 13th century, there were many European literary and artistic masters, including Dante (1265 – 1321, the author of Divine Comedy), Boccaccio (1313 – 1375, the author of Decameron), Leonardo da Vinci (1452 – 1519) and raffaelo Sanzio rapheal (1483 – 1520), who awakened European national consciousness and the so-called "all talent ideal"（ The worship and pursuit of "the well-sound personality" had a profound impact. What went hand in hand with the prosperity of literature and art and the development of city-state politics was the popularity of social and political theories and new social trends of thought at that time. Europeans scrambled to study the famous works discoveries on Livy (1531) by Nicolo Machiavelli (1569 – 1527). Someone described the grand translation of the time and said: "The entire city of Rome became a translation factory, specializing in the production of translations from Greek to Latin". In fact, the grand translation at the time was far more than just in Rome, and not only between Greek and Latin. Florence is not inferior to Rome. From the 14th to the 16th century, the city of Buddhism was the center of Italian literature and art. The grand translation of Europe at the time was very much in line with Bruno's (Giordano Bruno, c1548–1600) prediction. He said: "All science can only bear fruit with the help of translation." (Steiner,1975, 259)<br />
<br />
All this made The "translation industry" has developed unprecedentedly. Translation practice has promoted translation research. At this time, there are different translation theories, and the scope of discussion has gone beyond the vision of classical translation theorists, with a strong color of verification. One of the best, which can be said to be the first Western philosopher to comprehensively attack translation, is Roger Bacon (C1214 – 1292) Bacon was a pioneer in the field of Natural Science in the 13th century. He condemned the translation between Greek, Hebrew and Latin as full of semantic distortion "with the philosophical insight of natural scientists", which reduced the translation to a "hodgepodge of errors and misunderstandings". (L. G. Kelly,1979, 9)<br />
<br />
It was driven by Bacon's call to put things right that the Bible appeared John Wycliffe (c1330 – 1384), a religious reformer, translated the first English translation of the Bible of Wycliffe. His influential translation of the Bible of Wycliffe reflects the spirit of verification of Bacon's later progressive translation theory, which was invaluable in the ignorant middle ages. Wycliffe believed that Christ was the master of mankind and opposed the church's "orthodox doctrine" (the orthodox church doctrine) arbitrarily interpreted the meaning of the Bible, denounced the "papal infallibility", refused to accept the Vatican's arbitrary interpretation of the Scriptures and adhered to the semantics of the original language, thus posing strong doubts and challenges to the translation. In fact, this is a religious reform movement advocated by Martin Luther on the European continent (the reform, C1520 – c1525) has a far-reaching impact on the history of translation in Britain and even Europe. Social criticism and scholars' verification have greatly improved the level of translation. Following Roger Bacon, many people in Europe have successively raised challenges to translation, pointing out that there were three major criticisms of translation at that time: one was to know what it said but not what it meant; the other was to know what it meant but not what it meant. ; The third is that they are both ignorant and ignorant. Although this attack is mainly aimed at the translation of the Bible, it is actually very common. This period is a productive period in the history of European translation.(L. G. Kelly,1979, 10)<br />
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<br />
<br />
<br />
The second period of western translation theory - the ancient period, lasted a long time, from the "post Augustine" period at the end of the 5th century to the eve of the European industrial revolution, that is, the late 18th century, covering the whole Middle Ages and about 300 years later (500-1795). Translation theory in this period was accompanied by two great historical achievements: the Renaissance and the religious reform. Therefore, the translation theory in this period is characterized by cultural literary translation and religious (Scripture) translation.<br />
The prelude to the European Renaissance (which began in the 14th century, peaked in the 15th and 16th centuries and ended in the mid-17th century) is the flourishing of Christian civilization, marked by the so-called "edict of Milan" issued by Constantine I (C280 – 337ad). The imperial edict authorized Christianity to obtain legal status in the Roman Empire. Since then, Christianity has become more and more popular through the influence of the Holy See. The Scriptures have been proofread and translated by Jerome and Augustine. Christian civilization has flourished all over Europe in the early Middle Ages.<br />
<br />
At the same time, European social economy also appeared commercialization and handicrafts under the framework of medieval Christian civilization, leading to the emergence of city-state politics and urban landscape, which was the initial light of the Renaissance. By the 13th century, there were many European literary and artistic masters, including Dante (1265 – 1321, the author of Divine Comedy), Boccaccio (1313 – 1375, the author of Decameron), Leonardo da Vinci (1452 – 1519) and raffaelo Sanzio rapheal (1483 – 1520), who awakened European national consciousness and the so-called "all talent ideal"（ The worship and pursuit of "the well-sound personality" had a profound impact. What went hand in hand with the prosperity of literature and art and the development of city-state politics was the popularity of social and political theories and new social trends of thought at that time. Europeans scrambled to study the famous works discoveries on Livy (1531) by Nicolo Machiavelli (1569 – 1527). Someone described the grand translation of the time and said: "The entire city of Rome became a translation factory, specializing in the production of translations from Greek to Latin". In fact, the grand translation at the time was far more than just in Rome, and not only between Greek and Latin. Florence is not inferior to Rome. From the 14th to the 16th century, the city of Buddhism was the center of Italian literature and art. The grand translation of Europe at the time was very much in line with Bruno's (Giordano Bruno, c1548–1600) prediction. He said: "All science can only bear fruit with the help of translation." (Steiner,1975, 259)<br />
<br />
All this made The "translation industry" has developed unprecedentedly. Translation practice has promoted translation research. At this time, there are different translation theories, and the scope of discussion has gone beyond the vision of classical translation theorists, with a strong color of verification. One of the best, which can be said to be the first Western philosopher to comprehensively attack translation, is Roger Bacon (C1214 – 1292) Bacon was a pioneer in the field of Natural Science in the 13th century. He condemned the translation between Greek, Hebrew and Latin as full of semantic distortion "with the philosophical insight of natural scientists", which reduced the translation to a "hodgepodge of errors and misunderstandings". (L. G. Kelly,1979, 9)<br />
<br />
It was driven by Bacon's call to put things right that the Bible appeared John Wycliffe (c1330 – 1384), a religious reformer, translated the first English translation of the Bible of Wycliffe. His influential translation of the Bible of Wycliffe reflects the spirit of verification of Bacon's later progressive translation theory, which was invaluable in the ignorant middle ages. Wycliffe believed that Christ was the master of mankind and opposed the church's "orthodox doctrine" (the orthodox church doctrine) arbitrarily interpreted the meaning of the Bible, denounced the "papal infallibility", refused to accept the Vatican's arbitrary interpretation of the Scriptures and adhered to the semantics of the original language, thus posing strong doubts and challenges to the translation. In fact, this is a religious reform movement advocated by Martin Luther on the European continent (the reform, C1520 – c1525) has a far-reaching impact on the history of translation in Britain and even Europe. Social criticism and scholars' verification have greatly improved the level of translation. Following Roger Bacon, many people in Europe have successively raised challenges to translation, pointing out that there were three major criticisms of translation at that time: one was to know what it said but not what it meant; the other was to know what it meant but not what it meant. ; The third is that they are both ignorant and ignorant. Although this attack is mainly aimed at the translation of the Bible, it is actually very common. This period is a productive period in the history of European translation.(L. G. Kelly,1979, 10)Corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:59, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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=== Period of Pre-Modern translation theory ===<br />
This is the third period of western translation theory, or "pre modern period", that is, from the religious reform (1517-1648) of wilcliff and Martin Luther in the mid-17th century to the end of the 19th century, the argument began to gradually turn to classical philology and language philosophy. The major historical events during this period were the European Industrial Revolution (1750's – 1830's) and the French Revolution (1788-1799), as well as the germination and evolution of European middle-class economy and its ideology before and after this period. The most important phenomenon affecting translation theory in culture is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. After the Renaissance, the focus of European language research was still Latin and Greek, which had been in a secondary position. The social and economic development since the enlightenment and the industrial revolution obviously put forward many problems for multilingual communication. The first ones are etymology, semantics and historical comparative linguistics. In fact, historical comparative linguistics is the result of the development and exploration of the first two. Ancient Chinese literature originated in Italy in the 15th century, and its development was also promoted by many factors such as the Renaissance, the spread of Christianity, and the expansion of colonialism that stimulated language contact. The heyday representatives of historical comparative linguistics are the Danish linguist Rask (R. C. Rask, 1787–1832) and the German linguist Bopp (F. Bopp, 1791–1867). Especially after wilcliff and Martin Luther, translators increasingly doubt the interpretation of language by the Holy See, the church and scholastic philosophy in the long middle ages, and doubt the "Deviation", misunderstanding and even intentional distortion of "translation" to the "signified". Rousseau's democratic thought had a strong and profound impact on European conservatism.(V. Thomsen,1960,43）<br />
<br />
Understanding this historical background, we can clearly understand why when Taylor put forward the famous "three principles of translation" at the end of the 18th century (1791), he first pointed out that "translation should completely convey the idea of the original text, supplemented by the natural fluency of the expression and style of the translation". Almost at the same time, tattler and George Campbell, who proposed that "the beauty of the translation can be discussed only if we are loyal to the original meaning", marked the end of the era when the western traditional translation theory mainly relied on classical aesthetics and literature and art. On the other hand, although the Chinese School represented by Goethe is fully mature, it can not solve many major problems raised by the spread of Christian civilization and the unprecedented development of translation practice in breadth and depth since the Renaissance and the industrial revolution. Among these problems, the first and most important is the problem of meaning, that is, the so-called "transfer of the truth value of meaning" in translation. Johann W. von Goethe (Johann W. von Goethe) is known as "the last embodiment of the Renaissance ideal", and his basic translation theory advocates "the perfect identity between the SL and the TL" . To this end, the translator must have ingenuity and creativity, and adopt a unique way of expression. This is the best translation, and the next thing is imitation and prose.<br />
<br />
Exploring "semantic truth" is the basic proposition of the hermeneutic school. The representative of the hermeneutic school in modern translation theory is Friedrich D. E. Schleiermacher (1768 – 1845). Ancient hermeneutics believed that the task of interpretation was to interpret the "oracle", which originated in ancient Greece and was derived from the name of "Hermes", the messenger who conveyed the gods. Before Schleiermacher, hermeneutics was full of religious mysticism in the middle ages, which believed that people's "understanding" or "not understanding" of text (at that time mainly refers to holy scripts, i.e. the Bible) was "all based on divine will", and both of them were "theological subjective phenomena". Schleiermacher's merit lies in pointing out that the so-called "incomprehension" is actually a "misinterpretation", and "the true meaning of the text lies entirely in what it 'seems' to say. If we want to rediscover the true meaning of the text, we must carefully reconstruct the life reality generated by the historical background or meaning at that time."  Schleiermacher also further put forward the means to obtain the true meaning ("original meaning", i.e. philosophical "Sein"), that is, the so-called "theory of hermeneutic circle" and more than 40 norms of "grammatical interpretation" and "psychological interpretation" . There is no doubt about the significance of this to the development of European translation practice. It was driven by the school of hermeneutics that Friedrich Schlegel (1772 – 1879), Samuel T. Coleridge (1772 – 1834), William Morries (1834 – 1896), Thomas Carlyle (1795 – 1881), Matthew Arnold and Dante D. Rossetti (1828 – 1882) were formed European Romanticism (mainly in Germany) and the corresponding wave of critical realism (mainly in Britain) as a response to the French Revolution. During this period, the mainstream of the translation theory forum was the Chinese school with literary masters as the backbone and the hermeneutic school that later kept pace with it. There is no doubt that this is one of the important development periods in the history of European translation.(H. G. Gadamer,1977, xiii)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
This is the third period of western translation theory, or "pre modern period", that is, from the religious reform (1517-1648) of wilcliff and Martin Luther in the mid-17th century to the end of the 19th century, the argument began to gradually turn to classical philology and language philosophy. The major historical events during this period were the European Industrial Revolution (1750's – 1830's) and the French Revolution (1788-1799), as well as the germination and evolution of European middle-class economy and its ideology before and after this period. The most important phenomenon affecting translation theory in culture is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. After the Renaissance, the focus of European language research was still Latin and Greek, which had been in a secondary position. The social and economic development since the enlightenment and the industrial revolution obviously put forward many problems for multilingual communication. The first ones are etymology, semantics and historical comparative linguistics. In fact, historical comparative linguistics is the result of the development and exploration of the first two. Ancient Chinese literature originated in Italy in the 15th century, and its development was also promoted by many factors such as the Renaissance, the spread of Christianity, and the expansion of colonialism that stimulated language contact. The heyday representatives of historical comparative linguistics are the Danish linguist Rask (R. C. Rask, 1787–1832) and the German linguist Bopp (F. Bopp, 1791–1867). Especially after wilcliff and Martin Luther, translators increasingly doubt the interpretation of language by the Holy See, the church and scholastic philosophy in the long middle ages, and doubt the "Deviation", misunderstanding and even intentional distortion of "translation" to the "signified". Rousseau's democratic thought had a strong and profound impact on European conservatism.(V. Thomsen,1960,43）<br />
<br />
Understanding this historical background, we can clearly understand why when Taylor put forward the famous "three principles of translation" at the end of the 18th century (1791), he first pointed out that "translation should completely convey the idea of the original text, supplemented by the natural fluency of the expression and style of the translation". Almost at the same time, tattler and George Campbell, who proposed that "the beauty of the translation can be discussed only if we are loyal to the original meaning", marked the end of the era when the western traditional translation theory mainly relied on classical aesthetics and literature and art. On the other hand, although the Chinese School represented by Goethe is fully mature, it can not solve many major problems raised by the spread of Christian civilization and the unprecedented development of translation practice in breadth and depth since the Renaissance and the industrial revolution. Among these problems, the first and most important is the problem of meaning, that is, the so-called "transfer of the truth value of meaning" in translation. Johann W. von Goethe (Johann W. von Goethe) is known as "the last embodiment of the Renaissance ideal", and his basic translation theory advocates "the perfect identity between the SL and the TL" . To this end, the translator must have ingenuity and creativity, and adopt a unique way of expression. This is the best translation, and the next thing is imitation and prose.<br />
<br />
Exploring "semantic truth" is the basic proposition of the hermeneutic school. The representative of the hermeneutic school in modern translation theory is Friedrich D. E. Schleiermacher (1768 – 1845). Ancient hermeneutics believed that the task of interpretation was to interpret the "oracle", which originated in ancient Greece and was derived from the name of "Hermes", the messenger who conveyed the gods. Before Schleiermacher, hermeneutics was full of religious mysticism in the middle ages, which believed that people's "understanding" or "not understanding" of text (at that time mainly refers to holy scripts, i.e. the Bible) was "all based on divine will", and both of them were "theological subjective phenomena". Schleiermacher's merit lies in pointing out that the so-called "incomprehension" is actually a "misinterpretation", and "the true meaning of the text lies entirely in what it 'seems' to say. If we want to rediscover the true meaning of the text, we must carefully reconstruct the life reality generated by the historical background or meaning at that time."  Schleiermacher also further put forward the means to obtain the true meaning ("original meaning", i.e. philosophical "Sein"), that is, the so-called "theory of hermeneutic circle" and more than 40 norms of "grammatical interpretation" and "psychological interpretation" . There is no doubt about the significance of this to the development of European translation practice. It was driven by the school of hermeneutics that Friedrich Schlegel (1772 – 1879), Samuel T. Coleridge (1772 – 1834), William Morries (1834 – 1896), Thomas Carlyle (1795 – 1881), Matthew Arnold and Dante D. Rossetti (1828 – 1882) were formed European Romanticism (mainly in Germany) and the corresponding wave of critical realism (mainly in Britain) as a response to the French Revolution. During this period, the mainstream of the translation theory forum was the Chinese school with literary masters as the backbone and the hermeneutic school that later kept pace with it. There is no doubt that this is one of the important development periods in the history of European translation.(H. G. Gadamer,1977, xiii)--Corrected by[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 15:03, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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=== Period of Modern translation theory ===<br />
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The fourth period is The Modern Period. This period can actually be divided into two stages. The first stage is from the end of the 19th century to the 1950s. It can also be called the "Pre-Modern Linguistic Period". Parallel to it is The Pre-Modern Linguistic Period. The Swiss linguist Saussure The study of modern linguistics was the starting point (1891), which marked the publication of the first scientific linguistics book "Cours de Linguistique Generale" (Cours de Linguistique Generale, 1916). Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913) is the founder of modern linguistics and a pioneer of structural linguistics. His main contribution is to point out the arbitrariness of linguistic signs and the linearity of the signifier; language has internal and external distinctions, diachronic and synchronic distinctions. The value of language signs is constantly evolving, so a descriptive attitude should be taken to language instead of It is prescribed. Saussure's scientific linguistics has a profound influence on western modern linguistics and translation theories.<br />
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The second stage started from the 1960s to the present, which can also be said to be the period of contemporary translation theory. During this period, modern science and technology developed rapidly. Natural sciences and social sciences were directly or indirectly driven by The Systems Theory, Control Theory or Cybernetics, and Information Theory. Advance. Modern linguistics has developed from structuralism as the mainstream to a situation where there are many new disciplines and schools. Among them, the French functional linguistics, the London school, the transformational generative grammar, sociolinguistics, and modern stylistics ( Functional stylistics), pragmatics, psycholinguistics and other emerging disciplines and schools of applied linguistics.<br />
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In the period of modern translation theory, the development of language science is very closely related to Western translation theory. Roman Jacobson (Roman Jacobson, 1896–1982), a translation theorist at the early stage of modern translation theory, is one of the founders of the Prague School and a well-known phonetician. Obviously, Jacobson's discourse on translated poems is based on phoneme analysis. Jacobson believes that poetry is "untranslatable" strictly speaking, because poetry is subject to the constraints of the arrangement relationship between phonemes and sememes, that is, units of meaning. To get rid of this constraint, translation The family can only resort to "transplantation" and it is "no less than creative transplantation of different language symbols (phonetic arrangements) created". Two prominent translation theorists in the 1950s, Jean Paul Vinay and Jean Darbenet, mainly relied on scientific linguistics to discuss translation rhetoric from the perspectives of functional stylistics and contrastive linguistics. After entering the 1960s, JC Catford clearly quoted the founder of the London School Firth (JR Firth, 1890–1960) and Firth's successor MAK Halliday's basic linguistic theories to solve the bilingual conversion. problem. E. Nida and G. Mounin mainly analyze the translation process from the perspective of structural linguistics. Among them, Nida's research results are the most eye-catching. During the 1970s and 1980s, Nida began to notice the weakness of linguistics that emphasized formal transformation and insufficient semantic research. Around the issue of "meaning" and cultural issues, many more books came out, and proposed "dynamic equivalence" (dynamic equivalence). , 1984), emphasizing the meaning view of social semiotics. In the second half of the 20th century, Western postmodern thoughts spread throughout Europe and the United States. Deconstructionism, in particular, has the deepest influence on cultural thoughts and academic thoughts. Western translation theories have also turned to "postmodernism" (especially comparative literary theory) to absorb theoretical ideas, and the great limitations of "postmodernism" have also emerged. Contemporary Western translation theory can be said to have entered a comprehensive use of various disciplines of linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, philosophy of language (including semantics), logic, aesthetics and other social sciences, as well as information theory, computer science, etc. The "comprehensive development period of translation theories" is a period of full bloom to solve translation problems. It seems that this is also the general trend of Western translation theory in the 21st century.<br />
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The fourth period is The contemporary Period. This period can actually be divided into two stages. The first stage is from the end of the 19th century to the 1950s. It can also be called the "Pre-Modern Linguistic Period". Parallel to it is The Pre-Modern Linguistic Period. The Swiss linguist Saussure The study of modern linguistics was the starting point (1891), which marked the publication of the first scientific linguistics book "Cours de Linguistique Generale" (Cours de Linguistique Generale, 1916). Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913) is the founder of modern linguistics and a pioneer of structural linguistics. His main contribution is to point out the arbitrariness of linguistic signs and the linearity of the signifier; language has internal and external distinctions, diachronic and synchronic distinctions. The value of language signs is constantly evolving, so a descriptive attitude should be taken to language instead of It is prescribed. Saussure's scientific linguistics has a profound influence on western modern linguistics and translation theories.<br />
<br />
The second stage started from the 1960s to the present, which can also be said to be the period of contemporary translation theory. During this period, modern science and technology developed rapidly. Natural sciences and social sciences were directly or indirectly driven by The Systems Theory, Control Theory or Cybernetics, and Information Theory. Advance. Modern linguistics has developed from structuralism as the mainstream to a situation where there are many new disciplines and schools. Among them, the French functional linguistics, the London school, the transformational generative grammar, sociolinguistics, and modern stylistics ( Functional stylistics), pragmatics, psycholinguistics and other emerging disciplines and schools of applied linguistics.<br />
<br />
In the period of modern translation theory, the development of language science is very closely related to Western translation theory. Roman Jacobson (Roman Jacobson, 1896–1982), a translation theorist at the early stage of modern translation theory, is one of the founders of the Prague School and a well-known phonetician. Obviously, Jacobson's discourse on translated poems is based on phoneme analysis. Jacobson believes that poetry is "untranslatable" strictly speaking, because poetry is subject to the constraints of the arrangement relationship between phonemes and sememes, that is, units of meaning. To get rid of this constraint, translation The family can only resort to "transplantation" and it is "no less than creative transplantation of different language symbols (phonetic arrangements) created". Two prominent translation theorists in the 1950s, Jean Paul Vinay and Jean Darbenet, mainly relied on scientific linguistics to discuss translation rhetoric from the perspectives of functional stylistics and contrastive linguistics. After entering the 1960s, JC Catford clearly quoted the founder of the London School Firth (JR Firth, 1890–1960) and Firth's successor MAK Halliday's basic linguistic theories to solve the bilingual conversion. problem. E. Nida and G. Mounin mainly analyze the translation process from the perspective of structural linguistics. Among them, Nida's research results are the most eye-catching. During the 1970s and 1980s, Nida began to notice the weakness of linguistics that emphasized formal transformation and insufficient semantic research. Around the issue of "meaning" and cultural issues, many more books came out, and proposed "dynamic equivalence" (dynamic equivalence). , 1984), emphasizing the meaning view of social semiotics. In the second half of the 20th century, Western postmodern thoughts spread throughout Europe and the United States. Deconstructionism, in particular, has the deepest influence on cultural thoughts and academic thoughts. Western translation theories have also turned to "postmodernism" (especially comparative literary theory) to absorb theoretical ideas, and the great limitations of "postmodernism" have also emerged. Contemporary Western translation theory can be said to have entered a comprehensive use of various disciplines of linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, philosophy of language (including semantics), logic, aesthetics and other social sciences, as well as information theory, computer science, etc. The "comprehensive development period of translation theories" is a period of full bloom to solve translation problems. It seems that this is also the general trend of Western translation theory in the 21st century.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 15:06, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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=== Characteristics of the development of western translation theory ===<br />
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To sum up, we can deduce the development track of translation theory in the West for more than 2000 years. Its characteristics are as follows.First, western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. "Greek civilization" covers a wide range. At that time, the translation mainly focused on Homer's epic Philosophy (focusing on the so-called "three philosophies", namely Socrates, Plato and Aristotle), literature and history (focusing on drama, prose and War History) and the democratic politics of Athens. In the west, the Bible The climax of translation did not appear until the 16th century. Due to the wide variety of translation subjects, translation theories also tend to be diversified, not just on the translation standards and requirements of scriptures. At the beginning of Chinese classical translation theory, it has always focused on the review of religious translation.<br />
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Second, western translation theory has a wide basis and a wide range, but it always focuses on linguistics. The main characters of Western classical and ancient translation theories are ancient Romans, based on the philosophy of classical Greece Aesthetics (poetics and classical rhetoric, which are also collectively referred to as ancient philology). Augustine, a classical translation theorist, is a classical aesthetician. Modern translation theory is mainly based on ancient philosophy, semantics, etymology and literature and art (poetics and tragedies) and historical comparative linguistics. In the early stage of modern translation theory, great attention was paid to semantics. At the same time, influenced by Saussure's socio semiotic view of language, structuralism, especially postmodern literary theory, they began to pay attention to language structure and cultural problems. In the later stage of western modern translation theory since the 1960s, translation theory and modern linguistics gradually combined and tended to rely on linguistics From the perspective of linguistics, it is marked by the decline of Bloomfield's structuralism and the prosperity of various disciplines of Applied Linguistics; From the perspective of translation theory, it is the gradual rise of scientific translation theory. Western traditional translation theory (especially in the period of classical translation theory and ancient translation theory) is often the "sideline" of masters in literature, history and philosophy Therefore, they usually develop translation art through literary creation and aesthetics. Since the later stage of modern translation theory, the western translation industry has developed greatly, and the subject matter has gone far beyond the traditional fields such as literature, history and philosophy. The specialization of translation promotes the development of translation theory to specialization, from general linguistics, postmodern literary theory, hermeneutics, traditional rhetoric, semantics The extension of historical comparative linguistics to many branches of Modern Applied Linguistics presents a new situation of all-round development. Another important reason for the early shift of western translation theory from aesthetics to linguistics is that the kinship of western languages makes it easier to realize homologous correspondence in word form and syntactic form This is exactly the purpose of historical comparative linguistics since the end of the 18th century. Translation theory and historical comparative linguistics can be described as "corresponding with one voice and seeking the same spirit". Of course, this is mainly on the side of translation theory.<br />
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Western languages generally belong to Indo European languages. Indo European languages are divided into eastern Indo European languages (mainly Baltic Slavic language group) and Western Indo European languages (mainly Germanic, Latin, Celtic and ancient Greek). As far as translation is concerned, since the source language and the target language belong to the same language family or even the same language family and language branch, and the language origins are the same or similar, translation theory has long paid attention to etymology, historical morphology and semantics, and since the 1950s and 1960s, it has paid great attention to modern linguistics The development of various disciplines, especially the transformational generative school, is one of the outstanding characteristics of western translation theory.<br />
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Third, traditionally, especially compared with Chinese traditional aesthetics, western aesthetics does not pay attention to language aesthetics, The rhetorical aesthetic propositions in Chinese aesthetic thought (wishful thinking and image, spirit and form, literature and quality, emptiness and reality, elegance and vulgarity, artistic conception theory, style theory, composition theory, rhetoric theory, etc.) are all absent in western aesthetics. This is largely due to the fact that western language is not a very perceptual language and emphasizes "grammatical logic" , which is quite different from Chinese. Western aesthetics has always paid attention to the essence of beauty and discussed the beauty of literature and art only as the expression of the essence of beauty. The early western aesthetic thought originated from the Pythagoras School (c580 – c500bc) and flourished in Plato and Aristotle. Ancient Greek and Roman Aesthetics focused on the "essence of beauty". At first, aesthetics was regarded as an integral part of philosophy. Until sugraty began to pay attention to the humanism of beauty and put forward that the standard of beauty lies in "utility to people" 。 Later western aesthetics was deeply influenced by classical aesthetics, and discussed the essence, emergence and expression of beauty. Western medieval aesthetics has a strong theological color. It holds that "the beauty of perceptual things is limited and the beauty of God is infinite". The former is intuitive and non purposeful, while the latter is "the highest beauty" and "the beauty of divinity". The scholastic philosophy aesthetics in the late Middle Ages, represented by the famous philosopher Thomas Aquinas, put forward "three factors of beauty", namely "integrity", "harmony" and "distinctiveness" Claritas basically doesn't talk about language aesthetics. Modern western aesthetics still focuses on the nature and form of beauty, which is deeply influenced by Aquinas. In the 18th century, the British Scholastics aesthetics believed that "beauty is a psychological activity produced by the form of objective foreign objects in line with people's subjective psychological structure". Kant (I. Kant, 1724 – 1804) under the influence of scholastic philosophy aesthetics, he combined the "psychological structure theory" with the "subjective talent theory" of German rationalists to launch the subjectivist "state of mind theory". After the mid-19th century, western modern aesthetics inherited Kant's influence, mostly from human subjectivity From the perspective of subjectivity, this paper discusses the essence of beauty and focuses on the attribute of beauty. The speculative color is very strong, which is basically "metaphysical", and language is the communication tool of "metaphysical". Since the 19th century, the general trend of western aesthetics has been to separate from the philosophical system and develop in the direction of specialization, diversification and multidisciplinary, from the speculative deduction of "top-down" to "top-down" Although the empirical evidence of "bottom-up" still adheres to the discussion of the definition and essential attributes of beauty, the aesthetic subject has gradually expanded to the broader field of the relationship between aesthetic subject and objective, and the methodology has shifted from simple induction or deduction to scientific experimental verification. Scientific empiricism and traditional humanistic aesthetics are the mainstream of Western Aesthetics in the 20th century.(Kant,1972, 103)<br />
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The separation of Western Aesthetics from philosophy coincides with the rise of historical comparative philology. This major historical development and change is to promote the transformation of western translation theory from aesthetics to literature (including modern and postmodern literary theory) and linguistics, which is also a remarkable feature of the development track of western translation theory different from Chinese translation theory. It is no accident that western translation theory is separated from aesthetics and appeals to linguistics.<br />
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<br />
<br />
From what has been discussed above, we can deduce the development track of translation theory in the West for more than 2000 years. Its characteristics are as follows.<br />
<br />
First, western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. "Greek civilization" covers a wide range. At that time, the translation mainly focused on Homer's epic Philosophy (focusing on the so-called "three philosophies", namely Socrates, Plato and Aristotle), literature and history (focusing on drama, prose and War History) and the democratic politics of Athens. In the west, the Bible The climax of translation did not appear until the 16th century. Due to the wide variety of translation subjects, translation theories also tend to be diversified, not just on the translation standards and requirements of scriptures. At the beginning of Chinese classical translation theory, it has always focused on the review of religious translation.<br />
<br />
Second, western translation theory has a wide basis and a wide range, but it always focuses on linguistics. The main characters of Western classical and ancient translation theories are ancient Romans, based on the philosophy of classical Greece Aesthetics (poetics and classical rhetoric, which are also collectively referred to as ancient philology). Augustine, a classical translation theorist, is a classical aesthetician. Modern translation theory is mainly based on ancient philosophy, semantics, etymology and literature and art (poetics and tragedies) and historical comparative linguistics. In the early stage of modern translation theory, great attention was paid to semantics. At the same time, influenced by Saussure's socio semiotic view of language, structuralism, especially postmodern literary theory, they began to pay attention to language structure and cultural problems. In the later stage of western modern translation theory since the 1960s, translation theory and modern linguistics gradually combined and tended to rely on linguistics From the perspective of linguistics, it is marked by the decline of Bloomfield's structuralism and the prosperity of various disciplines of Applied Linguistics; From the perspective of translation theory, it is the gradual rise of scientific translation theory. Western traditional translation theory (especially in the period of classical translation theory and ancient translation theory) is often the "sideline" of masters in literature, history and philosophy Therefore, they usually develop translation art through literary creation and aesthetics. Since the later stage of modern translation theory, the western translation industry has developed greatly, and the subject matter has gone far beyond the traditional fields such as literature, history and philosophy. The specialization of translation promotes the development of translation theory to specialization, from general linguistics, postmodern literary theory, hermeneutics, traditional rhetoric, semantics The extension of historical comparative linguistics to many branches of Modern Applied Linguistics presents a new situation of all-round development. Another important reason for the early shift of western translation theory from aesthetics to linguistics is that the kinship of western languages makes it easier to realize homologous correspondence in word form and syntactic form This is exactly the purpose of historical comparative linguistics since the end of the 18th century. Translation theory and historical comparative linguistics can be described as "corresponding with one voice and seeking the same spirit". Of course, this is mainly on the side of translation theory.<br />
<br />
Western languages generally belong to Indo European languages. Indo European languages are divided into eastern Indo European languages (mainly Baltic Slavic language group) and Western Indo European languages (mainly Germanic, Latin, Celtic and ancient Greek). As far as translation is concerned, since the source language and the target language belong to the same language family or even the same language family and language branch, and the language origins are the same or similar, translation theory has long paid attention to etymology, historical morphology and semantics, and since the 1950s and 1960s, it has paid great attention to modern linguistics The development of various disciplines, especially the transformational generative school, is one of the outstanding characteristics of western translation theory.<br />
<br />
Third, traditionally, especially compared with Chinese traditional aesthetics, western aesthetics does not pay attention to language aesthetics, The rhetorical aesthetic propositions in Chinese aesthetic thought (wishful thinking and image, spirit and form, literature and quality, emptiness and reality, elegance and vulgarity, artistic conception theory, style theory, composition theory, rhetoric theory, etc.) are all absent in western aesthetics. This is largely due to the fact that western language is not a very perceptual language and emphasizes "grammatical logic" , which is quite different from Chinese. Western aesthetics has always paid attention to the essence of beauty and discussed the beauty of literature and art only as the expression of the essence of beauty. The early western aesthetic thought originated from the Pythagoras School (c580 – c500bc) and flourished in Plato and Aristotle. Ancient Greek and Roman Aesthetics focused on the "essence of beauty". At first, aesthetics was regarded as an integral part of philosophy. Until sugraty began to pay attention to the humanism of beauty and put forward that the standard of beauty lies in "utility to people" 。 Later western aesthetics was deeply influenced by classical aesthetics, and discussed the essence, emergence and expression of beauty. Western medieval aesthetics has a strong theological color. It holds that "the beauty of perceptual things is limited and the beauty of God is infinite". The former is intuitive and non purposeful, while the latter is "the highest beauty" and "the beauty of divinity". The scholastic philosophy aesthetics in the late Middle Ages, represented by the famous philosopher Thomas Aquinas, put forward "three factors of beauty", namely "integrity", "harmony" and "distinctiveness" Claritas basically doesn't talk about language aesthetics. Modern western aesthetics still focuses on the nature and form of beauty, which is deeply influenced by Aquinas. In the 18th century, the British Scholastics aesthetics believed that "beauty is a psychological activity produced by the form of objective foreign objects in line with people's subjective psychological structure". Kant (I. Kant, 1724 – 1804) under the influence of scholastic philosophy aesthetics, he combined the "psychological structure theory" with the "subjective talent theory" of German rationalists to launch the subjectivist "state of mind theory". After the mid-19th century, western modern aesthetics inherited Kant's influence, mostly from human subjectivity From the perspective of subjectivity, this paper discusses the essence of beauty and focuses on the attribute of beauty. The speculative color is very strong, which is basically "metaphysical", and language is the communication tool of "metaphysical". Since the 19th century, the general trend of western aesthetics has been to separate from the philosophical system and develop in the direction of specialization, diversification and multidisciplinary, from the speculative deduction of "top-down" to "top-down" Although the empirical evidence of "bottom-up" still adheres to the discussion of the definition and essential attributes of beauty, the aesthetic subject has gradually expanded to the broader field of the relationship between aesthetic subject and objective, and the methodology has shifted from simple induction or deduction to scientific experimental verification. Scientific empiricism and traditional humanistic aesthetics are the mainstream of Western Aesthetics in the 20th century.(Kant,1972, 103)<br />
<br />
The separation of Western Aesthetics from philosophy coincides with the rise of historical comparative philology. This major historical development and change is to promote the transformation of western translation theory from aesthetics to literature (including modern and postmodern literary theory) and linguistics, which is also a remarkable feature of the development track of western translation theory different from Chinese translation theory. It is no accident that western translation theory is separated from aesthetics and appeals to linguistics.corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 03:41, 14 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Conclusion ===<br />
<br />
Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and modern translation theory period. The main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who represent the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. Translation theory in the period of ancient translation theory, accompanied by the Renaissance and religious reform, is characterized by literary translation and religious translation. The most important cultural phenomenon affecting translation theory in the pre-modern period is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. It can be said that contemporary western translation theory has entered a period of comprehensive development of social sciences such as linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, language philosophy, logic and aesthetics, as well as translation theories such as information theory and computer science. Western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. The basis of western translation theory is relatively broad, and the scope of translation theory is relatively wide, but it always focuses on linguistics.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and contemporary translation theory period. The main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who represent the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. Translation theory in the period of ancient translation theory, accompanied by the Renaissance and religious reform, is characterized by literary translation and religious translation. The most important cultural phenomenon affecting translation theory in the pre-modern period is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. It can be said that contemporary western translation theory has entered a period of comprehensive development of social sciences such as linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, language philosophy, logic and aesthetics, as well as translation theories such as information theory and computer science. Western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. The basis of western translation theory is relatively broad, and the scope of translation theory is relatively wide, but it always focuses on linguistics.Corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 03:42, 14 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
<br />
Ferdinand De Saussure索绪尔著；高名凯译. 普通语言学教程Course in General Linguistics. 北京：商务印书馆Beijing:The Commercial Press., 2017.<br />
<br />
Ferdinand De Saussure索绪尔著；张绍杰导读. 语言学入门 Introduction to Linguistics. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社Beijing: foreign language teaching and Research Press, 2001.10.<br />
<br />
Ferdinand De Saussure索绪尔著；于秀英译. 普通语言学导论general linguistics. 北京：商务印书馆Beijing:The Commercial Press, 2020.<br />
<br />
H. G. Gadamer，Philosophical Hermeneutics, UC Press, Berkeley, 1977.<br />
<br />
L. G. Kelly，The True Interpreter: A History of Translation Theory and Practice in West, Oxford, 1979.<br />
<br />
Susan Bassnett-Mcquire，Translation Studies, Methuen, London& New York, 1980.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. 西方翻译简史[M] A brief history of Western Translation.北京：商务印书馆 Beijing:The Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
William Thomson威廉·汤姆逊，黄振华译. 十九世纪末以前的语言学史The history of linguistics before the end of the 19th century . 北京/西安：世界图书出版公司Beijing / Xi'an: World Book Publishing Company, 2009.<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzheng 谢天振．中西翻译简史［M］A brief history of Chinese and Western Translation．北京:外语教学与研究出版社 Beijing: foreign language teaching and Research Press.</div>Zhang Yiranhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_4&diff=132677Hist Trans Theo EN 42021-12-14T03:41:07Z<p>Zhang Yiran: /* Characteristics of the development of western translation theory */</p>
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=Chapter 4 An Overview of the Development of Western Translation Theories =<br />
===西方翻译理论发展概述===<br />
'''Zeng Junlin，曾俊霖, Hunan Normal University, China'''<br />
<br />
=== Abstract ===<br />
<br />
Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and modern translation theory period. The main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who represent the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. Translation theory in the period of ancient translation theory, accompanied by the Renaissance and religious reform, is characterized by literary translation and religious translation. The most important cultural phenomenon affecting translation theory in the pre-modern period is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. It can be said that contemporary western translation theory has entered a period of comprehensive development of social sciences such as linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, language philosophy, logic and aesthetics, as well as translation theories such as information theory and computer science. Western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. The basis of western translation theory is relatively broad, and the scope of translation theory is relatively wide, but it always focuses on linguistics.<br />
<br />
Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and contemporary translation theory period. The main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who represent the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. Translation theory in the period of ancient translation theory, accompanied by the Renaissance and religious reform, is characterized by literary translation and religious translation. The most important cultural phenomenon affecting translation theory in the pre-modern period is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. It can be said that contemporary western translation theory has entered a period of comprehensive development of social sciences such as linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, language philosophy, logic and aesthetics, as well as translation theories such as information theory and computer science. Western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. The basis of western translation theory is relatively broad, and the scope of translation theory is relatively wide, but it always focuses on linguistics.Corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:32, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Key Words ===<br />
<br />
Western translation theory，classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period，modern translation theory period<br />
<br />
=== 摘要 ===<br />
<br />
西方译论可以大致分为古典译论期、古代译论期、近代译论期、现代译论期等四个时期。古典译论期的主要译论家是西塞罗、霍拉斯和杰罗姆，他们代表了西方译论长达2000年发展史的源头。古代译论期的译论伴随文艺复兴和宗教改革，以文艺翻译和宗教翻译为特征。前现代期在文化上影响译论的最重要的现象是启蒙中古代语文学和诠释学派的发展。当代西方译论可以说进入了一个综合利用语言学各学科、后现代文论、符号学、修辞学、语言哲学、逻辑学、美学等社会科学以及信息理论、计算机科学等翻译理论综合开发期。西方翻译发轫于古罗马对希腊文明的渴求，即所谓爱琴海文明的西进。西方译论的立论依据比较广，译论范围也比较宽，但始终围绕语言学展开。<br />
<br />
===关键词 ===<br />
<br />
西方译论，古典译论期，古代译论期，近代译论期，现代译论期<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
From the overall historical development process, Chinese and western translation theories have an indissoluble bond with aesthetics from the beginning.<br />
<br />
However, the development of translation theory in the west is different from that in China. Western translation theory and Chinese translation theory are in very different historical and social conditions, in very different national cultural soil and social ecological environment. They have very different philosophical and aesthetic origins, and provide them with theoretical ideas as the driving force of evolution and development. Therefore, western translation theory and Chinese translation theory must move forward along their respective development tracks. No matter from the diachronic vertical or synchronic section, the dependence between western translation theory and philosophy aesthetics is far less than that of Chinese traditional translation theory.<br />
<br />
We can first analyze it from the historical development. Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and modern translation theory period.<br />
<br />
George Steiner divides Western translation theory into the following four periods in his famous book After Babel: The first period is from Cicero and Horace to Taitler, and the later book Essay on the Principles of Translation is published ( 1791) as a symbol; the second period is from the end of the 19th century to the 1940s, with Valery as a representative; the third period is marked by the advent and development of machine translation technology and theory in the 1940s; the fourth period Generally parallel to the third period, it is marked by hermeneutic and metaphysical inquiries (hermeneutic and metaphysical inquiries). Steiner's periodization has been criticized by Western translation theory circles.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
From the overall historical development process, Chinese and western translation theories have an indissoluble bond with aesthetics from the beginning.<br />
<br />
However, the development of translation theory in the west is different from that in China. Western translation theory and Chinese translation theory are in very different historical and social conditions, in very different national cultural background and social ecological environment. They have very different philosophical and aesthetic origins, and provide them with theoretical ideas as the driving force of evolution and development. Therefore, western translation theory and Chinese translation theory must move forward along their respective development tracks. No matter from the diachronic vertical or synchronic section, the dependence between western translation theory and philosophy aesthetics is far less than that of Chinese traditional translation theory.<br />
<br />
We can first analyze it from the historical development. Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and contemporary translation theory period.<br />
<br />
George Steiner divides Western translation theory into the following four periods in his famous book After Babel: The first period is from Cicero and Horace to Taitler, and the later book Essay on the Principles of Translation is published ( 1791) as a symbol; the second period is from the end of the 19th century to the 1940s, with Valery as a representative; the third period is marked by the advent and development of machine translation technology and theory in the 1940s; the fourth period Generally parallel to the third period, it is marked by hermeneutic and metaphysical inquiries (hermeneutic and metaphysical inquiries). Steiner's periodization has been criticized by Western translation theory circles.Corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:38, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Period of classical translation theory ===<br />
<br />
This is the initial period of western translation theory. According to the textual research of Rosetta Stone (discovered in 1799) by Western Egyptologists, western translation activities may have started in 2000 BC. Due to the long history and lack of historical evidence, it is impossible to test whether there were translation theories in 1900 before Cicero. There are four main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory. The first three are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who is the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. The western translation theory in the classical period is mainly based on the ancient Greek philosophers, especially the rhetoric and poetics written by Aristotle. These are two classic works that have a deep impact on Western literary aesthetics. Rhetoric expounds oratory by using the methodology of ancient psychology. Its main purpose is to emphasize the power of language infection and the means to achieve the effect of language infection - language style, and points out that only a beautiful article style can have the power of sensing and imparting. Therefore, speakers must abide by the principle that the use of language should strive to be clear and appropriate, and should not be artificial, so as not to damage the momentum of language due to affectation, and the conditions to ensure the momentum of language are accurate and relevant. In addition, Aristotle believes that the momentum of the article is also closely related to the form of writing. Speakers should adopt prose form. They should neither rhyme, nor ignore the rhythm, nor ignore the vividness of the words. No matter what style is adopted, or slow or high, the writing is naturally the first important meaning. Aristotle is the first classical aesthetic master in the west to affirm "the perceptual reality of beauty".<br />
<br />
Under the influence of ancient Greek philosophers such as Thales, Plato and Aristotle, Cicero put forward the naturalism and momentum theory of translation, opposed the translation of "word for word" and advocated the translation of "sense for sense". This argument has a profound impact on western translation studies. In philosophy, Cicero was influenced by Plato to maintain "reason", but in translation theory, he opposed to damaging the natural beauty and momentum beauty of the translation with "rigid application of reason".Horace agrees with Cicero's proposition, opposes the standard of "rigid notes of" fidelity "as the translation, opposes the translator becoming a slave translator who only follows the mandate of the original text, and advocates the use of" aesthetic criteria "in translation. It can be seen that what is valuable is the methodological dialectical view of Xi and Huo. Jerome was the first translator to translate the Hebrew Bible into Latin, the translator of the Vulgate, and the successor of Cicero's translation style. Jerome advocates the natural theory of translation and maintains Cicero's legacy. He believes that the translator has the right to break through the formal constraints of the original syntax, but must abide by the correspondence of words at the morpheme level and be faithful to the original text. Therefore, Jerome was a popular translation theorist in the 5th century. Augustine, the fourth representative figure in the classical period, plays a connecting role, that is, from Cicero, Horace and Jerome to Thomas Aquinas (c1225 – 1274ad), the most important scholastic philosopher in the middle ages. As a classical ancient translation theorist, Augustine's first achievement is to inherit and develop Aristotle's semiotic theory. When discussing "symbols", Aristotle aims to develop its rhetorical function. For "free word order languages" such as Latin, the beauty of symbolic form obviously has rhetorical visual value. Augustine expanded Aristotle's symbolic formal framework from the signifier function of the symbol to the signified layer, and pointed out that the "signifier", the human psychological structure, is derived from human's "perception of reality", and the "signifier" is a "sound set" associated with it (the group of vocal sounds); as far as words are concerned, it only represents the sign of the reference, which is arbitrary. It can be seen that Austen's views on symbols pointed out the direction for the modern semiotic theory in the early 20th century. Unfortunately, Austen's research was not valued by the translation theorists until the second half of the middle ages. Augustine's second achievement is that he put forward aesthetic propositions such as "beauty is suitability", "order", "harmony" and "unity". Based on his aesthetics, he advocates the advantages of translation. He pays more attention to the problem of form than Jerome. At the same time, he is persistent in the correspondence of semantics at the level of semantic morpheme or sememe. Augustine is a transitional figure entering the Middle Ages in the history of European aesthetics, as well as in translation theory. （Susan Bassnett-Mcquire,1980,43–44）<br />
<br />
The period of classical translation theory is a very important period in the history of western translation studies. At that time, the focus of translation circles was to introduce the culture of ancient Greece, which is called "Hellenization" in history. Classical "Greek culture" is as bright as stars, which makes translators and translation theorists energetic and aspire to it. This is different from Chinese classical translation theory (Buddhist Scripture Translation in China). The introduction of Greek culture by the ancient Romans has nothing to do with religion, but involves epic, lyric poetry, philosophy aesthetics, architecture, rhetoric, literature and art (Poetics), drama, history, war history and so on. Its similarity with Chinese classical translation theory is that they all turn to aesthetic ideas and principles. As far as aesthetic ontology is concerned, Western classical aesthetics involves a wide range of categories, and there are a large number of talents. Thales is the first Western philosopher to replace mythological thinking (ignorant thinking) with rational thinking. He advocates the theory that "the most beautiful is the universe" and advocates nature. Pythagoras (c580 – c500bc) is regarded as the discoverer of the golden section and advocates the "beauty of harmony". Herakleitus (c540 – 470bc) put forward the subjective aesthetic view of "looking for oneself", holding that "harmony comes from opposition", which is the germination of Classical Dialectics. Hester also raised the issue of the relativity of beauty, advocated rationality, and advocated thinking, understanding and the control of the mind. Demokritus (C460 – 370bc) is the first natural science philosopher in the West and the first aesthetician to demonstrate sensory experience and image. These four people are the so-called "pre Socrates" in ancient Greece. Together with Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, they form the origin of western academic thought. Of course, it is natural that the sprouting of translation studies is attached to the theory of sages.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
This is the origin period of western translation theory. According to the textual research of Rosetta Stone (discovered in 1799) by Western Egyptologists, western translation activities may have started in 2000 BC. Due to the long history and lack of historical evidence, it is impossible to test whether there were translation theories in 1900 before Cicero. There are four main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory. The first three are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who is the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. The western translation theory in the classical period is mainly based on the ancient Greek philosophers, especially the rhetoric and poetics written by Aristotle. These are two classic works that have a deep impact on Western literary aesthetics. Rhetoric expounds oratory by using the methodology of ancient psychology. Its main purpose is to emphasize the power of language infection and the means to achieve the effect of language infection - language style, and points out that only a beautiful article style can have the power of sensing and imparting. Therefore, speakers must abide by the principle that the use of language should strive to be clear and appropriate, and should not be artificial, so as not to damage the momentum of language due to affectation, and the conditions to ensure the momentum of language are accurate and relevant. In addition, Aristotle believes that the momentum of the article is also closely related to the form of writing. Speakers should adopt prose form. They should neither rhyme, nor ignore the rhythm, nor ignore the vividness of the words. No matter what style is adopted, or slow or high, the writing is naturally the first important meaning. Aristotle is the first classical aesthetic master in the west to affirm "the perceptual reality of beauty".<br />
<br />
Under the influence of ancient Greek philosophers such as Thales, Plato and Aristotle, Cicero put forward the naturalism and momentum theory of translation, opposed the translation of "word for word" and advocated the translation of "sense for sense". This argument has a profound impact on western translation studies. In philosophy, Cicero was influenced by Plato to maintain "reason", but in translation theory, he opposed to damaging the natural beauty and momentum beauty of the translation with "rigid application of reason".Horace agrees with Cicero's proposition, opposes the standard of "rigid notes of" fidelity "as the translation, opposes the translator becoming a slave translator who only follows the mandate of the original text, and advocates the use of" aesthetic criteria "in translation. It can be seen that what is valuable is the methodological dialectical view of Xi and Huo. Jerome was the first translator to translate the Hebrew Bible into Latin, the translator of the Vulgate, and the successor of Cicero's translation style. Jerome advocates the natural theory of translation and maintains Cicero's legacy. He believes that the translator has the right to break through the formal constraints of the original syntax, but must abide by the correspondence of words at the morpheme level and be faithful to the original text. Therefore, Jerome was a popular translation theorist in the 5th century. Augustine, the fourth representative figure in the classical period, plays a connecting role, that is, from Cicero, Horace and Jerome to Thomas Aquinas (c1225 – 1274ad), the most important scholastic philosopher in the middle ages. As a classical ancient translation theorist, Augustine's first achievement is to inherit and develop Aristotle's semiotic theory. When discussing "symbols", Aristotle aims to develop its rhetorical function. For "free word order languages" such as Latin, the beauty of symbolic form obviously has rhetorical visual value. Augustine expanded Aristotle's symbolic formal framework from the signifier function of the symbol to the signified layer, and pointed out that the "signifier", the human psychological structure, is derived from human's "perception of reality", and the "signifier" is a "sound set" associated with it (the group of vocal sounds); as far as words are concerned, it only represents the sign of the reference, which is arbitrary. It can be seen that Austen's views on symbols pointed out the direction for the modern semiotic theory in the early 20th century. Unfortunately, Austen's research was not valued by the translation theorists until the second half of the middle ages. Augustine's second achievement is that he put forward aesthetic propositions such as "beauty is suitability", "order", "harmony" and "unity". Based on his aesthetics, he advocates the advantages of translation. He pays more attention to the problem of form than Jerome. At the same time, he is persistent in the correspondence of semantics at the level of semantic morpheme or sememe. Augustine is a transitional figure entering the Middle Ages in the history of European aesthetics, as well as in translation theory. （Susan Bassnett-Mcquire,1980,43–44）<br />
<br />
The period of classical translation theory is a very important period in the history of western translation studies. At that time, the focus of translation circles was to introduce the culture of ancient Greece, which is called "Hellenization" in history. Classical "Greek culture" is as bright as stars, which makes translators and translation theorists energetic and aspire to it. This is different from Chinese classical translation theory (Buddhist Scripture Translation in China). The introduction of Greek culture by the ancient Romans has nothing to do with religion, but involves epic, lyric poetry, philosophy aesthetics, architecture, rhetoric, literature and art (Poetics), drama, history, war history and so on. Its similarity with Chinese classical translation theory is that they all turn to aesthetic ideas and principles. As far as aesthetic ontology is concerned, Western classical aesthetics involves a wide range of categories, and there are a large number of talents. Thales is the first Western philosopher to replace mythological thinking (ignorant thinking) with rational thinking. He advocates the theory that "the most beautiful is the universe" and advocates nature. Pythagoras (c580 – c500bc) is regarded as the discoverer of the golden section and advocates the "beauty of harmony". Herakleitus (c540 – 470bc) put forward the subjective aesthetic view of "looking for oneself", holding that "harmony comes from opposition", which is the germination of Classical Dialectics. Hester also raised the issue of the relativity of beauty, advocated rationality, and advocated thinking, understanding and the control of the mind. Demokritus (C460 – 370bc) is the first natural science philosopher in the West and the first aesthetician to demonstrate sensory experience and image. These four people are the so-called "pre Socrates" in ancient Greece. Together with Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, they form the origin of western academic thought. Of course, it is natural that the sprouting of translation studies is attached to the theory of sages.Correted by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:54, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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=== Period of ancient translation theory ===<br />
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The second period of western translation theory, the ancient period, lasted a long time, from the "post Augustine" period at the end of the 5th century to the eve of the European industrial revolution, that is, the late 18th century, covering the whole Middle Ages and about 300 years later (500-1795). Translation theory in this period was accompanied by two great historical achievements: the Renaissance and the religious reform. Therefore, the translation theory in this period is characterized by cultural literary translation and religious (Scripture) translation.<br />
The prelude to the European Renaissance (which began in the 14th century, peaked in the 15th and 16th centuries and ended in the mid-17th century) is the flourishing of Christian civilization, marked by the so-called "edict of Milan" issued by Constantine I (C280 – 337ad). The imperial edict authorized Christianity to obtain legal status in the Roman Empire. Since then, Christianity has become more and more popular through the influence of the Holy See. The Scriptures have been proofread and translated by Jerome and Augustine. Christian civilization has flourished all over Europe in the early Middle Ages.<br />
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At the same time, European social economy also appeared commercialization and handicrafts under the framework of medieval Christian civilization, leading to the emergence of city-state politics and urban landscape, which was the initial light of the Renaissance. By the 13th century, there were many European literary and artistic masters, including Dante (1265 – 1321, the author of Divine Comedy), Boccaccio (1313 – 1375, the author of Decameron), Leonardo da Vinci (1452 – 1519) and raffaelo Sanzio rapheal (1483 – 1520), who awakened European national consciousness and the so-called "all talent ideal"（ The worship and pursuit of "the well-sound personality" had a profound impact. What went hand in hand with the prosperity of literature and art and the development of city-state politics was the popularity of social and political theories and new social trends of thought at that time. Europeans scrambled to study the famous works discoveries on Livy (1531) by Nicolo Machiavelli (1569 – 1527). Someone described the grand translation of the time and said: "The entire city of Rome became a translation factory, specializing in the production of translations from Greek to Latin". In fact, the grand translation at the time was far more than just in Rome, and not only between Greek and Latin. Florence is not inferior to Rome. From the 14th to the 16th century, the city of Buddhism was the center of Italian literature and art. The grand translation of Europe at the time was very much in line with Bruno's (Giordano Bruno, c1548–1600) prediction. He said: "All science can only bear fruit with the help of translation." (Steiner,1975, 259)<br />
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All this made The "translation industry" has developed unprecedentedly. Translation practice has promoted translation research. At this time, there are different translation theories, and the scope of discussion has gone beyond the vision of classical translation theorists, with a strong color of verification. One of the best, which can be said to be the first Western philosopher to comprehensively attack translation, is Roger Bacon (C1214 – 1292) Bacon was a pioneer in the field of Natural Science in the 13th century. He condemned the translation between Greek, Hebrew and Latin as full of semantic distortion "with the philosophical insight of natural scientists", which reduced the translation to a "hodgepodge of errors and misunderstandings". (L. G. Kelly,1979, 9)<br />
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It was driven by Bacon's call to put things right that the Bible appeared John Wycliffe (c1330 – 1384), a religious reformer, translated the first English translation of the Bible of Wycliffe. His influential translation of the Bible of Wycliffe reflects the spirit of verification of Bacon's later progressive translation theory, which was invaluable in the ignorant middle ages. Wycliffe believed that Christ was the master of mankind and opposed the church's "orthodox doctrine" (the orthodox church doctrine) arbitrarily interpreted the meaning of the Bible, denounced the "papal infallibility", refused to accept the Vatican's arbitrary interpretation of the Scriptures and adhered to the semantics of the original language, thus posing strong doubts and challenges to the translation. In fact, this is a religious reform movement advocated by Martin Luther on the European continent (the reform, C1520 – c1525) has a far-reaching impact on the history of translation in Britain and even Europe. Social criticism and scholars' verification have greatly improved the level of translation. Following Roger Bacon, many people in Europe have successively raised challenges to translation, pointing out that there were three major criticisms of translation at that time: one was to know what it said but not what it meant; the other was to know what it meant but not what it meant. ; The third is that they are both ignorant and ignorant. Although this attack is mainly aimed at the translation of the Bible, it is actually very common. This period is a productive period in the history of European translation.(L. G. Kelly,1979, 10)<br />
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<br />
<br />
<br />
The second period of western translation theory - the ancient period, lasted a long time, from the "post Augustine" period at the end of the 5th century to the eve of the European industrial revolution, that is, the late 18th century, covering the whole Middle Ages and about 300 years later (500-1795). Translation theory in this period was accompanied by two great historical achievements: the Renaissance and the religious reform. Therefore, the translation theory in this period is characterized by cultural literary translation and religious (Scripture) translation.<br />
The prelude to the European Renaissance (which began in the 14th century, peaked in the 15th and 16th centuries and ended in the mid-17th century) is the flourishing of Christian civilization, marked by the so-called "edict of Milan" issued by Constantine I (C280 – 337ad). The imperial edict authorized Christianity to obtain legal status in the Roman Empire. Since then, Christianity has become more and more popular through the influence of the Holy See. The Scriptures have been proofread and translated by Jerome and Augustine. Christian civilization has flourished all over Europe in the early Middle Ages.<br />
<br />
At the same time, European social economy also appeared commercialization and handicrafts under the framework of medieval Christian civilization, leading to the emergence of city-state politics and urban landscape, which was the initial light of the Renaissance. By the 13th century, there were many European literary and artistic masters, including Dante (1265 – 1321, the author of Divine Comedy), Boccaccio (1313 – 1375, the author of Decameron), Leonardo da Vinci (1452 – 1519) and raffaelo Sanzio rapheal (1483 – 1520), who awakened European national consciousness and the so-called "all talent ideal"（ The worship and pursuit of "the well-sound personality" had a profound impact. What went hand in hand with the prosperity of literature and art and the development of city-state politics was the popularity of social and political theories and new social trends of thought at that time. Europeans scrambled to study the famous works discoveries on Livy (1531) by Nicolo Machiavelli (1569 – 1527). Someone described the grand translation of the time and said: "The entire city of Rome became a translation factory, specializing in the production of translations from Greek to Latin". In fact, the grand translation at the time was far more than just in Rome, and not only between Greek and Latin. Florence is not inferior to Rome. From the 14th to the 16th century, the city of Buddhism was the center of Italian literature and art. The grand translation of Europe at the time was very much in line with Bruno's (Giordano Bruno, c1548–1600) prediction. He said: "All science can only bear fruit with the help of translation." (Steiner,1975, 259)<br />
<br />
All this made The "translation industry" has developed unprecedentedly. Translation practice has promoted translation research. At this time, there are different translation theories, and the scope of discussion has gone beyond the vision of classical translation theorists, with a strong color of verification. One of the best, which can be said to be the first Western philosopher to comprehensively attack translation, is Roger Bacon (C1214 – 1292) Bacon was a pioneer in the field of Natural Science in the 13th century. He condemned the translation between Greek, Hebrew and Latin as full of semantic distortion "with the philosophical insight of natural scientists", which reduced the translation to a "hodgepodge of errors and misunderstandings". (L. G. Kelly,1979, 9)<br />
<br />
It was driven by Bacon's call to put things right that the Bible appeared John Wycliffe (c1330 – 1384), a religious reformer, translated the first English translation of the Bible of Wycliffe. His influential translation of the Bible of Wycliffe reflects the spirit of verification of Bacon's later progressive translation theory, which was invaluable in the ignorant middle ages. Wycliffe believed that Christ was the master of mankind and opposed the church's "orthodox doctrine" (the orthodox church doctrine) arbitrarily interpreted the meaning of the Bible, denounced the "papal infallibility", refused to accept the Vatican's arbitrary interpretation of the Scriptures and adhered to the semantics of the original language, thus posing strong doubts and challenges to the translation. In fact, this is a religious reform movement advocated by Martin Luther on the European continent (the reform, C1520 – c1525) has a far-reaching impact on the history of translation in Britain and even Europe. Social criticism and scholars' verification have greatly improved the level of translation. Following Roger Bacon, many people in Europe have successively raised challenges to translation, pointing out that there were three major criticisms of translation at that time: one was to know what it said but not what it meant; the other was to know what it meant but not what it meant. ; The third is that they are both ignorant and ignorant. Although this attack is mainly aimed at the translation of the Bible, it is actually very common. This period is a productive period in the history of European translation.(L. G. Kelly,1979, 10)Corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:59, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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=== Period of Pre-Modern translation theory ===<br />
This is the third period of western translation theory, or "pre modern period", that is, from the religious reform (1517-1648) of wilcliff and Martin Luther in the mid-17th century to the end of the 19th century, the argument began to gradually turn to classical philology and language philosophy. The major historical events during this period were the European Industrial Revolution (1750's – 1830's) and the French Revolution (1788-1799), as well as the germination and evolution of European middle-class economy and its ideology before and after this period. The most important phenomenon affecting translation theory in culture is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. After the Renaissance, the focus of European language research was still Latin and Greek, which had been in a secondary position. The social and economic development since the enlightenment and the industrial revolution obviously put forward many problems for multilingual communication. The first ones are etymology, semantics and historical comparative linguistics. In fact, historical comparative linguistics is the result of the development and exploration of the first two. Ancient Chinese literature originated in Italy in the 15th century, and its development was also promoted by many factors such as the Renaissance, the spread of Christianity, and the expansion of colonialism that stimulated language contact. The heyday representatives of historical comparative linguistics are the Danish linguist Rask (R. C. Rask, 1787–1832) and the German linguist Bopp (F. Bopp, 1791–1867). Especially after wilcliff and Martin Luther, translators increasingly doubt the interpretation of language by the Holy See, the church and scholastic philosophy in the long middle ages, and doubt the "Deviation", misunderstanding and even intentional distortion of "translation" to the "signified". Rousseau's democratic thought had a strong and profound impact on European conservatism.(V. Thomsen,1960,43）<br />
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Understanding this historical background, we can clearly understand why when Taylor put forward the famous "three principles of translation" at the end of the 18th century (1791), he first pointed out that "translation should completely convey the idea of the original text, supplemented by the natural fluency of the expression and style of the translation". Almost at the same time, tattler and George Campbell, who proposed that "the beauty of the translation can be discussed only if we are loyal to the original meaning", marked the end of the era when the western traditional translation theory mainly relied on classical aesthetics and literature and art. On the other hand, although the Chinese School represented by Goethe is fully mature, it can not solve many major problems raised by the spread of Christian civilization and the unprecedented development of translation practice in breadth and depth since the Renaissance and the industrial revolution. Among these problems, the first and most important is the problem of meaning, that is, the so-called "transfer of the truth value of meaning" in translation. Johann W. von Goethe (Johann W. von Goethe) is known as "the last embodiment of the Renaissance ideal", and his basic translation theory advocates "the perfect identity between the SL and the TL" . To this end, the translator must have ingenuity and creativity, and adopt a unique way of expression. This is the best translation, and the next thing is imitation and prose.<br />
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Exploring "semantic truth" is the basic proposition of the hermeneutic school. The representative of the hermeneutic school in modern translation theory is Friedrich D. E. Schleiermacher (1768 – 1845). Ancient hermeneutics believed that the task of interpretation was to interpret the "oracle", which originated in ancient Greece and was derived from the name of "Hermes", the messenger who conveyed the gods. Before Schleiermacher, hermeneutics was full of religious mysticism in the middle ages, which believed that people's "understanding" or "not understanding" of text (at that time mainly refers to holy scripts, i.e. the Bible) was "all based on divine will", and both of them were "theological subjective phenomena". Schleiermacher's merit lies in pointing out that the so-called "incomprehension" is actually a "misinterpretation", and "the true meaning of the text lies entirely in what it 'seems' to say. If we want to rediscover the true meaning of the text, we must carefully reconstruct the life reality generated by the historical background or meaning at that time."  Schleiermacher also further put forward the means to obtain the true meaning ("original meaning", i.e. philosophical "Sein"), that is, the so-called "theory of hermeneutic circle" and more than 40 norms of "grammatical interpretation" and "psychological interpretation" . There is no doubt about the significance of this to the development of European translation practice. It was driven by the school of hermeneutics that Friedrich Schlegel (1772 – 1879), Samuel T. Coleridge (1772 – 1834), William Morries (1834 – 1896), Thomas Carlyle (1795 – 1881), Matthew Arnold and Dante D. Rossetti (1828 – 1882) were formed European Romanticism (mainly in Germany) and the corresponding wave of critical realism (mainly in Britain) as a response to the French Revolution. During this period, the mainstream of the translation theory forum was the Chinese school with literary masters as the backbone and the hermeneutic school that later kept pace with it. There is no doubt that this is one of the important development periods in the history of European translation.(H. G. Gadamer,1977, xiii)<br />
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<br />
<br />
<br />
This is the third period of western translation theory, or "pre modern period", that is, from the religious reform (1517-1648) of wilcliff and Martin Luther in the mid-17th century to the end of the 19th century, the argument began to gradually turn to classical philology and language philosophy. The major historical events during this period were the European Industrial Revolution (1750's – 1830's) and the French Revolution (1788-1799), as well as the germination and evolution of European middle-class economy and its ideology before and after this period. The most important phenomenon affecting translation theory in culture is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. After the Renaissance, the focus of European language research was still Latin and Greek, which had been in a secondary position. The social and economic development since the enlightenment and the industrial revolution obviously put forward many problems for multilingual communication. The first ones are etymology, semantics and historical comparative linguistics. In fact, historical comparative linguistics is the result of the development and exploration of the first two. Ancient Chinese literature originated in Italy in the 15th century, and its development was also promoted by many factors such as the Renaissance, the spread of Christianity, and the expansion of colonialism that stimulated language contact. The heyday representatives of historical comparative linguistics are the Danish linguist Rask (R. C. Rask, 1787–1832) and the German linguist Bopp (F. Bopp, 1791–1867). Especially after wilcliff and Martin Luther, translators increasingly doubt the interpretation of language by the Holy See, the church and scholastic philosophy in the long middle ages, and doubt the "Deviation", misunderstanding and even intentional distortion of "translation" to the "signified". Rousseau's democratic thought had a strong and profound impact on European conservatism.(V. Thomsen,1960,43）<br />
<br />
Understanding this historical background, we can clearly understand why when Taylor put forward the famous "three principles of translation" at the end of the 18th century (1791), he first pointed out that "translation should completely convey the idea of the original text, supplemented by the natural fluency of the expression and style of the translation". Almost at the same time, tattler and George Campbell, who proposed that "the beauty of the translation can be discussed only if we are loyal to the original meaning", marked the end of the era when the western traditional translation theory mainly relied on classical aesthetics and literature and art. On the other hand, although the Chinese School represented by Goethe is fully mature, it can not solve many major problems raised by the spread of Christian civilization and the unprecedented development of translation practice in breadth and depth since the Renaissance and the industrial revolution. Among these problems, the first and most important is the problem of meaning, that is, the so-called "transfer of the truth value of meaning" in translation. Johann W. von Goethe (Johann W. von Goethe) is known as "the last embodiment of the Renaissance ideal", and his basic translation theory advocates "the perfect identity between the SL and the TL" . To this end, the translator must have ingenuity and creativity, and adopt a unique way of expression. This is the best translation, and the next thing is imitation and prose.<br />
<br />
Exploring "semantic truth" is the basic proposition of the hermeneutic school. The representative of the hermeneutic school in modern translation theory is Friedrich D. E. Schleiermacher (1768 – 1845). Ancient hermeneutics believed that the task of interpretation was to interpret the "oracle", which originated in ancient Greece and was derived from the name of "Hermes", the messenger who conveyed the gods. Before Schleiermacher, hermeneutics was full of religious mysticism in the middle ages, which believed that people's "understanding" or "not understanding" of text (at that time mainly refers to holy scripts, i.e. the Bible) was "all based on divine will", and both of them were "theological subjective phenomena". Schleiermacher's merit lies in pointing out that the so-called "incomprehension" is actually a "misinterpretation", and "the true meaning of the text lies entirely in what it 'seems' to say. If we want to rediscover the true meaning of the text, we must carefully reconstruct the life reality generated by the historical background or meaning at that time."  Schleiermacher also further put forward the means to obtain the true meaning ("original meaning", i.e. philosophical "Sein"), that is, the so-called "theory of hermeneutic circle" and more than 40 norms of "grammatical interpretation" and "psychological interpretation" . There is no doubt about the significance of this to the development of European translation practice. It was driven by the school of hermeneutics that Friedrich Schlegel (1772 – 1879), Samuel T. Coleridge (1772 – 1834), William Morries (1834 – 1896), Thomas Carlyle (1795 – 1881), Matthew Arnold and Dante D. Rossetti (1828 – 1882) were formed European Romanticism (mainly in Germany) and the corresponding wave of critical realism (mainly in Britain) as a response to the French Revolution. During this period, the mainstream of the translation theory forum was the Chinese school with literary masters as the backbone and the hermeneutic school that later kept pace with it. There is no doubt that this is one of the important development periods in the history of European translation.(H. G. Gadamer,1977, xiii)--Corrected by[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 15:03, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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=== Period of Modern translation theory ===<br />
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The fourth period is The Modern Period. This period can actually be divided into two stages. The first stage is from the end of the 19th century to the 1950s. It can also be called the "Pre-Modern Linguistic Period". Parallel to it is The Pre-Modern Linguistic Period. The Swiss linguist Saussure The study of modern linguistics was the starting point (1891), which marked the publication of the first scientific linguistics book "Cours de Linguistique Generale" (Cours de Linguistique Generale, 1916). Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913) is the founder of modern linguistics and a pioneer of structural linguistics. His main contribution is to point out the arbitrariness of linguistic signs and the linearity of the signifier; language has internal and external distinctions, diachronic and synchronic distinctions. The value of language signs is constantly evolving, so a descriptive attitude should be taken to language instead of It is prescribed. Saussure's scientific linguistics has a profound influence on western modern linguistics and translation theories.<br />
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The second stage started from the 1960s to the present, which can also be said to be the period of contemporary translation theory. During this period, modern science and technology developed rapidly. Natural sciences and social sciences were directly or indirectly driven by The Systems Theory, Control Theory or Cybernetics, and Information Theory. Advance. Modern linguistics has developed from structuralism as the mainstream to a situation where there are many new disciplines and schools. Among them, the French functional linguistics, the London school, the transformational generative grammar, sociolinguistics, and modern stylistics ( Functional stylistics), pragmatics, psycholinguistics and other emerging disciplines and schools of applied linguistics.<br />
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In the period of modern translation theory, the development of language science is very closely related to Western translation theory. Roman Jacobson (Roman Jacobson, 1896–1982), a translation theorist at the early stage of modern translation theory, is one of the founders of the Prague School and a well-known phonetician. Obviously, Jacobson's discourse on translated poems is based on phoneme analysis. Jacobson believes that poetry is "untranslatable" strictly speaking, because poetry is subject to the constraints of the arrangement relationship between phonemes and sememes, that is, units of meaning. To get rid of this constraint, translation The family can only resort to "transplantation" and it is "no less than creative transplantation of different language symbols (phonetic arrangements) created". Two prominent translation theorists in the 1950s, Jean Paul Vinay and Jean Darbenet, mainly relied on scientific linguistics to discuss translation rhetoric from the perspectives of functional stylistics and contrastive linguistics. After entering the 1960s, JC Catford clearly quoted the founder of the London School Firth (JR Firth, 1890–1960) and Firth's successor MAK Halliday's basic linguistic theories to solve the bilingual conversion. problem. E. Nida and G. Mounin mainly analyze the translation process from the perspective of structural linguistics. Among them, Nida's research results are the most eye-catching. During the 1970s and 1980s, Nida began to notice the weakness of linguistics that emphasized formal transformation and insufficient semantic research. Around the issue of "meaning" and cultural issues, many more books came out, and proposed "dynamic equivalence" (dynamic equivalence). , 1984), emphasizing the meaning view of social semiotics. In the second half of the 20th century, Western postmodern thoughts spread throughout Europe and the United States. Deconstructionism, in particular, has the deepest influence on cultural thoughts and academic thoughts. Western translation theories have also turned to "postmodernism" (especially comparative literary theory) to absorb theoretical ideas, and the great limitations of "postmodernism" have also emerged. Contemporary Western translation theory can be said to have entered a comprehensive use of various disciplines of linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, philosophy of language (including semantics), logic, aesthetics and other social sciences, as well as information theory, computer science, etc. The "comprehensive development period of translation theories" is a period of full bloom to solve translation problems. It seems that this is also the general trend of Western translation theory in the 21st century.<br />
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<br />
<br />
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<br />
The fourth period is The contemporary Period. This period can actually be divided into two stages. The first stage is from the end of the 19th century to the 1950s. It can also be called the "Pre-Modern Linguistic Period". Parallel to it is The Pre-Modern Linguistic Period. The Swiss linguist Saussure The study of modern linguistics was the starting point (1891), which marked the publication of the first scientific linguistics book "Cours de Linguistique Generale" (Cours de Linguistique Generale, 1916). Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913) is the founder of modern linguistics and a pioneer of structural linguistics. His main contribution is to point out the arbitrariness of linguistic signs and the linearity of the signifier; language has internal and external distinctions, diachronic and synchronic distinctions. The value of language signs is constantly evolving, so a descriptive attitude should be taken to language instead of It is prescribed. Saussure's scientific linguistics has a profound influence on western modern linguistics and translation theories.<br />
<br />
The second stage started from the 1960s to the present, which can also be said to be the period of contemporary translation theory. During this period, modern science and technology developed rapidly. Natural sciences and social sciences were directly or indirectly driven by The Systems Theory, Control Theory or Cybernetics, and Information Theory. Advance. Modern linguistics has developed from structuralism as the mainstream to a situation where there are many new disciplines and schools. Among them, the French functional linguistics, the London school, the transformational generative grammar, sociolinguistics, and modern stylistics ( Functional stylistics), pragmatics, psycholinguistics and other emerging disciplines and schools of applied linguistics.<br />
<br />
In the period of modern translation theory, the development of language science is very closely related to Western translation theory. Roman Jacobson (Roman Jacobson, 1896–1982), a translation theorist at the early stage of modern translation theory, is one of the founders of the Prague School and a well-known phonetician. Obviously, Jacobson's discourse on translated poems is based on phoneme analysis. Jacobson believes that poetry is "untranslatable" strictly speaking, because poetry is subject to the constraints of the arrangement relationship between phonemes and sememes, that is, units of meaning. To get rid of this constraint, translation The family can only resort to "transplantation" and it is "no less than creative transplantation of different language symbols (phonetic arrangements) created". Two prominent translation theorists in the 1950s, Jean Paul Vinay and Jean Darbenet, mainly relied on scientific linguistics to discuss translation rhetoric from the perspectives of functional stylistics and contrastive linguistics. After entering the 1960s, JC Catford clearly quoted the founder of the London School Firth (JR Firth, 1890–1960) and Firth's successor MAK Halliday's basic linguistic theories to solve the bilingual conversion. problem. E. Nida and G. Mounin mainly analyze the translation process from the perspective of structural linguistics. Among them, Nida's research results are the most eye-catching. During the 1970s and 1980s, Nida began to notice the weakness of linguistics that emphasized formal transformation and insufficient semantic research. Around the issue of "meaning" and cultural issues, many more books came out, and proposed "dynamic equivalence" (dynamic equivalence). , 1984), emphasizing the meaning view of social semiotics. In the second half of the 20th century, Western postmodern thoughts spread throughout Europe and the United States. Deconstructionism, in particular, has the deepest influence on cultural thoughts and academic thoughts. Western translation theories have also turned to "postmodernism" (especially comparative literary theory) to absorb theoretical ideas, and the great limitations of "postmodernism" have also emerged. Contemporary Western translation theory can be said to have entered a comprehensive use of various disciplines of linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, philosophy of language (including semantics), logic, aesthetics and other social sciences, as well as information theory, computer science, etc. The "comprehensive development period of translation theories" is a period of full bloom to solve translation problems. It seems that this is also the general trend of Western translation theory in the 21st century.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 15:06, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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=== Characteristics of the development of western translation theory ===<br />
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To sum up, we can deduce the development track of translation theory in the West for more than 2000 years. Its characteristics are as follows.First, western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. "Greek civilization" covers a wide range. At that time, the translation mainly focused on Homer's epic Philosophy (focusing on the so-called "three philosophies", namely Socrates, Plato and Aristotle), literature and history (focusing on drama, prose and War History) and the democratic politics of Athens. In the west, the Bible The climax of translation did not appear until the 16th century. Due to the wide variety of translation subjects, translation theories also tend to be diversified, not just on the translation standards and requirements of scriptures. At the beginning of Chinese classical translation theory, it has always focused on the review of religious translation.<br />
<br />
Second, western translation theory has a wide basis and a wide range, but it always focuses on linguistics. The main characters of Western classical and ancient translation theories are ancient Romans, based on the philosophy of classical Greece Aesthetics (poetics and classical rhetoric, which are also collectively referred to as ancient philology). Augustine, a classical translation theorist, is a classical aesthetician. Modern translation theory is mainly based on ancient philosophy, semantics, etymology and literature and art (poetics and tragedies) and historical comparative linguistics. In the early stage of modern translation theory, great attention was paid to semantics. At the same time, influenced by Saussure's socio semiotic view of language, structuralism, especially postmodern literary theory, they began to pay attention to language structure and cultural problems. In the later stage of western modern translation theory since the 1960s, translation theory and modern linguistics gradually combined and tended to rely on linguistics From the perspective of linguistics, it is marked by the decline of Bloomfield's structuralism and the prosperity of various disciplines of Applied Linguistics; From the perspective of translation theory, it is the gradual rise of scientific translation theory. Western traditional translation theory (especially in the period of classical translation theory and ancient translation theory) is often the "sideline" of masters in literature, history and philosophy Therefore, they usually develop translation art through literary creation and aesthetics. Since the later stage of modern translation theory, the western translation industry has developed greatly, and the subject matter has gone far beyond the traditional fields such as literature, history and philosophy. The specialization of translation promotes the development of translation theory to specialization, from general linguistics, postmodern literary theory, hermeneutics, traditional rhetoric, semantics The extension of historical comparative linguistics to many branches of Modern Applied Linguistics presents a new situation of all-round development. Another important reason for the early shift of western translation theory from aesthetics to linguistics is that the kinship of western languages makes it easier to realize homologous correspondence in word form and syntactic form This is exactly the purpose of historical comparative linguistics since the end of the 18th century. Translation theory and historical comparative linguistics can be described as "corresponding with one voice and seeking the same spirit". Of course, this is mainly on the side of translation theory.<br />
<br />
Western languages generally belong to Indo European languages. Indo European languages are divided into eastern Indo European languages (mainly Baltic Slavic language group) and Western Indo European languages (mainly Germanic, Latin, Celtic and ancient Greek). As far as translation is concerned, since the source language and the target language belong to the same language family or even the same language family and language branch, and the language origins are the same or similar, translation theory has long paid attention to etymology, historical morphology and semantics, and since the 1950s and 1960s, it has paid great attention to modern linguistics The development of various disciplines, especially the transformational generative school, is one of the outstanding characteristics of western translation theory.<br />
<br />
Third, traditionally, especially compared with Chinese traditional aesthetics, western aesthetics does not pay attention to language aesthetics, The rhetorical aesthetic propositions in Chinese aesthetic thought (wishful thinking and image, spirit and form, literature and quality, emptiness and reality, elegance and vulgarity, artistic conception theory, style theory, composition theory, rhetoric theory, etc.) are all absent in western aesthetics. This is largely due to the fact that western language is not a very perceptual language and emphasizes "grammatical logic" , which is quite different from Chinese. Western aesthetics has always paid attention to the essence of beauty and discussed the beauty of literature and art only as the expression of the essence of beauty. The early western aesthetic thought originated from the Pythagoras School (c580 – c500bc) and flourished in Plato and Aristotle. Ancient Greek and Roman Aesthetics focused on the "essence of beauty". At first, aesthetics was regarded as an integral part of philosophy. Until sugraty began to pay attention to the humanism of beauty and put forward that the standard of beauty lies in "utility to people" 。 Later western aesthetics was deeply influenced by classical aesthetics, and discussed the essence, emergence and expression of beauty. Western medieval aesthetics has a strong theological color. It holds that "the beauty of perceptual things is limited and the beauty of God is infinite". The former is intuitive and non purposeful, while the latter is "the highest beauty" and "the beauty of divinity". The scholastic philosophy aesthetics in the late Middle Ages, represented by the famous philosopher Thomas Aquinas, put forward "three factors of beauty", namely "integrity", "harmony" and "distinctiveness" Claritas basically doesn't talk about language aesthetics. Modern western aesthetics still focuses on the nature and form of beauty, which is deeply influenced by Aquinas. In the 18th century, the British Scholastics aesthetics believed that "beauty is a psychological activity produced by the form of objective foreign objects in line with people's subjective psychological structure". Kant (I. Kant, 1724 – 1804) under the influence of scholastic philosophy aesthetics, he combined the "psychological structure theory" with the "subjective talent theory" of German rationalists to launch the subjectivist "state of mind theory". After the mid-19th century, western modern aesthetics inherited Kant's influence, mostly from human subjectivity From the perspective of subjectivity, this paper discusses the essence of beauty and focuses on the attribute of beauty. The speculative color is very strong, which is basically "metaphysical", and language is the communication tool of "metaphysical". Since the 19th century, the general trend of western aesthetics has been to separate from the philosophical system and develop in the direction of specialization, diversification and multidisciplinary, from the speculative deduction of "top-down" to "top-down" Although the empirical evidence of "bottom-up" still adheres to the discussion of the definition and essential attributes of beauty, the aesthetic subject has gradually expanded to the broader field of the relationship between aesthetic subject and objective, and the methodology has shifted from simple induction or deduction to scientific experimental verification. Scientific empiricism and traditional humanistic aesthetics are the mainstream of Western Aesthetics in the 20th century.(Kant,1972, 103)<br />
<br />
The separation of Western Aesthetics from philosophy coincides with the rise of historical comparative philology. This major historical development and change is to promote the transformation of western translation theory from aesthetics to literature (including modern and postmodern literary theory) and linguistics, which is also a remarkable feature of the development track of western translation theory different from Chinese translation theory. It is no accident that western translation theory is separated from aesthetics and appeals to linguistics.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
From what has been discussed above, we can deduce the development track of translation theory in the West for more than 2000 years. Its characteristics are as follows.<br />
<br />
First, western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. "Greek civilization" covers a wide range. At that time, the translation mainly focused on Homer's epic Philosophy (focusing on the so-called "three philosophies", namely Socrates, Plato and Aristotle), literature and history (focusing on drama, prose and War History) and the democratic politics of Athens. In the west, the Bible The climax of translation did not appear until the 16th century. Due to the wide variety of translation subjects, translation theories also tend to be diversified, not just on the translation standards and requirements of scriptures. At the beginning of Chinese classical translation theory, it has always focused on the review of religious translation.<br />
<br />
Second, western translation theory has a wide basis and a wide range, but it always focuses on linguistics. The main characters of Western classical and ancient translation theories are ancient Romans, based on the philosophy of classical Greece Aesthetics (poetics and classical rhetoric, which are also collectively referred to as ancient philology). Augustine, a classical translation theorist, is a classical aesthetician. Modern translation theory is mainly based on ancient philosophy, semantics, etymology and literature and art (poetics and tragedies) and historical comparative linguistics. In the early stage of modern translation theory, great attention was paid to semantics. At the same time, influenced by Saussure's socio semiotic view of language, structuralism, especially postmodern literary theory, they began to pay attention to language structure and cultural problems. In the later stage of western modern translation theory since the 1960s, translation theory and modern linguistics gradually combined and tended to rely on linguistics From the perspective of linguistics, it is marked by the decline of Bloomfield's structuralism and the prosperity of various disciplines of Applied Linguistics; From the perspective of translation theory, it is the gradual rise of scientific translation theory. Western traditional translation theory (especially in the period of classical translation theory and ancient translation theory) is often the "sideline" of masters in literature, history and philosophy Therefore, they usually develop translation art through literary creation and aesthetics. Since the later stage of modern translation theory, the western translation industry has developed greatly, and the subject matter has gone far beyond the traditional fields such as literature, history and philosophy. The specialization of translation promotes the development of translation theory to specialization, from general linguistics, postmodern literary theory, hermeneutics, traditional rhetoric, semantics The extension of historical comparative linguistics to many branches of Modern Applied Linguistics presents a new situation of all-round development. Another important reason for the early shift of western translation theory from aesthetics to linguistics is that the kinship of western languages makes it easier to realize homologous correspondence in word form and syntactic form This is exactly the purpose of historical comparative linguistics since the end of the 18th century. Translation theory and historical comparative linguistics can be described as "corresponding with one voice and seeking the same spirit". Of course, this is mainly on the side of translation theory.<br />
<br />
Western languages generally belong to Indo European languages. Indo European languages are divided into eastern Indo European languages (mainly Baltic Slavic language group) and Western Indo European languages (mainly Germanic, Latin, Celtic and ancient Greek). As far as translation is concerned, since the source language and the target language belong to the same language family or even the same language family and language branch, and the language origins are the same or similar, translation theory has long paid attention to etymology, historical morphology and semantics, and since the 1950s and 1960s, it has paid great attention to modern linguistics The development of various disciplines, especially the transformational generative school, is one of the outstanding characteristics of western translation theory.<br />
<br />
Third, traditionally, especially compared with Chinese traditional aesthetics, western aesthetics does not pay attention to language aesthetics, The rhetorical aesthetic propositions in Chinese aesthetic thought (wishful thinking and image, spirit and form, literature and quality, emptiness and reality, elegance and vulgarity, artistic conception theory, style theory, composition theory, rhetoric theory, etc.) are all absent in western aesthetics. This is largely due to the fact that western language is not a very perceptual language and emphasizes "grammatical logic" , which is quite different from Chinese. Western aesthetics has always paid attention to the essence of beauty and discussed the beauty of literature and art only as the expression of the essence of beauty. The early western aesthetic thought originated from the Pythagoras School (c580 – c500bc) and flourished in Plato and Aristotle. Ancient Greek and Roman Aesthetics focused on the "essence of beauty". At first, aesthetics was regarded as an integral part of philosophy. Until sugraty began to pay attention to the humanism of beauty and put forward that the standard of beauty lies in "utility to people" 。 Later western aesthetics was deeply influenced by classical aesthetics, and discussed the essence, emergence and expression of beauty. Western medieval aesthetics has a strong theological color. It holds that "the beauty of perceptual things is limited and the beauty of God is infinite". The former is intuitive and non purposeful, while the latter is "the highest beauty" and "the beauty of divinity". The scholastic philosophy aesthetics in the late Middle Ages, represented by the famous philosopher Thomas Aquinas, put forward "three factors of beauty", namely "integrity", "harmony" and "distinctiveness" Claritas basically doesn't talk about language aesthetics. Modern western aesthetics still focuses on the nature and form of beauty, which is deeply influenced by Aquinas. In the 18th century, the British Scholastics aesthetics believed that "beauty is a psychological activity produced by the form of objective foreign objects in line with people's subjective psychological structure". Kant (I. Kant, 1724 – 1804) under the influence of scholastic philosophy aesthetics, he combined the "psychological structure theory" with the "subjective talent theory" of German rationalists to launch the subjectivist "state of mind theory". After the mid-19th century, western modern aesthetics inherited Kant's influence, mostly from human subjectivity From the perspective of subjectivity, this paper discusses the essence of beauty and focuses on the attribute of beauty. The speculative color is very strong, which is basically "metaphysical", and language is the communication tool of "metaphysical". Since the 19th century, the general trend of western aesthetics has been to separate from the philosophical system and develop in the direction of specialization, diversification and multidisciplinary, from the speculative deduction of "top-down" to "top-down" Although the empirical evidence of "bottom-up" still adheres to the discussion of the definition and essential attributes of beauty, the aesthetic subject has gradually expanded to the broader field of the relationship between aesthetic subject and objective, and the methodology has shifted from simple induction or deduction to scientific experimental verification. Scientific empiricism and traditional humanistic aesthetics are the mainstream of Western Aesthetics in the 20th century.(Kant,1972, 103)<br />
<br />
The separation of Western Aesthetics from philosophy coincides with the rise of historical comparative philology. This major historical development and change is to promote the transformation of western translation theory from aesthetics to literature (including modern and postmodern literary theory) and linguistics, which is also a remarkable feature of the development track of western translation theory different from Chinese translation theory. It is no accident that western translation theory is separated from aesthetics and appeals to linguistics.corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 03:41, 14 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Conclusion ===<br />
<br />
Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and modern translation theory period. The main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who represent the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. Translation theory in the period of ancient translation theory, accompanied by the Renaissance and religious reform, is characterized by literary translation and religious translation. The most important cultural phenomenon affecting translation theory in the pre-modern period is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. It can be said that contemporary western translation theory has entered a period of comprehensive development of social sciences such as linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, language philosophy, logic and aesthetics, as well as translation theories such as information theory and computer science. Western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. The basis of western translation theory is relatively broad, and the scope of translation theory is relatively wide, but it always focuses on linguistics.<br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
<br />
Ferdinand De Saussure索绪尔著；高名凯译. 普通语言学教程Course in General Linguistics. 北京：商务印书馆Beijing:The Commercial Press., 2017.<br />
<br />
Ferdinand De Saussure索绪尔著；张绍杰导读. 语言学入门 Introduction to Linguistics. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社Beijing: foreign language teaching and Research Press, 2001.10.<br />
<br />
Ferdinand De Saussure索绪尔著；于秀英译. 普通语言学导论general linguistics. 北京：商务印书馆Beijing:The Commercial Press, 2020.<br />
<br />
H. G. Gadamer，Philosophical Hermeneutics, UC Press, Berkeley, 1977.<br />
<br />
L. G. Kelly，The True Interpreter: A History of Translation Theory and Practice in West, Oxford, 1979.<br />
<br />
Susan Bassnett-Mcquire，Translation Studies, Methuen, London& New York, 1980.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. 西方翻译简史[M] A brief history of Western Translation.北京：商务印书馆 Beijing:The Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
William Thomson威廉·汤姆逊，黄振华译. 十九世纪末以前的语言学史The history of linguistics before the end of the 19th century . 北京/西安：世界图书出版公司Beijing / Xi'an: World Book Publishing Company, 2009.<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzheng 谢天振．中西翻译简史［M］A brief history of Chinese and Western Translation．北京:外语教学与研究出版社 Beijing: foreign language teaching and Research Press.</div>Zhang Yiranhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_5&diff=132668Hist Trans Theo EN 52021-12-14T03:33:07Z<p>Zhang Yiran: /* 3.1. Pushkin 's ideas on translation. */</p>
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=Chapter 5 History of Translation Theories from Early Russia to the Soviet Union=<br />
<br />
'''从古罗斯到苏联前的翻译理论史'''<br />
<br />
张怡然 Zhang Yiran,Hunan Normal University,China<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation as a means of intercultural communication, each country has a distinctive translation ideology. This article focuses on the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia. Through analyzing the history of translation, can find that Russia has formed a literary tradition of translation studies in the late 18th century. In the 19th century, Pushkin, Lermontov, Turgenev and other outstanding poets and literary scholars were keen on translation, especially in the middle of the century when Belinsky and other famous literary critics published a series of comments on literary translation, which emphasized the literary tradition of Russian translation to an unparalleled extent, which is rare in the history of translation in the world. The general principles of Russian literary translation thought were also formed during this period: namely, to insist on commenting on the merits of a translation in terms of the overall effect of the work, to emphasize the ideological content and literary value of the translation, and that the translation should serve the reader and be people-oriented. The above ideas influenced the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, a study of the history of translation theory in pre-Soviet Russia will help learners of Russian to better understand the characteristics of their translations and to improve the accuracy and peopleliness of their translations.Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 12:57, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation is a means of intercultural communication, and each country has its own distinctive translation theory system. This paper focuses on the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia. By analyzing the history of translation, it is obvious that a literary tradition of translation studies has been formed in Russia in the late 18th century. In the 19th century, Pushkin, Lermontov, Turgenev and other outstanding poets and literary scholars were keen on translation, especially in the middle of the century when Belinsky and other famous literary critics published a series of comments on literary translation, which emphasized the literary tradition of Russian translation to an unparalleled extent, which is rare in the history of translation in the world. The general principles of Russian literary translation thoughts were also formed during this period: namely, to insist on commenting on the merits and weakness of a translation in terms of the overall effect of the work, to emphasize the ideological content and literary value of the translation, and the translation should serve the reader and be people-oriented. The above ideas influenced the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, a study of the history of translation theory in pre-Soviet Russia will help learners of Russian to understand the characteristics of their translations profoundly and to improve the accuracy and fluency of their translations.Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:03, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation theories, Translation ideas，History of Translation<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译作为一种跨文化交际的手段，每个国家都有独具特色的翻译思想。本文主要探讨苏联前俄国的翻译历史。通过梳理其翻译史可发现，俄国于18世纪末期就已形成了翻译研究的文学传统。进入19世纪后, 普希金、莱蒙托夫、屠格涅夫等优秀诗人、文学家对翻译的热衷, 尤其是世纪中叶别林斯基等著名文学评论家发表一系列关于文学翻译的评论, 更是把俄国翻译的文学传统强调到无以复加的程度, 这在世界翻译史上都是罕见的。俄国文学翻译思想的总原则也在这一时期形成:即坚持从作品的整体效果上来评论译作优劣, 强调译作的思想内容和文学价值, 翻译应为读者服务, 译文应具有人民性。上述思想影响了苏联时期翻译理论的形成。因此，对苏联前俄国翻译理论史的研究有利于俄语学习者在翻译时更好的理解其翻译特点，提高翻译的准确性和人民性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译理论 翻译思想 翻译史 <br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
This essay provides a comprehensive and concise overview of the history of translation in Russia: Russian written translations began in the Kievan Rus' era, when religious subjects were the main focus of translations, especially the Bible, which was translated from Greek. Religious translations continued to flourish under the Moscow principality, represented by Maksim Gleick (МаксимГрек). At the same time, the national character of Russian translations began to emerge, and the languages of translation expanded from Greek to Latin, German and West Slavic, and the subjects covered included Western chivalric fiction, geographical literature, alchemy and medicine. In the eighteenth century, Peter the Great introduced a number of measures to focus on translation, making this period a turning point in the history of Russian translation. The proliferation of specialised translations (e.g. of legal texts) was the main feature of translation activity in the early eighteenth century. After this period Russian translators began to translate literary works.The main translators were Lomonosov (М.В. Ломоносов) and Tretyakovsky (V.K. Тредьяковский). In the second half of the eighteenth century, translation was given greater importance in Russia, and the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books was founded by Ekaterina II, in which a large number of outstanding translators emerged. The nineteenth century was a golden period in the history of Russian translation. Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин) and Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский) both produced many excellent translations. Pushkin (A.С.Пушкин) and Lermontov (M.Ю.Лермонтов) contributed greatly to the development of Russian literature in translation, while Fetter concentrated on love poetry. In the twentieth century, the Russian translation community made significant achievements in theoretical translation studies. In particular, the rapid development of the philological school and the debate between the literary and philological schools made Soviet translation theory one of the leading theories of translation in the world.(Guo Lin,2006:5)Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 12:57, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
This paper provides a comprehensive and concise overview of the history of translation in Russia: Russian written translations began in the Kievan Rus' era, when religious subjects were the main focus of translations, especially the Bible, translated from Greek. Religious translations continued to flourish under the Moscow principality, represented by Maksim Gleick (МаксимГрек). At the same time, the national character of Russian translations began to emerge, and the languages of translation expanded from Greek to Latin, German and West Slavic, and the subjects covered included Western chivalric fiction, geographical literature, alchemy and medicine. In the eighteenth century, Peter the Great introduced a number of measures to focus on translation, leading this period to a turning point in the history of Russian translation. The proliferation of specialised translations (e.g. of legal texts) was the main feature of translation activity in the early eighteenth century. After this period Russian translators began to translate literary works.The main translators were Lomonosov (М.В. Ломоносов) and Tretyakovsky (V.K. Тредьяковский). In the second half of the eighteenth century, translation was paid greater attention in Russia, and the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books was founded by Ekaterina II, in which a large number of outstanding translators emerged. The nineteenth century was a golden period in the history of Russian translation when Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин) and Rukovsky (В.А.Жуковский) both produced many excellent translations. Pushkin (A.С.Пушкин) and Lermontov (M.Ю.Лермонтов) contributed greatly to the development of Russian literature in translation, while Fetter concentrated on love poetry. In the twentieth century, the Russian translation community made significant achievements in theoretical translation studies. In particular, the rapid development of the philological school and the debate between the literary and philological schools made Soviet translation theory one of the leading theories of translation in the world. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:14, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===1.The history of Russian translation and the period of enlightenment of its translation theory. ===<br />
1. The emergence and development of literary translation.<br />
<br />
Translation activity has a long history in Russia, the beginnings of which can be traced back to the time of Kievan Rus'. A relatively sophisticated system of writing, literature and translation was already in place in ancient Russia in the ninth century AD. Frequent cultural and trade exchanges with Byzantine, German, French and Scandinavian countries contributed significantly to the development of translation in Russia at that time, as did contacts with Eastern countries. From Kievan Rus' onwards, Russian translation methods oscillated between two main tendencies, either to follow the original texts exactly, up to the point of translating them word for word, or to be arbitrary, even to the point of rewriting, adding or deleting at will. The first tendency is the main characteristic of translations of the Bible and other sacred books, while the second, though not absolute, can be said to characterize most secular works.(Feng Xin,2009:8)(Wu Keli,2006:4)<br />
<br />
2.Initiation of translation activities-religious translation. <br />
<br />
In 864 AD, the Byzantine king sent two Greek priests, Kirill (Кирилл) and Mephodi (Мефодий), to spread Christianity among the Slavic people. At the beginning of their mission, they created a new alphabet (now known as the Kirill alphabet) and used this writing system to translate many religious texts from Greek into the ancient Church Slavonic. Among the results were the New Testament, hymnals and prayer books.(Feng,2009:8)<br />
<br />
In 988 AD, Rus was baptised and Kievan Rus was converted to Christianity. A large number of translations appeared instantly to help Protestants become familiar with the new religious philosophy and ethical system and to understand the rituals and customs of the Church. These translations were in a variety of genres, including the Acts of the Saints, sermons, chronicles and so on. In addition, apocryphal books telling magical and fantastical stories were also popular, and some of them had similarities with the later 'fantasy novels'. Most of these translations were done in Bulgaria and were popularised in Rus. At that time, translations of religious texts were mostly word-for-word. There were also a small number of works that, unlike the 'elaborate copies of the original', had a separate literary value. In one case, a large number of details of Russian life were added to the storyline of a sermon (e.g. The Tales of Achild the Wise). In another case, military historical narratives are interspersed with the terminology of the ancient Russian feudal system and certain literary images from the stories of ancient Russian warriors (e.g. Joseph Flav's History of the Jewish War). This translation can be considered one of the most successful of the period. In the translation, the translator succeeded in avoiding many word-for-word translations). In a third case, the manuscripts copied by Ancient Rus, although based on Greek epic poetry (e.g. The Great Work of Digenes Akritas), often borrowed from Russian folk poetry, so that a large number of folk compositions appeared. As a result of this literary process, the translated literature was smoothly enriched by Russian manuscripts, which contributed to the development of original Russian literature and consolidated its links with the medieval literary process. Unfortunately, at that early stage in the development of translation, the translators were not signed, so it is impossible to verify whether the works were translated at home or abroad.(Feng,2009:9) <br />
<br />
During the difficult period of 'Mongol rule' (1228-1480), translations continued to play an important role in the cultural life of the country. The remaining chapters of the Bible were translated one after another, and previous translations were again proofread and revised. In addition to religious translations, more translations of non-religious subjects emerge, such as The Kingdom of India and The Trojan War. Most of the works were still translated from Greek, while works probably translated from Latin and ancient Hebrew also appeared. During this period, Russian began to take shape through the interaction of Old Slavonic (Church Slavonic) and local national languages. However, religious texts were still only translated into Church Slavonic, and the use of this language was by then restricted to ecclesiastical matters. At the same time, political and commercial exchanges with other countries were more likely to be in Russian, which was becoming increasingly sophisticated: elements of the combination of Old Slavonic and Russian can also be found in original works.（Wu,2006:6)<br />
<br />
14-15th century literature in translation by Rus was characterised by an obsession with new themes. These were mainly new works of tranquillity-abstinence literature, or works recommended by and familiar to the tranquillists. This mystical genre was introduced to Rus after it had swept through the Byzantine and Yugoslav peoples. It was reflected in the semi-secular translations popular at the time (for example, The Trojan War). <br />
<br />
In the 16th century AD, Moscow eventually became the political centre of Russia, as well as the translation centre of the country. In 1515, the Grand Duke of Moscow, Vassily III (Василий Ⅲ), asked a Greek monastery to send a learned translator to Moscow. This man, who accompanied the Greek mission to Moscow in 1516, was the historically famous Maksim Gleick (Максим Грек). Maksim Gleick worked as a translator throughout his life, studying most of the religious texts and some of the non-religious works during this period. In addition, he also proofread and annotated previously existing translations.(Wu,2006:7) <br />
<br />
At the beginning, Maksim knew neither Russian nor Old Slavonic, so he divided the translation into two steps: first, he translated from Greek to Latin, and then his assistant translated from Latin to Old Slavonic. In the process of revising existing translations, he often broke with established tradition and was therefore denounced as blasphemous. Maksim was also a prolific writer, educator and philosopher. His writings contain many insights into the art of translation - the earliest recorded treatise on translation in Russia. Maksim insisted that the original text must be carefully analysed in order to grasp its full subtleties and implications. Therefore, the translator must not only master the language of the original, but also have a broad knowledge of the language and prepare for the translation. To support his argument, Maksim used Greek lexicography, phonetic organisation and phonetics involved in translation. His other major contribution was the compilation of a dictionary containing Greek, Latin and Hebrew nouns, which was also the first of its kind in Russian history. Although it was recognised at the time that translators should have a command of both languages as well as a profound background knowledge, the practitioners of translation at the time lacked the necessary qualities and their translations were not as good as they could have been.(Wu,2006:7)Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 13:39, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
1. The emergence and development of literary translation. <br />
<br />
Translation activity has a long history in Russia, the beginnings of which can be traced back to the Time of Kievan Rus'. A relatively sophisticated system of writing, literature and translation was already in ancient Russia in the ninth century AD. Frequent cultural and trade exchanges with Byzantine, German, French and Scandinavian countries contributed significantly to the development of translation in Russia at that time, as did contacts with Eastern countries. From Kievan Rus' onwards, Russian translation methods oscillated between two main tendencies, either to follow the original texts exactly, up to the point of translating them word by word, or to be arbitrary, even to the point of rewriting, adding words or deleting at will. The first tendency is the main characteristic of translations of the Bible and other sacred books, while the second, though not absolutely, can be said to characterize most secular works.<br />
<br />
2.Initiation of translation activities-religious translation. <br />
<br />
In 864 AD, the Byzantine king sent two Greek priests, Kirill (Кирилл) and Mephodi (Мефодий), to spread Christianity among the Slavic people. At the beginning of their mission, they created a new alphabet (now known as the Kirill alphabet) and used this writing system to translate many religious texts from Greek into the ancient Church Slavonic. Among the results were the New Testament, hymnals and prayer books. In 988 AD, Rus was baptised and Kievan Rus was converted to Christianity. A large number of translations appeared instantly to help Protestants become familiar with the new religious philosophy and ethical system and to understand the rituals and customs of the Church. These translations were in a variety of genres, including the Acts of the Saints, sermons, chronicles and so on. In addition, apocryphal books telling magical and fantastical stories were also popular, and some of them had similarities with the later 'fantasy novels'. Most of these translations were done in Bulgaria and were popularised in Rus. At that time, translations of religious texts were mostly word-for-word. There were also a small number of works that, unlike the 'elaborate copies of the original', had a separate literary values. In one case, a large number of details of Russian life were added to the storyline of a sermon (e.g. The Tales of Achild the Wise). In another case, military historical narratives are interspersed with the terminology of the ancient Russian feudal system and certain literary images from the stories of ancient Russian warriors (e.g. Joseph Flav's History of the Jewish War). This translation can be considered one of the most successful of the period. In the translation, the translator succeeded in avoiding many word-for-word translations). Thirdly, the manuscripts copied by Ancient Rus, although based on Greek epic poetry (e.g. The Great Work of Digenes Akritas), often borrowed from Russian folk poetry, so that a large number of folk compositions appeared. As a result of this literary process, the translated literature was smoothly enriched by Russian manuscripts, which contributed to the development of original Russian literature and consolidated its links with the medieval literary process. Unfortunately, at that early stage in the development of translation, the translators were not signed, so it is impossible to verify whether the works were translated at home or abroad. During the difficult period of 'Mongol rule' (1228-1480), translations continued to play an important role in the cultural life of the country. The remaining chapters of the Bible were translated one after another, and previous translations were again proofread and revised. In addition to religious translations, more translations of non-religious subjects emerge, such as The Kingdom of India and The Trojan War. Most of the works were still translated from Greek, while works probably translated from Latin and ancient Hebrew also appeared. During this period, Russian began to take shape through the interaction of Old Slavonic (Church Slavonic) and local national languages. However, religious texts were still only translated into Church Slavonic, and the use of this language was by then restricted to ecclesiastical matters. At the same time, political and commercial exchanges with other countries were more likely to be in Russian, which was becoming increasingly sophisticated: elements of the combination of Old Slavonic and Russian can also be found in original works. 14-15th century literature in translation by Rus was characterised by an obsession with new themes. These were mainly new works of tranquillity-abstinence literature, or works recommended by and familiar to the tranquillists. This mystical genre was introduced to Rus after it had swept through the Byzantine and Yugoslav peoples. It was reflected in the semi-secular translations popular at the time (for example, The Trojan War). In the 16th century AD, Moscow eventually became the political center of Russia, as well as the translation center of the country. In 1515, the Grand Duke of Moscow, Vassily III (Василий Ⅲ), asked a Greek monastery to send a learned translator to Moscow. This man, who accompanied the Greek mission to Moscow in 1516, was the historically famous Maksim Grek (Максим Грек). Maxim Greek worked as a translator throughout his life, studying most of the religious texts and some of the non-religious works during this period. In addition, he also proofread and annotated previously existing translations. At the beginning, Maxim knew neither Russian nor Old Slavonic, so he divided the translation into two steps: first, he translated from Greek to Latin, and then his assistant translated from Latin to Old Slavonic. In the process of revising existing translations, he often broke with established tradition and was therefore denounced as blasphemous. Maxim was also a prolific writer, educator and philosopher. His writings contain many insights into the art of translation - the earliest recorded treatise on translation in Russia. Maxim insisted that the original text must be carefully analysed in order to grasp its full subtleties and implications. Therefore, the translator must not only master the language of the original, but also have a broad knowledge of the language and prepare for the translation. To support his argument, Maxim used Greek lexicography, phonetic organisation and phonetics involved in translation. His other major contribution was the compilation of a dictionary containing Greek, Latin and Hebrew nouns, which was also the first of its kind in Russian history. Although it was recognized at the time that translators should have a command of both languages and profound background knowledge, the practitioners of translation at the time lacked the necessary qualities and their translations were not as good as they should have been. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. Overview of the Russian school of Translation. ===<br />
===2.1 18th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The eighteenth century is an important period in the history of Russian translation. The status of translation in social culture has undergone a qualitative change, and this is due to Peter the Great's reform. At the beginning of the century, translation was still mostly related to professional documents such as laws and contracts. Later, the translator's tentacles gradually expanded to literary translation, for example, French poetry translation. The famous translators of this period are Sumarokov(А.П.Сумароков), Lomonosov(М.В.Ломоносов), Tretyakovsky (В.К.Тредьяковский) and so on. In the second half of the 18th century, the Association for the Translation of Foreign Books officially put forward the importance of translation. The organization has been active for 15 years with over 100 members.（Wu,2006:10)<br />
<br />
1.Imperial support for translation. The political reforms introduced by Peter the Great also led to intensive economic and cultural exchanges between Russia and European countries. This created a huge demand for translations of scientific and technical literature and literary works. Translators were required to produce works of a high standard.<br />
<br />
Peter the Great issued a special decree on translation, requiring "faithful" communication of the original text. In a directive issued to his subordinates in 1709, he explicitly stated that when translating foreign books, word-for-word translations were to be avoided and that the content of the original text should be clearly expressed in one's own language, based on an understanding of its content. On the other hand, Peter the Great's subversion of the written language initially caused confusion in Russian translation circles. A large number of foreign languages entered the Russian language, and the piles of foreign syntactic structures distracted attention. In any case, Peter the Great's reforms did set a new norm and a new direction for translation.(Wu,2006:11)<br />
<br />
In terms of content, Peter the Great's reforms were, from the very beginning, inextricably linked to the translation of scientific and technical texts, such as the many books on military defence engineering that he ordered to be translated and used to strengthen Russia's military forces. Peter the Great also placed great importance on the translation of prose, poetry and other literary works. During this period, the Russian language began to develop its own literary model, and many educated Russians saw translation as a way of enriching the language and enhancing its uniqueness and expressiveness. <br />
<br />
From around the 1830s, the importance of translating Western European scientific and technical texts gradually gave way to literary works such as prose and poetry. Writers who were also translators turned their attention to the work of new Western European writers, mainly poets, especially French poets. At the same time, the legacy of the Greco-Roman period also entered their minds. They began to translate the works of philosophers and historians, which - on the one hand - gave rise to difficulties in literary rhetoric and scientific terminology and, on the other, played an important role in the formation of a standard Russian language.(Feng,2009:10)(Guo,2006:8) <br />
<br />
From that time onwards, translation also became an organised activity, with the emergence of specific bodies responsible for the organisation and management of translation work. 1735 saw the establishment of the first specialised translation organisation, the Russian Society, at the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences. The Society had a professional group of translators and some of the academy's scholars, such as Lomonosov and Tretyakovsky, were among its members. The Association was responsible for selecting works, defining the rules or principles of translation, commenting on translations, and training translators. It is worth mentioning that the Academy of Sciences also set up a school of foreign languages to train official translators. In 1748, the Academy implemented Queen Elizabeth's decree to increase the number of translations of non-religious books and publicly appealed to "the nobility and other classes of intellectuals" to take an active part in the translation process.(Guo,2006:8)(Feng,2009:10) <br />
<br />
In the second half of the 18th century, Ekaterina II's efforts to create a 'civilised state' not only led to the development of literature, but also gave preferential treatment to writers. For example, in order to select the best original texts, she ordered the establishment of the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books (1768 - 1783). The Society was dedicated to providing excellent conditions for translation work throughout Russia. The purchase of manuscripts was financed out of Ekaterina's own funds. Later, the Society also discussed a proposal to establish a translation bureau under the Academy of Sciences (1790). The 114 members of the Society included such notable figures as Tretyakovsky, Sumarokov and Radishev. For 14 years the Association was active, producing numerous literary translations and likewise contributing to the discussion of theoretical issues in translation.(Guo,2006:9)<br />
<br />
2.The emergence of poetry translation. Translation of poetry also developed in Russia in the 18th century, and later became one of the jewels of the country's literature. The great Russian scholar and poet Lomonosov was a major contributor to this process. A great deal of the work created by Lomonosov and his contemporaries Sumarokov and Tretyakovsky was poetry in translation. They often translated while exploring theoretical issues in translation: they would explain in their works why they translated this way and not that way; they stressed the importance of translation work and the creative value it contained. Among the most prestigious writers and translators in Russian literature at the time, there were several interesting competitions in which two or three poets translated the same work at the same time, and their translations were published in journals. It was often the case that different translations of the same work were published at the same time, without the translator's name, for the judgement of "literary lovers and peers". This phenomenon also supports the idea that the 18th century was a period of 'experimentation' in the history of Russian translation.(Feng,2006:11) <br />
<br />
Lomonosov's translations from Latin, German, French and Greek are numerous and varied, showing his talent for both rhyming and free verse. He was keen to reproduce the rhythmic structure of the original texts, using a variety of iambic and iambic meter to convey the Alexandrian style of French epic and the hexameter style of Greek tragedy. Russian poetry was not very developed at the time and was still based on syllables. <br />
Lomonosov's innovations enriched Russian poetry and established new forms and traditions of Russian poetic style and rhyme. <br />
<br />
In contrast, Kantymir (Д.М.Кантемира) and Tretyakovsky's greatest quest was to insist on a faithful translation of the original. In the process, the translators had to contend with the problems of reams of vocabulary and rhetorical rules. Tretyakovsky became famous for his successful use of Russian rhyme to translate many verses of the original in his translation of Paul Thielmann's A Journey to Love Island. In the introduction to the novel, the translator states his approach to translation: "The translator is only one person away from the author. I would add that if the author is original, the translator should be even more original (I am not referring to myself, but to a good translator)". He believes that "prose to prose" and "poetry to poetry" can be as good as the original, and that a good translation is one that "describes the full meaning of each verse". Kantymir 's translation of Horace's Letters and other poetic works in Latin and French, although less well-known than the former, is equally valuable.(Wu,2006:16) Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:40, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The eighteenth century is an important period in the history of Russian translation. The status of translation in social culture has undergone a qualitative change, and this is due to Peter the Great's reform. At the beginning of the century, translation was still mostly related to professional documents such as laws and contracts. Later, the translator's tentacles gradually expanded to literary translation, for example, French poetry translation. The famous translators of this period are Sumarokov(А.П.Сумароков), Lomonosov(М.В.Ломоносов), Tretyakovsky (В.К.Тредьяковский) and so on. In the second half of the 18th century, the Association for the Translation of Foreign Books officially put forward the importance of translation. The organization has been active for 15 years with over 100 members. The following points reflected the reasons why translation was paid more attention in the eighteenth century.<br />
<br />
1.Imperial support for translation. <br />
<br />
The political reforms introduced by Peter the Great also led to intensive economic and cultural exchanges between Russia and European countries. This created a huge demand for translations of scientific and technical literature and literary works. Translators were required to produce works of a high standard.Peter the Great issued a special decree on translation, requiring "faithful" communication of the original text. In a directive issued to his subordinates in 1709, he explicitly stated that when translating foreign books, word-for-word translations were to be avoided and that the content of the original text should be clearly expressed in one's own language, based on an understanding of its content. On the other hand, Peter the Great's subversion of the written language initially caused confusion in Russian translation circles. A large number of foreign languages entered the Russian language, and the piles of foreign syntactic structures distracted attention. In any case, Peter the Great's reforms did set a new norm and a new direction for translation. In terms of content, Peter the Great's reforms were, from the very beginning, inextricably linked to the translation of scientific and technical texts, such as the many books on military defence engineering that he ordered to be translated and used to strengthen Russia's military forces. Peter the Great also placed great importance on the translation of prose, poetry and other literary works. During this period, the Russian language began to develop its own literary model, and many educated Russians saw translation as a way of enriching the language and enhancing its uniqueness and expressiveness. <br />
<br />
From around the 1830s, the importance of translating Western European scientific and technical texts gradually gave way to literary works such as prose and poetry. Writers who were also translators turned their attention to the work of new Western European writers, mainly poets, especially French poets. At the same time, the legacy of the Greco-Roman period also entered their minds. They began to translate the works of philosophers and historians, which - on the one hand - gave rise to difficulties in literary rhetoric and scientific terminology and, on the other, played an important role in the formation of a standard Russian language. <br />
<br />
From that time onwards, translation also became an organised activity, with the emergence of specific bodies responsible for the organisation and management of translation work. 1735 saw the establishment of the first specialised translation organisation, the Russian Society, at the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences. The Society had a professional group of translators and some of the academy's scholars, such as Lomonosov and Tretyakovsky, were among its members. The Association was responsible for selecting works, defining the rules or principles of translation, commenting on translations, and training translators. It is worth mentioning that the Academy of Sciences also set up a school of foreign languages to train official translators. In 1748, the Academy implemented Queen Elizabeth's decree to increase the number of translations of non-religious books and publicly appealed to "the nobility and other classes of intellectuals" to take an active part in the translation process. <br />
<br />
In the second half of the 18th century, Ekaterina II's efforts to create a 'civilised state' not only led to the development of literature, but also gave preferential treatment to writers. For example, in order to select the best original texts, she ordered the establishment of the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books (1768-1783). The Society was dedicated to providing excellent conditions for translation work throughout Russia. The purchase of manuscripts was financed out of Ekaterina's own funds. Later, the Society also discussed a proposal to establish a translation bureau under the Academy of Sciences (1790). The 114 members of the Society included such notable figures as Tretyakovsky, Sumarokov and Radishev. For 14 years the Association was active, producing numerous literary translations and likewise contributing to the discussion of theoretical issues in translation.<br />
<br />
2.The emergence of poetry translation.<br />
<br />
Translation of poetry also developed in Russia in the 18th century, and later became one of the jewels of the country's literature. The great Russian scholar and poet Lomonosov was a major contributor to this process. A great deal of the work created by Lomonosov and his contemporaries Sumarokov and Tretyakovsky was poetry in translation. They often translated while exploring theoretical issues in translation: they would explain in their works why they translated this way and not that way; they stressed the importance of translation work and the creative value it contained. Among the most prestigious writers and translators in Russian literature at the time, there were several interesting competitions in which two or three poets translated the same work at the same time, and their translations were published in journals. It was often the case that different translations of the same work were published at the same time, without the translator's name, for the judgement of "literary lovers and peers". This phenomenon also supports the idea that the 18th century was a period of 'experimentation' in the history of Russian translation. <br />
<br />
Lomonosov's translations works in Latin, German, French and Greek are numerous and varied, showing his talent for both rhyming and free verse. He was keen to reproduce the rhythmic structure of the original texts, using a variety of iambic and iambic meter to convey the Alexandrian style of French epic and the hexameter style of Greek tragedy. Russian poetry was not very developed at the time and was still based on syllables. <br />
Lomonosov's innovations enriched Russian poetry and established new forms and traditions of Russian poetic style and rhyme. <br />
<br />
In contrast, Kantymir (Д.М.Кантемира) and Tretyakovsky's greatest quest was to insist on a faithful translation of the original. In the process, the translators had to contend with the problems of reams of vocabulary and rhetorical rules. Tretyakovsky became famous for his successful use of Russian rhyme to translate many verses of the original in his translation of Paul Thielmann's A Journey to Love Island. In the introduction to the novel, the translator states his approach to translation: "The translator is only one person away from the author. I would add that if the author is original, the translator should be even more original (I am not referring to myself, but to a good translator)". He believes that "prose to prose" and "poetry to poetry" can be as good as the original, and that a good translation is one that "describes the full meaning of each verse". Kantymir 's translation of Horace's Letters and other poetic works in Latin and French, although less well-known than the former, is equally valuable. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 12:39, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.2 First half of the19th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The nineteenth century was a golden age in the history of Russian translation. If translation had established itself as a profession in the first hundred years, it was elevated to the level of art in this century. The nineteenth century produced a number of masters of translation, including Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин), Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский), Pushkin (А.С.Пушкин), Lermontov (М.Ю.Лермонтов) and Fetter (А.Фет).(Wu,2006:23)<br />
<br />
The new Russian school of translation owes its formation to the historian Nikolai Karamzin and the poet Zhukovsky. Karamzin published a number of translations in several magazines between the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century. He saw translations as a good help in perfecting a writer's style: a source of information that would satisfy human curiosity, inform historical facts, entertain women and provide material for new magazines. As a young man, Karamzin was strongly opposed to the alteration of and disloyalty to the original texts, but later became a champion of free translation, famously saying: "Whoever follows the author of the original text step by step is no different from a servant who serves his lord". Karamzin's translations cover an admirable range of genres and languages: he translated works by both classical and contemporaneous authors, in Greek, French, Latin, German, English, Italian and some Oriental languages.(Feng,2009:12)<br />
<br />
Pushkin called Zhukovsky "a genius of translation". After graduating from the Moscow Noble Boarding University in 1802, Zhukovsky devoted himself to translation. It was thanks to his efforts that Russian readers were able to access the works of world literary giants such as Schiller, Goethe, Byron and Walters Scott. Zhukovsky's creative translation activities also ranged from Charles Bello to Grimm's Fairy Tales. From Charles Bellow to Grimm's fairy tales, from Homer's epic Odyssey to the poetic history of ancient Rus' Igor's Expedition, all became his original texts. There is no denying that Zhukovsky is a master in the history of Russian translation. Like Karamzin, Zhukovsky was a fan of free translation, sometimes rewriting the original or even creating a new story from its subject: sometimes transferring the setting of events to Russia and giving Russian names to the characters. For example, in his 1808 translation of the German Romantic poet Bilge's narrative poem Lenore, he changed the heroine's name from Lenore to Lyudmila and moved the story to the time of the Livonian War in 16th-century Russia. Zhukovsky believed that the "unsavoury character" of the work should be weakened while retaining the original author's ideas. His talent enabled him to reproduce the style, rhythm and tone of the original poems, while some of his best works were also faithful to the original. In later years, however, his view of translation changed in response to the tendency to stay close to the original, and he retranslated several of his previous translations to make them more faithful to the original, including Lenore. The Russian school of translation owes much to the tradition of translation created by Zhukovsky.(Wu,2006:24-30)(Feng,2009:13)(Guo,2006:9)<br />
<br />
Pushkin and Lermontov are also two poets who set the stage for an epoch in the history of Russian translation. Although only a small proportion of their poetry was translated, they made a significant contribution to the improvement of the art of translation in Russia. In their rewriting and imitation of poetry, they were able to reproduce the most important features of foreign poetry, the key point being that their creative translations were no less valuable in their own right than the originals. Their free translation became a model for other translators, and in addition they established the important principle that a good artistic translation must also be a good work in the national literature of the translated language. Pushkin played an indelibly important role in the development of the Russian school of translation. He was always interested in the question of translation, and his critical views on translation were objective and profound. Before translation he stressed the importance of the choice of the original work, and in translation he demanded that the translator should be faithful to the original, while at the same time displaying his deep creative skills and his own literary style. In one of his unfinished posthumous works, 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', Pushkin wrote: 'Chateaubriand's translation (verbatim) compensates to some extent for the faults of the young French writers (free translation), for they have insulted the great man very cruelly, though in a perfectly innocent manner. There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own rhetorical conventions, its own way of expressing itself, and it is impossible to translate into another language with the corresponding vocabulary". These insights had a positive impact on the best Russian translators of the 19th and 20th centuries. In addition, Pushkin's discussion of translation coincided with a turning point in the history of Russian literature, when the Romantic era was being replaced by a new era with a predominantly realist orientation, and a process of 'separation' between translated and national literature was under way. Pushkin's discussion of the work of the translator as distinct from that of the writer contributed to the independence of literature in translation from indigenous literature.(Guo,2006:10)(Wu,2006:37-41) <br />
<br />
During this period, while most people advocated free translation, there were a few translators who insisted on maximum fidelity to the original and advocated the word-for-word method, even at the expense of the work's willingness to be translated. Among these were such well-known writers as P.A. Vyazemsky (П.А.Вяземский) and N.I. Gnedzic (Н.И.Гнедич). In fact, they did not always live up to their principles, and sometimes their talent and artistic intuition ended up breaking the bonds of verbatim translation. Vyazemsky's translations of Benjamin Constant and Adam Mickiewicz were not without literary and artistic merit, and his translation of Homer's epic Iliad in particular was highly praised by Pushkin. It was Fetter who was the most insistent on the idea of a verbatim translation. Fetter translated many famous works, and his philosophy throughout was one of sentence-for-sentence, word-for-word translation, retaining all the words of the original. Fetter's extreme word-for-word approach had a negative impact on most of his translations, although he was sometimes able to come up with some effective methods of translation.(Feng,2009:14) <br />
<br />
Free translations were also sometimes used to promote democratic ideas in the original that could not pass official scrutiny. A number of translators, such as V. Kurochkin (В.Курочкин), D. M. Minayev (Д.Минаев) and M. M. Mikhalov (М.Михайлов), achieved this by selecting appropriate original works or by using texts in their translations that were superficially imperceptible in their allusion to the conditions in Russia at the time. It was from that time onwards that the use of translation as a weapon to express dissent became part of the Russian tradition.(Feng,2009:14) Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:41, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The nineteenth century was the golden age in the history of Russian translation. If translation had established its status in the first hundred years, it was elevated to the level of art in this century. The nineteenth century produced a number of masters of translation, including Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин), Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский), Pushkin (А.С.Пушкин), Lermontov (М.Ю.Лермонтов) and Fetter (А.Фет). <br />
<br />
The new Russian school of translation owes its formation to the publishment of a number of translations of historian Nikolai Karamzin and the poet Zhukovsky. Karamzin in several magazines between the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century. He regarded translation as a good help in perfecting a writer's style: a source of information that satisfies human curiosity, informs historical facts, entertains women and provides materials for new magazines. As a young man, Karamzin was strongly opposed to the disloyalty to the original texts, but later became a champion of free translation. His famous saying was: "Whoever follows the author of the original text step by step is no different from a servant who serves his lord". Karamzin's translations cover an admirable range of genres and languages: he translated works by both classical and contemporaneous authors, in Greek, French, Latin, German, English, Italian and some Oriental languages. <br />
<br />
Pushkin called Zhukovsky "a genius of translation". After graduating from the Moscow Noble Boarding University in 1802, Zhukovsky devoted himself to translation. It was thanks to his efforts that Russian readers were able to access the works of world literary giants such as Schiller, Goethe, Byron and Walters Scott. Zhukovsky's creative translation activities also ranged from Charles Bello to Grimm's Fairy Tales. From Charles Bellow to Grimm's fairy tales, from Homer's epic Odyssey to the poetic history of ancient Rus' Igor's Expedition, all became his original texts. There is no denying that Zhukovsky is a master in the history of Russian translation. Like Karamzin, Zhukovsky was a fan of free translation, who sometimes rewrites the original or even creates a new story from its subject, transfers the setting of events to Russia and gives Russian names to the characters. For example, in his 1808 translation of the German Romantic poet Bilge's narrative poem Lenore, he changed the heroine's name from Lenore to Lyudmila and moved the story to the time of the Livonian War in 16th-century Russia. Zhukovsky believed that the "unsavoury character" of the work should be weakened while retaining the original author's ideas. His talent enabled him to reproduce the style, rhythm and tone of the original poems, while some of his best works were also faithful to the original. In later years, however, his view of translation changed in response to the tendency to stay close to the original, and he retranslated several of his previous translations to make them more faithful to the original, including Lenore. The Russian school of translation owes much to the tradition of translation created by Zhukovsky.<br />
<br />
Pushkin and Lermontov are also two poets who gave perfect preparations for an epoch in the history of Russian translation. Although only a small proportion of their poetry was translated, they made a significant contribution to the improvement of the art of translation in Russia. In their rewriting and imitation of poetry, they were able to reproduce the most important features of foreign poetry, the key point being that their creative translations were no less valuable in their own right than the originals. Their free translation became a model for other translators, and in addition they established the important principle that a good artistic translation must also be a good work in the national literature of the translated language. Pushkin played an indelibly important role in the development of the Russian school of translation. He was always interested in the question of translation, and his critical views on translation were objective and profound. Before translation he stressed the importance of the choice of the original work, and in translation he demanded that the translator should be faithful to the original, while at the same time displaying his deep creative skills and his own literary style. In one of his unfinished posthumous works, 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', Pushkin wrote: 'Chateaubriand's translation (verbatim) compensates to some extent for the faults of the young French writers (free translation), for they have insulted the great man very cruelly, though in a perfectly innocent manner. There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own rhetorical conventions, its own way of expressing itself, and it is impossible to translate into another language with the corresponding vocabulary". These insights had a positive impact on the best Russian translators of the 19th and 20th centuries. In addition, Pushkin's discussion of translation coincided with a turning point in the history of Russian literature, when the Romantic era was being replaced by a new era with a predominantly realist orientation, and a process of 'separation' between translated and national literature was under way. Pushkin's discussion of the work of the translator as distinct from that of the writer contributed to the independence of literature in translation from indigenous literature. <br />
<br />
During this period, while most people advocated free translation, there were a few translators who insisted on maximum fidelity to the original and advocated the word-for-word method, even at the expense of the work's willingness to be translated. Among these were such well-known writers as P.A. Vyazemsky (П.А.Вяземский) and N.I. Gnedzic (Н.И.Гнедич). In fact, they did not always live up to their principles, and sometimes their talent and artistic intuition ended up breaking the bonds of verbatim translation. Vyazemsky's translations of Benjamin Constant and Adam Mickiewicz were not without literary and artistic merit, and his translation of Homer's epic Iliad in particular was highly praised by Pushkin. It was Fetter who was the most insistent on the idea of a verbatim translation. Fetter translated many famous works, and his philosophy throughout was one of sentence-for-sentence, word-for-word translation, retaining all the words of the original. Fetter's extreme word-for-word approach had a negative impact on most of his translations, although he was sometimes able to come up with some effective methods of translation. <br />
<br />
Free translations were also used to promote democratic ideas in original that could not pass official scrutiny. A number of translators, such as V. Kurochkin (В.Курочкин), D. M. Minayev (Д.Минаев) and M. M. Mikhalov (М.Михайлов), achieved this by selecting appropriate original works or by using texts in their translations that were superficially imperceptible in their allusion to the conditions in Russia at the time. It was since then that the use of translation was used as a weapon to express dissent became part of the Russian tradition. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:05, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.3 Second half of the19th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The mid-nineteenth century was a period of increasingly intense political and ideological struggle in Russian literature, and a great debate raged in the Russian literary world over the question of 'art for the people' or 'art for art's sake'. The debate was mainly about the choice of material for translation and the method of translation. As far as the choice of material was concerned, the democratic and revolutionary writers who supported 'art for the people' chose to translate works with progressive ideological content and a democratic orientation, such as Heine. The aristocratic and liberal intellectual writers, on the other hand, opted for philosophical poetry with a chanting and individualistic feel. Of course, this is not absolute: "Mikhailov and Dobrolyubov of the democratic revolutionary school also translated Heine's moody love poems The Songbook, while Tolstoy of the aristocratic and liberal school translated some of Goethe's more progressive poems, such as The Fiancée of Corinth and The Whore of God. In terms of their approach to translation, the Democratic-Revolutionary translators, based on the reproduction of the original as a whole, approached their translations very liberally, even adding in many elements typical of Russian culture. The latter, on the other hand, usually adopted a direct translation, focusing on conveying the formal details of the original work. This divergence was mainly due to the different starting points of the two groups of translators, with the democratic revolutionaries seeking to convey advanced ideas to the Russian general public and the aristocratic intellectuals believing that works of art were irrelevant to the people and that artistic creations should not be exposed to "vulgar" reality.(Feng,2009:14-15)<br />
<br />
There were a large number of outstanding literary writers and literary critics who made brilliant statements about literary translation in that era, none more so than Belinsky (В.Г.Белинский), Chernyshevsky (Н.Г.Черныщевский) and Dubrolyovsky (Н.Г.Добролюбов). Belinsky was one of the greatest Russian literary critics of the 19th century. He believed that translations should not be word-for-word, but should reproduce the spirit of the original, in much the same way as Pushkin's view of translation theory. On the other hand, he also opposed arbitrary 'paraphrasing': the ideal translation should not add or delete arbitrarily to the original text, but should enable the reader to understand the foreign work truly and accurately through the translation. Such a viewpoint seems to us to be quite convincing even now. Belinsky played a decisive role in completely burying the 'rewriting' and 'adapting it to Russian custom' arguments. This issue dominates his writings. He argues that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of the translation, and this is one of the criteria by which he judges its merits. He points out, for example, that the greatest strength of Gnedzic's translation of the Iliad is that it "exudes the atmosphere of ancient life" and "the spirit of the ancient Greeks". However, the contradiction between national identity and translatability was once a problem for Belinsky. Initially believing that it was impossible to translate works with a strong national character into other languages, he was only convinced by the success of Turgenev's collaboration with Louis Viardot in translating Gogol's novels into French in 1846, and then became increasingly determined to recognise translatability in translation. Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a series of revisions that led to a complete and rigorous system of translation theory, the first of its kind in the history of Russian translation theory.(Wu,2006:58-61)(Feng,2009:15)<br />
<br />
Translation in Russia developed in the second half of the 19th century. From the 1960s onwards, the Russian readership of non-language speakers began to expand, and these readers were keen to see the translation 'replace' the original. This demand led to an unprecedented expansion in the choice of subjects and translations of Russian literature. Interest in foreign theatrical works was particularly high at this stage, and a strong interest in European classical literature also developed. Dickens, Saclay, Victor Hugo, Dumas, Balzac, Flaubert, Tudor, Maupassant and Zola, as well as lesser-known writers of today, were successively brought to the attention of a wide range of Russian readers in the form of translations. At that time, European theatre classics like Shakespeare's plays were translated into Russia in large numbers. Many professional translators were involved, the most successful being the translator P.N.V. Weinberg. He translated foreign literature from the standpoint of progressive Russian literature of the time. His translation of Othello, for example, is notable for its vividness in the Russian language, and has always been recognised as the best translation in terms of conveying the totality of scenes, plots and long dialogues, even though the translation is wordy compared to the original.(Feng,2009:15-16)<br />
<br />
Although there has been a quantitative surge in translations of Russian literature during this period, the quality has generally been poor, manifesting itself in word-for-word translations, redundant sentences and poor vocabulary, not to mention inventiveness. In addition, the language of the characters in the translation is heavily Russified, with Russian proverbs, sayings and idioms that the foreign characters could never have known, and the introduction of Russian-specific life circumstances that cause contradictions with the plot and details of the original work. For example, В Тулу со своим самоваром ехать (Bring your own samovar to Tula - it's superfluous). The reason for this is that the literary world did not attach much importance to the translation of fiction and prose, and there were no specialists working on this task. Another point is that at this stage there was little progress in the study of Russian translation theory, and no valuable theoretical insights emerged. The linguist A.A. Потебня (1835-1891) expressed his views on translation from a psychological standpoint in his essay "Language and Peopleliness ". In his view, it was impossible to express in another language what was originally intended to be expressed in a certain language. He, like many other literary scholars, denied the translatability of language.(Feng,2006:16)(Guo,2006:11)Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:41, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The mid-nineteenth century was a period of increasingly intensively political and ideological struggle in Russian literature, and a great debate raged in the Russian literary world over the question of 'art for the people' or 'art for art's sake'. The debate was mainly about the choice of materials for translation and the methods of translation. As far as the choice of material was concerned, the democratic and revolutionary writers who supported 'art for the people' chose to translate works with progressive ideological content and a democratic orientation, such as Heine. The aristocratic and liberal intellectual writers, on the other hand, opted for philosophical poetry with a chanting and individualistic feel. It's undoubtful that this is not absolute: "Mikhailov and Dobrolyubov of the democratic revolutionary school also translated Heine's moody love poems The Songbook, while Tolstoy of the aristocratic and liberal school translated some of Goethe's more progressive poems, such as The Fiancée of Corinth and The Whore of God. In terms of their approach to translation, the Democratic-Revolutionary translators, based on the reproduction of the original as a whole, approached their translations very liberally, when they even added in many elements typical of Russian culture. The latter, on the other hand, usually adopted a direct translation, focusing on conveying the formal details of the original work. This divergence was mainly due to the different starting points of the two groups of translators, with the democratic revolutionaries seeking to convey advanced ideas to the Russian general public and the aristocratic intellectuals believing that works of art were irrelevant to the people and that artistic creations should not be exposed to "vulgar" reality.<br />
<br />
There were a large number of outstanding literary writers and literary critics who made brilliant statements about literary translation in that era, none more so than Belinsky (В.Г.Белинский), Chernyshevsky (Н.Г.Черныщевский) and Dubrolyovsky (Н.Г.Добролюбов). Belinsky was one of the greatest Russian literary critics of the 19th century. He believed that translations should not be word-for-word, but should reproduce the spirit of the original text, in much the same way as Pushkin's view of translation theory. On the other hand, he also opposed arbitrary 'paraphrasing': the ideal translation should not add or delete arbitrarily to the original text, but should enable the reader to understand the foreign work truly and accurately through the translation. Such a viewpoint seems to us to be quite convincing even now. Belinsky played a decisive role in completely burying the 'rewriting' and 'adapting it to Russian custom' arguments. This issue dominates his writings. He argues that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of the translation, and this is one of the criteria by which he judges its merits. He points out, for example, that the greatest strength of Gnedzic's translation of the Iliad is that it "exudes the atmosphere of ancient life" and "the spirit of the ancient Greeks". However, the contradiction between national identity and translatability was once a problem for Belinsky. Initially believing that it was impossible to translate works with a strong national character into other languages, he was only convinced by the success of Turgenev's collaboration with Louis Viardot in translating Gogol's novels into French in 1846, and then became increasingly determined to recognise translatability in translation. Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a series of revisions that led to a complete and rigorous system of translation theory, the first of its kind in the history of Russian translation theory.<br />
<br />
Translation in Russia developed in the second half of the 19th century. From the 1960s onwards, the Russian readership of non-language speakers began to expand, and these readers were keen to see the translation 'replace' the original. This demand led to an unprecedented expansion in the choice of subjects and translations of Russian literature. Interest in foreign theatrical works was particularly high at this stage, and a strong interest in European classical literature also developed. Dickens, Saclay, Victor Hugo, Dumas, Balzac, Flaubert, Tudor, Maupassant and Zola, as well as lesser-known writers of today, were successively brought to the attention of a wide range of Russian readers in the form of translations. At that time, European theatre classics like Shakespeare's plays were translated into Russia in large numbers. Many professional translators were involved, the most successful being the translator P.N.V. Weinberg. He translated foreign literature from the standpoint of progressive Russian literature of the time. His translation of Othello, for example, is notable for its vividness in the Russian language, and has always been recognised as the best translation in terms of conveying the totality of scenes, plots and long dialogues, even though the translation is wordy compared to the original.<br />
<br />
Although there has been a quantitative surge in translations of Russian literature during this period, the quality has generally been poor, manifesting itself in word-for-word translations, redundant sentences and poor vocabulary, not to mention inventiveness. In addition, the language of the characters in the translation is heavily Russified, that is, contents with Russian proverbs, sayings and idioms that the foreign characters could never have known, and the introduction of Russian-specific life circumstances that cause contradictions with the plot and details of the original work. For example, В Тулу со своим самоваром ехать (Bring your own samovar to Tula - it's superfluous). The reason for this is that the literary world did not attach much importance to the translation of fiction and prose, and there were no specialists working on this task. Another point is that at this stage there was little progress in the study of Russian translation theory, and no valuable theoretical insights emerged. The linguist A.A. Потебня (1835-1891) expressed his views on translation from a psychological standpoint in his essay "Language and Peopleliness ". In his view, it was impossible to express in another language what was originally intended to be expressed in a certain language. Just like many other literary scholars, he denied the translatability of language. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:13, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.Translation ideas of famous writers of the 18-19th centuries. ===<br />
===3.1. Pushkin 's ideas on translation. ===<br />
Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin (Александр Сергеевич Пушкин, 1977-1837), a famous Russian poet and writer of the nineteenth century, was also very much a translator. Although he left behind few works on translation, his ideas on translation are worth studying. Pushkin's translations of poetry were associated with classicism in the early stages of his work and later with romanticism. Although these translations are far removed from the original in a literal sense, they are almost close to composition. Pushkin's significance as a translator, however, lies in 1) the reproduction of foreign originals in the standard Russian language he established in his translations and 2) the full expression of the realist artistic method in the heyday of his compositions: the focus on typical features and the technique of outlining the historical and individual characteristics that reflect the original.(Wu,2006:37-41)(Li Zheng＆Fan Min,2010:69）<br />
<br />
Pushkin's translations have their own characteristics and style. He did not translate all of his works word for word from the original, and in some places he deleted what he considered to be redundant sentences in order to avoid the verbosity of the original, occasionally replacing the translation with a general paraphrase. He advocates respect for the characteristics of foreign readers, while at the same time opposing word-for-word translations, which can lead to the trampling of the mother tongue. He therefore advocated translations which, on the one hand, required fidelity to the original in terms of meaning and, on the other, should preserve the original's distinctive features.<br />
As he says in his unfinished 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', commenting on Chateaubriand's translation: 'There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), has failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own conventional rhetorical devices, its own habitual expressions, and it is impossible to translate all this into another language using the corresponding vocabulary." Pushkin's rejection of word-for-word translation can be seen.(Li＆Fan,2010:69）<br />
<br />
Pushkin's influence on the cause of translation in Russia was immense, and this influence refers neither to his few translations nor to his theoretical views, but to the fact that Pushkin pioneered the translation of Russian literature. Although his ideas on translation cannot be called a theory, they do provide certain translation ideas for later generations of literary translators.(Li＆Fan,2010:69）Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin (Александр Сергеевич Пушкин, 1977-1837), a famous Russian poet and writer of the nineteenth century, was also an outstanding translator. Besides he left behind few works on translation, his ideas on translation are worth studying. Pushkin's translations of poetry were associated with classicism in the early stages of his work and with romanticism later. Although these translations are far removed from the original in a literal sense, they are almost close to composition. Pushkin's significance as a translator, however, lies in the reproduction of foreign originalities in the standard Russian language he established in his translations and the full expression of the realist artistic method in the heyday of his compositions: the focus on typical features and the technique of outlining the historical and individual characteristics that reflect the original.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's translations have their own distinctive characteristics and style. He did not translate all of his works literally from the original context, but in some places he deleted what he considered to be redundant sentences in order to avoid the verbosity of the original, occasionally replacing the translation with a general paraphrase. He advocates to give enough respect for the characteristics of foreign readers, while at the same time opposing word-for-word translations, which may lead to the trampling of the mother tongue. Therefore, He advocated translations which, on the one hand, required fidelity to the original text in terms of meaning and, on the other hand, should preserve the original's distinctive features.<br />
<br />
As he says in his unfinished 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', he comments on Chateaubriand's translation: 'There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), has failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own conventional rhetorical devices, its own habitual expressions, and it is impossible to translate all this into another language using the corresponding vocabulary." Pushkin's rejection of word-for-word translation can be revealed clearly.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's influence on the cause of translation in Russia was huge, and his influence refers neither to his few translations nor to his theoretical views, but to the fact that Pushkin pioneered the translation of Russian literature. Although his ideas on translation cannot be called a theory, they do provide certain unique and new translation ideas for later generations of literary translators. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:29, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.1. Belinsky's ideas on translation. ===<br />
Vissarion Grigorievich Belinsky (Виссарион Григорьевич Белинский, 1811-1848) was a famous literary critic of the nineteenth century and one of the most involved in the world of translation among Russian literary activists of his time. Belinsky was fluent in French and as a young man translated for two magazines, Miscellany and Telescope. Later, after a career in literary criticism, he published numerous articles on translation and criticism of translated works.<br />
Belinsky's and Pushkin's views on translation were very similar, both advocating that translations should not be word-for-word. Belinsky first introduced the term 'theory' of translation, and in his 1838 review of Polevoy's translation of Hamlet, he first proposed the need for a theory of translation. He considered the role of theory: "Any object that man perceives has a theory of its own, and a theory is the knowledge of the laws by which the object exists."（Wu，2006：51-53）<br />
<br />
Belinsky argues that in translation: "Closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original. Each <br />
language has its own distinctive expressions, characteristics and qualities; these are so distinctive that to correctly convey a certain image or sentence, it is sometimes necessary to change them completely in the translation. The corresponding image, like the corresponding sentence, does not necessarily lie in a superficial agreement of words: the inner life of the translation should be made to correspond to the inner life of the original". It can be seen that Belinsky, like Pushkin, was also opposed to word-for-word rigid translations, his view being that the task of translating a language lies in reproducing the spirit of the original. He believed that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of a translation, so the question of the interrelationship between national character and translatability has always troubled Belinsky. He pointed out that 'there is only one rule for translating a literary work - to convey the spirit of the work being translated, and this can only be done by translating it into Russian as the author himself would have written it in Russian, if he had been Russian' (The Complete Works of Belinsky Volume 2).（Wang，Yulun＆Jiang,Wanzhu，1989：53-55）<br />
<br />
Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a number of achievements, and his view of translation as a whole is a complete and rigorous system. His view of translation was developed gradually, and in the process it was dominated by an increasingly firm recognition of the possibility of a successful solution to the task of translation, that is, of translatability. Belinsky believed that a translation must be discerning in its content and form in relation to the original. He has pointed out that "approaching the original is not the same as conveying the letters, but rather the spirit of the original." It is also suggested that the translator and the original author are two different kinds of people. But in order to convey the 'spirit' of the original in the translation, the translator's genius needs to reach a certain tacit understanding with this 'spirit'. He advocates the preservation of exoticism in translation, opposes naturalisation, the arbitrary distortion of the face of the original work, the overwhelming of the original author with the personality of the translator's style, the emphasis on both likeness and likeness, etc. However, while recognising the importance of reproducing the poetic form of the original work in translation, Belinsky also took into account the state of development of Russian literature in translation. This also led him to look favourably on translating good poetry in prose, seeing such translations as a form of transition for Russian readers to the treasures of world literature.（Wang＆Jiang，1989：53-55）<br />
<br />
Although Belinsky wrote little about literary translation, his theoretical views contain the kernel of the realist principles of translation proposed by contemporary Soviet literary translators. His ideas on translation had a very profound influence on the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period.Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Vissarion Grigorievich Belinsky (Виссарион Григорьевич Белинский, 1811-1848) was a famous literary critic of the nineteenth century and one of the most active in the world of translation among Russian literary activists of his time. Belinsky was fluent in French and when he was a young man he translated for two magazines, Miscellany and Telescope. Later, after a career in literary criticism, he published numerous articles on translation and criticism of translated works.<br />
<br />
Belinsky's and Pushkin's views on translation were very similar, both advocating that translations should not be word-for-word. Belinsky first introduced the term 'theory' of translation, and in his 1838 review of Polevoy's translation of Hamlet, he first proposed the need for a theory of translation. He considered the role of theory: "Any object that man perceives has a theory of its own, and a theory is the knowledge of the laws by which the object exists."<br />
<br />
Belinsky argues that in translation: "Closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original. Each language has its own distinctive expressions, characteristics and qualities; these are so distinctive that to correctly convey a certain image or sentence, it is sometimes necessary to change them completely in the translation. The corresponding image, like the corresponding sentence, does not necessarily lie in a superficial agreement of words: the inner life of the translation should be made to correspond to the inner life of the original". It can be seen that Belinsky, like Pushkin, was also opposed to word-for-word rigid translations, his view being that the task of translating a language lies in reproducing the spirit of the original. He believed that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of a translation, so the question of the interrelationship between national character and translatability has always troubled Belinsky. He pointed out that 'there is only one rule for translating a literary work - to convey the spirit of the work being translated, and this can only be done by translating it into Russian as the author himself would have written it in Russian, if he had been Russian' (The Complete Works of Belinsky Volume 2).<br />
<br />
Belinsky's career as a translator had a number of achievements, and his view of translation as a whole is a complete and rigorous system. His view of translation was developed gradually, and in this process it was dominated by an increasingly firm recognition of the possibility of a successful solution to the task of translation, that is, of translatability. Belinsky believed that a translation must be discerning in its content and form in relation to the original. He has pointed out that "approaching the original is not the same as conveying the letters, but rather the spirit of the original." It is also suggested that the translator and the original author are two different kinds of people. But in order to convey the 'spirit' of the original in the translation, the translator's genius needs to reach a certain tacit understanding with this 'spirit'. He advocates the preservation of exoticism in translation, opposes naturalisation, the arbitrary distortion of the face of the original work, the overwhelming of the original author with the personality of the translator's style, the emphasis on both likeness and likeness, etc. However, while recognising the importance of reproducing the poetic form of the original work in translation, Belinsky also took into account the state of development of Russian literature in translation. This also led him to look favourably on translating good poetry in prose, seeing such translations as a form of transition for Russian readers to the treasures of world literature.<br />
<br />
Although Belinsky wrote little about literary translation, his theoretical views contain the kernel of the realist principles of translation proposed by contemporary Soviet literary translators. His ideas on translation had a very profound influence on the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:56, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.Conclusion ===<br />
Translation has demonstrated its importance in social activity since antiquity, yet it was only in the twentieth century that it became a widely followed professional discipline. This article reviews Russian translation activity and translation thought in pre-Soviet Russia, exploring its development before the formation of a theoretical system. Throughout the history of translation, Russian scholars have contributed greatly to the development of translation literature in the world. Through combing through the history of Russian translation, we learn that the translation ideas of a number of outstanding writers, though not theoretical, have had an unmistakable impact on later generations. When discussing the translation ideas of 19th-century writers, we are inspired to insist on the principle that "closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original", emphasizing the ideological content and literary value of the translation, that the translation should serve the readers, and that the translation should be people-oriented. These ideas influenced, to a greater or lesser extent, the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, the study of the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia is not only conducive to sorting out Russian translation ideas Russian learners can better understand the characteristics of their translations when translating and improve the accuracy of their translations.Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:44, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Translation has played its important role in the social activities since antiquity, yet it was until in the twentieth century that it became a widely followed professional discipline. This paper reviews Russian translators and translation thoughts in pre-Soviet Russia, exploring its development before the formation of a theoretical system. Throughout the history of translation, Russian scholars have contributed greatly to the development of translation literature in the world. By combing through the history of Russian translation, we learn that the translation ideas of a number of outstanding writers, though not very theoretical, have had an unmistakable impact on later generations. When discussing the translation ideas of 19th-century writers, we are inspired to insist on the principle that "closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original", emphasizing the ideological content and literary value of the translation that the translation should serve the readers, and that the translation should be people-oriented. These ideas influenced, to a greater or lesser extent, the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, the study of the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia not only is conducive to sorting out Russian translation ideas, but also make Russian learners better understand the characteristics of their translations when translating and improving the accuracy of their translations. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 14:02, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.References ===<br />
1.Wu, Keli 吴克礼（2006）.俄苏翻译理论流派综述 The Translation Methods and Studies in USSR. 上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
2.Guo Lin 郭琳（2006）.俄罗斯语言学派翻译理论若干问题研究[D] A Study of Some Problems of Translation Theory of the Russian School of Philology.首都师范大学 Capital Normal University.<br />
<br />
3.Feng Xin 冯欣（2009）. 俄罗斯翻译理论史及其影响研究[D] A study of the history of Russian translation theory and its influence.上海外国语大学 Shanghai International Studies University.<br />
<br />
4.Wang，Yulun；Jiang,Wanzhu 王育伦,姜万砫（1989).别林斯基论文学翻译[J] Belinsky on Literary Translation .中国翻译 Chinese translators Journal ,(03):53-55.<br />
<br />
5.Li Zheng, Fan Min 李铮,范敏（2010）. 普希金与翻译[J] Pushkin and Translation. 现代交际 Modern Intercourse Journal,(05):69.</div>Zhang Yiranhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_5&diff=132666Hist Trans Theo EN 52021-12-14T03:31:38Z<p>Zhang Yiran: /* 3.1. Belinsky's ideas on translation. */</p>
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=Chapter 5 History of Translation Theories from Early Russia to the Soviet Union=<br />
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'''从古罗斯到苏联前的翻译理论史'''<br />
<br />
张怡然 Zhang Yiran,Hunan Normal University,China<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation as a means of intercultural communication, each country has a distinctive translation ideology. This article focuses on the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia. Through analyzing the history of translation, can find that Russia has formed a literary tradition of translation studies in the late 18th century. In the 19th century, Pushkin, Lermontov, Turgenev and other outstanding poets and literary scholars were keen on translation, especially in the middle of the century when Belinsky and other famous literary critics published a series of comments on literary translation, which emphasized the literary tradition of Russian translation to an unparalleled extent, which is rare in the history of translation in the world. The general principles of Russian literary translation thought were also formed during this period: namely, to insist on commenting on the merits of a translation in terms of the overall effect of the work, to emphasize the ideological content and literary value of the translation, and that the translation should serve the reader and be people-oriented. The above ideas influenced the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, a study of the history of translation theory in pre-Soviet Russia will help learners of Russian to better understand the characteristics of their translations and to improve the accuracy and peopleliness of their translations.Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 12:57, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation is a means of intercultural communication, and each country has its own distinctive translation theory system. This paper focuses on the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia. By analyzing the history of translation, it is obvious that a literary tradition of translation studies has been formed in Russia in the late 18th century. In the 19th century, Pushkin, Lermontov, Turgenev and other outstanding poets and literary scholars were keen on translation, especially in the middle of the century when Belinsky and other famous literary critics published a series of comments on literary translation, which emphasized the literary tradition of Russian translation to an unparalleled extent, which is rare in the history of translation in the world. The general principles of Russian literary translation thoughts were also formed during this period: namely, to insist on commenting on the merits and weakness of a translation in terms of the overall effect of the work, to emphasize the ideological content and literary value of the translation, and the translation should serve the reader and be people-oriented. The above ideas influenced the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, a study of the history of translation theory in pre-Soviet Russia will help learners of Russian to understand the characteristics of their translations profoundly and to improve the accuracy and fluency of their translations.Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:03, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation theories, Translation ideas，History of Translation<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译作为一种跨文化交际的手段，每个国家都有独具特色的翻译思想。本文主要探讨苏联前俄国的翻译历史。通过梳理其翻译史可发现，俄国于18世纪末期就已形成了翻译研究的文学传统。进入19世纪后, 普希金、莱蒙托夫、屠格涅夫等优秀诗人、文学家对翻译的热衷, 尤其是世纪中叶别林斯基等著名文学评论家发表一系列关于文学翻译的评论, 更是把俄国翻译的文学传统强调到无以复加的程度, 这在世界翻译史上都是罕见的。俄国文学翻译思想的总原则也在这一时期形成:即坚持从作品的整体效果上来评论译作优劣, 强调译作的思想内容和文学价值, 翻译应为读者服务, 译文应具有人民性。上述思想影响了苏联时期翻译理论的形成。因此，对苏联前俄国翻译理论史的研究有利于俄语学习者在翻译时更好的理解其翻译特点，提高翻译的准确性和人民性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译理论 翻译思想 翻译史 <br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
This essay provides a comprehensive and concise overview of the history of translation in Russia: Russian written translations began in the Kievan Rus' era, when religious subjects were the main focus of translations, especially the Bible, which was translated from Greek. Religious translations continued to flourish under the Moscow principality, represented by Maksim Gleick (МаксимГрек). At the same time, the national character of Russian translations began to emerge, and the languages of translation expanded from Greek to Latin, German and West Slavic, and the subjects covered included Western chivalric fiction, geographical literature, alchemy and medicine. In the eighteenth century, Peter the Great introduced a number of measures to focus on translation, making this period a turning point in the history of Russian translation. The proliferation of specialised translations (e.g. of legal texts) was the main feature of translation activity in the early eighteenth century. After this period Russian translators began to translate literary works.The main translators were Lomonosov (М.В. Ломоносов) and Tretyakovsky (V.K. Тредьяковский). In the second half of the eighteenth century, translation was given greater importance in Russia, and the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books was founded by Ekaterina II, in which a large number of outstanding translators emerged. The nineteenth century was a golden period in the history of Russian translation. Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин) and Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский) both produced many excellent translations. Pushkin (A.С.Пушкин) and Lermontov (M.Ю.Лермонтов) contributed greatly to the development of Russian literature in translation, while Fetter concentrated on love poetry. In the twentieth century, the Russian translation community made significant achievements in theoretical translation studies. In particular, the rapid development of the philological school and the debate between the literary and philological schools made Soviet translation theory one of the leading theories of translation in the world.(Guo Lin,2006:5)Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 12:57, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
This paper provides a comprehensive and concise overview of the history of translation in Russia: Russian written translations began in the Kievan Rus' era, when religious subjects were the main focus of translations, especially the Bible, translated from Greek. Religious translations continued to flourish under the Moscow principality, represented by Maksim Gleick (МаксимГрек). At the same time, the national character of Russian translations began to emerge, and the languages of translation expanded from Greek to Latin, German and West Slavic, and the subjects covered included Western chivalric fiction, geographical literature, alchemy and medicine. In the eighteenth century, Peter the Great introduced a number of measures to focus on translation, leading this period to a turning point in the history of Russian translation. The proliferation of specialised translations (e.g. of legal texts) was the main feature of translation activity in the early eighteenth century. After this period Russian translators began to translate literary works.The main translators were Lomonosov (М.В. Ломоносов) and Tretyakovsky (V.K. Тредьяковский). In the second half of the eighteenth century, translation was paid greater attention in Russia, and the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books was founded by Ekaterina II, in which a large number of outstanding translators emerged. The nineteenth century was a golden period in the history of Russian translation when Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин) and Rukovsky (В.А.Жуковский) both produced many excellent translations. Pushkin (A.С.Пушкин) and Lermontov (M.Ю.Лермонтов) contributed greatly to the development of Russian literature in translation, while Fetter concentrated on love poetry. In the twentieth century, the Russian translation community made significant achievements in theoretical translation studies. In particular, the rapid development of the philological school and the debate between the literary and philological schools made Soviet translation theory one of the leading theories of translation in the world. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:14, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===1.The history of Russian translation and the period of enlightenment of its translation theory. ===<br />
1. The emergence and development of literary translation.<br />
<br />
Translation activity has a long history in Russia, the beginnings of which can be traced back to the time of Kievan Rus'. A relatively sophisticated system of writing, literature and translation was already in place in ancient Russia in the ninth century AD. Frequent cultural and trade exchanges with Byzantine, German, French and Scandinavian countries contributed significantly to the development of translation in Russia at that time, as did contacts with Eastern countries. From Kievan Rus' onwards, Russian translation methods oscillated between two main tendencies, either to follow the original texts exactly, up to the point of translating them word for word, or to be arbitrary, even to the point of rewriting, adding or deleting at will. The first tendency is the main characteristic of translations of the Bible and other sacred books, while the second, though not absolute, can be said to characterize most secular works.(Feng Xin,2009:8)(Wu Keli,2006:4)<br />
<br />
2.Initiation of translation activities-religious translation. <br />
<br />
In 864 AD, the Byzantine king sent two Greek priests, Kirill (Кирилл) and Mephodi (Мефодий), to spread Christianity among the Slavic people. At the beginning of their mission, they created a new alphabet (now known as the Kirill alphabet) and used this writing system to translate many religious texts from Greek into the ancient Church Slavonic. Among the results were the New Testament, hymnals and prayer books.(Feng,2009:8)<br />
<br />
In 988 AD, Rus was baptised and Kievan Rus was converted to Christianity. A large number of translations appeared instantly to help Protestants become familiar with the new religious philosophy and ethical system and to understand the rituals and customs of the Church. These translations were in a variety of genres, including the Acts of the Saints, sermons, chronicles and so on. In addition, apocryphal books telling magical and fantastical stories were also popular, and some of them had similarities with the later 'fantasy novels'. Most of these translations were done in Bulgaria and were popularised in Rus. At that time, translations of religious texts were mostly word-for-word. There were also a small number of works that, unlike the 'elaborate copies of the original', had a separate literary value. In one case, a large number of details of Russian life were added to the storyline of a sermon (e.g. The Tales of Achild the Wise). In another case, military historical narratives are interspersed with the terminology of the ancient Russian feudal system and certain literary images from the stories of ancient Russian warriors (e.g. Joseph Flav's History of the Jewish War). This translation can be considered one of the most successful of the period. In the translation, the translator succeeded in avoiding many word-for-word translations). In a third case, the manuscripts copied by Ancient Rus, although based on Greek epic poetry (e.g. The Great Work of Digenes Akritas), often borrowed from Russian folk poetry, so that a large number of folk compositions appeared. As a result of this literary process, the translated literature was smoothly enriched by Russian manuscripts, which contributed to the development of original Russian literature and consolidated its links with the medieval literary process. Unfortunately, at that early stage in the development of translation, the translators were not signed, so it is impossible to verify whether the works were translated at home or abroad.(Feng,2009:9) <br />
<br />
During the difficult period of 'Mongol rule' (1228-1480), translations continued to play an important role in the cultural life of the country. The remaining chapters of the Bible were translated one after another, and previous translations were again proofread and revised. In addition to religious translations, more translations of non-religious subjects emerge, such as The Kingdom of India and The Trojan War. Most of the works were still translated from Greek, while works probably translated from Latin and ancient Hebrew also appeared. During this period, Russian began to take shape through the interaction of Old Slavonic (Church Slavonic) and local national languages. However, religious texts were still only translated into Church Slavonic, and the use of this language was by then restricted to ecclesiastical matters. At the same time, political and commercial exchanges with other countries were more likely to be in Russian, which was becoming increasingly sophisticated: elements of the combination of Old Slavonic and Russian can also be found in original works.（Wu,2006:6)<br />
<br />
14-15th century literature in translation by Rus was characterised by an obsession with new themes. These were mainly new works of tranquillity-abstinence literature, or works recommended by and familiar to the tranquillists. This mystical genre was introduced to Rus after it had swept through the Byzantine and Yugoslav peoples. It was reflected in the semi-secular translations popular at the time (for example, The Trojan War). <br />
<br />
In the 16th century AD, Moscow eventually became the political centre of Russia, as well as the translation centre of the country. In 1515, the Grand Duke of Moscow, Vassily III (Василий Ⅲ), asked a Greek monastery to send a learned translator to Moscow. This man, who accompanied the Greek mission to Moscow in 1516, was the historically famous Maksim Gleick (Максим Грек). Maksim Gleick worked as a translator throughout his life, studying most of the religious texts and some of the non-religious works during this period. In addition, he also proofread and annotated previously existing translations.(Wu,2006:7) <br />
<br />
At the beginning, Maksim knew neither Russian nor Old Slavonic, so he divided the translation into two steps: first, he translated from Greek to Latin, and then his assistant translated from Latin to Old Slavonic. In the process of revising existing translations, he often broke with established tradition and was therefore denounced as blasphemous. Maksim was also a prolific writer, educator and philosopher. His writings contain many insights into the art of translation - the earliest recorded treatise on translation in Russia. Maksim insisted that the original text must be carefully analysed in order to grasp its full subtleties and implications. Therefore, the translator must not only master the language of the original, but also have a broad knowledge of the language and prepare for the translation. To support his argument, Maksim used Greek lexicography, phonetic organisation and phonetics involved in translation. His other major contribution was the compilation of a dictionary containing Greek, Latin and Hebrew nouns, which was also the first of its kind in Russian history. Although it was recognised at the time that translators should have a command of both languages as well as a profound background knowledge, the practitioners of translation at the time lacked the necessary qualities and their translations were not as good as they could have been.(Wu,2006:7)Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 13:39, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
1. The emergence and development of literary translation. <br />
<br />
Translation activity has a long history in Russia, the beginnings of which can be traced back to the Time of Kievan Rus'. A relatively sophisticated system of writing, literature and translation was already in ancient Russia in the ninth century AD. Frequent cultural and trade exchanges with Byzantine, German, French and Scandinavian countries contributed significantly to the development of translation in Russia at that time, as did contacts with Eastern countries. From Kievan Rus' onwards, Russian translation methods oscillated between two main tendencies, either to follow the original texts exactly, up to the point of translating them word by word, or to be arbitrary, even to the point of rewriting, adding words or deleting at will. The first tendency is the main characteristic of translations of the Bible and other sacred books, while the second, though not absolutely, can be said to characterize most secular works.<br />
<br />
2.Initiation of translation activities-religious translation. <br />
<br />
In 864 AD, the Byzantine king sent two Greek priests, Kirill (Кирилл) and Mephodi (Мефодий), to spread Christianity among the Slavic people. At the beginning of their mission, they created a new alphabet (now known as the Kirill alphabet) and used this writing system to translate many religious texts from Greek into the ancient Church Slavonic. Among the results were the New Testament, hymnals and prayer books. In 988 AD, Rus was baptised and Kievan Rus was converted to Christianity. A large number of translations appeared instantly to help Protestants become familiar with the new religious philosophy and ethical system and to understand the rituals and customs of the Church. These translations were in a variety of genres, including the Acts of the Saints, sermons, chronicles and so on. In addition, apocryphal books telling magical and fantastical stories were also popular, and some of them had similarities with the later 'fantasy novels'. Most of these translations were done in Bulgaria and were popularised in Rus. At that time, translations of religious texts were mostly word-for-word. There were also a small number of works that, unlike the 'elaborate copies of the original', had a separate literary values. In one case, a large number of details of Russian life were added to the storyline of a sermon (e.g. The Tales of Achild the Wise). In another case, military historical narratives are interspersed with the terminology of the ancient Russian feudal system and certain literary images from the stories of ancient Russian warriors (e.g. Joseph Flav's History of the Jewish War). This translation can be considered one of the most successful of the period. In the translation, the translator succeeded in avoiding many word-for-word translations). Thirdly, the manuscripts copied by Ancient Rus, although based on Greek epic poetry (e.g. The Great Work of Digenes Akritas), often borrowed from Russian folk poetry, so that a large number of folk compositions appeared. As a result of this literary process, the translated literature was smoothly enriched by Russian manuscripts, which contributed to the development of original Russian literature and consolidated its links with the medieval literary process. Unfortunately, at that early stage in the development of translation, the translators were not signed, so it is impossible to verify whether the works were translated at home or abroad. During the difficult period of 'Mongol rule' (1228-1480), translations continued to play an important role in the cultural life of the country. The remaining chapters of the Bible were translated one after another, and previous translations were again proofread and revised. In addition to religious translations, more translations of non-religious subjects emerge, such as The Kingdom of India and The Trojan War. Most of the works were still translated from Greek, while works probably translated from Latin and ancient Hebrew also appeared. During this period, Russian began to take shape through the interaction of Old Slavonic (Church Slavonic) and local national languages. However, religious texts were still only translated into Church Slavonic, and the use of this language was by then restricted to ecclesiastical matters. At the same time, political and commercial exchanges with other countries were more likely to be in Russian, which was becoming increasingly sophisticated: elements of the combination of Old Slavonic and Russian can also be found in original works. 14-15th century literature in translation by Rus was characterised by an obsession with new themes. These were mainly new works of tranquillity-abstinence literature, or works recommended by and familiar to the tranquillists. This mystical genre was introduced to Rus after it had swept through the Byzantine and Yugoslav peoples. It was reflected in the semi-secular translations popular at the time (for example, The Trojan War). In the 16th century AD, Moscow eventually became the political center of Russia, as well as the translation center of the country. In 1515, the Grand Duke of Moscow, Vassily III (Василий Ⅲ), asked a Greek monastery to send a learned translator to Moscow. This man, who accompanied the Greek mission to Moscow in 1516, was the historically famous Maksim Grek (Максим Грек). Maxim Greek worked as a translator throughout his life, studying most of the religious texts and some of the non-religious works during this period. In addition, he also proofread and annotated previously existing translations. At the beginning, Maxim knew neither Russian nor Old Slavonic, so he divided the translation into two steps: first, he translated from Greek to Latin, and then his assistant translated from Latin to Old Slavonic. In the process of revising existing translations, he often broke with established tradition and was therefore denounced as blasphemous. Maxim was also a prolific writer, educator and philosopher. His writings contain many insights into the art of translation - the earliest recorded treatise on translation in Russia. Maxim insisted that the original text must be carefully analysed in order to grasp its full subtleties and implications. Therefore, the translator must not only master the language of the original, but also have a broad knowledge of the language and prepare for the translation. To support his argument, Maxim used Greek lexicography, phonetic organisation and phonetics involved in translation. His other major contribution was the compilation of a dictionary containing Greek, Latin and Hebrew nouns, which was also the first of its kind in Russian history. Although it was recognized at the time that translators should have a command of both languages and profound background knowledge, the practitioners of translation at the time lacked the necessary qualities and their translations were not as good as they should have been. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. Overview of the Russian school of Translation. ===<br />
===2.1 18th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The eighteenth century is an important period in the history of Russian translation. The status of translation in social culture has undergone a qualitative change, and this is due to Peter the Great's reform. At the beginning of the century, translation was still mostly related to professional documents such as laws and contracts. Later, the translator's tentacles gradually expanded to literary translation, for example, French poetry translation. The famous translators of this period are Sumarokov(А.П.Сумароков), Lomonosov(М.В.Ломоносов), Tretyakovsky (В.К.Тредьяковский) and so on. In the second half of the 18th century, the Association for the Translation of Foreign Books officially put forward the importance of translation. The organization has been active for 15 years with over 100 members.（Wu,2006:10)<br />
<br />
1.Imperial support for translation. The political reforms introduced by Peter the Great also led to intensive economic and cultural exchanges between Russia and European countries. This created a huge demand for translations of scientific and technical literature and literary works. Translators were required to produce works of a high standard.<br />
<br />
Peter the Great issued a special decree on translation, requiring "faithful" communication of the original text. In a directive issued to his subordinates in 1709, he explicitly stated that when translating foreign books, word-for-word translations were to be avoided and that the content of the original text should be clearly expressed in one's own language, based on an understanding of its content. On the other hand, Peter the Great's subversion of the written language initially caused confusion in Russian translation circles. A large number of foreign languages entered the Russian language, and the piles of foreign syntactic structures distracted attention. In any case, Peter the Great's reforms did set a new norm and a new direction for translation.(Wu,2006:11)<br />
<br />
In terms of content, Peter the Great's reforms were, from the very beginning, inextricably linked to the translation of scientific and technical texts, such as the many books on military defence engineering that he ordered to be translated and used to strengthen Russia's military forces. Peter the Great also placed great importance on the translation of prose, poetry and other literary works. During this period, the Russian language began to develop its own literary model, and many educated Russians saw translation as a way of enriching the language and enhancing its uniqueness and expressiveness. <br />
<br />
From around the 1830s, the importance of translating Western European scientific and technical texts gradually gave way to literary works such as prose and poetry. Writers who were also translators turned their attention to the work of new Western European writers, mainly poets, especially French poets. At the same time, the legacy of the Greco-Roman period also entered their minds. They began to translate the works of philosophers and historians, which - on the one hand - gave rise to difficulties in literary rhetoric and scientific terminology and, on the other, played an important role in the formation of a standard Russian language.(Feng,2009:10)(Guo,2006:8) <br />
<br />
From that time onwards, translation also became an organised activity, with the emergence of specific bodies responsible for the organisation and management of translation work. 1735 saw the establishment of the first specialised translation organisation, the Russian Society, at the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences. The Society had a professional group of translators and some of the academy's scholars, such as Lomonosov and Tretyakovsky, were among its members. The Association was responsible for selecting works, defining the rules or principles of translation, commenting on translations, and training translators. It is worth mentioning that the Academy of Sciences also set up a school of foreign languages to train official translators. In 1748, the Academy implemented Queen Elizabeth's decree to increase the number of translations of non-religious books and publicly appealed to "the nobility and other classes of intellectuals" to take an active part in the translation process.(Guo,2006:8)(Feng,2009:10) <br />
<br />
In the second half of the 18th century, Ekaterina II's efforts to create a 'civilised state' not only led to the development of literature, but also gave preferential treatment to writers. For example, in order to select the best original texts, she ordered the establishment of the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books (1768 - 1783). The Society was dedicated to providing excellent conditions for translation work throughout Russia. The purchase of manuscripts was financed out of Ekaterina's own funds. Later, the Society also discussed a proposal to establish a translation bureau under the Academy of Sciences (1790). The 114 members of the Society included such notable figures as Tretyakovsky, Sumarokov and Radishev. For 14 years the Association was active, producing numerous literary translations and likewise contributing to the discussion of theoretical issues in translation.(Guo,2006:9)<br />
<br />
2.The emergence of poetry translation. Translation of poetry also developed in Russia in the 18th century, and later became one of the jewels of the country's literature. The great Russian scholar and poet Lomonosov was a major contributor to this process. A great deal of the work created by Lomonosov and his contemporaries Sumarokov and Tretyakovsky was poetry in translation. They often translated while exploring theoretical issues in translation: they would explain in their works why they translated this way and not that way; they stressed the importance of translation work and the creative value it contained. Among the most prestigious writers and translators in Russian literature at the time, there were several interesting competitions in which two or three poets translated the same work at the same time, and their translations were published in journals. It was often the case that different translations of the same work were published at the same time, without the translator's name, for the judgement of "literary lovers and peers". This phenomenon also supports the idea that the 18th century was a period of 'experimentation' in the history of Russian translation.(Feng,2006:11) <br />
<br />
Lomonosov's translations from Latin, German, French and Greek are numerous and varied, showing his talent for both rhyming and free verse. He was keen to reproduce the rhythmic structure of the original texts, using a variety of iambic and iambic meter to convey the Alexandrian style of French epic and the hexameter style of Greek tragedy. Russian poetry was not very developed at the time and was still based on syllables. <br />
Lomonosov's innovations enriched Russian poetry and established new forms and traditions of Russian poetic style and rhyme. <br />
<br />
In contrast, Kantymir (Д.М.Кантемира) and Tretyakovsky's greatest quest was to insist on a faithful translation of the original. In the process, the translators had to contend with the problems of reams of vocabulary and rhetorical rules. Tretyakovsky became famous for his successful use of Russian rhyme to translate many verses of the original in his translation of Paul Thielmann's A Journey to Love Island. In the introduction to the novel, the translator states his approach to translation: "The translator is only one person away from the author. I would add that if the author is original, the translator should be even more original (I am not referring to myself, but to a good translator)". He believes that "prose to prose" and "poetry to poetry" can be as good as the original, and that a good translation is one that "describes the full meaning of each verse". Kantymir 's translation of Horace's Letters and other poetic works in Latin and French, although less well-known than the former, is equally valuable.(Wu,2006:16) Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:40, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The eighteenth century is an important period in the history of Russian translation. The status of translation in social culture has undergone a qualitative change, and this is due to Peter the Great's reform. At the beginning of the century, translation was still mostly related to professional documents such as laws and contracts. Later, the translator's tentacles gradually expanded to literary translation, for example, French poetry translation. The famous translators of this period are Sumarokov(А.П.Сумароков), Lomonosov(М.В.Ломоносов), Tretyakovsky (В.К.Тредьяковский) and so on. In the second half of the 18th century, the Association for the Translation of Foreign Books officially put forward the importance of translation. The organization has been active for 15 years with over 100 members. The following points reflected the reasons why translation was paid more attention in the eighteenth century.<br />
<br />
1.Imperial support for translation. <br />
<br />
The political reforms introduced by Peter the Great also led to intensive economic and cultural exchanges between Russia and European countries. This created a huge demand for translations of scientific and technical literature and literary works. Translators were required to produce works of a high standard.Peter the Great issued a special decree on translation, requiring "faithful" communication of the original text. In a directive issued to his subordinates in 1709, he explicitly stated that when translating foreign books, word-for-word translations were to be avoided and that the content of the original text should be clearly expressed in one's own language, based on an understanding of its content. On the other hand, Peter the Great's subversion of the written language initially caused confusion in Russian translation circles. A large number of foreign languages entered the Russian language, and the piles of foreign syntactic structures distracted attention. In any case, Peter the Great's reforms did set a new norm and a new direction for translation. In terms of content, Peter the Great's reforms were, from the very beginning, inextricably linked to the translation of scientific and technical texts, such as the many books on military defence engineering that he ordered to be translated and used to strengthen Russia's military forces. Peter the Great also placed great importance on the translation of prose, poetry and other literary works. During this period, the Russian language began to develop its own literary model, and many educated Russians saw translation as a way of enriching the language and enhancing its uniqueness and expressiveness. <br />
<br />
From around the 1830s, the importance of translating Western European scientific and technical texts gradually gave way to literary works such as prose and poetry. Writers who were also translators turned their attention to the work of new Western European writers, mainly poets, especially French poets. At the same time, the legacy of the Greco-Roman period also entered their minds. They began to translate the works of philosophers and historians, which - on the one hand - gave rise to difficulties in literary rhetoric and scientific terminology and, on the other, played an important role in the formation of a standard Russian language. <br />
<br />
From that time onwards, translation also became an organised activity, with the emergence of specific bodies responsible for the organisation and management of translation work. 1735 saw the establishment of the first specialised translation organisation, the Russian Society, at the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences. The Society had a professional group of translators and some of the academy's scholars, such as Lomonosov and Tretyakovsky, were among its members. The Association was responsible for selecting works, defining the rules or principles of translation, commenting on translations, and training translators. It is worth mentioning that the Academy of Sciences also set up a school of foreign languages to train official translators. In 1748, the Academy implemented Queen Elizabeth's decree to increase the number of translations of non-religious books and publicly appealed to "the nobility and other classes of intellectuals" to take an active part in the translation process. <br />
<br />
In the second half of the 18th century, Ekaterina II's efforts to create a 'civilised state' not only led to the development of literature, but also gave preferential treatment to writers. For example, in order to select the best original texts, she ordered the establishment of the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books (1768-1783). The Society was dedicated to providing excellent conditions for translation work throughout Russia. The purchase of manuscripts was financed out of Ekaterina's own funds. Later, the Society also discussed a proposal to establish a translation bureau under the Academy of Sciences (1790). The 114 members of the Society included such notable figures as Tretyakovsky, Sumarokov and Radishev. For 14 years the Association was active, producing numerous literary translations and likewise contributing to the discussion of theoretical issues in translation.<br />
<br />
2.The emergence of poetry translation.<br />
<br />
Translation of poetry also developed in Russia in the 18th century, and later became one of the jewels of the country's literature. The great Russian scholar and poet Lomonosov was a major contributor to this process. A great deal of the work created by Lomonosov and his contemporaries Sumarokov and Tretyakovsky was poetry in translation. They often translated while exploring theoretical issues in translation: they would explain in their works why they translated this way and not that way; they stressed the importance of translation work and the creative value it contained. Among the most prestigious writers and translators in Russian literature at the time, there were several interesting competitions in which two or three poets translated the same work at the same time, and their translations were published in journals. It was often the case that different translations of the same work were published at the same time, without the translator's name, for the judgement of "literary lovers and peers". This phenomenon also supports the idea that the 18th century was a period of 'experimentation' in the history of Russian translation. <br />
<br />
Lomonosov's translations works in Latin, German, French and Greek are numerous and varied, showing his talent for both rhyming and free verse. He was keen to reproduce the rhythmic structure of the original texts, using a variety of iambic and iambic meter to convey the Alexandrian style of French epic and the hexameter style of Greek tragedy. Russian poetry was not very developed at the time and was still based on syllables. <br />
Lomonosov's innovations enriched Russian poetry and established new forms and traditions of Russian poetic style and rhyme. <br />
<br />
In contrast, Kantymir (Д.М.Кантемира) and Tretyakovsky's greatest quest was to insist on a faithful translation of the original. In the process, the translators had to contend with the problems of reams of vocabulary and rhetorical rules. Tretyakovsky became famous for his successful use of Russian rhyme to translate many verses of the original in his translation of Paul Thielmann's A Journey to Love Island. In the introduction to the novel, the translator states his approach to translation: "The translator is only one person away from the author. I would add that if the author is original, the translator should be even more original (I am not referring to myself, but to a good translator)". He believes that "prose to prose" and "poetry to poetry" can be as good as the original, and that a good translation is one that "describes the full meaning of each verse". Kantymir 's translation of Horace's Letters and other poetic works in Latin and French, although less well-known than the former, is equally valuable. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 12:39, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.2 First half of the19th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The nineteenth century was a golden age in the history of Russian translation. If translation had established itself as a profession in the first hundred years, it was elevated to the level of art in this century. The nineteenth century produced a number of masters of translation, including Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин), Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский), Pushkin (А.С.Пушкин), Lermontov (М.Ю.Лермонтов) and Fetter (А.Фет).(Wu,2006:23)<br />
<br />
The new Russian school of translation owes its formation to the historian Nikolai Karamzin and the poet Zhukovsky. Karamzin published a number of translations in several magazines between the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century. He saw translations as a good help in perfecting a writer's style: a source of information that would satisfy human curiosity, inform historical facts, entertain women and provide material for new magazines. As a young man, Karamzin was strongly opposed to the alteration of and disloyalty to the original texts, but later became a champion of free translation, famously saying: "Whoever follows the author of the original text step by step is no different from a servant who serves his lord". Karamzin's translations cover an admirable range of genres and languages: he translated works by both classical and contemporaneous authors, in Greek, French, Latin, German, English, Italian and some Oriental languages.(Feng,2009:12)<br />
<br />
Pushkin called Zhukovsky "a genius of translation". After graduating from the Moscow Noble Boarding University in 1802, Zhukovsky devoted himself to translation. It was thanks to his efforts that Russian readers were able to access the works of world literary giants such as Schiller, Goethe, Byron and Walters Scott. Zhukovsky's creative translation activities also ranged from Charles Bello to Grimm's Fairy Tales. From Charles Bellow to Grimm's fairy tales, from Homer's epic Odyssey to the poetic history of ancient Rus' Igor's Expedition, all became his original texts. There is no denying that Zhukovsky is a master in the history of Russian translation. Like Karamzin, Zhukovsky was a fan of free translation, sometimes rewriting the original or even creating a new story from its subject: sometimes transferring the setting of events to Russia and giving Russian names to the characters. For example, in his 1808 translation of the German Romantic poet Bilge's narrative poem Lenore, he changed the heroine's name from Lenore to Lyudmila and moved the story to the time of the Livonian War in 16th-century Russia. Zhukovsky believed that the "unsavoury character" of the work should be weakened while retaining the original author's ideas. His talent enabled him to reproduce the style, rhythm and tone of the original poems, while some of his best works were also faithful to the original. In later years, however, his view of translation changed in response to the tendency to stay close to the original, and he retranslated several of his previous translations to make them more faithful to the original, including Lenore. The Russian school of translation owes much to the tradition of translation created by Zhukovsky.(Wu,2006:24-30)(Feng,2009:13)(Guo,2006:9)<br />
<br />
Pushkin and Lermontov are also two poets who set the stage for an epoch in the history of Russian translation. Although only a small proportion of their poetry was translated, they made a significant contribution to the improvement of the art of translation in Russia. In their rewriting and imitation of poetry, they were able to reproduce the most important features of foreign poetry, the key point being that their creative translations were no less valuable in their own right than the originals. Their free translation became a model for other translators, and in addition they established the important principle that a good artistic translation must also be a good work in the national literature of the translated language. Pushkin played an indelibly important role in the development of the Russian school of translation. He was always interested in the question of translation, and his critical views on translation were objective and profound. Before translation he stressed the importance of the choice of the original work, and in translation he demanded that the translator should be faithful to the original, while at the same time displaying his deep creative skills and his own literary style. In one of his unfinished posthumous works, 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', Pushkin wrote: 'Chateaubriand's translation (verbatim) compensates to some extent for the faults of the young French writers (free translation), for they have insulted the great man very cruelly, though in a perfectly innocent manner. There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own rhetorical conventions, its own way of expressing itself, and it is impossible to translate into another language with the corresponding vocabulary". These insights had a positive impact on the best Russian translators of the 19th and 20th centuries. In addition, Pushkin's discussion of translation coincided with a turning point in the history of Russian literature, when the Romantic era was being replaced by a new era with a predominantly realist orientation, and a process of 'separation' between translated and national literature was under way. Pushkin's discussion of the work of the translator as distinct from that of the writer contributed to the independence of literature in translation from indigenous literature.(Guo,2006:10)(Wu,2006:37-41) <br />
<br />
During this period, while most people advocated free translation, there were a few translators who insisted on maximum fidelity to the original and advocated the word-for-word method, even at the expense of the work's willingness to be translated. Among these were such well-known writers as P.A. Vyazemsky (П.А.Вяземский) and N.I. Gnedzic (Н.И.Гнедич). In fact, they did not always live up to their principles, and sometimes their talent and artistic intuition ended up breaking the bonds of verbatim translation. Vyazemsky's translations of Benjamin Constant and Adam Mickiewicz were not without literary and artistic merit, and his translation of Homer's epic Iliad in particular was highly praised by Pushkin. It was Fetter who was the most insistent on the idea of a verbatim translation. Fetter translated many famous works, and his philosophy throughout was one of sentence-for-sentence, word-for-word translation, retaining all the words of the original. Fetter's extreme word-for-word approach had a negative impact on most of his translations, although he was sometimes able to come up with some effective methods of translation.(Feng,2009:14) <br />
<br />
Free translations were also sometimes used to promote democratic ideas in the original that could not pass official scrutiny. A number of translators, such as V. Kurochkin (В.Курочкин), D. M. Minayev (Д.Минаев) and M. M. Mikhalov (М.Михайлов), achieved this by selecting appropriate original works or by using texts in their translations that were superficially imperceptible in their allusion to the conditions in Russia at the time. It was from that time onwards that the use of translation as a weapon to express dissent became part of the Russian tradition.(Feng,2009:14) Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:41, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The nineteenth century was the golden age in the history of Russian translation. If translation had established its status in the first hundred years, it was elevated to the level of art in this century. The nineteenth century produced a number of masters of translation, including Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин), Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский), Pushkin (А.С.Пушкин), Lermontov (М.Ю.Лермонтов) and Fetter (А.Фет). <br />
<br />
The new Russian school of translation owes its formation to the publishment of a number of translations of historian Nikolai Karamzin and the poet Zhukovsky. Karamzin in several magazines between the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century. He regarded translation as a good help in perfecting a writer's style: a source of information that satisfies human curiosity, informs historical facts, entertains women and provides materials for new magazines. As a young man, Karamzin was strongly opposed to the disloyalty to the original texts, but later became a champion of free translation. His famous saying was: "Whoever follows the author of the original text step by step is no different from a servant who serves his lord". Karamzin's translations cover an admirable range of genres and languages: he translated works by both classical and contemporaneous authors, in Greek, French, Latin, German, English, Italian and some Oriental languages. <br />
<br />
Pushkin called Zhukovsky "a genius of translation". After graduating from the Moscow Noble Boarding University in 1802, Zhukovsky devoted himself to translation. It was thanks to his efforts that Russian readers were able to access the works of world literary giants such as Schiller, Goethe, Byron and Walters Scott. Zhukovsky's creative translation activities also ranged from Charles Bello to Grimm's Fairy Tales. From Charles Bellow to Grimm's fairy tales, from Homer's epic Odyssey to the poetic history of ancient Rus' Igor's Expedition, all became his original texts. There is no denying that Zhukovsky is a master in the history of Russian translation. Like Karamzin, Zhukovsky was a fan of free translation, who sometimes rewrites the original or even creates a new story from its subject, transfers the setting of events to Russia and gives Russian names to the characters. For example, in his 1808 translation of the German Romantic poet Bilge's narrative poem Lenore, he changed the heroine's name from Lenore to Lyudmila and moved the story to the time of the Livonian War in 16th-century Russia. Zhukovsky believed that the "unsavoury character" of the work should be weakened while retaining the original author's ideas. His talent enabled him to reproduce the style, rhythm and tone of the original poems, while some of his best works were also faithful to the original. In later years, however, his view of translation changed in response to the tendency to stay close to the original, and he retranslated several of his previous translations to make them more faithful to the original, including Lenore. The Russian school of translation owes much to the tradition of translation created by Zhukovsky.<br />
<br />
Pushkin and Lermontov are also two poets who gave perfect preparations for an epoch in the history of Russian translation. Although only a small proportion of their poetry was translated, they made a significant contribution to the improvement of the art of translation in Russia. In their rewriting and imitation of poetry, they were able to reproduce the most important features of foreign poetry, the key point being that their creative translations were no less valuable in their own right than the originals. Their free translation became a model for other translators, and in addition they established the important principle that a good artistic translation must also be a good work in the national literature of the translated language. Pushkin played an indelibly important role in the development of the Russian school of translation. He was always interested in the question of translation, and his critical views on translation were objective and profound. Before translation he stressed the importance of the choice of the original work, and in translation he demanded that the translator should be faithful to the original, while at the same time displaying his deep creative skills and his own literary style. In one of his unfinished posthumous works, 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', Pushkin wrote: 'Chateaubriand's translation (verbatim) compensates to some extent for the faults of the young French writers (free translation), for they have insulted the great man very cruelly, though in a perfectly innocent manner. There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own rhetorical conventions, its own way of expressing itself, and it is impossible to translate into another language with the corresponding vocabulary". These insights had a positive impact on the best Russian translators of the 19th and 20th centuries. In addition, Pushkin's discussion of translation coincided with a turning point in the history of Russian literature, when the Romantic era was being replaced by a new era with a predominantly realist orientation, and a process of 'separation' between translated and national literature was under way. Pushkin's discussion of the work of the translator as distinct from that of the writer contributed to the independence of literature in translation from indigenous literature. <br />
<br />
During this period, while most people advocated free translation, there were a few translators who insisted on maximum fidelity to the original and advocated the word-for-word method, even at the expense of the work's willingness to be translated. Among these were such well-known writers as P.A. Vyazemsky (П.А.Вяземский) and N.I. Gnedzic (Н.И.Гнедич). In fact, they did not always live up to their principles, and sometimes their talent and artistic intuition ended up breaking the bonds of verbatim translation. Vyazemsky's translations of Benjamin Constant and Adam Mickiewicz were not without literary and artistic merit, and his translation of Homer's epic Iliad in particular was highly praised by Pushkin. It was Fetter who was the most insistent on the idea of a verbatim translation. Fetter translated many famous works, and his philosophy throughout was one of sentence-for-sentence, word-for-word translation, retaining all the words of the original. Fetter's extreme word-for-word approach had a negative impact on most of his translations, although he was sometimes able to come up with some effective methods of translation. <br />
<br />
Free translations were also used to promote democratic ideas in original that could not pass official scrutiny. A number of translators, such as V. Kurochkin (В.Курочкин), D. M. Minayev (Д.Минаев) and M. M. Mikhalov (М.Михайлов), achieved this by selecting appropriate original works or by using texts in their translations that were superficially imperceptible in their allusion to the conditions in Russia at the time. It was since then that the use of translation was used as a weapon to express dissent became part of the Russian tradition. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:05, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.3 Second half of the19th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The mid-nineteenth century was a period of increasingly intense political and ideological struggle in Russian literature, and a great debate raged in the Russian literary world over the question of 'art for the people' or 'art for art's sake'. The debate was mainly about the choice of material for translation and the method of translation. As far as the choice of material was concerned, the democratic and revolutionary writers who supported 'art for the people' chose to translate works with progressive ideological content and a democratic orientation, such as Heine. The aristocratic and liberal intellectual writers, on the other hand, opted for philosophical poetry with a chanting and individualistic feel. Of course, this is not absolute: "Mikhailov and Dobrolyubov of the democratic revolutionary school also translated Heine's moody love poems The Songbook, while Tolstoy of the aristocratic and liberal school translated some of Goethe's more progressive poems, such as The Fiancée of Corinth and The Whore of God. In terms of their approach to translation, the Democratic-Revolutionary translators, based on the reproduction of the original as a whole, approached their translations very liberally, even adding in many elements typical of Russian culture. The latter, on the other hand, usually adopted a direct translation, focusing on conveying the formal details of the original work. This divergence was mainly due to the different starting points of the two groups of translators, with the democratic revolutionaries seeking to convey advanced ideas to the Russian general public and the aristocratic intellectuals believing that works of art were irrelevant to the people and that artistic creations should not be exposed to "vulgar" reality.(Feng,2009:14-15)<br />
<br />
There were a large number of outstanding literary writers and literary critics who made brilliant statements about literary translation in that era, none more so than Belinsky (В.Г.Белинский), Chernyshevsky (Н.Г.Черныщевский) and Dubrolyovsky (Н.Г.Добролюбов). Belinsky was one of the greatest Russian literary critics of the 19th century. He believed that translations should not be word-for-word, but should reproduce the spirit of the original, in much the same way as Pushkin's view of translation theory. On the other hand, he also opposed arbitrary 'paraphrasing': the ideal translation should not add or delete arbitrarily to the original text, but should enable the reader to understand the foreign work truly and accurately through the translation. Such a viewpoint seems to us to be quite convincing even now. Belinsky played a decisive role in completely burying the 'rewriting' and 'adapting it to Russian custom' arguments. This issue dominates his writings. He argues that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of the translation, and this is one of the criteria by which he judges its merits. He points out, for example, that the greatest strength of Gnedzic's translation of the Iliad is that it "exudes the atmosphere of ancient life" and "the spirit of the ancient Greeks". However, the contradiction between national identity and translatability was once a problem for Belinsky. Initially believing that it was impossible to translate works with a strong national character into other languages, he was only convinced by the success of Turgenev's collaboration with Louis Viardot in translating Gogol's novels into French in 1846, and then became increasingly determined to recognise translatability in translation. Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a series of revisions that led to a complete and rigorous system of translation theory, the first of its kind in the history of Russian translation theory.(Wu,2006:58-61)(Feng,2009:15)<br />
<br />
Translation in Russia developed in the second half of the 19th century. From the 1960s onwards, the Russian readership of non-language speakers began to expand, and these readers were keen to see the translation 'replace' the original. This demand led to an unprecedented expansion in the choice of subjects and translations of Russian literature. Interest in foreign theatrical works was particularly high at this stage, and a strong interest in European classical literature also developed. Dickens, Saclay, Victor Hugo, Dumas, Balzac, Flaubert, Tudor, Maupassant and Zola, as well as lesser-known writers of today, were successively brought to the attention of a wide range of Russian readers in the form of translations. At that time, European theatre classics like Shakespeare's plays were translated into Russia in large numbers. Many professional translators were involved, the most successful being the translator P.N.V. Weinberg. He translated foreign literature from the standpoint of progressive Russian literature of the time. His translation of Othello, for example, is notable for its vividness in the Russian language, and has always been recognised as the best translation in terms of conveying the totality of scenes, plots and long dialogues, even though the translation is wordy compared to the original.(Feng,2009:15-16)<br />
<br />
Although there has been a quantitative surge in translations of Russian literature during this period, the quality has generally been poor, manifesting itself in word-for-word translations, redundant sentences and poor vocabulary, not to mention inventiveness. In addition, the language of the characters in the translation is heavily Russified, with Russian proverbs, sayings and idioms that the foreign characters could never have known, and the introduction of Russian-specific life circumstances that cause contradictions with the plot and details of the original work. For example, В Тулу со своим самоваром ехать (Bring your own samovar to Tula - it's superfluous). The reason for this is that the literary world did not attach much importance to the translation of fiction and prose, and there were no specialists working on this task. Another point is that at this stage there was little progress in the study of Russian translation theory, and no valuable theoretical insights emerged. The linguist A.A. Потебня (1835-1891) expressed his views on translation from a psychological standpoint in his essay "Language and Peopleliness ". In his view, it was impossible to express in another language what was originally intended to be expressed in a certain language. He, like many other literary scholars, denied the translatability of language.(Feng,2006:16)(Guo,2006:11)Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:41, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The mid-nineteenth century was a period of increasingly intensively political and ideological struggle in Russian literature, and a great debate raged in the Russian literary world over the question of 'art for the people' or 'art for art's sake'. The debate was mainly about the choice of materials for translation and the methods of translation. As far as the choice of material was concerned, the democratic and revolutionary writers who supported 'art for the people' chose to translate works with progressive ideological content and a democratic orientation, such as Heine. The aristocratic and liberal intellectual writers, on the other hand, opted for philosophical poetry with a chanting and individualistic feel. It's undoubtful that this is not absolute: "Mikhailov and Dobrolyubov of the democratic revolutionary school also translated Heine's moody love poems The Songbook, while Tolstoy of the aristocratic and liberal school translated some of Goethe's more progressive poems, such as The Fiancée of Corinth and The Whore of God. In terms of their approach to translation, the Democratic-Revolutionary translators, based on the reproduction of the original as a whole, approached their translations very liberally, when they even added in many elements typical of Russian culture. The latter, on the other hand, usually adopted a direct translation, focusing on conveying the formal details of the original work. This divergence was mainly due to the different starting points of the two groups of translators, with the democratic revolutionaries seeking to convey advanced ideas to the Russian general public and the aristocratic intellectuals believing that works of art were irrelevant to the people and that artistic creations should not be exposed to "vulgar" reality.<br />
<br />
There were a large number of outstanding literary writers and literary critics who made brilliant statements about literary translation in that era, none more so than Belinsky (В.Г.Белинский), Chernyshevsky (Н.Г.Черныщевский) and Dubrolyovsky (Н.Г.Добролюбов). Belinsky was one of the greatest Russian literary critics of the 19th century. He believed that translations should not be word-for-word, but should reproduce the spirit of the original text, in much the same way as Pushkin's view of translation theory. On the other hand, he also opposed arbitrary 'paraphrasing': the ideal translation should not add or delete arbitrarily to the original text, but should enable the reader to understand the foreign work truly and accurately through the translation. Such a viewpoint seems to us to be quite convincing even now. Belinsky played a decisive role in completely burying the 'rewriting' and 'adapting it to Russian custom' arguments. This issue dominates his writings. He argues that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of the translation, and this is one of the criteria by which he judges its merits. He points out, for example, that the greatest strength of Gnedzic's translation of the Iliad is that it "exudes the atmosphere of ancient life" and "the spirit of the ancient Greeks". However, the contradiction between national identity and translatability was once a problem for Belinsky. Initially believing that it was impossible to translate works with a strong national character into other languages, he was only convinced by the success of Turgenev's collaboration with Louis Viardot in translating Gogol's novels into French in 1846, and then became increasingly determined to recognise translatability in translation. Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a series of revisions that led to a complete and rigorous system of translation theory, the first of its kind in the history of Russian translation theory.<br />
<br />
Translation in Russia developed in the second half of the 19th century. From the 1960s onwards, the Russian readership of non-language speakers began to expand, and these readers were keen to see the translation 'replace' the original. This demand led to an unprecedented expansion in the choice of subjects and translations of Russian literature. Interest in foreign theatrical works was particularly high at this stage, and a strong interest in European classical literature also developed. Dickens, Saclay, Victor Hugo, Dumas, Balzac, Flaubert, Tudor, Maupassant and Zola, as well as lesser-known writers of today, were successively brought to the attention of a wide range of Russian readers in the form of translations. At that time, European theatre classics like Shakespeare's plays were translated into Russia in large numbers. Many professional translators were involved, the most successful being the translator P.N.V. Weinberg. He translated foreign literature from the standpoint of progressive Russian literature of the time. His translation of Othello, for example, is notable for its vividness in the Russian language, and has always been recognised as the best translation in terms of conveying the totality of scenes, plots and long dialogues, even though the translation is wordy compared to the original.<br />
<br />
Although there has been a quantitative surge in translations of Russian literature during this period, the quality has generally been poor, manifesting itself in word-for-word translations, redundant sentences and poor vocabulary, not to mention inventiveness. In addition, the language of the characters in the translation is heavily Russified, that is, contents with Russian proverbs, sayings and idioms that the foreign characters could never have known, and the introduction of Russian-specific life circumstances that cause contradictions with the plot and details of the original work. For example, В Тулу со своим самоваром ехать (Bring your own samovar to Tula - it's superfluous). The reason for this is that the literary world did not attach much importance to the translation of fiction and prose, and there were no specialists working on this task. Another point is that at this stage there was little progress in the study of Russian translation theory, and no valuable theoretical insights emerged. The linguist A.A. Потебня (1835-1891) expressed his views on translation from a psychological standpoint in his essay "Language and Peopleliness ". In his view, it was impossible to express in another language what was originally intended to be expressed in a certain language. Just like many other literary scholars, he denied the translatability of language. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:13, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.Translation ideas of famous writers of the 18-19th centuries. ===<br />
===3.1. Pushkin 's ideas on translation. ===<br />
Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin (Александр Сергеевич Пушкин, 1977-1837), a famous Russian poet and writer of the nineteenth century, was also very much a translator. Although he left behind few works on translation, his ideas on translation are worth studying. Pushkin's translations of poetry were associated with classicism in the early stages of his work and later with romanticism. Although these translations are far removed from the original in a literal sense, they are almost close to composition. Pushkin's significance as a translator, however, lies in 1) the reproduction of foreign originals in the standard Russian language he established in his translations and 2) the full expression of the realist artistic method in the heyday of his compositions: the focus on typical features and the technique of outlining the historical and individual characteristics that reflect the original.(Wu,2006:37-41)(Li Zheng & Fan Min,2010:69）<br />
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Pushkin's translations have their own characteristics and style. He did not translate all of his works word for word from the original, and in some places he deleted what he considered to be redundant sentences in order to avoid the verbosity of the original, occasionally replacing the translation with a general paraphrase. He advocates respect for the characteristics of foreign readers, while at the same time opposing word-for-word translations, which can lead to the trampling of the mother tongue. He therefore advocated translations which, on the one hand, required fidelity to the original in terms of meaning and, on the other, should preserve the original's distinctive features.<br />
As he says in his unfinished 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', commenting on Chateaubriand's translation: 'There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), has failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own conventional rhetorical devices, its own habitual expressions, and it is impossible to translate all this into another language using the corresponding vocabulary." Pushkin's rejection of word-for-word translation can be seen.(Li Zheng & Fan Min,2010:69）<br />
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Pushkin's influence on the cause of translation in Russia was immense, and this influence refers neither to his few translations nor to his theoretical views, but to the fact that Pushkin pioneered the translation of Russian literature. Although his ideas on translation cannot be called a theory, they do provide certain translation ideas for later generations of literary translators.(Li Zheng & Fan Min,2010:69）Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin (Александр Сергеевич Пушкин, 1977-1837), a famous Russian poet and writer of the nineteenth century, was also an outstanding translator. Besides he left behind few works on translation, his ideas on translation are worth studying. Pushkin's translations of poetry were associated with classicism in the early stages of his work and with romanticism later. Although these translations are far removed from the original in a literal sense, they are almost close to composition. Pushkin's significance as a translator, however, lies in the reproduction of foreign originalities in the standard Russian language he established in his translations and the full expression of the realist artistic method in the heyday of his compositions: the focus on typical features and the technique of outlining the historical and individual characteristics that reflect the original.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's translations have their own distinctive characteristics and style. He did not translate all of his works literally from the original context, but in some places he deleted what he considered to be redundant sentences in order to avoid the verbosity of the original, occasionally replacing the translation with a general paraphrase. He advocates to give enough respect for the characteristics of foreign readers, while at the same time opposing word-for-word translations, which may lead to the trampling of the mother tongue. Therefore, He advocated translations which, on the one hand, required fidelity to the original text in terms of meaning and, on the other hand, should preserve the original's distinctive features.<br />
<br />
As he says in his unfinished 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', he comments on Chateaubriand's translation: 'There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), has failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own conventional rhetorical devices, its own habitual expressions, and it is impossible to translate all this into another language using the corresponding vocabulary." Pushkin's rejection of word-for-word translation can be revealed clearly.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's influence on the cause of translation in Russia was huge, and his influence refers neither to his few translations nor to his theoretical views, but to the fact that Pushkin pioneered the translation of Russian literature. Although his ideas on translation cannot be called a theory, they do provide certain unique and new translation ideas for later generations of literary translators. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:29, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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===3.1. Belinsky's ideas on translation. ===<br />
Vissarion Grigorievich Belinsky (Виссарион Григорьевич Белинский, 1811-1848) was a famous literary critic of the nineteenth century and one of the most involved in the world of translation among Russian literary activists of his time. Belinsky was fluent in French and as a young man translated for two magazines, Miscellany and Telescope. Later, after a career in literary criticism, he published numerous articles on translation and criticism of translated works.<br />
Belinsky's and Pushkin's views on translation were very similar, both advocating that translations should not be word-for-word. Belinsky first introduced the term 'theory' of translation, and in his 1838 review of Polevoy's translation of Hamlet, he first proposed the need for a theory of translation. He considered the role of theory: "Any object that man perceives has a theory of its own, and a theory is the knowledge of the laws by which the object exists."（Wu，2006：51-53）<br />
<br />
Belinsky argues that in translation: "Closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original. Each <br />
language has its own distinctive expressions, characteristics and qualities; these are so distinctive that to correctly convey a certain image or sentence, it is sometimes necessary to change them completely in the translation. The corresponding image, like the corresponding sentence, does not necessarily lie in a superficial agreement of words: the inner life of the translation should be made to correspond to the inner life of the original". It can be seen that Belinsky, like Pushkin, was also opposed to word-for-word rigid translations, his view being that the task of translating a language lies in reproducing the spirit of the original. He believed that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of a translation, so the question of the interrelationship between national character and translatability has always troubled Belinsky. He pointed out that 'there is only one rule for translating a literary work - to convey the spirit of the work being translated, and this can only be done by translating it into Russian as the author himself would have written it in Russian, if he had been Russian' (The Complete Works of Belinsky Volume 2).（Wang，Yulun＆Jiang,Wanzhu，1989：53-55）<br />
<br />
Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a number of achievements, and his view of translation as a whole is a complete and rigorous system. His view of translation was developed gradually, and in the process it was dominated by an increasingly firm recognition of the possibility of a successful solution to the task of translation, that is, of translatability. Belinsky believed that a translation must be discerning in its content and form in relation to the original. He has pointed out that "approaching the original is not the same as conveying the letters, but rather the spirit of the original." It is also suggested that the translator and the original author are two different kinds of people. But in order to convey the 'spirit' of the original in the translation, the translator's genius needs to reach a certain tacit understanding with this 'spirit'. He advocates the preservation of exoticism in translation, opposes naturalisation, the arbitrary distortion of the face of the original work, the overwhelming of the original author with the personality of the translator's style, the emphasis on both likeness and likeness, etc. However, while recognising the importance of reproducing the poetic form of the original work in translation, Belinsky also took into account the state of development of Russian literature in translation. This also led him to look favourably on translating good poetry in prose, seeing such translations as a form of transition for Russian readers to the treasures of world literature.（Wang＆Jiang，1989：53-55）<br />
<br />
Although Belinsky wrote little about literary translation, his theoretical views contain the kernel of the realist principles of translation proposed by contemporary Soviet literary translators. His ideas on translation had a very profound influence on the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period.Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Vissarion Grigorievich Belinsky (Виссарион Григорьевич Белинский, 1811-1848) was a famous literary critic of the nineteenth century and one of the most active in the world of translation among Russian literary activists of his time. Belinsky was fluent in French and when he was a young man he translated for two magazines, Miscellany and Telescope. Later, after a career in literary criticism, he published numerous articles on translation and criticism of translated works.<br />
<br />
Belinsky's and Pushkin's views on translation were very similar, both advocating that translations should not be word-for-word. Belinsky first introduced the term 'theory' of translation, and in his 1838 review of Polevoy's translation of Hamlet, he first proposed the need for a theory of translation. He considered the role of theory: "Any object that man perceives has a theory of its own, and a theory is the knowledge of the laws by which the object exists."<br />
<br />
Belinsky argues that in translation: "Closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original. Each language has its own distinctive expressions, characteristics and qualities; these are so distinctive that to correctly convey a certain image or sentence, it is sometimes necessary to change them completely in the translation. The corresponding image, like the corresponding sentence, does not necessarily lie in a superficial agreement of words: the inner life of the translation should be made to correspond to the inner life of the original". It can be seen that Belinsky, like Pushkin, was also opposed to word-for-word rigid translations, his view being that the task of translating a language lies in reproducing the spirit of the original. He believed that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of a translation, so the question of the interrelationship between national character and translatability has always troubled Belinsky. He pointed out that 'there is only one rule for translating a literary work - to convey the spirit of the work being translated, and this can only be done by translating it into Russian as the author himself would have written it in Russian, if he had been Russian' (The Complete Works of Belinsky Volume 2).<br />
<br />
Belinsky's career as a translator had a number of achievements, and his view of translation as a whole is a complete and rigorous system. His view of translation was developed gradually, and in this process it was dominated by an increasingly firm recognition of the possibility of a successful solution to the task of translation, that is, of translatability. Belinsky believed that a translation must be discerning in its content and form in relation to the original. He has pointed out that "approaching the original is not the same as conveying the letters, but rather the spirit of the original." It is also suggested that the translator and the original author are two different kinds of people. But in order to convey the 'spirit' of the original in the translation, the translator's genius needs to reach a certain tacit understanding with this 'spirit'. He advocates the preservation of exoticism in translation, opposes naturalisation, the arbitrary distortion of the face of the original work, the overwhelming of the original author with the personality of the translator's style, the emphasis on both likeness and likeness, etc. However, while recognising the importance of reproducing the poetic form of the original work in translation, Belinsky also took into account the state of development of Russian literature in translation. This also led him to look favourably on translating good poetry in prose, seeing such translations as a form of transition for Russian readers to the treasures of world literature.<br />
<br />
Although Belinsky wrote little about literary translation, his theoretical views contain the kernel of the realist principles of translation proposed by contemporary Soviet literary translators. His ideas on translation had a very profound influence on the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:56, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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===4.Conclusion ===<br />
Translation has demonstrated its importance in social activity since antiquity, yet it was only in the twentieth century that it became a widely followed professional discipline. This article reviews Russian translation activity and translation thought in pre-Soviet Russia, exploring its development before the formation of a theoretical system. Throughout the history of translation, Russian scholars have contributed greatly to the development of translation literature in the world. Through combing through the history of Russian translation, we learn that the translation ideas of a number of outstanding writers, though not theoretical, have had an unmistakable impact on later generations. When discussing the translation ideas of 19th-century writers, we are inspired to insist on the principle that "closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original", emphasizing the ideological content and literary value of the translation, that the translation should serve the readers, and that the translation should be people-oriented. These ideas influenced, to a greater or lesser extent, the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, the study of the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia is not only conducive to sorting out Russian translation ideas Russian learners can better understand the characteristics of their translations when translating and improve the accuracy of their translations.Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:44, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Translation has played its important role in the social activities since antiquity, yet it was until in the twentieth century that it became a widely followed professional discipline. This paper reviews Russian translators and translation thoughts in pre-Soviet Russia, exploring its development before the formation of a theoretical system. Throughout the history of translation, Russian scholars have contributed greatly to the development of translation literature in the world. By combing through the history of Russian translation, we learn that the translation ideas of a number of outstanding writers, though not very theoretical, have had an unmistakable impact on later generations. When discussing the translation ideas of 19th-century writers, we are inspired to insist on the principle that "closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original", emphasizing the ideological content and literary value of the translation that the translation should serve the readers, and that the translation should be people-oriented. These ideas influenced, to a greater or lesser extent, the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, the study of the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia not only is conducive to sorting out Russian translation ideas, but also make Russian learners better understand the characteristics of their translations when translating and improving the accuracy of their translations. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 14:02, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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===5.References ===<br />
1.Wu, Keli 吴克礼（2006）.俄苏翻译理论流派综述 The Translation Methods and Studies in USSR. 上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
2.Guo Lin 郭琳（2006）.俄罗斯语言学派翻译理论若干问题研究[D] A Study of Some Problems of Translation Theory of the Russian School of Philology.首都师范大学 Capital Normal University.<br />
<br />
3.Feng Xin 冯欣（2009）. 俄罗斯翻译理论史及其影响研究[D] A study of the history of Russian translation theory and its influence.上海外国语大学 Shanghai International Studies University.<br />
<br />
4.Wang，Yulun；Jiang,Wanzhu 王育伦,姜万砫（1989).别林斯基论文学翻译[J] Belinsky on Literary Translation .中国翻译 Chinese translators Journal ,(03):53-55.<br />
<br />
5.Li Zheng, Fan Min 李铮,范敏（2010）. 普希金与翻译[J] Pushkin and Translation. 现代交际 Modern Intercourse Journal,(05):69.</div>Zhang Yiranhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_5&diff=132660Hist Trans Theo EN 52021-12-14T03:25:55Z<p>Zhang Yiran: /* 4.Conclusion */</p>
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<div>'''History of Translation Theories'''<br />
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=Chapter 5 History of Translation Theories from Early Russia to the Soviet Union=<br />
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'''从古罗斯到苏联前的翻译理论史'''<br />
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张怡然 Zhang Yiran,Hunan Normal University,China<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
Translation as a means of intercultural communication, each country has a distinctive translation ideology. This article focuses on the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia. Through analyzing the history of translation, can find that Russia has formed a literary tradition of translation studies in the late 18th century. In the 19th century, Pushkin, Lermontov, Turgenev and other outstanding poets and literary scholars were keen on translation, especially in the middle of the century when Belinsky and other famous literary critics published a series of comments on literary translation, which emphasized the literary tradition of Russian translation to an unparalleled extent, which is rare in the history of translation in the world. The general principles of Russian literary translation thought were also formed during this period: namely, to insist on commenting on the merits of a translation in terms of the overall effect of the work, to emphasize the ideological content and literary value of the translation, and that the translation should serve the reader and be people-oriented. The above ideas influenced the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, a study of the history of translation theory in pre-Soviet Russia will help learners of Russian to better understand the characteristics of their translations and to improve the accuracy and peopleliness of their translations.Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 12:57, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Translation is a means of intercultural communication, and each country has its own distinctive translation theory system. This paper focuses on the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia. By analyzing the history of translation, it is obvious that a literary tradition of translation studies has been formed in Russia in the late 18th century. In the 19th century, Pushkin, Lermontov, Turgenev and other outstanding poets and literary scholars were keen on translation, especially in the middle of the century when Belinsky and other famous literary critics published a series of comments on literary translation, which emphasized the literary tradition of Russian translation to an unparalleled extent, which is rare in the history of translation in the world. The general principles of Russian literary translation thoughts were also formed during this period: namely, to insist on commenting on the merits and weakness of a translation in terms of the overall effect of the work, to emphasize the ideological content and literary value of the translation, and the translation should serve the reader and be people-oriented. The above ideas influenced the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, a study of the history of translation theory in pre-Soviet Russia will help learners of Russian to understand the characteristics of their translations profoundly and to improve the accuracy and fluency of their translations.Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:03, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Translation theories, Translation ideas，History of Translation<br />
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===摘要===<br />
翻译作为一种跨文化交际的手段，每个国家都有独具特色的翻译思想。本文主要探讨苏联前俄国的翻译历史。通过梳理其翻译史可发现，俄国于18世纪末期就已形成了翻译研究的文学传统。进入19世纪后, 普希金、莱蒙托夫、屠格涅夫等优秀诗人、文学家对翻译的热衷, 尤其是世纪中叶别林斯基等著名文学评论家发表一系列关于文学翻译的评论, 更是把俄国翻译的文学传统强调到无以复加的程度, 这在世界翻译史上都是罕见的。俄国文学翻译思想的总原则也在这一时期形成:即坚持从作品的整体效果上来评论译作优劣, 强调译作的思想内容和文学价值, 翻译应为读者服务, 译文应具有人民性。上述思想影响了苏联时期翻译理论的形成。因此，对苏联前俄国翻译理论史的研究有利于俄语学习者在翻译时更好的理解其翻译特点，提高翻译的准确性和人民性。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
翻译理论 翻译思想 翻译史 <br />
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===Introduction===<br />
This essay provides a comprehensive and concise overview of the history of translation in Russia: Russian written translations began in the Kievan Rus' era, when religious subjects were the main focus of translations, especially the Bible, which was translated from Greek. Religious translations continued to flourish under the Moscow principality, represented by Maksim Gleick (МаксимГрек). At the same time, the national character of Russian translations began to emerge, and the languages of translation expanded from Greek to Latin, German and West Slavic, and the subjects covered included Western chivalric fiction, geographical literature, alchemy and medicine. In the eighteenth century, Peter the Great introduced a number of measures to focus on translation, making this period a turning point in the history of Russian translation. The proliferation of specialised translations (e.g. of legal texts) was the main feature of translation activity in the early eighteenth century. After this period Russian translators began to translate literary works.The main translators were Lomonosov (М.В. Ломоносов) and Tretyakovsky (V.K. Тредьяковский). In the second half of the eighteenth century, translation was given greater importance in Russia, and the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books was founded by Ekaterina II, in which a large number of outstanding translators emerged. The nineteenth century was a golden period in the history of Russian translation. Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин) and Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский) both produced many excellent translations. Pushkin (A.С.Пушкин) and Lermontov (M.Ю.Лермонтов) contributed greatly to the development of Russian literature in translation, while Fetter concentrated on love poetry. In the twentieth century, the Russian translation community made significant achievements in theoretical translation studies. In particular, the rapid development of the philological school and the debate between the literary and philological schools made Soviet translation theory one of the leading theories of translation in the world.(Guo Lin,2006:5)Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 12:57, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
This paper provides a comprehensive and concise overview of the history of translation in Russia: Russian written translations began in the Kievan Rus' era, when religious subjects were the main focus of translations, especially the Bible, translated from Greek. Religious translations continued to flourish under the Moscow principality, represented by Maksim Gleick (МаксимГрек). At the same time, the national character of Russian translations began to emerge, and the languages of translation expanded from Greek to Latin, German and West Slavic, and the subjects covered included Western chivalric fiction, geographical literature, alchemy and medicine. In the eighteenth century, Peter the Great introduced a number of measures to focus on translation, leading this period to a turning point in the history of Russian translation. The proliferation of specialised translations (e.g. of legal texts) was the main feature of translation activity in the early eighteenth century. After this period Russian translators began to translate literary works.The main translators were Lomonosov (М.В. Ломоносов) and Tretyakovsky (V.K. Тредьяковский). In the second half of the eighteenth century, translation was paid greater attention in Russia, and the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books was founded by Ekaterina II, in which a large number of outstanding translators emerged. The nineteenth century was a golden period in the history of Russian translation when Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин) and Rukovsky (В.А.Жуковский) both produced many excellent translations. Pushkin (A.С.Пушкин) and Lermontov (M.Ю.Лермонтов) contributed greatly to the development of Russian literature in translation, while Fetter concentrated on love poetry. In the twentieth century, the Russian translation community made significant achievements in theoretical translation studies. In particular, the rapid development of the philological school and the debate between the literary and philological schools made Soviet translation theory one of the leading theories of translation in the world. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:14, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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===1.The history of Russian translation and the period of enlightenment of its translation theory. ===<br />
1. The emergence and development of literary translation.<br />
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Translation activity has a long history in Russia, the beginnings of which can be traced back to the time of Kievan Rus'. A relatively sophisticated system of writing, literature and translation was already in place in ancient Russia in the ninth century AD. Frequent cultural and trade exchanges with Byzantine, German, French and Scandinavian countries contributed significantly to the development of translation in Russia at that time, as did contacts with Eastern countries. From Kievan Rus' onwards, Russian translation methods oscillated between two main tendencies, either to follow the original texts exactly, up to the point of translating them word for word, or to be arbitrary, even to the point of rewriting, adding or deleting at will. The first tendency is the main characteristic of translations of the Bible and other sacred books, while the second, though not absolute, can be said to characterize most secular works.(Feng Xin,2009:8)(Wu Keli,2006:4)<br />
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2.Initiation of translation activities-religious translation. <br />
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In 864 AD, the Byzantine king sent two Greek priests, Kirill (Кирилл) and Mephodi (Мефодий), to spread Christianity among the Slavic people. At the beginning of their mission, they created a new alphabet (now known as the Kirill alphabet) and used this writing system to translate many religious texts from Greek into the ancient Church Slavonic. Among the results were the New Testament, hymnals and prayer books.(Feng,2009:8)<br />
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In 988 AD, Rus was baptised and Kievan Rus was converted to Christianity. A large number of translations appeared instantly to help Protestants become familiar with the new religious philosophy and ethical system and to understand the rituals and customs of the Church. These translations were in a variety of genres, including the Acts of the Saints, sermons, chronicles and so on. In addition, apocryphal books telling magical and fantastical stories were also popular, and some of them had similarities with the later 'fantasy novels'. Most of these translations were done in Bulgaria and were popularised in Rus. At that time, translations of religious texts were mostly word-for-word. There were also a small number of works that, unlike the 'elaborate copies of the original', had a separate literary value. In one case, a large number of details of Russian life were added to the storyline of a sermon (e.g. The Tales of Achild the Wise). In another case, military historical narratives are interspersed with the terminology of the ancient Russian feudal system and certain literary images from the stories of ancient Russian warriors (e.g. Joseph Flav's History of the Jewish War). This translation can be considered one of the most successful of the period. In the translation, the translator succeeded in avoiding many word-for-word translations). In a third case, the manuscripts copied by Ancient Rus, although based on Greek epic poetry (e.g. The Great Work of Digenes Akritas), often borrowed from Russian folk poetry, so that a large number of folk compositions appeared. As a result of this literary process, the translated literature was smoothly enriched by Russian manuscripts, which contributed to the development of original Russian literature and consolidated its links with the medieval literary process. Unfortunately, at that early stage in the development of translation, the translators were not signed, so it is impossible to verify whether the works were translated at home or abroad.(Feng,2009:9) <br />
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During the difficult period of 'Mongol rule' (1228-1480), translations continued to play an important role in the cultural life of the country. The remaining chapters of the Bible were translated one after another, and previous translations were again proofread and revised. In addition to religious translations, more translations of non-religious subjects emerge, such as The Kingdom of India and The Trojan War. Most of the works were still translated from Greek, while works probably translated from Latin and ancient Hebrew also appeared. During this period, Russian began to take shape through the interaction of Old Slavonic (Church Slavonic) and local national languages. However, religious texts were still only translated into Church Slavonic, and the use of this language was by then restricted to ecclesiastical matters. At the same time, political and commercial exchanges with other countries were more likely to be in Russian, which was becoming increasingly sophisticated: elements of the combination of Old Slavonic and Russian can also be found in original works.（Wu,2006:6)<br />
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14-15th century literature in translation by Rus was characterised by an obsession with new themes. These were mainly new works of tranquillity-abstinence literature, or works recommended by and familiar to the tranquillists. This mystical genre was introduced to Rus after it had swept through the Byzantine and Yugoslav peoples. It was reflected in the semi-secular translations popular at the time (for example, The Trojan War). <br />
<br />
In the 16th century AD, Moscow eventually became the political centre of Russia, as well as the translation centre of the country. In 1515, the Grand Duke of Moscow, Vassily III (Василий Ⅲ), asked a Greek monastery to send a learned translator to Moscow. This man, who accompanied the Greek mission to Moscow in 1516, was the historically famous Maksim Gleick (Максим Грек). Maksim Gleick worked as a translator throughout his life, studying most of the religious texts and some of the non-religious works during this period. In addition, he also proofread and annotated previously existing translations.(Wu,2006:7) <br />
<br />
At the beginning, Maksim knew neither Russian nor Old Slavonic, so he divided the translation into two steps: first, he translated from Greek to Latin, and then his assistant translated from Latin to Old Slavonic. In the process of revising existing translations, he often broke with established tradition and was therefore denounced as blasphemous. Maksim was also a prolific writer, educator and philosopher. His writings contain many insights into the art of translation - the earliest recorded treatise on translation in Russia. Maksim insisted that the original text must be carefully analysed in order to grasp its full subtleties and implications. Therefore, the translator must not only master the language of the original, but also have a broad knowledge of the language and prepare for the translation. To support his argument, Maksim used Greek lexicography, phonetic organisation and phonetics involved in translation. His other major contribution was the compilation of a dictionary containing Greek, Latin and Hebrew nouns, which was also the first of its kind in Russian history. Although it was recognised at the time that translators should have a command of both languages as well as a profound background knowledge, the practitioners of translation at the time lacked the necessary qualities and their translations were not as good as they could have been.(Wu,2006:7)Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 13:39, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
1. The emergence and development of literary translation. <br />
<br />
Translation activity has a long history in Russia, the beginnings of which can be traced back to the Time of Kievan Rus'. A relatively sophisticated system of writing, literature and translation was already in ancient Russia in the ninth century AD. Frequent cultural and trade exchanges with Byzantine, German, French and Scandinavian countries contributed significantly to the development of translation in Russia at that time, as did contacts with Eastern countries. From Kievan Rus' onwards, Russian translation methods oscillated between two main tendencies, either to follow the original texts exactly, up to the point of translating them word by word, or to be arbitrary, even to the point of rewriting, adding words or deleting at will. The first tendency is the main characteristic of translations of the Bible and other sacred books, while the second, though not absolutely, can be said to characterize most secular works.<br />
<br />
2.Initiation of translation activities-religious translation. <br />
<br />
In 864 AD, the Byzantine king sent two Greek priests, Kirill (Кирилл) and Mephodi (Мефодий), to spread Christianity among the Slavic people. At the beginning of their mission, they created a new alphabet (now known as the Kirill alphabet) and used this writing system to translate many religious texts from Greek into the ancient Church Slavonic. Among the results were the New Testament, hymnals and prayer books. In 988 AD, Rus was baptised and Kievan Rus was converted to Christianity. A large number of translations appeared instantly to help Protestants become familiar with the new religious philosophy and ethical system and to understand the rituals and customs of the Church. These translations were in a variety of genres, including the Acts of the Saints, sermons, chronicles and so on. In addition, apocryphal books telling magical and fantastical stories were also popular, and some of them had similarities with the later 'fantasy novels'. Most of these translations were done in Bulgaria and were popularised in Rus. At that time, translations of religious texts were mostly word-for-word. There were also a small number of works that, unlike the 'elaborate copies of the original', had a separate literary values. In one case, a large number of details of Russian life were added to the storyline of a sermon (e.g. The Tales of Achild the Wise). In another case, military historical narratives are interspersed with the terminology of the ancient Russian feudal system and certain literary images from the stories of ancient Russian warriors (e.g. Joseph Flav's History of the Jewish War). This translation can be considered one of the most successful of the period. In the translation, the translator succeeded in avoiding many word-for-word translations). Thirdly, the manuscripts copied by Ancient Rus, although based on Greek epic poetry (e.g. The Great Work of Digenes Akritas), often borrowed from Russian folk poetry, so that a large number of folk compositions appeared. As a result of this literary process, the translated literature was smoothly enriched by Russian manuscripts, which contributed to the development of original Russian literature and consolidated its links with the medieval literary process. Unfortunately, at that early stage in the development of translation, the translators were not signed, so it is impossible to verify whether the works were translated at home or abroad. During the difficult period of 'Mongol rule' (1228-1480), translations continued to play an important role in the cultural life of the country. The remaining chapters of the Bible were translated one after another, and previous translations were again proofread and revised. In addition to religious translations, more translations of non-religious subjects emerge, such as The Kingdom of India and The Trojan War. Most of the works were still translated from Greek, while works probably translated from Latin and ancient Hebrew also appeared. During this period, Russian began to take shape through the interaction of Old Slavonic (Church Slavonic) and local national languages. However, religious texts were still only translated into Church Slavonic, and the use of this language was by then restricted to ecclesiastical matters. At the same time, political and commercial exchanges with other countries were more likely to be in Russian, which was becoming increasingly sophisticated: elements of the combination of Old Slavonic and Russian can also be found in original works. 14-15th century literature in translation by Rus was characterised by an obsession with new themes. These were mainly new works of tranquillity-abstinence literature, or works recommended by and familiar to the tranquillists. This mystical genre was introduced to Rus after it had swept through the Byzantine and Yugoslav peoples. It was reflected in the semi-secular translations popular at the time (for example, The Trojan War). In the 16th century AD, Moscow eventually became the political center of Russia, as well as the translation center of the country. In 1515, the Grand Duke of Moscow, Vassily III (Василий Ⅲ), asked a Greek monastery to send a learned translator to Moscow. This man, who accompanied the Greek mission to Moscow in 1516, was the historically famous Maksim Grek (Максим Грек). Maxim Greek worked as a translator throughout his life, studying most of the religious texts and some of the non-religious works during this period. In addition, he also proofread and annotated previously existing translations. At the beginning, Maxim knew neither Russian nor Old Slavonic, so he divided the translation into two steps: first, he translated from Greek to Latin, and then his assistant translated from Latin to Old Slavonic. In the process of revising existing translations, he often broke with established tradition and was therefore denounced as blasphemous. Maxim was also a prolific writer, educator and philosopher. His writings contain many insights into the art of translation - the earliest recorded treatise on translation in Russia. Maxim insisted that the original text must be carefully analysed in order to grasp its full subtleties and implications. Therefore, the translator must not only master the language of the original, but also have a broad knowledge of the language and prepare for the translation. To support his argument, Maxim used Greek lexicography, phonetic organisation and phonetics involved in translation. His other major contribution was the compilation of a dictionary containing Greek, Latin and Hebrew nouns, which was also the first of its kind in Russian history. Although it was recognized at the time that translators should have a command of both languages and profound background knowledge, the practitioners of translation at the time lacked the necessary qualities and their translations were not as good as they should have been. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. Overview of the Russian school of Translation. ===<br />
===2.1 18th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The eighteenth century is an important period in the history of Russian translation. The status of translation in social culture has undergone a qualitative change, and this is due to Peter the Great's reform. At the beginning of the century, translation was still mostly related to professional documents such as laws and contracts. Later, the translator's tentacles gradually expanded to literary translation, for example, French poetry translation. The famous translators of this period are Sumarokov(А.П.Сумароков), Lomonosov(М.В.Ломоносов), Tretyakovsky (В.К.Тредьяковский) and so on. In the second half of the 18th century, the Association for the Translation of Foreign Books officially put forward the importance of translation. The organization has been active for 15 years with over 100 members.（Wu,2006:10)<br />
<br />
1.Imperial support for translation. The political reforms introduced by Peter the Great also led to intensive economic and cultural exchanges between Russia and European countries. This created a huge demand for translations of scientific and technical literature and literary works. Translators were required to produce works of a high standard.<br />
<br />
Peter the Great issued a special decree on translation, requiring "faithful" communication of the original text. In a directive issued to his subordinates in 1709, he explicitly stated that when translating foreign books, word-for-word translations were to be avoided and that the content of the original text should be clearly expressed in one's own language, based on an understanding of its content. On the other hand, Peter the Great's subversion of the written language initially caused confusion in Russian translation circles. A large number of foreign languages entered the Russian language, and the piles of foreign syntactic structures distracted attention. In any case, Peter the Great's reforms did set a new norm and a new direction for translation.(Wu,2006:11)<br />
<br />
In terms of content, Peter the Great's reforms were, from the very beginning, inextricably linked to the translation of scientific and technical texts, such as the many books on military defence engineering that he ordered to be translated and used to strengthen Russia's military forces. Peter the Great also placed great importance on the translation of prose, poetry and other literary works. During this period, the Russian language began to develop its own literary model, and many educated Russians saw translation as a way of enriching the language and enhancing its uniqueness and expressiveness. <br />
<br />
From around the 1830s, the importance of translating Western European scientific and technical texts gradually gave way to literary works such as prose and poetry. Writers who were also translators turned their attention to the work of new Western European writers, mainly poets, especially French poets. At the same time, the legacy of the Greco-Roman period also entered their minds. They began to translate the works of philosophers and historians, which - on the one hand - gave rise to difficulties in literary rhetoric and scientific terminology and, on the other, played an important role in the formation of a standard Russian language.(Feng,2009:10)(Guo,2006:8) <br />
<br />
From that time onwards, translation also became an organised activity, with the emergence of specific bodies responsible for the organisation and management of translation work. 1735 saw the establishment of the first specialised translation organisation, the Russian Society, at the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences. The Society had a professional group of translators and some of the academy's scholars, such as Lomonosov and Tretyakovsky, were among its members. The Association was responsible for selecting works, defining the rules or principles of translation, commenting on translations, and training translators. It is worth mentioning that the Academy of Sciences also set up a school of foreign languages to train official translators. In 1748, the Academy implemented Queen Elizabeth's decree to increase the number of translations of non-religious books and publicly appealed to "the nobility and other classes of intellectuals" to take an active part in the translation process.(Guo,2006:8)(Feng,2009:10) <br />
<br />
In the second half of the 18th century, Ekaterina II's efforts to create a 'civilised state' not only led to the development of literature, but also gave preferential treatment to writers. For example, in order to select the best original texts, she ordered the establishment of the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books (1768 - 1783). The Society was dedicated to providing excellent conditions for translation work throughout Russia. The purchase of manuscripts was financed out of Ekaterina's own funds. Later, the Society also discussed a proposal to establish a translation bureau under the Academy of Sciences (1790). The 114 members of the Society included such notable figures as Tretyakovsky, Sumarokov and Radishev. For 14 years the Association was active, producing numerous literary translations and likewise contributing to the discussion of theoretical issues in translation.(Guo,2006:9)<br />
<br />
2.The emergence of poetry translation. Translation of poetry also developed in Russia in the 18th century, and later became one of the jewels of the country's literature. The great Russian scholar and poet Lomonosov was a major contributor to this process. A great deal of the work created by Lomonosov and his contemporaries Sumarokov and Tretyakovsky was poetry in translation. They often translated while exploring theoretical issues in translation: they would explain in their works why they translated this way and not that way; they stressed the importance of translation work and the creative value it contained. Among the most prestigious writers and translators in Russian literature at the time, there were several interesting competitions in which two or three poets translated the same work at the same time, and their translations were published in journals. It was often the case that different translations of the same work were published at the same time, without the translator's name, for the judgement of "literary lovers and peers". This phenomenon also supports the idea that the 18th century was a period of 'experimentation' in the history of Russian translation.(Feng,2006:11) <br />
<br />
Lomonosov's translations from Latin, German, French and Greek are numerous and varied, showing his talent for both rhyming and free verse. He was keen to reproduce the rhythmic structure of the original texts, using a variety of iambic and iambic meter to convey the Alexandrian style of French epic and the hexameter style of Greek tragedy. Russian poetry was not very developed at the time and was still based on syllables. <br />
Lomonosov's innovations enriched Russian poetry and established new forms and traditions of Russian poetic style and rhyme. <br />
<br />
In contrast, Kantymir (Д.М.Кантемира) and Tretyakovsky's greatest quest was to insist on a faithful translation of the original. In the process, the translators had to contend with the problems of reams of vocabulary and rhetorical rules. Tretyakovsky became famous for his successful use of Russian rhyme to translate many verses of the original in his translation of Paul Thielmann's A Journey to Love Island. In the introduction to the novel, the translator states his approach to translation: "The translator is only one person away from the author. I would add that if the author is original, the translator should be even more original (I am not referring to myself, but to a good translator)". He believes that "prose to prose" and "poetry to poetry" can be as good as the original, and that a good translation is one that "describes the full meaning of each verse". Kantymir 's translation of Horace's Letters and other poetic works in Latin and French, although less well-known than the former, is equally valuable.(Wu,2006:16) Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:40, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The eighteenth century is an important period in the history of Russian translation. The status of translation in social culture has undergone a qualitative change, and this is due to Peter the Great's reform. At the beginning of the century, translation was still mostly related to professional documents such as laws and contracts. Later, the translator's tentacles gradually expanded to literary translation, for example, French poetry translation. The famous translators of this period are Sumarokov(А.П.Сумароков), Lomonosov(М.В.Ломоносов), Tretyakovsky (В.К.Тредьяковский) and so on. In the second half of the 18th century, the Association for the Translation of Foreign Books officially put forward the importance of translation. The organization has been active for 15 years with over 100 members. The following points reflected the reasons why translation was paid more attention in the eighteenth century.<br />
<br />
1.Imperial support for translation. <br />
<br />
The political reforms introduced by Peter the Great also led to intensive economic and cultural exchanges between Russia and European countries. This created a huge demand for translations of scientific and technical literature and literary works. Translators were required to produce works of a high standard.Peter the Great issued a special decree on translation, requiring "faithful" communication of the original text. In a directive issued to his subordinates in 1709, he explicitly stated that when translating foreign books, word-for-word translations were to be avoided and that the content of the original text should be clearly expressed in one's own language, based on an understanding of its content. On the other hand, Peter the Great's subversion of the written language initially caused confusion in Russian translation circles. A large number of foreign languages entered the Russian language, and the piles of foreign syntactic structures distracted attention. In any case, Peter the Great's reforms did set a new norm and a new direction for translation. In terms of content, Peter the Great's reforms were, from the very beginning, inextricably linked to the translation of scientific and technical texts, such as the many books on military defence engineering that he ordered to be translated and used to strengthen Russia's military forces. Peter the Great also placed great importance on the translation of prose, poetry and other literary works. During this period, the Russian language began to develop its own literary model, and many educated Russians saw translation as a way of enriching the language and enhancing its uniqueness and expressiveness. <br />
<br />
From around the 1830s, the importance of translating Western European scientific and technical texts gradually gave way to literary works such as prose and poetry. Writers who were also translators turned their attention to the work of new Western European writers, mainly poets, especially French poets. At the same time, the legacy of the Greco-Roman period also entered their minds. They began to translate the works of philosophers and historians, which - on the one hand - gave rise to difficulties in literary rhetoric and scientific terminology and, on the other, played an important role in the formation of a standard Russian language. <br />
<br />
From that time onwards, translation also became an organised activity, with the emergence of specific bodies responsible for the organisation and management of translation work. 1735 saw the establishment of the first specialised translation organisation, the Russian Society, at the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences. The Society had a professional group of translators and some of the academy's scholars, such as Lomonosov and Tretyakovsky, were among its members. The Association was responsible for selecting works, defining the rules or principles of translation, commenting on translations, and training translators. It is worth mentioning that the Academy of Sciences also set up a school of foreign languages to train official translators. In 1748, the Academy implemented Queen Elizabeth's decree to increase the number of translations of non-religious books and publicly appealed to "the nobility and other classes of intellectuals" to take an active part in the translation process. <br />
<br />
In the second half of the 18th century, Ekaterina II's efforts to create a 'civilised state' not only led to the development of literature, but also gave preferential treatment to writers. For example, in order to select the best original texts, she ordered the establishment of the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books (1768-1783). The Society was dedicated to providing excellent conditions for translation work throughout Russia. The purchase of manuscripts was financed out of Ekaterina's own funds. Later, the Society also discussed a proposal to establish a translation bureau under the Academy of Sciences (1790). The 114 members of the Society included such notable figures as Tretyakovsky, Sumarokov and Radishev. For 14 years the Association was active, producing numerous literary translations and likewise contributing to the discussion of theoretical issues in translation.<br />
<br />
2.The emergence of poetry translation.<br />
<br />
Translation of poetry also developed in Russia in the 18th century, and later became one of the jewels of the country's literature. The great Russian scholar and poet Lomonosov was a major contributor to this process. A great deal of the work created by Lomonosov and his contemporaries Sumarokov and Tretyakovsky was poetry in translation. They often translated while exploring theoretical issues in translation: they would explain in their works why they translated this way and not that way; they stressed the importance of translation work and the creative value it contained. Among the most prestigious writers and translators in Russian literature at the time, there were several interesting competitions in which two or three poets translated the same work at the same time, and their translations were published in journals. It was often the case that different translations of the same work were published at the same time, without the translator's name, for the judgement of "literary lovers and peers". This phenomenon also supports the idea that the 18th century was a period of 'experimentation' in the history of Russian translation. <br />
<br />
Lomonosov's translations works in Latin, German, French and Greek are numerous and varied, showing his talent for both rhyming and free verse. He was keen to reproduce the rhythmic structure of the original texts, using a variety of iambic and iambic meter to convey the Alexandrian style of French epic and the hexameter style of Greek tragedy. Russian poetry was not very developed at the time and was still based on syllables. <br />
Lomonosov's innovations enriched Russian poetry and established new forms and traditions of Russian poetic style and rhyme. <br />
<br />
In contrast, Kantymir (Д.М.Кантемира) and Tretyakovsky's greatest quest was to insist on a faithful translation of the original. In the process, the translators had to contend with the problems of reams of vocabulary and rhetorical rules. Tretyakovsky became famous for his successful use of Russian rhyme to translate many verses of the original in his translation of Paul Thielmann's A Journey to Love Island. In the introduction to the novel, the translator states his approach to translation: "The translator is only one person away from the author. I would add that if the author is original, the translator should be even more original (I am not referring to myself, but to a good translator)". He believes that "prose to prose" and "poetry to poetry" can be as good as the original, and that a good translation is one that "describes the full meaning of each verse". Kantymir 's translation of Horace's Letters and other poetic works in Latin and French, although less well-known than the former, is equally valuable. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 12:39, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.2 First half of the19th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The nineteenth century was a golden age in the history of Russian translation. If translation had established itself as a profession in the first hundred years, it was elevated to the level of art in this century. The nineteenth century produced a number of masters of translation, including Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин), Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский), Pushkin (А.С.Пушкин), Lermontov (М.Ю.Лермонтов) and Fetter (А.Фет).(Wu,2006:23)<br />
<br />
The new Russian school of translation owes its formation to the historian Nikolai Karamzin and the poet Zhukovsky. Karamzin published a number of translations in several magazines between the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century. He saw translations as a good help in perfecting a writer's style: a source of information that would satisfy human curiosity, inform historical facts, entertain women and provide material for new magazines. As a young man, Karamzin was strongly opposed to the alteration of and disloyalty to the original texts, but later became a champion of free translation, famously saying: "Whoever follows the author of the original text step by step is no different from a servant who serves his lord". Karamzin's translations cover an admirable range of genres and languages: he translated works by both classical and contemporaneous authors, in Greek, French, Latin, German, English, Italian and some Oriental languages.(Feng,2009:12)<br />
<br />
Pushkin called Zhukovsky "a genius of translation". After graduating from the Moscow Noble Boarding University in 1802, Zhukovsky devoted himself to translation. It was thanks to his efforts that Russian readers were able to access the works of world literary giants such as Schiller, Goethe, Byron and Walters Scott. Zhukovsky's creative translation activities also ranged from Charles Bello to Grimm's Fairy Tales. From Charles Bellow to Grimm's fairy tales, from Homer's epic Odyssey to the poetic history of ancient Rus' Igor's Expedition, all became his original texts. There is no denying that Zhukovsky is a master in the history of Russian translation. Like Karamzin, Zhukovsky was a fan of free translation, sometimes rewriting the original or even creating a new story from its subject: sometimes transferring the setting of events to Russia and giving Russian names to the characters. For example, in his 1808 translation of the German Romantic poet Bilge's narrative poem Lenore, he changed the heroine's name from Lenore to Lyudmila and moved the story to the time of the Livonian War in 16th-century Russia. Zhukovsky believed that the "unsavoury character" of the work should be weakened while retaining the original author's ideas. His talent enabled him to reproduce the style, rhythm and tone of the original poems, while some of his best works were also faithful to the original. In later years, however, his view of translation changed in response to the tendency to stay close to the original, and he retranslated several of his previous translations to make them more faithful to the original, including Lenore. The Russian school of translation owes much to the tradition of translation created by Zhukovsky.(Wu,2006:24-30)(Feng,2009:13)(Guo,2006:9)<br />
<br />
Pushkin and Lermontov are also two poets who set the stage for an epoch in the history of Russian translation. Although only a small proportion of their poetry was translated, they made a significant contribution to the improvement of the art of translation in Russia. In their rewriting and imitation of poetry, they were able to reproduce the most important features of foreign poetry, the key point being that their creative translations were no less valuable in their own right than the originals. Their free translation became a model for other translators, and in addition they established the important principle that a good artistic translation must also be a good work in the national literature of the translated language. Pushkin played an indelibly important role in the development of the Russian school of translation. He was always interested in the question of translation, and his critical views on translation were objective and profound. Before translation he stressed the importance of the choice of the original work, and in translation he demanded that the translator should be faithful to the original, while at the same time displaying his deep creative skills and his own literary style. In one of his unfinished posthumous works, 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', Pushkin wrote: 'Chateaubriand's translation (verbatim) compensates to some extent for the faults of the young French writers (free translation), for they have insulted the great man very cruelly, though in a perfectly innocent manner. There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own rhetorical conventions, its own way of expressing itself, and it is impossible to translate into another language with the corresponding vocabulary". These insights had a positive impact on the best Russian translators of the 19th and 20th centuries. In addition, Pushkin's discussion of translation coincided with a turning point in the history of Russian literature, when the Romantic era was being replaced by a new era with a predominantly realist orientation, and a process of 'separation' between translated and national literature was under way. Pushkin's discussion of the work of the translator as distinct from that of the writer contributed to the independence of literature in translation from indigenous literature.(Guo,2006:10)(Wu,2006:37-41) <br />
<br />
During this period, while most people advocated free translation, there were a few translators who insisted on maximum fidelity to the original and advocated the word-for-word method, even at the expense of the work's willingness to be translated. Among these were such well-known writers as P.A. Vyazemsky (П.А.Вяземский) and N.I. Gnedzic (Н.И.Гнедич). In fact, they did not always live up to their principles, and sometimes their talent and artistic intuition ended up breaking the bonds of verbatim translation. Vyazemsky's translations of Benjamin Constant and Adam Mickiewicz were not without literary and artistic merit, and his translation of Homer's epic Iliad in particular was highly praised by Pushkin. It was Fetter who was the most insistent on the idea of a verbatim translation. Fetter translated many famous works, and his philosophy throughout was one of sentence-for-sentence, word-for-word translation, retaining all the words of the original. Fetter's extreme word-for-word approach had a negative impact on most of his translations, although he was sometimes able to come up with some effective methods of translation.(Feng,2009:14) <br />
<br />
Free translations were also sometimes used to promote democratic ideas in the original that could not pass official scrutiny. A number of translators, such as V. Kurochkin (В.Курочкин), D. M. Minayev (Д.Минаев) and M. M. Mikhalov (М.Михайлов), achieved this by selecting appropriate original works or by using texts in their translations that were superficially imperceptible in their allusion to the conditions in Russia at the time. It was from that time onwards that the use of translation as a weapon to express dissent became part of the Russian tradition.(Feng,2009:14) Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:41, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The nineteenth century was the golden age in the history of Russian translation. If translation had established its status in the first hundred years, it was elevated to the level of art in this century. The nineteenth century produced a number of masters of translation, including Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин), Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский), Pushkin (А.С.Пушкин), Lermontov (М.Ю.Лермонтов) and Fetter (А.Фет). <br />
<br />
The new Russian school of translation owes its formation to the publishment of a number of translations of historian Nikolai Karamzin and the poet Zhukovsky. Karamzin in several magazines between the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century. He regarded translation as a good help in perfecting a writer's style: a source of information that satisfies human curiosity, informs historical facts, entertains women and provides materials for new magazines. As a young man, Karamzin was strongly opposed to the disloyalty to the original texts, but later became a champion of free translation. His famous saying was: "Whoever follows the author of the original text step by step is no different from a servant who serves his lord". Karamzin's translations cover an admirable range of genres and languages: he translated works by both classical and contemporaneous authors, in Greek, French, Latin, German, English, Italian and some Oriental languages. <br />
<br />
Pushkin called Zhukovsky "a genius of translation". After graduating from the Moscow Noble Boarding University in 1802, Zhukovsky devoted himself to translation. It was thanks to his efforts that Russian readers were able to access the works of world literary giants such as Schiller, Goethe, Byron and Walters Scott. Zhukovsky's creative translation activities also ranged from Charles Bello to Grimm's Fairy Tales. From Charles Bellow to Grimm's fairy tales, from Homer's epic Odyssey to the poetic history of ancient Rus' Igor's Expedition, all became his original texts. There is no denying that Zhukovsky is a master in the history of Russian translation. Like Karamzin, Zhukovsky was a fan of free translation, who sometimes rewrites the original or even creates a new story from its subject, transfers the setting of events to Russia and gives Russian names to the characters. For example, in his 1808 translation of the German Romantic poet Bilge's narrative poem Lenore, he changed the heroine's name from Lenore to Lyudmila and moved the story to the time of the Livonian War in 16th-century Russia. Zhukovsky believed that the "unsavoury character" of the work should be weakened while retaining the original author's ideas. His talent enabled him to reproduce the style, rhythm and tone of the original poems, while some of his best works were also faithful to the original. In later years, however, his view of translation changed in response to the tendency to stay close to the original, and he retranslated several of his previous translations to make them more faithful to the original, including Lenore. The Russian school of translation owes much to the tradition of translation created by Zhukovsky.<br />
<br />
Pushkin and Lermontov are also two poets who gave perfect preparations for an epoch in the history of Russian translation. Although only a small proportion of their poetry was translated, they made a significant contribution to the improvement of the art of translation in Russia. In their rewriting and imitation of poetry, they were able to reproduce the most important features of foreign poetry, the key point being that their creative translations were no less valuable in their own right than the originals. Their free translation became a model for other translators, and in addition they established the important principle that a good artistic translation must also be a good work in the national literature of the translated language. Pushkin played an indelibly important role in the development of the Russian school of translation. He was always interested in the question of translation, and his critical views on translation were objective and profound. Before translation he stressed the importance of the choice of the original work, and in translation he demanded that the translator should be faithful to the original, while at the same time displaying his deep creative skills and his own literary style. In one of his unfinished posthumous works, 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', Pushkin wrote: 'Chateaubriand's translation (verbatim) compensates to some extent for the faults of the young French writers (free translation), for they have insulted the great man very cruelly, though in a perfectly innocent manner. There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own rhetorical conventions, its own way of expressing itself, and it is impossible to translate into another language with the corresponding vocabulary". These insights had a positive impact on the best Russian translators of the 19th and 20th centuries. In addition, Pushkin's discussion of translation coincided with a turning point in the history of Russian literature, when the Romantic era was being replaced by a new era with a predominantly realist orientation, and a process of 'separation' between translated and national literature was under way. Pushkin's discussion of the work of the translator as distinct from that of the writer contributed to the independence of literature in translation from indigenous literature. <br />
<br />
During this period, while most people advocated free translation, there were a few translators who insisted on maximum fidelity to the original and advocated the word-for-word method, even at the expense of the work's willingness to be translated. Among these were such well-known writers as P.A. Vyazemsky (П.А.Вяземский) and N.I. Gnedzic (Н.И.Гнедич). In fact, they did not always live up to their principles, and sometimes their talent and artistic intuition ended up breaking the bonds of verbatim translation. Vyazemsky's translations of Benjamin Constant and Adam Mickiewicz were not without literary and artistic merit, and his translation of Homer's epic Iliad in particular was highly praised by Pushkin. It was Fetter who was the most insistent on the idea of a verbatim translation. Fetter translated many famous works, and his philosophy throughout was one of sentence-for-sentence, word-for-word translation, retaining all the words of the original. Fetter's extreme word-for-word approach had a negative impact on most of his translations, although he was sometimes able to come up with some effective methods of translation. <br />
<br />
Free translations were also used to promote democratic ideas in original that could not pass official scrutiny. A number of translators, such as V. Kurochkin (В.Курочкин), D. M. Minayev (Д.Минаев) and M. M. Mikhalov (М.Михайлов), achieved this by selecting appropriate original works or by using texts in their translations that were superficially imperceptible in their allusion to the conditions in Russia at the time. It was since then that the use of translation was used as a weapon to express dissent became part of the Russian tradition. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:05, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.3 Second half of the19th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The mid-nineteenth century was a period of increasingly intense political and ideological struggle in Russian literature, and a great debate raged in the Russian literary world over the question of 'art for the people' or 'art for art's sake'. The debate was mainly about the choice of material for translation and the method of translation. As far as the choice of material was concerned, the democratic and revolutionary writers who supported 'art for the people' chose to translate works with progressive ideological content and a democratic orientation, such as Heine. The aristocratic and liberal intellectual writers, on the other hand, opted for philosophical poetry with a chanting and individualistic feel. Of course, this is not absolute: "Mikhailov and Dobrolyubov of the democratic revolutionary school also translated Heine's moody love poems The Songbook, while Tolstoy of the aristocratic and liberal school translated some of Goethe's more progressive poems, such as The Fiancée of Corinth and The Whore of God. In terms of their approach to translation, the Democratic-Revolutionary translators, based on the reproduction of the original as a whole, approached their translations very liberally, even adding in many elements typical of Russian culture. The latter, on the other hand, usually adopted a direct translation, focusing on conveying the formal details of the original work. This divergence was mainly due to the different starting points of the two groups of translators, with the democratic revolutionaries seeking to convey advanced ideas to the Russian general public and the aristocratic intellectuals believing that works of art were irrelevant to the people and that artistic creations should not be exposed to "vulgar" reality.(Feng,2009:14-15)<br />
<br />
There were a large number of outstanding literary writers and literary critics who made brilliant statements about literary translation in that era, none more so than Belinsky (В.Г.Белинский), Chernyshevsky (Н.Г.Черныщевский) and Dubrolyovsky (Н.Г.Добролюбов). Belinsky was one of the greatest Russian literary critics of the 19th century. He believed that translations should not be word-for-word, but should reproduce the spirit of the original, in much the same way as Pushkin's view of translation theory. On the other hand, he also opposed arbitrary 'paraphrasing': the ideal translation should not add or delete arbitrarily to the original text, but should enable the reader to understand the foreign work truly and accurately through the translation. Such a viewpoint seems to us to be quite convincing even now. Belinsky played a decisive role in completely burying the 'rewriting' and 'adapting it to Russian custom' arguments. This issue dominates his writings. He argues that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of the translation, and this is one of the criteria by which he judges its merits. He points out, for example, that the greatest strength of Gnedzic's translation of the Iliad is that it "exudes the atmosphere of ancient life" and "the spirit of the ancient Greeks". However, the contradiction between national identity and translatability was once a problem for Belinsky. Initially believing that it was impossible to translate works with a strong national character into other languages, he was only convinced by the success of Turgenev's collaboration with Louis Viardot in translating Gogol's novels into French in 1846, and then became increasingly determined to recognise translatability in translation. Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a series of revisions that led to a complete and rigorous system of translation theory, the first of its kind in the history of Russian translation theory.(Wu,2006:58-61)(Feng,2009:15)<br />
<br />
Translation in Russia developed in the second half of the 19th century. From the 1960s onwards, the Russian readership of non-language speakers began to expand, and these readers were keen to see the translation 'replace' the original. This demand led to an unprecedented expansion in the choice of subjects and translations of Russian literature. Interest in foreign theatrical works was particularly high at this stage, and a strong interest in European classical literature also developed. Dickens, Saclay, Victor Hugo, Dumas, Balzac, Flaubert, Tudor, Maupassant and Zola, as well as lesser-known writers of today, were successively brought to the attention of a wide range of Russian readers in the form of translations. At that time, European theatre classics like Shakespeare's plays were translated into Russia in large numbers. Many professional translators were involved, the most successful being the translator P.N.V. Weinberg. He translated foreign literature from the standpoint of progressive Russian literature of the time. His translation of Othello, for example, is notable for its vividness in the Russian language, and has always been recognised as the best translation in terms of conveying the totality of scenes, plots and long dialogues, even though the translation is wordy compared to the original.(Feng,2009:15-16)<br />
<br />
Although there has been a quantitative surge in translations of Russian literature during this period, the quality has generally been poor, manifesting itself in word-for-word translations, redundant sentences and poor vocabulary, not to mention inventiveness. In addition, the language of the characters in the translation is heavily Russified, with Russian proverbs, sayings and idioms that the foreign characters could never have known, and the introduction of Russian-specific life circumstances that cause contradictions with the plot and details of the original work. For example, В Тулу со своим самоваром ехать (Bring your own samovar to Tula - it's superfluous). The reason for this is that the literary world did not attach much importance to the translation of fiction and prose, and there were no specialists working on this task. Another point is that at this stage there was little progress in the study of Russian translation theory, and no valuable theoretical insights emerged. The linguist A.A. Потебня (1835-1891) expressed his views on translation from a psychological standpoint in his essay "Language and Peopleliness ". In his view, it was impossible to express in another language what was originally intended to be expressed in a certain language. He, like many other literary scholars, denied the translatability of language.(Feng,2006:16)(Guo,2006:11)Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:41, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The mid-nineteenth century was a period of increasingly intensively political and ideological struggle in Russian literature, and a great debate raged in the Russian literary world over the question of 'art for the people' or 'art for art's sake'. The debate was mainly about the choice of materials for translation and the methods of translation. As far as the choice of material was concerned, the democratic and revolutionary writers who supported 'art for the people' chose to translate works with progressive ideological content and a democratic orientation, such as Heine. The aristocratic and liberal intellectual writers, on the other hand, opted for philosophical poetry with a chanting and individualistic feel. It's undoubtful that this is not absolute: "Mikhailov and Dobrolyubov of the democratic revolutionary school also translated Heine's moody love poems The Songbook, while Tolstoy of the aristocratic and liberal school translated some of Goethe's more progressive poems, such as The Fiancée of Corinth and The Whore of God. In terms of their approach to translation, the Democratic-Revolutionary translators, based on the reproduction of the original as a whole, approached their translations very liberally, when they even added in many elements typical of Russian culture. The latter, on the other hand, usually adopted a direct translation, focusing on conveying the formal details of the original work. This divergence was mainly due to the different starting points of the two groups of translators, with the democratic revolutionaries seeking to convey advanced ideas to the Russian general public and the aristocratic intellectuals believing that works of art were irrelevant to the people and that artistic creations should not be exposed to "vulgar" reality.<br />
<br />
There were a large number of outstanding literary writers and literary critics who made brilliant statements about literary translation in that era, none more so than Belinsky (В.Г.Белинский), Chernyshevsky (Н.Г.Черныщевский) and Dubrolyovsky (Н.Г.Добролюбов). Belinsky was one of the greatest Russian literary critics of the 19th century. He believed that translations should not be word-for-word, but should reproduce the spirit of the original text, in much the same way as Pushkin's view of translation theory. On the other hand, he also opposed arbitrary 'paraphrasing': the ideal translation should not add or delete arbitrarily to the original text, but should enable the reader to understand the foreign work truly and accurately through the translation. Such a viewpoint seems to us to be quite convincing even now. Belinsky played a decisive role in completely burying the 'rewriting' and 'adapting it to Russian custom' arguments. This issue dominates his writings. He argues that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of the translation, and this is one of the criteria by which he judges its merits. He points out, for example, that the greatest strength of Gnedzic's translation of the Iliad is that it "exudes the atmosphere of ancient life" and "the spirit of the ancient Greeks". However, the contradiction between national identity and translatability was once a problem for Belinsky. Initially believing that it was impossible to translate works with a strong national character into other languages, he was only convinced by the success of Turgenev's collaboration with Louis Viardot in translating Gogol's novels into French in 1846, and then became increasingly determined to recognise translatability in translation. Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a series of revisions that led to a complete and rigorous system of translation theory, the first of its kind in the history of Russian translation theory.<br />
<br />
Translation in Russia developed in the second half of the 19th century. From the 1960s onwards, the Russian readership of non-language speakers began to expand, and these readers were keen to see the translation 'replace' the original. This demand led to an unprecedented expansion in the choice of subjects and translations of Russian literature. Interest in foreign theatrical works was particularly high at this stage, and a strong interest in European classical literature also developed. Dickens, Saclay, Victor Hugo, Dumas, Balzac, Flaubert, Tudor, Maupassant and Zola, as well as lesser-known writers of today, were successively brought to the attention of a wide range of Russian readers in the form of translations. At that time, European theatre classics like Shakespeare's plays were translated into Russia in large numbers. Many professional translators were involved, the most successful being the translator P.N.V. Weinberg. He translated foreign literature from the standpoint of progressive Russian literature of the time. His translation of Othello, for example, is notable for its vividness in the Russian language, and has always been recognised as the best translation in terms of conveying the totality of scenes, plots and long dialogues, even though the translation is wordy compared to the original.<br />
<br />
Although there has been a quantitative surge in translations of Russian literature during this period, the quality has generally been poor, manifesting itself in word-for-word translations, redundant sentences and poor vocabulary, not to mention inventiveness. In addition, the language of the characters in the translation is heavily Russified, that is, contents with Russian proverbs, sayings and idioms that the foreign characters could never have known, and the introduction of Russian-specific life circumstances that cause contradictions with the plot and details of the original work. For example, В Тулу со своим самоваром ехать (Bring your own samovar to Tula - it's superfluous). The reason for this is that the literary world did not attach much importance to the translation of fiction and prose, and there were no specialists working on this task. Another point is that at this stage there was little progress in the study of Russian translation theory, and no valuable theoretical insights emerged. The linguist A.A. Потебня (1835-1891) expressed his views on translation from a psychological standpoint in his essay "Language and Peopleliness ". In his view, it was impossible to express in another language what was originally intended to be expressed in a certain language. Just like many other literary scholars, he denied the translatability of language. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:13, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.Translation ideas of famous writers of the 18-19th centuries. ===<br />
===3.1. Pushkin 's ideas on translation. ===<br />
Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin (Александр Сергеевич Пушкин, 1977-1837), a famous Russian poet and writer of the nineteenth century, was also very much a translator. Although he left behind few works on translation, his ideas on translation are worth studying. Pushkin's translations of poetry were associated with classicism in the early stages of his work and later with romanticism. Although these translations are far removed from the original in a literal sense, they are almost close to composition. Pushkin's significance as a translator, however, lies in 1) the reproduction of foreign originals in the standard Russian language he established in his translations and 2) the full expression of the realist artistic method in the heyday of his compositions: the focus on typical features and the technique of outlining the historical and individual characteristics that reflect the original.(Wu,2006:37-41)(Li Zheng & Fan Min,2010:69）<br />
<br />
Pushkin's translations have their own characteristics and style. He did not translate all of his works word for word from the original, and in some places he deleted what he considered to be redundant sentences in order to avoid the verbosity of the original, occasionally replacing the translation with a general paraphrase. He advocates respect for the characteristics of foreign readers, while at the same time opposing word-for-word translations, which can lead to the trampling of the mother tongue. He therefore advocated translations which, on the one hand, required fidelity to the original in terms of meaning and, on the other, should preserve the original's distinctive features.<br />
As he says in his unfinished 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', commenting on Chateaubriand's translation: 'There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), has failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own conventional rhetorical devices, its own habitual expressions, and it is impossible to translate all this into another language using the corresponding vocabulary." Pushkin's rejection of word-for-word translation can be seen.(Li Zheng & Fan Min,2010:69）<br />
<br />
Pushkin's influence on the cause of translation in Russia was immense, and this influence refers neither to his few translations nor to his theoretical views, but to the fact that Pushkin pioneered the translation of Russian literature. Although his ideas on translation cannot be called a theory, they do provide certain translation ideas for later generations of literary translators.(Li Zheng & Fan Min,2010:69）Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin (Александр Сергеевич Пушкин, 1977-1837), a famous Russian poet and writer of the nineteenth century, was also an outstanding translator. Besides he left behind few works on translation, his ideas on translation are worth studying. Pushkin's translations of poetry were associated with classicism in the early stages of his work and with romanticism later. Although these translations are far removed from the original in a literal sense, they are almost close to composition. Pushkin's significance as a translator, however, lies in the reproduction of foreign originalities in the standard Russian language he established in his translations and the full expression of the realist artistic method in the heyday of his compositions: the focus on typical features and the technique of outlining the historical and individual characteristics that reflect the original.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's translations have their own distinctive characteristics and style. He did not translate all of his works literally from the original context, but in some places he deleted what he considered to be redundant sentences in order to avoid the verbosity of the original, occasionally replacing the translation with a general paraphrase. He advocates to give enough respect for the characteristics of foreign readers, while at the same time opposing word-for-word translations, which may lead to the trampling of the mother tongue. Therefore, He advocated translations which, on the one hand, required fidelity to the original text in terms of meaning and, on the other hand, should preserve the original's distinctive features.<br />
<br />
As he says in his unfinished 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', he comments on Chateaubriand's translation: 'There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), has failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own conventional rhetorical devices, its own habitual expressions, and it is impossible to translate all this into another language using the corresponding vocabulary." Pushkin's rejection of word-for-word translation can be revealed clearly.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's influence on the cause of translation in Russia was huge, and his influence refers neither to his few translations nor to his theoretical views, but to the fact that Pushkin pioneered the translation of Russian literature. Although his ideas on translation cannot be called a theory, they do provide certain unique and new translation ideas for later generations of literary translators. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:29, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.1. Belinsky's ideas on translation. ===<br />
Vissarion Grigorievich Belinsky (Виссарион Григорьевич Белинский, 1811-1848) was a famous literary critic of the nineteenth century and one of the most involved in the world of translation among Russian literary activists of his time. Belinsky was fluent in French and as a young man translated for two magazines, Miscellany and Telescope. Later, after a career in literary criticism, he published numerous articles on translation and criticism of translated works.<br />
Belinsky's and Pushkin's views on translation were very similar, both advocating that translations should not be word-for-word. Belinsky first introduced the term 'theory' of translation, and in his 1838 review of Polevoy's translation of Hamlet, he first proposed the need for a theory of translation. He considered the role of theory: "Any object that man perceives has a theory of its own, and a theory is the knowledge of the laws by which the object exists."<br />
<br />
Belinsky argues that in translation: "Closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original. Each <br />
language has its own distinctive expressions, characteristics and qualities; these are so distinctive that to correctly convey a certain image or sentence, it is sometimes necessary to change them completely in the translation. The corresponding image, like the corresponding sentence, does not necessarily lie in a superficial agreement of words: the inner life of the translation should be made to correspond to the inner life of the original". It can be seen that Belinsky, like Pushkin, was also opposed to word-for-word rigid translations, his view being that the task of translating a language lies in reproducing the spirit of the original. He believed that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of a translation, so the question of the interrelationship between national character and translatability has always troubled Belinsky. He pointed out that 'there is only one rule for translating a literary work - to convey the spirit of the work being translated, and this can only be done by translating it into Russian as the author himself would have written it in Russian, if he had been Russian' (The Complete Works of Belinsky Volume 2).<br />
<br />
Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a number of achievements, and his view of translation as a whole is a complete and rigorous system. His view of translation was developed gradually, and in the process it was dominated by an increasingly firm recognition of the possibility of a successful solution to the task of translation, that is, of translatability. Belinsky believed that a translation must be discerning in its content and form in relation to the original. He has pointed out that "approaching the original is not the same as conveying the letters, but rather the spirit of the original." It is also suggested that the translator and the original author are two different kinds of people. But in order to convey the 'spirit' of the original in the translation, the translator's genius needs to reach a certain tacit understanding with this 'spirit'. He advocates the preservation of exoticism in translation, opposes naturalisation, the arbitrary distortion of the face of the original work, the overwhelming of the original author with the personality of the translator's style, the emphasis on both likeness and likeness, etc. However, while recognising the importance of reproducing the poetic form of the original work in translation, Belinsky also took into account the state of development of Russian literature in translation. This also led him to look favourably on translating good poetry in prose, seeing such translations as a form of transition for Russian readers to the treasures of world literature.<br />
<br />
Although Belinsky wrote little about literary translation, his theoretical views contain the kernel of the realist principles of translation proposed by contemporary Soviet literary translators. His ideas on translation had a very profound influence on the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Vissarion Grigorievich Belinsky (Виссарион Григорьевич Белинский, 1811-1848) was a famous literary critic of the nineteenth century and one of the most active in the world of translation among Russian literary activists of his time. Belinsky was fluent in French and when he was a young man he translated for two magazines, Miscellany and Telescope. Later, after a career in literary criticism, he published numerous articles on translation and criticism of translated works.<br />
<br />
Belinsky's and Pushkin's views on translation were very similar, both advocating that translations should not be word-for-word. Belinsky first introduced the term 'theory' of translation, and in his 1838 review of Polevoy's translation of Hamlet, he first proposed the need for a theory of translation. He considered the role of theory: "Any object that man perceives has a theory of its own, and a theory is the knowledge of the laws by which the object exists."<br />
<br />
Belinsky argues that in translation: "Closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original. Each language has its own distinctive expressions, characteristics and qualities; these are so distinctive that to correctly convey a certain image or sentence, it is sometimes necessary to change them completely in the translation. The corresponding image, like the corresponding sentence, does not necessarily lie in a superficial agreement of words: the inner life of the translation should be made to correspond to the inner life of the original". It can be seen that Belinsky, like Pushkin, was also opposed to word-for-word rigid translations, his view being that the task of translating a language lies in reproducing the spirit of the original. He believed that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of a translation, so the question of the interrelationship between national character and translatability has always troubled Belinsky. He pointed out that 'there is only one rule for translating a literary work - to convey the spirit of the work being translated, and this can only be done by translating it into Russian as the author himself would have written it in Russian, if he had been Russian' (The Complete Works of Belinsky Volume 2).<br />
<br />
Belinsky's career as a translator had a number of achievements, and his view of translation as a whole is a complete and rigorous system. His view of translation was developed gradually, and in this process it was dominated by an increasingly firm recognition of the possibility of a successful solution to the task of translation, that is, of translatability. Belinsky believed that a translation must be discerning in its content and form in relation to the original. He has pointed out that "approaching the original is not the same as conveying the letters, but rather the spirit of the original." It is also suggested that the translator and the original author are two different kinds of people. But in order to convey the 'spirit' of the original in the translation, the translator's genius needs to reach a certain tacit understanding with this 'spirit'. He advocates the preservation of exoticism in translation, opposes naturalisation, the arbitrary distortion of the face of the original work, the overwhelming of the original author with the personality of the translator's style, the emphasis on both likeness and likeness, etc. However, while recognising the importance of reproducing the poetic form of the original work in translation, Belinsky also took into account the state of development of Russian literature in translation. This also led him to look favourably on translating good poetry in prose, seeing such translations as a form of transition for Russian readers to the treasures of world literature.<br />
<br />
Although Belinsky wrote little about literary translation, his theoretical views contain the kernel of the realist principles of translation proposed by contemporary Soviet literary translators. His ideas on translation had a very profound influence on the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:56, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.Conclusion ===<br />
Translation has demonstrated its importance in social activity since antiquity, yet it was only in the twentieth century that it became a widely followed professional discipline. This article reviews Russian translation activity and translation thought in pre-Soviet Russia, exploring its development before the formation of a theoretical system. Throughout the history of translation, Russian scholars have contributed greatly to the development of translation literature in the world. Through combing through the history of Russian translation, we learn that the translation ideas of a number of outstanding writers, though not theoretical, have had an unmistakable impact on later generations. When discussing the translation ideas of 19th-century writers, we are inspired to insist on the principle that "closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original", emphasizing the ideological content and literary value of the translation, that the translation should serve the readers, and that the translation should be people-oriented. These ideas influenced, to a greater or lesser extent, the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, the study of the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia is not only conducive to sorting out Russian translation ideas Russian learners can better understand the characteristics of their translations when translating and improve the accuracy of their translations.Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:44, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Translation has played its important role in the social activities since antiquity, yet it was until in the twentieth century that it became a widely followed professional discipline. This paper reviews Russian translators and translation thoughts in pre-Soviet Russia, exploring its development before the formation of a theoretical system. Throughout the history of translation, Russian scholars have contributed greatly to the development of translation literature in the world. By combing through the history of Russian translation, we learn that the translation ideas of a number of outstanding writers, though not very theoretical, have had an unmistakable impact on later generations. When discussing the translation ideas of 19th-century writers, we are inspired to insist on the principle that "closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original", emphasizing the ideological content and literary value of the translation that the translation should serve the readers, and that the translation should be people-oriented. These ideas influenced, to a greater or lesser extent, the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, the study of the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia not only is conducive to sorting out Russian translation ideas, but also make Russian learners better understand the characteristics of their translations when translating and improving the accuracy of their translations. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 14:02, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.References ===<br />
1.Wu, Keli 吴克礼（2006）.俄苏翻译理论流派综述 The Translation Methods and Studies in USSR. 上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
2.Guo Lin 郭琳（2006）.俄罗斯语言学派翻译理论若干问题研究[D] A Study of Some Problems of Translation Theory of the Russian School of Philology.首都师范大学 Capital Normal University.<br />
<br />
3.Feng Xin 冯欣（2009）. 俄罗斯翻译理论史及其影响研究[D] A study of the history of Russian translation theory and its influence.上海外国语大学 Shanghai International Studies University.<br />
<br />
4.Wang，Yulun；Jiang,Wanzhu 王育伦,姜万砫（1989).别林斯基论文学翻译[J] Belinsky on Literary Translation .中国翻译 Chinese translators Journal ,(03):53-55.<br />
<br />
5.Li Zheng, Fan Min 李铮,范敏（2010）. 普希金与翻译[J] Pushkin and Translation. 现代交际 Modern Intercourse Journal,(05):69.</div>Zhang Yiranhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_5&diff=132658Hist Trans Theo EN 52021-12-14T03:25:06Z<p>Zhang Yiran: /* 3.1. Pushkin 's ideas on translation. */</p>
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=Chapter 5 History of Translation Theories from Early Russia to the Soviet Union=<br />
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'''从古罗斯到苏联前的翻译理论史'''<br />
<br />
张怡然 Zhang Yiran,Hunan Normal University,China<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation as a means of intercultural communication, each country has a distinctive translation ideology. This article focuses on the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia. Through analyzing the history of translation, can find that Russia has formed a literary tradition of translation studies in the late 18th century. In the 19th century, Pushkin, Lermontov, Turgenev and other outstanding poets and literary scholars were keen on translation, especially in the middle of the century when Belinsky and other famous literary critics published a series of comments on literary translation, which emphasized the literary tradition of Russian translation to an unparalleled extent, which is rare in the history of translation in the world. The general principles of Russian literary translation thought were also formed during this period: namely, to insist on commenting on the merits of a translation in terms of the overall effect of the work, to emphasize the ideological content and literary value of the translation, and that the translation should serve the reader and be people-oriented. The above ideas influenced the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, a study of the history of translation theory in pre-Soviet Russia will help learners of Russian to better understand the characteristics of their translations and to improve the accuracy and peopleliness of their translations.Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 12:57, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation is a means of intercultural communication, and each country has its own distinctive translation theory system. This paper focuses on the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia. By analyzing the history of translation, it is obvious that a literary tradition of translation studies has been formed in Russia in the late 18th century. In the 19th century, Pushkin, Lermontov, Turgenev and other outstanding poets and literary scholars were keen on translation, especially in the middle of the century when Belinsky and other famous literary critics published a series of comments on literary translation, which emphasized the literary tradition of Russian translation to an unparalleled extent, which is rare in the history of translation in the world. The general principles of Russian literary translation thoughts were also formed during this period: namely, to insist on commenting on the merits and weakness of a translation in terms of the overall effect of the work, to emphasize the ideological content and literary value of the translation, and the translation should serve the reader and be people-oriented. The above ideas influenced the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, a study of the history of translation theory in pre-Soviet Russia will help learners of Russian to understand the characteristics of their translations profoundly and to improve the accuracy and fluency of their translations.Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:03, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation theories, Translation ideas，History of Translation<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译作为一种跨文化交际的手段，每个国家都有独具特色的翻译思想。本文主要探讨苏联前俄国的翻译历史。通过梳理其翻译史可发现，俄国于18世纪末期就已形成了翻译研究的文学传统。进入19世纪后, 普希金、莱蒙托夫、屠格涅夫等优秀诗人、文学家对翻译的热衷, 尤其是世纪中叶别林斯基等著名文学评论家发表一系列关于文学翻译的评论, 更是把俄国翻译的文学传统强调到无以复加的程度, 这在世界翻译史上都是罕见的。俄国文学翻译思想的总原则也在这一时期形成:即坚持从作品的整体效果上来评论译作优劣, 强调译作的思想内容和文学价值, 翻译应为读者服务, 译文应具有人民性。上述思想影响了苏联时期翻译理论的形成。因此，对苏联前俄国翻译理论史的研究有利于俄语学习者在翻译时更好的理解其翻译特点，提高翻译的准确性和人民性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译理论 翻译思想 翻译史 <br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
This essay provides a comprehensive and concise overview of the history of translation in Russia: Russian written translations began in the Kievan Rus' era, when religious subjects were the main focus of translations, especially the Bible, which was translated from Greek. Religious translations continued to flourish under the Moscow principality, represented by Maksim Gleick (МаксимГрек). At the same time, the national character of Russian translations began to emerge, and the languages of translation expanded from Greek to Latin, German and West Slavic, and the subjects covered included Western chivalric fiction, geographical literature, alchemy and medicine. In the eighteenth century, Peter the Great introduced a number of measures to focus on translation, making this period a turning point in the history of Russian translation. The proliferation of specialised translations (e.g. of legal texts) was the main feature of translation activity in the early eighteenth century. After this period Russian translators began to translate literary works.The main translators were Lomonosov (М.В. Ломоносов) and Tretyakovsky (V.K. Тредьяковский). In the second half of the eighteenth century, translation was given greater importance in Russia, and the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books was founded by Ekaterina II, in which a large number of outstanding translators emerged. The nineteenth century was a golden period in the history of Russian translation. Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин) and Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский) both produced many excellent translations. Pushkin (A.С.Пушкин) and Lermontov (M.Ю.Лермонтов) contributed greatly to the development of Russian literature in translation, while Fetter concentrated on love poetry. In the twentieth century, the Russian translation community made significant achievements in theoretical translation studies. In particular, the rapid development of the philological school and the debate between the literary and philological schools made Soviet translation theory one of the leading theories of translation in the world.(Guo Lin,2006:5)Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 12:57, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
This paper provides a comprehensive and concise overview of the history of translation in Russia: Russian written translations began in the Kievan Rus' era, when religious subjects were the main focus of translations, especially the Bible, translated from Greek. Religious translations continued to flourish under the Moscow principality, represented by Maksim Gleick (МаксимГрек). At the same time, the national character of Russian translations began to emerge, and the languages of translation expanded from Greek to Latin, German and West Slavic, and the subjects covered included Western chivalric fiction, geographical literature, alchemy and medicine. In the eighteenth century, Peter the Great introduced a number of measures to focus on translation, leading this period to a turning point in the history of Russian translation. The proliferation of specialised translations (e.g. of legal texts) was the main feature of translation activity in the early eighteenth century. After this period Russian translators began to translate literary works.The main translators were Lomonosov (М.В. Ломоносов) and Tretyakovsky (V.K. Тредьяковский). In the second half of the eighteenth century, translation was paid greater attention in Russia, and the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books was founded by Ekaterina II, in which a large number of outstanding translators emerged. The nineteenth century was a golden period in the history of Russian translation when Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин) and Rukovsky (В.А.Жуковский) both produced many excellent translations. Pushkin (A.С.Пушкин) and Lermontov (M.Ю.Лермонтов) contributed greatly to the development of Russian literature in translation, while Fetter concentrated on love poetry. In the twentieth century, the Russian translation community made significant achievements in theoretical translation studies. In particular, the rapid development of the philological school and the debate between the literary and philological schools made Soviet translation theory one of the leading theories of translation in the world. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:14, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===1.The history of Russian translation and the period of enlightenment of its translation theory. ===<br />
1. The emergence and development of literary translation.<br />
<br />
Translation activity has a long history in Russia, the beginnings of which can be traced back to the time of Kievan Rus'. A relatively sophisticated system of writing, literature and translation was already in place in ancient Russia in the ninth century AD. Frequent cultural and trade exchanges with Byzantine, German, French and Scandinavian countries contributed significantly to the development of translation in Russia at that time, as did contacts with Eastern countries. From Kievan Rus' onwards, Russian translation methods oscillated between two main tendencies, either to follow the original texts exactly, up to the point of translating them word for word, or to be arbitrary, even to the point of rewriting, adding or deleting at will. The first tendency is the main characteristic of translations of the Bible and other sacred books, while the second, though not absolute, can be said to characterize most secular works.(Feng Xin,2009:8)(Wu Keli,2006:4)<br />
<br />
2.Initiation of translation activities-religious translation. <br />
<br />
In 864 AD, the Byzantine king sent two Greek priests, Kirill (Кирилл) and Mephodi (Мефодий), to spread Christianity among the Slavic people. At the beginning of their mission, they created a new alphabet (now known as the Kirill alphabet) and used this writing system to translate many religious texts from Greek into the ancient Church Slavonic. Among the results were the New Testament, hymnals and prayer books.(Feng,2009:8)<br />
<br />
In 988 AD, Rus was baptised and Kievan Rus was converted to Christianity. A large number of translations appeared instantly to help Protestants become familiar with the new religious philosophy and ethical system and to understand the rituals and customs of the Church. These translations were in a variety of genres, including the Acts of the Saints, sermons, chronicles and so on. In addition, apocryphal books telling magical and fantastical stories were also popular, and some of them had similarities with the later 'fantasy novels'. Most of these translations were done in Bulgaria and were popularised in Rus. At that time, translations of religious texts were mostly word-for-word. There were also a small number of works that, unlike the 'elaborate copies of the original', had a separate literary value. In one case, a large number of details of Russian life were added to the storyline of a sermon (e.g. The Tales of Achild the Wise). In another case, military historical narratives are interspersed with the terminology of the ancient Russian feudal system and certain literary images from the stories of ancient Russian warriors (e.g. Joseph Flav's History of the Jewish War). This translation can be considered one of the most successful of the period. In the translation, the translator succeeded in avoiding many word-for-word translations). In a third case, the manuscripts copied by Ancient Rus, although based on Greek epic poetry (e.g. The Great Work of Digenes Akritas), often borrowed from Russian folk poetry, so that a large number of folk compositions appeared. As a result of this literary process, the translated literature was smoothly enriched by Russian manuscripts, which contributed to the development of original Russian literature and consolidated its links with the medieval literary process. Unfortunately, at that early stage in the development of translation, the translators were not signed, so it is impossible to verify whether the works were translated at home or abroad.(Feng,2009:9) <br />
<br />
During the difficult period of 'Mongol rule' (1228-1480), translations continued to play an important role in the cultural life of the country. The remaining chapters of the Bible were translated one after another, and previous translations were again proofread and revised. In addition to religious translations, more translations of non-religious subjects emerge, such as The Kingdom of India and The Trojan War. Most of the works were still translated from Greek, while works probably translated from Latin and ancient Hebrew also appeared. During this period, Russian began to take shape through the interaction of Old Slavonic (Church Slavonic) and local national languages. However, religious texts were still only translated into Church Slavonic, and the use of this language was by then restricted to ecclesiastical matters. At the same time, political and commercial exchanges with other countries were more likely to be in Russian, which was becoming increasingly sophisticated: elements of the combination of Old Slavonic and Russian can also be found in original works.（Wu,2006:6)<br />
<br />
14-15th century literature in translation by Rus was characterised by an obsession with new themes. These were mainly new works of tranquillity-abstinence literature, or works recommended by and familiar to the tranquillists. This mystical genre was introduced to Rus after it had swept through the Byzantine and Yugoslav peoples. It was reflected in the semi-secular translations popular at the time (for example, The Trojan War). <br />
<br />
In the 16th century AD, Moscow eventually became the political centre of Russia, as well as the translation centre of the country. In 1515, the Grand Duke of Moscow, Vassily III (Василий Ⅲ), asked a Greek monastery to send a learned translator to Moscow. This man, who accompanied the Greek mission to Moscow in 1516, was the historically famous Maksim Gleick (Максим Грек). Maksim Gleick worked as a translator throughout his life, studying most of the religious texts and some of the non-religious works during this period. In addition, he also proofread and annotated previously existing translations.(Wu,2006:7) <br />
<br />
At the beginning, Maksim knew neither Russian nor Old Slavonic, so he divided the translation into two steps: first, he translated from Greek to Latin, and then his assistant translated from Latin to Old Slavonic. In the process of revising existing translations, he often broke with established tradition and was therefore denounced as blasphemous. Maksim was also a prolific writer, educator and philosopher. His writings contain many insights into the art of translation - the earliest recorded treatise on translation in Russia. Maksim insisted that the original text must be carefully analysed in order to grasp its full subtleties and implications. Therefore, the translator must not only master the language of the original, but also have a broad knowledge of the language and prepare for the translation. To support his argument, Maksim used Greek lexicography, phonetic organisation and phonetics involved in translation. His other major contribution was the compilation of a dictionary containing Greek, Latin and Hebrew nouns, which was also the first of its kind in Russian history. Although it was recognised at the time that translators should have a command of both languages as well as a profound background knowledge, the practitioners of translation at the time lacked the necessary qualities and their translations were not as good as they could have been.(Wu,2006:7)Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 13:39, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
1. The emergence and development of literary translation. <br />
<br />
Translation activity has a long history in Russia, the beginnings of which can be traced back to the Time of Kievan Rus'. A relatively sophisticated system of writing, literature and translation was already in ancient Russia in the ninth century AD. Frequent cultural and trade exchanges with Byzantine, German, French and Scandinavian countries contributed significantly to the development of translation in Russia at that time, as did contacts with Eastern countries. From Kievan Rus' onwards, Russian translation methods oscillated between two main tendencies, either to follow the original texts exactly, up to the point of translating them word by word, or to be arbitrary, even to the point of rewriting, adding words or deleting at will. The first tendency is the main characteristic of translations of the Bible and other sacred books, while the second, though not absolutely, can be said to characterize most secular works.<br />
<br />
2.Initiation of translation activities-religious translation. <br />
<br />
In 864 AD, the Byzantine king sent two Greek priests, Kirill (Кирилл) and Mephodi (Мефодий), to spread Christianity among the Slavic people. At the beginning of their mission, they created a new alphabet (now known as the Kirill alphabet) and used this writing system to translate many religious texts from Greek into the ancient Church Slavonic. Among the results were the New Testament, hymnals and prayer books. In 988 AD, Rus was baptised and Kievan Rus was converted to Christianity. A large number of translations appeared instantly to help Protestants become familiar with the new religious philosophy and ethical system and to understand the rituals and customs of the Church. These translations were in a variety of genres, including the Acts of the Saints, sermons, chronicles and so on. In addition, apocryphal books telling magical and fantastical stories were also popular, and some of them had similarities with the later 'fantasy novels'. Most of these translations were done in Bulgaria and were popularised in Rus. At that time, translations of religious texts were mostly word-for-word. There were also a small number of works that, unlike the 'elaborate copies of the original', had a separate literary values. In one case, a large number of details of Russian life were added to the storyline of a sermon (e.g. The Tales of Achild the Wise). In another case, military historical narratives are interspersed with the terminology of the ancient Russian feudal system and certain literary images from the stories of ancient Russian warriors (e.g. Joseph Flav's History of the Jewish War). This translation can be considered one of the most successful of the period. In the translation, the translator succeeded in avoiding many word-for-word translations). Thirdly, the manuscripts copied by Ancient Rus, although based on Greek epic poetry (e.g. The Great Work of Digenes Akritas), often borrowed from Russian folk poetry, so that a large number of folk compositions appeared. As a result of this literary process, the translated literature was smoothly enriched by Russian manuscripts, which contributed to the development of original Russian literature and consolidated its links with the medieval literary process. Unfortunately, at that early stage in the development of translation, the translators were not signed, so it is impossible to verify whether the works were translated at home or abroad. During the difficult period of 'Mongol rule' (1228-1480), translations continued to play an important role in the cultural life of the country. The remaining chapters of the Bible were translated one after another, and previous translations were again proofread and revised. In addition to religious translations, more translations of non-religious subjects emerge, such as The Kingdom of India and The Trojan War. Most of the works were still translated from Greek, while works probably translated from Latin and ancient Hebrew also appeared. During this period, Russian began to take shape through the interaction of Old Slavonic (Church Slavonic) and local national languages. However, religious texts were still only translated into Church Slavonic, and the use of this language was by then restricted to ecclesiastical matters. At the same time, political and commercial exchanges with other countries were more likely to be in Russian, which was becoming increasingly sophisticated: elements of the combination of Old Slavonic and Russian can also be found in original works. 14-15th century literature in translation by Rus was characterised by an obsession with new themes. These were mainly new works of tranquillity-abstinence literature, or works recommended by and familiar to the tranquillists. This mystical genre was introduced to Rus after it had swept through the Byzantine and Yugoslav peoples. It was reflected in the semi-secular translations popular at the time (for example, The Trojan War). In the 16th century AD, Moscow eventually became the political center of Russia, as well as the translation center of the country. In 1515, the Grand Duke of Moscow, Vassily III (Василий Ⅲ), asked a Greek monastery to send a learned translator to Moscow. This man, who accompanied the Greek mission to Moscow in 1516, was the historically famous Maksim Grek (Максим Грек). Maxim Greek worked as a translator throughout his life, studying most of the religious texts and some of the non-religious works during this period. In addition, he also proofread and annotated previously existing translations. At the beginning, Maxim knew neither Russian nor Old Slavonic, so he divided the translation into two steps: first, he translated from Greek to Latin, and then his assistant translated from Latin to Old Slavonic. In the process of revising existing translations, he often broke with established tradition and was therefore denounced as blasphemous. Maxim was also a prolific writer, educator and philosopher. His writings contain many insights into the art of translation - the earliest recorded treatise on translation in Russia. Maxim insisted that the original text must be carefully analysed in order to grasp its full subtleties and implications. Therefore, the translator must not only master the language of the original, but also have a broad knowledge of the language and prepare for the translation. To support his argument, Maxim used Greek lexicography, phonetic organisation and phonetics involved in translation. His other major contribution was the compilation of a dictionary containing Greek, Latin and Hebrew nouns, which was also the first of its kind in Russian history. Although it was recognized at the time that translators should have a command of both languages and profound background knowledge, the practitioners of translation at the time lacked the necessary qualities and their translations were not as good as they should have been. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. Overview of the Russian school of Translation. ===<br />
===2.1 18th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The eighteenth century is an important period in the history of Russian translation. The status of translation in social culture has undergone a qualitative change, and this is due to Peter the Great's reform. At the beginning of the century, translation was still mostly related to professional documents such as laws and contracts. Later, the translator's tentacles gradually expanded to literary translation, for example, French poetry translation. The famous translators of this period are Sumarokov(А.П.Сумароков), Lomonosov(М.В.Ломоносов), Tretyakovsky (В.К.Тредьяковский) and so on. In the second half of the 18th century, the Association for the Translation of Foreign Books officially put forward the importance of translation. The organization has been active for 15 years with over 100 members.（Wu,2006:10)<br />
<br />
1.Imperial support for translation. The political reforms introduced by Peter the Great also led to intensive economic and cultural exchanges between Russia and European countries. This created a huge demand for translations of scientific and technical literature and literary works. Translators were required to produce works of a high standard.<br />
<br />
Peter the Great issued a special decree on translation, requiring "faithful" communication of the original text. In a directive issued to his subordinates in 1709, he explicitly stated that when translating foreign books, word-for-word translations were to be avoided and that the content of the original text should be clearly expressed in one's own language, based on an understanding of its content. On the other hand, Peter the Great's subversion of the written language initially caused confusion in Russian translation circles. A large number of foreign languages entered the Russian language, and the piles of foreign syntactic structures distracted attention. In any case, Peter the Great's reforms did set a new norm and a new direction for translation.(Wu,2006:11)<br />
<br />
In terms of content, Peter the Great's reforms were, from the very beginning, inextricably linked to the translation of scientific and technical texts, such as the many books on military defence engineering that he ordered to be translated and used to strengthen Russia's military forces. Peter the Great also placed great importance on the translation of prose, poetry and other literary works. During this period, the Russian language began to develop its own literary model, and many educated Russians saw translation as a way of enriching the language and enhancing its uniqueness and expressiveness. <br />
<br />
From around the 1830s, the importance of translating Western European scientific and technical texts gradually gave way to literary works such as prose and poetry. Writers who were also translators turned their attention to the work of new Western European writers, mainly poets, especially French poets. At the same time, the legacy of the Greco-Roman period also entered their minds. They began to translate the works of philosophers and historians, which - on the one hand - gave rise to difficulties in literary rhetoric and scientific terminology and, on the other, played an important role in the formation of a standard Russian language.(Feng,2009:10)(Guo,2006:8) <br />
<br />
From that time onwards, translation also became an organised activity, with the emergence of specific bodies responsible for the organisation and management of translation work. 1735 saw the establishment of the first specialised translation organisation, the Russian Society, at the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences. The Society had a professional group of translators and some of the academy's scholars, such as Lomonosov and Tretyakovsky, were among its members. The Association was responsible for selecting works, defining the rules or principles of translation, commenting on translations, and training translators. It is worth mentioning that the Academy of Sciences also set up a school of foreign languages to train official translators. In 1748, the Academy implemented Queen Elizabeth's decree to increase the number of translations of non-religious books and publicly appealed to "the nobility and other classes of intellectuals" to take an active part in the translation process.(Guo,2006:8)(Feng,2009:10) <br />
<br />
In the second half of the 18th century, Ekaterina II's efforts to create a 'civilised state' not only led to the development of literature, but also gave preferential treatment to writers. For example, in order to select the best original texts, she ordered the establishment of the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books (1768 - 1783). The Society was dedicated to providing excellent conditions for translation work throughout Russia. The purchase of manuscripts was financed out of Ekaterina's own funds. Later, the Society also discussed a proposal to establish a translation bureau under the Academy of Sciences (1790). The 114 members of the Society included such notable figures as Tretyakovsky, Sumarokov and Radishev. For 14 years the Association was active, producing numerous literary translations and likewise contributing to the discussion of theoretical issues in translation.(Guo,2006:9)<br />
<br />
2.The emergence of poetry translation. Translation of poetry also developed in Russia in the 18th century, and later became one of the jewels of the country's literature. The great Russian scholar and poet Lomonosov was a major contributor to this process. A great deal of the work created by Lomonosov and his contemporaries Sumarokov and Tretyakovsky was poetry in translation. They often translated while exploring theoretical issues in translation: they would explain in their works why they translated this way and not that way; they stressed the importance of translation work and the creative value it contained. Among the most prestigious writers and translators in Russian literature at the time, there were several interesting competitions in which two or three poets translated the same work at the same time, and their translations were published in journals. It was often the case that different translations of the same work were published at the same time, without the translator's name, for the judgement of "literary lovers and peers". This phenomenon also supports the idea that the 18th century was a period of 'experimentation' in the history of Russian translation.(Feng,2006:11) <br />
<br />
Lomonosov's translations from Latin, German, French and Greek are numerous and varied, showing his talent for both rhyming and free verse. He was keen to reproduce the rhythmic structure of the original texts, using a variety of iambic and iambic meter to convey the Alexandrian style of French epic and the hexameter style of Greek tragedy. Russian poetry was not very developed at the time and was still based on syllables. <br />
Lomonosov's innovations enriched Russian poetry and established new forms and traditions of Russian poetic style and rhyme. <br />
<br />
In contrast, Kantymir (Д.М.Кантемира) and Tretyakovsky's greatest quest was to insist on a faithful translation of the original. In the process, the translators had to contend with the problems of reams of vocabulary and rhetorical rules. Tretyakovsky became famous for his successful use of Russian rhyme to translate many verses of the original in his translation of Paul Thielmann's A Journey to Love Island. In the introduction to the novel, the translator states his approach to translation: "The translator is only one person away from the author. I would add that if the author is original, the translator should be even more original (I am not referring to myself, but to a good translator)". He believes that "prose to prose" and "poetry to poetry" can be as good as the original, and that a good translation is one that "describes the full meaning of each verse". Kantymir 's translation of Horace's Letters and other poetic works in Latin and French, although less well-known than the former, is equally valuable.(Wu,2006:16) Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:40, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The eighteenth century is an important period in the history of Russian translation. The status of translation in social culture has undergone a qualitative change, and this is due to Peter the Great's reform. At the beginning of the century, translation was still mostly related to professional documents such as laws and contracts. Later, the translator's tentacles gradually expanded to literary translation, for example, French poetry translation. The famous translators of this period are Sumarokov(А.П.Сумароков), Lomonosov(М.В.Ломоносов), Tretyakovsky (В.К.Тредьяковский) and so on. In the second half of the 18th century, the Association for the Translation of Foreign Books officially put forward the importance of translation. The organization has been active for 15 years with over 100 members. The following points reflected the reasons why translation was paid more attention in the eighteenth century.<br />
<br />
1.Imperial support for translation. <br />
<br />
The political reforms introduced by Peter the Great also led to intensive economic and cultural exchanges between Russia and European countries. This created a huge demand for translations of scientific and technical literature and literary works. Translators were required to produce works of a high standard.Peter the Great issued a special decree on translation, requiring "faithful" communication of the original text. In a directive issued to his subordinates in 1709, he explicitly stated that when translating foreign books, word-for-word translations were to be avoided and that the content of the original text should be clearly expressed in one's own language, based on an understanding of its content. On the other hand, Peter the Great's subversion of the written language initially caused confusion in Russian translation circles. A large number of foreign languages entered the Russian language, and the piles of foreign syntactic structures distracted attention. In any case, Peter the Great's reforms did set a new norm and a new direction for translation. In terms of content, Peter the Great's reforms were, from the very beginning, inextricably linked to the translation of scientific and technical texts, such as the many books on military defence engineering that he ordered to be translated and used to strengthen Russia's military forces. Peter the Great also placed great importance on the translation of prose, poetry and other literary works. During this period, the Russian language began to develop its own literary model, and many educated Russians saw translation as a way of enriching the language and enhancing its uniqueness and expressiveness. <br />
<br />
From around the 1830s, the importance of translating Western European scientific and technical texts gradually gave way to literary works such as prose and poetry. Writers who were also translators turned their attention to the work of new Western European writers, mainly poets, especially French poets. At the same time, the legacy of the Greco-Roman period also entered their minds. They began to translate the works of philosophers and historians, which - on the one hand - gave rise to difficulties in literary rhetoric and scientific terminology and, on the other, played an important role in the formation of a standard Russian language. <br />
<br />
From that time onwards, translation also became an organised activity, with the emergence of specific bodies responsible for the organisation and management of translation work. 1735 saw the establishment of the first specialised translation organisation, the Russian Society, at the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences. The Society had a professional group of translators and some of the academy's scholars, such as Lomonosov and Tretyakovsky, were among its members. The Association was responsible for selecting works, defining the rules or principles of translation, commenting on translations, and training translators. It is worth mentioning that the Academy of Sciences also set up a school of foreign languages to train official translators. In 1748, the Academy implemented Queen Elizabeth's decree to increase the number of translations of non-religious books and publicly appealed to "the nobility and other classes of intellectuals" to take an active part in the translation process. <br />
<br />
In the second half of the 18th century, Ekaterina II's efforts to create a 'civilised state' not only led to the development of literature, but also gave preferential treatment to writers. For example, in order to select the best original texts, she ordered the establishment of the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books (1768-1783). The Society was dedicated to providing excellent conditions for translation work throughout Russia. The purchase of manuscripts was financed out of Ekaterina's own funds. Later, the Society also discussed a proposal to establish a translation bureau under the Academy of Sciences (1790). The 114 members of the Society included such notable figures as Tretyakovsky, Sumarokov and Radishev. For 14 years the Association was active, producing numerous literary translations and likewise contributing to the discussion of theoretical issues in translation.<br />
<br />
2.The emergence of poetry translation.<br />
<br />
Translation of poetry also developed in Russia in the 18th century, and later became one of the jewels of the country's literature. The great Russian scholar and poet Lomonosov was a major contributor to this process. A great deal of the work created by Lomonosov and his contemporaries Sumarokov and Tretyakovsky was poetry in translation. They often translated while exploring theoretical issues in translation: they would explain in their works why they translated this way and not that way; they stressed the importance of translation work and the creative value it contained. Among the most prestigious writers and translators in Russian literature at the time, there were several interesting competitions in which two or three poets translated the same work at the same time, and their translations were published in journals. It was often the case that different translations of the same work were published at the same time, without the translator's name, for the judgement of "literary lovers and peers". This phenomenon also supports the idea that the 18th century was a period of 'experimentation' in the history of Russian translation. <br />
<br />
Lomonosov's translations works in Latin, German, French and Greek are numerous and varied, showing his talent for both rhyming and free verse. He was keen to reproduce the rhythmic structure of the original texts, using a variety of iambic and iambic meter to convey the Alexandrian style of French epic and the hexameter style of Greek tragedy. Russian poetry was not very developed at the time and was still based on syllables. <br />
Lomonosov's innovations enriched Russian poetry and established new forms and traditions of Russian poetic style and rhyme. <br />
<br />
In contrast, Kantymir (Д.М.Кантемира) and Tretyakovsky's greatest quest was to insist on a faithful translation of the original. In the process, the translators had to contend with the problems of reams of vocabulary and rhetorical rules. Tretyakovsky became famous for his successful use of Russian rhyme to translate many verses of the original in his translation of Paul Thielmann's A Journey to Love Island. In the introduction to the novel, the translator states his approach to translation: "The translator is only one person away from the author. I would add that if the author is original, the translator should be even more original (I am not referring to myself, but to a good translator)". He believes that "prose to prose" and "poetry to poetry" can be as good as the original, and that a good translation is one that "describes the full meaning of each verse". Kantymir 's translation of Horace's Letters and other poetic works in Latin and French, although less well-known than the former, is equally valuable. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 12:39, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.2 First half of the19th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The nineteenth century was a golden age in the history of Russian translation. If translation had established itself as a profession in the first hundred years, it was elevated to the level of art in this century. The nineteenth century produced a number of masters of translation, including Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин), Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский), Pushkin (А.С.Пушкин), Lermontov (М.Ю.Лермонтов) and Fetter (А.Фет).(Wu,2006:23)<br />
<br />
The new Russian school of translation owes its formation to the historian Nikolai Karamzin and the poet Zhukovsky. Karamzin published a number of translations in several magazines between the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century. He saw translations as a good help in perfecting a writer's style: a source of information that would satisfy human curiosity, inform historical facts, entertain women and provide material for new magazines. As a young man, Karamzin was strongly opposed to the alteration of and disloyalty to the original texts, but later became a champion of free translation, famously saying: "Whoever follows the author of the original text step by step is no different from a servant who serves his lord". Karamzin's translations cover an admirable range of genres and languages: he translated works by both classical and contemporaneous authors, in Greek, French, Latin, German, English, Italian and some Oriental languages.(Feng,2009:12)<br />
<br />
Pushkin called Zhukovsky "a genius of translation". After graduating from the Moscow Noble Boarding University in 1802, Zhukovsky devoted himself to translation. It was thanks to his efforts that Russian readers were able to access the works of world literary giants such as Schiller, Goethe, Byron and Walters Scott. Zhukovsky's creative translation activities also ranged from Charles Bello to Grimm's Fairy Tales. From Charles Bellow to Grimm's fairy tales, from Homer's epic Odyssey to the poetic history of ancient Rus' Igor's Expedition, all became his original texts. There is no denying that Zhukovsky is a master in the history of Russian translation. Like Karamzin, Zhukovsky was a fan of free translation, sometimes rewriting the original or even creating a new story from its subject: sometimes transferring the setting of events to Russia and giving Russian names to the characters. For example, in his 1808 translation of the German Romantic poet Bilge's narrative poem Lenore, he changed the heroine's name from Lenore to Lyudmila and moved the story to the time of the Livonian War in 16th-century Russia. Zhukovsky believed that the "unsavoury character" of the work should be weakened while retaining the original author's ideas. His talent enabled him to reproduce the style, rhythm and tone of the original poems, while some of his best works were also faithful to the original. In later years, however, his view of translation changed in response to the tendency to stay close to the original, and he retranslated several of his previous translations to make them more faithful to the original, including Lenore. The Russian school of translation owes much to the tradition of translation created by Zhukovsky.(Wu,2006:24-30)(Feng,2009:13)(Guo,2006:9)<br />
<br />
Pushkin and Lermontov are also two poets who set the stage for an epoch in the history of Russian translation. Although only a small proportion of their poetry was translated, they made a significant contribution to the improvement of the art of translation in Russia. In their rewriting and imitation of poetry, they were able to reproduce the most important features of foreign poetry, the key point being that their creative translations were no less valuable in their own right than the originals. Their free translation became a model for other translators, and in addition they established the important principle that a good artistic translation must also be a good work in the national literature of the translated language. Pushkin played an indelibly important role in the development of the Russian school of translation. He was always interested in the question of translation, and his critical views on translation were objective and profound. Before translation he stressed the importance of the choice of the original work, and in translation he demanded that the translator should be faithful to the original, while at the same time displaying his deep creative skills and his own literary style. In one of his unfinished posthumous works, 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', Pushkin wrote: 'Chateaubriand's translation (verbatim) compensates to some extent for the faults of the young French writers (free translation), for they have insulted the great man very cruelly, though in a perfectly innocent manner. There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own rhetorical conventions, its own way of expressing itself, and it is impossible to translate into another language with the corresponding vocabulary". These insights had a positive impact on the best Russian translators of the 19th and 20th centuries. In addition, Pushkin's discussion of translation coincided with a turning point in the history of Russian literature, when the Romantic era was being replaced by a new era with a predominantly realist orientation, and a process of 'separation' between translated and national literature was under way. Pushkin's discussion of the work of the translator as distinct from that of the writer contributed to the independence of literature in translation from indigenous literature.(Guo,2006:10)(Wu,2006:37-41) <br />
<br />
During this period, while most people advocated free translation, there were a few translators who insisted on maximum fidelity to the original and advocated the word-for-word method, even at the expense of the work's willingness to be translated. Among these were such well-known writers as P.A. Vyazemsky (П.А.Вяземский) and N.I. Gnedzic (Н.И.Гнедич). In fact, they did not always live up to their principles, and sometimes their talent and artistic intuition ended up breaking the bonds of verbatim translation. Vyazemsky's translations of Benjamin Constant and Adam Mickiewicz were not without literary and artistic merit, and his translation of Homer's epic Iliad in particular was highly praised by Pushkin. It was Fetter who was the most insistent on the idea of a verbatim translation. Fetter translated many famous works, and his philosophy throughout was one of sentence-for-sentence, word-for-word translation, retaining all the words of the original. Fetter's extreme word-for-word approach had a negative impact on most of his translations, although he was sometimes able to come up with some effective methods of translation.(Feng,2009:14) <br />
<br />
Free translations were also sometimes used to promote democratic ideas in the original that could not pass official scrutiny. A number of translators, such as V. Kurochkin (В.Курочкин), D. M. Minayev (Д.Минаев) and M. M. Mikhalov (М.Михайлов), achieved this by selecting appropriate original works or by using texts in their translations that were superficially imperceptible in their allusion to the conditions in Russia at the time. It was from that time onwards that the use of translation as a weapon to express dissent became part of the Russian tradition.(Feng,2009:14) Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:41, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The nineteenth century was the golden age in the history of Russian translation. If translation had established its status in the first hundred years, it was elevated to the level of art in this century. The nineteenth century produced a number of masters of translation, including Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин), Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский), Pushkin (А.С.Пушкин), Lermontov (М.Ю.Лермонтов) and Fetter (А.Фет). <br />
<br />
The new Russian school of translation owes its formation to the publishment of a number of translations of historian Nikolai Karamzin and the poet Zhukovsky. Karamzin in several magazines between the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century. He regarded translation as a good help in perfecting a writer's style: a source of information that satisfies human curiosity, informs historical facts, entertains women and provides materials for new magazines. As a young man, Karamzin was strongly opposed to the disloyalty to the original texts, but later became a champion of free translation. His famous saying was: "Whoever follows the author of the original text step by step is no different from a servant who serves his lord". Karamzin's translations cover an admirable range of genres and languages: he translated works by both classical and contemporaneous authors, in Greek, French, Latin, German, English, Italian and some Oriental languages. <br />
<br />
Pushkin called Zhukovsky "a genius of translation". After graduating from the Moscow Noble Boarding University in 1802, Zhukovsky devoted himself to translation. It was thanks to his efforts that Russian readers were able to access the works of world literary giants such as Schiller, Goethe, Byron and Walters Scott. Zhukovsky's creative translation activities also ranged from Charles Bello to Grimm's Fairy Tales. From Charles Bellow to Grimm's fairy tales, from Homer's epic Odyssey to the poetic history of ancient Rus' Igor's Expedition, all became his original texts. There is no denying that Zhukovsky is a master in the history of Russian translation. Like Karamzin, Zhukovsky was a fan of free translation, who sometimes rewrites the original or even creates a new story from its subject, transfers the setting of events to Russia and gives Russian names to the characters. For example, in his 1808 translation of the German Romantic poet Bilge's narrative poem Lenore, he changed the heroine's name from Lenore to Lyudmila and moved the story to the time of the Livonian War in 16th-century Russia. Zhukovsky believed that the "unsavoury character" of the work should be weakened while retaining the original author's ideas. His talent enabled him to reproduce the style, rhythm and tone of the original poems, while some of his best works were also faithful to the original. In later years, however, his view of translation changed in response to the tendency to stay close to the original, and he retranslated several of his previous translations to make them more faithful to the original, including Lenore. The Russian school of translation owes much to the tradition of translation created by Zhukovsky.<br />
<br />
Pushkin and Lermontov are also two poets who gave perfect preparations for an epoch in the history of Russian translation. Although only a small proportion of their poetry was translated, they made a significant contribution to the improvement of the art of translation in Russia. In their rewriting and imitation of poetry, they were able to reproduce the most important features of foreign poetry, the key point being that their creative translations were no less valuable in their own right than the originals. Their free translation became a model for other translators, and in addition they established the important principle that a good artistic translation must also be a good work in the national literature of the translated language. Pushkin played an indelibly important role in the development of the Russian school of translation. He was always interested in the question of translation, and his critical views on translation were objective and profound. Before translation he stressed the importance of the choice of the original work, and in translation he demanded that the translator should be faithful to the original, while at the same time displaying his deep creative skills and his own literary style. In one of his unfinished posthumous works, 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', Pushkin wrote: 'Chateaubriand's translation (verbatim) compensates to some extent for the faults of the young French writers (free translation), for they have insulted the great man very cruelly, though in a perfectly innocent manner. There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own rhetorical conventions, its own way of expressing itself, and it is impossible to translate into another language with the corresponding vocabulary". These insights had a positive impact on the best Russian translators of the 19th and 20th centuries. In addition, Pushkin's discussion of translation coincided with a turning point in the history of Russian literature, when the Romantic era was being replaced by a new era with a predominantly realist orientation, and a process of 'separation' between translated and national literature was under way. Pushkin's discussion of the work of the translator as distinct from that of the writer contributed to the independence of literature in translation from indigenous literature. <br />
<br />
During this period, while most people advocated free translation, there were a few translators who insisted on maximum fidelity to the original and advocated the word-for-word method, even at the expense of the work's willingness to be translated. Among these were such well-known writers as P.A. Vyazemsky (П.А.Вяземский) and N.I. Gnedzic (Н.И.Гнедич). In fact, they did not always live up to their principles, and sometimes their talent and artistic intuition ended up breaking the bonds of verbatim translation. Vyazemsky's translations of Benjamin Constant and Adam Mickiewicz were not without literary and artistic merit, and his translation of Homer's epic Iliad in particular was highly praised by Pushkin. It was Fetter who was the most insistent on the idea of a verbatim translation. Fetter translated many famous works, and his philosophy throughout was one of sentence-for-sentence, word-for-word translation, retaining all the words of the original. Fetter's extreme word-for-word approach had a negative impact on most of his translations, although he was sometimes able to come up with some effective methods of translation. <br />
<br />
Free translations were also used to promote democratic ideas in original that could not pass official scrutiny. A number of translators, such as V. Kurochkin (В.Курочкин), D. M. Minayev (Д.Минаев) and M. M. Mikhalov (М.Михайлов), achieved this by selecting appropriate original works or by using texts in their translations that were superficially imperceptible in their allusion to the conditions in Russia at the time. It was since then that the use of translation was used as a weapon to express dissent became part of the Russian tradition. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:05, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.3 Second half of the19th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The mid-nineteenth century was a period of increasingly intense political and ideological struggle in Russian literature, and a great debate raged in the Russian literary world over the question of 'art for the people' or 'art for art's sake'. The debate was mainly about the choice of material for translation and the method of translation. As far as the choice of material was concerned, the democratic and revolutionary writers who supported 'art for the people' chose to translate works with progressive ideological content and a democratic orientation, such as Heine. The aristocratic and liberal intellectual writers, on the other hand, opted for philosophical poetry with a chanting and individualistic feel. Of course, this is not absolute: "Mikhailov and Dobrolyubov of the democratic revolutionary school also translated Heine's moody love poems The Songbook, while Tolstoy of the aristocratic and liberal school translated some of Goethe's more progressive poems, such as The Fiancée of Corinth and The Whore of God. In terms of their approach to translation, the Democratic-Revolutionary translators, based on the reproduction of the original as a whole, approached their translations very liberally, even adding in many elements typical of Russian culture. The latter, on the other hand, usually adopted a direct translation, focusing on conveying the formal details of the original work. This divergence was mainly due to the different starting points of the two groups of translators, with the democratic revolutionaries seeking to convey advanced ideas to the Russian general public and the aristocratic intellectuals believing that works of art were irrelevant to the people and that artistic creations should not be exposed to "vulgar" reality.(Feng,2009:14-15)<br />
<br />
There were a large number of outstanding literary writers and literary critics who made brilliant statements about literary translation in that era, none more so than Belinsky (В.Г.Белинский), Chernyshevsky (Н.Г.Черныщевский) and Dubrolyovsky (Н.Г.Добролюбов). Belinsky was one of the greatest Russian literary critics of the 19th century. He believed that translations should not be word-for-word, but should reproduce the spirit of the original, in much the same way as Pushkin's view of translation theory. On the other hand, he also opposed arbitrary 'paraphrasing': the ideal translation should not add or delete arbitrarily to the original text, but should enable the reader to understand the foreign work truly and accurately through the translation. Such a viewpoint seems to us to be quite convincing even now. Belinsky played a decisive role in completely burying the 'rewriting' and 'adapting it to Russian custom' arguments. This issue dominates his writings. He argues that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of the translation, and this is one of the criteria by which he judges its merits. He points out, for example, that the greatest strength of Gnedzic's translation of the Iliad is that it "exudes the atmosphere of ancient life" and "the spirit of the ancient Greeks". However, the contradiction between national identity and translatability was once a problem for Belinsky. Initially believing that it was impossible to translate works with a strong national character into other languages, he was only convinced by the success of Turgenev's collaboration with Louis Viardot in translating Gogol's novels into French in 1846, and then became increasingly determined to recognise translatability in translation. Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a series of revisions that led to a complete and rigorous system of translation theory, the first of its kind in the history of Russian translation theory.(Wu,2006:58-61)(Feng,2009:15)<br />
<br />
Translation in Russia developed in the second half of the 19th century. From the 1960s onwards, the Russian readership of non-language speakers began to expand, and these readers were keen to see the translation 'replace' the original. This demand led to an unprecedented expansion in the choice of subjects and translations of Russian literature. Interest in foreign theatrical works was particularly high at this stage, and a strong interest in European classical literature also developed. Dickens, Saclay, Victor Hugo, Dumas, Balzac, Flaubert, Tudor, Maupassant and Zola, as well as lesser-known writers of today, were successively brought to the attention of a wide range of Russian readers in the form of translations. At that time, European theatre classics like Shakespeare's plays were translated into Russia in large numbers. Many professional translators were involved, the most successful being the translator P.N.V. Weinberg. He translated foreign literature from the standpoint of progressive Russian literature of the time. His translation of Othello, for example, is notable for its vividness in the Russian language, and has always been recognised as the best translation in terms of conveying the totality of scenes, plots and long dialogues, even though the translation is wordy compared to the original.(Feng,2009:15-16)<br />
<br />
Although there has been a quantitative surge in translations of Russian literature during this period, the quality has generally been poor, manifesting itself in word-for-word translations, redundant sentences and poor vocabulary, not to mention inventiveness. In addition, the language of the characters in the translation is heavily Russified, with Russian proverbs, sayings and idioms that the foreign characters could never have known, and the introduction of Russian-specific life circumstances that cause contradictions with the plot and details of the original work. For example, В Тулу со своим самоваром ехать (Bring your own samovar to Tula - it's superfluous). The reason for this is that the literary world did not attach much importance to the translation of fiction and prose, and there were no specialists working on this task. Another point is that at this stage there was little progress in the study of Russian translation theory, and no valuable theoretical insights emerged. The linguist A.A. Потебня (1835-1891) expressed his views on translation from a psychological standpoint in his essay "Language and Peopleliness ". In his view, it was impossible to express in another language what was originally intended to be expressed in a certain language. He, like many other literary scholars, denied the translatability of language.(Feng,2006:16)(Guo,2006:11)Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:41, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The mid-nineteenth century was a period of increasingly intensively political and ideological struggle in Russian literature, and a great debate raged in the Russian literary world over the question of 'art for the people' or 'art for art's sake'. The debate was mainly about the choice of materials for translation and the methods of translation. As far as the choice of material was concerned, the democratic and revolutionary writers who supported 'art for the people' chose to translate works with progressive ideological content and a democratic orientation, such as Heine. The aristocratic and liberal intellectual writers, on the other hand, opted for philosophical poetry with a chanting and individualistic feel. It's undoubtful that this is not absolute: "Mikhailov and Dobrolyubov of the democratic revolutionary school also translated Heine's moody love poems The Songbook, while Tolstoy of the aristocratic and liberal school translated some of Goethe's more progressive poems, such as The Fiancée of Corinth and The Whore of God. In terms of their approach to translation, the Democratic-Revolutionary translators, based on the reproduction of the original as a whole, approached their translations very liberally, when they even added in many elements typical of Russian culture. The latter, on the other hand, usually adopted a direct translation, focusing on conveying the formal details of the original work. This divergence was mainly due to the different starting points of the two groups of translators, with the democratic revolutionaries seeking to convey advanced ideas to the Russian general public and the aristocratic intellectuals believing that works of art were irrelevant to the people and that artistic creations should not be exposed to "vulgar" reality.<br />
<br />
There were a large number of outstanding literary writers and literary critics who made brilliant statements about literary translation in that era, none more so than Belinsky (В.Г.Белинский), Chernyshevsky (Н.Г.Черныщевский) and Dubrolyovsky (Н.Г.Добролюбов). Belinsky was one of the greatest Russian literary critics of the 19th century. He believed that translations should not be word-for-word, but should reproduce the spirit of the original text, in much the same way as Pushkin's view of translation theory. On the other hand, he also opposed arbitrary 'paraphrasing': the ideal translation should not add or delete arbitrarily to the original text, but should enable the reader to understand the foreign work truly and accurately through the translation. Such a viewpoint seems to us to be quite convincing even now. Belinsky played a decisive role in completely burying the 'rewriting' and 'adapting it to Russian custom' arguments. This issue dominates his writings. He argues that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of the translation, and this is one of the criteria by which he judges its merits. He points out, for example, that the greatest strength of Gnedzic's translation of the Iliad is that it "exudes the atmosphere of ancient life" and "the spirit of the ancient Greeks". However, the contradiction between national identity and translatability was once a problem for Belinsky. Initially believing that it was impossible to translate works with a strong national character into other languages, he was only convinced by the success of Turgenev's collaboration with Louis Viardot in translating Gogol's novels into French in 1846, and then became increasingly determined to recognise translatability in translation. Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a series of revisions that led to a complete and rigorous system of translation theory, the first of its kind in the history of Russian translation theory.<br />
<br />
Translation in Russia developed in the second half of the 19th century. From the 1960s onwards, the Russian readership of non-language speakers began to expand, and these readers were keen to see the translation 'replace' the original. This demand led to an unprecedented expansion in the choice of subjects and translations of Russian literature. Interest in foreign theatrical works was particularly high at this stage, and a strong interest in European classical literature also developed. Dickens, Saclay, Victor Hugo, Dumas, Balzac, Flaubert, Tudor, Maupassant and Zola, as well as lesser-known writers of today, were successively brought to the attention of a wide range of Russian readers in the form of translations. At that time, European theatre classics like Shakespeare's plays were translated into Russia in large numbers. Many professional translators were involved, the most successful being the translator P.N.V. Weinberg. He translated foreign literature from the standpoint of progressive Russian literature of the time. His translation of Othello, for example, is notable for its vividness in the Russian language, and has always been recognised as the best translation in terms of conveying the totality of scenes, plots and long dialogues, even though the translation is wordy compared to the original.<br />
<br />
Although there has been a quantitative surge in translations of Russian literature during this period, the quality has generally been poor, manifesting itself in word-for-word translations, redundant sentences and poor vocabulary, not to mention inventiveness. In addition, the language of the characters in the translation is heavily Russified, that is, contents with Russian proverbs, sayings and idioms that the foreign characters could never have known, and the introduction of Russian-specific life circumstances that cause contradictions with the plot and details of the original work. For example, В Тулу со своим самоваром ехать (Bring your own samovar to Tula - it's superfluous). The reason for this is that the literary world did not attach much importance to the translation of fiction and prose, and there were no specialists working on this task. Another point is that at this stage there was little progress in the study of Russian translation theory, and no valuable theoretical insights emerged. The linguist A.A. Потебня (1835-1891) expressed his views on translation from a psychological standpoint in his essay "Language and Peopleliness ". In his view, it was impossible to express in another language what was originally intended to be expressed in a certain language. Just like many other literary scholars, he denied the translatability of language. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:13, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.Translation ideas of famous writers of the 18-19th centuries. ===<br />
===3.1. Pushkin 's ideas on translation. ===<br />
Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin (Александр Сергеевич Пушкин, 1977-1837), a famous Russian poet and writer of the nineteenth century, was also very much a translator. Although he left behind few works on translation, his ideas on translation are worth studying. Pushkin's translations of poetry were associated with classicism in the early stages of his work and later with romanticism. Although these translations are far removed from the original in a literal sense, they are almost close to composition. Pushkin's significance as a translator, however, lies in 1) the reproduction of foreign originals in the standard Russian language he established in his translations and 2) the full expression of the realist artistic method in the heyday of his compositions: the focus on typical features and the technique of outlining the historical and individual characteristics that reflect the original.(Wu,2006:37-41)(Li Zheng & Fan Min,2010:69）<br />
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Pushkin's translations have their own characteristics and style. He did not translate all of his works word for word from the original, and in some places he deleted what he considered to be redundant sentences in order to avoid the verbosity of the original, occasionally replacing the translation with a general paraphrase. He advocates respect for the characteristics of foreign readers, while at the same time opposing word-for-word translations, which can lead to the trampling of the mother tongue. He therefore advocated translations which, on the one hand, required fidelity to the original in terms of meaning and, on the other, should preserve the original's distinctive features.<br />
As he says in his unfinished 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', commenting on Chateaubriand's translation: 'There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), has failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own conventional rhetorical devices, its own habitual expressions, and it is impossible to translate all this into another language using the corresponding vocabulary." Pushkin's rejection of word-for-word translation can be seen.(Li Zheng & Fan Min,2010:69）<br />
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Pushkin's influence on the cause of translation in Russia was immense, and this influence refers neither to his few translations nor to his theoretical views, but to the fact that Pushkin pioneered the translation of Russian literature. Although his ideas on translation cannot be called a theory, they do provide certain translation ideas for later generations of literary translators.(Li Zheng & Fan Min,2010:69）Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin (Александр Сергеевич Пушкин, 1977-1837), a famous Russian poet and writer of the nineteenth century, was also an outstanding translator. Besides he left behind few works on translation, his ideas on translation are worth studying. Pushkin's translations of poetry were associated with classicism in the early stages of his work and with romanticism later. Although these translations are far removed from the original in a literal sense, they are almost close to composition. Pushkin's significance as a translator, however, lies in the reproduction of foreign originalities in the standard Russian language he established in his translations and the full expression of the realist artistic method in the heyday of his compositions: the focus on typical features and the technique of outlining the historical and individual characteristics that reflect the original.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's translations have their own distinctive characteristics and style. He did not translate all of his works literally from the original context, but in some places he deleted what he considered to be redundant sentences in order to avoid the verbosity of the original, occasionally replacing the translation with a general paraphrase. He advocates to give enough respect for the characteristics of foreign readers, while at the same time opposing word-for-word translations, which may lead to the trampling of the mother tongue. Therefore, He advocated translations which, on the one hand, required fidelity to the original text in terms of meaning and, on the other hand, should preserve the original's distinctive features.<br />
<br />
As he says in his unfinished 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', he comments on Chateaubriand's translation: 'There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), has failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own conventional rhetorical devices, its own habitual expressions, and it is impossible to translate all this into another language using the corresponding vocabulary." Pushkin's rejection of word-for-word translation can be revealed clearly.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's influence on the cause of translation in Russia was huge, and his influence refers neither to his few translations nor to his theoretical views, but to the fact that Pushkin pioneered the translation of Russian literature. Although his ideas on translation cannot be called a theory, they do provide certain unique and new translation ideas for later generations of literary translators. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:29, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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===3.1. Belinsky's ideas on translation. ===<br />
Vissarion Grigorievich Belinsky (Виссарион Григорьевич Белинский, 1811-1848) was a famous literary critic of the nineteenth century and one of the most involved in the world of translation among Russian literary activists of his time. Belinsky was fluent in French and as a young man translated for two magazines, Miscellany and Telescope. Later, after a career in literary criticism, he published numerous articles on translation and criticism of translated works.<br />
Belinsky's and Pushkin's views on translation were very similar, both advocating that translations should not be word-for-word. Belinsky first introduced the term 'theory' of translation, and in his 1838 review of Polevoy's translation of Hamlet, he first proposed the need for a theory of translation. He considered the role of theory: "Any object that man perceives has a theory of its own, and a theory is the knowledge of the laws by which the object exists."<br />
<br />
Belinsky argues that in translation: "Closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original. Each <br />
language has its own distinctive expressions, characteristics and qualities; these are so distinctive that to correctly convey a certain image or sentence, it is sometimes necessary to change them completely in the translation. The corresponding image, like the corresponding sentence, does not necessarily lie in a superficial agreement of words: the inner life of the translation should be made to correspond to the inner life of the original". It can be seen that Belinsky, like Pushkin, was also opposed to word-for-word rigid translations, his view being that the task of translating a language lies in reproducing the spirit of the original. He believed that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of a translation, so the question of the interrelationship between national character and translatability has always troubled Belinsky. He pointed out that 'there is only one rule for translating a literary work - to convey the spirit of the work being translated, and this can only be done by translating it into Russian as the author himself would have written it in Russian, if he had been Russian' (The Complete Works of Belinsky Volume 2).<br />
<br />
Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a number of achievements, and his view of translation as a whole is a complete and rigorous system. His view of translation was developed gradually, and in the process it was dominated by an increasingly firm recognition of the possibility of a successful solution to the task of translation, that is, of translatability. Belinsky believed that a translation must be discerning in its content and form in relation to the original. He has pointed out that "approaching the original is not the same as conveying the letters, but rather the spirit of the original." It is also suggested that the translator and the original author are two different kinds of people. But in order to convey the 'spirit' of the original in the translation, the translator's genius needs to reach a certain tacit understanding with this 'spirit'. He advocates the preservation of exoticism in translation, opposes naturalisation, the arbitrary distortion of the face of the original work, the overwhelming of the original author with the personality of the translator's style, the emphasis on both likeness and likeness, etc. However, while recognising the importance of reproducing the poetic form of the original work in translation, Belinsky also took into account the state of development of Russian literature in translation. This also led him to look favourably on translating good poetry in prose, seeing such translations as a form of transition for Russian readers to the treasures of world literature.<br />
<br />
Although Belinsky wrote little about literary translation, his theoretical views contain the kernel of the realist principles of translation proposed by contemporary Soviet literary translators. His ideas on translation had a very profound influence on the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Vissarion Grigorievich Belinsky (Виссарион Григорьевич Белинский, 1811-1848) was a famous literary critic of the nineteenth century and one of the most active in the world of translation among Russian literary activists of his time. Belinsky was fluent in French and when he was a young man he translated for two magazines, Miscellany and Telescope. Later, after a career in literary criticism, he published numerous articles on translation and criticism of translated works.<br />
<br />
Belinsky's and Pushkin's views on translation were very similar, both advocating that translations should not be word-for-word. Belinsky first introduced the term 'theory' of translation, and in his 1838 review of Polevoy's translation of Hamlet, he first proposed the need for a theory of translation. He considered the role of theory: "Any object that man perceives has a theory of its own, and a theory is the knowledge of the laws by which the object exists."<br />
<br />
Belinsky argues that in translation: "Closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original. Each language has its own distinctive expressions, characteristics and qualities; these are so distinctive that to correctly convey a certain image or sentence, it is sometimes necessary to change them completely in the translation. The corresponding image, like the corresponding sentence, does not necessarily lie in a superficial agreement of words: the inner life of the translation should be made to correspond to the inner life of the original". It can be seen that Belinsky, like Pushkin, was also opposed to word-for-word rigid translations, his view being that the task of translating a language lies in reproducing the spirit of the original. He believed that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of a translation, so the question of the interrelationship between national character and translatability has always troubled Belinsky. He pointed out that 'there is only one rule for translating a literary work - to convey the spirit of the work being translated, and this can only be done by translating it into Russian as the author himself would have written it in Russian, if he had been Russian' (The Complete Works of Belinsky Volume 2).<br />
<br />
Belinsky's career as a translator had a number of achievements, and his view of translation as a whole is a complete and rigorous system. His view of translation was developed gradually, and in this process it was dominated by an increasingly firm recognition of the possibility of a successful solution to the task of translation, that is, of translatability. Belinsky believed that a translation must be discerning in its content and form in relation to the original. He has pointed out that "approaching the original is not the same as conveying the letters, but rather the spirit of the original." It is also suggested that the translator and the original author are two different kinds of people. But in order to convey the 'spirit' of the original in the translation, the translator's genius needs to reach a certain tacit understanding with this 'spirit'. He advocates the preservation of exoticism in translation, opposes naturalisation, the arbitrary distortion of the face of the original work, the overwhelming of the original author with the personality of the translator's style, the emphasis on both likeness and likeness, etc. However, while recognising the importance of reproducing the poetic form of the original work in translation, Belinsky also took into account the state of development of Russian literature in translation. This also led him to look favourably on translating good poetry in prose, seeing such translations as a form of transition for Russian readers to the treasures of world literature.<br />
<br />
Although Belinsky wrote little about literary translation, his theoretical views contain the kernel of the realist principles of translation proposed by contemporary Soviet literary translators. His ideas on translation had a very profound influence on the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:56, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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===4.Conclusion ===<br />
Translation has demonstrated its importance in social activity since antiquity, yet it was only in the twentieth century that it became a widely followed professional discipline. This article reviews Russian translation activity and translation thought in pre-Soviet Russia, exploring its development before the formation of a theoretical system. Throughout the history of translation, Russian scholars have contributed greatly to the development of translation literature in the world. Through combing through the history of Russian translation, we learn that the translation ideas of a number of outstanding writers, though not theoretical, have had an unmistakable impact on later generations. When discussing the translation ideas of 19th-century writers, we are inspired to insist on the principle that "closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original", emphasizing the ideological content and literary value of the translation, that the translation should serve the readers, and that the translation should be people-oriented. These ideas influenced, to a greater or lesser extent, the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, the study of the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia is not only conducive to sorting out Russian translation ideas Russian learners can better understand the characteristics of their translations when translating and improve the accuracy of their translations.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:44, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Translation has played its important role in the social activities since antiquity, yet it was until in the twentieth century that it became a widely followed professional discipline. This paper reviews Russian translators and translation thoughts in pre-Soviet Russia, exploring its development before the formation of a theoretical system. Throughout the history of translation, Russian scholars have contributed greatly to the development of translation literature in the world. By combing through the history of Russian translation, we learn that the translation ideas of a number of outstanding writers, though not very theoretical, have had an unmistakable impact on later generations. When discussing the translation ideas of 19th-century writers, we are inspired to insist on the principle that "closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original", emphasizing the ideological content and literary value of the translation that the translation should serve the readers, and that the translation should be people-oriented. These ideas influenced, to a greater or lesser extent, the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, the study of the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia not only is conducive to sorting out Russian translation ideas, but also make Russian learners better understand the characteristics of their translations when translating and improving the accuracy of their translations. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 14:02, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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===5.References ===<br />
1.Wu, Keli 吴克礼（2006）.俄苏翻译理论流派综述 The Translation Methods and Studies in USSR. 上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
2.Guo Lin 郭琳（2006）.俄罗斯语言学派翻译理论若干问题研究[D] A Study of Some Problems of Translation Theory of the Russian School of Philology.首都师范大学 Capital Normal University.<br />
<br />
3.Feng Xin 冯欣（2009）. 俄罗斯翻译理论史及其影响研究[D] A study of the history of Russian translation theory and its influence.上海外国语大学 Shanghai International Studies University.<br />
<br />
4.Wang，Yulun；Jiang,Wanzhu 王育伦,姜万砫（1989).别林斯基论文学翻译[J] Belinsky on Literary Translation .中国翻译 Chinese translators Journal ,(03):53-55.<br />
<br />
5.Li Zheng, Fan Min 李铮,范敏（2010）. 普希金与翻译[J] Pushkin and Translation. 现代交际 Modern Intercourse Journal,(05):69.</div>Zhang Yiranhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_5&diff=132648Hist Trans Theo EN 52021-12-14T03:14:00Z<p>Zhang Yiran: /* 2.3 Second half of the19th century Russian translation. */</p>
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=Chapter 5 History of Translation Theories from Early Russia to the Soviet Union=<br />
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'''从古罗斯到苏联前的翻译理论史'''<br />
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张怡然 Zhang Yiran,Hunan Normal University,China<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
Translation as a means of intercultural communication, each country has a distinctive translation ideology. This article focuses on the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia. Through analyzing the history of translation, can find that Russia has formed a literary tradition of translation studies in the late 18th century. In the 19th century, Pushkin, Lermontov, Turgenev and other outstanding poets and literary scholars were keen on translation, especially in the middle of the century when Belinsky and other famous literary critics published a series of comments on literary translation, which emphasized the literary tradition of Russian translation to an unparalleled extent, which is rare in the history of translation in the world. The general principles of Russian literary translation thought were also formed during this period: namely, to insist on commenting on the merits of a translation in terms of the overall effect of the work, to emphasize the ideological content and literary value of the translation, and that the translation should serve the reader and be people-oriented. The above ideas influenced the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, a study of the history of translation theory in pre-Soviet Russia will help learners of Russian to better understand the characteristics of their translations and to improve the accuracy and peopleliness of their translations.Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 12:57, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Translation is a means of intercultural communication, and each country has its own distinctive translation theory system. This paper focuses on the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia. By analyzing the history of translation, it is obvious that a literary tradition of translation studies has been formed in Russia in the late 18th century. In the 19th century, Pushkin, Lermontov, Turgenev and other outstanding poets and literary scholars were keen on translation, especially in the middle of the century when Belinsky and other famous literary critics published a series of comments on literary translation, which emphasized the literary tradition of Russian translation to an unparalleled extent, which is rare in the history of translation in the world. The general principles of Russian literary translation thoughts were also formed during this period: namely, to insist on commenting on the merits and weakness of a translation in terms of the overall effect of the work, to emphasize the ideological content and literary value of the translation, and the translation should serve the reader and be people-oriented. The above ideas influenced the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, a study of the history of translation theory in pre-Soviet Russia will help learners of Russian to understand the characteristics of their translations profoundly and to improve the accuracy and fluency of their translations.Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:03, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Translation theories, Translation ideas，History of Translation<br />
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===摘要===<br />
翻译作为一种跨文化交际的手段，每个国家都有独具特色的翻译思想。本文主要探讨苏联前俄国的翻译历史。通过梳理其翻译史可发现，俄国于18世纪末期就已形成了翻译研究的文学传统。进入19世纪后, 普希金、莱蒙托夫、屠格涅夫等优秀诗人、文学家对翻译的热衷, 尤其是世纪中叶别林斯基等著名文学评论家发表一系列关于文学翻译的评论, 更是把俄国翻译的文学传统强调到无以复加的程度, 这在世界翻译史上都是罕见的。俄国文学翻译思想的总原则也在这一时期形成:即坚持从作品的整体效果上来评论译作优劣, 强调译作的思想内容和文学价值, 翻译应为读者服务, 译文应具有人民性。上述思想影响了苏联时期翻译理论的形成。因此，对苏联前俄国翻译理论史的研究有利于俄语学习者在翻译时更好的理解其翻译特点，提高翻译的准确性和人民性。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
翻译理论 翻译思想 翻译史 <br />
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===Introduction===<br />
This essay provides a comprehensive and concise overview of the history of translation in Russia: Russian written translations began in the Kievan Rus' era, when religious subjects were the main focus of translations, especially the Bible, which was translated from Greek. Religious translations continued to flourish under the Moscow principality, represented by Maksim Gleick (МаксимГрек). At the same time, the national character of Russian translations began to emerge, and the languages of translation expanded from Greek to Latin, German and West Slavic, and the subjects covered included Western chivalric fiction, geographical literature, alchemy and medicine. In the eighteenth century, Peter the Great introduced a number of measures to focus on translation, making this period a turning point in the history of Russian translation. The proliferation of specialised translations (e.g. of legal texts) was the main feature of translation activity in the early eighteenth century. After this period Russian translators began to translate literary works.The main translators were Lomonosov (М.В. Ломоносов) and Tretyakovsky (V.K. Тредьяковский). In the second half of the eighteenth century, translation was given greater importance in Russia, and the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books was founded by Ekaterina II, in which a large number of outstanding translators emerged. The nineteenth century was a golden period in the history of Russian translation. Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин) and Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский) both produced many excellent translations. Pushkin (A.С.Пушкин) and Lermontov (M.Ю.Лермонтов) contributed greatly to the development of Russian literature in translation, while Fetter concentrated on love poetry. In the twentieth century, the Russian translation community made significant achievements in theoretical translation studies. In particular, the rapid development of the philological school and the debate between the literary and philological schools made Soviet translation theory one of the leading theories of translation in the world.(Guo Lin,2006:5)Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 12:57, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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This paper provides a comprehensive and concise overview of the history of translation in Russia: Russian written translations began in the Kievan Rus' era, when religious subjects were the main focus of translations, especially the Bible, translated from Greek. Religious translations continued to flourish under the Moscow principality, represented by Maksim Gleick (МаксимГрек). At the same time, the national character of Russian translations began to emerge, and the languages of translation expanded from Greek to Latin, German and West Slavic, and the subjects covered included Western chivalric fiction, geographical literature, alchemy and medicine. In the eighteenth century, Peter the Great introduced a number of measures to focus on translation, leading this period to a turning point in the history of Russian translation. The proliferation of specialised translations (e.g. of legal texts) was the main feature of translation activity in the early eighteenth century. After this period Russian translators began to translate literary works.The main translators were Lomonosov (М.В. Ломоносов) and Tretyakovsky (V.K. Тредьяковский). In the second half of the eighteenth century, translation was paid greater attention in Russia, and the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books was founded by Ekaterina II, in which a large number of outstanding translators emerged. The nineteenth century was a golden period in the history of Russian translation when Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин) and Rukovsky (В.А.Жуковский) both produced many excellent translations. Pushkin (A.С.Пушкин) and Lermontov (M.Ю.Лермонтов) contributed greatly to the development of Russian literature in translation, while Fetter concentrated on love poetry. In the twentieth century, the Russian translation community made significant achievements in theoretical translation studies. In particular, the rapid development of the philological school and the debate between the literary and philological schools made Soviet translation theory one of the leading theories of translation in the world. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:14, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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===1.The history of Russian translation and the period of enlightenment of its translation theory. ===<br />
1. The emergence and development of literary translation.<br />
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Translation activity has a long history in Russia, the beginnings of which can be traced back to the time of Kievan Rus'. A relatively sophisticated system of writing, literature and translation was already in place in ancient Russia in the ninth century AD. Frequent cultural and trade exchanges with Byzantine, German, French and Scandinavian countries contributed significantly to the development of translation in Russia at that time, as did contacts with Eastern countries. From Kievan Rus' onwards, Russian translation methods oscillated between two main tendencies, either to follow the original texts exactly, up to the point of translating them word for word, or to be arbitrary, even to the point of rewriting, adding or deleting at will. The first tendency is the main characteristic of translations of the Bible and other sacred books, while the second, though not absolute, can be said to characterize most secular works.(Feng Xin,2009:8)(Wu Keli,2006:4)<br />
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2.Initiation of translation activities-religious translation. <br />
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In 864 AD, the Byzantine king sent two Greek priests, Kirill (Кирилл) and Mephodi (Мефодий), to spread Christianity among the Slavic people. At the beginning of their mission, they created a new alphabet (now known as the Kirill alphabet) and used this writing system to translate many religious texts from Greek into the ancient Church Slavonic. Among the results were the New Testament, hymnals and prayer books.(Feng,2009:8)<br />
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In 988 AD, Rus was baptised and Kievan Rus was converted to Christianity. A large number of translations appeared instantly to help Protestants become familiar with the new religious philosophy and ethical system and to understand the rituals and customs of the Church. These translations were in a variety of genres, including the Acts of the Saints, sermons, chronicles and so on. In addition, apocryphal books telling magical and fantastical stories were also popular, and some of them had similarities with the later 'fantasy novels'. Most of these translations were done in Bulgaria and were popularised in Rus. At that time, translations of religious texts were mostly word-for-word. There were also a small number of works that, unlike the 'elaborate copies of the original', had a separate literary value. In one case, a large number of details of Russian life were added to the storyline of a sermon (e.g. The Tales of Achild the Wise). In another case, military historical narratives are interspersed with the terminology of the ancient Russian feudal system and certain literary images from the stories of ancient Russian warriors (e.g. Joseph Flav's History of the Jewish War). This translation can be considered one of the most successful of the period. In the translation, the translator succeeded in avoiding many word-for-word translations). In a third case, the manuscripts copied by Ancient Rus, although based on Greek epic poetry (e.g. The Great Work of Digenes Akritas), often borrowed from Russian folk poetry, so that a large number of folk compositions appeared. As a result of this literary process, the translated literature was smoothly enriched by Russian manuscripts, which contributed to the development of original Russian literature and consolidated its links with the medieval literary process. Unfortunately, at that early stage in the development of translation, the translators were not signed, so it is impossible to verify whether the works were translated at home or abroad.(Feng,2009:9) <br />
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During the difficult period of 'Mongol rule' (1228-1480), translations continued to play an important role in the cultural life of the country. The remaining chapters of the Bible were translated one after another, and previous translations were again proofread and revised. In addition to religious translations, more translations of non-religious subjects emerge, such as The Kingdom of India and The Trojan War. Most of the works were still translated from Greek, while works probably translated from Latin and ancient Hebrew also appeared. During this period, Russian began to take shape through the interaction of Old Slavonic (Church Slavonic) and local national languages. However, religious texts were still only translated into Church Slavonic, and the use of this language was by then restricted to ecclesiastical matters. At the same time, political and commercial exchanges with other countries were more likely to be in Russian, which was becoming increasingly sophisticated: elements of the combination of Old Slavonic and Russian can also be found in original works.（Wu,2006:6)<br />
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14-15th century literature in translation by Rus was characterised by an obsession with new themes. These were mainly new works of tranquillity-abstinence literature, or works recommended by and familiar to the tranquillists. This mystical genre was introduced to Rus after it had swept through the Byzantine and Yugoslav peoples. It was reflected in the semi-secular translations popular at the time (for example, The Trojan War). <br />
<br />
In the 16th century AD, Moscow eventually became the political centre of Russia, as well as the translation centre of the country. In 1515, the Grand Duke of Moscow, Vassily III (Василий Ⅲ), asked a Greek monastery to send a learned translator to Moscow. This man, who accompanied the Greek mission to Moscow in 1516, was the historically famous Maksim Gleick (Максим Грек). Maksim Gleick worked as a translator throughout his life, studying most of the religious texts and some of the non-religious works during this period. In addition, he also proofread and annotated previously existing translations.(Wu,2006:7) <br />
<br />
At the beginning, Maksim knew neither Russian nor Old Slavonic, so he divided the translation into two steps: first, he translated from Greek to Latin, and then his assistant translated from Latin to Old Slavonic. In the process of revising existing translations, he often broke with established tradition and was therefore denounced as blasphemous. Maksim was also a prolific writer, educator and philosopher. His writings contain many insights into the art of translation - the earliest recorded treatise on translation in Russia. Maksim insisted that the original text must be carefully analysed in order to grasp its full subtleties and implications. Therefore, the translator must not only master the language of the original, but also have a broad knowledge of the language and prepare for the translation. To support his argument, Maksim used Greek lexicography, phonetic organisation and phonetics involved in translation. His other major contribution was the compilation of a dictionary containing Greek, Latin and Hebrew nouns, which was also the first of its kind in Russian history. Although it was recognised at the time that translators should have a command of both languages as well as a profound background knowledge, the practitioners of translation at the time lacked the necessary qualities and their translations were not as good as they could have been.(Wu,2006:7)Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 13:39, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
1. The emergence and development of literary translation. <br />
<br />
Translation activity has a long history in Russia, the beginnings of which can be traced back to the Time of Kievan Rus'. A relatively sophisticated system of writing, literature and translation was already in ancient Russia in the ninth century AD. Frequent cultural and trade exchanges with Byzantine, German, French and Scandinavian countries contributed significantly to the development of translation in Russia at that time, as did contacts with Eastern countries. From Kievan Rus' onwards, Russian translation methods oscillated between two main tendencies, either to follow the original texts exactly, up to the point of translating them word by word, or to be arbitrary, even to the point of rewriting, adding words or deleting at will. The first tendency is the main characteristic of translations of the Bible and other sacred books, while the second, though not absolutely, can be said to characterize most secular works.<br />
<br />
2.Initiation of translation activities-religious translation. <br />
<br />
In 864 AD, the Byzantine king sent two Greek priests, Kirill (Кирилл) and Mephodi (Мефодий), to spread Christianity among the Slavic people. At the beginning of their mission, they created a new alphabet (now known as the Kirill alphabet) and used this writing system to translate many religious texts from Greek into the ancient Church Slavonic. Among the results were the New Testament, hymnals and prayer books. In 988 AD, Rus was baptised and Kievan Rus was converted to Christianity. A large number of translations appeared instantly to help Protestants become familiar with the new religious philosophy and ethical system and to understand the rituals and customs of the Church. These translations were in a variety of genres, including the Acts of the Saints, sermons, chronicles and so on. In addition, apocryphal books telling magical and fantastical stories were also popular, and some of them had similarities with the later 'fantasy novels'. Most of these translations were done in Bulgaria and were popularised in Rus. At that time, translations of religious texts were mostly word-for-word. There were also a small number of works that, unlike the 'elaborate copies of the original', had a separate literary values. In one case, a large number of details of Russian life were added to the storyline of a sermon (e.g. The Tales of Achild the Wise). In another case, military historical narratives are interspersed with the terminology of the ancient Russian feudal system and certain literary images from the stories of ancient Russian warriors (e.g. Joseph Flav's History of the Jewish War). This translation can be considered one of the most successful of the period. In the translation, the translator succeeded in avoiding many word-for-word translations). Thirdly, the manuscripts copied by Ancient Rus, although based on Greek epic poetry (e.g. The Great Work of Digenes Akritas), often borrowed from Russian folk poetry, so that a large number of folk compositions appeared. As a result of this literary process, the translated literature was smoothly enriched by Russian manuscripts, which contributed to the development of original Russian literature and consolidated its links with the medieval literary process. Unfortunately, at that early stage in the development of translation, the translators were not signed, so it is impossible to verify whether the works were translated at home or abroad. During the difficult period of 'Mongol rule' (1228-1480), translations continued to play an important role in the cultural life of the country. The remaining chapters of the Bible were translated one after another, and previous translations were again proofread and revised. In addition to religious translations, more translations of non-religious subjects emerge, such as The Kingdom of India and The Trojan War. Most of the works were still translated from Greek, while works probably translated from Latin and ancient Hebrew also appeared. During this period, Russian began to take shape through the interaction of Old Slavonic (Church Slavonic) and local national languages. However, religious texts were still only translated into Church Slavonic, and the use of this language was by then restricted to ecclesiastical matters. At the same time, political and commercial exchanges with other countries were more likely to be in Russian, which was becoming increasingly sophisticated: elements of the combination of Old Slavonic and Russian can also be found in original works. 14-15th century literature in translation by Rus was characterised by an obsession with new themes. These were mainly new works of tranquillity-abstinence literature, or works recommended by and familiar to the tranquillists. This mystical genre was introduced to Rus after it had swept through the Byzantine and Yugoslav peoples. It was reflected in the semi-secular translations popular at the time (for example, The Trojan War). In the 16th century AD, Moscow eventually became the political center of Russia, as well as the translation center of the country. In 1515, the Grand Duke of Moscow, Vassily III (Василий Ⅲ), asked a Greek monastery to send a learned translator to Moscow. This man, who accompanied the Greek mission to Moscow in 1516, was the historically famous Maksim Grek (Максим Грек). Maxim Greek worked as a translator throughout his life, studying most of the religious texts and some of the non-religious works during this period. In addition, he also proofread and annotated previously existing translations. At the beginning, Maxim knew neither Russian nor Old Slavonic, so he divided the translation into two steps: first, he translated from Greek to Latin, and then his assistant translated from Latin to Old Slavonic. In the process of revising existing translations, he often broke with established tradition and was therefore denounced as blasphemous. Maxim was also a prolific writer, educator and philosopher. His writings contain many insights into the art of translation - the earliest recorded treatise on translation in Russia. Maxim insisted that the original text must be carefully analysed in order to grasp its full subtleties and implications. Therefore, the translator must not only master the language of the original, but also have a broad knowledge of the language and prepare for the translation. To support his argument, Maxim used Greek lexicography, phonetic organisation and phonetics involved in translation. His other major contribution was the compilation of a dictionary containing Greek, Latin and Hebrew nouns, which was also the first of its kind in Russian history. Although it was recognized at the time that translators should have a command of both languages and profound background knowledge, the practitioners of translation at the time lacked the necessary qualities and their translations were not as good as they should have been. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. Overview of the Russian school of Translation. ===<br />
===2.1 18th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The eighteenth century is an important period in the history of Russian translation. The status of translation in social culture has undergone a qualitative change, and this is due to Peter the Great's reform. At the beginning of the century, translation was still mostly related to professional documents such as laws and contracts. Later, the translator's tentacles gradually expanded to literary translation, for example, French poetry translation. The famous translators of this period are Sumarokov(А.П.Сумароков), Lomonosov(М.В.Ломоносов), Tretyakovsky (В.К.Тредьяковский) and so on. In the second half of the 18th century, the Association for the Translation of Foreign Books officially put forward the importance of translation. The organization has been active for 15 years with over 100 members.（Wu,2006:10)<br />
<br />
1.Imperial support for translation. The political reforms introduced by Peter the Great also led to intensive economic and cultural exchanges between Russia and European countries. This created a huge demand for translations of scientific and technical literature and literary works. Translators were required to produce works of a high standard.<br />
<br />
Peter the Great issued a special decree on translation, requiring "faithful" communication of the original text. In a directive issued to his subordinates in 1709, he explicitly stated that when translating foreign books, word-for-word translations were to be avoided and that the content of the original text should be clearly expressed in one's own language, based on an understanding of its content. On the other hand, Peter the Great's subversion of the written language initially caused confusion in Russian translation circles. A large number of foreign languages entered the Russian language, and the piles of foreign syntactic structures distracted attention. In any case, Peter the Great's reforms did set a new norm and a new direction for translation.(Wu,2006:11)<br />
<br />
In terms of content, Peter the Great's reforms were, from the very beginning, inextricably linked to the translation of scientific and technical texts, such as the many books on military defence engineering that he ordered to be translated and used to strengthen Russia's military forces. Peter the Great also placed great importance on the translation of prose, poetry and other literary works. During this period, the Russian language began to develop its own literary model, and many educated Russians saw translation as a way of enriching the language and enhancing its uniqueness and expressiveness. <br />
<br />
From around the 1830s, the importance of translating Western European scientific and technical texts gradually gave way to literary works such as prose and poetry. Writers who were also translators turned their attention to the work of new Western European writers, mainly poets, especially French poets. At the same time, the legacy of the Greco-Roman period also entered their minds. They began to translate the works of philosophers and historians, which - on the one hand - gave rise to difficulties in literary rhetoric and scientific terminology and, on the other, played an important role in the formation of a standard Russian language.(Feng,2009:10)(Guo,2006:8) <br />
<br />
From that time onwards, translation also became an organised activity, with the emergence of specific bodies responsible for the organisation and management of translation work. 1735 saw the establishment of the first specialised translation organisation, the Russian Society, at the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences. The Society had a professional group of translators and some of the academy's scholars, such as Lomonosov and Tretyakovsky, were among its members. The Association was responsible for selecting works, defining the rules or principles of translation, commenting on translations, and training translators. It is worth mentioning that the Academy of Sciences also set up a school of foreign languages to train official translators. In 1748, the Academy implemented Queen Elizabeth's decree to increase the number of translations of non-religious books and publicly appealed to "the nobility and other classes of intellectuals" to take an active part in the translation process.(Guo,2006:8)(Feng,2009:10) <br />
<br />
In the second half of the 18th century, Ekaterina II's efforts to create a 'civilised state' not only led to the development of literature, but also gave preferential treatment to writers. For example, in order to select the best original texts, she ordered the establishment of the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books (1768 - 1783). The Society was dedicated to providing excellent conditions for translation work throughout Russia. The purchase of manuscripts was financed out of Ekaterina's own funds. Later, the Society also discussed a proposal to establish a translation bureau under the Academy of Sciences (1790). The 114 members of the Society included such notable figures as Tretyakovsky, Sumarokov and Radishev. For 14 years the Association was active, producing numerous literary translations and likewise contributing to the discussion of theoretical issues in translation.(Guo,2006:9)<br />
<br />
2.The emergence of poetry translation. Translation of poetry also developed in Russia in the 18th century, and later became one of the jewels of the country's literature. The great Russian scholar and poet Lomonosov was a major contributor to this process. A great deal of the work created by Lomonosov and his contemporaries Sumarokov and Tretyakovsky was poetry in translation. They often translated while exploring theoretical issues in translation: they would explain in their works why they translated this way and not that way; they stressed the importance of translation work and the creative value it contained. Among the most prestigious writers and translators in Russian literature at the time, there were several interesting competitions in which two or three poets translated the same work at the same time, and their translations were published in journals. It was often the case that different translations of the same work were published at the same time, without the translator's name, for the judgement of "literary lovers and peers". This phenomenon also supports the idea that the 18th century was a period of 'experimentation' in the history of Russian translation.(Feng,2006:11) <br />
<br />
Lomonosov's translations from Latin, German, French and Greek are numerous and varied, showing his talent for both rhyming and free verse. He was keen to reproduce the rhythmic structure of the original texts, using a variety of iambic and iambic meter to convey the Alexandrian style of French epic and the hexameter style of Greek tragedy. Russian poetry was not very developed at the time and was still based on syllables. <br />
Lomonosov's innovations enriched Russian poetry and established new forms and traditions of Russian poetic style and rhyme. <br />
<br />
In contrast, Kantymir (Д.М.Кантемира) and Tretyakovsky's greatest quest was to insist on a faithful translation of the original. In the process, the translators had to contend with the problems of reams of vocabulary and rhetorical rules. Tretyakovsky became famous for his successful use of Russian rhyme to translate many verses of the original in his translation of Paul Thielmann's A Journey to Love Island. In the introduction to the novel, the translator states his approach to translation: "The translator is only one person away from the author. I would add that if the author is original, the translator should be even more original (I am not referring to myself, but to a good translator)". He believes that "prose to prose" and "poetry to poetry" can be as good as the original, and that a good translation is one that "describes the full meaning of each verse". Kantymir 's translation of Horace's Letters and other poetic works in Latin and French, although less well-known than the former, is equally valuable.(Wu,2006:16) Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:40, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The eighteenth century is an important period in the history of Russian translation. The status of translation in social culture has undergone a qualitative change, and this is due to Peter the Great's reform. At the beginning of the century, translation was still mostly related to professional documents such as laws and contracts. Later, the translator's tentacles gradually expanded to literary translation, for example, French poetry translation. The famous translators of this period are Sumarokov(А.П.Сумароков), Lomonosov(М.В.Ломоносов), Tretyakovsky (В.К.Тредьяковский) and so on. In the second half of the 18th century, the Association for the Translation of Foreign Books officially put forward the importance of translation. The organization has been active for 15 years with over 100 members. The following points reflected the reasons why translation was paid more attention in the eighteenth century.<br />
<br />
1.Imperial support for translation. <br />
<br />
The political reforms introduced by Peter the Great also led to intensive economic and cultural exchanges between Russia and European countries. This created a huge demand for translations of scientific and technical literature and literary works. Translators were required to produce works of a high standard.Peter the Great issued a special decree on translation, requiring "faithful" communication of the original text. In a directive issued to his subordinates in 1709, he explicitly stated that when translating foreign books, word-for-word translations were to be avoided and that the content of the original text should be clearly expressed in one's own language, based on an understanding of its content. On the other hand, Peter the Great's subversion of the written language initially caused confusion in Russian translation circles. A large number of foreign languages entered the Russian language, and the piles of foreign syntactic structures distracted attention. In any case, Peter the Great's reforms did set a new norm and a new direction for translation. In terms of content, Peter the Great's reforms were, from the very beginning, inextricably linked to the translation of scientific and technical texts, such as the many books on military defence engineering that he ordered to be translated and used to strengthen Russia's military forces. Peter the Great also placed great importance on the translation of prose, poetry and other literary works. During this period, the Russian language began to develop its own literary model, and many educated Russians saw translation as a way of enriching the language and enhancing its uniqueness and expressiveness. <br />
<br />
From around the 1830s, the importance of translating Western European scientific and technical texts gradually gave way to literary works such as prose and poetry. Writers who were also translators turned their attention to the work of new Western European writers, mainly poets, especially French poets. At the same time, the legacy of the Greco-Roman period also entered their minds. They began to translate the works of philosophers and historians, which - on the one hand - gave rise to difficulties in literary rhetoric and scientific terminology and, on the other, played an important role in the formation of a standard Russian language. <br />
<br />
From that time onwards, translation also became an organised activity, with the emergence of specific bodies responsible for the organisation and management of translation work. 1735 saw the establishment of the first specialised translation organisation, the Russian Society, at the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences. The Society had a professional group of translators and some of the academy's scholars, such as Lomonosov and Tretyakovsky, were among its members. The Association was responsible for selecting works, defining the rules or principles of translation, commenting on translations, and training translators. It is worth mentioning that the Academy of Sciences also set up a school of foreign languages to train official translators. In 1748, the Academy implemented Queen Elizabeth's decree to increase the number of translations of non-religious books and publicly appealed to "the nobility and other classes of intellectuals" to take an active part in the translation process. <br />
<br />
In the second half of the 18th century, Ekaterina II's efforts to create a 'civilised state' not only led to the development of literature, but also gave preferential treatment to writers. For example, in order to select the best original texts, she ordered the establishment of the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books (1768-1783). The Society was dedicated to providing excellent conditions for translation work throughout Russia. The purchase of manuscripts was financed out of Ekaterina's own funds. Later, the Society also discussed a proposal to establish a translation bureau under the Academy of Sciences (1790). The 114 members of the Society included such notable figures as Tretyakovsky, Sumarokov and Radishev. For 14 years the Association was active, producing numerous literary translations and likewise contributing to the discussion of theoretical issues in translation.<br />
<br />
2.The emergence of poetry translation.<br />
<br />
Translation of poetry also developed in Russia in the 18th century, and later became one of the jewels of the country's literature. The great Russian scholar and poet Lomonosov was a major contributor to this process. A great deal of the work created by Lomonosov and his contemporaries Sumarokov and Tretyakovsky was poetry in translation. They often translated while exploring theoretical issues in translation: they would explain in their works why they translated this way and not that way; they stressed the importance of translation work and the creative value it contained. Among the most prestigious writers and translators in Russian literature at the time, there were several interesting competitions in which two or three poets translated the same work at the same time, and their translations were published in journals. It was often the case that different translations of the same work were published at the same time, without the translator's name, for the judgement of "literary lovers and peers". This phenomenon also supports the idea that the 18th century was a period of 'experimentation' in the history of Russian translation. <br />
<br />
Lomonosov's translations works in Latin, German, French and Greek are numerous and varied, showing his talent for both rhyming and free verse. He was keen to reproduce the rhythmic structure of the original texts, using a variety of iambic and iambic meter to convey the Alexandrian style of French epic and the hexameter style of Greek tragedy. Russian poetry was not very developed at the time and was still based on syllables. <br />
Lomonosov's innovations enriched Russian poetry and established new forms and traditions of Russian poetic style and rhyme. <br />
<br />
In contrast, Kantymir (Д.М.Кантемира) and Tretyakovsky's greatest quest was to insist on a faithful translation of the original. In the process, the translators had to contend with the problems of reams of vocabulary and rhetorical rules. Tretyakovsky became famous for his successful use of Russian rhyme to translate many verses of the original in his translation of Paul Thielmann's A Journey to Love Island. In the introduction to the novel, the translator states his approach to translation: "The translator is only one person away from the author. I would add that if the author is original, the translator should be even more original (I am not referring to myself, but to a good translator)". He believes that "prose to prose" and "poetry to poetry" can be as good as the original, and that a good translation is one that "describes the full meaning of each verse". Kantymir 's translation of Horace's Letters and other poetic works in Latin and French, although less well-known than the former, is equally valuable. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 12:39, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.2 First half of the19th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The nineteenth century was a golden age in the history of Russian translation. If translation had established itself as a profession in the first hundred years, it was elevated to the level of art in this century. The nineteenth century produced a number of masters of translation, including Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин), Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский), Pushkin (А.С.Пушкин), Lermontov (М.Ю.Лермонтов) and Fetter (А.Фет).(Wu,2006:23)<br />
<br />
The new Russian school of translation owes its formation to the historian Nikolai Karamzin and the poet Zhukovsky. Karamzin published a number of translations in several magazines between the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century. He saw translations as a good help in perfecting a writer's style: a source of information that would satisfy human curiosity, inform historical facts, entertain women and provide material for new magazines. As a young man, Karamzin was strongly opposed to the alteration of and disloyalty to the original texts, but later became a champion of free translation, famously saying: "Whoever follows the author of the original text step by step is no different from a servant who serves his lord". Karamzin's translations cover an admirable range of genres and languages: he translated works by both classical and contemporaneous authors, in Greek, French, Latin, German, English, Italian and some Oriental languages.(Feng,2009:12)<br />
<br />
Pushkin called Zhukovsky "a genius of translation". After graduating from the Moscow Noble Boarding University in 1802, Zhukovsky devoted himself to translation. It was thanks to his efforts that Russian readers were able to access the works of world literary giants such as Schiller, Goethe, Byron and Walters Scott. Zhukovsky's creative translation activities also ranged from Charles Bello to Grimm's Fairy Tales. From Charles Bellow to Grimm's fairy tales, from Homer's epic Odyssey to the poetic history of ancient Rus' Igor's Expedition, all became his original texts. There is no denying that Zhukovsky is a master in the history of Russian translation. Like Karamzin, Zhukovsky was a fan of free translation, sometimes rewriting the original or even creating a new story from its subject: sometimes transferring the setting of events to Russia and giving Russian names to the characters. For example, in his 1808 translation of the German Romantic poet Bilge's narrative poem Lenore, he changed the heroine's name from Lenore to Lyudmila and moved the story to the time of the Livonian War in 16th-century Russia. Zhukovsky believed that the "unsavoury character" of the work should be weakened while retaining the original author's ideas. His talent enabled him to reproduce the style, rhythm and tone of the original poems, while some of his best works were also faithful to the original. In later years, however, his view of translation changed in response to the tendency to stay close to the original, and he retranslated several of his previous translations to make them more faithful to the original, including Lenore. The Russian school of translation owes much to the tradition of translation created by Zhukovsky.(Wu,2006:24-30)(Feng,2009:13)(Guo,2006:9)<br />
<br />
Pushkin and Lermontov are also two poets who set the stage for an epoch in the history of Russian translation. Although only a small proportion of their poetry was translated, they made a significant contribution to the improvement of the art of translation in Russia. In their rewriting and imitation of poetry, they were able to reproduce the most important features of foreign poetry, the key point being that their creative translations were no less valuable in their own right than the originals. Their free translation became a model for other translators, and in addition they established the important principle that a good artistic translation must also be a good work in the national literature of the translated language. Pushkin played an indelibly important role in the development of the Russian school of translation. He was always interested in the question of translation, and his critical views on translation were objective and profound. Before translation he stressed the importance of the choice of the original work, and in translation he demanded that the translator should be faithful to the original, while at the same time displaying his deep creative skills and his own literary style. In one of his unfinished posthumous works, 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', Pushkin wrote: 'Chateaubriand's translation (verbatim) compensates to some extent for the faults of the young French writers (free translation), for they have insulted the great man very cruelly, though in a perfectly innocent manner. There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own rhetorical conventions, its own way of expressing itself, and it is impossible to translate into another language with the corresponding vocabulary". These insights had a positive impact on the best Russian translators of the 19th and 20th centuries. In addition, Pushkin's discussion of translation coincided with a turning point in the history of Russian literature, when the Romantic era was being replaced by a new era with a predominantly realist orientation, and a process of 'separation' between translated and national literature was under way. Pushkin's discussion of the work of the translator as distinct from that of the writer contributed to the independence of literature in translation from indigenous literature.(Guo,2006:10)(Wu,2006:37-41) <br />
<br />
During this period, while most people advocated free translation, there were a few translators who insisted on maximum fidelity to the original and advocated the word-for-word method, even at the expense of the work's willingness to be translated. Among these were such well-known writers as P.A. Vyazemsky (П.А.Вяземский) and N.I. Gnedzic (Н.И.Гнедич). In fact, they did not always live up to their principles, and sometimes their talent and artistic intuition ended up breaking the bonds of verbatim translation. Vyazemsky's translations of Benjamin Constant and Adam Mickiewicz were not without literary and artistic merit, and his translation of Homer's epic Iliad in particular was highly praised by Pushkin. It was Fetter who was the most insistent on the idea of a verbatim translation. Fetter translated many famous works, and his philosophy throughout was one of sentence-for-sentence, word-for-word translation, retaining all the words of the original. Fetter's extreme word-for-word approach had a negative impact on most of his translations, although he was sometimes able to come up with some effective methods of translation.(Feng,2009:14) <br />
<br />
Free translations were also sometimes used to promote democratic ideas in the original that could not pass official scrutiny. A number of translators, such as V. Kurochkin (В.Курочкин), D. M. Minayev (Д.Минаев) and M. M. Mikhalov (М.Михайлов), achieved this by selecting appropriate original works or by using texts in their translations that were superficially imperceptible in their allusion to the conditions in Russia at the time. It was from that time onwards that the use of translation as a weapon to express dissent became part of the Russian tradition.(Feng,2009:14) Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:41, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The nineteenth century was the golden age in the history of Russian translation. If translation had established its status in the first hundred years, it was elevated to the level of art in this century. The nineteenth century produced a number of masters of translation, including Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин), Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский), Pushkin (А.С.Пушкин), Lermontov (М.Ю.Лермонтов) and Fetter (А.Фет). <br />
<br />
The new Russian school of translation owes its formation to the publishment of a number of translations of historian Nikolai Karamzin and the poet Zhukovsky. Karamzin in several magazines between the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century. He regarded translation as a good help in perfecting a writer's style: a source of information that satisfies human curiosity, informs historical facts, entertains women and provides materials for new magazines. As a young man, Karamzin was strongly opposed to the disloyalty to the original texts, but later became a champion of free translation. His famous saying was: "Whoever follows the author of the original text step by step is no different from a servant who serves his lord". Karamzin's translations cover an admirable range of genres and languages: he translated works by both classical and contemporaneous authors, in Greek, French, Latin, German, English, Italian and some Oriental languages. <br />
<br />
Pushkin called Zhukovsky "a genius of translation". After graduating from the Moscow Noble Boarding University in 1802, Zhukovsky devoted himself to translation. It was thanks to his efforts that Russian readers were able to access the works of world literary giants such as Schiller, Goethe, Byron and Walters Scott. Zhukovsky's creative translation activities also ranged from Charles Bello to Grimm's Fairy Tales. From Charles Bellow to Grimm's fairy tales, from Homer's epic Odyssey to the poetic history of ancient Rus' Igor's Expedition, all became his original texts. There is no denying that Zhukovsky is a master in the history of Russian translation. Like Karamzin, Zhukovsky was a fan of free translation, who sometimes rewrites the original or even creates a new story from its subject, transfers the setting of events to Russia and gives Russian names to the characters. For example, in his 1808 translation of the German Romantic poet Bilge's narrative poem Lenore, he changed the heroine's name from Lenore to Lyudmila and moved the story to the time of the Livonian War in 16th-century Russia. Zhukovsky believed that the "unsavoury character" of the work should be weakened while retaining the original author's ideas. His talent enabled him to reproduce the style, rhythm and tone of the original poems, while some of his best works were also faithful to the original. In later years, however, his view of translation changed in response to the tendency to stay close to the original, and he retranslated several of his previous translations to make them more faithful to the original, including Lenore. The Russian school of translation owes much to the tradition of translation created by Zhukovsky.<br />
<br />
Pushkin and Lermontov are also two poets who gave perfect preparations for an epoch in the history of Russian translation. Although only a small proportion of their poetry was translated, they made a significant contribution to the improvement of the art of translation in Russia. In their rewriting and imitation of poetry, they were able to reproduce the most important features of foreign poetry, the key point being that their creative translations were no less valuable in their own right than the originals. Their free translation became a model for other translators, and in addition they established the important principle that a good artistic translation must also be a good work in the national literature of the translated language. Pushkin played an indelibly important role in the development of the Russian school of translation. He was always interested in the question of translation, and his critical views on translation were objective and profound. Before translation he stressed the importance of the choice of the original work, and in translation he demanded that the translator should be faithful to the original, while at the same time displaying his deep creative skills and his own literary style. In one of his unfinished posthumous works, 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', Pushkin wrote: 'Chateaubriand's translation (verbatim) compensates to some extent for the faults of the young French writers (free translation), for they have insulted the great man very cruelly, though in a perfectly innocent manner. There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own rhetorical conventions, its own way of expressing itself, and it is impossible to translate into another language with the corresponding vocabulary". These insights had a positive impact on the best Russian translators of the 19th and 20th centuries. In addition, Pushkin's discussion of translation coincided with a turning point in the history of Russian literature, when the Romantic era was being replaced by a new era with a predominantly realist orientation, and a process of 'separation' between translated and national literature was under way. Pushkin's discussion of the work of the translator as distinct from that of the writer contributed to the independence of literature in translation from indigenous literature. <br />
<br />
During this period, while most people advocated free translation, there were a few translators who insisted on maximum fidelity to the original and advocated the word-for-word method, even at the expense of the work's willingness to be translated. Among these were such well-known writers as P.A. Vyazemsky (П.А.Вяземский) and N.I. Gnedzic (Н.И.Гнедич). In fact, they did not always live up to their principles, and sometimes their talent and artistic intuition ended up breaking the bonds of verbatim translation. Vyazemsky's translations of Benjamin Constant and Adam Mickiewicz were not without literary and artistic merit, and his translation of Homer's epic Iliad in particular was highly praised by Pushkin. It was Fetter who was the most insistent on the idea of a verbatim translation. Fetter translated many famous works, and his philosophy throughout was one of sentence-for-sentence, word-for-word translation, retaining all the words of the original. Fetter's extreme word-for-word approach had a negative impact on most of his translations, although he was sometimes able to come up with some effective methods of translation. <br />
<br />
Free translations were also used to promote democratic ideas in original that could not pass official scrutiny. A number of translators, such as V. Kurochkin (В.Курочкин), D. M. Minayev (Д.Минаев) and M. M. Mikhalov (М.Михайлов), achieved this by selecting appropriate original works or by using texts in their translations that were superficially imperceptible in their allusion to the conditions in Russia at the time. It was since then that the use of translation was used as a weapon to express dissent became part of the Russian tradition. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:05, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.3 Second half of the19th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The mid-nineteenth century was a period of increasingly intense political and ideological struggle in Russian literature, and a great debate raged in the Russian literary world over the question of 'art for the people' or 'art for art's sake'. The debate was mainly about the choice of material for translation and the method of translation. As far as the choice of material was concerned, the democratic and revolutionary writers who supported 'art for the people' chose to translate works with progressive ideological content and a democratic orientation, such as Heine. The aristocratic and liberal intellectual writers, on the other hand, opted for philosophical poetry with a chanting and individualistic feel. Of course, this is not absolute: "Mikhailov and Dobrolyubov of the democratic revolutionary school also translated Heine's moody love poems The Songbook, while Tolstoy of the aristocratic and liberal school translated some of Goethe's more progressive poems, such as The Fiancée of Corinth and The Whore of God. In terms of their approach to translation, the Democratic-Revolutionary translators, based on the reproduction of the original as a whole, approached their translations very liberally, even adding in many elements typical of Russian culture. The latter, on the other hand, usually adopted a direct translation, focusing on conveying the formal details of the original work. This divergence was mainly due to the different starting points of the two groups of translators, with the democratic revolutionaries seeking to convey advanced ideas to the Russian general public and the aristocratic intellectuals believing that works of art were irrelevant to the people and that artistic creations should not be exposed to "vulgar" reality.(Feng,2009:14-15)<br />
<br />
There were a large number of outstanding literary writers and literary critics who made brilliant statements about literary translation in that era, none more so than Belinsky (В.Г.Белинский), Chernyshevsky (Н.Г.Черныщевский) and Dubrolyovsky (Н.Г.Добролюбов). Belinsky was one of the greatest Russian literary critics of the 19th century. He believed that translations should not be word-for-word, but should reproduce the spirit of the original, in much the same way as Pushkin's view of translation theory. On the other hand, he also opposed arbitrary 'paraphrasing': the ideal translation should not add or delete arbitrarily to the original text, but should enable the reader to understand the foreign work truly and accurately through the translation. Such a viewpoint seems to us to be quite convincing even now. Belinsky played a decisive role in completely burying the 'rewriting' and 'adapting it to Russian custom' arguments. This issue dominates his writings. He argues that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of the translation, and this is one of the criteria by which he judges its merits. He points out, for example, that the greatest strength of Gnedzic's translation of the Iliad is that it "exudes the atmosphere of ancient life" and "the spirit of the ancient Greeks". However, the contradiction between national identity and translatability was once a problem for Belinsky. Initially believing that it was impossible to translate works with a strong national character into other languages, he was only convinced by the success of Turgenev's collaboration with Louis Viardot in translating Gogol's novels into French in 1846, and then became increasingly determined to recognise translatability in translation. Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a series of revisions that led to a complete and rigorous system of translation theory, the first of its kind in the history of Russian translation theory.(Wu,2006:58-61)(Feng,2009:15)<br />
<br />
Translation in Russia developed in the second half of the 19th century. From the 1960s onwards, the Russian readership of non-language speakers began to expand, and these readers were keen to see the translation 'replace' the original. This demand led to an unprecedented expansion in the choice of subjects and translations of Russian literature. Interest in foreign theatrical works was particularly high at this stage, and a strong interest in European classical literature also developed. Dickens, Saclay, Victor Hugo, Dumas, Balzac, Flaubert, Tudor, Maupassant and Zola, as well as lesser-known writers of today, were successively brought to the attention of a wide range of Russian readers in the form of translations. At that time, European theatre classics like Shakespeare's plays were translated into Russia in large numbers. Many professional translators were involved, the most successful being the translator P.N.V. Weinberg. He translated foreign literature from the standpoint of progressive Russian literature of the time. His translation of Othello, for example, is notable for its vividness in the Russian language, and has always been recognised as the best translation in terms of conveying the totality of scenes, plots and long dialogues, even though the translation is wordy compared to the original.(Feng,2009:15-16)<br />
<br />
Although there has been a quantitative surge in translations of Russian literature during this period, the quality has generally been poor, manifesting itself in word-for-word translations, redundant sentences and poor vocabulary, not to mention inventiveness. In addition, the language of the characters in the translation is heavily Russified, with Russian proverbs, sayings and idioms that the foreign characters could never have known, and the introduction of Russian-specific life circumstances that cause contradictions with the plot and details of the original work. For example, В Тулу со своим самоваром ехать (Bring your own samovar to Tula - it's superfluous). The reason for this is that the literary world did not attach much importance to the translation of fiction and prose, and there were no specialists working on this task. Another point is that at this stage there was little progress in the study of Russian translation theory, and no valuable theoretical insights emerged. The linguist A.A. Потебня (1835-1891) expressed his views on translation from a psychological standpoint in his essay "Language and Peopleliness ". In his view, it was impossible to express in another language what was originally intended to be expressed in a certain language. He, like many other literary scholars, denied the translatability of language.(Feng,2006:16)(Guo,2006:11)Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:41, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The mid-nineteenth century was a period of increasingly intensively political and ideological struggle in Russian literature, and a great debate raged in the Russian literary world over the question of 'art for the people' or 'art for art's sake'. The debate was mainly about the choice of materials for translation and the methods of translation. As far as the choice of material was concerned, the democratic and revolutionary writers who supported 'art for the people' chose to translate works with progressive ideological content and a democratic orientation, such as Heine. The aristocratic and liberal intellectual writers, on the other hand, opted for philosophical poetry with a chanting and individualistic feel. It's undoubtful that this is not absolute: "Mikhailov and Dobrolyubov of the democratic revolutionary school also translated Heine's moody love poems The Songbook, while Tolstoy of the aristocratic and liberal school translated some of Goethe's more progressive poems, such as The Fiancée of Corinth and The Whore of God. In terms of their approach to translation, the Democratic-Revolutionary translators, based on the reproduction of the original as a whole, approached their translations very liberally, when they even added in many elements typical of Russian culture. The latter, on the other hand, usually adopted a direct translation, focusing on conveying the formal details of the original work. This divergence was mainly due to the different starting points of the two groups of translators, with the democratic revolutionaries seeking to convey advanced ideas to the Russian general public and the aristocratic intellectuals believing that works of art were irrelevant to the people and that artistic creations should not be exposed to "vulgar" reality.<br />
<br />
There were a large number of outstanding literary writers and literary critics who made brilliant statements about literary translation in that era, none more so than Belinsky (В.Г.Белинский), Chernyshevsky (Н.Г.Черныщевский) and Dubrolyovsky (Н.Г.Добролюбов). Belinsky was one of the greatest Russian literary critics of the 19th century. He believed that translations should not be word-for-word, but should reproduce the spirit of the original text, in much the same way as Pushkin's view of translation theory. On the other hand, he also opposed arbitrary 'paraphrasing': the ideal translation should not add or delete arbitrarily to the original text, but should enable the reader to understand the foreign work truly and accurately through the translation. Such a viewpoint seems to us to be quite convincing even now. Belinsky played a decisive role in completely burying the 'rewriting' and 'adapting it to Russian custom' arguments. This issue dominates his writings. He argues that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of the translation, and this is one of the criteria by which he judges its merits. He points out, for example, that the greatest strength of Gnedzic's translation of the Iliad is that it "exudes the atmosphere of ancient life" and "the spirit of the ancient Greeks". However, the contradiction between national identity and translatability was once a problem for Belinsky. Initially believing that it was impossible to translate works with a strong national character into other languages, he was only convinced by the success of Turgenev's collaboration with Louis Viardot in translating Gogol's novels into French in 1846, and then became increasingly determined to recognise translatability in translation. Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a series of revisions that led to a complete and rigorous system of translation theory, the first of its kind in the history of Russian translation theory.<br />
<br />
Translation in Russia developed in the second half of the 19th century. From the 1960s onwards, the Russian readership of non-language speakers began to expand, and these readers were keen to see the translation 'replace' the original. This demand led to an unprecedented expansion in the choice of subjects and translations of Russian literature. Interest in foreign theatrical works was particularly high at this stage, and a strong interest in European classical literature also developed. Dickens, Saclay, Victor Hugo, Dumas, Balzac, Flaubert, Tudor, Maupassant and Zola, as well as lesser-known writers of today, were successively brought to the attention of a wide range of Russian readers in the form of translations. At that time, European theatre classics like Shakespeare's plays were translated into Russia in large numbers. Many professional translators were involved, the most successful being the translator P.N.V. Weinberg. He translated foreign literature from the standpoint of progressive Russian literature of the time. His translation of Othello, for example, is notable for its vividness in the Russian language, and has always been recognised as the best translation in terms of conveying the totality of scenes, plots and long dialogues, even though the translation is wordy compared to the original.<br />
<br />
Although there has been a quantitative surge in translations of Russian literature during this period, the quality has generally been poor, manifesting itself in word-for-word translations, redundant sentences and poor vocabulary, not to mention inventiveness. In addition, the language of the characters in the translation is heavily Russified, that is, contents with Russian proverbs, sayings and idioms that the foreign characters could never have known, and the introduction of Russian-specific life circumstances that cause contradictions with the plot and details of the original work. For example, В Тулу со своим самоваром ехать (Bring your own samovar to Tula - it's superfluous). The reason for this is that the literary world did not attach much importance to the translation of fiction and prose, and there were no specialists working on this task. Another point is that at this stage there was little progress in the study of Russian translation theory, and no valuable theoretical insights emerged. The linguist A.A. Потебня (1835-1891) expressed his views on translation from a psychological standpoint in his essay "Language and Peopleliness ". In his view, it was impossible to express in another language what was originally intended to be expressed in a certain language. Just like many other literary scholars, he denied the translatability of language. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:13, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.Translation ideas of famous writers of the 18-19th centuries. ===<br />
===3.1. Pushkin 's ideas on translation. ===<br />
Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin (Александр Сергеевич Пушкин, 1977-1837), a famous Russian poet and writer of the nineteenth century, was also very much a translator. Although he left behind few works on translation, his ideas on translation are worth studying. Pushkin's translations of poetry were associated with classicism in the early stages of his work and later with romanticism. Although these translations are far removed from the original in a literal sense, they are almost close to composition. Pushkin's significance as a translator, however, lies in 1) the reproduction of foreign originals in the standard Russian language he established in his translations and 2) the full expression of the realist artistic method in the heyday of his compositions: the focus on typical features and the technique of outlining the historical and individual characteristics that reflect the original.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's translations have their own characteristics and style. He did not translate all of his works word for word from the original, and in some places he deleted what he considered to be redundant sentences in order to avoid the verbosity of the original, occasionally replacing the translation with a general paraphrase. He advocates respect for the characteristics of foreign readers, while at the same time opposing word-for-word translations, which can lead to the trampling of the mother tongue. He therefore advocated translations which, on the one hand, required fidelity to the original in terms of meaning and, on the other, should preserve the original's distinctive features.<br />
As he says in his unfinished 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', commenting on Chateaubriand's translation: 'There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), has failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own conventional rhetorical devices, its own habitual expressions, and it is impossible to translate all this into another language using the corresponding vocabulary." Pushkin's rejection of word-for-word translation can be seen.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's influence on the cause of translation in Russia was immense, and this influence refers neither to his few translations nor to his theoretical views, but to the fact that Pushkin pioneered the translation of Russian literature. Although his ideas on translation cannot be called a theory, they do provide certain translation ideas for later generations of literary translators.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin (Александр Сергеевич Пушкин, 1977-1837), a famous Russian poet and writer of the nineteenth century, was also an outstanding translator. Besides he left behind few works on translation, his ideas on translation are worth studying. Pushkin's translations of poetry were associated with classicism in the early stages of his work and with romanticism later. Although these translations are far removed from the original in a literal sense, they are almost close to composition. Pushkin's significance as a translator, however, lies in the reproduction of foreign originalities in the standard Russian language he established in his translations and the full expression of the realist artistic method in the heyday of his compositions: the focus on typical features and the technique of outlining the historical and individual characteristics that reflect the original.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's translations have their own distinctive characteristics and style. He did not translate all of his works literally from the original context, but in some places he deleted what he considered to be redundant sentences in order to avoid the verbosity of the original, occasionally replacing the translation with a general paraphrase. He advocates to give enough respect for the characteristics of foreign readers, while at the same time opposing word-for-word translations, which may lead to the trampling of the mother tongue. Therefore, He advocated translations which, on the one hand, required fidelity to the original text in terms of meaning and, on the other hand, should preserve the original's distinctive features.<br />
<br />
As he says in his unfinished 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', he comments on Chateaubriand's translation: 'There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), has failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own conventional rhetorical devices, its own habitual expressions, and it is impossible to translate all this into another language using the corresponding vocabulary." Pushkin's rejection of word-for-word translation can be revealed clearly.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's influence on the cause of translation in Russia was huge, and his influence refers neither to his few translations nor to his theoretical views, but to the fact that Pushkin pioneered the translation of Russian literature. Although his ideas on translation cannot be called a theory, they do provide certain unique and new translation ideas for later generations of literary translators. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:29, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.1. Belinsky's ideas on translation. ===<br />
Vissarion Grigorievich Belinsky (Виссарион Григорьевич Белинский, 1811-1848) was a famous literary critic of the nineteenth century and one of the most involved in the world of translation among Russian literary activists of his time. Belinsky was fluent in French and as a young man translated for two magazines, Miscellany and Telescope. Later, after a career in literary criticism, he published numerous articles on translation and criticism of translated works.<br />
Belinsky's and Pushkin's views on translation were very similar, both advocating that translations should not be word-for-word. Belinsky first introduced the term 'theory' of translation, and in his 1838 review of Polevoy's translation of Hamlet, he first proposed the need for a theory of translation. He considered the role of theory: "Any object that man perceives has a theory of its own, and a theory is the knowledge of the laws by which the object exists."<br />
<br />
Belinsky argues that in translation: "Closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original. Each <br />
language has its own distinctive expressions, characteristics and qualities; these are so distinctive that to correctly convey a certain image or sentence, it is sometimes necessary to change them completely in the translation. The corresponding image, like the corresponding sentence, does not necessarily lie in a superficial agreement of words: the inner life of the translation should be made to correspond to the inner life of the original". It can be seen that Belinsky, like Pushkin, was also opposed to word-for-word rigid translations, his view being that the task of translating a language lies in reproducing the spirit of the original. He believed that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of a translation, so the question of the interrelationship between national character and translatability has always troubled Belinsky. He pointed out that 'there is only one rule for translating a literary work - to convey the spirit of the work being translated, and this can only be done by translating it into Russian as the author himself would have written it in Russian, if he had been Russian' (The Complete Works of Belinsky Volume 2).<br />
<br />
Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a number of achievements, and his view of translation as a whole is a complete and rigorous system. His view of translation was developed gradually, and in the process it was dominated by an increasingly firm recognition of the possibility of a successful solution to the task of translation, that is, of translatability. Belinsky believed that a translation must be discerning in its content and form in relation to the original. He has pointed out that "approaching the original is not the same as conveying the letters, but rather the spirit of the original." It is also suggested that the translator and the original author are two different kinds of people. But in order to convey the 'spirit' of the original in the translation, the translator's genius needs to reach a certain tacit understanding with this 'spirit'. He advocates the preservation of exoticism in translation, opposes naturalisation, the arbitrary distortion of the face of the original work, the overwhelming of the original author with the personality of the translator's style, the emphasis on both likeness and likeness, etc. However, while recognising the importance of reproducing the poetic form of the original work in translation, Belinsky also took into account the state of development of Russian literature in translation. This also led him to look favourably on translating good poetry in prose, seeing such translations as a form of transition for Russian readers to the treasures of world literature.<br />
<br />
Although Belinsky wrote little about literary translation, his theoretical views contain the kernel of the realist principles of translation proposed by contemporary Soviet literary translators. His ideas on translation had a very profound influence on the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Vissarion Grigorievich Belinsky (Виссарион Григорьевич Белинский, 1811-1848) was a famous literary critic of the nineteenth century and one of the most active in the world of translation among Russian literary activists of his time. Belinsky was fluent in French and when he was a young man he translated for two magazines, Miscellany and Telescope. Later, after a career in literary criticism, he published numerous articles on translation and criticism of translated works.<br />
<br />
Belinsky's and Pushkin's views on translation were very similar, both advocating that translations should not be word-for-word. Belinsky first introduced the term 'theory' of translation, and in his 1838 review of Polevoy's translation of Hamlet, he first proposed the need for a theory of translation. He considered the role of theory: "Any object that man perceives has a theory of its own, and a theory is the knowledge of the laws by which the object exists."<br />
<br />
Belinsky argues that in translation: "Closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original. Each language has its own distinctive expressions, characteristics and qualities; these are so distinctive that to correctly convey a certain image or sentence, it is sometimes necessary to change them completely in the translation. The corresponding image, like the corresponding sentence, does not necessarily lie in a superficial agreement of words: the inner life of the translation should be made to correspond to the inner life of the original". It can be seen that Belinsky, like Pushkin, was also opposed to word-for-word rigid translations, his view being that the task of translating a language lies in reproducing the spirit of the original. He believed that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of a translation, so the question of the interrelationship between national character and translatability has always troubled Belinsky. He pointed out that 'there is only one rule for translating a literary work - to convey the spirit of the work being translated, and this can only be done by translating it into Russian as the author himself would have written it in Russian, if he had been Russian' (The Complete Works of Belinsky Volume 2).<br />
<br />
Belinsky's career as a translator had a number of achievements, and his view of translation as a whole is a complete and rigorous system. His view of translation was developed gradually, and in this process it was dominated by an increasingly firm recognition of the possibility of a successful solution to the task of translation, that is, of translatability. Belinsky believed that a translation must be discerning in its content and form in relation to the original. He has pointed out that "approaching the original is not the same as conveying the letters, but rather the spirit of the original." It is also suggested that the translator and the original author are two different kinds of people. But in order to convey the 'spirit' of the original in the translation, the translator's genius needs to reach a certain tacit understanding with this 'spirit'. He advocates the preservation of exoticism in translation, opposes naturalisation, the arbitrary distortion of the face of the original work, the overwhelming of the original author with the personality of the translator's style, the emphasis on both likeness and likeness, etc. However, while recognising the importance of reproducing the poetic form of the original work in translation, Belinsky also took into account the state of development of Russian literature in translation. This also led him to look favourably on translating good poetry in prose, seeing such translations as a form of transition for Russian readers to the treasures of world literature.<br />
<br />
Although Belinsky wrote little about literary translation, his theoretical views contain the kernel of the realist principles of translation proposed by contemporary Soviet literary translators. His ideas on translation had a very profound influence on the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:56, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.Conclusion ===<br />
Translation has demonstrated its importance in social activity since antiquity, yet it was only in the twentieth century that it became a widely followed professional discipline. This article reviews Russian translation activity and translation thought in pre-Soviet Russia, exploring its development before the formation of a theoretical system. Throughout the history of translation, Russian scholars have contributed greatly to the development of translation literature in the world. Through combing through the history of Russian translation, we learn that the translation ideas of a number of outstanding writers, though not theoretical, have had an unmistakable impact on later generations. When discussing the translation ideas of 19th-century writers, we are inspired to insist on the principle that "closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original", emphasizing the ideological content and literary value of the translation, that the translation should serve the readers, and that the translation should be people-oriented. These ideas influenced, to a greater or lesser extent, the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, the study of the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia is not only conducive to sorting out Russian translation ideas Russian learners can better understand the characteristics of their translations when translating and improve the accuracy of their translations.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:44, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Translation has played its important role in the social activities since antiquity, yet it was until in the twentieth century that it became a widely followed professional discipline. This paper reviews Russian translators and translation thoughts in pre-Soviet Russia, exploring its development before the formation of a theoretical system. Throughout the history of translation, Russian scholars have contributed greatly to the development of translation literature in the world. By combing through the history of Russian translation, we learn that the translation ideas of a number of outstanding writers, though not very theoretical, have had an unmistakable impact on later generations. When discussing the translation ideas of 19th-century writers, we are inspired to insist on the principle that "closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original", emphasizing the ideological content and literary value of the translation that the translation should serve the readers, and that the translation should be people-oriented. These ideas influenced, to a greater or lesser extent, the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, the study of the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia not only is conducive to sorting out Russian translation ideas, but also make Russian learners better understand the characteristics of their translations when translating and improving the accuracy of their translations. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 14:02, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.References ===<br />
1.Wu, Keli 吴克礼（2006）.俄苏翻译理论流派综述 The Translation Methods and Studies in USSR. 上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
2.Guo Lin 郭琳（2006）.俄罗斯语言学派翻译理论若干问题研究[D] A Study of Some Problems of Translation Theory of the Russian School of Philology.首都师范大学 Capital Normal University.<br />
<br />
3.Feng Xin 冯欣（2009）. 俄罗斯翻译理论史及其影响研究[D] A study of the history of Russian translation theory and its influence.上海外国语大学 Shanghai International Studies University.<br />
<br />
4.Wang，Yulun；Jiang,Wanzhu 王育伦,姜万砫（1989).别林斯基论文学翻译[J] Belinsky on Literary Translation .中国翻译 Chinese translators Journal ,(03):53-55.<br />
<br />
5.Li Zheng, Fan Min 李铮,范敏（2010）. 普希金与翻译[J] Pushkin and Translation. 现代交际 Modern Intercourse Journal,(05):69.</div>Zhang Yiranhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_5&diff=132647Hist Trans Theo EN 52021-12-14T03:13:30Z<p>Zhang Yiran: /* 2.3 Second half of the19th century Russian translation. */</p>
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=Chapter 5 History of Translation Theories from Early Russia to the Soviet Union=<br />
<br />
'''从古罗斯到苏联前的翻译理论史'''<br />
<br />
张怡然 Zhang Yiran,Hunan Normal University,China<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation as a means of intercultural communication, each country has a distinctive translation ideology. This article focuses on the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia. Through analyzing the history of translation, can find that Russia has formed a literary tradition of translation studies in the late 18th century. In the 19th century, Pushkin, Lermontov, Turgenev and other outstanding poets and literary scholars were keen on translation, especially in the middle of the century when Belinsky and other famous literary critics published a series of comments on literary translation, which emphasized the literary tradition of Russian translation to an unparalleled extent, which is rare in the history of translation in the world. The general principles of Russian literary translation thought were also formed during this period: namely, to insist on commenting on the merits of a translation in terms of the overall effect of the work, to emphasize the ideological content and literary value of the translation, and that the translation should serve the reader and be people-oriented. The above ideas influenced the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, a study of the history of translation theory in pre-Soviet Russia will help learners of Russian to better understand the characteristics of their translations and to improve the accuracy and peopleliness of their translations.Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 12:57, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation is a means of intercultural communication, and each country has its own distinctive translation theory system. This paper focuses on the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia. By analyzing the history of translation, it is obvious that a literary tradition of translation studies has been formed in Russia in the late 18th century. In the 19th century, Pushkin, Lermontov, Turgenev and other outstanding poets and literary scholars were keen on translation, especially in the middle of the century when Belinsky and other famous literary critics published a series of comments on literary translation, which emphasized the literary tradition of Russian translation to an unparalleled extent, which is rare in the history of translation in the world. The general principles of Russian literary translation thoughts were also formed during this period: namely, to insist on commenting on the merits and weakness of a translation in terms of the overall effect of the work, to emphasize the ideological content and literary value of the translation, and the translation should serve the reader and be people-oriented. The above ideas influenced the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, a study of the history of translation theory in pre-Soviet Russia will help learners of Russian to understand the characteristics of their translations profoundly and to improve the accuracy and fluency of their translations.Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:03, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation theories, Translation ideas，History of Translation<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译作为一种跨文化交际的手段，每个国家都有独具特色的翻译思想。本文主要探讨苏联前俄国的翻译历史。通过梳理其翻译史可发现，俄国于18世纪末期就已形成了翻译研究的文学传统。进入19世纪后, 普希金、莱蒙托夫、屠格涅夫等优秀诗人、文学家对翻译的热衷, 尤其是世纪中叶别林斯基等著名文学评论家发表一系列关于文学翻译的评论, 更是把俄国翻译的文学传统强调到无以复加的程度, 这在世界翻译史上都是罕见的。俄国文学翻译思想的总原则也在这一时期形成:即坚持从作品的整体效果上来评论译作优劣, 强调译作的思想内容和文学价值, 翻译应为读者服务, 译文应具有人民性。上述思想影响了苏联时期翻译理论的形成。因此，对苏联前俄国翻译理论史的研究有利于俄语学习者在翻译时更好的理解其翻译特点，提高翻译的准确性和人民性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译理论 翻译思想 翻译史 <br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
This essay provides a comprehensive and concise overview of the history of translation in Russia: Russian written translations began in the Kievan Rus' era, when religious subjects were the main focus of translations, especially the Bible, which was translated from Greek. Religious translations continued to flourish under the Moscow principality, represented by Maksim Gleick (МаксимГрек). At the same time, the national character of Russian translations began to emerge, and the languages of translation expanded from Greek to Latin, German and West Slavic, and the subjects covered included Western chivalric fiction, geographical literature, alchemy and medicine. In the eighteenth century, Peter the Great introduced a number of measures to focus on translation, making this period a turning point in the history of Russian translation. The proliferation of specialised translations (e.g. of legal texts) was the main feature of translation activity in the early eighteenth century. After this period Russian translators began to translate literary works.The main translators were Lomonosov (М.В. Ломоносов) and Tretyakovsky (V.K. Тредьяковский). In the second half of the eighteenth century, translation was given greater importance in Russia, and the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books was founded by Ekaterina II, in which a large number of outstanding translators emerged. The nineteenth century was a golden period in the history of Russian translation. Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин) and Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский) both produced many excellent translations. Pushkin (A.С.Пушкин) and Lermontov (M.Ю.Лермонтов) contributed greatly to the development of Russian literature in translation, while Fetter concentrated on love poetry. In the twentieth century, the Russian translation community made significant achievements in theoretical translation studies. In particular, the rapid development of the philological school and the debate between the literary and philological schools made Soviet translation theory one of the leading theories of translation in the world.(Guo Lin,2006:5)Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 12:57, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
This paper provides a comprehensive and concise overview of the history of translation in Russia: Russian written translations began in the Kievan Rus' era, when religious subjects were the main focus of translations, especially the Bible, translated from Greek. Religious translations continued to flourish under the Moscow principality, represented by Maksim Gleick (МаксимГрек). At the same time, the national character of Russian translations began to emerge, and the languages of translation expanded from Greek to Latin, German and West Slavic, and the subjects covered included Western chivalric fiction, geographical literature, alchemy and medicine. In the eighteenth century, Peter the Great introduced a number of measures to focus on translation, leading this period to a turning point in the history of Russian translation. The proliferation of specialised translations (e.g. of legal texts) was the main feature of translation activity in the early eighteenth century. After this period Russian translators began to translate literary works.The main translators were Lomonosov (М.В. Ломоносов) and Tretyakovsky (V.K. Тредьяковский). In the second half of the eighteenth century, translation was paid greater attention in Russia, and the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books was founded by Ekaterina II, in which a large number of outstanding translators emerged. The nineteenth century was a golden period in the history of Russian translation when Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин) and Rukovsky (В.А.Жуковский) both produced many excellent translations. Pushkin (A.С.Пушкин) and Lermontov (M.Ю.Лермонтов) contributed greatly to the development of Russian literature in translation, while Fetter concentrated on love poetry. In the twentieth century, the Russian translation community made significant achievements in theoretical translation studies. In particular, the rapid development of the philological school and the debate between the literary and philological schools made Soviet translation theory one of the leading theories of translation in the world. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:14, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===1.The history of Russian translation and the period of enlightenment of its translation theory. ===<br />
1. The emergence and development of literary translation.<br />
<br />
Translation activity has a long history in Russia, the beginnings of which can be traced back to the time of Kievan Rus'. A relatively sophisticated system of writing, literature and translation was already in place in ancient Russia in the ninth century AD. Frequent cultural and trade exchanges with Byzantine, German, French and Scandinavian countries contributed significantly to the development of translation in Russia at that time, as did contacts with Eastern countries. From Kievan Rus' onwards, Russian translation methods oscillated between two main tendencies, either to follow the original texts exactly, up to the point of translating them word for word, or to be arbitrary, even to the point of rewriting, adding or deleting at will. The first tendency is the main characteristic of translations of the Bible and other sacred books, while the second, though not absolute, can be said to characterize most secular works.(Feng Xin,2009:8)(Wu Keli,2006:4)<br />
<br />
2.Initiation of translation activities-religious translation. <br />
<br />
In 864 AD, the Byzantine king sent two Greek priests, Kirill (Кирилл) and Mephodi (Мефодий), to spread Christianity among the Slavic people. At the beginning of their mission, they created a new alphabet (now known as the Kirill alphabet) and used this writing system to translate many religious texts from Greek into the ancient Church Slavonic. Among the results were the New Testament, hymnals and prayer books.(Feng,2009:8)<br />
<br />
In 988 AD, Rus was baptised and Kievan Rus was converted to Christianity. A large number of translations appeared instantly to help Protestants become familiar with the new religious philosophy and ethical system and to understand the rituals and customs of the Church. These translations were in a variety of genres, including the Acts of the Saints, sermons, chronicles and so on. In addition, apocryphal books telling magical and fantastical stories were also popular, and some of them had similarities with the later 'fantasy novels'. Most of these translations were done in Bulgaria and were popularised in Rus. At that time, translations of religious texts were mostly word-for-word. There were also a small number of works that, unlike the 'elaborate copies of the original', had a separate literary value. In one case, a large number of details of Russian life were added to the storyline of a sermon (e.g. The Tales of Achild the Wise). In another case, military historical narratives are interspersed with the terminology of the ancient Russian feudal system and certain literary images from the stories of ancient Russian warriors (e.g. Joseph Flav's History of the Jewish War). This translation can be considered one of the most successful of the period. In the translation, the translator succeeded in avoiding many word-for-word translations). In a third case, the manuscripts copied by Ancient Rus, although based on Greek epic poetry (e.g. The Great Work of Digenes Akritas), often borrowed from Russian folk poetry, so that a large number of folk compositions appeared. As a result of this literary process, the translated literature was smoothly enriched by Russian manuscripts, which contributed to the development of original Russian literature and consolidated its links with the medieval literary process. Unfortunately, at that early stage in the development of translation, the translators were not signed, so it is impossible to verify whether the works were translated at home or abroad.(Feng,2009:9) <br />
<br />
During the difficult period of 'Mongol rule' (1228-1480), translations continued to play an important role in the cultural life of the country. The remaining chapters of the Bible were translated one after another, and previous translations were again proofread and revised. In addition to religious translations, more translations of non-religious subjects emerge, such as The Kingdom of India and The Trojan War. Most of the works were still translated from Greek, while works probably translated from Latin and ancient Hebrew also appeared. During this period, Russian began to take shape through the interaction of Old Slavonic (Church Slavonic) and local national languages. However, religious texts were still only translated into Church Slavonic, and the use of this language was by then restricted to ecclesiastical matters. At the same time, political and commercial exchanges with other countries were more likely to be in Russian, which was becoming increasingly sophisticated: elements of the combination of Old Slavonic and Russian can also be found in original works.（Wu,2006:6)<br />
<br />
14-15th century literature in translation by Rus was characterised by an obsession with new themes. These were mainly new works of tranquillity-abstinence literature, or works recommended by and familiar to the tranquillists. This mystical genre was introduced to Rus after it had swept through the Byzantine and Yugoslav peoples. It was reflected in the semi-secular translations popular at the time (for example, The Trojan War). <br />
<br />
In the 16th century AD, Moscow eventually became the political centre of Russia, as well as the translation centre of the country. In 1515, the Grand Duke of Moscow, Vassily III (Василий Ⅲ), asked a Greek monastery to send a learned translator to Moscow. This man, who accompanied the Greek mission to Moscow in 1516, was the historically famous Maksim Gleick (Максим Грек). Maksim Gleick worked as a translator throughout his life, studying most of the religious texts and some of the non-religious works during this period. In addition, he also proofread and annotated previously existing translations.(Wu,2006:7) <br />
<br />
At the beginning, Maksim knew neither Russian nor Old Slavonic, so he divided the translation into two steps: first, he translated from Greek to Latin, and then his assistant translated from Latin to Old Slavonic. In the process of revising existing translations, he often broke with established tradition and was therefore denounced as blasphemous. Maksim was also a prolific writer, educator and philosopher. His writings contain many insights into the art of translation - the earliest recorded treatise on translation in Russia. Maksim insisted that the original text must be carefully analysed in order to grasp its full subtleties and implications. Therefore, the translator must not only master the language of the original, but also have a broad knowledge of the language and prepare for the translation. To support his argument, Maksim used Greek lexicography, phonetic organisation and phonetics involved in translation. His other major contribution was the compilation of a dictionary containing Greek, Latin and Hebrew nouns, which was also the first of its kind in Russian history. Although it was recognised at the time that translators should have a command of both languages as well as a profound background knowledge, the practitioners of translation at the time lacked the necessary qualities and their translations were not as good as they could have been.(Wu,2006:7)Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 13:39, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
1. The emergence and development of literary translation. <br />
<br />
Translation activity has a long history in Russia, the beginnings of which can be traced back to the Time of Kievan Rus'. A relatively sophisticated system of writing, literature and translation was already in ancient Russia in the ninth century AD. Frequent cultural and trade exchanges with Byzantine, German, French and Scandinavian countries contributed significantly to the development of translation in Russia at that time, as did contacts with Eastern countries. From Kievan Rus' onwards, Russian translation methods oscillated between two main tendencies, either to follow the original texts exactly, up to the point of translating them word by word, or to be arbitrary, even to the point of rewriting, adding words or deleting at will. The first tendency is the main characteristic of translations of the Bible and other sacred books, while the second, though not absolutely, can be said to characterize most secular works.<br />
<br />
2.Initiation of translation activities-religious translation. <br />
<br />
In 864 AD, the Byzantine king sent two Greek priests, Kirill (Кирилл) and Mephodi (Мефодий), to spread Christianity among the Slavic people. At the beginning of their mission, they created a new alphabet (now known as the Kirill alphabet) and used this writing system to translate many religious texts from Greek into the ancient Church Slavonic. Among the results were the New Testament, hymnals and prayer books. In 988 AD, Rus was baptised and Kievan Rus was converted to Christianity. A large number of translations appeared instantly to help Protestants become familiar with the new religious philosophy and ethical system and to understand the rituals and customs of the Church. These translations were in a variety of genres, including the Acts of the Saints, sermons, chronicles and so on. In addition, apocryphal books telling magical and fantastical stories were also popular, and some of them had similarities with the later 'fantasy novels'. Most of these translations were done in Bulgaria and were popularised in Rus. At that time, translations of religious texts were mostly word-for-word. There were also a small number of works that, unlike the 'elaborate copies of the original', had a separate literary values. In one case, a large number of details of Russian life were added to the storyline of a sermon (e.g. The Tales of Achild the Wise). In another case, military historical narratives are interspersed with the terminology of the ancient Russian feudal system and certain literary images from the stories of ancient Russian warriors (e.g. Joseph Flav's History of the Jewish War). This translation can be considered one of the most successful of the period. In the translation, the translator succeeded in avoiding many word-for-word translations). Thirdly, the manuscripts copied by Ancient Rus, although based on Greek epic poetry (e.g. The Great Work of Digenes Akritas), often borrowed from Russian folk poetry, so that a large number of folk compositions appeared. As a result of this literary process, the translated literature was smoothly enriched by Russian manuscripts, which contributed to the development of original Russian literature and consolidated its links with the medieval literary process. Unfortunately, at that early stage in the development of translation, the translators were not signed, so it is impossible to verify whether the works were translated at home or abroad. During the difficult period of 'Mongol rule' (1228-1480), translations continued to play an important role in the cultural life of the country. The remaining chapters of the Bible were translated one after another, and previous translations were again proofread and revised. In addition to religious translations, more translations of non-religious subjects emerge, such as The Kingdom of India and The Trojan War. Most of the works were still translated from Greek, while works probably translated from Latin and ancient Hebrew also appeared. During this period, Russian began to take shape through the interaction of Old Slavonic (Church Slavonic) and local national languages. However, religious texts were still only translated into Church Slavonic, and the use of this language was by then restricted to ecclesiastical matters. At the same time, political and commercial exchanges with other countries were more likely to be in Russian, which was becoming increasingly sophisticated: elements of the combination of Old Slavonic and Russian can also be found in original works. 14-15th century literature in translation by Rus was characterised by an obsession with new themes. These were mainly new works of tranquillity-abstinence literature, or works recommended by and familiar to the tranquillists. This mystical genre was introduced to Rus after it had swept through the Byzantine and Yugoslav peoples. It was reflected in the semi-secular translations popular at the time (for example, The Trojan War). In the 16th century AD, Moscow eventually became the political center of Russia, as well as the translation center of the country. In 1515, the Grand Duke of Moscow, Vassily III (Василий Ⅲ), asked a Greek monastery to send a learned translator to Moscow. This man, who accompanied the Greek mission to Moscow in 1516, was the historically famous Maksim Grek (Максим Грек). Maxim Greek worked as a translator throughout his life, studying most of the religious texts and some of the non-religious works during this period. In addition, he also proofread and annotated previously existing translations. At the beginning, Maxim knew neither Russian nor Old Slavonic, so he divided the translation into two steps: first, he translated from Greek to Latin, and then his assistant translated from Latin to Old Slavonic. In the process of revising existing translations, he often broke with established tradition and was therefore denounced as blasphemous. Maxim was also a prolific writer, educator and philosopher. His writings contain many insights into the art of translation - the earliest recorded treatise on translation in Russia. Maxim insisted that the original text must be carefully analysed in order to grasp its full subtleties and implications. Therefore, the translator must not only master the language of the original, but also have a broad knowledge of the language and prepare for the translation. To support his argument, Maxim used Greek lexicography, phonetic organisation and phonetics involved in translation. His other major contribution was the compilation of a dictionary containing Greek, Latin and Hebrew nouns, which was also the first of its kind in Russian history. Although it was recognized at the time that translators should have a command of both languages and profound background knowledge, the practitioners of translation at the time lacked the necessary qualities and their translations were not as good as they should have been. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. Overview of the Russian school of Translation. ===<br />
===2.1 18th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The eighteenth century is an important period in the history of Russian translation. The status of translation in social culture has undergone a qualitative change, and this is due to Peter the Great's reform. At the beginning of the century, translation was still mostly related to professional documents such as laws and contracts. Later, the translator's tentacles gradually expanded to literary translation, for example, French poetry translation. The famous translators of this period are Sumarokov(А.П.Сумароков), Lomonosov(М.В.Ломоносов), Tretyakovsky (В.К.Тредьяковский) and so on. In the second half of the 18th century, the Association for the Translation of Foreign Books officially put forward the importance of translation. The organization has been active for 15 years with over 100 members.（Wu,2006:10)<br />
<br />
1.Imperial support for translation. The political reforms introduced by Peter the Great also led to intensive economic and cultural exchanges between Russia and European countries. This created a huge demand for translations of scientific and technical literature and literary works. Translators were required to produce works of a high standard.<br />
<br />
Peter the Great issued a special decree on translation, requiring "faithful" communication of the original text. In a directive issued to his subordinates in 1709, he explicitly stated that when translating foreign books, word-for-word translations were to be avoided and that the content of the original text should be clearly expressed in one's own language, based on an understanding of its content. On the other hand, Peter the Great's subversion of the written language initially caused confusion in Russian translation circles. A large number of foreign languages entered the Russian language, and the piles of foreign syntactic structures distracted attention. In any case, Peter the Great's reforms did set a new norm and a new direction for translation.(Wu,2006:11)<br />
<br />
In terms of content, Peter the Great's reforms were, from the very beginning, inextricably linked to the translation of scientific and technical texts, such as the many books on military defence engineering that he ordered to be translated and used to strengthen Russia's military forces. Peter the Great also placed great importance on the translation of prose, poetry and other literary works. During this period, the Russian language began to develop its own literary model, and many educated Russians saw translation as a way of enriching the language and enhancing its uniqueness and expressiveness. <br />
<br />
From around the 1830s, the importance of translating Western European scientific and technical texts gradually gave way to literary works such as prose and poetry. Writers who were also translators turned their attention to the work of new Western European writers, mainly poets, especially French poets. At the same time, the legacy of the Greco-Roman period also entered their minds. They began to translate the works of philosophers and historians, which - on the one hand - gave rise to difficulties in literary rhetoric and scientific terminology and, on the other, played an important role in the formation of a standard Russian language.(Feng,2009:10)(Guo,2006:8) <br />
<br />
From that time onwards, translation also became an organised activity, with the emergence of specific bodies responsible for the organisation and management of translation work. 1735 saw the establishment of the first specialised translation organisation, the Russian Society, at the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences. The Society had a professional group of translators and some of the academy's scholars, such as Lomonosov and Tretyakovsky, were among its members. The Association was responsible for selecting works, defining the rules or principles of translation, commenting on translations, and training translators. It is worth mentioning that the Academy of Sciences also set up a school of foreign languages to train official translators. In 1748, the Academy implemented Queen Elizabeth's decree to increase the number of translations of non-religious books and publicly appealed to "the nobility and other classes of intellectuals" to take an active part in the translation process.(Guo,2006:8)(Feng,2009:10) <br />
<br />
In the second half of the 18th century, Ekaterina II's efforts to create a 'civilised state' not only led to the development of literature, but also gave preferential treatment to writers. For example, in order to select the best original texts, she ordered the establishment of the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books (1768 - 1783). The Society was dedicated to providing excellent conditions for translation work throughout Russia. The purchase of manuscripts was financed out of Ekaterina's own funds. Later, the Society also discussed a proposal to establish a translation bureau under the Academy of Sciences (1790). The 114 members of the Society included such notable figures as Tretyakovsky, Sumarokov and Radishev. For 14 years the Association was active, producing numerous literary translations and likewise contributing to the discussion of theoretical issues in translation.(Guo,2006:9)<br />
<br />
2.The emergence of poetry translation. Translation of poetry also developed in Russia in the 18th century, and later became one of the jewels of the country's literature. The great Russian scholar and poet Lomonosov was a major contributor to this process. A great deal of the work created by Lomonosov and his contemporaries Sumarokov and Tretyakovsky was poetry in translation. They often translated while exploring theoretical issues in translation: they would explain in their works why they translated this way and not that way; they stressed the importance of translation work and the creative value it contained. Among the most prestigious writers and translators in Russian literature at the time, there were several interesting competitions in which two or three poets translated the same work at the same time, and their translations were published in journals. It was often the case that different translations of the same work were published at the same time, without the translator's name, for the judgement of "literary lovers and peers". This phenomenon also supports the idea that the 18th century was a period of 'experimentation' in the history of Russian translation.(Feng,2006:11) <br />
<br />
Lomonosov's translations from Latin, German, French and Greek are numerous and varied, showing his talent for both rhyming and free verse. He was keen to reproduce the rhythmic structure of the original texts, using a variety of iambic and iambic meter to convey the Alexandrian style of French epic and the hexameter style of Greek tragedy. Russian poetry was not very developed at the time and was still based on syllables. <br />
Lomonosov's innovations enriched Russian poetry and established new forms and traditions of Russian poetic style and rhyme. <br />
<br />
In contrast, Kantymir (Д.М.Кантемира) and Tretyakovsky's greatest quest was to insist on a faithful translation of the original. In the process, the translators had to contend with the problems of reams of vocabulary and rhetorical rules. Tretyakovsky became famous for his successful use of Russian rhyme to translate many verses of the original in his translation of Paul Thielmann's A Journey to Love Island. In the introduction to the novel, the translator states his approach to translation: "The translator is only one person away from the author. I would add that if the author is original, the translator should be even more original (I am not referring to myself, but to a good translator)". He believes that "prose to prose" and "poetry to poetry" can be as good as the original, and that a good translation is one that "describes the full meaning of each verse". Kantymir 's translation of Horace's Letters and other poetic works in Latin and French, although less well-known than the former, is equally valuable.(Wu,2006:16) Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:40, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The eighteenth century is an important period in the history of Russian translation. The status of translation in social culture has undergone a qualitative change, and this is due to Peter the Great's reform. At the beginning of the century, translation was still mostly related to professional documents such as laws and contracts. Later, the translator's tentacles gradually expanded to literary translation, for example, French poetry translation. The famous translators of this period are Sumarokov(А.П.Сумароков), Lomonosov(М.В.Ломоносов), Tretyakovsky (В.К.Тредьяковский) and so on. In the second half of the 18th century, the Association for the Translation of Foreign Books officially put forward the importance of translation. The organization has been active for 15 years with over 100 members. The following points reflected the reasons why translation was paid more attention in the eighteenth century.<br />
<br />
1.Imperial support for translation. <br />
<br />
The political reforms introduced by Peter the Great also led to intensive economic and cultural exchanges between Russia and European countries. This created a huge demand for translations of scientific and technical literature and literary works. Translators were required to produce works of a high standard.Peter the Great issued a special decree on translation, requiring "faithful" communication of the original text. In a directive issued to his subordinates in 1709, he explicitly stated that when translating foreign books, word-for-word translations were to be avoided and that the content of the original text should be clearly expressed in one's own language, based on an understanding of its content. On the other hand, Peter the Great's subversion of the written language initially caused confusion in Russian translation circles. A large number of foreign languages entered the Russian language, and the piles of foreign syntactic structures distracted attention. In any case, Peter the Great's reforms did set a new norm and a new direction for translation. In terms of content, Peter the Great's reforms were, from the very beginning, inextricably linked to the translation of scientific and technical texts, such as the many books on military defence engineering that he ordered to be translated and used to strengthen Russia's military forces. Peter the Great also placed great importance on the translation of prose, poetry and other literary works. During this period, the Russian language began to develop its own literary model, and many educated Russians saw translation as a way of enriching the language and enhancing its uniqueness and expressiveness. <br />
<br />
From around the 1830s, the importance of translating Western European scientific and technical texts gradually gave way to literary works such as prose and poetry. Writers who were also translators turned their attention to the work of new Western European writers, mainly poets, especially French poets. At the same time, the legacy of the Greco-Roman period also entered their minds. They began to translate the works of philosophers and historians, which - on the one hand - gave rise to difficulties in literary rhetoric and scientific terminology and, on the other, played an important role in the formation of a standard Russian language. <br />
<br />
From that time onwards, translation also became an organised activity, with the emergence of specific bodies responsible for the organisation and management of translation work. 1735 saw the establishment of the first specialised translation organisation, the Russian Society, at the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences. The Society had a professional group of translators and some of the academy's scholars, such as Lomonosov and Tretyakovsky, were among its members. The Association was responsible for selecting works, defining the rules or principles of translation, commenting on translations, and training translators. It is worth mentioning that the Academy of Sciences also set up a school of foreign languages to train official translators. In 1748, the Academy implemented Queen Elizabeth's decree to increase the number of translations of non-religious books and publicly appealed to "the nobility and other classes of intellectuals" to take an active part in the translation process. <br />
<br />
In the second half of the 18th century, Ekaterina II's efforts to create a 'civilised state' not only led to the development of literature, but also gave preferential treatment to writers. For example, in order to select the best original texts, she ordered the establishment of the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books (1768-1783). The Society was dedicated to providing excellent conditions for translation work throughout Russia. The purchase of manuscripts was financed out of Ekaterina's own funds. Later, the Society also discussed a proposal to establish a translation bureau under the Academy of Sciences (1790). The 114 members of the Society included such notable figures as Tretyakovsky, Sumarokov and Radishev. For 14 years the Association was active, producing numerous literary translations and likewise contributing to the discussion of theoretical issues in translation.<br />
<br />
2.The emergence of poetry translation.<br />
<br />
Translation of poetry also developed in Russia in the 18th century, and later became one of the jewels of the country's literature. The great Russian scholar and poet Lomonosov was a major contributor to this process. A great deal of the work created by Lomonosov and his contemporaries Sumarokov and Tretyakovsky was poetry in translation. They often translated while exploring theoretical issues in translation: they would explain in their works why they translated this way and not that way; they stressed the importance of translation work and the creative value it contained. Among the most prestigious writers and translators in Russian literature at the time, there were several interesting competitions in which two or three poets translated the same work at the same time, and their translations were published in journals. It was often the case that different translations of the same work were published at the same time, without the translator's name, for the judgement of "literary lovers and peers". This phenomenon also supports the idea that the 18th century was a period of 'experimentation' in the history of Russian translation. <br />
<br />
Lomonosov's translations works in Latin, German, French and Greek are numerous and varied, showing his talent for both rhyming and free verse. He was keen to reproduce the rhythmic structure of the original texts, using a variety of iambic and iambic meter to convey the Alexandrian style of French epic and the hexameter style of Greek tragedy. Russian poetry was not very developed at the time and was still based on syllables. <br />
Lomonosov's innovations enriched Russian poetry and established new forms and traditions of Russian poetic style and rhyme. <br />
<br />
In contrast, Kantymir (Д.М.Кантемира) and Tretyakovsky's greatest quest was to insist on a faithful translation of the original. In the process, the translators had to contend with the problems of reams of vocabulary and rhetorical rules. Tretyakovsky became famous for his successful use of Russian rhyme to translate many verses of the original in his translation of Paul Thielmann's A Journey to Love Island. In the introduction to the novel, the translator states his approach to translation: "The translator is only one person away from the author. I would add that if the author is original, the translator should be even more original (I am not referring to myself, but to a good translator)". He believes that "prose to prose" and "poetry to poetry" can be as good as the original, and that a good translation is one that "describes the full meaning of each verse". Kantymir 's translation of Horace's Letters and other poetic works in Latin and French, although less well-known than the former, is equally valuable. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 12:39, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.2 First half of the19th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The nineteenth century was a golden age in the history of Russian translation. If translation had established itself as a profession in the first hundred years, it was elevated to the level of art in this century. The nineteenth century produced a number of masters of translation, including Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин), Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский), Pushkin (А.С.Пушкин), Lermontov (М.Ю.Лермонтов) and Fetter (А.Фет).(Wu,2006:23)<br />
<br />
The new Russian school of translation owes its formation to the historian Nikolai Karamzin and the poet Zhukovsky. Karamzin published a number of translations in several magazines between the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century. He saw translations as a good help in perfecting a writer's style: a source of information that would satisfy human curiosity, inform historical facts, entertain women and provide material for new magazines. As a young man, Karamzin was strongly opposed to the alteration of and disloyalty to the original texts, but later became a champion of free translation, famously saying: "Whoever follows the author of the original text step by step is no different from a servant who serves his lord". Karamzin's translations cover an admirable range of genres and languages: he translated works by both classical and contemporaneous authors, in Greek, French, Latin, German, English, Italian and some Oriental languages.(Feng,2009:12)<br />
<br />
Pushkin called Zhukovsky "a genius of translation". After graduating from the Moscow Noble Boarding University in 1802, Zhukovsky devoted himself to translation. It was thanks to his efforts that Russian readers were able to access the works of world literary giants such as Schiller, Goethe, Byron and Walters Scott. Zhukovsky's creative translation activities also ranged from Charles Bello to Grimm's Fairy Tales. From Charles Bellow to Grimm's fairy tales, from Homer's epic Odyssey to the poetic history of ancient Rus' Igor's Expedition, all became his original texts. There is no denying that Zhukovsky is a master in the history of Russian translation. Like Karamzin, Zhukovsky was a fan of free translation, sometimes rewriting the original or even creating a new story from its subject: sometimes transferring the setting of events to Russia and giving Russian names to the characters. For example, in his 1808 translation of the German Romantic poet Bilge's narrative poem Lenore, he changed the heroine's name from Lenore to Lyudmila and moved the story to the time of the Livonian War in 16th-century Russia. Zhukovsky believed that the "unsavoury character" of the work should be weakened while retaining the original author's ideas. His talent enabled him to reproduce the style, rhythm and tone of the original poems, while some of his best works were also faithful to the original. In later years, however, his view of translation changed in response to the tendency to stay close to the original, and he retranslated several of his previous translations to make them more faithful to the original, including Lenore. The Russian school of translation owes much to the tradition of translation created by Zhukovsky.(Wu,2006:24-30)(Feng,2009:13)(Guo,2006:9)<br />
<br />
Pushkin and Lermontov are also two poets who set the stage for an epoch in the history of Russian translation. Although only a small proportion of their poetry was translated, they made a significant contribution to the improvement of the art of translation in Russia. In their rewriting and imitation of poetry, they were able to reproduce the most important features of foreign poetry, the key point being that their creative translations were no less valuable in their own right than the originals. Their free translation became a model for other translators, and in addition they established the important principle that a good artistic translation must also be a good work in the national literature of the translated language. Pushkin played an indelibly important role in the development of the Russian school of translation. He was always interested in the question of translation, and his critical views on translation were objective and profound. Before translation he stressed the importance of the choice of the original work, and in translation he demanded that the translator should be faithful to the original, while at the same time displaying his deep creative skills and his own literary style. In one of his unfinished posthumous works, 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', Pushkin wrote: 'Chateaubriand's translation (verbatim) compensates to some extent for the faults of the young French writers (free translation), for they have insulted the great man very cruelly, though in a perfectly innocent manner. There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own rhetorical conventions, its own way of expressing itself, and it is impossible to translate into another language with the corresponding vocabulary". These insights had a positive impact on the best Russian translators of the 19th and 20th centuries. In addition, Pushkin's discussion of translation coincided with a turning point in the history of Russian literature, when the Romantic era was being replaced by a new era with a predominantly realist orientation, and a process of 'separation' between translated and national literature was under way. Pushkin's discussion of the work of the translator as distinct from that of the writer contributed to the independence of literature in translation from indigenous literature.(Guo,2006:10)(Wu,2006:37-41) <br />
<br />
During this period, while most people advocated free translation, there were a few translators who insisted on maximum fidelity to the original and advocated the word-for-word method, even at the expense of the work's willingness to be translated. Among these were such well-known writers as P.A. Vyazemsky (П.А.Вяземский) and N.I. Gnedzic (Н.И.Гнедич). In fact, they did not always live up to their principles, and sometimes their talent and artistic intuition ended up breaking the bonds of verbatim translation. Vyazemsky's translations of Benjamin Constant and Adam Mickiewicz were not without literary and artistic merit, and his translation of Homer's epic Iliad in particular was highly praised by Pushkin. It was Fetter who was the most insistent on the idea of a verbatim translation. Fetter translated many famous works, and his philosophy throughout was one of sentence-for-sentence, word-for-word translation, retaining all the words of the original. Fetter's extreme word-for-word approach had a negative impact on most of his translations, although he was sometimes able to come up with some effective methods of translation.(Feng,2009:14) <br />
<br />
Free translations were also sometimes used to promote democratic ideas in the original that could not pass official scrutiny. A number of translators, such as V. Kurochkin (В.Курочкин), D. M. Minayev (Д.Минаев) and M. M. Mikhalov (М.Михайлов), achieved this by selecting appropriate original works or by using texts in their translations that were superficially imperceptible in their allusion to the conditions in Russia at the time. It was from that time onwards that the use of translation as a weapon to express dissent became part of the Russian tradition.(Feng,2009:14) Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:41, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The nineteenth century was the golden age in the history of Russian translation. If translation had established its status in the first hundred years, it was elevated to the level of art in this century. The nineteenth century produced a number of masters of translation, including Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин), Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский), Pushkin (А.С.Пушкин), Lermontov (М.Ю.Лермонтов) and Fetter (А.Фет). <br />
<br />
The new Russian school of translation owes its formation to the publishment of a number of translations of historian Nikolai Karamzin and the poet Zhukovsky. Karamzin in several magazines between the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century. He regarded translation as a good help in perfecting a writer's style: a source of information that satisfies human curiosity, informs historical facts, entertains women and provides materials for new magazines. As a young man, Karamzin was strongly opposed to the disloyalty to the original texts, but later became a champion of free translation. His famous saying was: "Whoever follows the author of the original text step by step is no different from a servant who serves his lord". Karamzin's translations cover an admirable range of genres and languages: he translated works by both classical and contemporaneous authors, in Greek, French, Latin, German, English, Italian and some Oriental languages. <br />
<br />
Pushkin called Zhukovsky "a genius of translation". After graduating from the Moscow Noble Boarding University in 1802, Zhukovsky devoted himself to translation. It was thanks to his efforts that Russian readers were able to access the works of world literary giants such as Schiller, Goethe, Byron and Walters Scott. Zhukovsky's creative translation activities also ranged from Charles Bello to Grimm's Fairy Tales. From Charles Bellow to Grimm's fairy tales, from Homer's epic Odyssey to the poetic history of ancient Rus' Igor's Expedition, all became his original texts. There is no denying that Zhukovsky is a master in the history of Russian translation. Like Karamzin, Zhukovsky was a fan of free translation, who sometimes rewrites the original or even creates a new story from its subject, transfers the setting of events to Russia and gives Russian names to the characters. For example, in his 1808 translation of the German Romantic poet Bilge's narrative poem Lenore, he changed the heroine's name from Lenore to Lyudmila and moved the story to the time of the Livonian War in 16th-century Russia. Zhukovsky believed that the "unsavoury character" of the work should be weakened while retaining the original author's ideas. His talent enabled him to reproduce the style, rhythm and tone of the original poems, while some of his best works were also faithful to the original. In later years, however, his view of translation changed in response to the tendency to stay close to the original, and he retranslated several of his previous translations to make them more faithful to the original, including Lenore. The Russian school of translation owes much to the tradition of translation created by Zhukovsky.<br />
<br />
Pushkin and Lermontov are also two poets who gave perfect preparations for an epoch in the history of Russian translation. Although only a small proportion of their poetry was translated, they made a significant contribution to the improvement of the art of translation in Russia. In their rewriting and imitation of poetry, they were able to reproduce the most important features of foreign poetry, the key point being that their creative translations were no less valuable in their own right than the originals. Their free translation became a model for other translators, and in addition they established the important principle that a good artistic translation must also be a good work in the national literature of the translated language. Pushkin played an indelibly important role in the development of the Russian school of translation. He was always interested in the question of translation, and his critical views on translation were objective and profound. Before translation he stressed the importance of the choice of the original work, and in translation he demanded that the translator should be faithful to the original, while at the same time displaying his deep creative skills and his own literary style. In one of his unfinished posthumous works, 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', Pushkin wrote: 'Chateaubriand's translation (verbatim) compensates to some extent for the faults of the young French writers (free translation), for they have insulted the great man very cruelly, though in a perfectly innocent manner. There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own rhetorical conventions, its own way of expressing itself, and it is impossible to translate into another language with the corresponding vocabulary". These insights had a positive impact on the best Russian translators of the 19th and 20th centuries. In addition, Pushkin's discussion of translation coincided with a turning point in the history of Russian literature, when the Romantic era was being replaced by a new era with a predominantly realist orientation, and a process of 'separation' between translated and national literature was under way. Pushkin's discussion of the work of the translator as distinct from that of the writer contributed to the independence of literature in translation from indigenous literature. <br />
<br />
During this period, while most people advocated free translation, there were a few translators who insisted on maximum fidelity to the original and advocated the word-for-word method, even at the expense of the work's willingness to be translated. Among these were such well-known writers as P.A. Vyazemsky (П.А.Вяземский) and N.I. Gnedzic (Н.И.Гнедич). In fact, they did not always live up to their principles, and sometimes their talent and artistic intuition ended up breaking the bonds of verbatim translation. Vyazemsky's translations of Benjamin Constant and Adam Mickiewicz were not without literary and artistic merit, and his translation of Homer's epic Iliad in particular was highly praised by Pushkin. It was Fetter who was the most insistent on the idea of a verbatim translation. Fetter translated many famous works, and his philosophy throughout was one of sentence-for-sentence, word-for-word translation, retaining all the words of the original. Fetter's extreme word-for-word approach had a negative impact on most of his translations, although he was sometimes able to come up with some effective methods of translation. <br />
<br />
Free translations were also used to promote democratic ideas in original that could not pass official scrutiny. A number of translators, such as V. Kurochkin (В.Курочкин), D. M. Minayev (Д.Минаев) and M. M. Mikhalov (М.Михайлов), achieved this by selecting appropriate original works or by using texts in their translations that were superficially imperceptible in their allusion to the conditions in Russia at the time. It was since then that the use of translation was used as a weapon to express dissent became part of the Russian tradition. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:05, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.3 Second half of the19th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The mid-nineteenth century was a period of increasingly intense political and ideological struggle in Russian literature, and a great debate raged in the Russian literary world over the question of 'art for the people' or 'art for art's sake'. The debate was mainly about the choice of material for translation and the method of translation. As far as the choice of material was concerned, the democratic and revolutionary writers who supported 'art for the people' chose to translate works with progressive ideological content and a democratic orientation, such as Heine. The aristocratic and liberal intellectual writers, on the other hand, opted for philosophical poetry with a chanting and individualistic feel. Of course, this is not absolute: "Mikhailov and Dobrolyubov of the democratic revolutionary school also translated Heine's moody love poems The Songbook, while Tolstoy of the aristocratic and liberal school translated some of Goethe's more progressive poems, such as The Fiancée of Corinth and The Whore of God. In terms of their approach to translation, the Democratic-Revolutionary translators, based on the reproduction of the original as a whole, approached their translations very liberally, even adding in many elements typical of Russian culture. The latter, on the other hand, usually adopted a direct translation, focusing on conveying the formal details of the original work. This divergence was mainly due to the different starting points of the two groups of translators, with the democratic revolutionaries seeking to convey advanced ideas to the Russian general public and the aristocratic intellectuals believing that works of art were irrelevant to the people and that artistic creations should not be exposed to "vulgar" reality.(Feng,2009:14-15)<br />
<br />
There were a large number of outstanding literary writers and literary critics who made brilliant statements about literary translation in that era, none more so than Belinsky (В.Г.Белинский), Chernyshevsky (Н.Г.Черныщевский) and Dubrolyovsky (Н.Г.Добролюбов). Belinsky was one of the greatest Russian literary critics of the 19th century. He believed that translations should not be word-for-word, but should reproduce the spirit of the original, in much the same way as Pushkin's view of translation theory. On the other hand, he also opposed arbitrary 'paraphrasing': the ideal translation should not add or delete arbitrarily to the original text, but should enable the reader to understand the foreign work truly and accurately through the translation. Such a viewpoint seems to us to be quite convincing even now. Belinsky played a decisive role in completely burying the 'rewriting' and 'adapting it to Russian custom' arguments. This issue dominates his writings. He argues that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of the translation, and this is one of the criteria by which he judges its merits. He points out, for example, that the greatest strength of Gnedzic's translation of the Iliad is that it "exudes the atmosphere of ancient life" and "the spirit of the ancient Greeks". However, the contradiction between national identity and translatability was once a problem for Belinsky. Initially believing that it was impossible to translate works with a strong national character into other languages, he was only convinced by the success of Turgenev's collaboration with Louis Viardot in translating Gogol's novels into French in 1846, and then became increasingly determined to recognise translatability in translation. Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a series of revisions that led to a complete and rigorous system of translation theory, the first of its kind in the history of Russian translation theory.(Wu,2006:58-61)(Feng,2009:15)<br />
<br />
Translation in Russia developed in the second half of the 19th century. From the 1960s onwards, the Russian readership of non-language speakers began to expand, and these readers were keen to see the translation 'replace' the original. This demand led to an unprecedented expansion in the choice of subjects and translations of Russian literature. Interest in foreign theatrical works was particularly high at this stage, and a strong interest in European classical literature also developed. Dickens, Saclay, Victor Hugo, Dumas, Balzac, Flaubert, Tudor, Maupassant and Zola, as well as lesser-known writers of today, were successively brought to the attention of a wide range of Russian readers in the form of translations. At that time, European theatre classics like Shakespeare's plays were translated into Russia in large numbers. Many professional translators were involved, the most successful being the translator P.N.V. Weinberg. He translated foreign literature from the standpoint of progressive Russian literature of the time. His translation of Othello, for example, is notable for its vividness in the Russian language, and has always been recognised as the best translation in terms of conveying the totality of scenes, plots and long dialogues, even though the translation is wordy compared to the original.(Feng,2009:15-16)<br />
<br />
Although there has been a quantitative surge in translations of Russian literature during this period, the quality has generally been poor, manifesting itself in word-for-word translations, redundant sentences and poor vocabulary, not to mention inventiveness. In addition, the language of the characters in the translation is heavily Russified, with Russian proverbs, sayings and idioms that the foreign characters could never have known, and the introduction of Russian-specific life circumstances that cause contradictions with the plot and details of the original work. For example, В Тулу со своим самоваром ехать (Bring your own samovar to Tula - it's superfluous). The reason for this is that the literary world did not attach much importance to the translation of fiction and prose, and there were no specialists working on this task. Another point is that at this stage there was little progress in the study of Russian translation theory, and no valuable theoretical insights emerged. The linguist A.A. Потебня (1835-1891) expressed his views on translation from a psychological standpoint in his essay "Language and Peopleliness ". In his view, it was impossible to express in another language what was originally intended to be expressed in a certain language. He, like many other literary scholars, denied the translatability of language.(Feng,2006:16)(Guo,2006:11)--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:41, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The mid-nineteenth century was a period of increasingly intensively political and ideological struggle in Russian literature, and a great debate raged in the Russian literary world over the question of 'art for the people' or 'art for art's sake'. The debate was mainly about the choice of materials for translation and the methods of translation. As far as the choice of material was concerned, the democratic and revolutionary writers who supported 'art for the people' chose to translate works with progressive ideological content and a democratic orientation, such as Heine. The aristocratic and liberal intellectual writers, on the other hand, opted for philosophical poetry with a chanting and individualistic feel. It's undoubtful that this is not absolute: "Mikhailov and Dobrolyubov of the democratic revolutionary school also translated Heine's moody love poems The Songbook, while Tolstoy of the aristocratic and liberal school translated some of Goethe's more progressive poems, such as The Fiancée of Corinth and The Whore of God. In terms of their approach to translation, the Democratic-Revolutionary translators, based on the reproduction of the original as a whole, approached their translations very liberally, when they even added in many elements typical of Russian culture. The latter, on the other hand, usually adopted a direct translation, focusing on conveying the formal details of the original work. This divergence was mainly due to the different starting points of the two groups of translators, with the democratic revolutionaries seeking to convey advanced ideas to the Russian general public and the aristocratic intellectuals believing that works of art were irrelevant to the people and that artistic creations should not be exposed to "vulgar" reality.<br />
<br />
There were a large number of outstanding literary writers and literary critics who made brilliant statements about literary translation in that era, none more so than Belinsky (В.Г.Белинский), Chernyshevsky (Н.Г.Черныщевский) and Dubrolyovsky (Н.Г.Добролюбов). Belinsky was one of the greatest Russian literary critics of the 19th century. He believed that translations should not be word-for-word, but should reproduce the spirit of the original text, in much the same way as Pushkin's view of translation theory. On the other hand, he also opposed arbitrary 'paraphrasing': the ideal translation should not add or delete arbitrarily to the original text, but should enable the reader to understand the foreign work truly and accurately through the translation. Such a viewpoint seems to us to be quite convincing even now. Belinsky played a decisive role in completely burying the 'rewriting' and 'adapting it to Russian custom' arguments. This issue dominates his writings. He argues that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of the translation, and this is one of the criteria by which he judges its merits. He points out, for example, that the greatest strength of Gnedzic's translation of the Iliad is that it "exudes the atmosphere of ancient life" and "the spirit of the ancient Greeks". However, the contradiction between national identity and translatability was once a problem for Belinsky. Initially believing that it was impossible to translate works with a strong national character into other languages, he was only convinced by the success of Turgenev's collaboration with Louis Viardot in translating Gogol's novels into French in 1846, and then became increasingly determined to recognise translatability in translation. Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a series of revisions that led to a complete and rigorous system of translation theory, the first of its kind in the history of Russian translation theory.<br />
<br />
Translation in Russia developed in the second half of the 19th century. From the 1960s onwards, the Russian readership of non-language speakers began to expand, and these readers were keen to see the translation 'replace' the original. This demand led to an unprecedented expansion in the choice of subjects and translations of Russian literature. Interest in foreign theatrical works was particularly high at this stage, and a strong interest in European classical literature also developed. Dickens, Saclay, Victor Hugo, Dumas, Balzac, Flaubert, Tudor, Maupassant and Zola, as well as lesser-known writers of today, were successively brought to the attention of a wide range of Russian readers in the form of translations. At that time, European theatre classics like Shakespeare's plays were translated into Russia in large numbers. Many professional translators were involved, the most successful being the translator P.N.V. Weinberg. He translated foreign literature from the standpoint of progressive Russian literature of the time. His translation of Othello, for example, is notable for its vividness in the Russian language, and has always been recognised as the best translation in terms of conveying the totality of scenes, plots and long dialogues, even though the translation is wordy compared to the original.<br />
<br />
Although there has been a quantitative surge in translations of Russian literature during this period, the quality has generally been poor, manifesting itself in word-for-word translations, redundant sentences and poor vocabulary, not to mention inventiveness. In addition, the language of the characters in the translation is heavily Russified, that is, contents with Russian proverbs, sayings and idioms that the foreign characters could never have known, and the introduction of Russian-specific life circumstances that cause contradictions with the plot and details of the original work. For example, В Тулу со своим самоваром ехать (Bring your own samovar to Tula - it's superfluous). The reason for this is that the literary world did not attach much importance to the translation of fiction and prose, and there were no specialists working on this task. Another point is that at this stage there was little progress in the study of Russian translation theory, and no valuable theoretical insights emerged. The linguist A.A. Потебня (1835-1891) expressed his views on translation from a psychological standpoint in his essay "Language and Peopleliness ". In his view, it was impossible to express in another language what was originally intended to be expressed in a certain language. Just like many other literary scholars, he denied the translatability of language. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:13, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.Translation ideas of famous writers of the 18-19th centuries. ===<br />
===3.1. Pushkin 's ideas on translation. ===<br />
Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin (Александр Сергеевич Пушкин, 1977-1837), a famous Russian poet and writer of the nineteenth century, was also very much a translator. Although he left behind few works on translation, his ideas on translation are worth studying. Pushkin's translations of poetry were associated with classicism in the early stages of his work and later with romanticism. Although these translations are far removed from the original in a literal sense, they are almost close to composition. Pushkin's significance as a translator, however, lies in 1) the reproduction of foreign originals in the standard Russian language he established in his translations and 2) the full expression of the realist artistic method in the heyday of his compositions: the focus on typical features and the technique of outlining the historical and individual characteristics that reflect the original.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's translations have their own characteristics and style. He did not translate all of his works word for word from the original, and in some places he deleted what he considered to be redundant sentences in order to avoid the verbosity of the original, occasionally replacing the translation with a general paraphrase. He advocates respect for the characteristics of foreign readers, while at the same time opposing word-for-word translations, which can lead to the trampling of the mother tongue. He therefore advocated translations which, on the one hand, required fidelity to the original in terms of meaning and, on the other, should preserve the original's distinctive features.<br />
As he says in his unfinished 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', commenting on Chateaubriand's translation: 'There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), has failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own conventional rhetorical devices, its own habitual expressions, and it is impossible to translate all this into another language using the corresponding vocabulary." Pushkin's rejection of word-for-word translation can be seen.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's influence on the cause of translation in Russia was immense, and this influence refers neither to his few translations nor to his theoretical views, but to the fact that Pushkin pioneered the translation of Russian literature. Although his ideas on translation cannot be called a theory, they do provide certain translation ideas for later generations of literary translators.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin (Александр Сергеевич Пушкин, 1977-1837), a famous Russian poet and writer of the nineteenth century, was also an outstanding translator. Besides he left behind few works on translation, his ideas on translation are worth studying. Pushkin's translations of poetry were associated with classicism in the early stages of his work and with romanticism later. Although these translations are far removed from the original in a literal sense, they are almost close to composition. Pushkin's significance as a translator, however, lies in the reproduction of foreign originalities in the standard Russian language he established in his translations and the full expression of the realist artistic method in the heyday of his compositions: the focus on typical features and the technique of outlining the historical and individual characteristics that reflect the original.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's translations have their own distinctive characteristics and style. He did not translate all of his works literally from the original context, but in some places he deleted what he considered to be redundant sentences in order to avoid the verbosity of the original, occasionally replacing the translation with a general paraphrase. He advocates to give enough respect for the characteristics of foreign readers, while at the same time opposing word-for-word translations, which may lead to the trampling of the mother tongue. Therefore, He advocated translations which, on the one hand, required fidelity to the original text in terms of meaning and, on the other hand, should preserve the original's distinctive features.<br />
<br />
As he says in his unfinished 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', he comments on Chateaubriand's translation: 'There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), has failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own conventional rhetorical devices, its own habitual expressions, and it is impossible to translate all this into another language using the corresponding vocabulary." Pushkin's rejection of word-for-word translation can be revealed clearly.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's influence on the cause of translation in Russia was huge, and his influence refers neither to his few translations nor to his theoretical views, but to the fact that Pushkin pioneered the translation of Russian literature. Although his ideas on translation cannot be called a theory, they do provide certain unique and new translation ideas for later generations of literary translators. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:29, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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===3.1. Belinsky's ideas on translation. ===<br />
Vissarion Grigorievich Belinsky (Виссарион Григорьевич Белинский, 1811-1848) was a famous literary critic of the nineteenth century and one of the most involved in the world of translation among Russian literary activists of his time. Belinsky was fluent in French and as a young man translated for two magazines, Miscellany and Telescope. Later, after a career in literary criticism, he published numerous articles on translation and criticism of translated works.<br />
Belinsky's and Pushkin's views on translation were very similar, both advocating that translations should not be word-for-word. Belinsky first introduced the term 'theory' of translation, and in his 1838 review of Polevoy's translation of Hamlet, he first proposed the need for a theory of translation. He considered the role of theory: "Any object that man perceives has a theory of its own, and a theory is the knowledge of the laws by which the object exists."<br />
<br />
Belinsky argues that in translation: "Closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original. Each <br />
language has its own distinctive expressions, characteristics and qualities; these are so distinctive that to correctly convey a certain image or sentence, it is sometimes necessary to change them completely in the translation. The corresponding image, like the corresponding sentence, does not necessarily lie in a superficial agreement of words: the inner life of the translation should be made to correspond to the inner life of the original". It can be seen that Belinsky, like Pushkin, was also opposed to word-for-word rigid translations, his view being that the task of translating a language lies in reproducing the spirit of the original. He believed that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of a translation, so the question of the interrelationship between national character and translatability has always troubled Belinsky. He pointed out that 'there is only one rule for translating a literary work - to convey the spirit of the work being translated, and this can only be done by translating it into Russian as the author himself would have written it in Russian, if he had been Russian' (The Complete Works of Belinsky Volume 2).<br />
<br />
Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a number of achievements, and his view of translation as a whole is a complete and rigorous system. His view of translation was developed gradually, and in the process it was dominated by an increasingly firm recognition of the possibility of a successful solution to the task of translation, that is, of translatability. Belinsky believed that a translation must be discerning in its content and form in relation to the original. He has pointed out that "approaching the original is not the same as conveying the letters, but rather the spirit of the original." It is also suggested that the translator and the original author are two different kinds of people. But in order to convey the 'spirit' of the original in the translation, the translator's genius needs to reach a certain tacit understanding with this 'spirit'. He advocates the preservation of exoticism in translation, opposes naturalisation, the arbitrary distortion of the face of the original work, the overwhelming of the original author with the personality of the translator's style, the emphasis on both likeness and likeness, etc. However, while recognising the importance of reproducing the poetic form of the original work in translation, Belinsky also took into account the state of development of Russian literature in translation. This also led him to look favourably on translating good poetry in prose, seeing such translations as a form of transition for Russian readers to the treasures of world literature.<br />
<br />
Although Belinsky wrote little about literary translation, his theoretical views contain the kernel of the realist principles of translation proposed by contemporary Soviet literary translators. His ideas on translation had a very profound influence on the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
<br />
<br />
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<br />
Vissarion Grigorievich Belinsky (Виссарион Григорьевич Белинский, 1811-1848) was a famous literary critic of the nineteenth century and one of the most active in the world of translation among Russian literary activists of his time. Belinsky was fluent in French and when he was a young man he translated for two magazines, Miscellany and Telescope. Later, after a career in literary criticism, he published numerous articles on translation and criticism of translated works.<br />
<br />
Belinsky's and Pushkin's views on translation were very similar, both advocating that translations should not be word-for-word. Belinsky first introduced the term 'theory' of translation, and in his 1838 review of Polevoy's translation of Hamlet, he first proposed the need for a theory of translation. He considered the role of theory: "Any object that man perceives has a theory of its own, and a theory is the knowledge of the laws by which the object exists."<br />
<br />
Belinsky argues that in translation: "Closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original. Each language has its own distinctive expressions, characteristics and qualities; these are so distinctive that to correctly convey a certain image or sentence, it is sometimes necessary to change them completely in the translation. The corresponding image, like the corresponding sentence, does not necessarily lie in a superficial agreement of words: the inner life of the translation should be made to correspond to the inner life of the original". It can be seen that Belinsky, like Pushkin, was also opposed to word-for-word rigid translations, his view being that the task of translating a language lies in reproducing the spirit of the original. He believed that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of a translation, so the question of the interrelationship between national character and translatability has always troubled Belinsky. He pointed out that 'there is only one rule for translating a literary work - to convey the spirit of the work being translated, and this can only be done by translating it into Russian as the author himself would have written it in Russian, if he had been Russian' (The Complete Works of Belinsky Volume 2).<br />
<br />
Belinsky's career as a translator had a number of achievements, and his view of translation as a whole is a complete and rigorous system. His view of translation was developed gradually, and in this process it was dominated by an increasingly firm recognition of the possibility of a successful solution to the task of translation, that is, of translatability. Belinsky believed that a translation must be discerning in its content and form in relation to the original. He has pointed out that "approaching the original is not the same as conveying the letters, but rather the spirit of the original." It is also suggested that the translator and the original author are two different kinds of people. But in order to convey the 'spirit' of the original in the translation, the translator's genius needs to reach a certain tacit understanding with this 'spirit'. He advocates the preservation of exoticism in translation, opposes naturalisation, the arbitrary distortion of the face of the original work, the overwhelming of the original author with the personality of the translator's style, the emphasis on both likeness and likeness, etc. However, while recognising the importance of reproducing the poetic form of the original work in translation, Belinsky also took into account the state of development of Russian literature in translation. This also led him to look favourably on translating good poetry in prose, seeing such translations as a form of transition for Russian readers to the treasures of world literature.<br />
<br />
Although Belinsky wrote little about literary translation, his theoretical views contain the kernel of the realist principles of translation proposed by contemporary Soviet literary translators. His ideas on translation had a very profound influence on the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:56, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.Conclusion ===<br />
Translation has demonstrated its importance in social activity since antiquity, yet it was only in the twentieth century that it became a widely followed professional discipline. This article reviews Russian translation activity and translation thought in pre-Soviet Russia, exploring its development before the formation of a theoretical system. Throughout the history of translation, Russian scholars have contributed greatly to the development of translation literature in the world. Through combing through the history of Russian translation, we learn that the translation ideas of a number of outstanding writers, though not theoretical, have had an unmistakable impact on later generations. When discussing the translation ideas of 19th-century writers, we are inspired to insist on the principle that "closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original", emphasizing the ideological content and literary value of the translation, that the translation should serve the readers, and that the translation should be people-oriented. These ideas influenced, to a greater or lesser extent, the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, the study of the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia is not only conducive to sorting out Russian translation ideas Russian learners can better understand the characteristics of their translations when translating and improve the accuracy of their translations.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:44, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Translation has played its important role in the social activities since antiquity, yet it was until in the twentieth century that it became a widely followed professional discipline. This paper reviews Russian translators and translation thoughts in pre-Soviet Russia, exploring its development before the formation of a theoretical system. Throughout the history of translation, Russian scholars have contributed greatly to the development of translation literature in the world. By combing through the history of Russian translation, we learn that the translation ideas of a number of outstanding writers, though not very theoretical, have had an unmistakable impact on later generations. When discussing the translation ideas of 19th-century writers, we are inspired to insist on the principle that "closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original", emphasizing the ideological content and literary value of the translation that the translation should serve the readers, and that the translation should be people-oriented. These ideas influenced, to a greater or lesser extent, the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, the study of the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia not only is conducive to sorting out Russian translation ideas, but also make Russian learners better understand the characteristics of their translations when translating and improving the accuracy of their translations. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 14:02, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.References ===<br />
1.Wu, Keli 吴克礼（2006）.俄苏翻译理论流派综述 The Translation Methods and Studies in USSR. 上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
2.Guo Lin 郭琳（2006）.俄罗斯语言学派翻译理论若干问题研究[D] A Study of Some Problems of Translation Theory of the Russian School of Philology.首都师范大学 Capital Normal University.<br />
<br />
3.Feng Xin 冯欣（2009）. 俄罗斯翻译理论史及其影响研究[D] A study of the history of Russian translation theory and its influence.上海外国语大学 Shanghai International Studies University.<br />
<br />
4.Wang，Yulun；Jiang,Wanzhu 王育伦,姜万砫（1989).别林斯基论文学翻译[J] Belinsky on Literary Translation .中国翻译 Chinese translators Journal ,(03):53-55.<br />
<br />
5.Li Zheng, Fan Min 李铮,范敏（2010）. 普希金与翻译[J] Pushkin and Translation. 现代交际 Modern Intercourse Journal,(05):69.</div>Zhang Yiranhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_5&diff=132643Hist Trans Theo EN 52021-12-14T03:07:45Z<p>Zhang Yiran: /* 2.2 First half of the19th century Russian translation. */</p>
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=Chapter 5 History of Translation Theories from Early Russia to the Soviet Union=<br />
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'''从古罗斯到苏联前的翻译理论史'''<br />
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张怡然 Zhang Yiran,Hunan Normal University,China<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
Translation as a means of intercultural communication, each country has a distinctive translation ideology. This article focuses on the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia. Through analyzing the history of translation, can find that Russia has formed a literary tradition of translation studies in the late 18th century. In the 19th century, Pushkin, Lermontov, Turgenev and other outstanding poets and literary scholars were keen on translation, especially in the middle of the century when Belinsky and other famous literary critics published a series of comments on literary translation, which emphasized the literary tradition of Russian translation to an unparalleled extent, which is rare in the history of translation in the world. The general principles of Russian literary translation thought were also formed during this period: namely, to insist on commenting on the merits of a translation in terms of the overall effect of the work, to emphasize the ideological content and literary value of the translation, and that the translation should serve the reader and be people-oriented. The above ideas influenced the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, a study of the history of translation theory in pre-Soviet Russia will help learners of Russian to better understand the characteristics of their translations and to improve the accuracy and peopleliness of their translations.Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 12:57, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Translation is a means of intercultural communication, and each country has its own distinctive translation theory system. This paper focuses on the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia. By analyzing the history of translation, it is obvious that a literary tradition of translation studies has been formed in Russia in the late 18th century. In the 19th century, Pushkin, Lermontov, Turgenev and other outstanding poets and literary scholars were keen on translation, especially in the middle of the century when Belinsky and other famous literary critics published a series of comments on literary translation, which emphasized the literary tradition of Russian translation to an unparalleled extent, which is rare in the history of translation in the world. The general principles of Russian literary translation thoughts were also formed during this period: namely, to insist on commenting on the merits and weakness of a translation in terms of the overall effect of the work, to emphasize the ideological content and literary value of the translation, and the translation should serve the reader and be people-oriented. The above ideas influenced the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, a study of the history of translation theory in pre-Soviet Russia will help learners of Russian to understand the characteristics of their translations profoundly and to improve the accuracy and fluency of their translations.Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:03, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Translation theories, Translation ideas，History of Translation<br />
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===摘要===<br />
翻译作为一种跨文化交际的手段，每个国家都有独具特色的翻译思想。本文主要探讨苏联前俄国的翻译历史。通过梳理其翻译史可发现，俄国于18世纪末期就已形成了翻译研究的文学传统。进入19世纪后, 普希金、莱蒙托夫、屠格涅夫等优秀诗人、文学家对翻译的热衷, 尤其是世纪中叶别林斯基等著名文学评论家发表一系列关于文学翻译的评论, 更是把俄国翻译的文学传统强调到无以复加的程度, 这在世界翻译史上都是罕见的。俄国文学翻译思想的总原则也在这一时期形成:即坚持从作品的整体效果上来评论译作优劣, 强调译作的思想内容和文学价值, 翻译应为读者服务, 译文应具有人民性。上述思想影响了苏联时期翻译理论的形成。因此，对苏联前俄国翻译理论史的研究有利于俄语学习者在翻译时更好的理解其翻译特点，提高翻译的准确性和人民性。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
翻译理论 翻译思想 翻译史 <br />
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===Introduction===<br />
This essay provides a comprehensive and concise overview of the history of translation in Russia: Russian written translations began in the Kievan Rus' era, when religious subjects were the main focus of translations, especially the Bible, which was translated from Greek. Religious translations continued to flourish under the Moscow principality, represented by Maksim Gleick (МаксимГрек). At the same time, the national character of Russian translations began to emerge, and the languages of translation expanded from Greek to Latin, German and West Slavic, and the subjects covered included Western chivalric fiction, geographical literature, alchemy and medicine. In the eighteenth century, Peter the Great introduced a number of measures to focus on translation, making this period a turning point in the history of Russian translation. The proliferation of specialised translations (e.g. of legal texts) was the main feature of translation activity in the early eighteenth century. After this period Russian translators began to translate literary works.The main translators were Lomonosov (М.В. Ломоносов) and Tretyakovsky (V.K. Тредьяковский). In the second half of the eighteenth century, translation was given greater importance in Russia, and the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books was founded by Ekaterina II, in which a large number of outstanding translators emerged. The nineteenth century was a golden period in the history of Russian translation. Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин) and Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский) both produced many excellent translations. Pushkin (A.С.Пушкин) and Lermontov (M.Ю.Лермонтов) contributed greatly to the development of Russian literature in translation, while Fetter concentrated on love poetry. In the twentieth century, the Russian translation community made significant achievements in theoretical translation studies. In particular, the rapid development of the philological school and the debate between the literary and philological schools made Soviet translation theory one of the leading theories of translation in the world.(Guo Lin,2006:5)Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 12:57, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
This paper provides a comprehensive and concise overview of the history of translation in Russia: Russian written translations began in the Kievan Rus' era, when religious subjects were the main focus of translations, especially the Bible, translated from Greek. Religious translations continued to flourish under the Moscow principality, represented by Maksim Gleick (МаксимГрек). At the same time, the national character of Russian translations began to emerge, and the languages of translation expanded from Greek to Latin, German and West Slavic, and the subjects covered included Western chivalric fiction, geographical literature, alchemy and medicine. In the eighteenth century, Peter the Great introduced a number of measures to focus on translation, leading this period to a turning point in the history of Russian translation. The proliferation of specialised translations (e.g. of legal texts) was the main feature of translation activity in the early eighteenth century. After this period Russian translators began to translate literary works.The main translators were Lomonosov (М.В. Ломоносов) and Tretyakovsky (V.K. Тредьяковский). In the second half of the eighteenth century, translation was paid greater attention in Russia, and the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books was founded by Ekaterina II, in which a large number of outstanding translators emerged. The nineteenth century was a golden period in the history of Russian translation when Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин) and Rukovsky (В.А.Жуковский) both produced many excellent translations. Pushkin (A.С.Пушкин) and Lermontov (M.Ю.Лермонтов) contributed greatly to the development of Russian literature in translation, while Fetter concentrated on love poetry. In the twentieth century, the Russian translation community made significant achievements in theoretical translation studies. In particular, the rapid development of the philological school and the debate between the literary and philological schools made Soviet translation theory one of the leading theories of translation in the world. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:14, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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===1.The history of Russian translation and the period of enlightenment of its translation theory. ===<br />
1. The emergence and development of literary translation.<br />
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Translation activity has a long history in Russia, the beginnings of which can be traced back to the time of Kievan Rus'. A relatively sophisticated system of writing, literature and translation was already in place in ancient Russia in the ninth century AD. Frequent cultural and trade exchanges with Byzantine, German, French and Scandinavian countries contributed significantly to the development of translation in Russia at that time, as did contacts with Eastern countries. From Kievan Rus' onwards, Russian translation methods oscillated between two main tendencies, either to follow the original texts exactly, up to the point of translating them word for word, or to be arbitrary, even to the point of rewriting, adding or deleting at will. The first tendency is the main characteristic of translations of the Bible and other sacred books, while the second, though not absolute, can be said to characterize most secular works.(Feng Xin,2009:8)(Wu Keli,2006:4)<br />
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2.Initiation of translation activities-religious translation. <br />
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In 864 AD, the Byzantine king sent two Greek priests, Kirill (Кирилл) and Mephodi (Мефодий), to spread Christianity among the Slavic people. At the beginning of their mission, they created a new alphabet (now known as the Kirill alphabet) and used this writing system to translate many religious texts from Greek into the ancient Church Slavonic. Among the results were the New Testament, hymnals and prayer books.(Feng,2009:8)<br />
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In 988 AD, Rus was baptised and Kievan Rus was converted to Christianity. A large number of translations appeared instantly to help Protestants become familiar with the new religious philosophy and ethical system and to understand the rituals and customs of the Church. These translations were in a variety of genres, including the Acts of the Saints, sermons, chronicles and so on. In addition, apocryphal books telling magical and fantastical stories were also popular, and some of them had similarities with the later 'fantasy novels'. Most of these translations were done in Bulgaria and were popularised in Rus. At that time, translations of religious texts were mostly word-for-word. There were also a small number of works that, unlike the 'elaborate copies of the original', had a separate literary value. In one case, a large number of details of Russian life were added to the storyline of a sermon (e.g. The Tales of Achild the Wise). In another case, military historical narratives are interspersed with the terminology of the ancient Russian feudal system and certain literary images from the stories of ancient Russian warriors (e.g. Joseph Flav's History of the Jewish War). This translation can be considered one of the most successful of the period. In the translation, the translator succeeded in avoiding many word-for-word translations). In a third case, the manuscripts copied by Ancient Rus, although based on Greek epic poetry (e.g. The Great Work of Digenes Akritas), often borrowed from Russian folk poetry, so that a large number of folk compositions appeared. As a result of this literary process, the translated literature was smoothly enriched by Russian manuscripts, which contributed to the development of original Russian literature and consolidated its links with the medieval literary process. Unfortunately, at that early stage in the development of translation, the translators were not signed, so it is impossible to verify whether the works were translated at home or abroad.(Feng,2009:9) <br />
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During the difficult period of 'Mongol rule' (1228-1480), translations continued to play an important role in the cultural life of the country. The remaining chapters of the Bible were translated one after another, and previous translations were again proofread and revised. In addition to religious translations, more translations of non-religious subjects emerge, such as The Kingdom of India and The Trojan War. Most of the works were still translated from Greek, while works probably translated from Latin and ancient Hebrew also appeared. During this period, Russian began to take shape through the interaction of Old Slavonic (Church Slavonic) and local national languages. However, religious texts were still only translated into Church Slavonic, and the use of this language was by then restricted to ecclesiastical matters. At the same time, political and commercial exchanges with other countries were more likely to be in Russian, which was becoming increasingly sophisticated: elements of the combination of Old Slavonic and Russian can also be found in original works.（Wu,2006:6)<br />
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14-15th century literature in translation by Rus was characterised by an obsession with new themes. These were mainly new works of tranquillity-abstinence literature, or works recommended by and familiar to the tranquillists. This mystical genre was introduced to Rus after it had swept through the Byzantine and Yugoslav peoples. It was reflected in the semi-secular translations popular at the time (for example, The Trojan War). <br />
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In the 16th century AD, Moscow eventually became the political centre of Russia, as well as the translation centre of the country. In 1515, the Grand Duke of Moscow, Vassily III (Василий Ⅲ), asked a Greek monastery to send a learned translator to Moscow. This man, who accompanied the Greek mission to Moscow in 1516, was the historically famous Maksim Gleick (Максим Грек). Maksim Gleick worked as a translator throughout his life, studying most of the religious texts and some of the non-religious works during this period. In addition, he also proofread and annotated previously existing translations.(Wu,2006:7) <br />
<br />
At the beginning, Maksim knew neither Russian nor Old Slavonic, so he divided the translation into two steps: first, he translated from Greek to Latin, and then his assistant translated from Latin to Old Slavonic. In the process of revising existing translations, he often broke with established tradition and was therefore denounced as blasphemous. Maksim was also a prolific writer, educator and philosopher. His writings contain many insights into the art of translation - the earliest recorded treatise on translation in Russia. Maksim insisted that the original text must be carefully analysed in order to grasp its full subtleties and implications. Therefore, the translator must not only master the language of the original, but also have a broad knowledge of the language and prepare for the translation. To support his argument, Maksim used Greek lexicography, phonetic organisation and phonetics involved in translation. His other major contribution was the compilation of a dictionary containing Greek, Latin and Hebrew nouns, which was also the first of its kind in Russian history. Although it was recognised at the time that translators should have a command of both languages as well as a profound background knowledge, the practitioners of translation at the time lacked the necessary qualities and their translations were not as good as they could have been.(Wu,2006:7)Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 13:39, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
1. The emergence and development of literary translation. <br />
<br />
Translation activity has a long history in Russia, the beginnings of which can be traced back to the Time of Kievan Rus'. A relatively sophisticated system of writing, literature and translation was already in ancient Russia in the ninth century AD. Frequent cultural and trade exchanges with Byzantine, German, French and Scandinavian countries contributed significantly to the development of translation in Russia at that time, as did contacts with Eastern countries. From Kievan Rus' onwards, Russian translation methods oscillated between two main tendencies, either to follow the original texts exactly, up to the point of translating them word by word, or to be arbitrary, even to the point of rewriting, adding words or deleting at will. The first tendency is the main characteristic of translations of the Bible and other sacred books, while the second, though not absolutely, can be said to characterize most secular works.<br />
<br />
2.Initiation of translation activities-religious translation. <br />
<br />
In 864 AD, the Byzantine king sent two Greek priests, Kirill (Кирилл) and Mephodi (Мефодий), to spread Christianity among the Slavic people. At the beginning of their mission, they created a new alphabet (now known as the Kirill alphabet) and used this writing system to translate many religious texts from Greek into the ancient Church Slavonic. Among the results were the New Testament, hymnals and prayer books. In 988 AD, Rus was baptised and Kievan Rus was converted to Christianity. A large number of translations appeared instantly to help Protestants become familiar with the new religious philosophy and ethical system and to understand the rituals and customs of the Church. These translations were in a variety of genres, including the Acts of the Saints, sermons, chronicles and so on. In addition, apocryphal books telling magical and fantastical stories were also popular, and some of them had similarities with the later 'fantasy novels'. Most of these translations were done in Bulgaria and were popularised in Rus. At that time, translations of religious texts were mostly word-for-word. There were also a small number of works that, unlike the 'elaborate copies of the original', had a separate literary values. In one case, a large number of details of Russian life were added to the storyline of a sermon (e.g. The Tales of Achild the Wise). In another case, military historical narratives are interspersed with the terminology of the ancient Russian feudal system and certain literary images from the stories of ancient Russian warriors (e.g. Joseph Flav's History of the Jewish War). This translation can be considered one of the most successful of the period. In the translation, the translator succeeded in avoiding many word-for-word translations). Thirdly, the manuscripts copied by Ancient Rus, although based on Greek epic poetry (e.g. The Great Work of Digenes Akritas), often borrowed from Russian folk poetry, so that a large number of folk compositions appeared. As a result of this literary process, the translated literature was smoothly enriched by Russian manuscripts, which contributed to the development of original Russian literature and consolidated its links with the medieval literary process. Unfortunately, at that early stage in the development of translation, the translators were not signed, so it is impossible to verify whether the works were translated at home or abroad. During the difficult period of 'Mongol rule' (1228-1480), translations continued to play an important role in the cultural life of the country. The remaining chapters of the Bible were translated one after another, and previous translations were again proofread and revised. In addition to religious translations, more translations of non-religious subjects emerge, such as The Kingdom of India and The Trojan War. Most of the works were still translated from Greek, while works probably translated from Latin and ancient Hebrew also appeared. During this period, Russian began to take shape through the interaction of Old Slavonic (Church Slavonic) and local national languages. However, religious texts were still only translated into Church Slavonic, and the use of this language was by then restricted to ecclesiastical matters. At the same time, political and commercial exchanges with other countries were more likely to be in Russian, which was becoming increasingly sophisticated: elements of the combination of Old Slavonic and Russian can also be found in original works. 14-15th century literature in translation by Rus was characterised by an obsession with new themes. These were mainly new works of tranquillity-abstinence literature, or works recommended by and familiar to the tranquillists. This mystical genre was introduced to Rus after it had swept through the Byzantine and Yugoslav peoples. It was reflected in the semi-secular translations popular at the time (for example, The Trojan War). In the 16th century AD, Moscow eventually became the political center of Russia, as well as the translation center of the country. In 1515, the Grand Duke of Moscow, Vassily III (Василий Ⅲ), asked a Greek monastery to send a learned translator to Moscow. This man, who accompanied the Greek mission to Moscow in 1516, was the historically famous Maksim Grek (Максим Грек). Maxim Greek worked as a translator throughout his life, studying most of the religious texts and some of the non-religious works during this period. In addition, he also proofread and annotated previously existing translations. At the beginning, Maxim knew neither Russian nor Old Slavonic, so he divided the translation into two steps: first, he translated from Greek to Latin, and then his assistant translated from Latin to Old Slavonic. In the process of revising existing translations, he often broke with established tradition and was therefore denounced as blasphemous. Maxim was also a prolific writer, educator and philosopher. His writings contain many insights into the art of translation - the earliest recorded treatise on translation in Russia. Maxim insisted that the original text must be carefully analysed in order to grasp its full subtleties and implications. Therefore, the translator must not only master the language of the original, but also have a broad knowledge of the language and prepare for the translation. To support his argument, Maxim used Greek lexicography, phonetic organisation and phonetics involved in translation. His other major contribution was the compilation of a dictionary containing Greek, Latin and Hebrew nouns, which was also the first of its kind in Russian history. Although it was recognized at the time that translators should have a command of both languages and profound background knowledge, the practitioners of translation at the time lacked the necessary qualities and their translations were not as good as they should have been. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. Overview of the Russian school of Translation. ===<br />
===2.1 18th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The eighteenth century is an important period in the history of Russian translation. The status of translation in social culture has undergone a qualitative change, and this is due to Peter the Great's reform. At the beginning of the century, translation was still mostly related to professional documents such as laws and contracts. Later, the translator's tentacles gradually expanded to literary translation, for example, French poetry translation. The famous translators of this period are Sumarokov(А.П.Сумароков), Lomonosov(М.В.Ломоносов), Tretyakovsky (В.К.Тредьяковский) and so on. In the second half of the 18th century, the Association for the Translation of Foreign Books officially put forward the importance of translation. The organization has been active for 15 years with over 100 members.（Wu,2006:10)<br />
<br />
1.Imperial support for translation. The political reforms introduced by Peter the Great also led to intensive economic and cultural exchanges between Russia and European countries. This created a huge demand for translations of scientific and technical literature and literary works. Translators were required to produce works of a high standard.<br />
<br />
Peter the Great issued a special decree on translation, requiring "faithful" communication of the original text. In a directive issued to his subordinates in 1709, he explicitly stated that when translating foreign books, word-for-word translations were to be avoided and that the content of the original text should be clearly expressed in one's own language, based on an understanding of its content. On the other hand, Peter the Great's subversion of the written language initially caused confusion in Russian translation circles. A large number of foreign languages entered the Russian language, and the piles of foreign syntactic structures distracted attention. In any case, Peter the Great's reforms did set a new norm and a new direction for translation.(Wu,2006:11)<br />
<br />
In terms of content, Peter the Great's reforms were, from the very beginning, inextricably linked to the translation of scientific and technical texts, such as the many books on military defence engineering that he ordered to be translated and used to strengthen Russia's military forces. Peter the Great also placed great importance on the translation of prose, poetry and other literary works. During this period, the Russian language began to develop its own literary model, and many educated Russians saw translation as a way of enriching the language and enhancing its uniqueness and expressiveness. <br />
<br />
From around the 1830s, the importance of translating Western European scientific and technical texts gradually gave way to literary works such as prose and poetry. Writers who were also translators turned their attention to the work of new Western European writers, mainly poets, especially French poets. At the same time, the legacy of the Greco-Roman period also entered their minds. They began to translate the works of philosophers and historians, which - on the one hand - gave rise to difficulties in literary rhetoric and scientific terminology and, on the other, played an important role in the formation of a standard Russian language.(Feng,2009:10)(Guo,2006:8) <br />
<br />
From that time onwards, translation also became an organised activity, with the emergence of specific bodies responsible for the organisation and management of translation work. 1735 saw the establishment of the first specialised translation organisation, the Russian Society, at the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences. The Society had a professional group of translators and some of the academy's scholars, such as Lomonosov and Tretyakovsky, were among its members. The Association was responsible for selecting works, defining the rules or principles of translation, commenting on translations, and training translators. It is worth mentioning that the Academy of Sciences also set up a school of foreign languages to train official translators. In 1748, the Academy implemented Queen Elizabeth's decree to increase the number of translations of non-religious books and publicly appealed to "the nobility and other classes of intellectuals" to take an active part in the translation process.(Guo,2006:8)(Feng,2009:10) <br />
<br />
In the second half of the 18th century, Ekaterina II's efforts to create a 'civilised state' not only led to the development of literature, but also gave preferential treatment to writers. For example, in order to select the best original texts, she ordered the establishment of the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books (1768 - 1783). The Society was dedicated to providing excellent conditions for translation work throughout Russia. The purchase of manuscripts was financed out of Ekaterina's own funds. Later, the Society also discussed a proposal to establish a translation bureau under the Academy of Sciences (1790). The 114 members of the Society included such notable figures as Tretyakovsky, Sumarokov and Radishev. For 14 years the Association was active, producing numerous literary translations and likewise contributing to the discussion of theoretical issues in translation.(Guo,2006:9)<br />
<br />
2.The emergence of poetry translation. Translation of poetry also developed in Russia in the 18th century, and later became one of the jewels of the country's literature. The great Russian scholar and poet Lomonosov was a major contributor to this process. A great deal of the work created by Lomonosov and his contemporaries Sumarokov and Tretyakovsky was poetry in translation. They often translated while exploring theoretical issues in translation: they would explain in their works why they translated this way and not that way; they stressed the importance of translation work and the creative value it contained. Among the most prestigious writers and translators in Russian literature at the time, there were several interesting competitions in which two or three poets translated the same work at the same time, and their translations were published in journals. It was often the case that different translations of the same work were published at the same time, without the translator's name, for the judgement of "literary lovers and peers". This phenomenon also supports the idea that the 18th century was a period of 'experimentation' in the history of Russian translation.(Feng,2006:11) <br />
<br />
Lomonosov's translations from Latin, German, French and Greek are numerous and varied, showing his talent for both rhyming and free verse. He was keen to reproduce the rhythmic structure of the original texts, using a variety of iambic and iambic meter to convey the Alexandrian style of French epic and the hexameter style of Greek tragedy. Russian poetry was not very developed at the time and was still based on syllables. <br />
Lomonosov's innovations enriched Russian poetry and established new forms and traditions of Russian poetic style and rhyme. <br />
<br />
In contrast, Kantymir (Д.М.Кантемира) and Tretyakovsky's greatest quest was to insist on a faithful translation of the original. In the process, the translators had to contend with the problems of reams of vocabulary and rhetorical rules. Tretyakovsky became famous for his successful use of Russian rhyme to translate many verses of the original in his translation of Paul Thielmann's A Journey to Love Island. In the introduction to the novel, the translator states his approach to translation: "The translator is only one person away from the author. I would add that if the author is original, the translator should be even more original (I am not referring to myself, but to a good translator)". He believes that "prose to prose" and "poetry to poetry" can be as good as the original, and that a good translation is one that "describes the full meaning of each verse". Kantymir 's translation of Horace's Letters and other poetic works in Latin and French, although less well-known than the former, is equally valuable.(Wu,2006:16) Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:40, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The eighteenth century is an important period in the history of Russian translation. The status of translation in social culture has undergone a qualitative change, and this is due to Peter the Great's reform. At the beginning of the century, translation was still mostly related to professional documents such as laws and contracts. Later, the translator's tentacles gradually expanded to literary translation, for example, French poetry translation. The famous translators of this period are Sumarokov(А.П.Сумароков), Lomonosov(М.В.Ломоносов), Tretyakovsky (В.К.Тредьяковский) and so on. In the second half of the 18th century, the Association for the Translation of Foreign Books officially put forward the importance of translation. The organization has been active for 15 years with over 100 members. The following points reflected the reasons why translation was paid more attention in the eighteenth century.<br />
<br />
1.Imperial support for translation. <br />
<br />
The political reforms introduced by Peter the Great also led to intensive economic and cultural exchanges between Russia and European countries. This created a huge demand for translations of scientific and technical literature and literary works. Translators were required to produce works of a high standard.Peter the Great issued a special decree on translation, requiring "faithful" communication of the original text. In a directive issued to his subordinates in 1709, he explicitly stated that when translating foreign books, word-for-word translations were to be avoided and that the content of the original text should be clearly expressed in one's own language, based on an understanding of its content. On the other hand, Peter the Great's subversion of the written language initially caused confusion in Russian translation circles. A large number of foreign languages entered the Russian language, and the piles of foreign syntactic structures distracted attention. In any case, Peter the Great's reforms did set a new norm and a new direction for translation. In terms of content, Peter the Great's reforms were, from the very beginning, inextricably linked to the translation of scientific and technical texts, such as the many books on military defence engineering that he ordered to be translated and used to strengthen Russia's military forces. Peter the Great also placed great importance on the translation of prose, poetry and other literary works. During this period, the Russian language began to develop its own literary model, and many educated Russians saw translation as a way of enriching the language and enhancing its uniqueness and expressiveness. <br />
<br />
From around the 1830s, the importance of translating Western European scientific and technical texts gradually gave way to literary works such as prose and poetry. Writers who were also translators turned their attention to the work of new Western European writers, mainly poets, especially French poets. At the same time, the legacy of the Greco-Roman period also entered their minds. They began to translate the works of philosophers and historians, which - on the one hand - gave rise to difficulties in literary rhetoric and scientific terminology and, on the other, played an important role in the formation of a standard Russian language. <br />
<br />
From that time onwards, translation also became an organised activity, with the emergence of specific bodies responsible for the organisation and management of translation work. 1735 saw the establishment of the first specialised translation organisation, the Russian Society, at the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences. The Society had a professional group of translators and some of the academy's scholars, such as Lomonosov and Tretyakovsky, were among its members. The Association was responsible for selecting works, defining the rules or principles of translation, commenting on translations, and training translators. It is worth mentioning that the Academy of Sciences also set up a school of foreign languages to train official translators. In 1748, the Academy implemented Queen Elizabeth's decree to increase the number of translations of non-religious books and publicly appealed to "the nobility and other classes of intellectuals" to take an active part in the translation process. <br />
<br />
In the second half of the 18th century, Ekaterina II's efforts to create a 'civilised state' not only led to the development of literature, but also gave preferential treatment to writers. For example, in order to select the best original texts, she ordered the establishment of the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books (1768-1783). The Society was dedicated to providing excellent conditions for translation work throughout Russia. The purchase of manuscripts was financed out of Ekaterina's own funds. Later, the Society also discussed a proposal to establish a translation bureau under the Academy of Sciences (1790). The 114 members of the Society included such notable figures as Tretyakovsky, Sumarokov and Radishev. For 14 years the Association was active, producing numerous literary translations and likewise contributing to the discussion of theoretical issues in translation.<br />
<br />
2.The emergence of poetry translation.<br />
<br />
Translation of poetry also developed in Russia in the 18th century, and later became one of the jewels of the country's literature. The great Russian scholar and poet Lomonosov was a major contributor to this process. A great deal of the work created by Lomonosov and his contemporaries Sumarokov and Tretyakovsky was poetry in translation. They often translated while exploring theoretical issues in translation: they would explain in their works why they translated this way and not that way; they stressed the importance of translation work and the creative value it contained. Among the most prestigious writers and translators in Russian literature at the time, there were several interesting competitions in which two or three poets translated the same work at the same time, and their translations were published in journals. It was often the case that different translations of the same work were published at the same time, without the translator's name, for the judgement of "literary lovers and peers". This phenomenon also supports the idea that the 18th century was a period of 'experimentation' in the history of Russian translation. <br />
<br />
Lomonosov's translations works in Latin, German, French and Greek are numerous and varied, showing his talent for both rhyming and free verse. He was keen to reproduce the rhythmic structure of the original texts, using a variety of iambic and iambic meter to convey the Alexandrian style of French epic and the hexameter style of Greek tragedy. Russian poetry was not very developed at the time and was still based on syllables. <br />
Lomonosov's innovations enriched Russian poetry and established new forms and traditions of Russian poetic style and rhyme. <br />
<br />
In contrast, Kantymir (Д.М.Кантемира) and Tretyakovsky's greatest quest was to insist on a faithful translation of the original. In the process, the translators had to contend with the problems of reams of vocabulary and rhetorical rules. Tretyakovsky became famous for his successful use of Russian rhyme to translate many verses of the original in his translation of Paul Thielmann's A Journey to Love Island. In the introduction to the novel, the translator states his approach to translation: "The translator is only one person away from the author. I would add that if the author is original, the translator should be even more original (I am not referring to myself, but to a good translator)". He believes that "prose to prose" and "poetry to poetry" can be as good as the original, and that a good translation is one that "describes the full meaning of each verse". Kantymir 's translation of Horace's Letters and other poetic works in Latin and French, although less well-known than the former, is equally valuable. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 12:39, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.2 First half of the19th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The nineteenth century was a golden age in the history of Russian translation. If translation had established itself as a profession in the first hundred years, it was elevated to the level of art in this century. The nineteenth century produced a number of masters of translation, including Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин), Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский), Pushkin (А.С.Пушкин), Lermontov (М.Ю.Лермонтов) and Fetter (А.Фет).(Wu,2006:23)<br />
<br />
The new Russian school of translation owes its formation to the historian Nikolai Karamzin and the poet Zhukovsky. Karamzin published a number of translations in several magazines between the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century. He saw translations as a good help in perfecting a writer's style: a source of information that would satisfy human curiosity, inform historical facts, entertain women and provide material for new magazines. As a young man, Karamzin was strongly opposed to the alteration of and disloyalty to the original texts, but later became a champion of free translation, famously saying: "Whoever follows the author of the original text step by step is no different from a servant who serves his lord". Karamzin's translations cover an admirable range of genres and languages: he translated works by both classical and contemporaneous authors, in Greek, French, Latin, German, English, Italian and some Oriental languages.(Feng,2009:12)<br />
<br />
Pushkin called Zhukovsky "a genius of translation". After graduating from the Moscow Noble Boarding University in 1802, Zhukovsky devoted himself to translation. It was thanks to his efforts that Russian readers were able to access the works of world literary giants such as Schiller, Goethe, Byron and Walters Scott. Zhukovsky's creative translation activities also ranged from Charles Bello to Grimm's Fairy Tales. From Charles Bellow to Grimm's fairy tales, from Homer's epic Odyssey to the poetic history of ancient Rus' Igor's Expedition, all became his original texts. There is no denying that Zhukovsky is a master in the history of Russian translation. Like Karamzin, Zhukovsky was a fan of free translation, sometimes rewriting the original or even creating a new story from its subject: sometimes transferring the setting of events to Russia and giving Russian names to the characters. For example, in his 1808 translation of the German Romantic poet Bilge's narrative poem Lenore, he changed the heroine's name from Lenore to Lyudmila and moved the story to the time of the Livonian War in 16th-century Russia. Zhukovsky believed that the "unsavoury character" of the work should be weakened while retaining the original author's ideas. His talent enabled him to reproduce the style, rhythm and tone of the original poems, while some of his best works were also faithful to the original. In later years, however, his view of translation changed in response to the tendency to stay close to the original, and he retranslated several of his previous translations to make them more faithful to the original, including Lenore. The Russian school of translation owes much to the tradition of translation created by Zhukovsky.(Wu,2006:24-30)(Feng,2009:13)(Guo,2006:9)<br />
<br />
Pushkin and Lermontov are also two poets who set the stage for an epoch in the history of Russian translation. Although only a small proportion of their poetry was translated, they made a significant contribution to the improvement of the art of translation in Russia. In their rewriting and imitation of poetry, they were able to reproduce the most important features of foreign poetry, the key point being that their creative translations were no less valuable in their own right than the originals. Their free translation became a model for other translators, and in addition they established the important principle that a good artistic translation must also be a good work in the national literature of the translated language. Pushkin played an indelibly important role in the development of the Russian school of translation. He was always interested in the question of translation, and his critical views on translation were objective and profound. Before translation he stressed the importance of the choice of the original work, and in translation he demanded that the translator should be faithful to the original, while at the same time displaying his deep creative skills and his own literary style. In one of his unfinished posthumous works, 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', Pushkin wrote: 'Chateaubriand's translation (verbatim) compensates to some extent for the faults of the young French writers (free translation), for they have insulted the great man very cruelly, though in a perfectly innocent manner. There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own rhetorical conventions, its own way of expressing itself, and it is impossible to translate into another language with the corresponding vocabulary". These insights had a positive impact on the best Russian translators of the 19th and 20th centuries. In addition, Pushkin's discussion of translation coincided with a turning point in the history of Russian literature, when the Romantic era was being replaced by a new era with a predominantly realist orientation, and a process of 'separation' between translated and national literature was under way. Pushkin's discussion of the work of the translator as distinct from that of the writer contributed to the independence of literature in translation from indigenous literature.(Guo,2006:10)(Wu,2006:37-41) <br />
<br />
During this period, while most people advocated free translation, there were a few translators who insisted on maximum fidelity to the original and advocated the word-for-word method, even at the expense of the work's willingness to be translated. Among these were such well-known writers as P.A. Vyazemsky (П.А.Вяземский) and N.I. Gnedzic (Н.И.Гнедич). In fact, they did not always live up to their principles, and sometimes their talent and artistic intuition ended up breaking the bonds of verbatim translation. Vyazemsky's translations of Benjamin Constant and Adam Mickiewicz were not without literary and artistic merit, and his translation of Homer's epic Iliad in particular was highly praised by Pushkin. It was Fetter who was the most insistent on the idea of a verbatim translation. Fetter translated many famous works, and his philosophy throughout was one of sentence-for-sentence, word-for-word translation, retaining all the words of the original. Fetter's extreme word-for-word approach had a negative impact on most of his translations, although he was sometimes able to come up with some effective methods of translation.(Feng,2009:14) <br />
<br />
Free translations were also sometimes used to promote democratic ideas in the original that could not pass official scrutiny. A number of translators, such as V. Kurochkin (В.Курочкин), D. M. Minayev (Д.Минаев) and M. M. Mikhalov (М.Михайлов), achieved this by selecting appropriate original works or by using texts in their translations that were superficially imperceptible in their allusion to the conditions in Russia at the time. It was from that time onwards that the use of translation as a weapon to express dissent became part of the Russian tradition.(Feng,2009:14) Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:41, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The nineteenth century was the golden age in the history of Russian translation. If translation had established its status in the first hundred years, it was elevated to the level of art in this century. The nineteenth century produced a number of masters of translation, including Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин), Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский), Pushkin (А.С.Пушкин), Lermontov (М.Ю.Лермонтов) and Fetter (А.Фет). <br />
<br />
The new Russian school of translation owes its formation to the publishment of a number of translations of historian Nikolai Karamzin and the poet Zhukovsky. Karamzin in several magazines between the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century. He regarded translation as a good help in perfecting a writer's style: a source of information that satisfies human curiosity, informs historical facts, entertains women and provides materials for new magazines. As a young man, Karamzin was strongly opposed to the disloyalty to the original texts, but later became a champion of free translation. His famous saying was: "Whoever follows the author of the original text step by step is no different from a servant who serves his lord". Karamzin's translations cover an admirable range of genres and languages: he translated works by both classical and contemporaneous authors, in Greek, French, Latin, German, English, Italian and some Oriental languages. <br />
<br />
Pushkin called Zhukovsky "a genius of translation". After graduating from the Moscow Noble Boarding University in 1802, Zhukovsky devoted himself to translation. It was thanks to his efforts that Russian readers were able to access the works of world literary giants such as Schiller, Goethe, Byron and Walters Scott. Zhukovsky's creative translation activities also ranged from Charles Bello to Grimm's Fairy Tales. From Charles Bellow to Grimm's fairy tales, from Homer's epic Odyssey to the poetic history of ancient Rus' Igor's Expedition, all became his original texts. There is no denying that Zhukovsky is a master in the history of Russian translation. Like Karamzin, Zhukovsky was a fan of free translation, who sometimes rewrites the original or even creates a new story from its subject, transfers the setting of events to Russia and gives Russian names to the characters. For example, in his 1808 translation of the German Romantic poet Bilge's narrative poem Lenore, he changed the heroine's name from Lenore to Lyudmila and moved the story to the time of the Livonian War in 16th-century Russia. Zhukovsky believed that the "unsavoury character" of the work should be weakened while retaining the original author's ideas. His talent enabled him to reproduce the style, rhythm and tone of the original poems, while some of his best works were also faithful to the original. In later years, however, his view of translation changed in response to the tendency to stay close to the original, and he retranslated several of his previous translations to make them more faithful to the original, including Lenore. The Russian school of translation owes much to the tradition of translation created by Zhukovsky.<br />
<br />
Pushkin and Lermontov are also two poets who gave perfect preparations for an epoch in the history of Russian translation. Although only a small proportion of their poetry was translated, they made a significant contribution to the improvement of the art of translation in Russia. In their rewriting and imitation of poetry, they were able to reproduce the most important features of foreign poetry, the key point being that their creative translations were no less valuable in their own right than the originals. Their free translation became a model for other translators, and in addition they established the important principle that a good artistic translation must also be a good work in the national literature of the translated language. Pushkin played an indelibly important role in the development of the Russian school of translation. He was always interested in the question of translation, and his critical views on translation were objective and profound. Before translation he stressed the importance of the choice of the original work, and in translation he demanded that the translator should be faithful to the original, while at the same time displaying his deep creative skills and his own literary style. In one of his unfinished posthumous works, 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', Pushkin wrote: 'Chateaubriand's translation (verbatim) compensates to some extent for the faults of the young French writers (free translation), for they have insulted the great man very cruelly, though in a perfectly innocent manner. There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own rhetorical conventions, its own way of expressing itself, and it is impossible to translate into another language with the corresponding vocabulary". These insights had a positive impact on the best Russian translators of the 19th and 20th centuries. In addition, Pushkin's discussion of translation coincided with a turning point in the history of Russian literature, when the Romantic era was being replaced by a new era with a predominantly realist orientation, and a process of 'separation' between translated and national literature was under way. Pushkin's discussion of the work of the translator as distinct from that of the writer contributed to the independence of literature in translation from indigenous literature. <br />
<br />
During this period, while most people advocated free translation, there were a few translators who insisted on maximum fidelity to the original and advocated the word-for-word method, even at the expense of the work's willingness to be translated. Among these were such well-known writers as P.A. Vyazemsky (П.А.Вяземский) and N.I. Gnedzic (Н.И.Гнедич). In fact, they did not always live up to their principles, and sometimes their talent and artistic intuition ended up breaking the bonds of verbatim translation. Vyazemsky's translations of Benjamin Constant and Adam Mickiewicz were not without literary and artistic merit, and his translation of Homer's epic Iliad in particular was highly praised by Pushkin. It was Fetter who was the most insistent on the idea of a verbatim translation. Fetter translated many famous works, and his philosophy throughout was one of sentence-for-sentence, word-for-word translation, retaining all the words of the original. Fetter's extreme word-for-word approach had a negative impact on most of his translations, although he was sometimes able to come up with some effective methods of translation. <br />
<br />
Free translations were also used to promote democratic ideas in original that could not pass official scrutiny. A number of translators, such as V. Kurochkin (В.Курочкин), D. M. Minayev (Д.Минаев) and M. M. Mikhalov (М.Михайлов), achieved this by selecting appropriate original works or by using texts in their translations that were superficially imperceptible in their allusion to the conditions in Russia at the time. It was since then that the use of translation was used as a weapon to express dissent became part of the Russian tradition. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:05, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.3 Second half of the19th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The mid-nineteenth century was a period of increasingly intense political and ideological struggle in Russian literature, and a great debate raged in the Russian literary world over the question of 'art for the people' or 'art for art's sake'. The debate was mainly about the choice of material for translation and the method of translation. As far as the choice of material was concerned, the democratic and revolutionary writers who supported 'art for the people' chose to translate works with progressive ideological content and a democratic orientation, such as Heine. The aristocratic and liberal intellectual writers, on the other hand, opted for philosophical poetry with a chanting and individualistic feel. Of course, this is not absolute: "Mikhailov and Dobrolyubov of the democratic revolutionary school also translated Heine's moody love poems The Songbook, while Tolstoy of the aristocratic and liberal school translated some of Goethe's more progressive poems, such as The Fiancée of Corinth and The Whore of God. In terms of their approach to translation, the Democratic-Revolutionary translators, based on the reproduction of the original as a whole, approached their translations very liberally, even adding in many elements typical of Russian culture. The latter, on the other hand, usually adopted a direct translation, focusing on conveying the formal details of the original work. This divergence was mainly due to the different starting points of the two groups of translators, with the democratic revolutionaries seeking to convey advanced ideas to the Russian general public and the aristocratic intellectuals believing that works of art were irrelevant to the people and that artistic creations should not be exposed to "vulgar" reality.<br />
<br />
There were a large number of outstanding literary writers and literary critics who made brilliant statements about literary translation in that era, none more so than Belinsky (В.Г.Белинский), Chernyshevsky (Н.Г.Черныщевский) and Dubrolyovsky (Н.Г.Добролюбов). Belinsky was one of the greatest Russian literary critics of the 19th century. He believed that translations should not be word-for-word, but should reproduce the spirit of the original, in much the same way as Pushkin's view of translation theory. On the other hand, he also opposed arbitrary 'paraphrasing': the ideal translation should not add or delete arbitrarily to the original text, but should enable the reader to understand the foreign work truly and accurately through the translation. Such a viewpoint seems to us to be quite convincing even now. Belinsky played a decisive role in completely burying the 'rewriting' and 'adapting it to Russian custom' arguments. This issue dominates his writings. He argues that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of the translation, and this is one of the criteria by which he judges its merits. He points out, for example, that the greatest strength of Gnedzic's translation of the Iliad is that it "exudes the atmosphere of ancient life" and "the spirit of the ancient Greeks". However, the contradiction between national identity and translatability was once a problem for Belinsky. Initially believing that it was impossible to translate works with a strong national character into other languages, he was only convinced by the success of Turgenev's collaboration with Louis Viardot in translating Gogol's novels into French in 1846, and then became increasingly determined to recognise translatability in translation. Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a series of revisions that led to a complete and rigorous system of translation theory, the first of its kind in the history of Russian translation theory.<br />
<br />
Translation in Russia developed in the second half of the 19th century. From the 1960s onwards, the Russian readership of non-language speakers began to expand, and these readers were keen to see the translation 'replace' the original. This demand led to an unprecedented expansion in the choice of subjects and translations of Russian literature. Interest in foreign theatrical works was particularly high at this stage, and a strong interest in European classical literature also developed. Dickens, Saclay, Victor Hugo, Dumas, Balzac, Flaubert, Tudor, Maupassant and Zola, as well as lesser-known writers of today, were successively brought to the attention of a wide range of Russian readers in the form of translations. At that time, European theatre classics like Shakespeare's plays were translated into Russia in large numbers. Many professional translators were involved, the most successful being the translator P.N.V. Weinberg. He translated foreign literature from the standpoint of progressive Russian literature of the time. His translation of Othello, for example, is notable for its vividness in the Russian language, and has always been recognised as the best translation in terms of conveying the totality of scenes, plots and long dialogues, even though the translation is wordy compared to the original.<br />
<br />
Although there has been a quantitative surge in translations of Russian literature during this period, the quality has generally been poor, manifesting itself in word-for-word translations, redundant sentences and poor vocabulary, not to mention inventiveness. In addition, the language of the characters in the translation is heavily Russified, with Russian proverbs, sayings and idioms that the foreign characters could never have known, and the introduction of Russian-specific life circumstances that cause contradictions with the plot and details of the original work. For example, В Тулу со своим самоваром ехать (Bring your own samovar to Tula - it's superfluous). The reason for this is that the literary world did not attach much importance to the translation of fiction and prose, and there were no specialists working on this task. Another point is that at this stage there was little progress in the study of Russian translation theory, and no valuable theoretical insights emerged. The linguist A.A. Потебня (1835-1891) expressed his views on translation from a psychological standpoint in his essay "Language and Peopleliness ". In his view, it was impossible to express in another language what was originally intended to be expressed in a certain language. He, like many other literary scholars, denied the translatability of language.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:41, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The mid-nineteenth century was a period of increasingly intensively political and ideological struggle in Russian literature, and a great debate raged in the Russian literary world over the question of 'art for the people' or 'art for art's sake'. The debate was mainly about the choice of materials for translation and the methods of translation. As far as the choice of material was concerned, the democratic and revolutionary writers who supported 'art for the people' chose to translate works with progressive ideological content and a democratic orientation, such as Heine. The aristocratic and liberal intellectual writers, on the other hand, opted for philosophical poetry with a chanting and individualistic feel. It's undoubtful that this is not absolute: "Mikhailov and Dobrolyubov of the democratic revolutionary school also translated Heine's moody love poems The Songbook, while Tolstoy of the aristocratic and liberal school translated some of Goethe's more progressive poems, such as The Fiancée of Corinth and The Whore of God. In terms of their approach to translation, the Democratic-Revolutionary translators, based on the reproduction of the original as a whole, approached their translations very liberally, when they even added in many elements typical of Russian culture. The latter, on the other hand, usually adopted a direct translation, focusing on conveying the formal details of the original work. This divergence was mainly due to the different starting points of the two groups of translators, with the democratic revolutionaries seeking to convey advanced ideas to the Russian general public and the aristocratic intellectuals believing that works of art were irrelevant to the people and that artistic creations should not be exposed to "vulgar" reality.<br />
<br />
There were a large number of outstanding literary writers and literary critics who made brilliant statements about literary translation in that era, none more so than Belinsky (В.Г.Белинский), Chernyshevsky (Н.Г.Черныщевский) and Dubrolyovsky (Н.Г.Добролюбов). Belinsky was one of the greatest Russian literary critics of the 19th century. He believed that translations should not be word-for-word, but should reproduce the spirit of the original text, in much the same way as Pushkin's view of translation theory. On the other hand, he also opposed arbitrary 'paraphrasing': the ideal translation should not add or delete arbitrarily to the original text, but should enable the reader to understand the foreign work truly and accurately through the translation. Such a viewpoint seems to us to be quite convincing even now. Belinsky played a decisive role in completely burying the 'rewriting' and 'adapting it to Russian custom' arguments. This issue dominates his writings. He argues that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of the translation, and this is one of the criteria by which he judges its merits. He points out, for example, that the greatest strength of Gnedzic's translation of the Iliad is that it "exudes the atmosphere of ancient life" and "the spirit of the ancient Greeks". However, the contradiction between national identity and translatability was once a problem for Belinsky. Initially believing that it was impossible to translate works with a strong national character into other languages, he was only convinced by the success of Turgenev's collaboration with Louis Viardot in translating Gogol's novels into French in 1846, and then became increasingly determined to recognise translatability in translation. Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a series of revisions that led to a complete and rigorous system of translation theory, the first of its kind in the history of Russian translation theory.<br />
<br />
Translation in Russia developed in the second half of the 19th century. From the 1960s onwards, the Russian readership of non-language speakers began to expand, and these readers were keen to see the translation 'replace' the original. This demand led to an unprecedented expansion in the choice of subjects and translations of Russian literature. Interest in foreign theatrical works was particularly high at this stage, and a strong interest in European classical literature also developed. Dickens, Saclay, Victor Hugo, Dumas, Balzac, Flaubert, Tudor, Maupassant and Zola, as well as lesser-known writers of today, were successively brought to the attention of a wide range of Russian readers in the form of translations. At that time, European theatre classics like Shakespeare's plays were translated into Russia in large numbers. Many professional translators were involved, the most successful being the translator P.N.V. Weinberg. He translated foreign literature from the standpoint of progressive Russian literature of the time. His translation of Othello, for example, is notable for its vividness in the Russian language, and has always been recognised as the best translation in terms of conveying the totality of scenes, plots and long dialogues, even though the translation is wordy compared to the original.<br />
<br />
Although there has been a quantitative surge in translations of Russian literature during this period, the quality has generally been poor, manifesting itself in word-for-word translations, redundant sentences and poor vocabulary, not to mention inventiveness. In addition, the language of the characters in the translation is heavily Russified, that is, contents with Russian proverbs, sayings and idioms that the foreign characters could never have known, and the introduction of Russian-specific life circumstances that cause contradictions with the plot and details of the original work. For example, В Тулу со своим самоваром ехать (Bring your own samovar to Tula - it's superfluous). The reason for this is that the literary world did not attach much importance to the translation of fiction and prose, and there were no specialists working on this task. Another point is that at this stage there was little progress in the study of Russian translation theory, and no valuable theoretical insights emerged. The linguist A.A. Потебня (1835-1891) expressed his views on translation from a psychological standpoint in his essay "Language and Peopleliness ". In his view, it was impossible to express in another language what was originally intended to be expressed in a certain language. Just like many other literary scholars, he denied the translatability of language. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:13, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.Translation ideas of famous writers of the 18-19th centuries. ===<br />
===3.1. Pushkin 's ideas on translation. ===<br />
Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin (Александр Сергеевич Пушкин, 1977-1837), a famous Russian poet and writer of the nineteenth century, was also very much a translator. Although he left behind few works on translation, his ideas on translation are worth studying. Pushkin's translations of poetry were associated with classicism in the early stages of his work and later with romanticism. Although these translations are far removed from the original in a literal sense, they are almost close to composition. Pushkin's significance as a translator, however, lies in 1) the reproduction of foreign originals in the standard Russian language he established in his translations and 2) the full expression of the realist artistic method in the heyday of his compositions: the focus on typical features and the technique of outlining the historical and individual characteristics that reflect the original.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's translations have their own characteristics and style. He did not translate all of his works word for word from the original, and in some places he deleted what he considered to be redundant sentences in order to avoid the verbosity of the original, occasionally replacing the translation with a general paraphrase. He advocates respect for the characteristics of foreign readers, while at the same time opposing word-for-word translations, which can lead to the trampling of the mother tongue. He therefore advocated translations which, on the one hand, required fidelity to the original in terms of meaning and, on the other, should preserve the original's distinctive features.<br />
As he says in his unfinished 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', commenting on Chateaubriand's translation: 'There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), has failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own conventional rhetorical devices, its own habitual expressions, and it is impossible to translate all this into another language using the corresponding vocabulary." Pushkin's rejection of word-for-word translation can be seen.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's influence on the cause of translation in Russia was immense, and this influence refers neither to his few translations nor to his theoretical views, but to the fact that Pushkin pioneered the translation of Russian literature. Although his ideas on translation cannot be called a theory, they do provide certain translation ideas for later generations of literary translators.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin (Александр Сергеевич Пушкин, 1977-1837), a famous Russian poet and writer of the nineteenth century, was also an outstanding translator. Besides he left behind few works on translation, his ideas on translation are worth studying. Pushkin's translations of poetry were associated with classicism in the early stages of his work and with romanticism later. Although these translations are far removed from the original in a literal sense, they are almost close to composition. Pushkin's significance as a translator, however, lies in the reproduction of foreign originalities in the standard Russian language he established in his translations and the full expression of the realist artistic method in the heyday of his compositions: the focus on typical features and the technique of outlining the historical and individual characteristics that reflect the original.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's translations have their own distinctive characteristics and style. He did not translate all of his works literally from the original context, but in some places he deleted what he considered to be redundant sentences in order to avoid the verbosity of the original, occasionally replacing the translation with a general paraphrase. He advocates to give enough respect for the characteristics of foreign readers, while at the same time opposing word-for-word translations, which may lead to the trampling of the mother tongue. Therefore, He advocated translations which, on the one hand, required fidelity to the original text in terms of meaning and, on the other hand, should preserve the original's distinctive features.<br />
<br />
As he says in his unfinished 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', he comments on Chateaubriand's translation: 'There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), has failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own conventional rhetorical devices, its own habitual expressions, and it is impossible to translate all this into another language using the corresponding vocabulary." Pushkin's rejection of word-for-word translation can be revealed clearly.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's influence on the cause of translation in Russia was huge, and his influence refers neither to his few translations nor to his theoretical views, but to the fact that Pushkin pioneered the translation of Russian literature. Although his ideas on translation cannot be called a theory, they do provide certain unique and new translation ideas for later generations of literary translators. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:29, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.1. Belinsky's ideas on translation. ===<br />
Vissarion Grigorievich Belinsky (Виссарион Григорьевич Белинский, 1811-1848) was a famous literary critic of the nineteenth century and one of the most involved in the world of translation among Russian literary activists of his time. Belinsky was fluent in French and as a young man translated for two magazines, Miscellany and Telescope. Later, after a career in literary criticism, he published numerous articles on translation and criticism of translated works.<br />
Belinsky's and Pushkin's views on translation were very similar, both advocating that translations should not be word-for-word. Belinsky first introduced the term 'theory' of translation, and in his 1838 review of Polevoy's translation of Hamlet, he first proposed the need for a theory of translation. He considered the role of theory: "Any object that man perceives has a theory of its own, and a theory is the knowledge of the laws by which the object exists."<br />
<br />
Belinsky argues that in translation: "Closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original. Each <br />
language has its own distinctive expressions, characteristics and qualities; these are so distinctive that to correctly convey a certain image or sentence, it is sometimes necessary to change them completely in the translation. The corresponding image, like the corresponding sentence, does not necessarily lie in a superficial agreement of words: the inner life of the translation should be made to correspond to the inner life of the original". It can be seen that Belinsky, like Pushkin, was also opposed to word-for-word rigid translations, his view being that the task of translating a language lies in reproducing the spirit of the original. He believed that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of a translation, so the question of the interrelationship between national character and translatability has always troubled Belinsky. He pointed out that 'there is only one rule for translating a literary work - to convey the spirit of the work being translated, and this can only be done by translating it into Russian as the author himself would have written it in Russian, if he had been Russian' (The Complete Works of Belinsky Volume 2).<br />
<br />
Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a number of achievements, and his view of translation as a whole is a complete and rigorous system. His view of translation was developed gradually, and in the process it was dominated by an increasingly firm recognition of the possibility of a successful solution to the task of translation, that is, of translatability. Belinsky believed that a translation must be discerning in its content and form in relation to the original. He has pointed out that "approaching the original is not the same as conveying the letters, but rather the spirit of the original." It is also suggested that the translator and the original author are two different kinds of people. But in order to convey the 'spirit' of the original in the translation, the translator's genius needs to reach a certain tacit understanding with this 'spirit'. He advocates the preservation of exoticism in translation, opposes naturalisation, the arbitrary distortion of the face of the original work, the overwhelming of the original author with the personality of the translator's style, the emphasis on both likeness and likeness, etc. However, while recognising the importance of reproducing the poetic form of the original work in translation, Belinsky also took into account the state of development of Russian literature in translation. This also led him to look favourably on translating good poetry in prose, seeing such translations as a form of transition for Russian readers to the treasures of world literature.<br />
<br />
Although Belinsky wrote little about literary translation, his theoretical views contain the kernel of the realist principles of translation proposed by contemporary Soviet literary translators. His ideas on translation had a very profound influence on the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Vissarion Grigorievich Belinsky (Виссарион Григорьевич Белинский, 1811-1848) was a famous literary critic of the nineteenth century and one of the most active in the world of translation among Russian literary activists of his time. Belinsky was fluent in French and when he was a young man he translated for two magazines, Miscellany and Telescope. Later, after a career in literary criticism, he published numerous articles on translation and criticism of translated works.<br />
<br />
Belinsky's and Pushkin's views on translation were very similar, both advocating that translations should not be word-for-word. Belinsky first introduced the term 'theory' of translation, and in his 1838 review of Polevoy's translation of Hamlet, he first proposed the need for a theory of translation. He considered the role of theory: "Any object that man perceives has a theory of its own, and a theory is the knowledge of the laws by which the object exists."<br />
<br />
Belinsky argues that in translation: "Closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original. Each language has its own distinctive expressions, characteristics and qualities; these are so distinctive that to correctly convey a certain image or sentence, it is sometimes necessary to change them completely in the translation. The corresponding image, like the corresponding sentence, does not necessarily lie in a superficial agreement of words: the inner life of the translation should be made to correspond to the inner life of the original". It can be seen that Belinsky, like Pushkin, was also opposed to word-for-word rigid translations, his view being that the task of translating a language lies in reproducing the spirit of the original. He believed that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of a translation, so the question of the interrelationship between national character and translatability has always troubled Belinsky. He pointed out that 'there is only one rule for translating a literary work - to convey the spirit of the work being translated, and this can only be done by translating it into Russian as the author himself would have written it in Russian, if he had been Russian' (The Complete Works of Belinsky Volume 2).<br />
<br />
Belinsky's career as a translator had a number of achievements, and his view of translation as a whole is a complete and rigorous system. His view of translation was developed gradually, and in this process it was dominated by an increasingly firm recognition of the possibility of a successful solution to the task of translation, that is, of translatability. Belinsky believed that a translation must be discerning in its content and form in relation to the original. He has pointed out that "approaching the original is not the same as conveying the letters, but rather the spirit of the original." It is also suggested that the translator and the original author are two different kinds of people. But in order to convey the 'spirit' of the original in the translation, the translator's genius needs to reach a certain tacit understanding with this 'spirit'. He advocates the preservation of exoticism in translation, opposes naturalisation, the arbitrary distortion of the face of the original work, the overwhelming of the original author with the personality of the translator's style, the emphasis on both likeness and likeness, etc. However, while recognising the importance of reproducing the poetic form of the original work in translation, Belinsky also took into account the state of development of Russian literature in translation. This also led him to look favourably on translating good poetry in prose, seeing such translations as a form of transition for Russian readers to the treasures of world literature.<br />
<br />
Although Belinsky wrote little about literary translation, his theoretical views contain the kernel of the realist principles of translation proposed by contemporary Soviet literary translators. His ideas on translation had a very profound influence on the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:56, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.Conclusion ===<br />
Translation has demonstrated its importance in social activity since antiquity, yet it was only in the twentieth century that it became a widely followed professional discipline. This article reviews Russian translation activity and translation thought in pre-Soviet Russia, exploring its development before the formation of a theoretical system. Throughout the history of translation, Russian scholars have contributed greatly to the development of translation literature in the world. Through combing through the history of Russian translation, we learn that the translation ideas of a number of outstanding writers, though not theoretical, have had an unmistakable impact on later generations. When discussing the translation ideas of 19th-century writers, we are inspired to insist on the principle that "closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original", emphasizing the ideological content and literary value of the translation, that the translation should serve the readers, and that the translation should be people-oriented. These ideas influenced, to a greater or lesser extent, the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, the study of the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia is not only conducive to sorting out Russian translation ideas Russian learners can better understand the characteristics of their translations when translating and improve the accuracy of their translations.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:44, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Translation has played its important role in the social activities since antiquity, yet it was until in the twentieth century that it became a widely followed professional discipline. This paper reviews Russian translators and translation thoughts in pre-Soviet Russia, exploring its development before the formation of a theoretical system. Throughout the history of translation, Russian scholars have contributed greatly to the development of translation literature in the world. By combing through the history of Russian translation, we learn that the translation ideas of a number of outstanding writers, though not very theoretical, have had an unmistakable impact on later generations. When discussing the translation ideas of 19th-century writers, we are inspired to insist on the principle that "closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original", emphasizing the ideological content and literary value of the translation that the translation should serve the readers, and that the translation should be people-oriented. These ideas influenced, to a greater or lesser extent, the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, the study of the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia not only is conducive to sorting out Russian translation ideas, but also make Russian learners better understand the characteristics of their translations when translating and improving the accuracy of their translations. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 14:02, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.References ===<br />
1.Wu, Keli 吴克礼（2006）.俄苏翻译理论流派综述 The Translation Methods and Studies in USSR. 上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
2.Guo Lin 郭琳（2006）.俄罗斯语言学派翻译理论若干问题研究[D] A Study of Some Problems of Translation Theory of the Russian School of Philology.首都师范大学 Capital Normal University.<br />
<br />
3.Feng Xin 冯欣（2009）. 俄罗斯翻译理论史及其影响研究[D] A study of the history of Russian translation theory and its influence.上海外国语大学 Shanghai International Studies University.<br />
<br />
4.Wang，Yulun；Jiang,Wanzhu 王育伦,姜万砫（1989).别林斯基论文学翻译[J] Belinsky on Literary Translation .中国翻译 Chinese translators Journal ,(03):53-55.<br />
<br />
5.Li Zheng, Fan Min 李铮,范敏（2010）. 普希金与翻译[J] Pushkin and Translation. 现代交际 Modern Intercourse Journal,(05):69.</div>Zhang Yiranhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_5&diff=132639Hist Trans Theo EN 52021-12-14T03:06:28Z<p>Zhang Yiran: /* 2.1 18th century Russian translation. */</p>
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=Chapter 5 History of Translation Theories from Early Russia to the Soviet Union=<br />
<br />
'''从古罗斯到苏联前的翻译理论史'''<br />
<br />
张怡然 Zhang Yiran,Hunan Normal University,China<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation as a means of intercultural communication, each country has a distinctive translation ideology. This article focuses on the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia. Through analyzing the history of translation, can find that Russia has formed a literary tradition of translation studies in the late 18th century. In the 19th century, Pushkin, Lermontov, Turgenev and other outstanding poets and literary scholars were keen on translation, especially in the middle of the century when Belinsky and other famous literary critics published a series of comments on literary translation, which emphasized the literary tradition of Russian translation to an unparalleled extent, which is rare in the history of translation in the world. The general principles of Russian literary translation thought were also formed during this period: namely, to insist on commenting on the merits of a translation in terms of the overall effect of the work, to emphasize the ideological content and literary value of the translation, and that the translation should serve the reader and be people-oriented. The above ideas influenced the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, a study of the history of translation theory in pre-Soviet Russia will help learners of Russian to better understand the characteristics of their translations and to improve the accuracy and peopleliness of their translations.Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 12:57, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation is a means of intercultural communication, and each country has its own distinctive translation theory system. This paper focuses on the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia. By analyzing the history of translation, it is obvious that a literary tradition of translation studies has been formed in Russia in the late 18th century. In the 19th century, Pushkin, Lermontov, Turgenev and other outstanding poets and literary scholars were keen on translation, especially in the middle of the century when Belinsky and other famous literary critics published a series of comments on literary translation, which emphasized the literary tradition of Russian translation to an unparalleled extent, which is rare in the history of translation in the world. The general principles of Russian literary translation thoughts were also formed during this period: namely, to insist on commenting on the merits and weakness of a translation in terms of the overall effect of the work, to emphasize the ideological content and literary value of the translation, and the translation should serve the reader and be people-oriented. The above ideas influenced the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, a study of the history of translation theory in pre-Soviet Russia will help learners of Russian to understand the characteristics of their translations profoundly and to improve the accuracy and fluency of their translations.Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:03, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation theories, Translation ideas，History of Translation<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译作为一种跨文化交际的手段，每个国家都有独具特色的翻译思想。本文主要探讨苏联前俄国的翻译历史。通过梳理其翻译史可发现，俄国于18世纪末期就已形成了翻译研究的文学传统。进入19世纪后, 普希金、莱蒙托夫、屠格涅夫等优秀诗人、文学家对翻译的热衷, 尤其是世纪中叶别林斯基等著名文学评论家发表一系列关于文学翻译的评论, 更是把俄国翻译的文学传统强调到无以复加的程度, 这在世界翻译史上都是罕见的。俄国文学翻译思想的总原则也在这一时期形成:即坚持从作品的整体效果上来评论译作优劣, 强调译作的思想内容和文学价值, 翻译应为读者服务, 译文应具有人民性。上述思想影响了苏联时期翻译理论的形成。因此，对苏联前俄国翻译理论史的研究有利于俄语学习者在翻译时更好的理解其翻译特点，提高翻译的准确性和人民性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译理论 翻译思想 翻译史 <br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
This essay provides a comprehensive and concise overview of the history of translation in Russia: Russian written translations began in the Kievan Rus' era, when religious subjects were the main focus of translations, especially the Bible, which was translated from Greek. Religious translations continued to flourish under the Moscow principality, represented by Maksim Gleick (МаксимГрек). At the same time, the national character of Russian translations began to emerge, and the languages of translation expanded from Greek to Latin, German and West Slavic, and the subjects covered included Western chivalric fiction, geographical literature, alchemy and medicine. In the eighteenth century, Peter the Great introduced a number of measures to focus on translation, making this period a turning point in the history of Russian translation. The proliferation of specialised translations (e.g. of legal texts) was the main feature of translation activity in the early eighteenth century. After this period Russian translators began to translate literary works.The main translators were Lomonosov (М.В. Ломоносов) and Tretyakovsky (V.K. Тредьяковский). In the second half of the eighteenth century, translation was given greater importance in Russia, and the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books was founded by Ekaterina II, in which a large number of outstanding translators emerged. The nineteenth century was a golden period in the history of Russian translation. Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин) and Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский) both produced many excellent translations. Pushkin (A.С.Пушкин) and Lermontov (M.Ю.Лермонтов) contributed greatly to the development of Russian literature in translation, while Fetter concentrated on love poetry. In the twentieth century, the Russian translation community made significant achievements in theoretical translation studies. In particular, the rapid development of the philological school and the debate between the literary and philological schools made Soviet translation theory one of the leading theories of translation in the world.(Guo Lin,2006:5)Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 12:57, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
This paper provides a comprehensive and concise overview of the history of translation in Russia: Russian written translations began in the Kievan Rus' era, when religious subjects were the main focus of translations, especially the Bible, translated from Greek. Religious translations continued to flourish under the Moscow principality, represented by Maksim Gleick (МаксимГрек). At the same time, the national character of Russian translations began to emerge, and the languages of translation expanded from Greek to Latin, German and West Slavic, and the subjects covered included Western chivalric fiction, geographical literature, alchemy and medicine. In the eighteenth century, Peter the Great introduced a number of measures to focus on translation, leading this period to a turning point in the history of Russian translation. The proliferation of specialised translations (e.g. of legal texts) was the main feature of translation activity in the early eighteenth century. After this period Russian translators began to translate literary works.The main translators were Lomonosov (М.В. Ломоносов) and Tretyakovsky (V.K. Тредьяковский). In the second half of the eighteenth century, translation was paid greater attention in Russia, and the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books was founded by Ekaterina II, in which a large number of outstanding translators emerged. The nineteenth century was a golden period in the history of Russian translation when Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин) and Rukovsky (В.А.Жуковский) both produced many excellent translations. Pushkin (A.С.Пушкин) and Lermontov (M.Ю.Лермонтов) contributed greatly to the development of Russian literature in translation, while Fetter concentrated on love poetry. In the twentieth century, the Russian translation community made significant achievements in theoretical translation studies. In particular, the rapid development of the philological school and the debate between the literary and philological schools made Soviet translation theory one of the leading theories of translation in the world. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:14, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===1.The history of Russian translation and the period of enlightenment of its translation theory. ===<br />
1. The emergence and development of literary translation.<br />
<br />
Translation activity has a long history in Russia, the beginnings of which can be traced back to the time of Kievan Rus'. A relatively sophisticated system of writing, literature and translation was already in place in ancient Russia in the ninth century AD. Frequent cultural and trade exchanges with Byzantine, German, French and Scandinavian countries contributed significantly to the development of translation in Russia at that time, as did contacts with Eastern countries. From Kievan Rus' onwards, Russian translation methods oscillated between two main tendencies, either to follow the original texts exactly, up to the point of translating them word for word, or to be arbitrary, even to the point of rewriting, adding or deleting at will. The first tendency is the main characteristic of translations of the Bible and other sacred books, while the second, though not absolute, can be said to characterize most secular works.(Feng Xin,2009:8)(Wu Keli,2006:4)<br />
<br />
2.Initiation of translation activities-religious translation. <br />
<br />
In 864 AD, the Byzantine king sent two Greek priests, Kirill (Кирилл) and Mephodi (Мефодий), to spread Christianity among the Slavic people. At the beginning of their mission, they created a new alphabet (now known as the Kirill alphabet) and used this writing system to translate many religious texts from Greek into the ancient Church Slavonic. Among the results were the New Testament, hymnals and prayer books.(Feng,2009:8)<br />
<br />
In 988 AD, Rus was baptised and Kievan Rus was converted to Christianity. A large number of translations appeared instantly to help Protestants become familiar with the new religious philosophy and ethical system and to understand the rituals and customs of the Church. These translations were in a variety of genres, including the Acts of the Saints, sermons, chronicles and so on. In addition, apocryphal books telling magical and fantastical stories were also popular, and some of them had similarities with the later 'fantasy novels'. Most of these translations were done in Bulgaria and were popularised in Rus. At that time, translations of religious texts were mostly word-for-word. There were also a small number of works that, unlike the 'elaborate copies of the original', had a separate literary value. In one case, a large number of details of Russian life were added to the storyline of a sermon (e.g. The Tales of Achild the Wise). In another case, military historical narratives are interspersed with the terminology of the ancient Russian feudal system and certain literary images from the stories of ancient Russian warriors (e.g. Joseph Flav's History of the Jewish War). This translation can be considered one of the most successful of the period. In the translation, the translator succeeded in avoiding many word-for-word translations). In a third case, the manuscripts copied by Ancient Rus, although based on Greek epic poetry (e.g. The Great Work of Digenes Akritas), often borrowed from Russian folk poetry, so that a large number of folk compositions appeared. As a result of this literary process, the translated literature was smoothly enriched by Russian manuscripts, which contributed to the development of original Russian literature and consolidated its links with the medieval literary process. Unfortunately, at that early stage in the development of translation, the translators were not signed, so it is impossible to verify whether the works were translated at home or abroad.(Feng,2009:9) <br />
<br />
During the difficult period of 'Mongol rule' (1228-1480), translations continued to play an important role in the cultural life of the country. The remaining chapters of the Bible were translated one after another, and previous translations were again proofread and revised. In addition to religious translations, more translations of non-religious subjects emerge, such as The Kingdom of India and The Trojan War. Most of the works were still translated from Greek, while works probably translated from Latin and ancient Hebrew also appeared. During this period, Russian began to take shape through the interaction of Old Slavonic (Church Slavonic) and local national languages. However, religious texts were still only translated into Church Slavonic, and the use of this language was by then restricted to ecclesiastical matters. At the same time, political and commercial exchanges with other countries were more likely to be in Russian, which was becoming increasingly sophisticated: elements of the combination of Old Slavonic and Russian can also be found in original works.（Wu,2006:6)<br />
<br />
14-15th century literature in translation by Rus was characterised by an obsession with new themes. These were mainly new works of tranquillity-abstinence literature, or works recommended by and familiar to the tranquillists. This mystical genre was introduced to Rus after it had swept through the Byzantine and Yugoslav peoples. It was reflected in the semi-secular translations popular at the time (for example, The Trojan War). <br />
<br />
In the 16th century AD, Moscow eventually became the political centre of Russia, as well as the translation centre of the country. In 1515, the Grand Duke of Moscow, Vassily III (Василий Ⅲ), asked a Greek monastery to send a learned translator to Moscow. This man, who accompanied the Greek mission to Moscow in 1516, was the historically famous Maksim Gleick (Максим Грек). Maksim Gleick worked as a translator throughout his life, studying most of the religious texts and some of the non-religious works during this period. In addition, he also proofread and annotated previously existing translations.(Wu,2006:7) <br />
<br />
At the beginning, Maksim knew neither Russian nor Old Slavonic, so he divided the translation into two steps: first, he translated from Greek to Latin, and then his assistant translated from Latin to Old Slavonic. In the process of revising existing translations, he often broke with established tradition and was therefore denounced as blasphemous. Maksim was also a prolific writer, educator and philosopher. His writings contain many insights into the art of translation - the earliest recorded treatise on translation in Russia. Maksim insisted that the original text must be carefully analysed in order to grasp its full subtleties and implications. Therefore, the translator must not only master the language of the original, but also have a broad knowledge of the language and prepare for the translation. To support his argument, Maksim used Greek lexicography, phonetic organisation and phonetics involved in translation. His other major contribution was the compilation of a dictionary containing Greek, Latin and Hebrew nouns, which was also the first of its kind in Russian history. Although it was recognised at the time that translators should have a command of both languages as well as a profound background knowledge, the practitioners of translation at the time lacked the necessary qualities and their translations were not as good as they could have been.(Wu,2006:7)Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 13:39, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
1. The emergence and development of literary translation. <br />
<br />
Translation activity has a long history in Russia, the beginnings of which can be traced back to the Time of Kievan Rus'. A relatively sophisticated system of writing, literature and translation was already in ancient Russia in the ninth century AD. Frequent cultural and trade exchanges with Byzantine, German, French and Scandinavian countries contributed significantly to the development of translation in Russia at that time, as did contacts with Eastern countries. From Kievan Rus' onwards, Russian translation methods oscillated between two main tendencies, either to follow the original texts exactly, up to the point of translating them word by word, or to be arbitrary, even to the point of rewriting, adding words or deleting at will. The first tendency is the main characteristic of translations of the Bible and other sacred books, while the second, though not absolutely, can be said to characterize most secular works.<br />
<br />
2.Initiation of translation activities-religious translation. <br />
<br />
In 864 AD, the Byzantine king sent two Greek priests, Kirill (Кирилл) and Mephodi (Мефодий), to spread Christianity among the Slavic people. At the beginning of their mission, they created a new alphabet (now known as the Kirill alphabet) and used this writing system to translate many religious texts from Greek into the ancient Church Slavonic. Among the results were the New Testament, hymnals and prayer books. In 988 AD, Rus was baptised and Kievan Rus was converted to Christianity. A large number of translations appeared instantly to help Protestants become familiar with the new religious philosophy and ethical system and to understand the rituals and customs of the Church. These translations were in a variety of genres, including the Acts of the Saints, sermons, chronicles and so on. In addition, apocryphal books telling magical and fantastical stories were also popular, and some of them had similarities with the later 'fantasy novels'. Most of these translations were done in Bulgaria and were popularised in Rus. At that time, translations of religious texts were mostly word-for-word. There were also a small number of works that, unlike the 'elaborate copies of the original', had a separate literary values. In one case, a large number of details of Russian life were added to the storyline of a sermon (e.g. The Tales of Achild the Wise). In another case, military historical narratives are interspersed with the terminology of the ancient Russian feudal system and certain literary images from the stories of ancient Russian warriors (e.g. Joseph Flav's History of the Jewish War). This translation can be considered one of the most successful of the period. In the translation, the translator succeeded in avoiding many word-for-word translations). Thirdly, the manuscripts copied by Ancient Rus, although based on Greek epic poetry (e.g. The Great Work of Digenes Akritas), often borrowed from Russian folk poetry, so that a large number of folk compositions appeared. As a result of this literary process, the translated literature was smoothly enriched by Russian manuscripts, which contributed to the development of original Russian literature and consolidated its links with the medieval literary process. Unfortunately, at that early stage in the development of translation, the translators were not signed, so it is impossible to verify whether the works were translated at home or abroad. During the difficult period of 'Mongol rule' (1228-1480), translations continued to play an important role in the cultural life of the country. The remaining chapters of the Bible were translated one after another, and previous translations were again proofread and revised. In addition to religious translations, more translations of non-religious subjects emerge, such as The Kingdom of India and The Trojan War. Most of the works were still translated from Greek, while works probably translated from Latin and ancient Hebrew also appeared. During this period, Russian began to take shape through the interaction of Old Slavonic (Church Slavonic) and local national languages. However, religious texts were still only translated into Church Slavonic, and the use of this language was by then restricted to ecclesiastical matters. At the same time, political and commercial exchanges with other countries were more likely to be in Russian, which was becoming increasingly sophisticated: elements of the combination of Old Slavonic and Russian can also be found in original works. 14-15th century literature in translation by Rus was characterised by an obsession with new themes. These were mainly new works of tranquillity-abstinence literature, or works recommended by and familiar to the tranquillists. This mystical genre was introduced to Rus after it had swept through the Byzantine and Yugoslav peoples. It was reflected in the semi-secular translations popular at the time (for example, The Trojan War). In the 16th century AD, Moscow eventually became the political center of Russia, as well as the translation center of the country. In 1515, the Grand Duke of Moscow, Vassily III (Василий Ⅲ), asked a Greek monastery to send a learned translator to Moscow. This man, who accompanied the Greek mission to Moscow in 1516, was the historically famous Maksim Grek (Максим Грек). Maxim Greek worked as a translator throughout his life, studying most of the religious texts and some of the non-religious works during this period. In addition, he also proofread and annotated previously existing translations. At the beginning, Maxim knew neither Russian nor Old Slavonic, so he divided the translation into two steps: first, he translated from Greek to Latin, and then his assistant translated from Latin to Old Slavonic. In the process of revising existing translations, he often broke with established tradition and was therefore denounced as blasphemous. Maxim was also a prolific writer, educator and philosopher. His writings contain many insights into the art of translation - the earliest recorded treatise on translation in Russia. Maxim insisted that the original text must be carefully analysed in order to grasp its full subtleties and implications. Therefore, the translator must not only master the language of the original, but also have a broad knowledge of the language and prepare for the translation. To support his argument, Maxim used Greek lexicography, phonetic organisation and phonetics involved in translation. His other major contribution was the compilation of a dictionary containing Greek, Latin and Hebrew nouns, which was also the first of its kind in Russian history. Although it was recognized at the time that translators should have a command of both languages and profound background knowledge, the practitioners of translation at the time lacked the necessary qualities and their translations were not as good as they should have been. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. Overview of the Russian school of Translation. ===<br />
===2.1 18th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The eighteenth century is an important period in the history of Russian translation. The status of translation in social culture has undergone a qualitative change, and this is due to Peter the Great's reform. At the beginning of the century, translation was still mostly related to professional documents such as laws and contracts. Later, the translator's tentacles gradually expanded to literary translation, for example, French poetry translation. The famous translators of this period are Sumarokov(А.П.Сумароков), Lomonosov(М.В.Ломоносов), Tretyakovsky (В.К.Тредьяковский) and so on. In the second half of the 18th century, the Association for the Translation of Foreign Books officially put forward the importance of translation. The organization has been active for 15 years with over 100 members.（Wu,2006:10)<br />
<br />
1.Imperial support for translation. The political reforms introduced by Peter the Great also led to intensive economic and cultural exchanges between Russia and European countries. This created a huge demand for translations of scientific and technical literature and literary works. Translators were required to produce works of a high standard.<br />
<br />
Peter the Great issued a special decree on translation, requiring "faithful" communication of the original text. In a directive issued to his subordinates in 1709, he explicitly stated that when translating foreign books, word-for-word translations were to be avoided and that the content of the original text should be clearly expressed in one's own language, based on an understanding of its content. On the other hand, Peter the Great's subversion of the written language initially caused confusion in Russian translation circles. A large number of foreign languages entered the Russian language, and the piles of foreign syntactic structures distracted attention. In any case, Peter the Great's reforms did set a new norm and a new direction for translation.(Wu,2006:11)<br />
<br />
In terms of content, Peter the Great's reforms were, from the very beginning, inextricably linked to the translation of scientific and technical texts, such as the many books on military defence engineering that he ordered to be translated and used to strengthen Russia's military forces. Peter the Great also placed great importance on the translation of prose, poetry and other literary works. During this period, the Russian language began to develop its own literary model, and many educated Russians saw translation as a way of enriching the language and enhancing its uniqueness and expressiveness. <br />
<br />
From around the 1830s, the importance of translating Western European scientific and technical texts gradually gave way to literary works such as prose and poetry. Writers who were also translators turned their attention to the work of new Western European writers, mainly poets, especially French poets. At the same time, the legacy of the Greco-Roman period also entered their minds. They began to translate the works of philosophers and historians, which - on the one hand - gave rise to difficulties in literary rhetoric and scientific terminology and, on the other, played an important role in the formation of a standard Russian language.(Feng,2009:10)(Guo,2006:8) <br />
<br />
From that time onwards, translation also became an organised activity, with the emergence of specific bodies responsible for the organisation and management of translation work. 1735 saw the establishment of the first specialised translation organisation, the Russian Society, at the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences. The Society had a professional group of translators and some of the academy's scholars, such as Lomonosov and Tretyakovsky, were among its members. The Association was responsible for selecting works, defining the rules or principles of translation, commenting on translations, and training translators. It is worth mentioning that the Academy of Sciences also set up a school of foreign languages to train official translators. In 1748, the Academy implemented Queen Elizabeth's decree to increase the number of translations of non-religious books and publicly appealed to "the nobility and other classes of intellectuals" to take an active part in the translation process.(Guo,2006:8)(Feng,2009:10) <br />
<br />
In the second half of the 18th century, Ekaterina II's efforts to create a 'civilised state' not only led to the development of literature, but also gave preferential treatment to writers. For example, in order to select the best original texts, she ordered the establishment of the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books (1768 - 1783). The Society was dedicated to providing excellent conditions for translation work throughout Russia. The purchase of manuscripts was financed out of Ekaterina's own funds. Later, the Society also discussed a proposal to establish a translation bureau under the Academy of Sciences (1790). The 114 members of the Society included such notable figures as Tretyakovsky, Sumarokov and Radishev. For 14 years the Association was active, producing numerous literary translations and likewise contributing to the discussion of theoretical issues in translation.(Guo,2006:9)<br />
<br />
2.The emergence of poetry translation. Translation of poetry also developed in Russia in the 18th century, and later became one of the jewels of the country's literature. The great Russian scholar and poet Lomonosov was a major contributor to this process. A great deal of the work created by Lomonosov and his contemporaries Sumarokov and Tretyakovsky was poetry in translation. They often translated while exploring theoretical issues in translation: they would explain in their works why they translated this way and not that way; they stressed the importance of translation work and the creative value it contained. Among the most prestigious writers and translators in Russian literature at the time, there were several interesting competitions in which two or three poets translated the same work at the same time, and their translations were published in journals. It was often the case that different translations of the same work were published at the same time, without the translator's name, for the judgement of "literary lovers and peers". This phenomenon also supports the idea that the 18th century was a period of 'experimentation' in the history of Russian translation.(Feng,2006:11) <br />
<br />
Lomonosov's translations from Latin, German, French and Greek are numerous and varied, showing his talent for both rhyming and free verse. He was keen to reproduce the rhythmic structure of the original texts, using a variety of iambic and iambic meter to convey the Alexandrian style of French epic and the hexameter style of Greek tragedy. Russian poetry was not very developed at the time and was still based on syllables. <br />
Lomonosov's innovations enriched Russian poetry and established new forms and traditions of Russian poetic style and rhyme. <br />
<br />
In contrast, Kantymir (Д.М.Кантемира) and Tretyakovsky's greatest quest was to insist on a faithful translation of the original. In the process, the translators had to contend with the problems of reams of vocabulary and rhetorical rules. Tretyakovsky became famous for his successful use of Russian rhyme to translate many verses of the original in his translation of Paul Thielmann's A Journey to Love Island. In the introduction to the novel, the translator states his approach to translation: "The translator is only one person away from the author. I would add that if the author is original, the translator should be even more original (I am not referring to myself, but to a good translator)". He believes that "prose to prose" and "poetry to poetry" can be as good as the original, and that a good translation is one that "describes the full meaning of each verse". Kantymir 's translation of Horace's Letters and other poetic works in Latin and French, although less well-known than the former, is equally valuable.(Wu,2006:16) Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:40, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The eighteenth century is an important period in the history of Russian translation. The status of translation in social culture has undergone a qualitative change, and this is due to Peter the Great's reform. At the beginning of the century, translation was still mostly related to professional documents such as laws and contracts. Later, the translator's tentacles gradually expanded to literary translation, for example, French poetry translation. The famous translators of this period are Sumarokov(А.П.Сумароков), Lomonosov(М.В.Ломоносов), Tretyakovsky (В.К.Тредьяковский) and so on. In the second half of the 18th century, the Association for the Translation of Foreign Books officially put forward the importance of translation. The organization has been active for 15 years with over 100 members. The following points reflected the reasons why translation was paid more attention in the eighteenth century.<br />
<br />
1.Imperial support for translation. <br />
<br />
The political reforms introduced by Peter the Great also led to intensive economic and cultural exchanges between Russia and European countries. This created a huge demand for translations of scientific and technical literature and literary works. Translators were required to produce works of a high standard.Peter the Great issued a special decree on translation, requiring "faithful" communication of the original text. In a directive issued to his subordinates in 1709, he explicitly stated that when translating foreign books, word-for-word translations were to be avoided and that the content of the original text should be clearly expressed in one's own language, based on an understanding of its content. On the other hand, Peter the Great's subversion of the written language initially caused confusion in Russian translation circles. A large number of foreign languages entered the Russian language, and the piles of foreign syntactic structures distracted attention. In any case, Peter the Great's reforms did set a new norm and a new direction for translation. In terms of content, Peter the Great's reforms were, from the very beginning, inextricably linked to the translation of scientific and technical texts, such as the many books on military defence engineering that he ordered to be translated and used to strengthen Russia's military forces. Peter the Great also placed great importance on the translation of prose, poetry and other literary works. During this period, the Russian language began to develop its own literary model, and many educated Russians saw translation as a way of enriching the language and enhancing its uniqueness and expressiveness. <br />
<br />
From around the 1830s, the importance of translating Western European scientific and technical texts gradually gave way to literary works such as prose and poetry. Writers who were also translators turned their attention to the work of new Western European writers, mainly poets, especially French poets. At the same time, the legacy of the Greco-Roman period also entered their minds. They began to translate the works of philosophers and historians, which - on the one hand - gave rise to difficulties in literary rhetoric and scientific terminology and, on the other, played an important role in the formation of a standard Russian language. <br />
<br />
From that time onwards, translation also became an organised activity, with the emergence of specific bodies responsible for the organisation and management of translation work. 1735 saw the establishment of the first specialised translation organisation, the Russian Society, at the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences. The Society had a professional group of translators and some of the academy's scholars, such as Lomonosov and Tretyakovsky, were among its members. The Association was responsible for selecting works, defining the rules or principles of translation, commenting on translations, and training translators. It is worth mentioning that the Academy of Sciences also set up a school of foreign languages to train official translators. In 1748, the Academy implemented Queen Elizabeth's decree to increase the number of translations of non-religious books and publicly appealed to "the nobility and other classes of intellectuals" to take an active part in the translation process. <br />
<br />
In the second half of the 18th century, Ekaterina II's efforts to create a 'civilised state' not only led to the development of literature, but also gave preferential treatment to writers. For example, in order to select the best original texts, she ordered the establishment of the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books (1768-1783). The Society was dedicated to providing excellent conditions for translation work throughout Russia. The purchase of manuscripts was financed out of Ekaterina's own funds. Later, the Society also discussed a proposal to establish a translation bureau under the Academy of Sciences (1790). The 114 members of the Society included such notable figures as Tretyakovsky, Sumarokov and Radishev. For 14 years the Association was active, producing numerous literary translations and likewise contributing to the discussion of theoretical issues in translation.<br />
<br />
2.The emergence of poetry translation.<br />
<br />
Translation of poetry also developed in Russia in the 18th century, and later became one of the jewels of the country's literature. The great Russian scholar and poet Lomonosov was a major contributor to this process. A great deal of the work created by Lomonosov and his contemporaries Sumarokov and Tretyakovsky was poetry in translation. They often translated while exploring theoretical issues in translation: they would explain in their works why they translated this way and not that way; they stressed the importance of translation work and the creative value it contained. Among the most prestigious writers and translators in Russian literature at the time, there were several interesting competitions in which two or three poets translated the same work at the same time, and their translations were published in journals. It was often the case that different translations of the same work were published at the same time, without the translator's name, for the judgement of "literary lovers and peers". This phenomenon also supports the idea that the 18th century was a period of 'experimentation' in the history of Russian translation. <br />
<br />
Lomonosov's translations works in Latin, German, French and Greek are numerous and varied, showing his talent for both rhyming and free verse. He was keen to reproduce the rhythmic structure of the original texts, using a variety of iambic and iambic meter to convey the Alexandrian style of French epic and the hexameter style of Greek tragedy. Russian poetry was not very developed at the time and was still based on syllables. <br />
Lomonosov's innovations enriched Russian poetry and established new forms and traditions of Russian poetic style and rhyme. <br />
<br />
In contrast, Kantymir (Д.М.Кантемира) and Tretyakovsky's greatest quest was to insist on a faithful translation of the original. In the process, the translators had to contend with the problems of reams of vocabulary and rhetorical rules. Tretyakovsky became famous for his successful use of Russian rhyme to translate many verses of the original in his translation of Paul Thielmann's A Journey to Love Island. In the introduction to the novel, the translator states his approach to translation: "The translator is only one person away from the author. I would add that if the author is original, the translator should be even more original (I am not referring to myself, but to a good translator)". He believes that "prose to prose" and "poetry to poetry" can be as good as the original, and that a good translation is one that "describes the full meaning of each verse". Kantymir 's translation of Horace's Letters and other poetic works in Latin and French, although less well-known than the former, is equally valuable. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 12:39, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.2 First half of the19th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The nineteenth century was a golden age in the history of Russian translation. If translation had established itself as a profession in the first hundred years, it was elevated to the level of art in this century. The nineteenth century produced a number of masters of translation, including Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин), Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский), Pushkin (А.С.Пушкин), Lermontov (М.Ю.Лермонтов) and Fetter (А.Фет)(Wu,2006:23). <br />
<br />
The new Russian school of translation owes its formation to the historian Nikolai Karamzin and the poet Zhukovsky. Karamzin published a number of translations in several magazines between the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century. He saw translations as a good help in perfecting a writer's style: a source of information that would satisfy human curiosity, inform historical facts, entertain women and provide material for new magazines. As a young man, Karamzin was strongly opposed to the alteration of and disloyalty to the original texts, but later became a champion of free translation, famously saying: "Whoever follows the author of the original text step by step is no different from a servant who serves his lord". Karamzin's translations cover an admirable range of genres and languages: he translated works by both classical and contemporaneous authors, in Greek, French, Latin, German, English, Italian and some Oriental languages(Feng,2009:12). <br />
<br />
Pushkin called Zhukovsky "a genius of translation". After graduating from the Moscow Noble Boarding University in 1802, Zhukovsky devoted himself to translation. It was thanks to his efforts that Russian readers were able to access the works of world literary giants such as Schiller, Goethe, Byron and Walters Scott. Zhukovsky's creative translation activities also ranged from Charles Bello to Grimm's Fairy Tales. From Charles Bellow to Grimm's fairy tales, from Homer's epic Odyssey to the poetic history of ancient Rus' Igor's Expedition, all became his original texts. There is no denying that Zhukovsky is a master in the history of Russian translation. Like Karamzin, Zhukovsky was a fan of free translation, sometimes rewriting the original or even creating a new story from its subject: sometimes transferring the setting of events to Russia and giving Russian names to the characters. For example, in his 1808 translation of the German Romantic poet Bilge's narrative poem Lenore, he changed the heroine's name from Lenore to Lyudmila and moved the story to the time of the Livonian War in 16th-century Russia. Zhukovsky believed that the "unsavoury character" of the work should be weakened while retaining the original author's ideas. His talent enabled him to reproduce the style, rhythm and tone of the original poems, while some of his best works were also faithful to the original. In later years, however, his view of translation changed in response to the tendency to stay close to the original, and he retranslated several of his previous translations to make them more faithful to the original, including Lenore. The Russian school of translation owes much to the tradition of translation created by Zhukovsky(Wu,2006:24-30)(Feng,2009:13)(Guo,2006:9).<br />
<br />
Pushkin and Lermontov are also two poets who set the stage for an epoch in the history of Russian translation. Although only a small proportion of their poetry was translated, they made a significant contribution to the improvement of the art of translation in Russia. In their rewriting and imitation of poetry, they were able to reproduce the most important features of foreign poetry, the key point being that their creative translations were no less valuable in their own right than the originals. Their free translation became a model for other translators, and in addition they established the important principle that a good artistic translation must also be a good work in the national literature of the translated language. Pushkin played an indelibly important role in the development of the Russian school of translation. He was always interested in the question of translation, and his critical views on translation were objective and profound. Before translation he stressed the importance of the choice of the original work, and in translation he demanded that the translator should be faithful to the original, while at the same time displaying his deep creative skills and his own literary style. In one of his unfinished posthumous works, 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', Pushkin wrote: 'Chateaubriand's translation (verbatim) compensates to some extent for the faults of the young French writers (free translation), for they have insulted the great man very cruelly, though in a perfectly innocent manner. There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own rhetorical conventions, its own way of expressing itself, and it is impossible to translate into another language with the corresponding vocabulary". These insights had a positive impact on the best Russian translators of the 19th and 20th centuries. In addition, Pushkin's discussion of translation coincided with a turning point in the history of Russian literature, when the Romantic era was being replaced by a new era with a predominantly realist orientation, and a process of 'separation' between translated and national literature was under way. Pushkin's discussion of the work of the translator as distinct from that of the writer contributed to the independence of literature in translation from indigenous literature(Guo,2006:10)(Wu,2006:37-41). <br />
<br />
During this period, while most people advocated free translation, there were a few translators who insisted on maximum fidelity to the original and advocated the word-for-word method, even at the expense of the work's willingness to be translated. Among these were such well-known writers as P.A. Vyazemsky (П.А.Вяземский) and N.I. Gnedzic (Н.И.Гнедич). In fact, they did not always live up to their principles, and sometimes their talent and artistic intuition ended up breaking the bonds of verbatim translation. Vyazemsky's translations of Benjamin Constant and Adam Mickiewicz were not without literary and artistic merit, and his translation of Homer's epic Iliad in particular was highly praised by Pushkin. It was Fetter who was the most insistent on the idea of a verbatim translation. Fetter translated many famous works, and his philosophy throughout was one of sentence-for-sentence, word-for-word translation, retaining all the words of the original. Fetter's extreme word-for-word approach had a negative impact on most of his translations, although he was sometimes able to come up with some effective methods of translation(Feng,2009:14). <br />
<br />
Free translations were also sometimes used to promote democratic ideas in the original that could not pass official scrutiny. A number of translators, such as V. Kurochkin (В.Курочкин), D. M. Minayev (Д.Минаев) and M. M. Mikhalov (М.Михайлов), achieved this by selecting appropriate original works or by using texts in their translations that were superficially imperceptible in their allusion to the conditions in Russia at the time. It was from that time onwards that the use of translation as a weapon to express dissent became part of the Russian tradition(Feng,2009:14).--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:41, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The nineteenth century was the golden age in the history of Russian translation. If translation had established its status in the first hundred years, it was elevated to the level of art in this century. The nineteenth century produced a number of masters of translation, including Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин), Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский), Pushkin (А.С.Пушкин), Lermontov (М.Ю.Лермонтов) and Fetter (А.Фет). <br />
<br />
The new Russian school of translation owes its formation to the publishment of a number of translations of historian Nikolai Karamzin and the poet Zhukovsky. Karamzin in several magazines between the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century. He regarded translation as a good help in perfecting a writer's style: a source of information that satisfies human curiosity, informs historical facts, entertains women and provides materials for new magazines. As a young man, Karamzin was strongly opposed to the disloyalty to the original texts, but later became a champion of free translation. His famous saying was: "Whoever follows the author of the original text step by step is no different from a servant who serves his lord". Karamzin's translations cover an admirable range of genres and languages: he translated works by both classical and contemporaneous authors, in Greek, French, Latin, German, English, Italian and some Oriental languages. <br />
<br />
Pushkin called Zhukovsky "a genius of translation". After graduating from the Moscow Noble Boarding University in 1802, Zhukovsky devoted himself to translation. It was thanks to his efforts that Russian readers were able to access the works of world literary giants such as Schiller, Goethe, Byron and Walters Scott. Zhukovsky's creative translation activities also ranged from Charles Bello to Grimm's Fairy Tales. From Charles Bellow to Grimm's fairy tales, from Homer's epic Odyssey to the poetic history of ancient Rus' Igor's Expedition, all became his original texts. There is no denying that Zhukovsky is a master in the history of Russian translation. Like Karamzin, Zhukovsky was a fan of free translation, who sometimes rewrites the original or even creates a new story from its subject, transfers the setting of events to Russia and gives Russian names to the characters. For example, in his 1808 translation of the German Romantic poet Bilge's narrative poem Lenore, he changed the heroine's name from Lenore to Lyudmila and moved the story to the time of the Livonian War in 16th-century Russia. Zhukovsky believed that the "unsavoury character" of the work should be weakened while retaining the original author's ideas. His talent enabled him to reproduce the style, rhythm and tone of the original poems, while some of his best works were also faithful to the original. In later years, however, his view of translation changed in response to the tendency to stay close to the original, and he retranslated several of his previous translations to make them more faithful to the original, including Lenore. The Russian school of translation owes much to the tradition of translation created by Zhukovsky.<br />
<br />
Pushkin and Lermontov are also two poets who gave perfect preparations for an epoch in the history of Russian translation. Although only a small proportion of their poetry was translated, they made a significant contribution to the improvement of the art of translation in Russia. In their rewriting and imitation of poetry, they were able to reproduce the most important features of foreign poetry, the key point being that their creative translations were no less valuable in their own right than the originals. Their free translation became a model for other translators, and in addition they established the important principle that a good artistic translation must also be a good work in the national literature of the translated language. Pushkin played an indelibly important role in the development of the Russian school of translation. He was always interested in the question of translation, and his critical views on translation were objective and profound. Before translation he stressed the importance of the choice of the original work, and in translation he demanded that the translator should be faithful to the original, while at the same time displaying his deep creative skills and his own literary style. In one of his unfinished posthumous works, 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', Pushkin wrote: 'Chateaubriand's translation (verbatim) compensates to some extent for the faults of the young French writers (free translation), for they have insulted the great man very cruelly, though in a perfectly innocent manner. There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own rhetorical conventions, its own way of expressing itself, and it is impossible to translate into another language with the corresponding vocabulary". These insights had a positive impact on the best Russian translators of the 19th and 20th centuries. In addition, Pushkin's discussion of translation coincided with a turning point in the history of Russian literature, when the Romantic era was being replaced by a new era with a predominantly realist orientation, and a process of 'separation' between translated and national literature was under way. Pushkin's discussion of the work of the translator as distinct from that of the writer contributed to the independence of literature in translation from indigenous literature. <br />
<br />
During this period, while most people advocated free translation, there were a few translators who insisted on maximum fidelity to the original and advocated the word-for-word method, even at the expense of the work's willingness to be translated. Among these were such well-known writers as P.A. Vyazemsky (П.А.Вяземский) and N.I. Gnedzic (Н.И.Гнедич). In fact, they did not always live up to their principles, and sometimes their talent and artistic intuition ended up breaking the bonds of verbatim translation. Vyazemsky's translations of Benjamin Constant and Adam Mickiewicz were not without literary and artistic merit, and his translation of Homer's epic Iliad in particular was highly praised by Pushkin. It was Fetter who was the most insistent on the idea of a verbatim translation. Fetter translated many famous works, and his philosophy throughout was one of sentence-for-sentence, word-for-word translation, retaining all the words of the original. Fetter's extreme word-for-word approach had a negative impact on most of his translations, although he was sometimes able to come up with some effective methods of translation. <br />
<br />
Free translations were also used to promote democratic ideas in original that could not pass official scrutiny. A number of translators, such as V. Kurochkin (В.Курочкин), D. M. Minayev (Д.Минаев) and M. M. Mikhalov (М.Михайлов), achieved this by selecting appropriate original works or by using texts in their translations that were superficially imperceptible in their allusion to the conditions in Russia at the time. It was since then that the use of translation was used as a weapon to express dissent became part of the Russian tradition. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:05, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.3 Second half of the19th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The mid-nineteenth century was a period of increasingly intense political and ideological struggle in Russian literature, and a great debate raged in the Russian literary world over the question of 'art for the people' or 'art for art's sake'. The debate was mainly about the choice of material for translation and the method of translation. As far as the choice of material was concerned, the democratic and revolutionary writers who supported 'art for the people' chose to translate works with progressive ideological content and a democratic orientation, such as Heine. The aristocratic and liberal intellectual writers, on the other hand, opted for philosophical poetry with a chanting and individualistic feel. Of course, this is not absolute: "Mikhailov and Dobrolyubov of the democratic revolutionary school also translated Heine's moody love poems The Songbook, while Tolstoy of the aristocratic and liberal school translated some of Goethe's more progressive poems, such as The Fiancée of Corinth and The Whore of God. In terms of their approach to translation, the Democratic-Revolutionary translators, based on the reproduction of the original as a whole, approached their translations very liberally, even adding in many elements typical of Russian culture. The latter, on the other hand, usually adopted a direct translation, focusing on conveying the formal details of the original work. This divergence was mainly due to the different starting points of the two groups of translators, with the democratic revolutionaries seeking to convey advanced ideas to the Russian general public and the aristocratic intellectuals believing that works of art were irrelevant to the people and that artistic creations should not be exposed to "vulgar" reality.<br />
<br />
There were a large number of outstanding literary writers and literary critics who made brilliant statements about literary translation in that era, none more so than Belinsky (В.Г.Белинский), Chernyshevsky (Н.Г.Черныщевский) and Dubrolyovsky (Н.Г.Добролюбов). Belinsky was one of the greatest Russian literary critics of the 19th century. He believed that translations should not be word-for-word, but should reproduce the spirit of the original, in much the same way as Pushkin's view of translation theory. On the other hand, he also opposed arbitrary 'paraphrasing': the ideal translation should not add or delete arbitrarily to the original text, but should enable the reader to understand the foreign work truly and accurately through the translation. Such a viewpoint seems to us to be quite convincing even now. Belinsky played a decisive role in completely burying the 'rewriting' and 'adapting it to Russian custom' arguments. This issue dominates his writings. He argues that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of the translation, and this is one of the criteria by which he judges its merits. He points out, for example, that the greatest strength of Gnedzic's translation of the Iliad is that it "exudes the atmosphere of ancient life" and "the spirit of the ancient Greeks". However, the contradiction between national identity and translatability was once a problem for Belinsky. Initially believing that it was impossible to translate works with a strong national character into other languages, he was only convinced by the success of Turgenev's collaboration with Louis Viardot in translating Gogol's novels into French in 1846, and then became increasingly determined to recognise translatability in translation. Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a series of revisions that led to a complete and rigorous system of translation theory, the first of its kind in the history of Russian translation theory.<br />
<br />
Translation in Russia developed in the second half of the 19th century. From the 1960s onwards, the Russian readership of non-language speakers began to expand, and these readers were keen to see the translation 'replace' the original. This demand led to an unprecedented expansion in the choice of subjects and translations of Russian literature. Interest in foreign theatrical works was particularly high at this stage, and a strong interest in European classical literature also developed. Dickens, Saclay, Victor Hugo, Dumas, Balzac, Flaubert, Tudor, Maupassant and Zola, as well as lesser-known writers of today, were successively brought to the attention of a wide range of Russian readers in the form of translations. At that time, European theatre classics like Shakespeare's plays were translated into Russia in large numbers. Many professional translators were involved, the most successful being the translator P.N.V. Weinberg. He translated foreign literature from the standpoint of progressive Russian literature of the time. His translation of Othello, for example, is notable for its vividness in the Russian language, and has always been recognised as the best translation in terms of conveying the totality of scenes, plots and long dialogues, even though the translation is wordy compared to the original.<br />
<br />
Although there has been a quantitative surge in translations of Russian literature during this period, the quality has generally been poor, manifesting itself in word-for-word translations, redundant sentences and poor vocabulary, not to mention inventiveness. In addition, the language of the characters in the translation is heavily Russified, with Russian proverbs, sayings and idioms that the foreign characters could never have known, and the introduction of Russian-specific life circumstances that cause contradictions with the plot and details of the original work. For example, В Тулу со своим самоваром ехать (Bring your own samovar to Tula - it's superfluous). The reason for this is that the literary world did not attach much importance to the translation of fiction and prose, and there were no specialists working on this task. Another point is that at this stage there was little progress in the study of Russian translation theory, and no valuable theoretical insights emerged. The linguist A.A. Потебня (1835-1891) expressed his views on translation from a psychological standpoint in his essay "Language and Peopleliness ". In his view, it was impossible to express in another language what was originally intended to be expressed in a certain language. He, like many other literary scholars, denied the translatability of language.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:41, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The mid-nineteenth century was a period of increasingly intensively political and ideological struggle in Russian literature, and a great debate raged in the Russian literary world over the question of 'art for the people' or 'art for art's sake'. The debate was mainly about the choice of materials for translation and the methods of translation. As far as the choice of material was concerned, the democratic and revolutionary writers who supported 'art for the people' chose to translate works with progressive ideological content and a democratic orientation, such as Heine. The aristocratic and liberal intellectual writers, on the other hand, opted for philosophical poetry with a chanting and individualistic feel. It's undoubtful that this is not absolute: "Mikhailov and Dobrolyubov of the democratic revolutionary school also translated Heine's moody love poems The Songbook, while Tolstoy of the aristocratic and liberal school translated some of Goethe's more progressive poems, such as The Fiancée of Corinth and The Whore of God. In terms of their approach to translation, the Democratic-Revolutionary translators, based on the reproduction of the original as a whole, approached their translations very liberally, when they even added in many elements typical of Russian culture. The latter, on the other hand, usually adopted a direct translation, focusing on conveying the formal details of the original work. This divergence was mainly due to the different starting points of the two groups of translators, with the democratic revolutionaries seeking to convey advanced ideas to the Russian general public and the aristocratic intellectuals believing that works of art were irrelevant to the people and that artistic creations should not be exposed to "vulgar" reality.<br />
<br />
There were a large number of outstanding literary writers and literary critics who made brilliant statements about literary translation in that era, none more so than Belinsky (В.Г.Белинский), Chernyshevsky (Н.Г.Черныщевский) and Dubrolyovsky (Н.Г.Добролюбов). Belinsky was one of the greatest Russian literary critics of the 19th century. He believed that translations should not be word-for-word, but should reproduce the spirit of the original text, in much the same way as Pushkin's view of translation theory. On the other hand, he also opposed arbitrary 'paraphrasing': the ideal translation should not add or delete arbitrarily to the original text, but should enable the reader to understand the foreign work truly and accurately through the translation. Such a viewpoint seems to us to be quite convincing even now. Belinsky played a decisive role in completely burying the 'rewriting' and 'adapting it to Russian custom' arguments. This issue dominates his writings. He argues that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of the translation, and this is one of the criteria by which he judges its merits. He points out, for example, that the greatest strength of Gnedzic's translation of the Iliad is that it "exudes the atmosphere of ancient life" and "the spirit of the ancient Greeks". However, the contradiction between national identity and translatability was once a problem for Belinsky. Initially believing that it was impossible to translate works with a strong national character into other languages, he was only convinced by the success of Turgenev's collaboration with Louis Viardot in translating Gogol's novels into French in 1846, and then became increasingly determined to recognise translatability in translation. Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a series of revisions that led to a complete and rigorous system of translation theory, the first of its kind in the history of Russian translation theory.<br />
<br />
Translation in Russia developed in the second half of the 19th century. From the 1960s onwards, the Russian readership of non-language speakers began to expand, and these readers were keen to see the translation 'replace' the original. This demand led to an unprecedented expansion in the choice of subjects and translations of Russian literature. Interest in foreign theatrical works was particularly high at this stage, and a strong interest in European classical literature also developed. Dickens, Saclay, Victor Hugo, Dumas, Balzac, Flaubert, Tudor, Maupassant and Zola, as well as lesser-known writers of today, were successively brought to the attention of a wide range of Russian readers in the form of translations. At that time, European theatre classics like Shakespeare's plays were translated into Russia in large numbers. Many professional translators were involved, the most successful being the translator P.N.V. Weinberg. He translated foreign literature from the standpoint of progressive Russian literature of the time. His translation of Othello, for example, is notable for its vividness in the Russian language, and has always been recognised as the best translation in terms of conveying the totality of scenes, plots and long dialogues, even though the translation is wordy compared to the original.<br />
<br />
Although there has been a quantitative surge in translations of Russian literature during this period, the quality has generally been poor, manifesting itself in word-for-word translations, redundant sentences and poor vocabulary, not to mention inventiveness. In addition, the language of the characters in the translation is heavily Russified, that is, contents with Russian proverbs, sayings and idioms that the foreign characters could never have known, and the introduction of Russian-specific life circumstances that cause contradictions with the plot and details of the original work. For example, В Тулу со своим самоваром ехать (Bring your own samovar to Tula - it's superfluous). The reason for this is that the literary world did not attach much importance to the translation of fiction and prose, and there were no specialists working on this task. Another point is that at this stage there was little progress in the study of Russian translation theory, and no valuable theoretical insights emerged. The linguist A.A. Потебня (1835-1891) expressed his views on translation from a psychological standpoint in his essay "Language and Peopleliness ". In his view, it was impossible to express in another language what was originally intended to be expressed in a certain language. Just like many other literary scholars, he denied the translatability of language. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:13, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.Translation ideas of famous writers of the 18-19th centuries. ===<br />
===3.1. Pushkin 's ideas on translation. ===<br />
Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin (Александр Сергеевич Пушкин, 1977-1837), a famous Russian poet and writer of the nineteenth century, was also very much a translator. Although he left behind few works on translation, his ideas on translation are worth studying. Pushkin's translations of poetry were associated with classicism in the early stages of his work and later with romanticism. Although these translations are far removed from the original in a literal sense, they are almost close to composition. Pushkin's significance as a translator, however, lies in 1) the reproduction of foreign originals in the standard Russian language he established in his translations and 2) the full expression of the realist artistic method in the heyday of his compositions: the focus on typical features and the technique of outlining the historical and individual characteristics that reflect the original.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's translations have their own characteristics and style. He did not translate all of his works word for word from the original, and in some places he deleted what he considered to be redundant sentences in order to avoid the verbosity of the original, occasionally replacing the translation with a general paraphrase. He advocates respect for the characteristics of foreign readers, while at the same time opposing word-for-word translations, which can lead to the trampling of the mother tongue. He therefore advocated translations which, on the one hand, required fidelity to the original in terms of meaning and, on the other, should preserve the original's distinctive features.<br />
As he says in his unfinished 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', commenting on Chateaubriand's translation: 'There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), has failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own conventional rhetorical devices, its own habitual expressions, and it is impossible to translate all this into another language using the corresponding vocabulary." Pushkin's rejection of word-for-word translation can be seen.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's influence on the cause of translation in Russia was immense, and this influence refers neither to his few translations nor to his theoretical views, but to the fact that Pushkin pioneered the translation of Russian literature. Although his ideas on translation cannot be called a theory, they do provide certain translation ideas for later generations of literary translators.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin (Александр Сергеевич Пушкин, 1977-1837), a famous Russian poet and writer of the nineteenth century, was also an outstanding translator. Besides he left behind few works on translation, his ideas on translation are worth studying. Pushkin's translations of poetry were associated with classicism in the early stages of his work and with romanticism later. Although these translations are far removed from the original in a literal sense, they are almost close to composition. Pushkin's significance as a translator, however, lies in the reproduction of foreign originalities in the standard Russian language he established in his translations and the full expression of the realist artistic method in the heyday of his compositions: the focus on typical features and the technique of outlining the historical and individual characteristics that reflect the original.<br />
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Pushkin's translations have their own distinctive characteristics and style. He did not translate all of his works literally from the original context, but in some places he deleted what he considered to be redundant sentences in order to avoid the verbosity of the original, occasionally replacing the translation with a general paraphrase. He advocates to give enough respect for the characteristics of foreign readers, while at the same time opposing word-for-word translations, which may lead to the trampling of the mother tongue. Therefore, He advocated translations which, on the one hand, required fidelity to the original text in terms of meaning and, on the other hand, should preserve the original's distinctive features.<br />
<br />
As he says in his unfinished 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', he comments on Chateaubriand's translation: 'There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), has failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own conventional rhetorical devices, its own habitual expressions, and it is impossible to translate all this into another language using the corresponding vocabulary." Pushkin's rejection of word-for-word translation can be revealed clearly.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's influence on the cause of translation in Russia was huge, and his influence refers neither to his few translations nor to his theoretical views, but to the fact that Pushkin pioneered the translation of Russian literature. Although his ideas on translation cannot be called a theory, they do provide certain unique and new translation ideas for later generations of literary translators. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:29, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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===3.1. Belinsky's ideas on translation. ===<br />
Vissarion Grigorievich Belinsky (Виссарион Григорьевич Белинский, 1811-1848) was a famous literary critic of the nineteenth century and one of the most involved in the world of translation among Russian literary activists of his time. Belinsky was fluent in French and as a young man translated for two magazines, Miscellany and Telescope. Later, after a career in literary criticism, he published numerous articles on translation and criticism of translated works.<br />
Belinsky's and Pushkin's views on translation were very similar, both advocating that translations should not be word-for-word. Belinsky first introduced the term 'theory' of translation, and in his 1838 review of Polevoy's translation of Hamlet, he first proposed the need for a theory of translation. He considered the role of theory: "Any object that man perceives has a theory of its own, and a theory is the knowledge of the laws by which the object exists."<br />
<br />
Belinsky argues that in translation: "Closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original. Each <br />
language has its own distinctive expressions, characteristics and qualities; these are so distinctive that to correctly convey a certain image or sentence, it is sometimes necessary to change them completely in the translation. The corresponding image, like the corresponding sentence, does not necessarily lie in a superficial agreement of words: the inner life of the translation should be made to correspond to the inner life of the original". It can be seen that Belinsky, like Pushkin, was also opposed to word-for-word rigid translations, his view being that the task of translating a language lies in reproducing the spirit of the original. He believed that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of a translation, so the question of the interrelationship between national character and translatability has always troubled Belinsky. He pointed out that 'there is only one rule for translating a literary work - to convey the spirit of the work being translated, and this can only be done by translating it into Russian as the author himself would have written it in Russian, if he had been Russian' (The Complete Works of Belinsky Volume 2).<br />
<br />
Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a number of achievements, and his view of translation as a whole is a complete and rigorous system. His view of translation was developed gradually, and in the process it was dominated by an increasingly firm recognition of the possibility of a successful solution to the task of translation, that is, of translatability. Belinsky believed that a translation must be discerning in its content and form in relation to the original. He has pointed out that "approaching the original is not the same as conveying the letters, but rather the spirit of the original." It is also suggested that the translator and the original author are two different kinds of people. But in order to convey the 'spirit' of the original in the translation, the translator's genius needs to reach a certain tacit understanding with this 'spirit'. He advocates the preservation of exoticism in translation, opposes naturalisation, the arbitrary distortion of the face of the original work, the overwhelming of the original author with the personality of the translator's style, the emphasis on both likeness and likeness, etc. However, while recognising the importance of reproducing the poetic form of the original work in translation, Belinsky also took into account the state of development of Russian literature in translation. This also led him to look favourably on translating good poetry in prose, seeing such translations as a form of transition for Russian readers to the treasures of world literature.<br />
<br />
Although Belinsky wrote little about literary translation, his theoretical views contain the kernel of the realist principles of translation proposed by contemporary Soviet literary translators. His ideas on translation had a very profound influence on the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Vissarion Grigorievich Belinsky (Виссарион Григорьевич Белинский, 1811-1848) was a famous literary critic of the nineteenth century and one of the most active in the world of translation among Russian literary activists of his time. Belinsky was fluent in French and when he was a young man he translated for two magazines, Miscellany and Telescope. Later, after a career in literary criticism, he published numerous articles on translation and criticism of translated works.<br />
<br />
Belinsky's and Pushkin's views on translation were very similar, both advocating that translations should not be word-for-word. Belinsky first introduced the term 'theory' of translation, and in his 1838 review of Polevoy's translation of Hamlet, he first proposed the need for a theory of translation. He considered the role of theory: "Any object that man perceives has a theory of its own, and a theory is the knowledge of the laws by which the object exists."<br />
<br />
Belinsky argues that in translation: "Closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original. Each language has its own distinctive expressions, characteristics and qualities; these are so distinctive that to correctly convey a certain image or sentence, it is sometimes necessary to change them completely in the translation. The corresponding image, like the corresponding sentence, does not necessarily lie in a superficial agreement of words: the inner life of the translation should be made to correspond to the inner life of the original". It can be seen that Belinsky, like Pushkin, was also opposed to word-for-word rigid translations, his view being that the task of translating a language lies in reproducing the spirit of the original. He believed that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of a translation, so the question of the interrelationship between national character and translatability has always troubled Belinsky. He pointed out that 'there is only one rule for translating a literary work - to convey the spirit of the work being translated, and this can only be done by translating it into Russian as the author himself would have written it in Russian, if he had been Russian' (The Complete Works of Belinsky Volume 2).<br />
<br />
Belinsky's career as a translator had a number of achievements, and his view of translation as a whole is a complete and rigorous system. His view of translation was developed gradually, and in this process it was dominated by an increasingly firm recognition of the possibility of a successful solution to the task of translation, that is, of translatability. Belinsky believed that a translation must be discerning in its content and form in relation to the original. He has pointed out that "approaching the original is not the same as conveying the letters, but rather the spirit of the original." It is also suggested that the translator and the original author are two different kinds of people. But in order to convey the 'spirit' of the original in the translation, the translator's genius needs to reach a certain tacit understanding with this 'spirit'. He advocates the preservation of exoticism in translation, opposes naturalisation, the arbitrary distortion of the face of the original work, the overwhelming of the original author with the personality of the translator's style, the emphasis on both likeness and likeness, etc. However, while recognising the importance of reproducing the poetic form of the original work in translation, Belinsky also took into account the state of development of Russian literature in translation. This also led him to look favourably on translating good poetry in prose, seeing such translations as a form of transition for Russian readers to the treasures of world literature.<br />
<br />
Although Belinsky wrote little about literary translation, his theoretical views contain the kernel of the realist principles of translation proposed by contemporary Soviet literary translators. His ideas on translation had a very profound influence on the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:56, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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===4.Conclusion ===<br />
Translation has demonstrated its importance in social activity since antiquity, yet it was only in the twentieth century that it became a widely followed professional discipline. This article reviews Russian translation activity and translation thought in pre-Soviet Russia, exploring its development before the formation of a theoretical system. Throughout the history of translation, Russian scholars have contributed greatly to the development of translation literature in the world. Through combing through the history of Russian translation, we learn that the translation ideas of a number of outstanding writers, though not theoretical, have had an unmistakable impact on later generations. When discussing the translation ideas of 19th-century writers, we are inspired to insist on the principle that "closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original", emphasizing the ideological content and literary value of the translation, that the translation should serve the readers, and that the translation should be people-oriented. These ideas influenced, to a greater or lesser extent, the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, the study of the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia is not only conducive to sorting out Russian translation ideas Russian learners can better understand the characteristics of their translations when translating and improve the accuracy of their translations.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:44, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
Translation has played its important role in the social activities since antiquity, yet it was until in the twentieth century that it became a widely followed professional discipline. This paper reviews Russian translators and translation thoughts in pre-Soviet Russia, exploring its development before the formation of a theoretical system. Throughout the history of translation, Russian scholars have contributed greatly to the development of translation literature in the world. By combing through the history of Russian translation, we learn that the translation ideas of a number of outstanding writers, though not very theoretical, have had an unmistakable impact on later generations. When discussing the translation ideas of 19th-century writers, we are inspired to insist on the principle that "closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original", emphasizing the ideological content and literary value of the translation that the translation should serve the readers, and that the translation should be people-oriented. These ideas influenced, to a greater or lesser extent, the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, the study of the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia not only is conducive to sorting out Russian translation ideas, but also make Russian learners better understand the characteristics of their translations when translating and improving the accuracy of their translations. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 14:02, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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===5.References ===<br />
1.Wu, Keli 吴克礼（2006）.俄苏翻译理论流派综述 The Translation Methods and Studies in USSR. 上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
2.Guo Lin 郭琳（2006）.俄罗斯语言学派翻译理论若干问题研究[D] A Study of Some Problems of Translation Theory of the Russian School of Philology.首都师范大学 Capital Normal University.<br />
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3.Feng Xin 冯欣（2009）. 俄罗斯翻译理论史及其影响研究[D] A study of the history of Russian translation theory and its influence.上海外国语大学 Shanghai International Studies University.<br />
<br />
4.Wang，Yulun；Jiang,Wanzhu 王育伦,姜万砫（1989).别林斯基论文学翻译[J] Belinsky on Literary Translation .中国翻译 Chinese translators Journal ,(03):53-55.<br />
<br />
5.Li Zheng, Fan Min 李铮,范敏（2010）. 普希金与翻译[J] Pushkin and Translation. 现代交际 Modern Intercourse Journal,(05):69.</div>Zhang Yiranhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_5&diff=132636Hist Trans Theo EN 52021-12-14T03:04:41Z<p>Zhang Yiran: /* 1.The history of Russian translation and the period of enlightenment of its translation theory. */</p>
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=Chapter 5 History of Translation Theories from Early Russia to the Soviet Union=<br />
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'''从古罗斯到苏联前的翻译理论史'''<br />
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张怡然 Zhang Yiran,Hunan Normal University,China<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
Translation as a means of intercultural communication, each country has a distinctive translation ideology. This article focuses on the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia. Through analyzing the history of translation, can find that Russia has formed a literary tradition of translation studies in the late 18th century. In the 19th century, Pushkin, Lermontov, Turgenev and other outstanding poets and literary scholars were keen on translation, especially in the middle of the century when Belinsky and other famous literary critics published a series of comments on literary translation, which emphasized the literary tradition of Russian translation to an unparalleled extent, which is rare in the history of translation in the world. The general principles of Russian literary translation thought were also formed during this period: namely, to insist on commenting on the merits of a translation in terms of the overall effect of the work, to emphasize the ideological content and literary value of the translation, and that the translation should serve the reader and be people-oriented. The above ideas influenced the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, a study of the history of translation theory in pre-Soviet Russia will help learners of Russian to better understand the characteristics of their translations and to improve the accuracy and peopleliness of their translations.Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 12:57, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Translation is a means of intercultural communication, and each country has its own distinctive translation theory system. This paper focuses on the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia. By analyzing the history of translation, it is obvious that a literary tradition of translation studies has been formed in Russia in the late 18th century. In the 19th century, Pushkin, Lermontov, Turgenev and other outstanding poets and literary scholars were keen on translation, especially in the middle of the century when Belinsky and other famous literary critics published a series of comments on literary translation, which emphasized the literary tradition of Russian translation to an unparalleled extent, which is rare in the history of translation in the world. The general principles of Russian literary translation thoughts were also formed during this period: namely, to insist on commenting on the merits and weakness of a translation in terms of the overall effect of the work, to emphasize the ideological content and literary value of the translation, and the translation should serve the reader and be people-oriented. The above ideas influenced the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, a study of the history of translation theory in pre-Soviet Russia will help learners of Russian to understand the characteristics of their translations profoundly and to improve the accuracy and fluency of their translations.Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:03, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Translation theories, Translation ideas，History of Translation<br />
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===摘要===<br />
翻译作为一种跨文化交际的手段，每个国家都有独具特色的翻译思想。本文主要探讨苏联前俄国的翻译历史。通过梳理其翻译史可发现，俄国于18世纪末期就已形成了翻译研究的文学传统。进入19世纪后, 普希金、莱蒙托夫、屠格涅夫等优秀诗人、文学家对翻译的热衷, 尤其是世纪中叶别林斯基等著名文学评论家发表一系列关于文学翻译的评论, 更是把俄国翻译的文学传统强调到无以复加的程度, 这在世界翻译史上都是罕见的。俄国文学翻译思想的总原则也在这一时期形成:即坚持从作品的整体效果上来评论译作优劣, 强调译作的思想内容和文学价值, 翻译应为读者服务, 译文应具有人民性。上述思想影响了苏联时期翻译理论的形成。因此，对苏联前俄国翻译理论史的研究有利于俄语学习者在翻译时更好的理解其翻译特点，提高翻译的准确性和人民性。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
翻译理论 翻译思想 翻译史 <br />
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===Introduction===<br />
This essay provides a comprehensive and concise overview of the history of translation in Russia: Russian written translations began in the Kievan Rus' era, when religious subjects were the main focus of translations, especially the Bible, which was translated from Greek. Religious translations continued to flourish under the Moscow principality, represented by Maksim Gleick (МаксимГрек). At the same time, the national character of Russian translations began to emerge, and the languages of translation expanded from Greek to Latin, German and West Slavic, and the subjects covered included Western chivalric fiction, geographical literature, alchemy and medicine. In the eighteenth century, Peter the Great introduced a number of measures to focus on translation, making this period a turning point in the history of Russian translation. The proliferation of specialised translations (e.g. of legal texts) was the main feature of translation activity in the early eighteenth century. After this period Russian translators began to translate literary works.The main translators were Lomonosov (М.В. Ломоносов) and Tretyakovsky (V.K. Тредьяковский). In the second half of the eighteenth century, translation was given greater importance in Russia, and the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books was founded by Ekaterina II, in which a large number of outstanding translators emerged. The nineteenth century was a golden period in the history of Russian translation. Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин) and Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский) both produced many excellent translations. Pushkin (A.С.Пушкин) and Lermontov (M.Ю.Лермонтов) contributed greatly to the development of Russian literature in translation, while Fetter concentrated on love poetry. In the twentieth century, the Russian translation community made significant achievements in theoretical translation studies. In particular, the rapid development of the philological school and the debate between the literary and philological schools made Soviet translation theory one of the leading theories of translation in the world.(Guo Lin,2006:5)Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 12:57, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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This paper provides a comprehensive and concise overview of the history of translation in Russia: Russian written translations began in the Kievan Rus' era, when religious subjects were the main focus of translations, especially the Bible, translated from Greek. Religious translations continued to flourish under the Moscow principality, represented by Maksim Gleick (МаксимГрек). At the same time, the national character of Russian translations began to emerge, and the languages of translation expanded from Greek to Latin, German and West Slavic, and the subjects covered included Western chivalric fiction, geographical literature, alchemy and medicine. In the eighteenth century, Peter the Great introduced a number of measures to focus on translation, leading this period to a turning point in the history of Russian translation. The proliferation of specialised translations (e.g. of legal texts) was the main feature of translation activity in the early eighteenth century. After this period Russian translators began to translate literary works.The main translators were Lomonosov (М.В. Ломоносов) and Tretyakovsky (V.K. Тредьяковский). In the second half of the eighteenth century, translation was paid greater attention in Russia, and the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books was founded by Ekaterina II, in which a large number of outstanding translators emerged. The nineteenth century was a golden period in the history of Russian translation when Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин) and Rukovsky (В.А.Жуковский) both produced many excellent translations. Pushkin (A.С.Пушкин) and Lermontov (M.Ю.Лермонтов) contributed greatly to the development of Russian literature in translation, while Fetter concentrated on love poetry. In the twentieth century, the Russian translation community made significant achievements in theoretical translation studies. In particular, the rapid development of the philological school and the debate between the literary and philological schools made Soviet translation theory one of the leading theories of translation in the world. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:14, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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===1.The history of Russian translation and the period of enlightenment of its translation theory. ===<br />
1. The emergence and development of literary translation.<br />
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Translation activity has a long history in Russia, the beginnings of which can be traced back to the time of Kievan Rus'. A relatively sophisticated system of writing, literature and translation was already in place in ancient Russia in the ninth century AD. Frequent cultural and trade exchanges with Byzantine, German, French and Scandinavian countries contributed significantly to the development of translation in Russia at that time, as did contacts with Eastern countries. From Kievan Rus' onwards, Russian translation methods oscillated between two main tendencies, either to follow the original texts exactly, up to the point of translating them word for word, or to be arbitrary, even to the point of rewriting, adding or deleting at will. The first tendency is the main characteristic of translations of the Bible and other sacred books, while the second, though not absolute, can be said to characterize most secular works.(Feng Xin,2009:8)(Wu Keli,2006:4)<br />
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2.Initiation of translation activities-religious translation. <br />
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In 864 AD, the Byzantine king sent two Greek priests, Kirill (Кирилл) and Mephodi (Мефодий), to spread Christianity among the Slavic people. At the beginning of their mission, they created a new alphabet (now known as the Kirill alphabet) and used this writing system to translate many religious texts from Greek into the ancient Church Slavonic. Among the results were the New Testament, hymnals and prayer books.(Feng,2009:8)<br />
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In 988 AD, Rus was baptised and Kievan Rus was converted to Christianity. A large number of translations appeared instantly to help Protestants become familiar with the new religious philosophy and ethical system and to understand the rituals and customs of the Church. These translations were in a variety of genres, including the Acts of the Saints, sermons, chronicles and so on. In addition, apocryphal books telling magical and fantastical stories were also popular, and some of them had similarities with the later 'fantasy novels'. Most of these translations were done in Bulgaria and were popularised in Rus. At that time, translations of religious texts were mostly word-for-word. There were also a small number of works that, unlike the 'elaborate copies of the original', had a separate literary value. In one case, a large number of details of Russian life were added to the storyline of a sermon (e.g. The Tales of Achild the Wise). In another case, military historical narratives are interspersed with the terminology of the ancient Russian feudal system and certain literary images from the stories of ancient Russian warriors (e.g. Joseph Flav's History of the Jewish War). This translation can be considered one of the most successful of the period. In the translation, the translator succeeded in avoiding many word-for-word translations). In a third case, the manuscripts copied by Ancient Rus, although based on Greek epic poetry (e.g. The Great Work of Digenes Akritas), often borrowed from Russian folk poetry, so that a large number of folk compositions appeared. As a result of this literary process, the translated literature was smoothly enriched by Russian manuscripts, which contributed to the development of original Russian literature and consolidated its links with the medieval literary process. Unfortunately, at that early stage in the development of translation, the translators were not signed, so it is impossible to verify whether the works were translated at home or abroad.(Feng,2009:9) <br />
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During the difficult period of 'Mongol rule' (1228-1480), translations continued to play an important role in the cultural life of the country. The remaining chapters of the Bible were translated one after another, and previous translations were again proofread and revised. In addition to religious translations, more translations of non-religious subjects emerge, such as The Kingdom of India and The Trojan War. Most of the works were still translated from Greek, while works probably translated from Latin and ancient Hebrew also appeared. During this period, Russian began to take shape through the interaction of Old Slavonic (Church Slavonic) and local national languages. However, religious texts were still only translated into Church Slavonic, and the use of this language was by then restricted to ecclesiastical matters. At the same time, political and commercial exchanges with other countries were more likely to be in Russian, which was becoming increasingly sophisticated: elements of the combination of Old Slavonic and Russian can also be found in original works.（Wu,2006:6)<br />
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14-15th century literature in translation by Rus was characterised by an obsession with new themes. These were mainly new works of tranquillity-abstinence literature, or works recommended by and familiar to the tranquillists. This mystical genre was introduced to Rus after it had swept through the Byzantine and Yugoslav peoples. It was reflected in the semi-secular translations popular at the time (for example, The Trojan War). <br />
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In the 16th century AD, Moscow eventually became the political centre of Russia, as well as the translation centre of the country. In 1515, the Grand Duke of Moscow, Vassily III (Василий Ⅲ), asked a Greek monastery to send a learned translator to Moscow. This man, who accompanied the Greek mission to Moscow in 1516, was the historically famous Maksim Gleick (Максим Грек). Maksim Gleick worked as a translator throughout his life, studying most of the religious texts and some of the non-religious works during this period. In addition, he also proofread and annotated previously existing translations.(Wu,2006:7) <br />
<br />
At the beginning, Maksim knew neither Russian nor Old Slavonic, so he divided the translation into two steps: first, he translated from Greek to Latin, and then his assistant translated from Latin to Old Slavonic. In the process of revising existing translations, he often broke with established tradition and was therefore denounced as blasphemous. Maksim was also a prolific writer, educator and philosopher. His writings contain many insights into the art of translation - the earliest recorded treatise on translation in Russia. Maksim insisted that the original text must be carefully analysed in order to grasp its full subtleties and implications. Therefore, the translator must not only master the language of the original, but also have a broad knowledge of the language and prepare for the translation. To support his argument, Maksim used Greek lexicography, phonetic organisation and phonetics involved in translation. His other major contribution was the compilation of a dictionary containing Greek, Latin and Hebrew nouns, which was also the first of its kind in Russian history. Although it was recognised at the time that translators should have a command of both languages as well as a profound background knowledge, the practitioners of translation at the time lacked the necessary qualities and their translations were not as good as they could have been.(Wu,2006:7)Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 13:39, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
1. The emergence and development of literary translation. <br />
<br />
Translation activity has a long history in Russia, the beginnings of which can be traced back to the Time of Kievan Rus'. A relatively sophisticated system of writing, literature and translation was already in ancient Russia in the ninth century AD. Frequent cultural and trade exchanges with Byzantine, German, French and Scandinavian countries contributed significantly to the development of translation in Russia at that time, as did contacts with Eastern countries. From Kievan Rus' onwards, Russian translation methods oscillated between two main tendencies, either to follow the original texts exactly, up to the point of translating them word by word, or to be arbitrary, even to the point of rewriting, adding words or deleting at will. The first tendency is the main characteristic of translations of the Bible and other sacred books, while the second, though not absolutely, can be said to characterize most secular works.<br />
<br />
2.Initiation of translation activities-religious translation. <br />
<br />
In 864 AD, the Byzantine king sent two Greek priests, Kirill (Кирилл) and Mephodi (Мефодий), to spread Christianity among the Slavic people. At the beginning of their mission, they created a new alphabet (now known as the Kirill alphabet) and used this writing system to translate many religious texts from Greek into the ancient Church Slavonic. Among the results were the New Testament, hymnals and prayer books. In 988 AD, Rus was baptised and Kievan Rus was converted to Christianity. A large number of translations appeared instantly to help Protestants become familiar with the new religious philosophy and ethical system and to understand the rituals and customs of the Church. These translations were in a variety of genres, including the Acts of the Saints, sermons, chronicles and so on. In addition, apocryphal books telling magical and fantastical stories were also popular, and some of them had similarities with the later 'fantasy novels'. Most of these translations were done in Bulgaria and were popularised in Rus. At that time, translations of religious texts were mostly word-for-word. There were also a small number of works that, unlike the 'elaborate copies of the original', had a separate literary values. In one case, a large number of details of Russian life were added to the storyline of a sermon (e.g. The Tales of Achild the Wise). In another case, military historical narratives are interspersed with the terminology of the ancient Russian feudal system and certain literary images from the stories of ancient Russian warriors (e.g. Joseph Flav's History of the Jewish War). This translation can be considered one of the most successful of the period. In the translation, the translator succeeded in avoiding many word-for-word translations). Thirdly, the manuscripts copied by Ancient Rus, although based on Greek epic poetry (e.g. The Great Work of Digenes Akritas), often borrowed from Russian folk poetry, so that a large number of folk compositions appeared. As a result of this literary process, the translated literature was smoothly enriched by Russian manuscripts, which contributed to the development of original Russian literature and consolidated its links with the medieval literary process. Unfortunately, at that early stage in the development of translation, the translators were not signed, so it is impossible to verify whether the works were translated at home or abroad. During the difficult period of 'Mongol rule' (1228-1480), translations continued to play an important role in the cultural life of the country. The remaining chapters of the Bible were translated one after another, and previous translations were again proofread and revised. In addition to religious translations, more translations of non-religious subjects emerge, such as The Kingdom of India and The Trojan War. Most of the works were still translated from Greek, while works probably translated from Latin and ancient Hebrew also appeared. During this period, Russian began to take shape through the interaction of Old Slavonic (Church Slavonic) and local national languages. However, religious texts were still only translated into Church Slavonic, and the use of this language was by then restricted to ecclesiastical matters. At the same time, political and commercial exchanges with other countries were more likely to be in Russian, which was becoming increasingly sophisticated: elements of the combination of Old Slavonic and Russian can also be found in original works. 14-15th century literature in translation by Rus was characterised by an obsession with new themes. These were mainly new works of tranquillity-abstinence literature, or works recommended by and familiar to the tranquillists. This mystical genre was introduced to Rus after it had swept through the Byzantine and Yugoslav peoples. It was reflected in the semi-secular translations popular at the time (for example, The Trojan War). In the 16th century AD, Moscow eventually became the political center of Russia, as well as the translation center of the country. In 1515, the Grand Duke of Moscow, Vassily III (Василий Ⅲ), asked a Greek monastery to send a learned translator to Moscow. This man, who accompanied the Greek mission to Moscow in 1516, was the historically famous Maksim Grek (Максим Грек). Maxim Greek worked as a translator throughout his life, studying most of the religious texts and some of the non-religious works during this period. In addition, he also proofread and annotated previously existing translations. At the beginning, Maxim knew neither Russian nor Old Slavonic, so he divided the translation into two steps: first, he translated from Greek to Latin, and then his assistant translated from Latin to Old Slavonic. In the process of revising existing translations, he often broke with established tradition and was therefore denounced as blasphemous. Maxim was also a prolific writer, educator and philosopher. His writings contain many insights into the art of translation - the earliest recorded treatise on translation in Russia. Maxim insisted that the original text must be carefully analysed in order to grasp its full subtleties and implications. Therefore, the translator must not only master the language of the original, but also have a broad knowledge of the language and prepare for the translation. To support his argument, Maxim used Greek lexicography, phonetic organisation and phonetics involved in translation. His other major contribution was the compilation of a dictionary containing Greek, Latin and Hebrew nouns, which was also the first of its kind in Russian history. Although it was recognized at the time that translators should have a command of both languages and profound background knowledge, the practitioners of translation at the time lacked the necessary qualities and their translations were not as good as they should have been. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. Overview of the Russian school of Translation. ===<br />
===2.1 18th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The eighteenth century is an important period in the history of Russian translation. The status of translation in social culture has undergone a qualitative change, and this is due to Peter the Great's reform. At the beginning of the century, translation was still mostly related to professional documents such as laws and contracts. Later, the translator's tentacles gradually expanded to literary translation, for example, French poetry translation. The famous translators of this period are Sumarokov(А.П.Сумароков), Lomonosov(М.В.Ломоносов), Tretyakovsky (В.К.Тредьяковский) and so on. In the second half of the 18th century, the Association for the Translation of Foreign Books officially put forward the importance of translation. The organization has been active for 15 years with over 100 members（Wu,2006:10).<br />
<br />
1.Imperial support for translation. The political reforms introduced by Peter the Great also led to intensive economic and cultural exchanges between Russia and European countries. This created a huge demand for translations of scientific and technical literature and literary works. Translators were required to produce works of a high standard.<br />
<br />
Peter the Great issued a special decree on translation, requiring "faithful" communication of the original text. In a directive issued to his subordinates in 1709, he explicitly stated that when translating foreign books, word-for-word translations were to be avoided and that the content of the original text should be clearly expressed in one's own language, based on an understanding of its content. On the other hand, Peter the Great's subversion of the written language initially caused confusion in Russian translation circles. A large number of foreign languages entered the Russian language, and the piles of foreign syntactic structures distracted attention. In any case, Peter the Great's reforms did set a new norm and a new direction for translation(Wu,2006:11). <br />
<br />
In terms of content, Peter the Great's reforms were, from the very beginning, inextricably linked to the translation of scientific and technical texts, such as the many books on military defence engineering that he ordered to be translated and used to strengthen Russia's military forces. Peter the Great also placed great importance on the translation of prose, poetry and other literary works. During this period, the Russian language began to develop its own literary model, and many educated Russians saw translation as a way of enriching the language and enhancing its uniqueness and expressiveness. <br />
<br />
From around the 1830s, the importance of translating Western European scientific and technical texts gradually gave way to literary works such as prose and poetry. Writers who were also translators turned their attention to the work of new Western European writers, mainly poets, especially French poets. At the same time, the legacy of the Greco-Roman period also entered their minds. They began to translate the works of philosophers and historians, which - on the one hand - gave rise to difficulties in literary rhetoric and scientific terminology and, on the other, played an important role in the formation of a standard Russian language(Feng,2009:10)(Guo,2006:8). <br />
<br />
From that time onwards, translation also became an organised activity, with the emergence of specific bodies responsible for the organisation and management of translation work. 1735 saw the establishment of the first specialised translation organisation, the Russian Society, at the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences. The Society had a professional group of translators and some of the academy's scholars, such as Lomonosov and Tretyakovsky, were among its members. The Association was responsible for selecting works, defining the rules or principles of translation, commenting on translations, and training translators. It is worth mentioning that the Academy of Sciences also set up a school of foreign languages to train official translators. In 1748, the Academy implemented Queen Elizabeth's decree to increase the number of translations of non-religious books and publicly appealed to "the nobility and other classes of intellectuals" to take an active part in the translation process(Guo,2006:8)(Feng,2009:10). <br />
<br />
In the second half of the 18th century, Ekaterina II's efforts to create a 'civilised state' not only led to the development of literature, but also gave preferential treatment to writers. For example, in order to select the best original texts, she ordered the establishment of the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books (1768 - 1783). The Society was dedicated to providing excellent conditions for translation work throughout Russia. The purchase of manuscripts was financed out of Ekaterina's own funds. Later, the Society also discussed a proposal to establish a translation bureau under the Academy of Sciences (1790). The 114 members of the Society included such notable figures as Tretyakovsky, Sumarokov and Radishev. For 14 years the Association was active, producing numerous literary translations and likewise contributing to the discussion of theoretical issues in translation(Guo,2006:9).<br />
<br />
2.The emergence of poetry translation. Translation of poetry also developed in Russia in the 18th century, and later became one of the jewels of the country's literature. The great Russian scholar and poet Lomonosov was a major contributor to this process. A great deal of the work created by Lomonosov and his contemporaries Sumarokov and Tretyakovsky was poetry in translation. They often translated while exploring theoretical issues in translation: they would explain in their works why they translated this way and not that way; they stressed the importance of translation work and the creative value it contained. Among the most prestigious writers and translators in Russian literature at the time, there were several interesting competitions in which two or three poets translated the same work at the same time, and their translations were published in journals. It was often the case that different translations of the same work were published at the same time, without the translator's name, for the judgement of "literary lovers and peers". This phenomenon also supports the idea that the 18th century was a period of 'experimentation' in the history of Russian translation(Feng,2006:11). <br />
<br />
Lomonosov's translations from Latin, German, French and Greek are numerous and varied, showing his talent for both rhyming and free verse. He was keen to reproduce the rhythmic structure of the original texts, using a variety of iambic and iambic meter to convey the Alexandrian style of French epic and the hexameter style of Greek tragedy. Russian poetry was not very developed at the time and was still based on syllables. <br />
Lomonosov's innovations enriched Russian poetry and established new forms and traditions of Russian poetic style and rhyme. <br />
<br />
In contrast, Kantymir (Д.М.Кантемира) and Tretyakovsky's greatest quest was to insist on a faithful translation of the original. In the process, the translators had to contend with the problems of reams of vocabulary and rhetorical rules. Tretyakovsky became famous for his successful use of Russian rhyme to translate many verses of the original in his translation of Paul Thielmann's A Journey to Love Island. In the introduction to the novel, the translator states his approach to translation: "The translator is only one person away from the author. I would add that if the author is original, the translator should be even more original (I am not referring to myself, but to a good translator)". He believes that "prose to prose" and "poetry to poetry" can be as good as the original, and that a good translation is one that "describes the full meaning of each verse". Kantymir 's translation of Horace's Letters and other poetic works in Latin and French, although less well-known than the former, is equally valuable(Wu,2006:16).--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:40, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The eighteenth century is an important period in the history of Russian translation. The status of translation in social culture has undergone a qualitative change, and this is due to Peter the Great's reform. At the beginning of the century, translation was still mostly related to professional documents such as laws and contracts. Later, the translator's tentacles gradually expanded to literary translation, for example, French poetry translation. The famous translators of this period are Sumarokov(А.П.Сумароков), Lomonosov(М.В.Ломоносов), Tretyakovsky (В.К.Тредьяковский) and so on. In the second half of the 18th century, the Association for the Translation of Foreign Books officially put forward the importance of translation. The organization has been active for 15 years with over 100 members. The following points reflected the reasons why translation was paid more attention in the eighteenth century.<br />
<br />
1.Imperial support for translation. <br />
<br />
The political reforms introduced by Peter the Great also led to intensive economic and cultural exchanges between Russia and European countries. This created a huge demand for translations of scientific and technical literature and literary works. Translators were required to produce works of a high standard.Peter the Great issued a special decree on translation, requiring "faithful" communication of the original text. In a directive issued to his subordinates in 1709, he explicitly stated that when translating foreign books, word-for-word translations were to be avoided and that the content of the original text should be clearly expressed in one's own language, based on an understanding of its content. On the other hand, Peter the Great's subversion of the written language initially caused confusion in Russian translation circles. A large number of foreign languages entered the Russian language, and the piles of foreign syntactic structures distracted attention. In any case, Peter the Great's reforms did set a new norm and a new direction for translation. In terms of content, Peter the Great's reforms were, from the very beginning, inextricably linked to the translation of scientific and technical texts, such as the many books on military defence engineering that he ordered to be translated and used to strengthen Russia's military forces. Peter the Great also placed great importance on the translation of prose, poetry and other literary works. During this period, the Russian language began to develop its own literary model, and many educated Russians saw translation as a way of enriching the language and enhancing its uniqueness and expressiveness. <br />
<br />
From around the 1830s, the importance of translating Western European scientific and technical texts gradually gave way to literary works such as prose and poetry. Writers who were also translators turned their attention to the work of new Western European writers, mainly poets, especially French poets. At the same time, the legacy of the Greco-Roman period also entered their minds. They began to translate the works of philosophers and historians, which - on the one hand - gave rise to difficulties in literary rhetoric and scientific terminology and, on the other, played an important role in the formation of a standard Russian language. <br />
<br />
From that time onwards, translation also became an organised activity, with the emergence of specific bodies responsible for the organisation and management of translation work. 1735 saw the establishment of the first specialised translation organisation, the Russian Society, at the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences. The Society had a professional group of translators and some of the academy's scholars, such as Lomonosov and Tretyakovsky, were among its members. The Association was responsible for selecting works, defining the rules or principles of translation, commenting on translations, and training translators. It is worth mentioning that the Academy of Sciences also set up a school of foreign languages to train official translators. In 1748, the Academy implemented Queen Elizabeth's decree to increase the number of translations of non-religious books and publicly appealed to "the nobility and other classes of intellectuals" to take an active part in the translation process. <br />
<br />
In the second half of the 18th century, Ekaterina II's efforts to create a 'civilised state' not only led to the development of literature, but also gave preferential treatment to writers. For example, in order to select the best original texts, she ordered the establishment of the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books (1768-1783). The Society was dedicated to providing excellent conditions for translation work throughout Russia. The purchase of manuscripts was financed out of Ekaterina's own funds. Later, the Society also discussed a proposal to establish a translation bureau under the Academy of Sciences (1790). The 114 members of the Society included such notable figures as Tretyakovsky, Sumarokov and Radishev. For 14 years the Association was active, producing numerous literary translations and likewise contributing to the discussion of theoretical issues in translation.<br />
<br />
2.The emergence of poetry translation.<br />
<br />
Translation of poetry also developed in Russia in the 18th century, and later became one of the jewels of the country's literature. The great Russian scholar and poet Lomonosov was a major contributor to this process. A great deal of the work created by Lomonosov and his contemporaries Sumarokov and Tretyakovsky was poetry in translation. They often translated while exploring theoretical issues in translation: they would explain in their works why they translated this way and not that way; they stressed the importance of translation work and the creative value it contained. Among the most prestigious writers and translators in Russian literature at the time, there were several interesting competitions in which two or three poets translated the same work at the same time, and their translations were published in journals. It was often the case that different translations of the same work were published at the same time, without the translator's name, for the judgement of "literary lovers and peers". This phenomenon also supports the idea that the 18th century was a period of 'experimentation' in the history of Russian translation. <br />
<br />
Lomonosov's translations works in Latin, German, French and Greek are numerous and varied, showing his talent for both rhyming and free verse. He was keen to reproduce the rhythmic structure of the original texts, using a variety of iambic and iambic meter to convey the Alexandrian style of French epic and the hexameter style of Greek tragedy. Russian poetry was not very developed at the time and was still based on syllables. <br />
Lomonosov's innovations enriched Russian poetry and established new forms and traditions of Russian poetic style and rhyme. <br />
<br />
In contrast, Kantymir (Д.М.Кантемира) and Tretyakovsky's greatest quest was to insist on a faithful translation of the original. In the process, the translators had to contend with the problems of reams of vocabulary and rhetorical rules. Tretyakovsky became famous for his successful use of Russian rhyme to translate many verses of the original in his translation of Paul Thielmann's A Journey to Love Island. In the introduction to the novel, the translator states his approach to translation: "The translator is only one person away from the author. I would add that if the author is original, the translator should be even more original (I am not referring to myself, but to a good translator)". He believes that "prose to prose" and "poetry to poetry" can be as good as the original, and that a good translation is one that "describes the full meaning of each verse". Kantymir 's translation of Horace's Letters and other poetic works in Latin and French, although less well-known than the former, is equally valuable. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 12:39, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.2 First half of the19th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The nineteenth century was a golden age in the history of Russian translation. If translation had established itself as a profession in the first hundred years, it was elevated to the level of art in this century. The nineteenth century produced a number of masters of translation, including Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин), Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский), Pushkin (А.С.Пушкин), Lermontov (М.Ю.Лермонтов) and Fetter (А.Фет)(Wu,2006:23). <br />
<br />
The new Russian school of translation owes its formation to the historian Nikolai Karamzin and the poet Zhukovsky. Karamzin published a number of translations in several magazines between the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century. He saw translations as a good help in perfecting a writer's style: a source of information that would satisfy human curiosity, inform historical facts, entertain women and provide material for new magazines. As a young man, Karamzin was strongly opposed to the alteration of and disloyalty to the original texts, but later became a champion of free translation, famously saying: "Whoever follows the author of the original text step by step is no different from a servant who serves his lord". Karamzin's translations cover an admirable range of genres and languages: he translated works by both classical and contemporaneous authors, in Greek, French, Latin, German, English, Italian and some Oriental languages(Feng,2009:12). <br />
<br />
Pushkin called Zhukovsky "a genius of translation". After graduating from the Moscow Noble Boarding University in 1802, Zhukovsky devoted himself to translation. It was thanks to his efforts that Russian readers were able to access the works of world literary giants such as Schiller, Goethe, Byron and Walters Scott. Zhukovsky's creative translation activities also ranged from Charles Bello to Grimm's Fairy Tales. From Charles Bellow to Grimm's fairy tales, from Homer's epic Odyssey to the poetic history of ancient Rus' Igor's Expedition, all became his original texts. There is no denying that Zhukovsky is a master in the history of Russian translation. Like Karamzin, Zhukovsky was a fan of free translation, sometimes rewriting the original or even creating a new story from its subject: sometimes transferring the setting of events to Russia and giving Russian names to the characters. For example, in his 1808 translation of the German Romantic poet Bilge's narrative poem Lenore, he changed the heroine's name from Lenore to Lyudmila and moved the story to the time of the Livonian War in 16th-century Russia. Zhukovsky believed that the "unsavoury character" of the work should be weakened while retaining the original author's ideas. His talent enabled him to reproduce the style, rhythm and tone of the original poems, while some of his best works were also faithful to the original. In later years, however, his view of translation changed in response to the tendency to stay close to the original, and he retranslated several of his previous translations to make them more faithful to the original, including Lenore. The Russian school of translation owes much to the tradition of translation created by Zhukovsky(Wu,2006:24-30)(Feng,2009:13)(Guo,2006:9).<br />
<br />
Pushkin and Lermontov are also two poets who set the stage for an epoch in the history of Russian translation. Although only a small proportion of their poetry was translated, they made a significant contribution to the improvement of the art of translation in Russia. In their rewriting and imitation of poetry, they were able to reproduce the most important features of foreign poetry, the key point being that their creative translations were no less valuable in their own right than the originals. Their free translation became a model for other translators, and in addition they established the important principle that a good artistic translation must also be a good work in the national literature of the translated language. Pushkin played an indelibly important role in the development of the Russian school of translation. He was always interested in the question of translation, and his critical views on translation were objective and profound. Before translation he stressed the importance of the choice of the original work, and in translation he demanded that the translator should be faithful to the original, while at the same time displaying his deep creative skills and his own literary style. In one of his unfinished posthumous works, 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', Pushkin wrote: 'Chateaubriand's translation (verbatim) compensates to some extent for the faults of the young French writers (free translation), for they have insulted the great man very cruelly, though in a perfectly innocent manner. There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own rhetorical conventions, its own way of expressing itself, and it is impossible to translate into another language with the corresponding vocabulary". These insights had a positive impact on the best Russian translators of the 19th and 20th centuries. In addition, Pushkin's discussion of translation coincided with a turning point in the history of Russian literature, when the Romantic era was being replaced by a new era with a predominantly realist orientation, and a process of 'separation' between translated and national literature was under way. Pushkin's discussion of the work of the translator as distinct from that of the writer contributed to the independence of literature in translation from indigenous literature(Guo,2006:10)(Wu,2006:37-41). <br />
<br />
During this period, while most people advocated free translation, there were a few translators who insisted on maximum fidelity to the original and advocated the word-for-word method, even at the expense of the work's willingness to be translated. Among these were such well-known writers as P.A. Vyazemsky (П.А.Вяземский) and N.I. Gnedzic (Н.И.Гнедич). In fact, they did not always live up to their principles, and sometimes their talent and artistic intuition ended up breaking the bonds of verbatim translation. Vyazemsky's translations of Benjamin Constant and Adam Mickiewicz were not without literary and artistic merit, and his translation of Homer's epic Iliad in particular was highly praised by Pushkin. It was Fetter who was the most insistent on the idea of a verbatim translation. Fetter translated many famous works, and his philosophy throughout was one of sentence-for-sentence, word-for-word translation, retaining all the words of the original. Fetter's extreme word-for-word approach had a negative impact on most of his translations, although he was sometimes able to come up with some effective methods of translation(Feng,2009:14). <br />
<br />
Free translations were also sometimes used to promote democratic ideas in the original that could not pass official scrutiny. A number of translators, such as V. Kurochkin (В.Курочкин), D. M. Minayev (Д.Минаев) and M. M. Mikhalov (М.Михайлов), achieved this by selecting appropriate original works or by using texts in their translations that were superficially imperceptible in their allusion to the conditions in Russia at the time. It was from that time onwards that the use of translation as a weapon to express dissent became part of the Russian tradition(Feng,2009:14).--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:41, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The nineteenth century was the golden age in the history of Russian translation. If translation had established its status in the first hundred years, it was elevated to the level of art in this century. The nineteenth century produced a number of masters of translation, including Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин), Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский), Pushkin (А.С.Пушкин), Lermontov (М.Ю.Лермонтов) and Fetter (А.Фет). <br />
<br />
The new Russian school of translation owes its formation to the publishment of a number of translations of historian Nikolai Karamzin and the poet Zhukovsky. Karamzin in several magazines between the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century. He regarded translation as a good help in perfecting a writer's style: a source of information that satisfies human curiosity, informs historical facts, entertains women and provides materials for new magazines. As a young man, Karamzin was strongly opposed to the disloyalty to the original texts, but later became a champion of free translation. His famous saying was: "Whoever follows the author of the original text step by step is no different from a servant who serves his lord". Karamzin's translations cover an admirable range of genres and languages: he translated works by both classical and contemporaneous authors, in Greek, French, Latin, German, English, Italian and some Oriental languages. <br />
<br />
Pushkin called Zhukovsky "a genius of translation". After graduating from the Moscow Noble Boarding University in 1802, Zhukovsky devoted himself to translation. It was thanks to his efforts that Russian readers were able to access the works of world literary giants such as Schiller, Goethe, Byron and Walters Scott. Zhukovsky's creative translation activities also ranged from Charles Bello to Grimm's Fairy Tales. From Charles Bellow to Grimm's fairy tales, from Homer's epic Odyssey to the poetic history of ancient Rus' Igor's Expedition, all became his original texts. There is no denying that Zhukovsky is a master in the history of Russian translation. Like Karamzin, Zhukovsky was a fan of free translation, who sometimes rewrites the original or even creates a new story from its subject, transfers the setting of events to Russia and gives Russian names to the characters. For example, in his 1808 translation of the German Romantic poet Bilge's narrative poem Lenore, he changed the heroine's name from Lenore to Lyudmila and moved the story to the time of the Livonian War in 16th-century Russia. Zhukovsky believed that the "unsavoury character" of the work should be weakened while retaining the original author's ideas. His talent enabled him to reproduce the style, rhythm and tone of the original poems, while some of his best works were also faithful to the original. In later years, however, his view of translation changed in response to the tendency to stay close to the original, and he retranslated several of his previous translations to make them more faithful to the original, including Lenore. The Russian school of translation owes much to the tradition of translation created by Zhukovsky.<br />
<br />
Pushkin and Lermontov are also two poets who gave perfect preparations for an epoch in the history of Russian translation. Although only a small proportion of their poetry was translated, they made a significant contribution to the improvement of the art of translation in Russia. In their rewriting and imitation of poetry, they were able to reproduce the most important features of foreign poetry, the key point being that their creative translations were no less valuable in their own right than the originals. Their free translation became a model for other translators, and in addition they established the important principle that a good artistic translation must also be a good work in the national literature of the translated language. Pushkin played an indelibly important role in the development of the Russian school of translation. He was always interested in the question of translation, and his critical views on translation were objective and profound. Before translation he stressed the importance of the choice of the original work, and in translation he demanded that the translator should be faithful to the original, while at the same time displaying his deep creative skills and his own literary style. In one of his unfinished posthumous works, 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', Pushkin wrote: 'Chateaubriand's translation (verbatim) compensates to some extent for the faults of the young French writers (free translation), for they have insulted the great man very cruelly, though in a perfectly innocent manner. There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own rhetorical conventions, its own way of expressing itself, and it is impossible to translate into another language with the corresponding vocabulary". These insights had a positive impact on the best Russian translators of the 19th and 20th centuries. In addition, Pushkin's discussion of translation coincided with a turning point in the history of Russian literature, when the Romantic era was being replaced by a new era with a predominantly realist orientation, and a process of 'separation' between translated and national literature was under way. Pushkin's discussion of the work of the translator as distinct from that of the writer contributed to the independence of literature in translation from indigenous literature. <br />
<br />
During this period, while most people advocated free translation, there were a few translators who insisted on maximum fidelity to the original and advocated the word-for-word method, even at the expense of the work's willingness to be translated. Among these were such well-known writers as P.A. Vyazemsky (П.А.Вяземский) and N.I. Gnedzic (Н.И.Гнедич). In fact, they did not always live up to their principles, and sometimes their talent and artistic intuition ended up breaking the bonds of verbatim translation. Vyazemsky's translations of Benjamin Constant and Adam Mickiewicz were not without literary and artistic merit, and his translation of Homer's epic Iliad in particular was highly praised by Pushkin. It was Fetter who was the most insistent on the idea of a verbatim translation. Fetter translated many famous works, and his philosophy throughout was one of sentence-for-sentence, word-for-word translation, retaining all the words of the original. Fetter's extreme word-for-word approach had a negative impact on most of his translations, although he was sometimes able to come up with some effective methods of translation. <br />
<br />
Free translations were also used to promote democratic ideas in original that could not pass official scrutiny. A number of translators, such as V. Kurochkin (В.Курочкин), D. M. Minayev (Д.Минаев) and M. M. Mikhalov (М.Михайлов), achieved this by selecting appropriate original works or by using texts in their translations that were superficially imperceptible in their allusion to the conditions in Russia at the time. It was since then that the use of translation was used as a weapon to express dissent became part of the Russian tradition. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:05, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.3 Second half of the19th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The mid-nineteenth century was a period of increasingly intense political and ideological struggle in Russian literature, and a great debate raged in the Russian literary world over the question of 'art for the people' or 'art for art's sake'. The debate was mainly about the choice of material for translation and the method of translation. As far as the choice of material was concerned, the democratic and revolutionary writers who supported 'art for the people' chose to translate works with progressive ideological content and a democratic orientation, such as Heine. The aristocratic and liberal intellectual writers, on the other hand, opted for philosophical poetry with a chanting and individualistic feel. Of course, this is not absolute: "Mikhailov and Dobrolyubov of the democratic revolutionary school also translated Heine's moody love poems The Songbook, while Tolstoy of the aristocratic and liberal school translated some of Goethe's more progressive poems, such as The Fiancée of Corinth and The Whore of God. In terms of their approach to translation, the Democratic-Revolutionary translators, based on the reproduction of the original as a whole, approached their translations very liberally, even adding in many elements typical of Russian culture. The latter, on the other hand, usually adopted a direct translation, focusing on conveying the formal details of the original work. This divergence was mainly due to the different starting points of the two groups of translators, with the democratic revolutionaries seeking to convey advanced ideas to the Russian general public and the aristocratic intellectuals believing that works of art were irrelevant to the people and that artistic creations should not be exposed to "vulgar" reality.<br />
<br />
There were a large number of outstanding literary writers and literary critics who made brilliant statements about literary translation in that era, none more so than Belinsky (В.Г.Белинский), Chernyshevsky (Н.Г.Черныщевский) and Dubrolyovsky (Н.Г.Добролюбов). Belinsky was one of the greatest Russian literary critics of the 19th century. He believed that translations should not be word-for-word, but should reproduce the spirit of the original, in much the same way as Pushkin's view of translation theory. On the other hand, he also opposed arbitrary 'paraphrasing': the ideal translation should not add or delete arbitrarily to the original text, but should enable the reader to understand the foreign work truly and accurately through the translation. Such a viewpoint seems to us to be quite convincing even now. Belinsky played a decisive role in completely burying the 'rewriting' and 'adapting it to Russian custom' arguments. This issue dominates his writings. He argues that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of the translation, and this is one of the criteria by which he judges its merits. He points out, for example, that the greatest strength of Gnedzic's translation of the Iliad is that it "exudes the atmosphere of ancient life" and "the spirit of the ancient Greeks". However, the contradiction between national identity and translatability was once a problem for Belinsky. Initially believing that it was impossible to translate works with a strong national character into other languages, he was only convinced by the success of Turgenev's collaboration with Louis Viardot in translating Gogol's novels into French in 1846, and then became increasingly determined to recognise translatability in translation. Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a series of revisions that led to a complete and rigorous system of translation theory, the first of its kind in the history of Russian translation theory.<br />
<br />
Translation in Russia developed in the second half of the 19th century. From the 1960s onwards, the Russian readership of non-language speakers began to expand, and these readers were keen to see the translation 'replace' the original. This demand led to an unprecedented expansion in the choice of subjects and translations of Russian literature. Interest in foreign theatrical works was particularly high at this stage, and a strong interest in European classical literature also developed. Dickens, Saclay, Victor Hugo, Dumas, Balzac, Flaubert, Tudor, Maupassant and Zola, as well as lesser-known writers of today, were successively brought to the attention of a wide range of Russian readers in the form of translations. At that time, European theatre classics like Shakespeare's plays were translated into Russia in large numbers. Many professional translators were involved, the most successful being the translator P.N.V. Weinberg. He translated foreign literature from the standpoint of progressive Russian literature of the time. His translation of Othello, for example, is notable for its vividness in the Russian language, and has always been recognised as the best translation in terms of conveying the totality of scenes, plots and long dialogues, even though the translation is wordy compared to the original.<br />
<br />
Although there has been a quantitative surge in translations of Russian literature during this period, the quality has generally been poor, manifesting itself in word-for-word translations, redundant sentences and poor vocabulary, not to mention inventiveness. In addition, the language of the characters in the translation is heavily Russified, with Russian proverbs, sayings and idioms that the foreign characters could never have known, and the introduction of Russian-specific life circumstances that cause contradictions with the plot and details of the original work. For example, В Тулу со своим самоваром ехать (Bring your own samovar to Tula - it's superfluous). The reason for this is that the literary world did not attach much importance to the translation of fiction and prose, and there were no specialists working on this task. Another point is that at this stage there was little progress in the study of Russian translation theory, and no valuable theoretical insights emerged. The linguist A.A. Потебня (1835-1891) expressed his views on translation from a psychological standpoint in his essay "Language and Peopleliness ". In his view, it was impossible to express in another language what was originally intended to be expressed in a certain language. He, like many other literary scholars, denied the translatability of language.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:41, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The mid-nineteenth century was a period of increasingly intensively political and ideological struggle in Russian literature, and a great debate raged in the Russian literary world over the question of 'art for the people' or 'art for art's sake'. The debate was mainly about the choice of materials for translation and the methods of translation. As far as the choice of material was concerned, the democratic and revolutionary writers who supported 'art for the people' chose to translate works with progressive ideological content and a democratic orientation, such as Heine. The aristocratic and liberal intellectual writers, on the other hand, opted for philosophical poetry with a chanting and individualistic feel. It's undoubtful that this is not absolute: "Mikhailov and Dobrolyubov of the democratic revolutionary school also translated Heine's moody love poems The Songbook, while Tolstoy of the aristocratic and liberal school translated some of Goethe's more progressive poems, such as The Fiancée of Corinth and The Whore of God. In terms of their approach to translation, the Democratic-Revolutionary translators, based on the reproduction of the original as a whole, approached their translations very liberally, when they even added in many elements typical of Russian culture. The latter, on the other hand, usually adopted a direct translation, focusing on conveying the formal details of the original work. This divergence was mainly due to the different starting points of the two groups of translators, with the democratic revolutionaries seeking to convey advanced ideas to the Russian general public and the aristocratic intellectuals believing that works of art were irrelevant to the people and that artistic creations should not be exposed to "vulgar" reality.<br />
<br />
There were a large number of outstanding literary writers and literary critics who made brilliant statements about literary translation in that era, none more so than Belinsky (В.Г.Белинский), Chernyshevsky (Н.Г.Черныщевский) and Dubrolyovsky (Н.Г.Добролюбов). Belinsky was one of the greatest Russian literary critics of the 19th century. He believed that translations should not be word-for-word, but should reproduce the spirit of the original text, in much the same way as Pushkin's view of translation theory. On the other hand, he also opposed arbitrary 'paraphrasing': the ideal translation should not add or delete arbitrarily to the original text, but should enable the reader to understand the foreign work truly and accurately through the translation. Such a viewpoint seems to us to be quite convincing even now. Belinsky played a decisive role in completely burying the 'rewriting' and 'adapting it to Russian custom' arguments. This issue dominates his writings. He argues that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of the translation, and this is one of the criteria by which he judges its merits. He points out, for example, that the greatest strength of Gnedzic's translation of the Iliad is that it "exudes the atmosphere of ancient life" and "the spirit of the ancient Greeks". However, the contradiction between national identity and translatability was once a problem for Belinsky. Initially believing that it was impossible to translate works with a strong national character into other languages, he was only convinced by the success of Turgenev's collaboration with Louis Viardot in translating Gogol's novels into French in 1846, and then became increasingly determined to recognise translatability in translation. Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a series of revisions that led to a complete and rigorous system of translation theory, the first of its kind in the history of Russian translation theory.<br />
<br />
Translation in Russia developed in the second half of the 19th century. From the 1960s onwards, the Russian readership of non-language speakers began to expand, and these readers were keen to see the translation 'replace' the original. This demand led to an unprecedented expansion in the choice of subjects and translations of Russian literature. Interest in foreign theatrical works was particularly high at this stage, and a strong interest in European classical literature also developed. Dickens, Saclay, Victor Hugo, Dumas, Balzac, Flaubert, Tudor, Maupassant and Zola, as well as lesser-known writers of today, were successively brought to the attention of a wide range of Russian readers in the form of translations. At that time, European theatre classics like Shakespeare's plays were translated into Russia in large numbers. Many professional translators were involved, the most successful being the translator P.N.V. Weinberg. He translated foreign literature from the standpoint of progressive Russian literature of the time. His translation of Othello, for example, is notable for its vividness in the Russian language, and has always been recognised as the best translation in terms of conveying the totality of scenes, plots and long dialogues, even though the translation is wordy compared to the original.<br />
<br />
Although there has been a quantitative surge in translations of Russian literature during this period, the quality has generally been poor, manifesting itself in word-for-word translations, redundant sentences and poor vocabulary, not to mention inventiveness. In addition, the language of the characters in the translation is heavily Russified, that is, contents with Russian proverbs, sayings and idioms that the foreign characters could never have known, and the introduction of Russian-specific life circumstances that cause contradictions with the plot and details of the original work. For example, В Тулу со своим самоваром ехать (Bring your own samovar to Tula - it's superfluous). The reason for this is that the literary world did not attach much importance to the translation of fiction and prose, and there were no specialists working on this task. Another point is that at this stage there was little progress in the study of Russian translation theory, and no valuable theoretical insights emerged. The linguist A.A. Потебня (1835-1891) expressed his views on translation from a psychological standpoint in his essay "Language and Peopleliness ". In his view, it was impossible to express in another language what was originally intended to be expressed in a certain language. Just like many other literary scholars, he denied the translatability of language. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:13, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.Translation ideas of famous writers of the 18-19th centuries. ===<br />
===3.1. Pushkin 's ideas on translation. ===<br />
Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin (Александр Сергеевич Пушкин, 1977-1837), a famous Russian poet and writer of the nineteenth century, was also very much a translator. Although he left behind few works on translation, his ideas on translation are worth studying. Pushkin's translations of poetry were associated with classicism in the early stages of his work and later with romanticism. Although these translations are far removed from the original in a literal sense, they are almost close to composition. Pushkin's significance as a translator, however, lies in 1) the reproduction of foreign originals in the standard Russian language he established in his translations and 2) the full expression of the realist artistic method in the heyday of his compositions: the focus on typical features and the technique of outlining the historical and individual characteristics that reflect the original.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's translations have their own characteristics and style. He did not translate all of his works word for word from the original, and in some places he deleted what he considered to be redundant sentences in order to avoid the verbosity of the original, occasionally replacing the translation with a general paraphrase. He advocates respect for the characteristics of foreign readers, while at the same time opposing word-for-word translations, which can lead to the trampling of the mother tongue. He therefore advocated translations which, on the one hand, required fidelity to the original in terms of meaning and, on the other, should preserve the original's distinctive features.<br />
As he says in his unfinished 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', commenting on Chateaubriand's translation: 'There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), has failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own conventional rhetorical devices, its own habitual expressions, and it is impossible to translate all this into another language using the corresponding vocabulary." Pushkin's rejection of word-for-word translation can be seen.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's influence on the cause of translation in Russia was immense, and this influence refers neither to his few translations nor to his theoretical views, but to the fact that Pushkin pioneered the translation of Russian literature. Although his ideas on translation cannot be called a theory, they do provide certain translation ideas for later generations of literary translators.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin (Александр Сергеевич Пушкин, 1977-1837), a famous Russian poet and writer of the nineteenth century, was also an outstanding translator. Besides he left behind few works on translation, his ideas on translation are worth studying. Pushkin's translations of poetry were associated with classicism in the early stages of his work and with romanticism later. Although these translations are far removed from the original in a literal sense, they are almost close to composition. Pushkin's significance as a translator, however, lies in the reproduction of foreign originalities in the standard Russian language he established in his translations and the full expression of the realist artistic method in the heyday of his compositions: the focus on typical features and the technique of outlining the historical and individual characteristics that reflect the original.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's translations have their own distinctive characteristics and style. He did not translate all of his works literally from the original context, but in some places he deleted what he considered to be redundant sentences in order to avoid the verbosity of the original, occasionally replacing the translation with a general paraphrase. He advocates to give enough respect for the characteristics of foreign readers, while at the same time opposing word-for-word translations, which may lead to the trampling of the mother tongue. Therefore, He advocated translations which, on the one hand, required fidelity to the original text in terms of meaning and, on the other hand, should preserve the original's distinctive features.<br />
<br />
As he says in his unfinished 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', he comments on Chateaubriand's translation: 'There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), has failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own conventional rhetorical devices, its own habitual expressions, and it is impossible to translate all this into another language using the corresponding vocabulary." Pushkin's rejection of word-for-word translation can be revealed clearly.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's influence on the cause of translation in Russia was huge, and his influence refers neither to his few translations nor to his theoretical views, but to the fact that Pushkin pioneered the translation of Russian literature. Although his ideas on translation cannot be called a theory, they do provide certain unique and new translation ideas for later generations of literary translators. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:29, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.1. Belinsky's ideas on translation. ===<br />
Vissarion Grigorievich Belinsky (Виссарион Григорьевич Белинский, 1811-1848) was a famous literary critic of the nineteenth century and one of the most involved in the world of translation among Russian literary activists of his time. Belinsky was fluent in French and as a young man translated for two magazines, Miscellany and Telescope. Later, after a career in literary criticism, he published numerous articles on translation and criticism of translated works.<br />
Belinsky's and Pushkin's views on translation were very similar, both advocating that translations should not be word-for-word. Belinsky first introduced the term 'theory' of translation, and in his 1838 review of Polevoy's translation of Hamlet, he first proposed the need for a theory of translation. He considered the role of theory: "Any object that man perceives has a theory of its own, and a theory is the knowledge of the laws by which the object exists."<br />
<br />
Belinsky argues that in translation: "Closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original. Each <br />
language has its own distinctive expressions, characteristics and qualities; these are so distinctive that to correctly convey a certain image or sentence, it is sometimes necessary to change them completely in the translation. The corresponding image, like the corresponding sentence, does not necessarily lie in a superficial agreement of words: the inner life of the translation should be made to correspond to the inner life of the original". It can be seen that Belinsky, like Pushkin, was also opposed to word-for-word rigid translations, his view being that the task of translating a language lies in reproducing the spirit of the original. He believed that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of a translation, so the question of the interrelationship between national character and translatability has always troubled Belinsky. He pointed out that 'there is only one rule for translating a literary work - to convey the spirit of the work being translated, and this can only be done by translating it into Russian as the author himself would have written it in Russian, if he had been Russian' (The Complete Works of Belinsky Volume 2).<br />
<br />
Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a number of achievements, and his view of translation as a whole is a complete and rigorous system. His view of translation was developed gradually, and in the process it was dominated by an increasingly firm recognition of the possibility of a successful solution to the task of translation, that is, of translatability. Belinsky believed that a translation must be discerning in its content and form in relation to the original. He has pointed out that "approaching the original is not the same as conveying the letters, but rather the spirit of the original." It is also suggested that the translator and the original author are two different kinds of people. But in order to convey the 'spirit' of the original in the translation, the translator's genius needs to reach a certain tacit understanding with this 'spirit'. He advocates the preservation of exoticism in translation, opposes naturalisation, the arbitrary distortion of the face of the original work, the overwhelming of the original author with the personality of the translator's style, the emphasis on both likeness and likeness, etc. However, while recognising the importance of reproducing the poetic form of the original work in translation, Belinsky also took into account the state of development of Russian literature in translation. This also led him to look favourably on translating good poetry in prose, seeing such translations as a form of transition for Russian readers to the treasures of world literature.<br />
<br />
Although Belinsky wrote little about literary translation, his theoretical views contain the kernel of the realist principles of translation proposed by contemporary Soviet literary translators. His ideas on translation had a very profound influence on the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Vissarion Grigorievich Belinsky (Виссарион Григорьевич Белинский, 1811-1848) was a famous literary critic of the nineteenth century and one of the most active in the world of translation among Russian literary activists of his time. Belinsky was fluent in French and when he was a young man he translated for two magazines, Miscellany and Telescope. Later, after a career in literary criticism, he published numerous articles on translation and criticism of translated works.<br />
<br />
Belinsky's and Pushkin's views on translation were very similar, both advocating that translations should not be word-for-word. Belinsky first introduced the term 'theory' of translation, and in his 1838 review of Polevoy's translation of Hamlet, he first proposed the need for a theory of translation. He considered the role of theory: "Any object that man perceives has a theory of its own, and a theory is the knowledge of the laws by which the object exists."<br />
<br />
Belinsky argues that in translation: "Closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original. Each language has its own distinctive expressions, characteristics and qualities; these are so distinctive that to correctly convey a certain image or sentence, it is sometimes necessary to change them completely in the translation. The corresponding image, like the corresponding sentence, does not necessarily lie in a superficial agreement of words: the inner life of the translation should be made to correspond to the inner life of the original". It can be seen that Belinsky, like Pushkin, was also opposed to word-for-word rigid translations, his view being that the task of translating a language lies in reproducing the spirit of the original. He believed that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of a translation, so the question of the interrelationship between national character and translatability has always troubled Belinsky. He pointed out that 'there is only one rule for translating a literary work - to convey the spirit of the work being translated, and this can only be done by translating it into Russian as the author himself would have written it in Russian, if he had been Russian' (The Complete Works of Belinsky Volume 2).<br />
<br />
Belinsky's career as a translator had a number of achievements, and his view of translation as a whole is a complete and rigorous system. His view of translation was developed gradually, and in this process it was dominated by an increasingly firm recognition of the possibility of a successful solution to the task of translation, that is, of translatability. Belinsky believed that a translation must be discerning in its content and form in relation to the original. He has pointed out that "approaching the original is not the same as conveying the letters, but rather the spirit of the original." It is also suggested that the translator and the original author are two different kinds of people. But in order to convey the 'spirit' of the original in the translation, the translator's genius needs to reach a certain tacit understanding with this 'spirit'. He advocates the preservation of exoticism in translation, opposes naturalisation, the arbitrary distortion of the face of the original work, the overwhelming of the original author with the personality of the translator's style, the emphasis on both likeness and likeness, etc. However, while recognising the importance of reproducing the poetic form of the original work in translation, Belinsky also took into account the state of development of Russian literature in translation. This also led him to look favourably on translating good poetry in prose, seeing such translations as a form of transition for Russian readers to the treasures of world literature.<br />
<br />
Although Belinsky wrote little about literary translation, his theoretical views contain the kernel of the realist principles of translation proposed by contemporary Soviet literary translators. His ideas on translation had a very profound influence on the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:56, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.Conclusion ===<br />
Translation has demonstrated its importance in social activity since antiquity, yet it was only in the twentieth century that it became a widely followed professional discipline. This article reviews Russian translation activity and translation thought in pre-Soviet Russia, exploring its development before the formation of a theoretical system. Throughout the history of translation, Russian scholars have contributed greatly to the development of translation literature in the world. Through combing through the history of Russian translation, we learn that the translation ideas of a number of outstanding writers, though not theoretical, have had an unmistakable impact on later generations. When discussing the translation ideas of 19th-century writers, we are inspired to insist on the principle that "closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original", emphasizing the ideological content and literary value of the translation, that the translation should serve the readers, and that the translation should be people-oriented. These ideas influenced, to a greater or lesser extent, the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, the study of the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia is not only conducive to sorting out Russian translation ideas Russian learners can better understand the characteristics of their translations when translating and improve the accuracy of their translations.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:44, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Translation has played its important role in the social activities since antiquity, yet it was until in the twentieth century that it became a widely followed professional discipline. This paper reviews Russian translators and translation thoughts in pre-Soviet Russia, exploring its development before the formation of a theoretical system. Throughout the history of translation, Russian scholars have contributed greatly to the development of translation literature in the world. By combing through the history of Russian translation, we learn that the translation ideas of a number of outstanding writers, though not very theoretical, have had an unmistakable impact on later generations. When discussing the translation ideas of 19th-century writers, we are inspired to insist on the principle that "closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original", emphasizing the ideological content and literary value of the translation that the translation should serve the readers, and that the translation should be people-oriented. These ideas influenced, to a greater or lesser extent, the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, the study of the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia not only is conducive to sorting out Russian translation ideas, but also make Russian learners better understand the characteristics of their translations when translating and improving the accuracy of their translations. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 14:02, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.References ===<br />
1.Wu, Keli 吴克礼（2006）.俄苏翻译理论流派综述 The Translation Methods and Studies in USSR. 上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
2.Guo Lin 郭琳（2006）.俄罗斯语言学派翻译理论若干问题研究[D] A Study of Some Problems of Translation Theory of the Russian School of Philology.首都师范大学 Capital Normal University.<br />
<br />
3.Feng Xin 冯欣（2009）. 俄罗斯翻译理论史及其影响研究[D] A study of the history of Russian translation theory and its influence.上海外国语大学 Shanghai International Studies University.<br />
<br />
4.Wang，Yulun；Jiang,Wanzhu 王育伦,姜万砫（1989).别林斯基论文学翻译[J] Belinsky on Literary Translation .中国翻译 Chinese translators Journal ,(03):53-55.<br />
<br />
5.Li Zheng, Fan Min 李铮,范敏（2010）. 普希金与翻译[J] Pushkin and Translation. 现代交际 Modern Intercourse Journal,(05):69.</div>Zhang Yiranhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_5&diff=132634Hist Trans Theo EN 52021-12-14T03:02:23Z<p>Zhang Yiran: /* Introduction */</p>
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=Chapter 5 History of Translation Theories from Early Russia to the Soviet Union=<br />
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'''从古罗斯到苏联前的翻译理论史'''<br />
<br />
张怡然 Zhang Yiran,Hunan Normal University,China<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation as a means of intercultural communication, each country has a distinctive translation ideology. This article focuses on the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia. Through analyzing the history of translation, can find that Russia has formed a literary tradition of translation studies in the late 18th century. In the 19th century, Pushkin, Lermontov, Turgenev and other outstanding poets and literary scholars were keen on translation, especially in the middle of the century when Belinsky and other famous literary critics published a series of comments on literary translation, which emphasized the literary tradition of Russian translation to an unparalleled extent, which is rare in the history of translation in the world. The general principles of Russian literary translation thought were also formed during this period: namely, to insist on commenting on the merits of a translation in terms of the overall effect of the work, to emphasize the ideological content and literary value of the translation, and that the translation should serve the reader and be people-oriented. The above ideas influenced the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, a study of the history of translation theory in pre-Soviet Russia will help learners of Russian to better understand the characteristics of their translations and to improve the accuracy and peopleliness of their translations.Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 12:57, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation is a means of intercultural communication, and each country has its own distinctive translation theory system. This paper focuses on the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia. By analyzing the history of translation, it is obvious that a literary tradition of translation studies has been formed in Russia in the late 18th century. In the 19th century, Pushkin, Lermontov, Turgenev and other outstanding poets and literary scholars were keen on translation, especially in the middle of the century when Belinsky and other famous literary critics published a series of comments on literary translation, which emphasized the literary tradition of Russian translation to an unparalleled extent, which is rare in the history of translation in the world. The general principles of Russian literary translation thoughts were also formed during this period: namely, to insist on commenting on the merits and weakness of a translation in terms of the overall effect of the work, to emphasize the ideological content and literary value of the translation, and the translation should serve the reader and be people-oriented. The above ideas influenced the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, a study of the history of translation theory in pre-Soviet Russia will help learners of Russian to understand the characteristics of their translations profoundly and to improve the accuracy and fluency of their translations.Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:03, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation theories, Translation ideas，History of Translation<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译作为一种跨文化交际的手段，每个国家都有独具特色的翻译思想。本文主要探讨苏联前俄国的翻译历史。通过梳理其翻译史可发现，俄国于18世纪末期就已形成了翻译研究的文学传统。进入19世纪后, 普希金、莱蒙托夫、屠格涅夫等优秀诗人、文学家对翻译的热衷, 尤其是世纪中叶别林斯基等著名文学评论家发表一系列关于文学翻译的评论, 更是把俄国翻译的文学传统强调到无以复加的程度, 这在世界翻译史上都是罕见的。俄国文学翻译思想的总原则也在这一时期形成:即坚持从作品的整体效果上来评论译作优劣, 强调译作的思想内容和文学价值, 翻译应为读者服务, 译文应具有人民性。上述思想影响了苏联时期翻译理论的形成。因此，对苏联前俄国翻译理论史的研究有利于俄语学习者在翻译时更好的理解其翻译特点，提高翻译的准确性和人民性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译理论 翻译思想 翻译史 <br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
This essay provides a comprehensive and concise overview of the history of translation in Russia: Russian written translations began in the Kievan Rus' era, when religious subjects were the main focus of translations, especially the Bible, which was translated from Greek. Religious translations continued to flourish under the Moscow principality, represented by Maksim Gleick (МаксимГрек). At the same time, the national character of Russian translations began to emerge, and the languages of translation expanded from Greek to Latin, German and West Slavic, and the subjects covered included Western chivalric fiction, geographical literature, alchemy and medicine. In the eighteenth century, Peter the Great introduced a number of measures to focus on translation, making this period a turning point in the history of Russian translation. The proliferation of specialised translations (e.g. of legal texts) was the main feature of translation activity in the early eighteenth century. After this period Russian translators began to translate literary works.The main translators were Lomonosov (М.В. Ломоносов) and Tretyakovsky (V.K. Тредьяковский). In the second half of the eighteenth century, translation was given greater importance in Russia, and the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books was founded by Ekaterina II, in which a large number of outstanding translators emerged. The nineteenth century was a golden period in the history of Russian translation. Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин) and Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский) both produced many excellent translations. Pushkin (A.С.Пушкин) and Lermontov (M.Ю.Лермонтов) contributed greatly to the development of Russian literature in translation, while Fetter concentrated on love poetry. In the twentieth century, the Russian translation community made significant achievements in theoretical translation studies. In particular, the rapid development of the philological school and the debate between the literary and philological schools made Soviet translation theory one of the leading theories of translation in the world.(Guo Lin,2006:5)Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 12:57, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
This paper provides a comprehensive and concise overview of the history of translation in Russia: Russian written translations began in the Kievan Rus' era, when religious subjects were the main focus of translations, especially the Bible, translated from Greek. Religious translations continued to flourish under the Moscow principality, represented by Maksim Gleick (МаксимГрек). At the same time, the national character of Russian translations began to emerge, and the languages of translation expanded from Greek to Latin, German and West Slavic, and the subjects covered included Western chivalric fiction, geographical literature, alchemy and medicine. In the eighteenth century, Peter the Great introduced a number of measures to focus on translation, leading this period to a turning point in the history of Russian translation. The proliferation of specialised translations (e.g. of legal texts) was the main feature of translation activity in the early eighteenth century. After this period Russian translators began to translate literary works.The main translators were Lomonosov (М.В. Ломоносов) and Tretyakovsky (V.K. Тредьяковский). In the second half of the eighteenth century, translation was paid greater attention in Russia, and the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books was founded by Ekaterina II, in which a large number of outstanding translators emerged. The nineteenth century was a golden period in the history of Russian translation when Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин) and Rukovsky (В.А.Жуковский) both produced many excellent translations. Pushkin (A.С.Пушкин) and Lermontov (M.Ю.Лермонтов) contributed greatly to the development of Russian literature in translation, while Fetter concentrated on love poetry. In the twentieth century, the Russian translation community made significant achievements in theoretical translation studies. In particular, the rapid development of the philological school and the debate between the literary and philological schools made Soviet translation theory one of the leading theories of translation in the world. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:14, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===1.The history of Russian translation and the period of enlightenment of its translation theory. ===<br />
1. The emergence and development of literary translation.<br />
<br />
Translation activity has a long history in Russia, the beginnings of which can be traced back to the time of Kievan Rus'. A relatively sophisticated system of writing, literature and translation was already in place in ancient Russia in the ninth century AD. Frequent cultural and trade exchanges with Byzantine, German, French and Scandinavian countries contributed significantly to the development of translation in Russia at that time, as did contacts with Eastern countries. From Kievan Rus' onwards, Russian translation methods oscillated between two main tendencies, either to follow the original texts exactly, up to the point of translating them word for word, or to be arbitrary, even to the point of rewriting, adding or deleting at will. The first tendency is the main characteristic of translations of the Bible and other sacred books, while the second, though not absolute, can be said to characterize most secular works (Feng,2009:8)(Wu,2006:4)(Wu,2006:4).<br />
<br />
2.Initiation of translation activities-religious translation. <br />
<br />
In 864 AD, the Byzantine king sent two Greek priests, Kirill (Кирилл) and Mephodi (Мефодий), to spread Christianity among the Slavic people. At the beginning of their mission, they created a new alphabet (now known as the Kirill alphabet) and used this writing system to translate many religious texts from Greek into the ancient Church Slavonic. Among the results were the New Testament, hymnals and prayer books(Feng,2009:8). <br />
<br />
In 988 AD, Rus was baptised and Kievan Rus was converted to Christianity. A large number of translations appeared instantly to help Protestants become familiar with the new religious philosophy and ethical system and to understand the rituals and customs of the Church. These translations were in a variety of genres, including the Acts of the Saints, sermons, chronicles and so on. In addition, apocryphal books telling magical and fantastical stories were also popular, and some of them had similarities with the later 'fantasy novels'. Most of these translations were done in Bulgaria and were popularised in Rus. At that time, translations of religious texts were mostly word-for-word. There were also a small number of works that, unlike the 'elaborate copies of the original', had a separate literary value. In one case, a large number of details of Russian life were added to the storyline of a sermon (e.g. The Tales of Achild the Wise). In another case, military historical narratives are interspersed with the terminology of the ancient Russian feudal system and certain literary images from the stories of ancient Russian warriors (e.g. Joseph Flav's History of the Jewish War). This translation can be considered one of the most successful of the period. In the translation, the translator succeeded in avoiding many word-for-word translations). In a third case, the manuscripts copied by Ancient Rus, although based on Greek epic poetry (e.g. The Great Work of Digenes Akritas), often borrowed from Russian folk poetry, so that a large number of folk compositions appeared. As a result of this literary process, the translated literature was smoothly enriched by Russian manuscripts, which contributed to the development of original Russian literature and consolidated its links with the medieval literary process. Unfortunately, at that early stage in the development of translation, the translators were not signed, so it is impossible to verify whether the works were translated at home or abroad(Feng,2009:9). <br />
<br />
During the difficult period of 'Mongol rule' (1228-1480), translations continued to play an important role in the cultural life of the country. The remaining chapters of the Bible were translated one after another, and previous translations were again proofread and revised. In addition to religious translations, more translations of non-religious subjects emerge, such as The Kingdom of India and The Trojan War. Most of the works were still translated from Greek, while works probably translated from Latin and ancient Hebrew also appeared. During this period, Russian began to take shape through the interaction of Old Slavonic (Church Slavonic) and local national languages. However, religious texts were still only translated into Church Slavonic, and the use of this language was by then restricted to ecclesiastical matters. At the same time, political and commercial exchanges with other countries were more likely to be in Russian, which was becoming increasingly sophisticated: elements of the combination of Old Slavonic and Russian can also be found in original works（Wu,2006:6). <br />
<br />
14-15th century literature in translation by Rus was characterised by an obsession with new themes. These were mainly new works of tranquillity-abstinence literature, or works recommended by and familiar to the tranquillists. This mystical genre was introduced to Rus after it had swept through the Byzantine and Yugoslav peoples. It was reflected in the semi-secular translations popular at the time (for example, The Trojan War). <br />
<br />
In the 16th century AD, Moscow eventually became the political centre of Russia, as well as the translation centre of the country. In 1515, the Grand Duke of Moscow, Vassily III (Василий Ⅲ), asked a Greek monastery to send a learned translator to Moscow. This man, who accompanied the Greek mission to Moscow in 1516, was the historically famous Maksim Gleick (Максим Грек). Maksim Gleick worked as a translator throughout his life, studying most of the religious texts and some of the non-religious works during this period. In addition, he also proofread and annotated previously existing translations(Wu,2006:7). <br />
<br />
At the beginning, Maksim knew neither Russian nor Old Slavonic, so he divided the translation into two steps: first, he translated from Greek to Latin, and then his assistant translated from Latin to Old Slavonic. In the process of revising existing translations, he often broke with established tradition and was therefore denounced as blasphemous. Maksim was also a prolific writer, educator and philosopher. His writings contain many insights into the art of translation - the earliest recorded treatise on translation in Russia. Maksim insisted that the original text must be carefully analysed in order to grasp its full subtleties and implications. Therefore, the translator must not only master the language of the original, but also have a broad knowledge of the language and prepare for the translation. To support his argument, Maksim used Greek lexicography, phonetic organisation and phonetics involved in translation. His other major contribution was the compilation of a dictionary containing Greek, Latin and Hebrew nouns, which was also the first of its kind in Russian history. Although it was recognised at the time that translators should have a command of both languages as well as a profound background knowledge, the practitioners of translation at the time lacked the necessary qualities and their translations were not as good as they could have been(Wu,2006:7).--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 13:39, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
1. The emergence and development of literary translation. <br />
<br />
Translation activity has a long history in Russia, the beginnings of which can be traced back to the Time of Kievan Rus'. A relatively sophisticated system of writing, literature and translation was already in ancient Russia in the ninth century AD. Frequent cultural and trade exchanges with Byzantine, German, French and Scandinavian countries contributed significantly to the development of translation in Russia at that time, as did contacts with Eastern countries. From Kievan Rus' onwards, Russian translation methods oscillated between two main tendencies, either to follow the original texts exactly, up to the point of translating them word by word, or to be arbitrary, even to the point of rewriting, adding words or deleting at will. The first tendency is the main characteristic of translations of the Bible and other sacred books, while the second, though not absolutely, can be said to characterize most secular works.<br />
<br />
2.Initiation of translation activities-religious translation. <br />
<br />
In 864 AD, the Byzantine king sent two Greek priests, Kirill (Кирилл) and Mephodi (Мефодий), to spread Christianity among the Slavic people. At the beginning of their mission, they created a new alphabet (now known as the Kirill alphabet) and used this writing system to translate many religious texts from Greek into the ancient Church Slavonic. Among the results were the New Testament, hymnals and prayer books. In 988 AD, Rus was baptised and Kievan Rus was converted to Christianity. A large number of translations appeared instantly to help Protestants become familiar with the new religious philosophy and ethical system and to understand the rituals and customs of the Church. These translations were in a variety of genres, including the Acts of the Saints, sermons, chronicles and so on. In addition, apocryphal books telling magical and fantastical stories were also popular, and some of them had similarities with the later 'fantasy novels'. Most of these translations were done in Bulgaria and were popularised in Rus. At that time, translations of religious texts were mostly word-for-word. There were also a small number of works that, unlike the 'elaborate copies of the original', had a separate literary values. In one case, a large number of details of Russian life were added to the storyline of a sermon (e.g. The Tales of Achild the Wise). In another case, military historical narratives are interspersed with the terminology of the ancient Russian feudal system and certain literary images from the stories of ancient Russian warriors (e.g. Joseph Flav's History of the Jewish War). This translation can be considered one of the most successful of the period. In the translation, the translator succeeded in avoiding many word-for-word translations). Thirdly, the manuscripts copied by Ancient Rus, although based on Greek epic poetry (e.g. The Great Work of Digenes Akritas), often borrowed from Russian folk poetry, so that a large number of folk compositions appeared. As a result of this literary process, the translated literature was smoothly enriched by Russian manuscripts, which contributed to the development of original Russian literature and consolidated its links with the medieval literary process. Unfortunately, at that early stage in the development of translation, the translators were not signed, so it is impossible to verify whether the works were translated at home or abroad. During the difficult period of 'Mongol rule' (1228-1480), translations continued to play an important role in the cultural life of the country. The remaining chapters of the Bible were translated one after another, and previous translations were again proofread and revised. In addition to religious translations, more translations of non-religious subjects emerge, such as The Kingdom of India and The Trojan War. Most of the works were still translated from Greek, while works probably translated from Latin and ancient Hebrew also appeared. During this period, Russian began to take shape through the interaction of Old Slavonic (Church Slavonic) and local national languages. However, religious texts were still only translated into Church Slavonic, and the use of this language was by then restricted to ecclesiastical matters. At the same time, political and commercial exchanges with other countries were more likely to be in Russian, which was becoming increasingly sophisticated: elements of the combination of Old Slavonic and Russian can also be found in original works. 14-15th century literature in translation by Rus was characterised by an obsession with new themes. These were mainly new works of tranquillity-abstinence literature, or works recommended by and familiar to the tranquillists. This mystical genre was introduced to Rus after it had swept through the Byzantine and Yugoslav peoples. It was reflected in the semi-secular translations popular at the time (for example, The Trojan War). In the 16th century AD, Moscow eventually became the political center of Russia, as well as the translation center of the country. In 1515, the Grand Duke of Moscow, Vassily III (Василий Ⅲ), asked a Greek monastery to send a learned translator to Moscow. This man, who accompanied the Greek mission to Moscow in 1516, was the historically famous Maksim Grek (Максим Грек). Maxim Greek worked as a translator throughout his life, studying most of the religious texts and some of the non-religious works during this period. In addition, he also proofread and annotated previously existing translations. At the beginning, Maxim knew neither Russian nor Old Slavonic, so he divided the translation into two steps: first, he translated from Greek to Latin, and then his assistant translated from Latin to Old Slavonic. In the process of revising existing translations, he often broke with established tradition and was therefore denounced as blasphemous. Maxim was also a prolific writer, educator and philosopher. His writings contain many insights into the art of translation - the earliest recorded treatise on translation in Russia. Maxim insisted that the original text must be carefully analysed in order to grasp its full subtleties and implications. Therefore, the translator must not only master the language of the original, but also have a broad knowledge of the language and prepare for the translation. To support his argument, Maxim used Greek lexicography, phonetic organisation and phonetics involved in translation. His other major contribution was the compilation of a dictionary containing Greek, Latin and Hebrew nouns, which was also the first of its kind in Russian history. Although it was recognized at the time that translators should have a command of both languages and profound background knowledge, the practitioners of translation at the time lacked the necessary qualities and their translations were not as good as they should have been. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. Overview of the Russian school of Translation. ===<br />
===2.1 18th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The eighteenth century is an important period in the history of Russian translation. The status of translation in social culture has undergone a qualitative change, and this is due to Peter the Great's reform. At the beginning of the century, translation was still mostly related to professional documents such as laws and contracts. Later, the translator's tentacles gradually expanded to literary translation, for example, French poetry translation. The famous translators of this period are Sumarokov(А.П.Сумароков), Lomonosov(М.В.Ломоносов), Tretyakovsky (В.К.Тредьяковский) and so on. In the second half of the 18th century, the Association for the Translation of Foreign Books officially put forward the importance of translation. The organization has been active for 15 years with over 100 members（Wu,2006:10).<br />
<br />
1.Imperial support for translation. The political reforms introduced by Peter the Great also led to intensive economic and cultural exchanges between Russia and European countries. This created a huge demand for translations of scientific and technical literature and literary works. Translators were required to produce works of a high standard.<br />
<br />
Peter the Great issued a special decree on translation, requiring "faithful" communication of the original text. In a directive issued to his subordinates in 1709, he explicitly stated that when translating foreign books, word-for-word translations were to be avoided and that the content of the original text should be clearly expressed in one's own language, based on an understanding of its content. On the other hand, Peter the Great's subversion of the written language initially caused confusion in Russian translation circles. A large number of foreign languages entered the Russian language, and the piles of foreign syntactic structures distracted attention. In any case, Peter the Great's reforms did set a new norm and a new direction for translation(Wu,2006:11). <br />
<br />
In terms of content, Peter the Great's reforms were, from the very beginning, inextricably linked to the translation of scientific and technical texts, such as the many books on military defence engineering that he ordered to be translated and used to strengthen Russia's military forces. Peter the Great also placed great importance on the translation of prose, poetry and other literary works. During this period, the Russian language began to develop its own literary model, and many educated Russians saw translation as a way of enriching the language and enhancing its uniqueness and expressiveness. <br />
<br />
From around the 1830s, the importance of translating Western European scientific and technical texts gradually gave way to literary works such as prose and poetry. Writers who were also translators turned their attention to the work of new Western European writers, mainly poets, especially French poets. At the same time, the legacy of the Greco-Roman period also entered their minds. They began to translate the works of philosophers and historians, which - on the one hand - gave rise to difficulties in literary rhetoric and scientific terminology and, on the other, played an important role in the formation of a standard Russian language(Feng,2009:10)(Guo,2006:8). <br />
<br />
From that time onwards, translation also became an organised activity, with the emergence of specific bodies responsible for the organisation and management of translation work. 1735 saw the establishment of the first specialised translation organisation, the Russian Society, at the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences. The Society had a professional group of translators and some of the academy's scholars, such as Lomonosov and Tretyakovsky, were among its members. The Association was responsible for selecting works, defining the rules or principles of translation, commenting on translations, and training translators. It is worth mentioning that the Academy of Sciences also set up a school of foreign languages to train official translators. In 1748, the Academy implemented Queen Elizabeth's decree to increase the number of translations of non-religious books and publicly appealed to "the nobility and other classes of intellectuals" to take an active part in the translation process(Guo,2006:8)(Feng,2009:10). <br />
<br />
In the second half of the 18th century, Ekaterina II's efforts to create a 'civilised state' not only led to the development of literature, but also gave preferential treatment to writers. For example, in order to select the best original texts, she ordered the establishment of the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books (1768 - 1783). The Society was dedicated to providing excellent conditions for translation work throughout Russia. The purchase of manuscripts was financed out of Ekaterina's own funds. Later, the Society also discussed a proposal to establish a translation bureau under the Academy of Sciences (1790). The 114 members of the Society included such notable figures as Tretyakovsky, Sumarokov and Radishev. For 14 years the Association was active, producing numerous literary translations and likewise contributing to the discussion of theoretical issues in translation(Guo,2006:9).<br />
<br />
2.The emergence of poetry translation. Translation of poetry also developed in Russia in the 18th century, and later became one of the jewels of the country's literature. The great Russian scholar and poet Lomonosov was a major contributor to this process. A great deal of the work created by Lomonosov and his contemporaries Sumarokov and Tretyakovsky was poetry in translation. They often translated while exploring theoretical issues in translation: they would explain in their works why they translated this way and not that way; they stressed the importance of translation work and the creative value it contained. Among the most prestigious writers and translators in Russian literature at the time, there were several interesting competitions in which two or three poets translated the same work at the same time, and their translations were published in journals. It was often the case that different translations of the same work were published at the same time, without the translator's name, for the judgement of "literary lovers and peers". This phenomenon also supports the idea that the 18th century was a period of 'experimentation' in the history of Russian translation(Feng,2006:11). <br />
<br />
Lomonosov's translations from Latin, German, French and Greek are numerous and varied, showing his talent for both rhyming and free verse. He was keen to reproduce the rhythmic structure of the original texts, using a variety of iambic and iambic meter to convey the Alexandrian style of French epic and the hexameter style of Greek tragedy. Russian poetry was not very developed at the time and was still based on syllables. <br />
Lomonosov's innovations enriched Russian poetry and established new forms and traditions of Russian poetic style and rhyme. <br />
<br />
In contrast, Kantymir (Д.М.Кантемира) and Tretyakovsky's greatest quest was to insist on a faithful translation of the original. In the process, the translators had to contend with the problems of reams of vocabulary and rhetorical rules. Tretyakovsky became famous for his successful use of Russian rhyme to translate many verses of the original in his translation of Paul Thielmann's A Journey to Love Island. In the introduction to the novel, the translator states his approach to translation: "The translator is only one person away from the author. I would add that if the author is original, the translator should be even more original (I am not referring to myself, but to a good translator)". He believes that "prose to prose" and "poetry to poetry" can be as good as the original, and that a good translation is one that "describes the full meaning of each verse". Kantymir 's translation of Horace's Letters and other poetic works in Latin and French, although less well-known than the former, is equally valuable(Wu,2006:16).--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:40, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The eighteenth century is an important period in the history of Russian translation. The status of translation in social culture has undergone a qualitative change, and this is due to Peter the Great's reform. At the beginning of the century, translation was still mostly related to professional documents such as laws and contracts. Later, the translator's tentacles gradually expanded to literary translation, for example, French poetry translation. The famous translators of this period are Sumarokov(А.П.Сумароков), Lomonosov(М.В.Ломоносов), Tretyakovsky (В.К.Тредьяковский) and so on. In the second half of the 18th century, the Association for the Translation of Foreign Books officially put forward the importance of translation. The organization has been active for 15 years with over 100 members. The following points reflected the reasons why translation was paid more attention in the eighteenth century.<br />
<br />
1.Imperial support for translation. <br />
<br />
The political reforms introduced by Peter the Great also led to intensive economic and cultural exchanges between Russia and European countries. This created a huge demand for translations of scientific and technical literature and literary works. Translators were required to produce works of a high standard.Peter the Great issued a special decree on translation, requiring "faithful" communication of the original text. In a directive issued to his subordinates in 1709, he explicitly stated that when translating foreign books, word-for-word translations were to be avoided and that the content of the original text should be clearly expressed in one's own language, based on an understanding of its content. On the other hand, Peter the Great's subversion of the written language initially caused confusion in Russian translation circles. A large number of foreign languages entered the Russian language, and the piles of foreign syntactic structures distracted attention. In any case, Peter the Great's reforms did set a new norm and a new direction for translation. In terms of content, Peter the Great's reforms were, from the very beginning, inextricably linked to the translation of scientific and technical texts, such as the many books on military defence engineering that he ordered to be translated and used to strengthen Russia's military forces. Peter the Great also placed great importance on the translation of prose, poetry and other literary works. During this period, the Russian language began to develop its own literary model, and many educated Russians saw translation as a way of enriching the language and enhancing its uniqueness and expressiveness. <br />
<br />
From around the 1830s, the importance of translating Western European scientific and technical texts gradually gave way to literary works such as prose and poetry. Writers who were also translators turned their attention to the work of new Western European writers, mainly poets, especially French poets. At the same time, the legacy of the Greco-Roman period also entered their minds. They began to translate the works of philosophers and historians, which - on the one hand - gave rise to difficulties in literary rhetoric and scientific terminology and, on the other, played an important role in the formation of a standard Russian language. <br />
<br />
From that time onwards, translation also became an organised activity, with the emergence of specific bodies responsible for the organisation and management of translation work. 1735 saw the establishment of the first specialised translation organisation, the Russian Society, at the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences. The Society had a professional group of translators and some of the academy's scholars, such as Lomonosov and Tretyakovsky, were among its members. The Association was responsible for selecting works, defining the rules or principles of translation, commenting on translations, and training translators. It is worth mentioning that the Academy of Sciences also set up a school of foreign languages to train official translators. In 1748, the Academy implemented Queen Elizabeth's decree to increase the number of translations of non-religious books and publicly appealed to "the nobility and other classes of intellectuals" to take an active part in the translation process. <br />
<br />
In the second half of the 18th century, Ekaterina II's efforts to create a 'civilised state' not only led to the development of literature, but also gave preferential treatment to writers. For example, in order to select the best original texts, she ordered the establishment of the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books (1768-1783). The Society was dedicated to providing excellent conditions for translation work throughout Russia. The purchase of manuscripts was financed out of Ekaterina's own funds. Later, the Society also discussed a proposal to establish a translation bureau under the Academy of Sciences (1790). The 114 members of the Society included such notable figures as Tretyakovsky, Sumarokov and Radishev. For 14 years the Association was active, producing numerous literary translations and likewise contributing to the discussion of theoretical issues in translation.<br />
<br />
2.The emergence of poetry translation.<br />
<br />
Translation of poetry also developed in Russia in the 18th century, and later became one of the jewels of the country's literature. The great Russian scholar and poet Lomonosov was a major contributor to this process. A great deal of the work created by Lomonosov and his contemporaries Sumarokov and Tretyakovsky was poetry in translation. They often translated while exploring theoretical issues in translation: they would explain in their works why they translated this way and not that way; they stressed the importance of translation work and the creative value it contained. Among the most prestigious writers and translators in Russian literature at the time, there were several interesting competitions in which two or three poets translated the same work at the same time, and their translations were published in journals. It was often the case that different translations of the same work were published at the same time, without the translator's name, for the judgement of "literary lovers and peers". This phenomenon also supports the idea that the 18th century was a period of 'experimentation' in the history of Russian translation. <br />
<br />
Lomonosov's translations works in Latin, German, French and Greek are numerous and varied, showing his talent for both rhyming and free verse. He was keen to reproduce the rhythmic structure of the original texts, using a variety of iambic and iambic meter to convey the Alexandrian style of French epic and the hexameter style of Greek tragedy. Russian poetry was not very developed at the time and was still based on syllables. <br />
Lomonosov's innovations enriched Russian poetry and established new forms and traditions of Russian poetic style and rhyme. <br />
<br />
In contrast, Kantymir (Д.М.Кантемира) and Tretyakovsky's greatest quest was to insist on a faithful translation of the original. In the process, the translators had to contend with the problems of reams of vocabulary and rhetorical rules. Tretyakovsky became famous for his successful use of Russian rhyme to translate many verses of the original in his translation of Paul Thielmann's A Journey to Love Island. In the introduction to the novel, the translator states his approach to translation: "The translator is only one person away from the author. I would add that if the author is original, the translator should be even more original (I am not referring to myself, but to a good translator)". He believes that "prose to prose" and "poetry to poetry" can be as good as the original, and that a good translation is one that "describes the full meaning of each verse". Kantymir 's translation of Horace's Letters and other poetic works in Latin and French, although less well-known than the former, is equally valuable. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 12:39, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.2 First half of the19th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The nineteenth century was a golden age in the history of Russian translation. If translation had established itself as a profession in the first hundred years, it was elevated to the level of art in this century. The nineteenth century produced a number of masters of translation, including Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин), Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский), Pushkin (А.С.Пушкин), Lermontov (М.Ю.Лермонтов) and Fetter (А.Фет)(Wu,2006:23). <br />
<br />
The new Russian school of translation owes its formation to the historian Nikolai Karamzin and the poet Zhukovsky. Karamzin published a number of translations in several magazines between the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century. He saw translations as a good help in perfecting a writer's style: a source of information that would satisfy human curiosity, inform historical facts, entertain women and provide material for new magazines. As a young man, Karamzin was strongly opposed to the alteration of and disloyalty to the original texts, but later became a champion of free translation, famously saying: "Whoever follows the author of the original text step by step is no different from a servant who serves his lord". Karamzin's translations cover an admirable range of genres and languages: he translated works by both classical and contemporaneous authors, in Greek, French, Latin, German, English, Italian and some Oriental languages(Feng,2009:12). <br />
<br />
Pushkin called Zhukovsky "a genius of translation". After graduating from the Moscow Noble Boarding University in 1802, Zhukovsky devoted himself to translation. It was thanks to his efforts that Russian readers were able to access the works of world literary giants such as Schiller, Goethe, Byron and Walters Scott. Zhukovsky's creative translation activities also ranged from Charles Bello to Grimm's Fairy Tales. From Charles Bellow to Grimm's fairy tales, from Homer's epic Odyssey to the poetic history of ancient Rus' Igor's Expedition, all became his original texts. There is no denying that Zhukovsky is a master in the history of Russian translation. Like Karamzin, Zhukovsky was a fan of free translation, sometimes rewriting the original or even creating a new story from its subject: sometimes transferring the setting of events to Russia and giving Russian names to the characters. For example, in his 1808 translation of the German Romantic poet Bilge's narrative poem Lenore, he changed the heroine's name from Lenore to Lyudmila and moved the story to the time of the Livonian War in 16th-century Russia. Zhukovsky believed that the "unsavoury character" of the work should be weakened while retaining the original author's ideas. His talent enabled him to reproduce the style, rhythm and tone of the original poems, while some of his best works were also faithful to the original. In later years, however, his view of translation changed in response to the tendency to stay close to the original, and he retranslated several of his previous translations to make them more faithful to the original, including Lenore. The Russian school of translation owes much to the tradition of translation created by Zhukovsky(Wu,2006:24-30)(Feng,2009:13)(Guo,2006:9).<br />
<br />
Pushkin and Lermontov are also two poets who set the stage for an epoch in the history of Russian translation. Although only a small proportion of their poetry was translated, they made a significant contribution to the improvement of the art of translation in Russia. In their rewriting and imitation of poetry, they were able to reproduce the most important features of foreign poetry, the key point being that their creative translations were no less valuable in their own right than the originals. Their free translation became a model for other translators, and in addition they established the important principle that a good artistic translation must also be a good work in the national literature of the translated language. Pushkin played an indelibly important role in the development of the Russian school of translation. He was always interested in the question of translation, and his critical views on translation were objective and profound. Before translation he stressed the importance of the choice of the original work, and in translation he demanded that the translator should be faithful to the original, while at the same time displaying his deep creative skills and his own literary style. In one of his unfinished posthumous works, 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', Pushkin wrote: 'Chateaubriand's translation (verbatim) compensates to some extent for the faults of the young French writers (free translation), for they have insulted the great man very cruelly, though in a perfectly innocent manner. There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own rhetorical conventions, its own way of expressing itself, and it is impossible to translate into another language with the corresponding vocabulary". These insights had a positive impact on the best Russian translators of the 19th and 20th centuries. In addition, Pushkin's discussion of translation coincided with a turning point in the history of Russian literature, when the Romantic era was being replaced by a new era with a predominantly realist orientation, and a process of 'separation' between translated and national literature was under way. Pushkin's discussion of the work of the translator as distinct from that of the writer contributed to the independence of literature in translation from indigenous literature(Guo,2006:10)(Wu,2006:37-41). <br />
<br />
During this period, while most people advocated free translation, there were a few translators who insisted on maximum fidelity to the original and advocated the word-for-word method, even at the expense of the work's willingness to be translated. Among these were such well-known writers as P.A. Vyazemsky (П.А.Вяземский) and N.I. Gnedzic (Н.И.Гнедич). In fact, they did not always live up to their principles, and sometimes their talent and artistic intuition ended up breaking the bonds of verbatim translation. Vyazemsky's translations of Benjamin Constant and Adam Mickiewicz were not without literary and artistic merit, and his translation of Homer's epic Iliad in particular was highly praised by Pushkin. It was Fetter who was the most insistent on the idea of a verbatim translation. Fetter translated many famous works, and his philosophy throughout was one of sentence-for-sentence, word-for-word translation, retaining all the words of the original. Fetter's extreme word-for-word approach had a negative impact on most of his translations, although he was sometimes able to come up with some effective methods of translation(Feng,2009:14). <br />
<br />
Free translations were also sometimes used to promote democratic ideas in the original that could not pass official scrutiny. A number of translators, such as V. Kurochkin (В.Курочкин), D. M. Minayev (Д.Минаев) and M. M. Mikhalov (М.Михайлов), achieved this by selecting appropriate original works or by using texts in their translations that were superficially imperceptible in their allusion to the conditions in Russia at the time. It was from that time onwards that the use of translation as a weapon to express dissent became part of the Russian tradition(Feng,2009:14).--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:41, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The nineteenth century was the golden age in the history of Russian translation. If translation had established its status in the first hundred years, it was elevated to the level of art in this century. The nineteenth century produced a number of masters of translation, including Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин), Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский), Pushkin (А.С.Пушкин), Lermontov (М.Ю.Лермонтов) and Fetter (А.Фет). <br />
<br />
The new Russian school of translation owes its formation to the publishment of a number of translations of historian Nikolai Karamzin and the poet Zhukovsky. Karamzin in several magazines between the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century. He regarded translation as a good help in perfecting a writer's style: a source of information that satisfies human curiosity, informs historical facts, entertains women and provides materials for new magazines. As a young man, Karamzin was strongly opposed to the disloyalty to the original texts, but later became a champion of free translation. His famous saying was: "Whoever follows the author of the original text step by step is no different from a servant who serves his lord". Karamzin's translations cover an admirable range of genres and languages: he translated works by both classical and contemporaneous authors, in Greek, French, Latin, German, English, Italian and some Oriental languages. <br />
<br />
Pushkin called Zhukovsky "a genius of translation". After graduating from the Moscow Noble Boarding University in 1802, Zhukovsky devoted himself to translation. It was thanks to his efforts that Russian readers were able to access the works of world literary giants such as Schiller, Goethe, Byron and Walters Scott. Zhukovsky's creative translation activities also ranged from Charles Bello to Grimm's Fairy Tales. From Charles Bellow to Grimm's fairy tales, from Homer's epic Odyssey to the poetic history of ancient Rus' Igor's Expedition, all became his original texts. There is no denying that Zhukovsky is a master in the history of Russian translation. Like Karamzin, Zhukovsky was a fan of free translation, who sometimes rewrites the original or even creates a new story from its subject, transfers the setting of events to Russia and gives Russian names to the characters. For example, in his 1808 translation of the German Romantic poet Bilge's narrative poem Lenore, he changed the heroine's name from Lenore to Lyudmila and moved the story to the time of the Livonian War in 16th-century Russia. Zhukovsky believed that the "unsavoury character" of the work should be weakened while retaining the original author's ideas. His talent enabled him to reproduce the style, rhythm and tone of the original poems, while some of his best works were also faithful to the original. In later years, however, his view of translation changed in response to the tendency to stay close to the original, and he retranslated several of his previous translations to make them more faithful to the original, including Lenore. The Russian school of translation owes much to the tradition of translation created by Zhukovsky.<br />
<br />
Pushkin and Lermontov are also two poets who gave perfect preparations for an epoch in the history of Russian translation. Although only a small proportion of their poetry was translated, they made a significant contribution to the improvement of the art of translation in Russia. In their rewriting and imitation of poetry, they were able to reproduce the most important features of foreign poetry, the key point being that their creative translations were no less valuable in their own right than the originals. Their free translation became a model for other translators, and in addition they established the important principle that a good artistic translation must also be a good work in the national literature of the translated language. Pushkin played an indelibly important role in the development of the Russian school of translation. He was always interested in the question of translation, and his critical views on translation were objective and profound. Before translation he stressed the importance of the choice of the original work, and in translation he demanded that the translator should be faithful to the original, while at the same time displaying his deep creative skills and his own literary style. In one of his unfinished posthumous works, 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', Pushkin wrote: 'Chateaubriand's translation (verbatim) compensates to some extent for the faults of the young French writers (free translation), for they have insulted the great man very cruelly, though in a perfectly innocent manner. There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own rhetorical conventions, its own way of expressing itself, and it is impossible to translate into another language with the corresponding vocabulary". These insights had a positive impact on the best Russian translators of the 19th and 20th centuries. In addition, Pushkin's discussion of translation coincided with a turning point in the history of Russian literature, when the Romantic era was being replaced by a new era with a predominantly realist orientation, and a process of 'separation' between translated and national literature was under way. Pushkin's discussion of the work of the translator as distinct from that of the writer contributed to the independence of literature in translation from indigenous literature. <br />
<br />
During this period, while most people advocated free translation, there were a few translators who insisted on maximum fidelity to the original and advocated the word-for-word method, even at the expense of the work's willingness to be translated. Among these were such well-known writers as P.A. Vyazemsky (П.А.Вяземский) and N.I. Gnedzic (Н.И.Гнедич). In fact, they did not always live up to their principles, and sometimes their talent and artistic intuition ended up breaking the bonds of verbatim translation. Vyazemsky's translations of Benjamin Constant and Adam Mickiewicz were not without literary and artistic merit, and his translation of Homer's epic Iliad in particular was highly praised by Pushkin. It was Fetter who was the most insistent on the idea of a verbatim translation. Fetter translated many famous works, and his philosophy throughout was one of sentence-for-sentence, word-for-word translation, retaining all the words of the original. Fetter's extreme word-for-word approach had a negative impact on most of his translations, although he was sometimes able to come up with some effective methods of translation. <br />
<br />
Free translations were also used to promote democratic ideas in original that could not pass official scrutiny. A number of translators, such as V. Kurochkin (В.Курочкин), D. M. Minayev (Д.Минаев) and M. M. Mikhalov (М.Михайлов), achieved this by selecting appropriate original works or by using texts in their translations that were superficially imperceptible in their allusion to the conditions in Russia at the time. It was since then that the use of translation was used as a weapon to express dissent became part of the Russian tradition. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:05, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.3 Second half of the19th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The mid-nineteenth century was a period of increasingly intense political and ideological struggle in Russian literature, and a great debate raged in the Russian literary world over the question of 'art for the people' or 'art for art's sake'. The debate was mainly about the choice of material for translation and the method of translation. As far as the choice of material was concerned, the democratic and revolutionary writers who supported 'art for the people' chose to translate works with progressive ideological content and a democratic orientation, such as Heine. The aristocratic and liberal intellectual writers, on the other hand, opted for philosophical poetry with a chanting and individualistic feel. Of course, this is not absolute: "Mikhailov and Dobrolyubov of the democratic revolutionary school also translated Heine's moody love poems The Songbook, while Tolstoy of the aristocratic and liberal school translated some of Goethe's more progressive poems, such as The Fiancée of Corinth and The Whore of God. In terms of their approach to translation, the Democratic-Revolutionary translators, based on the reproduction of the original as a whole, approached their translations very liberally, even adding in many elements typical of Russian culture. The latter, on the other hand, usually adopted a direct translation, focusing on conveying the formal details of the original work. This divergence was mainly due to the different starting points of the two groups of translators, with the democratic revolutionaries seeking to convey advanced ideas to the Russian general public and the aristocratic intellectuals believing that works of art were irrelevant to the people and that artistic creations should not be exposed to "vulgar" reality.<br />
<br />
There were a large number of outstanding literary writers and literary critics who made brilliant statements about literary translation in that era, none more so than Belinsky (В.Г.Белинский), Chernyshevsky (Н.Г.Черныщевский) and Dubrolyovsky (Н.Г.Добролюбов). Belinsky was one of the greatest Russian literary critics of the 19th century. He believed that translations should not be word-for-word, but should reproduce the spirit of the original, in much the same way as Pushkin's view of translation theory. On the other hand, he also opposed arbitrary 'paraphrasing': the ideal translation should not add or delete arbitrarily to the original text, but should enable the reader to understand the foreign work truly and accurately through the translation. Such a viewpoint seems to us to be quite convincing even now. Belinsky played a decisive role in completely burying the 'rewriting' and 'adapting it to Russian custom' arguments. This issue dominates his writings. He argues that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of the translation, and this is one of the criteria by which he judges its merits. He points out, for example, that the greatest strength of Gnedzic's translation of the Iliad is that it "exudes the atmosphere of ancient life" and "the spirit of the ancient Greeks". However, the contradiction between national identity and translatability was once a problem for Belinsky. Initially believing that it was impossible to translate works with a strong national character into other languages, he was only convinced by the success of Turgenev's collaboration with Louis Viardot in translating Gogol's novels into French in 1846, and then became increasingly determined to recognise translatability in translation. Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a series of revisions that led to a complete and rigorous system of translation theory, the first of its kind in the history of Russian translation theory.<br />
<br />
Translation in Russia developed in the second half of the 19th century. From the 1960s onwards, the Russian readership of non-language speakers began to expand, and these readers were keen to see the translation 'replace' the original. This demand led to an unprecedented expansion in the choice of subjects and translations of Russian literature. Interest in foreign theatrical works was particularly high at this stage, and a strong interest in European classical literature also developed. Dickens, Saclay, Victor Hugo, Dumas, Balzac, Flaubert, Tudor, Maupassant and Zola, as well as lesser-known writers of today, were successively brought to the attention of a wide range of Russian readers in the form of translations. At that time, European theatre classics like Shakespeare's plays were translated into Russia in large numbers. Many professional translators were involved, the most successful being the translator P.N.V. Weinberg. He translated foreign literature from the standpoint of progressive Russian literature of the time. His translation of Othello, for example, is notable for its vividness in the Russian language, and has always been recognised as the best translation in terms of conveying the totality of scenes, plots and long dialogues, even though the translation is wordy compared to the original.<br />
<br />
Although there has been a quantitative surge in translations of Russian literature during this period, the quality has generally been poor, manifesting itself in word-for-word translations, redundant sentences and poor vocabulary, not to mention inventiveness. In addition, the language of the characters in the translation is heavily Russified, with Russian proverbs, sayings and idioms that the foreign characters could never have known, and the introduction of Russian-specific life circumstances that cause contradictions with the plot and details of the original work. For example, В Тулу со своим самоваром ехать (Bring your own samovar to Tula - it's superfluous). The reason for this is that the literary world did not attach much importance to the translation of fiction and prose, and there were no specialists working on this task. Another point is that at this stage there was little progress in the study of Russian translation theory, and no valuable theoretical insights emerged. The linguist A.A. Потебня (1835-1891) expressed his views on translation from a psychological standpoint in his essay "Language and Peopleliness ". In his view, it was impossible to express in another language what was originally intended to be expressed in a certain language. He, like many other literary scholars, denied the translatability of language.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:41, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The mid-nineteenth century was a period of increasingly intensively political and ideological struggle in Russian literature, and a great debate raged in the Russian literary world over the question of 'art for the people' or 'art for art's sake'. The debate was mainly about the choice of materials for translation and the methods of translation. As far as the choice of material was concerned, the democratic and revolutionary writers who supported 'art for the people' chose to translate works with progressive ideological content and a democratic orientation, such as Heine. The aristocratic and liberal intellectual writers, on the other hand, opted for philosophical poetry with a chanting and individualistic feel. It's undoubtful that this is not absolute: "Mikhailov and Dobrolyubov of the democratic revolutionary school also translated Heine's moody love poems The Songbook, while Tolstoy of the aristocratic and liberal school translated some of Goethe's more progressive poems, such as The Fiancée of Corinth and The Whore of God. In terms of their approach to translation, the Democratic-Revolutionary translators, based on the reproduction of the original as a whole, approached their translations very liberally, when they even added in many elements typical of Russian culture. The latter, on the other hand, usually adopted a direct translation, focusing on conveying the formal details of the original work. This divergence was mainly due to the different starting points of the two groups of translators, with the democratic revolutionaries seeking to convey advanced ideas to the Russian general public and the aristocratic intellectuals believing that works of art were irrelevant to the people and that artistic creations should not be exposed to "vulgar" reality.<br />
<br />
There were a large number of outstanding literary writers and literary critics who made brilliant statements about literary translation in that era, none more so than Belinsky (В.Г.Белинский), Chernyshevsky (Н.Г.Черныщевский) and Dubrolyovsky (Н.Г.Добролюбов). Belinsky was one of the greatest Russian literary critics of the 19th century. He believed that translations should not be word-for-word, but should reproduce the spirit of the original text, in much the same way as Pushkin's view of translation theory. On the other hand, he also opposed arbitrary 'paraphrasing': the ideal translation should not add or delete arbitrarily to the original text, but should enable the reader to understand the foreign work truly and accurately through the translation. Such a viewpoint seems to us to be quite convincing even now. Belinsky played a decisive role in completely burying the 'rewriting' and 'adapting it to Russian custom' arguments. This issue dominates his writings. He argues that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of the translation, and this is one of the criteria by which he judges its merits. He points out, for example, that the greatest strength of Gnedzic's translation of the Iliad is that it "exudes the atmosphere of ancient life" and "the spirit of the ancient Greeks". However, the contradiction between national identity and translatability was once a problem for Belinsky. Initially believing that it was impossible to translate works with a strong national character into other languages, he was only convinced by the success of Turgenev's collaboration with Louis Viardot in translating Gogol's novels into French in 1846, and then became increasingly determined to recognise translatability in translation. Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a series of revisions that led to a complete and rigorous system of translation theory, the first of its kind in the history of Russian translation theory.<br />
<br />
Translation in Russia developed in the second half of the 19th century. From the 1960s onwards, the Russian readership of non-language speakers began to expand, and these readers were keen to see the translation 'replace' the original. This demand led to an unprecedented expansion in the choice of subjects and translations of Russian literature. Interest in foreign theatrical works was particularly high at this stage, and a strong interest in European classical literature also developed. Dickens, Saclay, Victor Hugo, Dumas, Balzac, Flaubert, Tudor, Maupassant and Zola, as well as lesser-known writers of today, were successively brought to the attention of a wide range of Russian readers in the form of translations. At that time, European theatre classics like Shakespeare's plays were translated into Russia in large numbers. Many professional translators were involved, the most successful being the translator P.N.V. Weinberg. He translated foreign literature from the standpoint of progressive Russian literature of the time. His translation of Othello, for example, is notable for its vividness in the Russian language, and has always been recognised as the best translation in terms of conveying the totality of scenes, plots and long dialogues, even though the translation is wordy compared to the original.<br />
<br />
Although there has been a quantitative surge in translations of Russian literature during this period, the quality has generally been poor, manifesting itself in word-for-word translations, redundant sentences and poor vocabulary, not to mention inventiveness. In addition, the language of the characters in the translation is heavily Russified, that is, contents with Russian proverbs, sayings and idioms that the foreign characters could never have known, and the introduction of Russian-specific life circumstances that cause contradictions with the plot and details of the original work. For example, В Тулу со своим самоваром ехать (Bring your own samovar to Tula - it's superfluous). The reason for this is that the literary world did not attach much importance to the translation of fiction and prose, and there were no specialists working on this task. Another point is that at this stage there was little progress in the study of Russian translation theory, and no valuable theoretical insights emerged. The linguist A.A. Потебня (1835-1891) expressed his views on translation from a psychological standpoint in his essay "Language and Peopleliness ". In his view, it was impossible to express in another language what was originally intended to be expressed in a certain language. Just like many other literary scholars, he denied the translatability of language. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:13, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.Translation ideas of famous writers of the 18-19th centuries. ===<br />
===3.1. Pushkin 's ideas on translation. ===<br />
Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin (Александр Сергеевич Пушкин, 1977-1837), a famous Russian poet and writer of the nineteenth century, was also very much a translator. Although he left behind few works on translation, his ideas on translation are worth studying. Pushkin's translations of poetry were associated with classicism in the early stages of his work and later with romanticism. Although these translations are far removed from the original in a literal sense, they are almost close to composition. Pushkin's significance as a translator, however, lies in 1) the reproduction of foreign originals in the standard Russian language he established in his translations and 2) the full expression of the realist artistic method in the heyday of his compositions: the focus on typical features and the technique of outlining the historical and individual characteristics that reflect the original.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's translations have their own characteristics and style. He did not translate all of his works word for word from the original, and in some places he deleted what he considered to be redundant sentences in order to avoid the verbosity of the original, occasionally replacing the translation with a general paraphrase. He advocates respect for the characteristics of foreign readers, while at the same time opposing word-for-word translations, which can lead to the trampling of the mother tongue. He therefore advocated translations which, on the one hand, required fidelity to the original in terms of meaning and, on the other, should preserve the original's distinctive features.<br />
As he says in his unfinished 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', commenting on Chateaubriand's translation: 'There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), has failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own conventional rhetorical devices, its own habitual expressions, and it is impossible to translate all this into another language using the corresponding vocabulary." Pushkin's rejection of word-for-word translation can be seen.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's influence on the cause of translation in Russia was immense, and this influence refers neither to his few translations nor to his theoretical views, but to the fact that Pushkin pioneered the translation of Russian literature. Although his ideas on translation cannot be called a theory, they do provide certain translation ideas for later generations of literary translators.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin (Александр Сергеевич Пушкин, 1977-1837), a famous Russian poet and writer of the nineteenth century, was also an outstanding translator. Besides he left behind few works on translation, his ideas on translation are worth studying. Pushkin's translations of poetry were associated with classicism in the early stages of his work and with romanticism later. Although these translations are far removed from the original in a literal sense, they are almost close to composition. Pushkin's significance as a translator, however, lies in the reproduction of foreign originalities in the standard Russian language he established in his translations and the full expression of the realist artistic method in the heyday of his compositions: the focus on typical features and the technique of outlining the historical and individual characteristics that reflect the original.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's translations have their own distinctive characteristics and style. He did not translate all of his works literally from the original context, but in some places he deleted what he considered to be redundant sentences in order to avoid the verbosity of the original, occasionally replacing the translation with a general paraphrase. He advocates to give enough respect for the characteristics of foreign readers, while at the same time opposing word-for-word translations, which may lead to the trampling of the mother tongue. Therefore, He advocated translations which, on the one hand, required fidelity to the original text in terms of meaning and, on the other hand, should preserve the original's distinctive features.<br />
<br />
As he says in his unfinished 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', he comments on Chateaubriand's translation: 'There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), has failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own conventional rhetorical devices, its own habitual expressions, and it is impossible to translate all this into another language using the corresponding vocabulary." Pushkin's rejection of word-for-word translation can be revealed clearly.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's influence on the cause of translation in Russia was huge, and his influence refers neither to his few translations nor to his theoretical views, but to the fact that Pushkin pioneered the translation of Russian literature. Although his ideas on translation cannot be called a theory, they do provide certain unique and new translation ideas for later generations of literary translators. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:29, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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===3.1. Belinsky's ideas on translation. ===<br />
Vissarion Grigorievich Belinsky (Виссарион Григорьевич Белинский, 1811-1848) was a famous literary critic of the nineteenth century and one of the most involved in the world of translation among Russian literary activists of his time. Belinsky was fluent in French and as a young man translated for two magazines, Miscellany and Telescope. Later, after a career in literary criticism, he published numerous articles on translation and criticism of translated works.<br />
Belinsky's and Pushkin's views on translation were very similar, both advocating that translations should not be word-for-word. Belinsky first introduced the term 'theory' of translation, and in his 1838 review of Polevoy's translation of Hamlet, he first proposed the need for a theory of translation. He considered the role of theory: "Any object that man perceives has a theory of its own, and a theory is the knowledge of the laws by which the object exists."<br />
<br />
Belinsky argues that in translation: "Closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original. Each <br />
language has its own distinctive expressions, characteristics and qualities; these are so distinctive that to correctly convey a certain image or sentence, it is sometimes necessary to change them completely in the translation. The corresponding image, like the corresponding sentence, does not necessarily lie in a superficial agreement of words: the inner life of the translation should be made to correspond to the inner life of the original". It can be seen that Belinsky, like Pushkin, was also opposed to word-for-word rigid translations, his view being that the task of translating a language lies in reproducing the spirit of the original. He believed that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of a translation, so the question of the interrelationship between national character and translatability has always troubled Belinsky. He pointed out that 'there is only one rule for translating a literary work - to convey the spirit of the work being translated, and this can only be done by translating it into Russian as the author himself would have written it in Russian, if he had been Russian' (The Complete Works of Belinsky Volume 2).<br />
<br />
Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a number of achievements, and his view of translation as a whole is a complete and rigorous system. His view of translation was developed gradually, and in the process it was dominated by an increasingly firm recognition of the possibility of a successful solution to the task of translation, that is, of translatability. Belinsky believed that a translation must be discerning in its content and form in relation to the original. He has pointed out that "approaching the original is not the same as conveying the letters, but rather the spirit of the original." It is also suggested that the translator and the original author are two different kinds of people. But in order to convey the 'spirit' of the original in the translation, the translator's genius needs to reach a certain tacit understanding with this 'spirit'. He advocates the preservation of exoticism in translation, opposes naturalisation, the arbitrary distortion of the face of the original work, the overwhelming of the original author with the personality of the translator's style, the emphasis on both likeness and likeness, etc. However, while recognising the importance of reproducing the poetic form of the original work in translation, Belinsky also took into account the state of development of Russian literature in translation. This also led him to look favourably on translating good poetry in prose, seeing such translations as a form of transition for Russian readers to the treasures of world literature.<br />
<br />
Although Belinsky wrote little about literary translation, his theoretical views contain the kernel of the realist principles of translation proposed by contemporary Soviet literary translators. His ideas on translation had a very profound influence on the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Vissarion Grigorievich Belinsky (Виссарион Григорьевич Белинский, 1811-1848) was a famous literary critic of the nineteenth century and one of the most active in the world of translation among Russian literary activists of his time. Belinsky was fluent in French and when he was a young man he translated for two magazines, Miscellany and Telescope. Later, after a career in literary criticism, he published numerous articles on translation and criticism of translated works.<br />
<br />
Belinsky's and Pushkin's views on translation were very similar, both advocating that translations should not be word-for-word. Belinsky first introduced the term 'theory' of translation, and in his 1838 review of Polevoy's translation of Hamlet, he first proposed the need for a theory of translation. He considered the role of theory: "Any object that man perceives has a theory of its own, and a theory is the knowledge of the laws by which the object exists."<br />
<br />
Belinsky argues that in translation: "Closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original. Each language has its own distinctive expressions, characteristics and qualities; these are so distinctive that to correctly convey a certain image or sentence, it is sometimes necessary to change them completely in the translation. The corresponding image, like the corresponding sentence, does not necessarily lie in a superficial agreement of words: the inner life of the translation should be made to correspond to the inner life of the original". It can be seen that Belinsky, like Pushkin, was also opposed to word-for-word rigid translations, his view being that the task of translating a language lies in reproducing the spirit of the original. He believed that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of a translation, so the question of the interrelationship between national character and translatability has always troubled Belinsky. He pointed out that 'there is only one rule for translating a literary work - to convey the spirit of the work being translated, and this can only be done by translating it into Russian as the author himself would have written it in Russian, if he had been Russian' (The Complete Works of Belinsky Volume 2).<br />
<br />
Belinsky's career as a translator had a number of achievements, and his view of translation as a whole is a complete and rigorous system. His view of translation was developed gradually, and in this process it was dominated by an increasingly firm recognition of the possibility of a successful solution to the task of translation, that is, of translatability. Belinsky believed that a translation must be discerning in its content and form in relation to the original. He has pointed out that "approaching the original is not the same as conveying the letters, but rather the spirit of the original." It is also suggested that the translator and the original author are two different kinds of people. But in order to convey the 'spirit' of the original in the translation, the translator's genius needs to reach a certain tacit understanding with this 'spirit'. He advocates the preservation of exoticism in translation, opposes naturalisation, the arbitrary distortion of the face of the original work, the overwhelming of the original author with the personality of the translator's style, the emphasis on both likeness and likeness, etc. However, while recognising the importance of reproducing the poetic form of the original work in translation, Belinsky also took into account the state of development of Russian literature in translation. This also led him to look favourably on translating good poetry in prose, seeing such translations as a form of transition for Russian readers to the treasures of world literature.<br />
<br />
Although Belinsky wrote little about literary translation, his theoretical views contain the kernel of the realist principles of translation proposed by contemporary Soviet literary translators. His ideas on translation had a very profound influence on the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:56, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.Conclusion ===<br />
Translation has demonstrated its importance in social activity since antiquity, yet it was only in the twentieth century that it became a widely followed professional discipline. This article reviews Russian translation activity and translation thought in pre-Soviet Russia, exploring its development before the formation of a theoretical system. Throughout the history of translation, Russian scholars have contributed greatly to the development of translation literature in the world. Through combing through the history of Russian translation, we learn that the translation ideas of a number of outstanding writers, though not theoretical, have had an unmistakable impact on later generations. When discussing the translation ideas of 19th-century writers, we are inspired to insist on the principle that "closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original", emphasizing the ideological content and literary value of the translation, that the translation should serve the readers, and that the translation should be people-oriented. These ideas influenced, to a greater or lesser extent, the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, the study of the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia is not only conducive to sorting out Russian translation ideas Russian learners can better understand the characteristics of their translations when translating and improve the accuracy of their translations.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:44, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Translation has played its important role in the social activities since antiquity, yet it was until in the twentieth century that it became a widely followed professional discipline. This paper reviews Russian translators and translation thoughts in pre-Soviet Russia, exploring its development before the formation of a theoretical system. Throughout the history of translation, Russian scholars have contributed greatly to the development of translation literature in the world. By combing through the history of Russian translation, we learn that the translation ideas of a number of outstanding writers, though not very theoretical, have had an unmistakable impact on later generations. When discussing the translation ideas of 19th-century writers, we are inspired to insist on the principle that "closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original", emphasizing the ideological content and literary value of the translation that the translation should serve the readers, and that the translation should be people-oriented. These ideas influenced, to a greater or lesser extent, the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, the study of the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia not only is conducive to sorting out Russian translation ideas, but also make Russian learners better understand the characteristics of their translations when translating and improving the accuracy of their translations. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 14:02, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.References ===<br />
1.Wu, Keli 吴克礼（2006）.俄苏翻译理论流派综述 The Translation Methods and Studies in USSR. 上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
2.Guo Lin 郭琳（2006）.俄罗斯语言学派翻译理论若干问题研究[D] A Study of Some Problems of Translation Theory of the Russian School of Philology.首都师范大学 Capital Normal University.<br />
<br />
3.Feng Xin 冯欣（2009）. 俄罗斯翻译理论史及其影响研究[D] A study of the history of Russian translation theory and its influence.上海外国语大学 Shanghai International Studies University.<br />
<br />
4.Wang，Yulun；Jiang,Wanzhu 王育伦,姜万砫（1989).别林斯基论文学翻译[J] Belinsky on Literary Translation .中国翻译 Chinese translators Journal ,(03):53-55.<br />
<br />
5.Li Zheng, Fan Min 李铮,范敏（2010）. 普希金与翻译[J] Pushkin and Translation. 现代交际 Modern Intercourse Journal,(05):69.</div>Zhang Yiranhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_5&diff=132628Hist Trans Theo EN 52021-12-14T03:00:55Z<p>Zhang Yiran: /* Abstract */</p>
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<div>'''History of Translation Theories'''<br />
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=Chapter 5 History of Translation Theories from Early Russia to the Soviet Union=<br />
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'''从古罗斯到苏联前的翻译理论史'''<br />
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张怡然 Zhang Yiran,Hunan Normal University,China<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
Translation as a means of intercultural communication, each country has a distinctive translation ideology. This article focuses on the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia. Through analyzing the history of translation, can find that Russia has formed a literary tradition of translation studies in the late 18th century. In the 19th century, Pushkin, Lermontov, Turgenev and other outstanding poets and literary scholars were keen on translation, especially in the middle of the century when Belinsky and other famous literary critics published a series of comments on literary translation, which emphasized the literary tradition of Russian translation to an unparalleled extent, which is rare in the history of translation in the world. The general principles of Russian literary translation thought were also formed during this period: namely, to insist on commenting on the merits of a translation in terms of the overall effect of the work, to emphasize the ideological content and literary value of the translation, and that the translation should serve the reader and be people-oriented. The above ideas influenced the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, a study of the history of translation theory in pre-Soviet Russia will help learners of Russian to better understand the characteristics of their translations and to improve the accuracy and peopleliness of their translations.Written by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 12:57, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Translation is a means of intercultural communication, and each country has its own distinctive translation theory system. This paper focuses on the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia. By analyzing the history of translation, it is obvious that a literary tradition of translation studies has been formed in Russia in the late 18th century. In the 19th century, Pushkin, Lermontov, Turgenev and other outstanding poets and literary scholars were keen on translation, especially in the middle of the century when Belinsky and other famous literary critics published a series of comments on literary translation, which emphasized the literary tradition of Russian translation to an unparalleled extent, which is rare in the history of translation in the world. The general principles of Russian literary translation thoughts were also formed during this period: namely, to insist on commenting on the merits and weakness of a translation in terms of the overall effect of the work, to emphasize the ideological content and literary value of the translation, and the translation should serve the reader and be people-oriented. The above ideas influenced the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, a study of the history of translation theory in pre-Soviet Russia will help learners of Russian to understand the characteristics of their translations profoundly and to improve the accuracy and fluency of their translations.Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:03, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Translation theories, Translation ideas，History of Translation<br />
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===摘要===<br />
翻译作为一种跨文化交际的手段，每个国家都有独具特色的翻译思想。本文主要探讨苏联前俄国的翻译历史。通过梳理其翻译史可发现，俄国于18世纪末期就已形成了翻译研究的文学传统。进入19世纪后, 普希金、莱蒙托夫、屠格涅夫等优秀诗人、文学家对翻译的热衷, 尤其是世纪中叶别林斯基等著名文学评论家发表一系列关于文学翻译的评论, 更是把俄国翻译的文学传统强调到无以复加的程度, 这在世界翻译史上都是罕见的。俄国文学翻译思想的总原则也在这一时期形成:即坚持从作品的整体效果上来评论译作优劣, 强调译作的思想内容和文学价值, 翻译应为读者服务, 译文应具有人民性。上述思想影响了苏联时期翻译理论的形成。因此，对苏联前俄国翻译理论史的研究有利于俄语学习者在翻译时更好的理解其翻译特点，提高翻译的准确性和人民性。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
翻译理论 翻译思想 翻译史 <br />
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===Introduction===<br />
This essay provides a comprehensive and concise overview of the history of translation in Russia: Russian written translations began in the Kievan Rus' era, when religious subjects were the main focus of translations, especially the Bible, which was translated from Greek. Religious translations continued to flourish under the Moscow principality, represented by Maksim Gleick (МаксимГрек). At the same time, the national character of Russian translations began to emerge, and the languages of translation expanded from Greek to Latin, German and West Slavic, and the subjects covered included Western chivalric fiction, geographical literature, alchemy and medicine. In the eighteenth century, Peter the Great introduced a number of measures to focus on translation, making this period a turning point in the history of Russian translation. The proliferation of specialised translations (e.g. of legal texts) was the main feature of translation activity in the early eighteenth century. After this period Russian translators began to translate literary works.The main translators were Lomonosov (М.В. Ломоносов) and Tretyakovsky (V.K. Тредьяковский). In the second half of the eighteenth century, translation was given greater importance in Russia, and the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books was founded by Ekaterina II, in which a large number of outstanding translators emerged. The nineteenth century was a golden period in the history of Russian translation. Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин) and Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский) both produced many excellent translations. Pushkin (A.С.Пушкин) and Lermontov (M.Ю.Лермонтов) contributed greatly to the development of Russian literature in translation, while Fetter concentrated on love poetry. In the twentieth century, the Russian translation community made significant achievements in theoretical translation studies. In particular, the rapid development of the philological school and the debate between the literary and philological schools made Soviet translation theory one of the leading theories of translation in the world (Guo,2006:5).--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 12:57, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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This paper provides a comprehensive and concise overview of the history of translation in Russia: Russian written translations began in the Kievan Rus' era, when religious subjects were the main focus of translations, especially the Bible, translated from Greek. Religious translations continued to flourish under the Moscow principality, represented by Maksim Gleick (МаксимГрек). At the same time, the national character of Russian translations began to emerge, and the languages of translation expanded from Greek to Latin, German and West Slavic, and the subjects covered included Western chivalric fiction, geographical literature, alchemy and medicine. In the eighteenth century, Peter the Great introduced a number of measures to focus on translation, leading this period to a turning point in the history of Russian translation. The proliferation of specialised translations (e.g. of legal texts) was the main feature of translation activity in the early eighteenth century. After this period Russian translators began to translate literary works.The main translators were Lomonosov (М.В. Ломоносов) and Tretyakovsky (V.K. Тредьяковский). In the second half of the eighteenth century, translation was paid greater attention in Russia, and the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books was founded by Ekaterina II, in which a large number of outstanding translators emerged. The nineteenth century was a golden period in the history of Russian translation when Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин) and Rukovsky (В.А.Жуковский) both produced many excellent translations. Pushkin (A.С.Пушкин) and Lermontov (M.Ю.Лермонтов) contributed greatly to the development of Russian literature in translation, while Fetter concentrated on love poetry. In the twentieth century, the Russian translation community made significant achievements in theoretical translation studies. In particular, the rapid development of the philological school and the debate between the literary and philological schools made Soviet translation theory one of the leading theories of translation in the world. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:14, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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===1.The history of Russian translation and the period of enlightenment of its translation theory. ===<br />
1. The emergence and development of literary translation.<br />
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Translation activity has a long history in Russia, the beginnings of which can be traced back to the time of Kievan Rus'. A relatively sophisticated system of writing, literature and translation was already in place in ancient Russia in the ninth century AD. Frequent cultural and trade exchanges with Byzantine, German, French and Scandinavian countries contributed significantly to the development of translation in Russia at that time, as did contacts with Eastern countries. From Kievan Rus' onwards, Russian translation methods oscillated between two main tendencies, either to follow the original texts exactly, up to the point of translating them word for word, or to be arbitrary, even to the point of rewriting, adding or deleting at will. The first tendency is the main characteristic of translations of the Bible and other sacred books, while the second, though not absolute, can be said to characterize most secular works (Feng,2009:8)(Wu,2006:4)(Wu,2006:4).<br />
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2.Initiation of translation activities-religious translation. <br />
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In 864 AD, the Byzantine king sent two Greek priests, Kirill (Кирилл) and Mephodi (Мефодий), to spread Christianity among the Slavic people. At the beginning of their mission, they created a new alphabet (now known as the Kirill alphabet) and used this writing system to translate many religious texts from Greek into the ancient Church Slavonic. Among the results were the New Testament, hymnals and prayer books(Feng,2009:8). <br />
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In 988 AD, Rus was baptised and Kievan Rus was converted to Christianity. A large number of translations appeared instantly to help Protestants become familiar with the new religious philosophy and ethical system and to understand the rituals and customs of the Church. These translations were in a variety of genres, including the Acts of the Saints, sermons, chronicles and so on. In addition, apocryphal books telling magical and fantastical stories were also popular, and some of them had similarities with the later 'fantasy novels'. Most of these translations were done in Bulgaria and were popularised in Rus. At that time, translations of religious texts were mostly word-for-word. There were also a small number of works that, unlike the 'elaborate copies of the original', had a separate literary value. In one case, a large number of details of Russian life were added to the storyline of a sermon (e.g. The Tales of Achild the Wise). In another case, military historical narratives are interspersed with the terminology of the ancient Russian feudal system and certain literary images from the stories of ancient Russian warriors (e.g. Joseph Flav's History of the Jewish War). This translation can be considered one of the most successful of the period. In the translation, the translator succeeded in avoiding many word-for-word translations). In a third case, the manuscripts copied by Ancient Rus, although based on Greek epic poetry (e.g. The Great Work of Digenes Akritas), often borrowed from Russian folk poetry, so that a large number of folk compositions appeared. As a result of this literary process, the translated literature was smoothly enriched by Russian manuscripts, which contributed to the development of original Russian literature and consolidated its links with the medieval literary process. Unfortunately, at that early stage in the development of translation, the translators were not signed, so it is impossible to verify whether the works were translated at home or abroad(Feng,2009:9). <br />
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During the difficult period of 'Mongol rule' (1228-1480), translations continued to play an important role in the cultural life of the country. The remaining chapters of the Bible were translated one after another, and previous translations were again proofread and revised. In addition to religious translations, more translations of non-religious subjects emerge, such as The Kingdom of India and The Trojan War. Most of the works were still translated from Greek, while works probably translated from Latin and ancient Hebrew also appeared. During this period, Russian began to take shape through the interaction of Old Slavonic (Church Slavonic) and local national languages. However, religious texts were still only translated into Church Slavonic, and the use of this language was by then restricted to ecclesiastical matters. At the same time, political and commercial exchanges with other countries were more likely to be in Russian, which was becoming increasingly sophisticated: elements of the combination of Old Slavonic and Russian can also be found in original works（Wu,2006:6). <br />
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14-15th century literature in translation by Rus was characterised by an obsession with new themes. These were mainly new works of tranquillity-abstinence literature, or works recommended by and familiar to the tranquillists. This mystical genre was introduced to Rus after it had swept through the Byzantine and Yugoslav peoples. It was reflected in the semi-secular translations popular at the time (for example, The Trojan War). <br />
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In the 16th century AD, Moscow eventually became the political centre of Russia, as well as the translation centre of the country. In 1515, the Grand Duke of Moscow, Vassily III (Василий Ⅲ), asked a Greek monastery to send a learned translator to Moscow. This man, who accompanied the Greek mission to Moscow in 1516, was the historically famous Maksim Gleick (Максим Грек). Maksim Gleick worked as a translator throughout his life, studying most of the religious texts and some of the non-religious works during this period. In addition, he also proofread and annotated previously existing translations(Wu,2006:7). <br />
<br />
At the beginning, Maksim knew neither Russian nor Old Slavonic, so he divided the translation into two steps: first, he translated from Greek to Latin, and then his assistant translated from Latin to Old Slavonic. In the process of revising existing translations, he often broke with established tradition and was therefore denounced as blasphemous. Maksim was also a prolific writer, educator and philosopher. His writings contain many insights into the art of translation - the earliest recorded treatise on translation in Russia. Maksim insisted that the original text must be carefully analysed in order to grasp its full subtleties and implications. Therefore, the translator must not only master the language of the original, but also have a broad knowledge of the language and prepare for the translation. To support his argument, Maksim used Greek lexicography, phonetic organisation and phonetics involved in translation. His other major contribution was the compilation of a dictionary containing Greek, Latin and Hebrew nouns, which was also the first of its kind in Russian history. Although it was recognised at the time that translators should have a command of both languages as well as a profound background knowledge, the practitioners of translation at the time lacked the necessary qualities and their translations were not as good as they could have been(Wu,2006:7).--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 13:39, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
1. The emergence and development of literary translation. <br />
<br />
Translation activity has a long history in Russia, the beginnings of which can be traced back to the Time of Kievan Rus'. A relatively sophisticated system of writing, literature and translation was already in ancient Russia in the ninth century AD. Frequent cultural and trade exchanges with Byzantine, German, French and Scandinavian countries contributed significantly to the development of translation in Russia at that time, as did contacts with Eastern countries. From Kievan Rus' onwards, Russian translation methods oscillated between two main tendencies, either to follow the original texts exactly, up to the point of translating them word by word, or to be arbitrary, even to the point of rewriting, adding words or deleting at will. The first tendency is the main characteristic of translations of the Bible and other sacred books, while the second, though not absolutely, can be said to characterize most secular works.<br />
<br />
2.Initiation of translation activities-religious translation. <br />
<br />
In 864 AD, the Byzantine king sent two Greek priests, Kirill (Кирилл) and Mephodi (Мефодий), to spread Christianity among the Slavic people. At the beginning of their mission, they created a new alphabet (now known as the Kirill alphabet) and used this writing system to translate many religious texts from Greek into the ancient Church Slavonic. Among the results were the New Testament, hymnals and prayer books. In 988 AD, Rus was baptised and Kievan Rus was converted to Christianity. A large number of translations appeared instantly to help Protestants become familiar with the new religious philosophy and ethical system and to understand the rituals and customs of the Church. These translations were in a variety of genres, including the Acts of the Saints, sermons, chronicles and so on. In addition, apocryphal books telling magical and fantastical stories were also popular, and some of them had similarities with the later 'fantasy novels'. Most of these translations were done in Bulgaria and were popularised in Rus. At that time, translations of religious texts were mostly word-for-word. There were also a small number of works that, unlike the 'elaborate copies of the original', had a separate literary values. In one case, a large number of details of Russian life were added to the storyline of a sermon (e.g. The Tales of Achild the Wise). In another case, military historical narratives are interspersed with the terminology of the ancient Russian feudal system and certain literary images from the stories of ancient Russian warriors (e.g. Joseph Flav's History of the Jewish War). This translation can be considered one of the most successful of the period. In the translation, the translator succeeded in avoiding many word-for-word translations). Thirdly, the manuscripts copied by Ancient Rus, although based on Greek epic poetry (e.g. The Great Work of Digenes Akritas), often borrowed from Russian folk poetry, so that a large number of folk compositions appeared. As a result of this literary process, the translated literature was smoothly enriched by Russian manuscripts, which contributed to the development of original Russian literature and consolidated its links with the medieval literary process. Unfortunately, at that early stage in the development of translation, the translators were not signed, so it is impossible to verify whether the works were translated at home or abroad. During the difficult period of 'Mongol rule' (1228-1480), translations continued to play an important role in the cultural life of the country. The remaining chapters of the Bible were translated one after another, and previous translations were again proofread and revised. In addition to religious translations, more translations of non-religious subjects emerge, such as The Kingdom of India and The Trojan War. Most of the works were still translated from Greek, while works probably translated from Latin and ancient Hebrew also appeared. During this period, Russian began to take shape through the interaction of Old Slavonic (Church Slavonic) and local national languages. However, religious texts were still only translated into Church Slavonic, and the use of this language was by then restricted to ecclesiastical matters. At the same time, political and commercial exchanges with other countries were more likely to be in Russian, which was becoming increasingly sophisticated: elements of the combination of Old Slavonic and Russian can also be found in original works. 14-15th century literature in translation by Rus was characterised by an obsession with new themes. These were mainly new works of tranquillity-abstinence literature, or works recommended by and familiar to the tranquillists. This mystical genre was introduced to Rus after it had swept through the Byzantine and Yugoslav peoples. It was reflected in the semi-secular translations popular at the time (for example, The Trojan War). In the 16th century AD, Moscow eventually became the political center of Russia, as well as the translation center of the country. In 1515, the Grand Duke of Moscow, Vassily III (Василий Ⅲ), asked a Greek monastery to send a learned translator to Moscow. This man, who accompanied the Greek mission to Moscow in 1516, was the historically famous Maksim Grek (Максим Грек). Maxim Greek worked as a translator throughout his life, studying most of the religious texts and some of the non-religious works during this period. In addition, he also proofread and annotated previously existing translations. At the beginning, Maxim knew neither Russian nor Old Slavonic, so he divided the translation into two steps: first, he translated from Greek to Latin, and then his assistant translated from Latin to Old Slavonic. In the process of revising existing translations, he often broke with established tradition and was therefore denounced as blasphemous. Maxim was also a prolific writer, educator and philosopher. His writings contain many insights into the art of translation - the earliest recorded treatise on translation in Russia. Maxim insisted that the original text must be carefully analysed in order to grasp its full subtleties and implications. Therefore, the translator must not only master the language of the original, but also have a broad knowledge of the language and prepare for the translation. To support his argument, Maxim used Greek lexicography, phonetic organisation and phonetics involved in translation. His other major contribution was the compilation of a dictionary containing Greek, Latin and Hebrew nouns, which was also the first of its kind in Russian history. Although it was recognized at the time that translators should have a command of both languages and profound background knowledge, the practitioners of translation at the time lacked the necessary qualities and their translations were not as good as they should have been. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. Overview of the Russian school of Translation. ===<br />
===2.1 18th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The eighteenth century is an important period in the history of Russian translation. The status of translation in social culture has undergone a qualitative change, and this is due to Peter the Great's reform. At the beginning of the century, translation was still mostly related to professional documents such as laws and contracts. Later, the translator's tentacles gradually expanded to literary translation, for example, French poetry translation. The famous translators of this period are Sumarokov(А.П.Сумароков), Lomonosov(М.В.Ломоносов), Tretyakovsky (В.К.Тредьяковский) and so on. In the second half of the 18th century, the Association for the Translation of Foreign Books officially put forward the importance of translation. The organization has been active for 15 years with over 100 members（Wu,2006:10).<br />
<br />
1.Imperial support for translation. The political reforms introduced by Peter the Great also led to intensive economic and cultural exchanges between Russia and European countries. This created a huge demand for translations of scientific and technical literature and literary works. Translators were required to produce works of a high standard.<br />
<br />
Peter the Great issued a special decree on translation, requiring "faithful" communication of the original text. In a directive issued to his subordinates in 1709, he explicitly stated that when translating foreign books, word-for-word translations were to be avoided and that the content of the original text should be clearly expressed in one's own language, based on an understanding of its content. On the other hand, Peter the Great's subversion of the written language initially caused confusion in Russian translation circles. A large number of foreign languages entered the Russian language, and the piles of foreign syntactic structures distracted attention. In any case, Peter the Great's reforms did set a new norm and a new direction for translation(Wu,2006:11). <br />
<br />
In terms of content, Peter the Great's reforms were, from the very beginning, inextricably linked to the translation of scientific and technical texts, such as the many books on military defence engineering that he ordered to be translated and used to strengthen Russia's military forces. Peter the Great also placed great importance on the translation of prose, poetry and other literary works. During this period, the Russian language began to develop its own literary model, and many educated Russians saw translation as a way of enriching the language and enhancing its uniqueness and expressiveness. <br />
<br />
From around the 1830s, the importance of translating Western European scientific and technical texts gradually gave way to literary works such as prose and poetry. Writers who were also translators turned their attention to the work of new Western European writers, mainly poets, especially French poets. At the same time, the legacy of the Greco-Roman period also entered their minds. They began to translate the works of philosophers and historians, which - on the one hand - gave rise to difficulties in literary rhetoric and scientific terminology and, on the other, played an important role in the formation of a standard Russian language(Feng,2009:10)(Guo,2006:8). <br />
<br />
From that time onwards, translation also became an organised activity, with the emergence of specific bodies responsible for the organisation and management of translation work. 1735 saw the establishment of the first specialised translation organisation, the Russian Society, at the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences. The Society had a professional group of translators and some of the academy's scholars, such as Lomonosov and Tretyakovsky, were among its members. The Association was responsible for selecting works, defining the rules or principles of translation, commenting on translations, and training translators. It is worth mentioning that the Academy of Sciences also set up a school of foreign languages to train official translators. In 1748, the Academy implemented Queen Elizabeth's decree to increase the number of translations of non-religious books and publicly appealed to "the nobility and other classes of intellectuals" to take an active part in the translation process(Guo,2006:8)(Feng,2009:10). <br />
<br />
In the second half of the 18th century, Ekaterina II's efforts to create a 'civilised state' not only led to the development of literature, but also gave preferential treatment to writers. For example, in order to select the best original texts, she ordered the establishment of the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books (1768 - 1783). The Society was dedicated to providing excellent conditions for translation work throughout Russia. The purchase of manuscripts was financed out of Ekaterina's own funds. Later, the Society also discussed a proposal to establish a translation bureau under the Academy of Sciences (1790). The 114 members of the Society included such notable figures as Tretyakovsky, Sumarokov and Radishev. For 14 years the Association was active, producing numerous literary translations and likewise contributing to the discussion of theoretical issues in translation(Guo,2006:9).<br />
<br />
2.The emergence of poetry translation. Translation of poetry also developed in Russia in the 18th century, and later became one of the jewels of the country's literature. The great Russian scholar and poet Lomonosov was a major contributor to this process. A great deal of the work created by Lomonosov and his contemporaries Sumarokov and Tretyakovsky was poetry in translation. They often translated while exploring theoretical issues in translation: they would explain in their works why they translated this way and not that way; they stressed the importance of translation work and the creative value it contained. Among the most prestigious writers and translators in Russian literature at the time, there were several interesting competitions in which two or three poets translated the same work at the same time, and their translations were published in journals. It was often the case that different translations of the same work were published at the same time, without the translator's name, for the judgement of "literary lovers and peers". This phenomenon also supports the idea that the 18th century was a period of 'experimentation' in the history of Russian translation(Feng,2006:11). <br />
<br />
Lomonosov's translations from Latin, German, French and Greek are numerous and varied, showing his talent for both rhyming and free verse. He was keen to reproduce the rhythmic structure of the original texts, using a variety of iambic and iambic meter to convey the Alexandrian style of French epic and the hexameter style of Greek tragedy. Russian poetry was not very developed at the time and was still based on syllables. <br />
Lomonosov's innovations enriched Russian poetry and established new forms and traditions of Russian poetic style and rhyme. <br />
<br />
In contrast, Kantymir (Д.М.Кантемира) and Tretyakovsky's greatest quest was to insist on a faithful translation of the original. In the process, the translators had to contend with the problems of reams of vocabulary and rhetorical rules. Tretyakovsky became famous for his successful use of Russian rhyme to translate many verses of the original in his translation of Paul Thielmann's A Journey to Love Island. In the introduction to the novel, the translator states his approach to translation: "The translator is only one person away from the author. I would add that if the author is original, the translator should be even more original (I am not referring to myself, but to a good translator)". He believes that "prose to prose" and "poetry to poetry" can be as good as the original, and that a good translation is one that "describes the full meaning of each verse". Kantymir 's translation of Horace's Letters and other poetic works in Latin and French, although less well-known than the former, is equally valuable(Wu,2006:16).--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:40, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The eighteenth century is an important period in the history of Russian translation. The status of translation in social culture has undergone a qualitative change, and this is due to Peter the Great's reform. At the beginning of the century, translation was still mostly related to professional documents such as laws and contracts. Later, the translator's tentacles gradually expanded to literary translation, for example, French poetry translation. The famous translators of this period are Sumarokov(А.П.Сумароков), Lomonosov(М.В.Ломоносов), Tretyakovsky (В.К.Тредьяковский) and so on. In the second half of the 18th century, the Association for the Translation of Foreign Books officially put forward the importance of translation. The organization has been active for 15 years with over 100 members. The following points reflected the reasons why translation was paid more attention in the eighteenth century.<br />
<br />
1.Imperial support for translation. <br />
<br />
The political reforms introduced by Peter the Great also led to intensive economic and cultural exchanges between Russia and European countries. This created a huge demand for translations of scientific and technical literature and literary works. Translators were required to produce works of a high standard.Peter the Great issued a special decree on translation, requiring "faithful" communication of the original text. In a directive issued to his subordinates in 1709, he explicitly stated that when translating foreign books, word-for-word translations were to be avoided and that the content of the original text should be clearly expressed in one's own language, based on an understanding of its content. On the other hand, Peter the Great's subversion of the written language initially caused confusion in Russian translation circles. A large number of foreign languages entered the Russian language, and the piles of foreign syntactic structures distracted attention. In any case, Peter the Great's reforms did set a new norm and a new direction for translation. In terms of content, Peter the Great's reforms were, from the very beginning, inextricably linked to the translation of scientific and technical texts, such as the many books on military defence engineering that he ordered to be translated and used to strengthen Russia's military forces. Peter the Great also placed great importance on the translation of prose, poetry and other literary works. During this period, the Russian language began to develop its own literary model, and many educated Russians saw translation as a way of enriching the language and enhancing its uniqueness and expressiveness. <br />
<br />
From around the 1830s, the importance of translating Western European scientific and technical texts gradually gave way to literary works such as prose and poetry. Writers who were also translators turned their attention to the work of new Western European writers, mainly poets, especially French poets. At the same time, the legacy of the Greco-Roman period also entered their minds. They began to translate the works of philosophers and historians, which - on the one hand - gave rise to difficulties in literary rhetoric and scientific terminology and, on the other, played an important role in the formation of a standard Russian language. <br />
<br />
From that time onwards, translation also became an organised activity, with the emergence of specific bodies responsible for the organisation and management of translation work. 1735 saw the establishment of the first specialised translation organisation, the Russian Society, at the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences. The Society had a professional group of translators and some of the academy's scholars, such as Lomonosov and Tretyakovsky, were among its members. The Association was responsible for selecting works, defining the rules or principles of translation, commenting on translations, and training translators. It is worth mentioning that the Academy of Sciences also set up a school of foreign languages to train official translators. In 1748, the Academy implemented Queen Elizabeth's decree to increase the number of translations of non-religious books and publicly appealed to "the nobility and other classes of intellectuals" to take an active part in the translation process. <br />
<br />
In the second half of the 18th century, Ekaterina II's efforts to create a 'civilised state' not only led to the development of literature, but also gave preferential treatment to writers. For example, in order to select the best original texts, she ordered the establishment of the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books (1768-1783). The Society was dedicated to providing excellent conditions for translation work throughout Russia. The purchase of manuscripts was financed out of Ekaterina's own funds. Later, the Society also discussed a proposal to establish a translation bureau under the Academy of Sciences (1790). The 114 members of the Society included such notable figures as Tretyakovsky, Sumarokov and Radishev. For 14 years the Association was active, producing numerous literary translations and likewise contributing to the discussion of theoretical issues in translation.<br />
<br />
2.The emergence of poetry translation.<br />
<br />
Translation of poetry also developed in Russia in the 18th century, and later became one of the jewels of the country's literature. The great Russian scholar and poet Lomonosov was a major contributor to this process. A great deal of the work created by Lomonosov and his contemporaries Sumarokov and Tretyakovsky was poetry in translation. They often translated while exploring theoretical issues in translation: they would explain in their works why they translated this way and not that way; they stressed the importance of translation work and the creative value it contained. Among the most prestigious writers and translators in Russian literature at the time, there were several interesting competitions in which two or three poets translated the same work at the same time, and their translations were published in journals. It was often the case that different translations of the same work were published at the same time, without the translator's name, for the judgement of "literary lovers and peers". This phenomenon also supports the idea that the 18th century was a period of 'experimentation' in the history of Russian translation. <br />
<br />
Lomonosov's translations works in Latin, German, French and Greek are numerous and varied, showing his talent for both rhyming and free verse. He was keen to reproduce the rhythmic structure of the original texts, using a variety of iambic and iambic meter to convey the Alexandrian style of French epic and the hexameter style of Greek tragedy. Russian poetry was not very developed at the time and was still based on syllables. <br />
Lomonosov's innovations enriched Russian poetry and established new forms and traditions of Russian poetic style and rhyme. <br />
<br />
In contrast, Kantymir (Д.М.Кантемира) and Tretyakovsky's greatest quest was to insist on a faithful translation of the original. In the process, the translators had to contend with the problems of reams of vocabulary and rhetorical rules. Tretyakovsky became famous for his successful use of Russian rhyme to translate many verses of the original in his translation of Paul Thielmann's A Journey to Love Island. In the introduction to the novel, the translator states his approach to translation: "The translator is only one person away from the author. I would add that if the author is original, the translator should be even more original (I am not referring to myself, but to a good translator)". He believes that "prose to prose" and "poetry to poetry" can be as good as the original, and that a good translation is one that "describes the full meaning of each verse". Kantymir 's translation of Horace's Letters and other poetic works in Latin and French, although less well-known than the former, is equally valuable. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 12:39, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.2 First half of the19th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The nineteenth century was a golden age in the history of Russian translation. If translation had established itself as a profession in the first hundred years, it was elevated to the level of art in this century. The nineteenth century produced a number of masters of translation, including Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин), Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский), Pushkin (А.С.Пушкин), Lermontov (М.Ю.Лермонтов) and Fetter (А.Фет)(Wu,2006:23). <br />
<br />
The new Russian school of translation owes its formation to the historian Nikolai Karamzin and the poet Zhukovsky. Karamzin published a number of translations in several magazines between the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century. He saw translations as a good help in perfecting a writer's style: a source of information that would satisfy human curiosity, inform historical facts, entertain women and provide material for new magazines. As a young man, Karamzin was strongly opposed to the alteration of and disloyalty to the original texts, but later became a champion of free translation, famously saying: "Whoever follows the author of the original text step by step is no different from a servant who serves his lord". Karamzin's translations cover an admirable range of genres and languages: he translated works by both classical and contemporaneous authors, in Greek, French, Latin, German, English, Italian and some Oriental languages(Feng,2009:12). <br />
<br />
Pushkin called Zhukovsky "a genius of translation". After graduating from the Moscow Noble Boarding University in 1802, Zhukovsky devoted himself to translation. It was thanks to his efforts that Russian readers were able to access the works of world literary giants such as Schiller, Goethe, Byron and Walters Scott. Zhukovsky's creative translation activities also ranged from Charles Bello to Grimm's Fairy Tales. From Charles Bellow to Grimm's fairy tales, from Homer's epic Odyssey to the poetic history of ancient Rus' Igor's Expedition, all became his original texts. There is no denying that Zhukovsky is a master in the history of Russian translation. Like Karamzin, Zhukovsky was a fan of free translation, sometimes rewriting the original or even creating a new story from its subject: sometimes transferring the setting of events to Russia and giving Russian names to the characters. For example, in his 1808 translation of the German Romantic poet Bilge's narrative poem Lenore, he changed the heroine's name from Lenore to Lyudmila and moved the story to the time of the Livonian War in 16th-century Russia. Zhukovsky believed that the "unsavoury character" of the work should be weakened while retaining the original author's ideas. His talent enabled him to reproduce the style, rhythm and tone of the original poems, while some of his best works were also faithful to the original. In later years, however, his view of translation changed in response to the tendency to stay close to the original, and he retranslated several of his previous translations to make them more faithful to the original, including Lenore. The Russian school of translation owes much to the tradition of translation created by Zhukovsky(Wu,2006:24-30)(Feng,2009:13)(Guo,2006:9).<br />
<br />
Pushkin and Lermontov are also two poets who set the stage for an epoch in the history of Russian translation. Although only a small proportion of their poetry was translated, they made a significant contribution to the improvement of the art of translation in Russia. In their rewriting and imitation of poetry, they were able to reproduce the most important features of foreign poetry, the key point being that their creative translations were no less valuable in their own right than the originals. Their free translation became a model for other translators, and in addition they established the important principle that a good artistic translation must also be a good work in the national literature of the translated language. Pushkin played an indelibly important role in the development of the Russian school of translation. He was always interested in the question of translation, and his critical views on translation were objective and profound. Before translation he stressed the importance of the choice of the original work, and in translation he demanded that the translator should be faithful to the original, while at the same time displaying his deep creative skills and his own literary style. In one of his unfinished posthumous works, 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', Pushkin wrote: 'Chateaubriand's translation (verbatim) compensates to some extent for the faults of the young French writers (free translation), for they have insulted the great man very cruelly, though in a perfectly innocent manner. There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own rhetorical conventions, its own way of expressing itself, and it is impossible to translate into another language with the corresponding vocabulary". These insights had a positive impact on the best Russian translators of the 19th and 20th centuries. In addition, Pushkin's discussion of translation coincided with a turning point in the history of Russian literature, when the Romantic era was being replaced by a new era with a predominantly realist orientation, and a process of 'separation' between translated and national literature was under way. Pushkin's discussion of the work of the translator as distinct from that of the writer contributed to the independence of literature in translation from indigenous literature(Guo,2006:10)(Wu,2006:37-41). <br />
<br />
During this period, while most people advocated free translation, there were a few translators who insisted on maximum fidelity to the original and advocated the word-for-word method, even at the expense of the work's willingness to be translated. Among these were such well-known writers as P.A. Vyazemsky (П.А.Вяземский) and N.I. Gnedzic (Н.И.Гнедич). In fact, they did not always live up to their principles, and sometimes their talent and artistic intuition ended up breaking the bonds of verbatim translation. Vyazemsky's translations of Benjamin Constant and Adam Mickiewicz were not without literary and artistic merit, and his translation of Homer's epic Iliad in particular was highly praised by Pushkin. It was Fetter who was the most insistent on the idea of a verbatim translation. Fetter translated many famous works, and his philosophy throughout was one of sentence-for-sentence, word-for-word translation, retaining all the words of the original. Fetter's extreme word-for-word approach had a negative impact on most of his translations, although he was sometimes able to come up with some effective methods of translation(Feng,2009:14). <br />
<br />
Free translations were also sometimes used to promote democratic ideas in the original that could not pass official scrutiny. A number of translators, such as V. Kurochkin (В.Курочкин), D. M. Minayev (Д.Минаев) and M. M. Mikhalov (М.Михайлов), achieved this by selecting appropriate original works or by using texts in their translations that were superficially imperceptible in their allusion to the conditions in Russia at the time. It was from that time onwards that the use of translation as a weapon to express dissent became part of the Russian tradition(Feng,2009:14).--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:41, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The nineteenth century was the golden age in the history of Russian translation. If translation had established its status in the first hundred years, it was elevated to the level of art in this century. The nineteenth century produced a number of masters of translation, including Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин), Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский), Pushkin (А.С.Пушкин), Lermontov (М.Ю.Лермонтов) and Fetter (А.Фет). <br />
<br />
The new Russian school of translation owes its formation to the publishment of a number of translations of historian Nikolai Karamzin and the poet Zhukovsky. Karamzin in several magazines between the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century. He regarded translation as a good help in perfecting a writer's style: a source of information that satisfies human curiosity, informs historical facts, entertains women and provides materials for new magazines. As a young man, Karamzin was strongly opposed to the disloyalty to the original texts, but later became a champion of free translation. His famous saying was: "Whoever follows the author of the original text step by step is no different from a servant who serves his lord". Karamzin's translations cover an admirable range of genres and languages: he translated works by both classical and contemporaneous authors, in Greek, French, Latin, German, English, Italian and some Oriental languages. <br />
<br />
Pushkin called Zhukovsky "a genius of translation". After graduating from the Moscow Noble Boarding University in 1802, Zhukovsky devoted himself to translation. It was thanks to his efforts that Russian readers were able to access the works of world literary giants such as Schiller, Goethe, Byron and Walters Scott. Zhukovsky's creative translation activities also ranged from Charles Bello to Grimm's Fairy Tales. From Charles Bellow to Grimm's fairy tales, from Homer's epic Odyssey to the poetic history of ancient Rus' Igor's Expedition, all became his original texts. There is no denying that Zhukovsky is a master in the history of Russian translation. Like Karamzin, Zhukovsky was a fan of free translation, who sometimes rewrites the original or even creates a new story from its subject, transfers the setting of events to Russia and gives Russian names to the characters. For example, in his 1808 translation of the German Romantic poet Bilge's narrative poem Lenore, he changed the heroine's name from Lenore to Lyudmila and moved the story to the time of the Livonian War in 16th-century Russia. Zhukovsky believed that the "unsavoury character" of the work should be weakened while retaining the original author's ideas. His talent enabled him to reproduce the style, rhythm and tone of the original poems, while some of his best works were also faithful to the original. In later years, however, his view of translation changed in response to the tendency to stay close to the original, and he retranslated several of his previous translations to make them more faithful to the original, including Lenore. The Russian school of translation owes much to the tradition of translation created by Zhukovsky.<br />
<br />
Pushkin and Lermontov are also two poets who gave perfect preparations for an epoch in the history of Russian translation. Although only a small proportion of their poetry was translated, they made a significant contribution to the improvement of the art of translation in Russia. In their rewriting and imitation of poetry, they were able to reproduce the most important features of foreign poetry, the key point being that their creative translations were no less valuable in their own right than the originals. Their free translation became a model for other translators, and in addition they established the important principle that a good artistic translation must also be a good work in the national literature of the translated language. Pushkin played an indelibly important role in the development of the Russian school of translation. He was always interested in the question of translation, and his critical views on translation were objective and profound. Before translation he stressed the importance of the choice of the original work, and in translation he demanded that the translator should be faithful to the original, while at the same time displaying his deep creative skills and his own literary style. In one of his unfinished posthumous works, 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', Pushkin wrote: 'Chateaubriand's translation (verbatim) compensates to some extent for the faults of the young French writers (free translation), for they have insulted the great man very cruelly, though in a perfectly innocent manner. There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own rhetorical conventions, its own way of expressing itself, and it is impossible to translate into another language with the corresponding vocabulary". These insights had a positive impact on the best Russian translators of the 19th and 20th centuries. In addition, Pushkin's discussion of translation coincided with a turning point in the history of Russian literature, when the Romantic era was being replaced by a new era with a predominantly realist orientation, and a process of 'separation' between translated and national literature was under way. Pushkin's discussion of the work of the translator as distinct from that of the writer contributed to the independence of literature in translation from indigenous literature. <br />
<br />
During this period, while most people advocated free translation, there were a few translators who insisted on maximum fidelity to the original and advocated the word-for-word method, even at the expense of the work's willingness to be translated. Among these were such well-known writers as P.A. Vyazemsky (П.А.Вяземский) and N.I. Gnedzic (Н.И.Гнедич). In fact, they did not always live up to their principles, and sometimes their talent and artistic intuition ended up breaking the bonds of verbatim translation. Vyazemsky's translations of Benjamin Constant and Adam Mickiewicz were not without literary and artistic merit, and his translation of Homer's epic Iliad in particular was highly praised by Pushkin. It was Fetter who was the most insistent on the idea of a verbatim translation. Fetter translated many famous works, and his philosophy throughout was one of sentence-for-sentence, word-for-word translation, retaining all the words of the original. Fetter's extreme word-for-word approach had a negative impact on most of his translations, although he was sometimes able to come up with some effective methods of translation. <br />
<br />
Free translations were also used to promote democratic ideas in original that could not pass official scrutiny. A number of translators, such as V. Kurochkin (В.Курочкин), D. M. Minayev (Д.Минаев) and M. M. Mikhalov (М.Михайлов), achieved this by selecting appropriate original works or by using texts in their translations that were superficially imperceptible in their allusion to the conditions in Russia at the time. It was since then that the use of translation was used as a weapon to express dissent became part of the Russian tradition. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:05, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.3 Second half of the19th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The mid-nineteenth century was a period of increasingly intense political and ideological struggle in Russian literature, and a great debate raged in the Russian literary world over the question of 'art for the people' or 'art for art's sake'. The debate was mainly about the choice of material for translation and the method of translation. As far as the choice of material was concerned, the democratic and revolutionary writers who supported 'art for the people' chose to translate works with progressive ideological content and a democratic orientation, such as Heine. The aristocratic and liberal intellectual writers, on the other hand, opted for philosophical poetry with a chanting and individualistic feel. Of course, this is not absolute: "Mikhailov and Dobrolyubov of the democratic revolutionary school also translated Heine's moody love poems The Songbook, while Tolstoy of the aristocratic and liberal school translated some of Goethe's more progressive poems, such as The Fiancée of Corinth and The Whore of God. In terms of their approach to translation, the Democratic-Revolutionary translators, based on the reproduction of the original as a whole, approached their translations very liberally, even adding in many elements typical of Russian culture. The latter, on the other hand, usually adopted a direct translation, focusing on conveying the formal details of the original work. This divergence was mainly due to the different starting points of the two groups of translators, with the democratic revolutionaries seeking to convey advanced ideas to the Russian general public and the aristocratic intellectuals believing that works of art were irrelevant to the people and that artistic creations should not be exposed to "vulgar" reality.<br />
<br />
There were a large number of outstanding literary writers and literary critics who made brilliant statements about literary translation in that era, none more so than Belinsky (В.Г.Белинский), Chernyshevsky (Н.Г.Черныщевский) and Dubrolyovsky (Н.Г.Добролюбов). Belinsky was one of the greatest Russian literary critics of the 19th century. He believed that translations should not be word-for-word, but should reproduce the spirit of the original, in much the same way as Pushkin's view of translation theory. On the other hand, he also opposed arbitrary 'paraphrasing': the ideal translation should not add or delete arbitrarily to the original text, but should enable the reader to understand the foreign work truly and accurately through the translation. Such a viewpoint seems to us to be quite convincing even now. Belinsky played a decisive role in completely burying the 'rewriting' and 'adapting it to Russian custom' arguments. This issue dominates his writings. He argues that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of the translation, and this is one of the criteria by which he judges its merits. He points out, for example, that the greatest strength of Gnedzic's translation of the Iliad is that it "exudes the atmosphere of ancient life" and "the spirit of the ancient Greeks". However, the contradiction between national identity and translatability was once a problem for Belinsky. Initially believing that it was impossible to translate works with a strong national character into other languages, he was only convinced by the success of Turgenev's collaboration with Louis Viardot in translating Gogol's novels into French in 1846, and then became increasingly determined to recognise translatability in translation. Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a series of revisions that led to a complete and rigorous system of translation theory, the first of its kind in the history of Russian translation theory.<br />
<br />
Translation in Russia developed in the second half of the 19th century. From the 1960s onwards, the Russian readership of non-language speakers began to expand, and these readers were keen to see the translation 'replace' the original. This demand led to an unprecedented expansion in the choice of subjects and translations of Russian literature. Interest in foreign theatrical works was particularly high at this stage, and a strong interest in European classical literature also developed. Dickens, Saclay, Victor Hugo, Dumas, Balzac, Flaubert, Tudor, Maupassant and Zola, as well as lesser-known writers of today, were successively brought to the attention of a wide range of Russian readers in the form of translations. At that time, European theatre classics like Shakespeare's plays were translated into Russia in large numbers. Many professional translators were involved, the most successful being the translator P.N.V. Weinberg. He translated foreign literature from the standpoint of progressive Russian literature of the time. His translation of Othello, for example, is notable for its vividness in the Russian language, and has always been recognised as the best translation in terms of conveying the totality of scenes, plots and long dialogues, even though the translation is wordy compared to the original.<br />
<br />
Although there has been a quantitative surge in translations of Russian literature during this period, the quality has generally been poor, manifesting itself in word-for-word translations, redundant sentences and poor vocabulary, not to mention inventiveness. In addition, the language of the characters in the translation is heavily Russified, with Russian proverbs, sayings and idioms that the foreign characters could never have known, and the introduction of Russian-specific life circumstances that cause contradictions with the plot and details of the original work. For example, В Тулу со своим самоваром ехать (Bring your own samovar to Tula - it's superfluous). The reason for this is that the literary world did not attach much importance to the translation of fiction and prose, and there were no specialists working on this task. Another point is that at this stage there was little progress in the study of Russian translation theory, and no valuable theoretical insights emerged. The linguist A.A. Потебня (1835-1891) expressed his views on translation from a psychological standpoint in his essay "Language and Peopleliness ". In his view, it was impossible to express in another language what was originally intended to be expressed in a certain language. He, like many other literary scholars, denied the translatability of language.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:41, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The mid-nineteenth century was a period of increasingly intensively political and ideological struggle in Russian literature, and a great debate raged in the Russian literary world over the question of 'art for the people' or 'art for art's sake'. The debate was mainly about the choice of materials for translation and the methods of translation. As far as the choice of material was concerned, the democratic and revolutionary writers who supported 'art for the people' chose to translate works with progressive ideological content and a democratic orientation, such as Heine. The aristocratic and liberal intellectual writers, on the other hand, opted for philosophical poetry with a chanting and individualistic feel. It's undoubtful that this is not absolute: "Mikhailov and Dobrolyubov of the democratic revolutionary school also translated Heine's moody love poems The Songbook, while Tolstoy of the aristocratic and liberal school translated some of Goethe's more progressive poems, such as The Fiancée of Corinth and The Whore of God. In terms of their approach to translation, the Democratic-Revolutionary translators, based on the reproduction of the original as a whole, approached their translations very liberally, when they even added in many elements typical of Russian culture. The latter, on the other hand, usually adopted a direct translation, focusing on conveying the formal details of the original work. This divergence was mainly due to the different starting points of the two groups of translators, with the democratic revolutionaries seeking to convey advanced ideas to the Russian general public and the aristocratic intellectuals believing that works of art were irrelevant to the people and that artistic creations should not be exposed to "vulgar" reality.<br />
<br />
There were a large number of outstanding literary writers and literary critics who made brilliant statements about literary translation in that era, none more so than Belinsky (В.Г.Белинский), Chernyshevsky (Н.Г.Черныщевский) and Dubrolyovsky (Н.Г.Добролюбов). Belinsky was one of the greatest Russian literary critics of the 19th century. He believed that translations should not be word-for-word, but should reproduce the spirit of the original text, in much the same way as Pushkin's view of translation theory. On the other hand, he also opposed arbitrary 'paraphrasing': the ideal translation should not add or delete arbitrarily to the original text, but should enable the reader to understand the foreign work truly and accurately through the translation. Such a viewpoint seems to us to be quite convincing even now. Belinsky played a decisive role in completely burying the 'rewriting' and 'adapting it to Russian custom' arguments. This issue dominates his writings. He argues that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of the translation, and this is one of the criteria by which he judges its merits. He points out, for example, that the greatest strength of Gnedzic's translation of the Iliad is that it "exudes the atmosphere of ancient life" and "the spirit of the ancient Greeks". However, the contradiction between national identity and translatability was once a problem for Belinsky. Initially believing that it was impossible to translate works with a strong national character into other languages, he was only convinced by the success of Turgenev's collaboration with Louis Viardot in translating Gogol's novels into French in 1846, and then became increasingly determined to recognise translatability in translation. Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a series of revisions that led to a complete and rigorous system of translation theory, the first of its kind in the history of Russian translation theory.<br />
<br />
Translation in Russia developed in the second half of the 19th century. From the 1960s onwards, the Russian readership of non-language speakers began to expand, and these readers were keen to see the translation 'replace' the original. This demand led to an unprecedented expansion in the choice of subjects and translations of Russian literature. Interest in foreign theatrical works was particularly high at this stage, and a strong interest in European classical literature also developed. Dickens, Saclay, Victor Hugo, Dumas, Balzac, Flaubert, Tudor, Maupassant and Zola, as well as lesser-known writers of today, were successively brought to the attention of a wide range of Russian readers in the form of translations. At that time, European theatre classics like Shakespeare's plays were translated into Russia in large numbers. Many professional translators were involved, the most successful being the translator P.N.V. Weinberg. He translated foreign literature from the standpoint of progressive Russian literature of the time. His translation of Othello, for example, is notable for its vividness in the Russian language, and has always been recognised as the best translation in terms of conveying the totality of scenes, plots and long dialogues, even though the translation is wordy compared to the original.<br />
<br />
Although there has been a quantitative surge in translations of Russian literature during this period, the quality has generally been poor, manifesting itself in word-for-word translations, redundant sentences and poor vocabulary, not to mention inventiveness. In addition, the language of the characters in the translation is heavily Russified, that is, contents with Russian proverbs, sayings and idioms that the foreign characters could never have known, and the introduction of Russian-specific life circumstances that cause contradictions with the plot and details of the original work. For example, В Тулу со своим самоваром ехать (Bring your own samovar to Tula - it's superfluous). The reason for this is that the literary world did not attach much importance to the translation of fiction and prose, and there were no specialists working on this task. Another point is that at this stage there was little progress in the study of Russian translation theory, and no valuable theoretical insights emerged. The linguist A.A. Потебня (1835-1891) expressed his views on translation from a psychological standpoint in his essay "Language and Peopleliness ". In his view, it was impossible to express in another language what was originally intended to be expressed in a certain language. Just like many other literary scholars, he denied the translatability of language. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:13, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.Translation ideas of famous writers of the 18-19th centuries. ===<br />
===3.1. Pushkin 's ideas on translation. ===<br />
Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin (Александр Сергеевич Пушкин, 1977-1837), a famous Russian poet and writer of the nineteenth century, was also very much a translator. Although he left behind few works on translation, his ideas on translation are worth studying. Pushkin's translations of poetry were associated with classicism in the early stages of his work and later with romanticism. Although these translations are far removed from the original in a literal sense, they are almost close to composition. Pushkin's significance as a translator, however, lies in 1) the reproduction of foreign originals in the standard Russian language he established in his translations and 2) the full expression of the realist artistic method in the heyday of his compositions: the focus on typical features and the technique of outlining the historical and individual characteristics that reflect the original.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's translations have their own characteristics and style. He did not translate all of his works word for word from the original, and in some places he deleted what he considered to be redundant sentences in order to avoid the verbosity of the original, occasionally replacing the translation with a general paraphrase. He advocates respect for the characteristics of foreign readers, while at the same time opposing word-for-word translations, which can lead to the trampling of the mother tongue. He therefore advocated translations which, on the one hand, required fidelity to the original in terms of meaning and, on the other, should preserve the original's distinctive features.<br />
As he says in his unfinished 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', commenting on Chateaubriand's translation: 'There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), has failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own conventional rhetorical devices, its own habitual expressions, and it is impossible to translate all this into another language using the corresponding vocabulary." Pushkin's rejection of word-for-word translation can be seen.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's influence on the cause of translation in Russia was immense, and this influence refers neither to his few translations nor to his theoretical views, but to the fact that Pushkin pioneered the translation of Russian literature. Although his ideas on translation cannot be called a theory, they do provide certain translation ideas for later generations of literary translators.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin (Александр Сергеевич Пушкин, 1977-1837), a famous Russian poet and writer of the nineteenth century, was also an outstanding translator. Besides he left behind few works on translation, his ideas on translation are worth studying. Pushkin's translations of poetry were associated with classicism in the early stages of his work and with romanticism later. Although these translations are far removed from the original in a literal sense, they are almost close to composition. Pushkin's significance as a translator, however, lies in the reproduction of foreign originalities in the standard Russian language he established in his translations and the full expression of the realist artistic method in the heyday of his compositions: the focus on typical features and the technique of outlining the historical and individual characteristics that reflect the original.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's translations have their own distinctive characteristics and style. He did not translate all of his works literally from the original context, but in some places he deleted what he considered to be redundant sentences in order to avoid the verbosity of the original, occasionally replacing the translation with a general paraphrase. He advocates to give enough respect for the characteristics of foreign readers, while at the same time opposing word-for-word translations, which may lead to the trampling of the mother tongue. Therefore, He advocated translations which, on the one hand, required fidelity to the original text in terms of meaning and, on the other hand, should preserve the original's distinctive features.<br />
<br />
As he says in his unfinished 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', he comments on Chateaubriand's translation: 'There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), has failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own conventional rhetorical devices, its own habitual expressions, and it is impossible to translate all this into another language using the corresponding vocabulary." Pushkin's rejection of word-for-word translation can be revealed clearly.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's influence on the cause of translation in Russia was huge, and his influence refers neither to his few translations nor to his theoretical views, but to the fact that Pushkin pioneered the translation of Russian literature. Although his ideas on translation cannot be called a theory, they do provide certain unique and new translation ideas for later generations of literary translators. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:29, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.1. Belinsky's ideas on translation. ===<br />
Vissarion Grigorievich Belinsky (Виссарион Григорьевич Белинский, 1811-1848) was a famous literary critic of the nineteenth century and one of the most involved in the world of translation among Russian literary activists of his time. Belinsky was fluent in French and as a young man translated for two magazines, Miscellany and Telescope. Later, after a career in literary criticism, he published numerous articles on translation and criticism of translated works.<br />
Belinsky's and Pushkin's views on translation were very similar, both advocating that translations should not be word-for-word. Belinsky first introduced the term 'theory' of translation, and in his 1838 review of Polevoy's translation of Hamlet, he first proposed the need for a theory of translation. He considered the role of theory: "Any object that man perceives has a theory of its own, and a theory is the knowledge of the laws by which the object exists."<br />
<br />
Belinsky argues that in translation: "Closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original. Each <br />
language has its own distinctive expressions, characteristics and qualities; these are so distinctive that to correctly convey a certain image or sentence, it is sometimes necessary to change them completely in the translation. The corresponding image, like the corresponding sentence, does not necessarily lie in a superficial agreement of words: the inner life of the translation should be made to correspond to the inner life of the original". It can be seen that Belinsky, like Pushkin, was also opposed to word-for-word rigid translations, his view being that the task of translating a language lies in reproducing the spirit of the original. He believed that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of a translation, so the question of the interrelationship between national character and translatability has always troubled Belinsky. He pointed out that 'there is only one rule for translating a literary work - to convey the spirit of the work being translated, and this can only be done by translating it into Russian as the author himself would have written it in Russian, if he had been Russian' (The Complete Works of Belinsky Volume 2).<br />
<br />
Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a number of achievements, and his view of translation as a whole is a complete and rigorous system. His view of translation was developed gradually, and in the process it was dominated by an increasingly firm recognition of the possibility of a successful solution to the task of translation, that is, of translatability. Belinsky believed that a translation must be discerning in its content and form in relation to the original. He has pointed out that "approaching the original is not the same as conveying the letters, but rather the spirit of the original." It is also suggested that the translator and the original author are two different kinds of people. But in order to convey the 'spirit' of the original in the translation, the translator's genius needs to reach a certain tacit understanding with this 'spirit'. He advocates the preservation of exoticism in translation, opposes naturalisation, the arbitrary distortion of the face of the original work, the overwhelming of the original author with the personality of the translator's style, the emphasis on both likeness and likeness, etc. However, while recognising the importance of reproducing the poetic form of the original work in translation, Belinsky also took into account the state of development of Russian literature in translation. This also led him to look favourably on translating good poetry in prose, seeing such translations as a form of transition for Russian readers to the treasures of world literature.<br />
<br />
Although Belinsky wrote little about literary translation, his theoretical views contain the kernel of the realist principles of translation proposed by contemporary Soviet literary translators. His ideas on translation had a very profound influence on the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Vissarion Grigorievich Belinsky (Виссарион Григорьевич Белинский, 1811-1848) was a famous literary critic of the nineteenth century and one of the most active in the world of translation among Russian literary activists of his time. Belinsky was fluent in French and when he was a young man he translated for two magazines, Miscellany and Telescope. Later, after a career in literary criticism, he published numerous articles on translation and criticism of translated works.<br />
<br />
Belinsky's and Pushkin's views on translation were very similar, both advocating that translations should not be word-for-word. Belinsky first introduced the term 'theory' of translation, and in his 1838 review of Polevoy's translation of Hamlet, he first proposed the need for a theory of translation. He considered the role of theory: "Any object that man perceives has a theory of its own, and a theory is the knowledge of the laws by which the object exists."<br />
<br />
Belinsky argues that in translation: "Closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original. Each language has its own distinctive expressions, characteristics and qualities; these are so distinctive that to correctly convey a certain image or sentence, it is sometimes necessary to change them completely in the translation. The corresponding image, like the corresponding sentence, does not necessarily lie in a superficial agreement of words: the inner life of the translation should be made to correspond to the inner life of the original". It can be seen that Belinsky, like Pushkin, was also opposed to word-for-word rigid translations, his view being that the task of translating a language lies in reproducing the spirit of the original. He believed that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of a translation, so the question of the interrelationship between national character and translatability has always troubled Belinsky. He pointed out that 'there is only one rule for translating a literary work - to convey the spirit of the work being translated, and this can only be done by translating it into Russian as the author himself would have written it in Russian, if he had been Russian' (The Complete Works of Belinsky Volume 2).<br />
<br />
Belinsky's career as a translator had a number of achievements, and his view of translation as a whole is a complete and rigorous system. His view of translation was developed gradually, and in this process it was dominated by an increasingly firm recognition of the possibility of a successful solution to the task of translation, that is, of translatability. Belinsky believed that a translation must be discerning in its content and form in relation to the original. He has pointed out that "approaching the original is not the same as conveying the letters, but rather the spirit of the original." It is also suggested that the translator and the original author are two different kinds of people. But in order to convey the 'spirit' of the original in the translation, the translator's genius needs to reach a certain tacit understanding with this 'spirit'. He advocates the preservation of exoticism in translation, opposes naturalisation, the arbitrary distortion of the face of the original work, the overwhelming of the original author with the personality of the translator's style, the emphasis on both likeness and likeness, etc. However, while recognising the importance of reproducing the poetic form of the original work in translation, Belinsky also took into account the state of development of Russian literature in translation. This also led him to look favourably on translating good poetry in prose, seeing such translations as a form of transition for Russian readers to the treasures of world literature.<br />
<br />
Although Belinsky wrote little about literary translation, his theoretical views contain the kernel of the realist principles of translation proposed by contemporary Soviet literary translators. His ideas on translation had a very profound influence on the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:56, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.Conclusion ===<br />
Translation has demonstrated its importance in social activity since antiquity, yet it was only in the twentieth century that it became a widely followed professional discipline. This article reviews Russian translation activity and translation thought in pre-Soviet Russia, exploring its development before the formation of a theoretical system. Throughout the history of translation, Russian scholars have contributed greatly to the development of translation literature in the world. Through combing through the history of Russian translation, we learn that the translation ideas of a number of outstanding writers, though not theoretical, have had an unmistakable impact on later generations. When discussing the translation ideas of 19th-century writers, we are inspired to insist on the principle that "closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original", emphasizing the ideological content and literary value of the translation, that the translation should serve the readers, and that the translation should be people-oriented. These ideas influenced, to a greater or lesser extent, the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, the study of the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia is not only conducive to sorting out Russian translation ideas Russian learners can better understand the characteristics of their translations when translating and improve the accuracy of their translations.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:44, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Translation has played its important role in the social activities since antiquity, yet it was until in the twentieth century that it became a widely followed professional discipline. This paper reviews Russian translators and translation thoughts in pre-Soviet Russia, exploring its development before the formation of a theoretical system. Throughout the history of translation, Russian scholars have contributed greatly to the development of translation literature in the world. By combing through the history of Russian translation, we learn that the translation ideas of a number of outstanding writers, though not very theoretical, have had an unmistakable impact on later generations. When discussing the translation ideas of 19th-century writers, we are inspired to insist on the principle that "closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original", emphasizing the ideological content and literary value of the translation that the translation should serve the readers, and that the translation should be people-oriented. These ideas influenced, to a greater or lesser extent, the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, the study of the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia not only is conducive to sorting out Russian translation ideas, but also make Russian learners better understand the characteristics of their translations when translating and improving the accuracy of their translations. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 14:02, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.References ===<br />
1.Wu, Keli 吴克礼（2006）.俄苏翻译理论流派综述 The Translation Methods and Studies in USSR. 上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
2.Guo Lin 郭琳（2006）.俄罗斯语言学派翻译理论若干问题研究[D] A Study of Some Problems of Translation Theory of the Russian School of Philology.首都师范大学 Capital Normal University.<br />
<br />
3.Feng Xin 冯欣（2009）. 俄罗斯翻译理论史及其影响研究[D] A study of the history of Russian translation theory and its influence.上海外国语大学 Shanghai International Studies University.<br />
<br />
4.Wang，Yulun；Jiang,Wanzhu 王育伦,姜万砫（1989).别林斯基论文学翻译[J] Belinsky on Literary Translation .中国翻译 Chinese translators Journal ,(03):53-55.<br />
<br />
5.Li Zheng, Fan Min 李铮,范敏（2010）. 普希金与翻译[J] Pushkin and Translation. 现代交际 Modern Intercourse Journal,(05):69.</div>Zhang Yiranhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_5&diff=132622Hist Trans Theo EN 52021-12-14T02:58:44Z<p>Zhang Yiran: /* 2.2 First half of the19th century Russian translation. */</p>
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=Chapter 5 History of Translation Theories from Early Russia to the Soviet Union=<br />
<br />
'''从古罗斯到苏联前的翻译理论史'''<br />
<br />
张怡然 Zhang Yiran,Hunan Normal University,China<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation as a means of intercultural communication, each country has a distinctive translation ideology. This article focuses on the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia. Through analyzing the history of translation, can find that Russia has formed a literary tradition of translation studies in the late 18th century. In the 19th century, Pushkin, Lermontov, Turgenev and other outstanding poets and literary scholars were keen on translation, especially in the middle of the century when Belinsky and other famous literary critics published a series of comments on literary translation, which emphasized the literary tradition of Russian translation to an unparalleled extent, which is rare in the history of translation in the world. The general principles of Russian literary translation thought were also formed during this period: namely, to insist on commenting on the merits of a translation in terms of the overall effect of the work, to emphasize the ideological content and literary value of the translation, and that the translation should serve the reader and be people-oriented. The above ideas influenced the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, a study of the history of translation theory in pre-Soviet Russia will help learners of Russian to better understand the characteristics of their translations and to improve the accuracy and peopleliness of their translations.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 12:57, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation is a means of intercultural communication, and each country has its own distinctive translation theory system. This paper focuses on the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia. By analyzing the history of translation, it is obvious that a literary tradition of translation studies has been formed in Russia in the late 18th century. In the 19th century, Pushkin, Lermontov, Turgenev and other outstanding poets and literary scholars were keen on translation, especially in the middle of the century when Belinsky and other famous literary critics published a series of comments on literary translation, which emphasized the literary tradition of Russian translation to an unparalleled extent, which is rare in the history of translation in the world. The general principles of Russian literary translation thoughts were also formed during this period: namely, to insist on commenting on the merits and weakness of a translation in terms of the overall effect of the work, to emphasize the ideological content and literary value of the translation, and the translation should serve the reader and be people-oriented. The above ideas influenced the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, a study of the history of translation theory in pre-Soviet Russia will help learners of Russian to understand the characteristics of their translations profoundly and to improve the accuracy and fluency of their translations.Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:03, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation theories, Translation ideas，History of Translation<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译作为一种跨文化交际的手段，每个国家都有独具特色的翻译思想。本文主要探讨苏联前俄国的翻译历史。通过梳理其翻译史可发现，俄国于18世纪末期就已形成了翻译研究的文学传统。进入19世纪后, 普希金、莱蒙托夫、屠格涅夫等优秀诗人、文学家对翻译的热衷, 尤其是世纪中叶别林斯基等著名文学评论家发表一系列关于文学翻译的评论, 更是把俄国翻译的文学传统强调到无以复加的程度, 这在世界翻译史上都是罕见的。俄国文学翻译思想的总原则也在这一时期形成:即坚持从作品的整体效果上来评论译作优劣, 强调译作的思想内容和文学价值, 翻译应为读者服务, 译文应具有人民性。上述思想影响了苏联时期翻译理论的形成。因此，对苏联前俄国翻译理论史的研究有利于俄语学习者在翻译时更好的理解其翻译特点，提高翻译的准确性和人民性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译理论 翻译思想 翻译史 <br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
This essay provides a comprehensive and concise overview of the history of translation in Russia: Russian written translations began in the Kievan Rus' era, when religious subjects were the main focus of translations, especially the Bible, which was translated from Greek. Religious translations continued to flourish under the Moscow principality, represented by Maksim Gleick (МаксимГрек). At the same time, the national character of Russian translations began to emerge, and the languages of translation expanded from Greek to Latin, German and West Slavic, and the subjects covered included Western chivalric fiction, geographical literature, alchemy and medicine. In the eighteenth century, Peter the Great introduced a number of measures to focus on translation, making this period a turning point in the history of Russian translation. The proliferation of specialised translations (e.g. of legal texts) was the main feature of translation activity in the early eighteenth century. After this period Russian translators began to translate literary works.The main translators were Lomonosov (М.В. Ломоносов) and Tretyakovsky (V.K. Тредьяковский). In the second half of the eighteenth century, translation was given greater importance in Russia, and the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books was founded by Ekaterina II, in which a large number of outstanding translators emerged. The nineteenth century was a golden period in the history of Russian translation. Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин) and Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский) both produced many excellent translations. Pushkin (A.С.Пушкин) and Lermontov (M.Ю.Лермонтов) contributed greatly to the development of Russian literature in translation, while Fetter concentrated on love poetry. In the twentieth century, the Russian translation community made significant achievements in theoretical translation studies. In particular, the rapid development of the philological school and the debate between the literary and philological schools made Soviet translation theory one of the leading theories of translation in the world (Guo,2006:5).--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 12:57, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
This paper provides a comprehensive and concise overview of the history of translation in Russia: Russian written translations began in the Kievan Rus' era, when religious subjects were the main focus of translations, especially the Bible, translated from Greek. Religious translations continued to flourish under the Moscow principality, represented by Maksim Gleick (МаксимГрек). At the same time, the national character of Russian translations began to emerge, and the languages of translation expanded from Greek to Latin, German and West Slavic, and the subjects covered included Western chivalric fiction, geographical literature, alchemy and medicine. In the eighteenth century, Peter the Great introduced a number of measures to focus on translation, leading this period to a turning point in the history of Russian translation. The proliferation of specialised translations (e.g. of legal texts) was the main feature of translation activity in the early eighteenth century. After this period Russian translators began to translate literary works.The main translators were Lomonosov (М.В. Ломоносов) and Tretyakovsky (V.K. Тредьяковский). In the second half of the eighteenth century, translation was paid greater attention in Russia, and the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books was founded by Ekaterina II, in which a large number of outstanding translators emerged. The nineteenth century was a golden period in the history of Russian translation when Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин) and Rukovsky (В.А.Жуковский) both produced many excellent translations. Pushkin (A.С.Пушкин) and Lermontov (M.Ю.Лермонтов) contributed greatly to the development of Russian literature in translation, while Fetter concentrated on love poetry. In the twentieth century, the Russian translation community made significant achievements in theoretical translation studies. In particular, the rapid development of the philological school and the debate between the literary and philological schools made Soviet translation theory one of the leading theories of translation in the world. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:14, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===1.The history of Russian translation and the period of enlightenment of its translation theory. ===<br />
1. The emergence and development of literary translation.<br />
<br />
Translation activity has a long history in Russia, the beginnings of which can be traced back to the time of Kievan Rus'. A relatively sophisticated system of writing, literature and translation was already in place in ancient Russia in the ninth century AD. Frequent cultural and trade exchanges with Byzantine, German, French and Scandinavian countries contributed significantly to the development of translation in Russia at that time, as did contacts with Eastern countries. From Kievan Rus' onwards, Russian translation methods oscillated between two main tendencies, either to follow the original texts exactly, up to the point of translating them word for word, or to be arbitrary, even to the point of rewriting, adding or deleting at will. The first tendency is the main characteristic of translations of the Bible and other sacred books, while the second, though not absolute, can be said to characterize most secular works (Feng,2009:8)(Wu,2006:4)(Wu,2006:4).<br />
<br />
2.Initiation of translation activities-religious translation. <br />
<br />
In 864 AD, the Byzantine king sent two Greek priests, Kirill (Кирилл) and Mephodi (Мефодий), to spread Christianity among the Slavic people. At the beginning of their mission, they created a new alphabet (now known as the Kirill alphabet) and used this writing system to translate many religious texts from Greek into the ancient Church Slavonic. Among the results were the New Testament, hymnals and prayer books(Feng,2009:8). <br />
<br />
In 988 AD, Rus was baptised and Kievan Rus was converted to Christianity. A large number of translations appeared instantly to help Protestants become familiar with the new religious philosophy and ethical system and to understand the rituals and customs of the Church. These translations were in a variety of genres, including the Acts of the Saints, sermons, chronicles and so on. In addition, apocryphal books telling magical and fantastical stories were also popular, and some of them had similarities with the later 'fantasy novels'. Most of these translations were done in Bulgaria and were popularised in Rus. At that time, translations of religious texts were mostly word-for-word. There were also a small number of works that, unlike the 'elaborate copies of the original', had a separate literary value. In one case, a large number of details of Russian life were added to the storyline of a sermon (e.g. The Tales of Achild the Wise). In another case, military historical narratives are interspersed with the terminology of the ancient Russian feudal system and certain literary images from the stories of ancient Russian warriors (e.g. Joseph Flav's History of the Jewish War). This translation can be considered one of the most successful of the period. In the translation, the translator succeeded in avoiding many word-for-word translations). In a third case, the manuscripts copied by Ancient Rus, although based on Greek epic poetry (e.g. The Great Work of Digenes Akritas), often borrowed from Russian folk poetry, so that a large number of folk compositions appeared. As a result of this literary process, the translated literature was smoothly enriched by Russian manuscripts, which contributed to the development of original Russian literature and consolidated its links with the medieval literary process. Unfortunately, at that early stage in the development of translation, the translators were not signed, so it is impossible to verify whether the works were translated at home or abroad(Feng,2009:9). <br />
<br />
During the difficult period of 'Mongol rule' (1228-1480), translations continued to play an important role in the cultural life of the country. The remaining chapters of the Bible were translated one after another, and previous translations were again proofread and revised. In addition to religious translations, more translations of non-religious subjects emerge, such as The Kingdom of India and The Trojan War. Most of the works were still translated from Greek, while works probably translated from Latin and ancient Hebrew also appeared. During this period, Russian began to take shape through the interaction of Old Slavonic (Church Slavonic) and local national languages. However, religious texts were still only translated into Church Slavonic, and the use of this language was by then restricted to ecclesiastical matters. At the same time, political and commercial exchanges with other countries were more likely to be in Russian, which was becoming increasingly sophisticated: elements of the combination of Old Slavonic and Russian can also be found in original works（Wu,2006:6). <br />
<br />
14-15th century literature in translation by Rus was characterised by an obsession with new themes. These were mainly new works of tranquillity-abstinence literature, or works recommended by and familiar to the tranquillists. This mystical genre was introduced to Rus after it had swept through the Byzantine and Yugoslav peoples. It was reflected in the semi-secular translations popular at the time (for example, The Trojan War). <br />
<br />
In the 16th century AD, Moscow eventually became the political centre of Russia, as well as the translation centre of the country. In 1515, the Grand Duke of Moscow, Vassily III (Василий Ⅲ), asked a Greek monastery to send a learned translator to Moscow. This man, who accompanied the Greek mission to Moscow in 1516, was the historically famous Maksim Gleick (Максим Грек). Maksim Gleick worked as a translator throughout his life, studying most of the religious texts and some of the non-religious works during this period. In addition, he also proofread and annotated previously existing translations(Wu,2006:7). <br />
<br />
At the beginning, Maksim knew neither Russian nor Old Slavonic, so he divided the translation into two steps: first, he translated from Greek to Latin, and then his assistant translated from Latin to Old Slavonic. In the process of revising existing translations, he often broke with established tradition and was therefore denounced as blasphemous. Maksim was also a prolific writer, educator and philosopher. His writings contain many insights into the art of translation - the earliest recorded treatise on translation in Russia. Maksim insisted that the original text must be carefully analysed in order to grasp its full subtleties and implications. Therefore, the translator must not only master the language of the original, but also have a broad knowledge of the language and prepare for the translation. To support his argument, Maksim used Greek lexicography, phonetic organisation and phonetics involved in translation. His other major contribution was the compilation of a dictionary containing Greek, Latin and Hebrew nouns, which was also the first of its kind in Russian history. Although it was recognised at the time that translators should have a command of both languages as well as a profound background knowledge, the practitioners of translation at the time lacked the necessary qualities and their translations were not as good as they could have been(Wu,2006:7).--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 13:39, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
1. The emergence and development of literary translation. <br />
<br />
Translation activity has a long history in Russia, the beginnings of which can be traced back to the Time of Kievan Rus'. A relatively sophisticated system of writing, literature and translation was already in ancient Russia in the ninth century AD. Frequent cultural and trade exchanges with Byzantine, German, French and Scandinavian countries contributed significantly to the development of translation in Russia at that time, as did contacts with Eastern countries. From Kievan Rus' onwards, Russian translation methods oscillated between two main tendencies, either to follow the original texts exactly, up to the point of translating them word by word, or to be arbitrary, even to the point of rewriting, adding words or deleting at will. The first tendency is the main characteristic of translations of the Bible and other sacred books, while the second, though not absolutely, can be said to characterize most secular works.<br />
<br />
2.Initiation of translation activities-religious translation. <br />
<br />
In 864 AD, the Byzantine king sent two Greek priests, Kirill (Кирилл) and Mephodi (Мефодий), to spread Christianity among the Slavic people. At the beginning of their mission, they created a new alphabet (now known as the Kirill alphabet) and used this writing system to translate many religious texts from Greek into the ancient Church Slavonic. Among the results were the New Testament, hymnals and prayer books. In 988 AD, Rus was baptised and Kievan Rus was converted to Christianity. A large number of translations appeared instantly to help Protestants become familiar with the new religious philosophy and ethical system and to understand the rituals and customs of the Church. These translations were in a variety of genres, including the Acts of the Saints, sermons, chronicles and so on. In addition, apocryphal books telling magical and fantastical stories were also popular, and some of them had similarities with the later 'fantasy novels'. Most of these translations were done in Bulgaria and were popularised in Rus. At that time, translations of religious texts were mostly word-for-word. There were also a small number of works that, unlike the 'elaborate copies of the original', had a separate literary values. In one case, a large number of details of Russian life were added to the storyline of a sermon (e.g. The Tales of Achild the Wise). In another case, military historical narratives are interspersed with the terminology of the ancient Russian feudal system and certain literary images from the stories of ancient Russian warriors (e.g. Joseph Flav's History of the Jewish War). This translation can be considered one of the most successful of the period. In the translation, the translator succeeded in avoiding many word-for-word translations). Thirdly, the manuscripts copied by Ancient Rus, although based on Greek epic poetry (e.g. The Great Work of Digenes Akritas), often borrowed from Russian folk poetry, so that a large number of folk compositions appeared. As a result of this literary process, the translated literature was smoothly enriched by Russian manuscripts, which contributed to the development of original Russian literature and consolidated its links with the medieval literary process. Unfortunately, at that early stage in the development of translation, the translators were not signed, so it is impossible to verify whether the works were translated at home or abroad. During the difficult period of 'Mongol rule' (1228-1480), translations continued to play an important role in the cultural life of the country. The remaining chapters of the Bible were translated one after another, and previous translations were again proofread and revised. In addition to religious translations, more translations of non-religious subjects emerge, such as The Kingdom of India and The Trojan War. Most of the works were still translated from Greek, while works probably translated from Latin and ancient Hebrew also appeared. During this period, Russian began to take shape through the interaction of Old Slavonic (Church Slavonic) and local national languages. However, religious texts were still only translated into Church Slavonic, and the use of this language was by then restricted to ecclesiastical matters. At the same time, political and commercial exchanges with other countries were more likely to be in Russian, which was becoming increasingly sophisticated: elements of the combination of Old Slavonic and Russian can also be found in original works. 14-15th century literature in translation by Rus was characterised by an obsession with new themes. These were mainly new works of tranquillity-abstinence literature, or works recommended by and familiar to the tranquillists. This mystical genre was introduced to Rus after it had swept through the Byzantine and Yugoslav peoples. It was reflected in the semi-secular translations popular at the time (for example, The Trojan War). In the 16th century AD, Moscow eventually became the political center of Russia, as well as the translation center of the country. In 1515, the Grand Duke of Moscow, Vassily III (Василий Ⅲ), asked a Greek monastery to send a learned translator to Moscow. This man, who accompanied the Greek mission to Moscow in 1516, was the historically famous Maksim Grek (Максим Грек). Maxim Greek worked as a translator throughout his life, studying most of the religious texts and some of the non-religious works during this period. In addition, he also proofread and annotated previously existing translations. At the beginning, Maxim knew neither Russian nor Old Slavonic, so he divided the translation into two steps: first, he translated from Greek to Latin, and then his assistant translated from Latin to Old Slavonic. In the process of revising existing translations, he often broke with established tradition and was therefore denounced as blasphemous. Maxim was also a prolific writer, educator and philosopher. His writings contain many insights into the art of translation - the earliest recorded treatise on translation in Russia. Maxim insisted that the original text must be carefully analysed in order to grasp its full subtleties and implications. Therefore, the translator must not only master the language of the original, but also have a broad knowledge of the language and prepare for the translation. To support his argument, Maxim used Greek lexicography, phonetic organisation and phonetics involved in translation. His other major contribution was the compilation of a dictionary containing Greek, Latin and Hebrew nouns, which was also the first of its kind in Russian history. Although it was recognized at the time that translators should have a command of both languages and profound background knowledge, the practitioners of translation at the time lacked the necessary qualities and their translations were not as good as they should have been. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. Overview of the Russian school of Translation. ===<br />
===2.1 18th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The eighteenth century is an important period in the history of Russian translation. The status of translation in social culture has undergone a qualitative change, and this is due to Peter the Great's reform. At the beginning of the century, translation was still mostly related to professional documents such as laws and contracts. Later, the translator's tentacles gradually expanded to literary translation, for example, French poetry translation. The famous translators of this period are Sumarokov(А.П.Сумароков), Lomonosov(М.В.Ломоносов), Tretyakovsky (В.К.Тредьяковский) and so on. In the second half of the 18th century, the Association for the Translation of Foreign Books officially put forward the importance of translation. The organization has been active for 15 years with over 100 members（Wu,2006:10).<br />
<br />
1.Imperial support for translation. The political reforms introduced by Peter the Great also led to intensive economic and cultural exchanges between Russia and European countries. This created a huge demand for translations of scientific and technical literature and literary works. Translators were required to produce works of a high standard.<br />
<br />
Peter the Great issued a special decree on translation, requiring "faithful" communication of the original text. In a directive issued to his subordinates in 1709, he explicitly stated that when translating foreign books, word-for-word translations were to be avoided and that the content of the original text should be clearly expressed in one's own language, based on an understanding of its content. On the other hand, Peter the Great's subversion of the written language initially caused confusion in Russian translation circles. A large number of foreign languages entered the Russian language, and the piles of foreign syntactic structures distracted attention. In any case, Peter the Great's reforms did set a new norm and a new direction for translation(Wu,2006:11). <br />
<br />
In terms of content, Peter the Great's reforms were, from the very beginning, inextricably linked to the translation of scientific and technical texts, such as the many books on military defence engineering that he ordered to be translated and used to strengthen Russia's military forces. Peter the Great also placed great importance on the translation of prose, poetry and other literary works. During this period, the Russian language began to develop its own literary model, and many educated Russians saw translation as a way of enriching the language and enhancing its uniqueness and expressiveness. <br />
<br />
From around the 1830s, the importance of translating Western European scientific and technical texts gradually gave way to literary works such as prose and poetry. Writers who were also translators turned their attention to the work of new Western European writers, mainly poets, especially French poets. At the same time, the legacy of the Greco-Roman period also entered their minds. They began to translate the works of philosophers and historians, which - on the one hand - gave rise to difficulties in literary rhetoric and scientific terminology and, on the other, played an important role in the formation of a standard Russian language(Feng,2009:10)(Guo,2006:8). <br />
<br />
From that time onwards, translation also became an organised activity, with the emergence of specific bodies responsible for the organisation and management of translation work. 1735 saw the establishment of the first specialised translation organisation, the Russian Society, at the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences. The Society had a professional group of translators and some of the academy's scholars, such as Lomonosov and Tretyakovsky, were among its members. The Association was responsible for selecting works, defining the rules or principles of translation, commenting on translations, and training translators. It is worth mentioning that the Academy of Sciences also set up a school of foreign languages to train official translators. In 1748, the Academy implemented Queen Elizabeth's decree to increase the number of translations of non-religious books and publicly appealed to "the nobility and other classes of intellectuals" to take an active part in the translation process(Guo,2006:8)(Feng,2009:10). <br />
<br />
In the second half of the 18th century, Ekaterina II's efforts to create a 'civilised state' not only led to the development of literature, but also gave preferential treatment to writers. For example, in order to select the best original texts, she ordered the establishment of the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books (1768 - 1783). The Society was dedicated to providing excellent conditions for translation work throughout Russia. The purchase of manuscripts was financed out of Ekaterina's own funds. Later, the Society also discussed a proposal to establish a translation bureau under the Academy of Sciences (1790). The 114 members of the Society included such notable figures as Tretyakovsky, Sumarokov and Radishev. For 14 years the Association was active, producing numerous literary translations and likewise contributing to the discussion of theoretical issues in translation(Guo,2006:9).<br />
<br />
2.The emergence of poetry translation. Translation of poetry also developed in Russia in the 18th century, and later became one of the jewels of the country's literature. The great Russian scholar and poet Lomonosov was a major contributor to this process. A great deal of the work created by Lomonosov and his contemporaries Sumarokov and Tretyakovsky was poetry in translation. They often translated while exploring theoretical issues in translation: they would explain in their works why they translated this way and not that way; they stressed the importance of translation work and the creative value it contained. Among the most prestigious writers and translators in Russian literature at the time, there were several interesting competitions in which two or three poets translated the same work at the same time, and their translations were published in journals. It was often the case that different translations of the same work were published at the same time, without the translator's name, for the judgement of "literary lovers and peers". This phenomenon also supports the idea that the 18th century was a period of 'experimentation' in the history of Russian translation(Feng,2006:11). <br />
<br />
Lomonosov's translations from Latin, German, French and Greek are numerous and varied, showing his talent for both rhyming and free verse. He was keen to reproduce the rhythmic structure of the original texts, using a variety of iambic and iambic meter to convey the Alexandrian style of French epic and the hexameter style of Greek tragedy. Russian poetry was not very developed at the time and was still based on syllables. <br />
Lomonosov's innovations enriched Russian poetry and established new forms and traditions of Russian poetic style and rhyme. <br />
<br />
In contrast, Kantymir (Д.М.Кантемира) and Tretyakovsky's greatest quest was to insist on a faithful translation of the original. In the process, the translators had to contend with the problems of reams of vocabulary and rhetorical rules. Tretyakovsky became famous for his successful use of Russian rhyme to translate many verses of the original in his translation of Paul Thielmann's A Journey to Love Island. In the introduction to the novel, the translator states his approach to translation: "The translator is only one person away from the author. I would add that if the author is original, the translator should be even more original (I am not referring to myself, but to a good translator)". He believes that "prose to prose" and "poetry to poetry" can be as good as the original, and that a good translation is one that "describes the full meaning of each verse". Kantymir 's translation of Horace's Letters and other poetic works in Latin and French, although less well-known than the former, is equally valuable(Wu,2006:16).--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:40, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The eighteenth century is an important period in the history of Russian translation. The status of translation in social culture has undergone a qualitative change, and this is due to Peter the Great's reform. At the beginning of the century, translation was still mostly related to professional documents such as laws and contracts. Later, the translator's tentacles gradually expanded to literary translation, for example, French poetry translation. The famous translators of this period are Sumarokov(А.П.Сумароков), Lomonosov(М.В.Ломоносов), Tretyakovsky (В.К.Тредьяковский) and so on. In the second half of the 18th century, the Association for the Translation of Foreign Books officially put forward the importance of translation. The organization has been active for 15 years with over 100 members. The following points reflected the reasons why translation was paid more attention in the eighteenth century.<br />
<br />
1.Imperial support for translation. <br />
<br />
The political reforms introduced by Peter the Great also led to intensive economic and cultural exchanges between Russia and European countries. This created a huge demand for translations of scientific and technical literature and literary works. Translators were required to produce works of a high standard.Peter the Great issued a special decree on translation, requiring "faithful" communication of the original text. In a directive issued to his subordinates in 1709, he explicitly stated that when translating foreign books, word-for-word translations were to be avoided and that the content of the original text should be clearly expressed in one's own language, based on an understanding of its content. On the other hand, Peter the Great's subversion of the written language initially caused confusion in Russian translation circles. A large number of foreign languages entered the Russian language, and the piles of foreign syntactic structures distracted attention. In any case, Peter the Great's reforms did set a new norm and a new direction for translation. In terms of content, Peter the Great's reforms were, from the very beginning, inextricably linked to the translation of scientific and technical texts, such as the many books on military defence engineering that he ordered to be translated and used to strengthen Russia's military forces. Peter the Great also placed great importance on the translation of prose, poetry and other literary works. During this period, the Russian language began to develop its own literary model, and many educated Russians saw translation as a way of enriching the language and enhancing its uniqueness and expressiveness. <br />
<br />
From around the 1830s, the importance of translating Western European scientific and technical texts gradually gave way to literary works such as prose and poetry. Writers who were also translators turned their attention to the work of new Western European writers, mainly poets, especially French poets. At the same time, the legacy of the Greco-Roman period also entered their minds. They began to translate the works of philosophers and historians, which - on the one hand - gave rise to difficulties in literary rhetoric and scientific terminology and, on the other, played an important role in the formation of a standard Russian language. <br />
<br />
From that time onwards, translation also became an organised activity, with the emergence of specific bodies responsible for the organisation and management of translation work. 1735 saw the establishment of the first specialised translation organisation, the Russian Society, at the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences. The Society had a professional group of translators and some of the academy's scholars, such as Lomonosov and Tretyakovsky, were among its members. The Association was responsible for selecting works, defining the rules or principles of translation, commenting on translations, and training translators. It is worth mentioning that the Academy of Sciences also set up a school of foreign languages to train official translators. In 1748, the Academy implemented Queen Elizabeth's decree to increase the number of translations of non-religious books and publicly appealed to "the nobility and other classes of intellectuals" to take an active part in the translation process. <br />
<br />
In the second half of the 18th century, Ekaterina II's efforts to create a 'civilised state' not only led to the development of literature, but also gave preferential treatment to writers. For example, in order to select the best original texts, she ordered the establishment of the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books (1768-1783). The Society was dedicated to providing excellent conditions for translation work throughout Russia. The purchase of manuscripts was financed out of Ekaterina's own funds. Later, the Society also discussed a proposal to establish a translation bureau under the Academy of Sciences (1790). The 114 members of the Society included such notable figures as Tretyakovsky, Sumarokov and Radishev. For 14 years the Association was active, producing numerous literary translations and likewise contributing to the discussion of theoretical issues in translation.<br />
<br />
2.The emergence of poetry translation.<br />
<br />
Translation of poetry also developed in Russia in the 18th century, and later became one of the jewels of the country's literature. The great Russian scholar and poet Lomonosov was a major contributor to this process. A great deal of the work created by Lomonosov and his contemporaries Sumarokov and Tretyakovsky was poetry in translation. They often translated while exploring theoretical issues in translation: they would explain in their works why they translated this way and not that way; they stressed the importance of translation work and the creative value it contained. Among the most prestigious writers and translators in Russian literature at the time, there were several interesting competitions in which two or three poets translated the same work at the same time, and their translations were published in journals. It was often the case that different translations of the same work were published at the same time, without the translator's name, for the judgement of "literary lovers and peers". This phenomenon also supports the idea that the 18th century was a period of 'experimentation' in the history of Russian translation. <br />
<br />
Lomonosov's translations works in Latin, German, French and Greek are numerous and varied, showing his talent for both rhyming and free verse. He was keen to reproduce the rhythmic structure of the original texts, using a variety of iambic and iambic meter to convey the Alexandrian style of French epic and the hexameter style of Greek tragedy. Russian poetry was not very developed at the time and was still based on syllables. <br />
Lomonosov's innovations enriched Russian poetry and established new forms and traditions of Russian poetic style and rhyme. <br />
<br />
In contrast, Kantymir (Д.М.Кантемира) and Tretyakovsky's greatest quest was to insist on a faithful translation of the original. In the process, the translators had to contend with the problems of reams of vocabulary and rhetorical rules. Tretyakovsky became famous for his successful use of Russian rhyme to translate many verses of the original in his translation of Paul Thielmann's A Journey to Love Island. In the introduction to the novel, the translator states his approach to translation: "The translator is only one person away from the author. I would add that if the author is original, the translator should be even more original (I am not referring to myself, but to a good translator)". He believes that "prose to prose" and "poetry to poetry" can be as good as the original, and that a good translation is one that "describes the full meaning of each verse". Kantymir 's translation of Horace's Letters and other poetic works in Latin and French, although less well-known than the former, is equally valuable. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 12:39, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.2 First half of the19th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The nineteenth century was a golden age in the history of Russian translation. If translation had established itself as a profession in the first hundred years, it was elevated to the level of art in this century. The nineteenth century produced a number of masters of translation, including Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин), Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский), Pushkin (А.С.Пушкин), Lermontov (М.Ю.Лермонтов) and Fetter (А.Фет)(Wu,2006:23). <br />
<br />
The new Russian school of translation owes its formation to the historian Nikolai Karamzin and the poet Zhukovsky. Karamzin published a number of translations in several magazines between the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century. He saw translations as a good help in perfecting a writer's style: a source of information that would satisfy human curiosity, inform historical facts, entertain women and provide material for new magazines. As a young man, Karamzin was strongly opposed to the alteration of and disloyalty to the original texts, but later became a champion of free translation, famously saying: "Whoever follows the author of the original text step by step is no different from a servant who serves his lord". Karamzin's translations cover an admirable range of genres and languages: he translated works by both classical and contemporaneous authors, in Greek, French, Latin, German, English, Italian and some Oriental languages(Feng,2009:12). <br />
<br />
Pushkin called Zhukovsky "a genius of translation". After graduating from the Moscow Noble Boarding University in 1802, Zhukovsky devoted himself to translation. It was thanks to his efforts that Russian readers were able to access the works of world literary giants such as Schiller, Goethe, Byron and Walters Scott. Zhukovsky's creative translation activities also ranged from Charles Bello to Grimm's Fairy Tales. From Charles Bellow to Grimm's fairy tales, from Homer's epic Odyssey to the poetic history of ancient Rus' Igor's Expedition, all became his original texts. There is no denying that Zhukovsky is a master in the history of Russian translation. Like Karamzin, Zhukovsky was a fan of free translation, sometimes rewriting the original or even creating a new story from its subject: sometimes transferring the setting of events to Russia and giving Russian names to the characters. For example, in his 1808 translation of the German Romantic poet Bilge's narrative poem Lenore, he changed the heroine's name from Lenore to Lyudmila and moved the story to the time of the Livonian War in 16th-century Russia. Zhukovsky believed that the "unsavoury character" of the work should be weakened while retaining the original author's ideas. His talent enabled him to reproduce the style, rhythm and tone of the original poems, while some of his best works were also faithful to the original. In later years, however, his view of translation changed in response to the tendency to stay close to the original, and he retranslated several of his previous translations to make them more faithful to the original, including Lenore. The Russian school of translation owes much to the tradition of translation created by Zhukovsky(Wu,2006:24-30)(Feng,2009:13)(Guo,2006:9).<br />
<br />
Pushkin and Lermontov are also two poets who set the stage for an epoch in the history of Russian translation. Although only a small proportion of their poetry was translated, they made a significant contribution to the improvement of the art of translation in Russia. In their rewriting and imitation of poetry, they were able to reproduce the most important features of foreign poetry, the key point being that their creative translations were no less valuable in their own right than the originals. Their free translation became a model for other translators, and in addition they established the important principle that a good artistic translation must also be a good work in the national literature of the translated language. Pushkin played an indelibly important role in the development of the Russian school of translation. He was always interested in the question of translation, and his critical views on translation were objective and profound. Before translation he stressed the importance of the choice of the original work, and in translation he demanded that the translator should be faithful to the original, while at the same time displaying his deep creative skills and his own literary style. In one of his unfinished posthumous works, 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', Pushkin wrote: 'Chateaubriand's translation (verbatim) compensates to some extent for the faults of the young French writers (free translation), for they have insulted the great man very cruelly, though in a perfectly innocent manner. There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own rhetorical conventions, its own way of expressing itself, and it is impossible to translate into another language with the corresponding vocabulary". These insights had a positive impact on the best Russian translators of the 19th and 20th centuries. In addition, Pushkin's discussion of translation coincided with a turning point in the history of Russian literature, when the Romantic era was being replaced by a new era with a predominantly realist orientation, and a process of 'separation' between translated and national literature was under way. Pushkin's discussion of the work of the translator as distinct from that of the writer contributed to the independence of literature in translation from indigenous literature(Guo,2006:10)(Wu,2006:37-41). <br />
<br />
During this period, while most people advocated free translation, there were a few translators who insisted on maximum fidelity to the original and advocated the word-for-word method, even at the expense of the work's willingness to be translated. Among these were such well-known writers as P.A. Vyazemsky (П.А.Вяземский) and N.I. Gnedzic (Н.И.Гнедич). In fact, they did not always live up to their principles, and sometimes their talent and artistic intuition ended up breaking the bonds of verbatim translation. Vyazemsky's translations of Benjamin Constant and Adam Mickiewicz were not without literary and artistic merit, and his translation of Homer's epic Iliad in particular was highly praised by Pushkin. It was Fetter who was the most insistent on the idea of a verbatim translation. Fetter translated many famous works, and his philosophy throughout was one of sentence-for-sentence, word-for-word translation, retaining all the words of the original. Fetter's extreme word-for-word approach had a negative impact on most of his translations, although he was sometimes able to come up with some effective methods of translation(Feng,2009:14). <br />
<br />
Free translations were also sometimes used to promote democratic ideas in the original that could not pass official scrutiny. A number of translators, such as V. Kurochkin (В.Курочкин), D. M. Minayev (Д.Минаев) and M. M. Mikhalov (М.Михайлов), achieved this by selecting appropriate original works or by using texts in their translations that were superficially imperceptible in their allusion to the conditions in Russia at the time. It was from that time onwards that the use of translation as a weapon to express dissent became part of the Russian tradition(Feng,2009:14).--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:41, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The nineteenth century was the golden age in the history of Russian translation. If translation had established its status in the first hundred years, it was elevated to the level of art in this century. The nineteenth century produced a number of masters of translation, including Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин), Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский), Pushkin (А.С.Пушкин), Lermontov (М.Ю.Лермонтов) and Fetter (А.Фет). <br />
<br />
The new Russian school of translation owes its formation to the publishment of a number of translations of historian Nikolai Karamzin and the poet Zhukovsky. Karamzin in several magazines between the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century. He regarded translation as a good help in perfecting a writer's style: a source of information that satisfies human curiosity, informs historical facts, entertains women and provides materials for new magazines. As a young man, Karamzin was strongly opposed to the disloyalty to the original texts, but later became a champion of free translation. His famous saying was: "Whoever follows the author of the original text step by step is no different from a servant who serves his lord". Karamzin's translations cover an admirable range of genres and languages: he translated works by both classical and contemporaneous authors, in Greek, French, Latin, German, English, Italian and some Oriental languages. <br />
<br />
Pushkin called Zhukovsky "a genius of translation". After graduating from the Moscow Noble Boarding University in 1802, Zhukovsky devoted himself to translation. It was thanks to his efforts that Russian readers were able to access the works of world literary giants such as Schiller, Goethe, Byron and Walters Scott. Zhukovsky's creative translation activities also ranged from Charles Bello to Grimm's Fairy Tales. From Charles Bellow to Grimm's fairy tales, from Homer's epic Odyssey to the poetic history of ancient Rus' Igor's Expedition, all became his original texts. There is no denying that Zhukovsky is a master in the history of Russian translation. Like Karamzin, Zhukovsky was a fan of free translation, who sometimes rewrites the original or even creates a new story from its subject, transfers the setting of events to Russia and gives Russian names to the characters. For example, in his 1808 translation of the German Romantic poet Bilge's narrative poem Lenore, he changed the heroine's name from Lenore to Lyudmila and moved the story to the time of the Livonian War in 16th-century Russia. Zhukovsky believed that the "unsavoury character" of the work should be weakened while retaining the original author's ideas. His talent enabled him to reproduce the style, rhythm and tone of the original poems, while some of his best works were also faithful to the original. In later years, however, his view of translation changed in response to the tendency to stay close to the original, and he retranslated several of his previous translations to make them more faithful to the original, including Lenore. The Russian school of translation owes much to the tradition of translation created by Zhukovsky.<br />
<br />
Pushkin and Lermontov are also two poets who gave perfect preparations for an epoch in the history of Russian translation. Although only a small proportion of their poetry was translated, they made a significant contribution to the improvement of the art of translation in Russia. In their rewriting and imitation of poetry, they were able to reproduce the most important features of foreign poetry, the key point being that their creative translations were no less valuable in their own right than the originals. Their free translation became a model for other translators, and in addition they established the important principle that a good artistic translation must also be a good work in the national literature of the translated language. Pushkin played an indelibly important role in the development of the Russian school of translation. He was always interested in the question of translation, and his critical views on translation were objective and profound. Before translation he stressed the importance of the choice of the original work, and in translation he demanded that the translator should be faithful to the original, while at the same time displaying his deep creative skills and his own literary style. In one of his unfinished posthumous works, 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', Pushkin wrote: 'Chateaubriand's translation (verbatim) compensates to some extent for the faults of the young French writers (free translation), for they have insulted the great man very cruelly, though in a perfectly innocent manner. There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own rhetorical conventions, its own way of expressing itself, and it is impossible to translate into another language with the corresponding vocabulary". These insights had a positive impact on the best Russian translators of the 19th and 20th centuries. In addition, Pushkin's discussion of translation coincided with a turning point in the history of Russian literature, when the Romantic era was being replaced by a new era with a predominantly realist orientation, and a process of 'separation' between translated and national literature was under way. Pushkin's discussion of the work of the translator as distinct from that of the writer contributed to the independence of literature in translation from indigenous literature. <br />
<br />
During this period, while most people advocated free translation, there were a few translators who insisted on maximum fidelity to the original and advocated the word-for-word method, even at the expense of the work's willingness to be translated. Among these were such well-known writers as P.A. Vyazemsky (П.А.Вяземский) and N.I. Gnedzic (Н.И.Гнедич). In fact, they did not always live up to their principles, and sometimes their talent and artistic intuition ended up breaking the bonds of verbatim translation. Vyazemsky's translations of Benjamin Constant and Adam Mickiewicz were not without literary and artistic merit, and his translation of Homer's epic Iliad in particular was highly praised by Pushkin. It was Fetter who was the most insistent on the idea of a verbatim translation. Fetter translated many famous works, and his philosophy throughout was one of sentence-for-sentence, word-for-word translation, retaining all the words of the original. Fetter's extreme word-for-word approach had a negative impact on most of his translations, although he was sometimes able to come up with some effective methods of translation. <br />
<br />
Free translations were also used to promote democratic ideas in original that could not pass official scrutiny. A number of translators, such as V. Kurochkin (В.Курочкин), D. M. Minayev (Д.Минаев) and M. M. Mikhalov (М.Михайлов), achieved this by selecting appropriate original works or by using texts in their translations that were superficially imperceptible in their allusion to the conditions in Russia at the time. It was since then that the use of translation was used as a weapon to express dissent became part of the Russian tradition. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:05, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.3 Second half of the19th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The mid-nineteenth century was a period of increasingly intense political and ideological struggle in Russian literature, and a great debate raged in the Russian literary world over the question of 'art for the people' or 'art for art's sake'. The debate was mainly about the choice of material for translation and the method of translation. As far as the choice of material was concerned, the democratic and revolutionary writers who supported 'art for the people' chose to translate works with progressive ideological content and a democratic orientation, such as Heine. The aristocratic and liberal intellectual writers, on the other hand, opted for philosophical poetry with a chanting and individualistic feel. Of course, this is not absolute: "Mikhailov and Dobrolyubov of the democratic revolutionary school also translated Heine's moody love poems The Songbook, while Tolstoy of the aristocratic and liberal school translated some of Goethe's more progressive poems, such as The Fiancée of Corinth and The Whore of God. In terms of their approach to translation, the Democratic-Revolutionary translators, based on the reproduction of the original as a whole, approached their translations very liberally, even adding in many elements typical of Russian culture. The latter, on the other hand, usually adopted a direct translation, focusing on conveying the formal details of the original work. This divergence was mainly due to the different starting points of the two groups of translators, with the democratic revolutionaries seeking to convey advanced ideas to the Russian general public and the aristocratic intellectuals believing that works of art were irrelevant to the people and that artistic creations should not be exposed to "vulgar" reality.<br />
<br />
There were a large number of outstanding literary writers and literary critics who made brilliant statements about literary translation in that era, none more so than Belinsky (В.Г.Белинский), Chernyshevsky (Н.Г.Черныщевский) and Dubrolyovsky (Н.Г.Добролюбов). Belinsky was one of the greatest Russian literary critics of the 19th century. He believed that translations should not be word-for-word, but should reproduce the spirit of the original, in much the same way as Pushkin's view of translation theory. On the other hand, he also opposed arbitrary 'paraphrasing': the ideal translation should not add or delete arbitrarily to the original text, but should enable the reader to understand the foreign work truly and accurately through the translation. Such a viewpoint seems to us to be quite convincing even now. Belinsky played a decisive role in completely burying the 'rewriting' and 'adapting it to Russian custom' arguments. This issue dominates his writings. He argues that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of the translation, and this is one of the criteria by which he judges its merits. He points out, for example, that the greatest strength of Gnedzic's translation of the Iliad is that it "exudes the atmosphere of ancient life" and "the spirit of the ancient Greeks". However, the contradiction between national identity and translatability was once a problem for Belinsky. Initially believing that it was impossible to translate works with a strong national character into other languages, he was only convinced by the success of Turgenev's collaboration with Louis Viardot in translating Gogol's novels into French in 1846, and then became increasingly determined to recognise translatability in translation. Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a series of revisions that led to a complete and rigorous system of translation theory, the first of its kind in the history of Russian translation theory.<br />
<br />
Translation in Russia developed in the second half of the 19th century. From the 1960s onwards, the Russian readership of non-language speakers began to expand, and these readers were keen to see the translation 'replace' the original. This demand led to an unprecedented expansion in the choice of subjects and translations of Russian literature. Interest in foreign theatrical works was particularly high at this stage, and a strong interest in European classical literature also developed. Dickens, Saclay, Victor Hugo, Dumas, Balzac, Flaubert, Tudor, Maupassant and Zola, as well as lesser-known writers of today, were successively brought to the attention of a wide range of Russian readers in the form of translations. At that time, European theatre classics like Shakespeare's plays were translated into Russia in large numbers. Many professional translators were involved, the most successful being the translator P.N.V. Weinberg. He translated foreign literature from the standpoint of progressive Russian literature of the time. His translation of Othello, for example, is notable for its vividness in the Russian language, and has always been recognised as the best translation in terms of conveying the totality of scenes, plots and long dialogues, even though the translation is wordy compared to the original.<br />
<br />
Although there has been a quantitative surge in translations of Russian literature during this period, the quality has generally been poor, manifesting itself in word-for-word translations, redundant sentences and poor vocabulary, not to mention inventiveness. In addition, the language of the characters in the translation is heavily Russified, with Russian proverbs, sayings and idioms that the foreign characters could never have known, and the introduction of Russian-specific life circumstances that cause contradictions with the plot and details of the original work. For example, В Тулу со своим самоваром ехать (Bring your own samovar to Tula - it's superfluous). The reason for this is that the literary world did not attach much importance to the translation of fiction and prose, and there were no specialists working on this task. Another point is that at this stage there was little progress in the study of Russian translation theory, and no valuable theoretical insights emerged. The linguist A.A. Потебня (1835-1891) expressed his views on translation from a psychological standpoint in his essay "Language and Peopleliness ". In his view, it was impossible to express in another language what was originally intended to be expressed in a certain language. He, like many other literary scholars, denied the translatability of language.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:41, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The mid-nineteenth century was a period of increasingly intensively political and ideological struggle in Russian literature, and a great debate raged in the Russian literary world over the question of 'art for the people' or 'art for art's sake'. The debate was mainly about the choice of materials for translation and the methods of translation. As far as the choice of material was concerned, the democratic and revolutionary writers who supported 'art for the people' chose to translate works with progressive ideological content and a democratic orientation, such as Heine. The aristocratic and liberal intellectual writers, on the other hand, opted for philosophical poetry with a chanting and individualistic feel. It's undoubtful that this is not absolute: "Mikhailov and Dobrolyubov of the democratic revolutionary school also translated Heine's moody love poems The Songbook, while Tolstoy of the aristocratic and liberal school translated some of Goethe's more progressive poems, such as The Fiancée of Corinth and The Whore of God. In terms of their approach to translation, the Democratic-Revolutionary translators, based on the reproduction of the original as a whole, approached their translations very liberally, when they even added in many elements typical of Russian culture. The latter, on the other hand, usually adopted a direct translation, focusing on conveying the formal details of the original work. This divergence was mainly due to the different starting points of the two groups of translators, with the democratic revolutionaries seeking to convey advanced ideas to the Russian general public and the aristocratic intellectuals believing that works of art were irrelevant to the people and that artistic creations should not be exposed to "vulgar" reality.<br />
<br />
There were a large number of outstanding literary writers and literary critics who made brilliant statements about literary translation in that era, none more so than Belinsky (В.Г.Белинский), Chernyshevsky (Н.Г.Черныщевский) and Dubrolyovsky (Н.Г.Добролюбов). Belinsky was one of the greatest Russian literary critics of the 19th century. He believed that translations should not be word-for-word, but should reproduce the spirit of the original text, in much the same way as Pushkin's view of translation theory. On the other hand, he also opposed arbitrary 'paraphrasing': the ideal translation should not add or delete arbitrarily to the original text, but should enable the reader to understand the foreign work truly and accurately through the translation. Such a viewpoint seems to us to be quite convincing even now. Belinsky played a decisive role in completely burying the 'rewriting' and 'adapting it to Russian custom' arguments. This issue dominates his writings. He argues that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of the translation, and this is one of the criteria by which he judges its merits. He points out, for example, that the greatest strength of Gnedzic's translation of the Iliad is that it "exudes the atmosphere of ancient life" and "the spirit of the ancient Greeks". However, the contradiction between national identity and translatability was once a problem for Belinsky. Initially believing that it was impossible to translate works with a strong national character into other languages, he was only convinced by the success of Turgenev's collaboration with Louis Viardot in translating Gogol's novels into French in 1846, and then became increasingly determined to recognise translatability in translation. Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a series of revisions that led to a complete and rigorous system of translation theory, the first of its kind in the history of Russian translation theory.<br />
<br />
Translation in Russia developed in the second half of the 19th century. From the 1960s onwards, the Russian readership of non-language speakers began to expand, and these readers were keen to see the translation 'replace' the original. This demand led to an unprecedented expansion in the choice of subjects and translations of Russian literature. Interest in foreign theatrical works was particularly high at this stage, and a strong interest in European classical literature also developed. Dickens, Saclay, Victor Hugo, Dumas, Balzac, Flaubert, Tudor, Maupassant and Zola, as well as lesser-known writers of today, were successively brought to the attention of a wide range of Russian readers in the form of translations. At that time, European theatre classics like Shakespeare's plays were translated into Russia in large numbers. Many professional translators were involved, the most successful being the translator P.N.V. Weinberg. He translated foreign literature from the standpoint of progressive Russian literature of the time. His translation of Othello, for example, is notable for its vividness in the Russian language, and has always been recognised as the best translation in terms of conveying the totality of scenes, plots and long dialogues, even though the translation is wordy compared to the original.<br />
<br />
Although there has been a quantitative surge in translations of Russian literature during this period, the quality has generally been poor, manifesting itself in word-for-word translations, redundant sentences and poor vocabulary, not to mention inventiveness. In addition, the language of the characters in the translation is heavily Russified, that is, contents with Russian proverbs, sayings and idioms that the foreign characters could never have known, and the introduction of Russian-specific life circumstances that cause contradictions with the plot and details of the original work. For example, В Тулу со своим самоваром ехать (Bring your own samovar to Tula - it's superfluous). The reason for this is that the literary world did not attach much importance to the translation of fiction and prose, and there were no specialists working on this task. Another point is that at this stage there was little progress in the study of Russian translation theory, and no valuable theoretical insights emerged. The linguist A.A. Потебня (1835-1891) expressed his views on translation from a psychological standpoint in his essay "Language and Peopleliness ". In his view, it was impossible to express in another language what was originally intended to be expressed in a certain language. Just like many other literary scholars, he denied the translatability of language. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:13, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.Translation ideas of famous writers of the 18-19th centuries. ===<br />
===3.1. Pushkin 's ideas on translation. ===<br />
Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin (Александр Сергеевич Пушкин, 1977-1837), a famous Russian poet and writer of the nineteenth century, was also very much a translator. Although he left behind few works on translation, his ideas on translation are worth studying. Pushkin's translations of poetry were associated with classicism in the early stages of his work and later with romanticism. Although these translations are far removed from the original in a literal sense, they are almost close to composition. Pushkin's significance as a translator, however, lies in 1) the reproduction of foreign originals in the standard Russian language he established in his translations and 2) the full expression of the realist artistic method in the heyday of his compositions: the focus on typical features and the technique of outlining the historical and individual characteristics that reflect the original.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's translations have their own characteristics and style. He did not translate all of his works word for word from the original, and in some places he deleted what he considered to be redundant sentences in order to avoid the verbosity of the original, occasionally replacing the translation with a general paraphrase. He advocates respect for the characteristics of foreign readers, while at the same time opposing word-for-word translations, which can lead to the trampling of the mother tongue. He therefore advocated translations which, on the one hand, required fidelity to the original in terms of meaning and, on the other, should preserve the original's distinctive features.<br />
As he says in his unfinished 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', commenting on Chateaubriand's translation: 'There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), has failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own conventional rhetorical devices, its own habitual expressions, and it is impossible to translate all this into another language using the corresponding vocabulary." Pushkin's rejection of word-for-word translation can be seen.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's influence on the cause of translation in Russia was immense, and this influence refers neither to his few translations nor to his theoretical views, but to the fact that Pushkin pioneered the translation of Russian literature. Although his ideas on translation cannot be called a theory, they do provide certain translation ideas for later generations of literary translators.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin (Александр Сергеевич Пушкин, 1977-1837), a famous Russian poet and writer of the nineteenth century, was also an outstanding translator. Besides he left behind few works on translation, his ideas on translation are worth studying. Pushkin's translations of poetry were associated with classicism in the early stages of his work and with romanticism later. Although these translations are far removed from the original in a literal sense, they are almost close to composition. Pushkin's significance as a translator, however, lies in the reproduction of foreign originalities in the standard Russian language he established in his translations and the full expression of the realist artistic method in the heyday of his compositions: the focus on typical features and the technique of outlining the historical and individual characteristics that reflect the original.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's translations have their own distinctive characteristics and style. He did not translate all of his works literally from the original context, but in some places he deleted what he considered to be redundant sentences in order to avoid the verbosity of the original, occasionally replacing the translation with a general paraphrase. He advocates to give enough respect for the characteristics of foreign readers, while at the same time opposing word-for-word translations, which may lead to the trampling of the mother tongue. Therefore, He advocated translations which, on the one hand, required fidelity to the original text in terms of meaning and, on the other hand, should preserve the original's distinctive features.<br />
<br />
As he says in his unfinished 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', he comments on Chateaubriand's translation: 'There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), has failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own conventional rhetorical devices, its own habitual expressions, and it is impossible to translate all this into another language using the corresponding vocabulary." Pushkin's rejection of word-for-word translation can be revealed clearly.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's influence on the cause of translation in Russia was huge, and his influence refers neither to his few translations nor to his theoretical views, but to the fact that Pushkin pioneered the translation of Russian literature. Although his ideas on translation cannot be called a theory, they do provide certain unique and new translation ideas for later generations of literary translators. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:29, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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===3.1. Belinsky's ideas on translation. ===<br />
Vissarion Grigorievich Belinsky (Виссарион Григорьевич Белинский, 1811-1848) was a famous literary critic of the nineteenth century and one of the most involved in the world of translation among Russian literary activists of his time. Belinsky was fluent in French and as a young man translated for two magazines, Miscellany and Telescope. Later, after a career in literary criticism, he published numerous articles on translation and criticism of translated works.<br />
Belinsky's and Pushkin's views on translation were very similar, both advocating that translations should not be word-for-word. Belinsky first introduced the term 'theory' of translation, and in his 1838 review of Polevoy's translation of Hamlet, he first proposed the need for a theory of translation. He considered the role of theory: "Any object that man perceives has a theory of its own, and a theory is the knowledge of the laws by which the object exists."<br />
<br />
Belinsky argues that in translation: "Closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original. Each <br />
language has its own distinctive expressions, characteristics and qualities; these are so distinctive that to correctly convey a certain image or sentence, it is sometimes necessary to change them completely in the translation. The corresponding image, like the corresponding sentence, does not necessarily lie in a superficial agreement of words: the inner life of the translation should be made to correspond to the inner life of the original". It can be seen that Belinsky, like Pushkin, was also opposed to word-for-word rigid translations, his view being that the task of translating a language lies in reproducing the spirit of the original. He believed that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of a translation, so the question of the interrelationship between national character and translatability has always troubled Belinsky. He pointed out that 'there is only one rule for translating a literary work - to convey the spirit of the work being translated, and this can only be done by translating it into Russian as the author himself would have written it in Russian, if he had been Russian' (The Complete Works of Belinsky Volume 2).<br />
<br />
Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a number of achievements, and his view of translation as a whole is a complete and rigorous system. His view of translation was developed gradually, and in the process it was dominated by an increasingly firm recognition of the possibility of a successful solution to the task of translation, that is, of translatability. Belinsky believed that a translation must be discerning in its content and form in relation to the original. He has pointed out that "approaching the original is not the same as conveying the letters, but rather the spirit of the original." It is also suggested that the translator and the original author are two different kinds of people. But in order to convey the 'spirit' of the original in the translation, the translator's genius needs to reach a certain tacit understanding with this 'spirit'. He advocates the preservation of exoticism in translation, opposes naturalisation, the arbitrary distortion of the face of the original work, the overwhelming of the original author with the personality of the translator's style, the emphasis on both likeness and likeness, etc. However, while recognising the importance of reproducing the poetic form of the original work in translation, Belinsky also took into account the state of development of Russian literature in translation. This also led him to look favourably on translating good poetry in prose, seeing such translations as a form of transition for Russian readers to the treasures of world literature.<br />
<br />
Although Belinsky wrote little about literary translation, his theoretical views contain the kernel of the realist principles of translation proposed by contemporary Soviet literary translators. His ideas on translation had a very profound influence on the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Vissarion Grigorievich Belinsky (Виссарион Григорьевич Белинский, 1811-1848) was a famous literary critic of the nineteenth century and one of the most active in the world of translation among Russian literary activists of his time. Belinsky was fluent in French and when he was a young man he translated for two magazines, Miscellany and Telescope. Later, after a career in literary criticism, he published numerous articles on translation and criticism of translated works.<br />
<br />
Belinsky's and Pushkin's views on translation were very similar, both advocating that translations should not be word-for-word. Belinsky first introduced the term 'theory' of translation, and in his 1838 review of Polevoy's translation of Hamlet, he first proposed the need for a theory of translation. He considered the role of theory: "Any object that man perceives has a theory of its own, and a theory is the knowledge of the laws by which the object exists."<br />
<br />
Belinsky argues that in translation: "Closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original. Each language has its own distinctive expressions, characteristics and qualities; these are so distinctive that to correctly convey a certain image or sentence, it is sometimes necessary to change them completely in the translation. The corresponding image, like the corresponding sentence, does not necessarily lie in a superficial agreement of words: the inner life of the translation should be made to correspond to the inner life of the original". It can be seen that Belinsky, like Pushkin, was also opposed to word-for-word rigid translations, his view being that the task of translating a language lies in reproducing the spirit of the original. He believed that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of a translation, so the question of the interrelationship between national character and translatability has always troubled Belinsky. He pointed out that 'there is only one rule for translating a literary work - to convey the spirit of the work being translated, and this can only be done by translating it into Russian as the author himself would have written it in Russian, if he had been Russian' (The Complete Works of Belinsky Volume 2).<br />
<br />
Belinsky's career as a translator had a number of achievements, and his view of translation as a whole is a complete and rigorous system. His view of translation was developed gradually, and in this process it was dominated by an increasingly firm recognition of the possibility of a successful solution to the task of translation, that is, of translatability. Belinsky believed that a translation must be discerning in its content and form in relation to the original. He has pointed out that "approaching the original is not the same as conveying the letters, but rather the spirit of the original." It is also suggested that the translator and the original author are two different kinds of people. But in order to convey the 'spirit' of the original in the translation, the translator's genius needs to reach a certain tacit understanding with this 'spirit'. He advocates the preservation of exoticism in translation, opposes naturalisation, the arbitrary distortion of the face of the original work, the overwhelming of the original author with the personality of the translator's style, the emphasis on both likeness and likeness, etc. However, while recognising the importance of reproducing the poetic form of the original work in translation, Belinsky also took into account the state of development of Russian literature in translation. This also led him to look favourably on translating good poetry in prose, seeing such translations as a form of transition for Russian readers to the treasures of world literature.<br />
<br />
Although Belinsky wrote little about literary translation, his theoretical views contain the kernel of the realist principles of translation proposed by contemporary Soviet literary translators. His ideas on translation had a very profound influence on the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:56, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.Conclusion ===<br />
Translation has demonstrated its importance in social activity since antiquity, yet it was only in the twentieth century that it became a widely followed professional discipline. This article reviews Russian translation activity and translation thought in pre-Soviet Russia, exploring its development before the formation of a theoretical system. Throughout the history of translation, Russian scholars have contributed greatly to the development of translation literature in the world. Through combing through the history of Russian translation, we learn that the translation ideas of a number of outstanding writers, though not theoretical, have had an unmistakable impact on later generations. When discussing the translation ideas of 19th-century writers, we are inspired to insist on the principle that "closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original", emphasizing the ideological content and literary value of the translation, that the translation should serve the readers, and that the translation should be people-oriented. These ideas influenced, to a greater or lesser extent, the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, the study of the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia is not only conducive to sorting out Russian translation ideas Russian learners can better understand the characteristics of their translations when translating and improve the accuracy of their translations.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:44, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Translation has played its important role in the social activities since antiquity, yet it was until in the twentieth century that it became a widely followed professional discipline. This paper reviews Russian translators and translation thoughts in pre-Soviet Russia, exploring its development before the formation of a theoretical system. Throughout the history of translation, Russian scholars have contributed greatly to the development of translation literature in the world. By combing through the history of Russian translation, we learn that the translation ideas of a number of outstanding writers, though not very theoretical, have had an unmistakable impact on later generations. When discussing the translation ideas of 19th-century writers, we are inspired to insist on the principle that "closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original", emphasizing the ideological content and literary value of the translation that the translation should serve the readers, and that the translation should be people-oriented. These ideas influenced, to a greater or lesser extent, the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, the study of the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia not only is conducive to sorting out Russian translation ideas, but also make Russian learners better understand the characteristics of their translations when translating and improving the accuracy of their translations. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 14:02, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.References ===<br />
1.Wu, Keli 吴克礼（2006）.俄苏翻译理论流派综述 The Translation Methods and Studies in USSR. 上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
2.Guo Lin 郭琳（2006）.俄罗斯语言学派翻译理论若干问题研究[D] A Study of Some Problems of Translation Theory of the Russian School of Philology.首都师范大学 Capital Normal University.<br />
<br />
3.Feng Xin 冯欣（2009）. 俄罗斯翻译理论史及其影响研究[D] A study of the history of Russian translation theory and its influence.上海外国语大学 Shanghai International Studies University.<br />
<br />
4.Wang，Yulun；Jiang,Wanzhu 王育伦,姜万砫（1989).别林斯基论文学翻译[J] Belinsky on Literary Translation .中国翻译 Chinese translators Journal ,(03):53-55.<br />
<br />
5.Li Zheng, Fan Min 李铮,范敏（2010）. 普希金与翻译[J] Pushkin and Translation. 现代交际 Modern Intercourse Journal,(05):69.</div>Zhang Yiranhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_5&diff=132614Hist Trans Theo EN 52021-12-14T02:52:30Z<p>Zhang Yiran: /* 2.1 18th century Russian translation. */</p>
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=Chapter 5 History of Translation Theories from Early Russia to the Soviet Union=<br />
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'''从古罗斯到苏联前的翻译理论史'''<br />
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张怡然 Zhang Yiran,Hunan Normal University,China<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
Translation as a means of intercultural communication, each country has a distinctive translation ideology. This article focuses on the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia. Through analyzing the history of translation, can find that Russia has formed a literary tradition of translation studies in the late 18th century. In the 19th century, Pushkin, Lermontov, Turgenev and other outstanding poets and literary scholars were keen on translation, especially in the middle of the century when Belinsky and other famous literary critics published a series of comments on literary translation, which emphasized the literary tradition of Russian translation to an unparalleled extent, which is rare in the history of translation in the world. The general principles of Russian literary translation thought were also formed during this period: namely, to insist on commenting on the merits of a translation in terms of the overall effect of the work, to emphasize the ideological content and literary value of the translation, and that the translation should serve the reader and be people-oriented. The above ideas influenced the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, a study of the history of translation theory in pre-Soviet Russia will help learners of Russian to better understand the characteristics of their translations and to improve the accuracy and peopleliness of their translations.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 12:57, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Translation is a means of intercultural communication, and each country has its own distinctive translation theory system. This paper focuses on the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia. By analyzing the history of translation, it is obvious that a literary tradition of translation studies has been formed in Russia in the late 18th century. In the 19th century, Pushkin, Lermontov, Turgenev and other outstanding poets and literary scholars were keen on translation, especially in the middle of the century when Belinsky and other famous literary critics published a series of comments on literary translation, which emphasized the literary tradition of Russian translation to an unparalleled extent, which is rare in the history of translation in the world. The general principles of Russian literary translation thoughts were also formed during this period: namely, to insist on commenting on the merits and weakness of a translation in terms of the overall effect of the work, to emphasize the ideological content and literary value of the translation, and the translation should serve the reader and be people-oriented. The above ideas influenced the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, a study of the history of translation theory in pre-Soviet Russia will help learners of Russian to understand the characteristics of their translations profoundly and to improve the accuracy and fluency of their translations.Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:03, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Translation theories, Translation ideas，History of Translation<br />
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===摘要===<br />
翻译作为一种跨文化交际的手段，每个国家都有独具特色的翻译思想。本文主要探讨苏联前俄国的翻译历史。通过梳理其翻译史可发现，俄国于18世纪末期就已形成了翻译研究的文学传统。进入19世纪后, 普希金、莱蒙托夫、屠格涅夫等优秀诗人、文学家对翻译的热衷, 尤其是世纪中叶别林斯基等著名文学评论家发表一系列关于文学翻译的评论, 更是把俄国翻译的文学传统强调到无以复加的程度, 这在世界翻译史上都是罕见的。俄国文学翻译思想的总原则也在这一时期形成:即坚持从作品的整体效果上来评论译作优劣, 强调译作的思想内容和文学价值, 翻译应为读者服务, 译文应具有人民性。上述思想影响了苏联时期翻译理论的形成。因此，对苏联前俄国翻译理论史的研究有利于俄语学习者在翻译时更好的理解其翻译特点，提高翻译的准确性和人民性。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
翻译理论 翻译思想 翻译史 <br />
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===Introduction===<br />
This essay provides a comprehensive and concise overview of the history of translation in Russia: Russian written translations began in the Kievan Rus' era, when religious subjects were the main focus of translations, especially the Bible, which was translated from Greek. Religious translations continued to flourish under the Moscow principality, represented by Maksim Gleick (МаксимГрек). At the same time, the national character of Russian translations began to emerge, and the languages of translation expanded from Greek to Latin, German and West Slavic, and the subjects covered included Western chivalric fiction, geographical literature, alchemy and medicine. In the eighteenth century, Peter the Great introduced a number of measures to focus on translation, making this period a turning point in the history of Russian translation. The proliferation of specialised translations (e.g. of legal texts) was the main feature of translation activity in the early eighteenth century. After this period Russian translators began to translate literary works.The main translators were Lomonosov (М.В. Ломоносов) and Tretyakovsky (V.K. Тредьяковский). In the second half of the eighteenth century, translation was given greater importance in Russia, and the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books was founded by Ekaterina II, in which a large number of outstanding translators emerged. The nineteenth century was a golden period in the history of Russian translation. Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин) and Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский) both produced many excellent translations. Pushkin (A.С.Пушкин) and Lermontov (M.Ю.Лермонтов) contributed greatly to the development of Russian literature in translation, while Fetter concentrated on love poetry. In the twentieth century, the Russian translation community made significant achievements in theoretical translation studies. In particular, the rapid development of the philological school and the debate between the literary and philological schools made Soviet translation theory one of the leading theories of translation in the world (Guo,2006:5).--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 12:57, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
<br />
This paper provides a comprehensive and concise overview of the history of translation in Russia: Russian written translations began in the Kievan Rus' era, when religious subjects were the main focus of translations, especially the Bible, translated from Greek. Religious translations continued to flourish under the Moscow principality, represented by Maksim Gleick (МаксимГрек). At the same time, the national character of Russian translations began to emerge, and the languages of translation expanded from Greek to Latin, German and West Slavic, and the subjects covered included Western chivalric fiction, geographical literature, alchemy and medicine. In the eighteenth century, Peter the Great introduced a number of measures to focus on translation, leading this period to a turning point in the history of Russian translation. The proliferation of specialised translations (e.g. of legal texts) was the main feature of translation activity in the early eighteenth century. After this period Russian translators began to translate literary works.The main translators were Lomonosov (М.В. Ломоносов) and Tretyakovsky (V.K. Тредьяковский). In the second half of the eighteenth century, translation was paid greater attention in Russia, and the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books was founded by Ekaterina II, in which a large number of outstanding translators emerged. The nineteenth century was a golden period in the history of Russian translation when Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин) and Rukovsky (В.А.Жуковский) both produced many excellent translations. Pushkin (A.С.Пушкин) and Lermontov (M.Ю.Лермонтов) contributed greatly to the development of Russian literature in translation, while Fetter concentrated on love poetry. In the twentieth century, the Russian translation community made significant achievements in theoretical translation studies. In particular, the rapid development of the philological school and the debate between the literary and philological schools made Soviet translation theory one of the leading theories of translation in the world. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:14, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===1.The history of Russian translation and the period of enlightenment of its translation theory. ===<br />
1. The emergence and development of literary translation.<br />
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Translation activity has a long history in Russia, the beginnings of which can be traced back to the time of Kievan Rus'. A relatively sophisticated system of writing, literature and translation was already in place in ancient Russia in the ninth century AD. Frequent cultural and trade exchanges with Byzantine, German, French and Scandinavian countries contributed significantly to the development of translation in Russia at that time, as did contacts with Eastern countries. From Kievan Rus' onwards, Russian translation methods oscillated between two main tendencies, either to follow the original texts exactly, up to the point of translating them word for word, or to be arbitrary, even to the point of rewriting, adding or deleting at will. The first tendency is the main characteristic of translations of the Bible and other sacred books, while the second, though not absolute, can be said to characterize most secular works (Feng,2009:8)(Wu,2006:4)(Wu,2006:4).<br />
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2.Initiation of translation activities-religious translation. <br />
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In 864 AD, the Byzantine king sent two Greek priests, Kirill (Кирилл) and Mephodi (Мефодий), to spread Christianity among the Slavic people. At the beginning of their mission, they created a new alphabet (now known as the Kirill alphabet) and used this writing system to translate many religious texts from Greek into the ancient Church Slavonic. Among the results were the New Testament, hymnals and prayer books(Feng,2009:8). <br />
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In 988 AD, Rus was baptised and Kievan Rus was converted to Christianity. A large number of translations appeared instantly to help Protestants become familiar with the new religious philosophy and ethical system and to understand the rituals and customs of the Church. These translations were in a variety of genres, including the Acts of the Saints, sermons, chronicles and so on. In addition, apocryphal books telling magical and fantastical stories were also popular, and some of them had similarities with the later 'fantasy novels'. Most of these translations were done in Bulgaria and were popularised in Rus. At that time, translations of religious texts were mostly word-for-word. There were also a small number of works that, unlike the 'elaborate copies of the original', had a separate literary value. In one case, a large number of details of Russian life were added to the storyline of a sermon (e.g. The Tales of Achild the Wise). In another case, military historical narratives are interspersed with the terminology of the ancient Russian feudal system and certain literary images from the stories of ancient Russian warriors (e.g. Joseph Flav's History of the Jewish War). This translation can be considered one of the most successful of the period. In the translation, the translator succeeded in avoiding many word-for-word translations). In a third case, the manuscripts copied by Ancient Rus, although based on Greek epic poetry (e.g. The Great Work of Digenes Akritas), often borrowed from Russian folk poetry, so that a large number of folk compositions appeared. As a result of this literary process, the translated literature was smoothly enriched by Russian manuscripts, which contributed to the development of original Russian literature and consolidated its links with the medieval literary process. Unfortunately, at that early stage in the development of translation, the translators were not signed, so it is impossible to verify whether the works were translated at home or abroad(Feng,2009:9). <br />
<br />
During the difficult period of 'Mongol rule' (1228-1480), translations continued to play an important role in the cultural life of the country. The remaining chapters of the Bible were translated one after another, and previous translations were again proofread and revised. In addition to religious translations, more translations of non-religious subjects emerge, such as The Kingdom of India and The Trojan War. Most of the works were still translated from Greek, while works probably translated from Latin and ancient Hebrew also appeared. During this period, Russian began to take shape through the interaction of Old Slavonic (Church Slavonic) and local national languages. However, religious texts were still only translated into Church Slavonic, and the use of this language was by then restricted to ecclesiastical matters. At the same time, political and commercial exchanges with other countries were more likely to be in Russian, which was becoming increasingly sophisticated: elements of the combination of Old Slavonic and Russian can also be found in original works（Wu,2006:6). <br />
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14-15th century literature in translation by Rus was characterised by an obsession with new themes. These were mainly new works of tranquillity-abstinence literature, or works recommended by and familiar to the tranquillists. This mystical genre was introduced to Rus after it had swept through the Byzantine and Yugoslav peoples. It was reflected in the semi-secular translations popular at the time (for example, The Trojan War). <br />
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In the 16th century AD, Moscow eventually became the political centre of Russia, as well as the translation centre of the country. In 1515, the Grand Duke of Moscow, Vassily III (Василий Ⅲ), asked a Greek monastery to send a learned translator to Moscow. This man, who accompanied the Greek mission to Moscow in 1516, was the historically famous Maksim Gleick (Максим Грек). Maksim Gleick worked as a translator throughout his life, studying most of the religious texts and some of the non-religious works during this period. In addition, he also proofread and annotated previously existing translations(Wu,2006:7). <br />
<br />
At the beginning, Maksim knew neither Russian nor Old Slavonic, so he divided the translation into two steps: first, he translated from Greek to Latin, and then his assistant translated from Latin to Old Slavonic. In the process of revising existing translations, he often broke with established tradition and was therefore denounced as blasphemous. Maksim was also a prolific writer, educator and philosopher. His writings contain many insights into the art of translation - the earliest recorded treatise on translation in Russia. Maksim insisted that the original text must be carefully analysed in order to grasp its full subtleties and implications. Therefore, the translator must not only master the language of the original, but also have a broad knowledge of the language and prepare for the translation. To support his argument, Maksim used Greek lexicography, phonetic organisation and phonetics involved in translation. His other major contribution was the compilation of a dictionary containing Greek, Latin and Hebrew nouns, which was also the first of its kind in Russian history. Although it was recognised at the time that translators should have a command of both languages as well as a profound background knowledge, the practitioners of translation at the time lacked the necessary qualities and their translations were not as good as they could have been(Wu,2006:7).--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 13:39, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
1. The emergence and development of literary translation. <br />
<br />
Translation activity has a long history in Russia, the beginnings of which can be traced back to the Time of Kievan Rus'. A relatively sophisticated system of writing, literature and translation was already in ancient Russia in the ninth century AD. Frequent cultural and trade exchanges with Byzantine, German, French and Scandinavian countries contributed significantly to the development of translation in Russia at that time, as did contacts with Eastern countries. From Kievan Rus' onwards, Russian translation methods oscillated between two main tendencies, either to follow the original texts exactly, up to the point of translating them word by word, or to be arbitrary, even to the point of rewriting, adding words or deleting at will. The first tendency is the main characteristic of translations of the Bible and other sacred books, while the second, though not absolutely, can be said to characterize most secular works.<br />
<br />
2.Initiation of translation activities-religious translation. <br />
<br />
In 864 AD, the Byzantine king sent two Greek priests, Kirill (Кирилл) and Mephodi (Мефодий), to spread Christianity among the Slavic people. At the beginning of their mission, they created a new alphabet (now known as the Kirill alphabet) and used this writing system to translate many religious texts from Greek into the ancient Church Slavonic. Among the results were the New Testament, hymnals and prayer books. In 988 AD, Rus was baptised and Kievan Rus was converted to Christianity. A large number of translations appeared instantly to help Protestants become familiar with the new religious philosophy and ethical system and to understand the rituals and customs of the Church. These translations were in a variety of genres, including the Acts of the Saints, sermons, chronicles and so on. In addition, apocryphal books telling magical and fantastical stories were also popular, and some of them had similarities with the later 'fantasy novels'. Most of these translations were done in Bulgaria and were popularised in Rus. At that time, translations of religious texts were mostly word-for-word. There were also a small number of works that, unlike the 'elaborate copies of the original', had a separate literary values. In one case, a large number of details of Russian life were added to the storyline of a sermon (e.g. The Tales of Achild the Wise). In another case, military historical narratives are interspersed with the terminology of the ancient Russian feudal system and certain literary images from the stories of ancient Russian warriors (e.g. Joseph Flav's History of the Jewish War). This translation can be considered one of the most successful of the period. In the translation, the translator succeeded in avoiding many word-for-word translations). Thirdly, the manuscripts copied by Ancient Rus, although based on Greek epic poetry (e.g. The Great Work of Digenes Akritas), often borrowed from Russian folk poetry, so that a large number of folk compositions appeared. As a result of this literary process, the translated literature was smoothly enriched by Russian manuscripts, which contributed to the development of original Russian literature and consolidated its links with the medieval literary process. Unfortunately, at that early stage in the development of translation, the translators were not signed, so it is impossible to verify whether the works were translated at home or abroad. During the difficult period of 'Mongol rule' (1228-1480), translations continued to play an important role in the cultural life of the country. The remaining chapters of the Bible were translated one after another, and previous translations were again proofread and revised. In addition to religious translations, more translations of non-religious subjects emerge, such as The Kingdom of India and The Trojan War. Most of the works were still translated from Greek, while works probably translated from Latin and ancient Hebrew also appeared. During this period, Russian began to take shape through the interaction of Old Slavonic (Church Slavonic) and local national languages. However, religious texts were still only translated into Church Slavonic, and the use of this language was by then restricted to ecclesiastical matters. At the same time, political and commercial exchanges with other countries were more likely to be in Russian, which was becoming increasingly sophisticated: elements of the combination of Old Slavonic and Russian can also be found in original works. 14-15th century literature in translation by Rus was characterised by an obsession with new themes. These were mainly new works of tranquillity-abstinence literature, or works recommended by and familiar to the tranquillists. This mystical genre was introduced to Rus after it had swept through the Byzantine and Yugoslav peoples. It was reflected in the semi-secular translations popular at the time (for example, The Trojan War). In the 16th century AD, Moscow eventually became the political center of Russia, as well as the translation center of the country. In 1515, the Grand Duke of Moscow, Vassily III (Василий Ⅲ), asked a Greek monastery to send a learned translator to Moscow. This man, who accompanied the Greek mission to Moscow in 1516, was the historically famous Maksim Grek (Максим Грек). Maxim Greek worked as a translator throughout his life, studying most of the religious texts and some of the non-religious works during this period. In addition, he also proofread and annotated previously existing translations. At the beginning, Maxim knew neither Russian nor Old Slavonic, so he divided the translation into two steps: first, he translated from Greek to Latin, and then his assistant translated from Latin to Old Slavonic. In the process of revising existing translations, he often broke with established tradition and was therefore denounced as blasphemous. Maxim was also a prolific writer, educator and philosopher. His writings contain many insights into the art of translation - the earliest recorded treatise on translation in Russia. Maxim insisted that the original text must be carefully analysed in order to grasp its full subtleties and implications. Therefore, the translator must not only master the language of the original, but also have a broad knowledge of the language and prepare for the translation. To support his argument, Maxim used Greek lexicography, phonetic organisation and phonetics involved in translation. His other major contribution was the compilation of a dictionary containing Greek, Latin and Hebrew nouns, which was also the first of its kind in Russian history. Although it was recognized at the time that translators should have a command of both languages and profound background knowledge, the practitioners of translation at the time lacked the necessary qualities and their translations were not as good as they should have been. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. Overview of the Russian school of Translation. ===<br />
===2.1 18th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The eighteenth century is an important period in the history of Russian translation. The status of translation in social culture has undergone a qualitative change, and this is due to Peter the Great's reform. At the beginning of the century, translation was still mostly related to professional documents such as laws and contracts. Later, the translator's tentacles gradually expanded to literary translation, for example, French poetry translation. The famous translators of this period are Sumarokov(А.П.Сумароков), Lomonosov(М.В.Ломоносов), Tretyakovsky (В.К.Тредьяковский) and so on. In the second half of the 18th century, the Association for the Translation of Foreign Books officially put forward the importance of translation. The organization has been active for 15 years with over 100 members（Wu,2006:10).<br />
<br />
1.Imperial support for translation. The political reforms introduced by Peter the Great also led to intensive economic and cultural exchanges between Russia and European countries. This created a huge demand for translations of scientific and technical literature and literary works. Translators were required to produce works of a high standard.<br />
<br />
Peter the Great issued a special decree on translation, requiring "faithful" communication of the original text. In a directive issued to his subordinates in 1709, he explicitly stated that when translating foreign books, word-for-word translations were to be avoided and that the content of the original text should be clearly expressed in one's own language, based on an understanding of its content. On the other hand, Peter the Great's subversion of the written language initially caused confusion in Russian translation circles. A large number of foreign languages entered the Russian language, and the piles of foreign syntactic structures distracted attention. In any case, Peter the Great's reforms did set a new norm and a new direction for translation(Wu,2006:11). <br />
<br />
In terms of content, Peter the Great's reforms were, from the very beginning, inextricably linked to the translation of scientific and technical texts, such as the many books on military defence engineering that he ordered to be translated and used to strengthen Russia's military forces. Peter the Great also placed great importance on the translation of prose, poetry and other literary works. During this period, the Russian language began to develop its own literary model, and many educated Russians saw translation as a way of enriching the language and enhancing its uniqueness and expressiveness. <br />
<br />
From around the 1830s, the importance of translating Western European scientific and technical texts gradually gave way to literary works such as prose and poetry. Writers who were also translators turned their attention to the work of new Western European writers, mainly poets, especially French poets. At the same time, the legacy of the Greco-Roman period also entered their minds. They began to translate the works of philosophers and historians, which - on the one hand - gave rise to difficulties in literary rhetoric and scientific terminology and, on the other, played an important role in the formation of a standard Russian language(Feng,2009:10)(Guo,2006:8). <br />
<br />
From that time onwards, translation also became an organised activity, with the emergence of specific bodies responsible for the organisation and management of translation work. 1735 saw the establishment of the first specialised translation organisation, the Russian Society, at the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences. The Society had a professional group of translators and some of the academy's scholars, such as Lomonosov and Tretyakovsky, were among its members. The Association was responsible for selecting works, defining the rules or principles of translation, commenting on translations, and training translators. It is worth mentioning that the Academy of Sciences also set up a school of foreign languages to train official translators. In 1748, the Academy implemented Queen Elizabeth's decree to increase the number of translations of non-religious books and publicly appealed to "the nobility and other classes of intellectuals" to take an active part in the translation process(Guo,2006:8)(Feng,2009:10). <br />
<br />
In the second half of the 18th century, Ekaterina II's efforts to create a 'civilised state' not only led to the development of literature, but also gave preferential treatment to writers. For example, in order to select the best original texts, she ordered the establishment of the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books (1768 - 1783). The Society was dedicated to providing excellent conditions for translation work throughout Russia. The purchase of manuscripts was financed out of Ekaterina's own funds. Later, the Society also discussed a proposal to establish a translation bureau under the Academy of Sciences (1790). The 114 members of the Society included such notable figures as Tretyakovsky, Sumarokov and Radishev. For 14 years the Association was active, producing numerous literary translations and likewise contributing to the discussion of theoretical issues in translation(Guo,2006:9).<br />
<br />
2.The emergence of poetry translation. Translation of poetry also developed in Russia in the 18th century, and later became one of the jewels of the country's literature. The great Russian scholar and poet Lomonosov was a major contributor to this process. A great deal of the work created by Lomonosov and his contemporaries Sumarokov and Tretyakovsky was poetry in translation. They often translated while exploring theoretical issues in translation: they would explain in their works why they translated this way and not that way; they stressed the importance of translation work and the creative value it contained. Among the most prestigious writers and translators in Russian literature at the time, there were several interesting competitions in which two or three poets translated the same work at the same time, and their translations were published in journals. It was often the case that different translations of the same work were published at the same time, without the translator's name, for the judgement of "literary lovers and peers". This phenomenon also supports the idea that the 18th century was a period of 'experimentation' in the history of Russian translation(Feng,2006:11). <br />
<br />
Lomonosov's translations from Latin, German, French and Greek are numerous and varied, showing his talent for both rhyming and free verse. He was keen to reproduce the rhythmic structure of the original texts, using a variety of iambic and iambic meter to convey the Alexandrian style of French epic and the hexameter style of Greek tragedy. Russian poetry was not very developed at the time and was still based on syllables. <br />
Lomonosov's innovations enriched Russian poetry and established new forms and traditions of Russian poetic style and rhyme. <br />
<br />
In contrast, Kantymir (Д.М.Кантемира) and Tretyakovsky's greatest quest was to insist on a faithful translation of the original. In the process, the translators had to contend with the problems of reams of vocabulary and rhetorical rules. Tretyakovsky became famous for his successful use of Russian rhyme to translate many verses of the original in his translation of Paul Thielmann's A Journey to Love Island. In the introduction to the novel, the translator states his approach to translation: "The translator is only one person away from the author. I would add that if the author is original, the translator should be even more original (I am not referring to myself, but to a good translator)". He believes that "prose to prose" and "poetry to poetry" can be as good as the original, and that a good translation is one that "describes the full meaning of each verse". Kantymir 's translation of Horace's Letters and other poetic works in Latin and French, although less well-known than the former, is equally valuable(Wu,2006:16).--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:40, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The eighteenth century is an important period in the history of Russian translation. The status of translation in social culture has undergone a qualitative change, and this is due to Peter the Great's reform. At the beginning of the century, translation was still mostly related to professional documents such as laws and contracts. Later, the translator's tentacles gradually expanded to literary translation, for example, French poetry translation. The famous translators of this period are Sumarokov(А.П.Сумароков), Lomonosov(М.В.Ломоносов), Tretyakovsky (В.К.Тредьяковский) and so on. In the second half of the 18th century, the Association for the Translation of Foreign Books officially put forward the importance of translation. The organization has been active for 15 years with over 100 members. The following points reflected the reasons why translation was paid more attention in the eighteenth century.<br />
<br />
1.Imperial support for translation. <br />
<br />
The political reforms introduced by Peter the Great also led to intensive economic and cultural exchanges between Russia and European countries. This created a huge demand for translations of scientific and technical literature and literary works. Translators were required to produce works of a high standard.Peter the Great issued a special decree on translation, requiring "faithful" communication of the original text. In a directive issued to his subordinates in 1709, he explicitly stated that when translating foreign books, word-for-word translations were to be avoided and that the content of the original text should be clearly expressed in one's own language, based on an understanding of its content. On the other hand, Peter the Great's subversion of the written language initially caused confusion in Russian translation circles. A large number of foreign languages entered the Russian language, and the piles of foreign syntactic structures distracted attention. In any case, Peter the Great's reforms did set a new norm and a new direction for translation. In terms of content, Peter the Great's reforms were, from the very beginning, inextricably linked to the translation of scientific and technical texts, such as the many books on military defence engineering that he ordered to be translated and used to strengthen Russia's military forces. Peter the Great also placed great importance on the translation of prose, poetry and other literary works. During this period, the Russian language began to develop its own literary model, and many educated Russians saw translation as a way of enriching the language and enhancing its uniqueness and expressiveness. <br />
<br />
From around the 1830s, the importance of translating Western European scientific and technical texts gradually gave way to literary works such as prose and poetry. Writers who were also translators turned their attention to the work of new Western European writers, mainly poets, especially French poets. At the same time, the legacy of the Greco-Roman period also entered their minds. They began to translate the works of philosophers and historians, which - on the one hand - gave rise to difficulties in literary rhetoric and scientific terminology and, on the other, played an important role in the formation of a standard Russian language. <br />
<br />
From that time onwards, translation also became an organised activity, with the emergence of specific bodies responsible for the organisation and management of translation work. 1735 saw the establishment of the first specialised translation organisation, the Russian Society, at the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences. The Society had a professional group of translators and some of the academy's scholars, such as Lomonosov and Tretyakovsky, were among its members. The Association was responsible for selecting works, defining the rules or principles of translation, commenting on translations, and training translators. It is worth mentioning that the Academy of Sciences also set up a school of foreign languages to train official translators. In 1748, the Academy implemented Queen Elizabeth's decree to increase the number of translations of non-religious books and publicly appealed to "the nobility and other classes of intellectuals" to take an active part in the translation process. <br />
<br />
In the second half of the 18th century, Ekaterina II's efforts to create a 'civilised state' not only led to the development of literature, but also gave preferential treatment to writers. For example, in order to select the best original texts, she ordered the establishment of the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books (1768-1783). The Society was dedicated to providing excellent conditions for translation work throughout Russia. The purchase of manuscripts was financed out of Ekaterina's own funds. Later, the Society also discussed a proposal to establish a translation bureau under the Academy of Sciences (1790). The 114 members of the Society included such notable figures as Tretyakovsky, Sumarokov and Radishev. For 14 years the Association was active, producing numerous literary translations and likewise contributing to the discussion of theoretical issues in translation.<br />
<br />
2.The emergence of poetry translation.<br />
<br />
Translation of poetry also developed in Russia in the 18th century, and later became one of the jewels of the country's literature. The great Russian scholar and poet Lomonosov was a major contributor to this process. A great deal of the work created by Lomonosov and his contemporaries Sumarokov and Tretyakovsky was poetry in translation. They often translated while exploring theoretical issues in translation: they would explain in their works why they translated this way and not that way; they stressed the importance of translation work and the creative value it contained. Among the most prestigious writers and translators in Russian literature at the time, there were several interesting competitions in which two or three poets translated the same work at the same time, and their translations were published in journals. It was often the case that different translations of the same work were published at the same time, without the translator's name, for the judgement of "literary lovers and peers". This phenomenon also supports the idea that the 18th century was a period of 'experimentation' in the history of Russian translation. <br />
<br />
Lomonosov's translations works in Latin, German, French and Greek are numerous and varied, showing his talent for both rhyming and free verse. He was keen to reproduce the rhythmic structure of the original texts, using a variety of iambic and iambic meter to convey the Alexandrian style of French epic and the hexameter style of Greek tragedy. Russian poetry was not very developed at the time and was still based on syllables. <br />
Lomonosov's innovations enriched Russian poetry and established new forms and traditions of Russian poetic style and rhyme. <br />
<br />
In contrast, Kantymir (Д.М.Кантемира) and Tretyakovsky's greatest quest was to insist on a faithful translation of the original. In the process, the translators had to contend with the problems of reams of vocabulary and rhetorical rules. Tretyakovsky became famous for his successful use of Russian rhyme to translate many verses of the original in his translation of Paul Thielmann's A Journey to Love Island. In the introduction to the novel, the translator states his approach to translation: "The translator is only one person away from the author. I would add that if the author is original, the translator should be even more original (I am not referring to myself, but to a good translator)". He believes that "prose to prose" and "poetry to poetry" can be as good as the original, and that a good translation is one that "describes the full meaning of each verse". Kantymir 's translation of Horace's Letters and other poetic works in Latin and French, although less well-known than the former, is equally valuable. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 12:39, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.2 First half of the19th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The nineteenth century was a golden age in the history of Russian translation. If translation had established itself as a profession in the first hundred years, it was elevated to the level of art in this century. The nineteenth century produced a number of masters of translation, including Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин), Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский), Pushkin (А.С.Пушкин), Lermontov (М.Ю.Лермонтов) and Fetter (А.Фет). <br />
<br />
The new Russian school of translation owes its formation to the historian Nikolai Karamzin and the poet Zhukovsky. Karamzin published a number of translations in several magazines between the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century. He saw translations as a good help in perfecting a writer's style: a source of information that would satisfy human curiosity, inform historical facts, entertain women and provide material for new magazines. As a young man, Karamzin was strongly opposed to the alteration of and disloyalty to the original texts, but later became a champion of free translation, famously saying: "Whoever follows the author of the original text step by step is no different from a servant who serves his lord". Karamzin's translations cover an admirable range of genres and languages: he translated works by both classical and contemporaneous authors, in Greek, French, Latin, German, English, Italian and some Oriental languages. <br />
<br />
Pushkin called Zhukovsky "a genius of translation". After graduating from the Moscow Noble Boarding University in 1802, Zhukovsky devoted himself to translation. It was thanks to his efforts that Russian readers were able to access the works of world literary giants such as Schiller, Goethe, Byron and Walters Scott. Zhukovsky's creative translation activities also ranged from Charles Bello to Grimm's Fairy Tales. From Charles Bellow to Grimm's fairy tales, from Homer's epic Odyssey to the poetic history of ancient Rus' Igor's Expedition, all became his original texts. There is no denying that Zhukovsky is a master in the history of Russian translation. Like Karamzin, Zhukovsky was a fan of free translation, sometimes rewriting the original or even creating a new story from its subject: sometimes transferring the setting of events to Russia and giving Russian names to the characters. For example, in his 1808 translation of the German Romantic poet Bilge's narrative poem Lenore, he changed the heroine's name from Lenore to Lyudmila and moved the story to the time of the Livonian War in 16th-century Russia. Zhukovsky believed that the "unsavoury character" of the work should be weakened while retaining the original author's ideas. His talent enabled him to reproduce the style, rhythm and tone of the original poems, while some of his best works were also faithful to the original. In later years, however, his view of translation changed in response to the tendency to stay close to the original, and he retranslated several of his previous translations to make them more faithful to the original, including Lenore. The Russian school of translation owes much to the tradition of translation created by Zhukovsky.<br />
<br />
Pushkin and Lermontov are also two poets who set the stage for an epoch in the history of Russian translation. Although only a small proportion of their poetry was translated, they made a significant contribution to the improvement of the art of translation in Russia. In their rewriting and imitation of poetry, they were able to reproduce the most important features of foreign poetry, the key point being that their creative translations were no less valuable in their own right than the originals. Their free translation became a model for other translators, and in addition they established the important principle that a good artistic translation must also be a good work in the national literature of the translated language. Pushkin played an indelibly important role in the development of the Russian school of translation. He was always interested in the question of translation, and his critical views on translation were objective and profound. Before translation he stressed the importance of the choice of the original work, and in translation he demanded that the translator should be faithful to the original, while at the same time displaying his deep creative skills and his own literary style. In one of his unfinished posthumous works, 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', Pushkin wrote: 'Chateaubriand's translation (verbatim) compensates to some extent for the faults of the young French writers (free translation), for they have insulted the great man very cruelly, though in a perfectly innocent manner. There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own rhetorical conventions, its own way of expressing itself, and it is impossible to translate into another language with the corresponding vocabulary". These insights had a positive impact on the best Russian translators of the 19th and 20th centuries. In addition, Pushkin's discussion of translation coincided with a turning point in the history of Russian literature, when the Romantic era was being replaced by a new era with a predominantly realist orientation, and a process of 'separation' between translated and national literature was under way. Pushkin's discussion of the work of the translator as distinct from that of the writer contributed to the independence of literature in translation from indigenous literature. <br />
<br />
During this period, while most people advocated free translation, there were a few translators who insisted on maximum fidelity to the original and advocated the word-for-word method, even at the expense of the work's willingness to be translated. Among these were such well-known writers as P.A. Vyazemsky (П.А.Вяземский) and N.I. Gnedzic (Н.И.Гнедич). In fact, they did not always live up to their principles, and sometimes their talent and artistic intuition ended up breaking the bonds of verbatim translation. Vyazemsky's translations of Benjamin Constant and Adam Mickiewicz were not without literary and artistic merit, and his translation of Homer's epic Iliad in particular was highly praised by Pushkin. It was Fetter who was the most insistent on the idea of a verbatim translation. Fetter translated many famous works, and his philosophy throughout was one of sentence-for-sentence, word-for-word translation, retaining all the words of the original. Fetter's extreme word-for-word approach had a negative impact on most of his translations, although he was sometimes able to come up with some effective methods of translation. <br />
<br />
Free translations were also sometimes used to promote democratic ideas in the original that could not pass official scrutiny. A number of translators, such as V. Kurochkin (В.Курочкин), D. M. Minayev (Д.Минаев) and M. M. Mikhalov (М.Михайлов), achieved this by selecting appropriate original works or by using texts in their translations that were superficially imperceptible in their allusion to the conditions in Russia at the time. It was from that time onwards that the use of translation as a weapon to express dissent became part of the Russian tradition.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:41, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The nineteenth century was the golden age in the history of Russian translation. If translation had established its status in the first hundred years, it was elevated to the level of art in this century. The nineteenth century produced a number of masters of translation, including Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин), Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский), Pushkin (А.С.Пушкин), Lermontov (М.Ю.Лермонтов) and Fetter (А.Фет). <br />
<br />
The new Russian school of translation owes its formation to the publishment of a number of translations of historian Nikolai Karamzin and the poet Zhukovsky. Karamzin in several magazines between the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century. He regarded translation as a good help in perfecting a writer's style: a source of information that satisfies human curiosity, informs historical facts, entertains women and provides materials for new magazines. As a young man, Karamzin was strongly opposed to the disloyalty to the original texts, but later became a champion of free translation. His famous saying was: "Whoever follows the author of the original text step by step is no different from a servant who serves his lord". Karamzin's translations cover an admirable range of genres and languages: he translated works by both classical and contemporaneous authors, in Greek, French, Latin, German, English, Italian and some Oriental languages. <br />
<br />
Pushkin called Zhukovsky "a genius of translation". After graduating from the Moscow Noble Boarding University in 1802, Zhukovsky devoted himself to translation. It was thanks to his efforts that Russian readers were able to access the works of world literary giants such as Schiller, Goethe, Byron and Walters Scott. Zhukovsky's creative translation activities also ranged from Charles Bello to Grimm's Fairy Tales. From Charles Bellow to Grimm's fairy tales, from Homer's epic Odyssey to the poetic history of ancient Rus' Igor's Expedition, all became his original texts. There is no denying that Zhukovsky is a master in the history of Russian translation. Like Karamzin, Zhukovsky was a fan of free translation, who sometimes rewrites the original or even creates a new story from its subject, transfers the setting of events to Russia and gives Russian names to the characters. For example, in his 1808 translation of the German Romantic poet Bilge's narrative poem Lenore, he changed the heroine's name from Lenore to Lyudmila and moved the story to the time of the Livonian War in 16th-century Russia. Zhukovsky believed that the "unsavoury character" of the work should be weakened while retaining the original author's ideas. His talent enabled him to reproduce the style, rhythm and tone of the original poems, while some of his best works were also faithful to the original. In later years, however, his view of translation changed in response to the tendency to stay close to the original, and he retranslated several of his previous translations to make them more faithful to the original, including Lenore. The Russian school of translation owes much to the tradition of translation created by Zhukovsky.<br />
<br />
Pushkin and Lermontov are also two poets who gave perfect preparations for an epoch in the history of Russian translation. Although only a small proportion of their poetry was translated, they made a significant contribution to the improvement of the art of translation in Russia. In their rewriting and imitation of poetry, they were able to reproduce the most important features of foreign poetry, the key point being that their creative translations were no less valuable in their own right than the originals. Their free translation became a model for other translators, and in addition they established the important principle that a good artistic translation must also be a good work in the national literature of the translated language. Pushkin played an indelibly important role in the development of the Russian school of translation. He was always interested in the question of translation, and his critical views on translation were objective and profound. Before translation he stressed the importance of the choice of the original work, and in translation he demanded that the translator should be faithful to the original, while at the same time displaying his deep creative skills and his own literary style. In one of his unfinished posthumous works, 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', Pushkin wrote: 'Chateaubriand's translation (verbatim) compensates to some extent for the faults of the young French writers (free translation), for they have insulted the great man very cruelly, though in a perfectly innocent manner. There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own rhetorical conventions, its own way of expressing itself, and it is impossible to translate into another language with the corresponding vocabulary". These insights had a positive impact on the best Russian translators of the 19th and 20th centuries. In addition, Pushkin's discussion of translation coincided with a turning point in the history of Russian literature, when the Romantic era was being replaced by a new era with a predominantly realist orientation, and a process of 'separation' between translated and national literature was under way. Pushkin's discussion of the work of the translator as distinct from that of the writer contributed to the independence of literature in translation from indigenous literature. <br />
<br />
During this period, while most people advocated free translation, there were a few translators who insisted on maximum fidelity to the original and advocated the word-for-word method, even at the expense of the work's willingness to be translated. Among these were such well-known writers as P.A. Vyazemsky (П.А.Вяземский) and N.I. Gnedzic (Н.И.Гнедич). In fact, they did not always live up to their principles, and sometimes their talent and artistic intuition ended up breaking the bonds of verbatim translation. Vyazemsky's translations of Benjamin Constant and Adam Mickiewicz were not without literary and artistic merit, and his translation of Homer's epic Iliad in particular was highly praised by Pushkin. It was Fetter who was the most insistent on the idea of a verbatim translation. Fetter translated many famous works, and his philosophy throughout was one of sentence-for-sentence, word-for-word translation, retaining all the words of the original. Fetter's extreme word-for-word approach had a negative impact on most of his translations, although he was sometimes able to come up with some effective methods of translation. <br />
<br />
Free translations were also used to promote democratic ideas in original that could not pass official scrutiny. A number of translators, such as V. Kurochkin (В.Курочкин), D. M. Minayev (Д.Минаев) and M. M. Mikhalov (М.Михайлов), achieved this by selecting appropriate original works or by using texts in their translations that were superficially imperceptible in their allusion to the conditions in Russia at the time. It was since then that the use of translation was used as a weapon to express dissent became part of the Russian tradition. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:05, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.3 Second half of the19th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The mid-nineteenth century was a period of increasingly intense political and ideological struggle in Russian literature, and a great debate raged in the Russian literary world over the question of 'art for the people' or 'art for art's sake'. The debate was mainly about the choice of material for translation and the method of translation. As far as the choice of material was concerned, the democratic and revolutionary writers who supported 'art for the people' chose to translate works with progressive ideological content and a democratic orientation, such as Heine. The aristocratic and liberal intellectual writers, on the other hand, opted for philosophical poetry with a chanting and individualistic feel. Of course, this is not absolute: "Mikhailov and Dobrolyubov of the democratic revolutionary school also translated Heine's moody love poems The Songbook, while Tolstoy of the aristocratic and liberal school translated some of Goethe's more progressive poems, such as The Fiancée of Corinth and The Whore of God. In terms of their approach to translation, the Democratic-Revolutionary translators, based on the reproduction of the original as a whole, approached their translations very liberally, even adding in many elements typical of Russian culture. The latter, on the other hand, usually adopted a direct translation, focusing on conveying the formal details of the original work. This divergence was mainly due to the different starting points of the two groups of translators, with the democratic revolutionaries seeking to convey advanced ideas to the Russian general public and the aristocratic intellectuals believing that works of art were irrelevant to the people and that artistic creations should not be exposed to "vulgar" reality.<br />
<br />
There were a large number of outstanding literary writers and literary critics who made brilliant statements about literary translation in that era, none more so than Belinsky (В.Г.Белинский), Chernyshevsky (Н.Г.Черныщевский) and Dubrolyovsky (Н.Г.Добролюбов). Belinsky was one of the greatest Russian literary critics of the 19th century. He believed that translations should not be word-for-word, but should reproduce the spirit of the original, in much the same way as Pushkin's view of translation theory. On the other hand, he also opposed arbitrary 'paraphrasing': the ideal translation should not add or delete arbitrarily to the original text, but should enable the reader to understand the foreign work truly and accurately through the translation. Such a viewpoint seems to us to be quite convincing even now. Belinsky played a decisive role in completely burying the 'rewriting' and 'adapting it to Russian custom' arguments. This issue dominates his writings. He argues that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of the translation, and this is one of the criteria by which he judges its merits. He points out, for example, that the greatest strength of Gnedzic's translation of the Iliad is that it "exudes the atmosphere of ancient life" and "the spirit of the ancient Greeks". However, the contradiction between national identity and translatability was once a problem for Belinsky. Initially believing that it was impossible to translate works with a strong national character into other languages, he was only convinced by the success of Turgenev's collaboration with Louis Viardot in translating Gogol's novels into French in 1846, and then became increasingly determined to recognise translatability in translation. Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a series of revisions that led to a complete and rigorous system of translation theory, the first of its kind in the history of Russian translation theory.<br />
<br />
Translation in Russia developed in the second half of the 19th century. From the 1960s onwards, the Russian readership of non-language speakers began to expand, and these readers were keen to see the translation 'replace' the original. This demand led to an unprecedented expansion in the choice of subjects and translations of Russian literature. Interest in foreign theatrical works was particularly high at this stage, and a strong interest in European classical literature also developed. Dickens, Saclay, Victor Hugo, Dumas, Balzac, Flaubert, Tudor, Maupassant and Zola, as well as lesser-known writers of today, were successively brought to the attention of a wide range of Russian readers in the form of translations. At that time, European theatre classics like Shakespeare's plays were translated into Russia in large numbers. Many professional translators were involved, the most successful being the translator P.N.V. Weinberg. He translated foreign literature from the standpoint of progressive Russian literature of the time. His translation of Othello, for example, is notable for its vividness in the Russian language, and has always been recognised as the best translation in terms of conveying the totality of scenes, plots and long dialogues, even though the translation is wordy compared to the original.<br />
<br />
Although there has been a quantitative surge in translations of Russian literature during this period, the quality has generally been poor, manifesting itself in word-for-word translations, redundant sentences and poor vocabulary, not to mention inventiveness. In addition, the language of the characters in the translation is heavily Russified, with Russian proverbs, sayings and idioms that the foreign characters could never have known, and the introduction of Russian-specific life circumstances that cause contradictions with the plot and details of the original work. For example, В Тулу со своим самоваром ехать (Bring your own samovar to Tula - it's superfluous). The reason for this is that the literary world did not attach much importance to the translation of fiction and prose, and there were no specialists working on this task. Another point is that at this stage there was little progress in the study of Russian translation theory, and no valuable theoretical insights emerged. The linguist A.A. Потебня (1835-1891) expressed his views on translation from a psychological standpoint in his essay "Language and Peopleliness ". In his view, it was impossible to express in another language what was originally intended to be expressed in a certain language. He, like many other literary scholars, denied the translatability of language.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:41, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The mid-nineteenth century was a period of increasingly intensively political and ideological struggle in Russian literature, and a great debate raged in the Russian literary world over the question of 'art for the people' or 'art for art's sake'. The debate was mainly about the choice of materials for translation and the methods of translation. As far as the choice of material was concerned, the democratic and revolutionary writers who supported 'art for the people' chose to translate works with progressive ideological content and a democratic orientation, such as Heine. The aristocratic and liberal intellectual writers, on the other hand, opted for philosophical poetry with a chanting and individualistic feel. It's undoubtful that this is not absolute: "Mikhailov and Dobrolyubov of the democratic revolutionary school also translated Heine's moody love poems The Songbook, while Tolstoy of the aristocratic and liberal school translated some of Goethe's more progressive poems, such as The Fiancée of Corinth and The Whore of God. In terms of their approach to translation, the Democratic-Revolutionary translators, based on the reproduction of the original as a whole, approached their translations very liberally, when they even added in many elements typical of Russian culture. The latter, on the other hand, usually adopted a direct translation, focusing on conveying the formal details of the original work. This divergence was mainly due to the different starting points of the two groups of translators, with the democratic revolutionaries seeking to convey advanced ideas to the Russian general public and the aristocratic intellectuals believing that works of art were irrelevant to the people and that artistic creations should not be exposed to "vulgar" reality.<br />
<br />
There were a large number of outstanding literary writers and literary critics who made brilliant statements about literary translation in that era, none more so than Belinsky (В.Г.Белинский), Chernyshevsky (Н.Г.Черныщевский) and Dubrolyovsky (Н.Г.Добролюбов). Belinsky was one of the greatest Russian literary critics of the 19th century. He believed that translations should not be word-for-word, but should reproduce the spirit of the original text, in much the same way as Pushkin's view of translation theory. On the other hand, he also opposed arbitrary 'paraphrasing': the ideal translation should not add or delete arbitrarily to the original text, but should enable the reader to understand the foreign work truly and accurately through the translation. Such a viewpoint seems to us to be quite convincing even now. Belinsky played a decisive role in completely burying the 'rewriting' and 'adapting it to Russian custom' arguments. This issue dominates his writings. He argues that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of the translation, and this is one of the criteria by which he judges its merits. He points out, for example, that the greatest strength of Gnedzic's translation of the Iliad is that it "exudes the atmosphere of ancient life" and "the spirit of the ancient Greeks". However, the contradiction between national identity and translatability was once a problem for Belinsky. Initially believing that it was impossible to translate works with a strong national character into other languages, he was only convinced by the success of Turgenev's collaboration with Louis Viardot in translating Gogol's novels into French in 1846, and then became increasingly determined to recognise translatability in translation. Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a series of revisions that led to a complete and rigorous system of translation theory, the first of its kind in the history of Russian translation theory.<br />
<br />
Translation in Russia developed in the second half of the 19th century. From the 1960s onwards, the Russian readership of non-language speakers began to expand, and these readers were keen to see the translation 'replace' the original. This demand led to an unprecedented expansion in the choice of subjects and translations of Russian literature. Interest in foreign theatrical works was particularly high at this stage, and a strong interest in European classical literature also developed. Dickens, Saclay, Victor Hugo, Dumas, Balzac, Flaubert, Tudor, Maupassant and Zola, as well as lesser-known writers of today, were successively brought to the attention of a wide range of Russian readers in the form of translations. At that time, European theatre classics like Shakespeare's plays were translated into Russia in large numbers. Many professional translators were involved, the most successful being the translator P.N.V. Weinberg. He translated foreign literature from the standpoint of progressive Russian literature of the time. His translation of Othello, for example, is notable for its vividness in the Russian language, and has always been recognised as the best translation in terms of conveying the totality of scenes, plots and long dialogues, even though the translation is wordy compared to the original.<br />
<br />
Although there has been a quantitative surge in translations of Russian literature during this period, the quality has generally been poor, manifesting itself in word-for-word translations, redundant sentences and poor vocabulary, not to mention inventiveness. In addition, the language of the characters in the translation is heavily Russified, that is, contents with Russian proverbs, sayings and idioms that the foreign characters could never have known, and the introduction of Russian-specific life circumstances that cause contradictions with the plot and details of the original work. For example, В Тулу со своим самоваром ехать (Bring your own samovar to Tula - it's superfluous). The reason for this is that the literary world did not attach much importance to the translation of fiction and prose, and there were no specialists working on this task. Another point is that at this stage there was little progress in the study of Russian translation theory, and no valuable theoretical insights emerged. The linguist A.A. Потебня (1835-1891) expressed his views on translation from a psychological standpoint in his essay "Language and Peopleliness ". In his view, it was impossible to express in another language what was originally intended to be expressed in a certain language. Just like many other literary scholars, he denied the translatability of language. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:13, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.Translation ideas of famous writers of the 18-19th centuries. ===<br />
===3.1. Pushkin 's ideas on translation. ===<br />
Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin (Александр Сергеевич Пушкин, 1977-1837), a famous Russian poet and writer of the nineteenth century, was also very much a translator. Although he left behind few works on translation, his ideas on translation are worth studying. Pushkin's translations of poetry were associated with classicism in the early stages of his work and later with romanticism. Although these translations are far removed from the original in a literal sense, they are almost close to composition. Pushkin's significance as a translator, however, lies in 1) the reproduction of foreign originals in the standard Russian language he established in his translations and 2) the full expression of the realist artistic method in the heyday of his compositions: the focus on typical features and the technique of outlining the historical and individual characteristics that reflect the original.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's translations have their own characteristics and style. He did not translate all of his works word for word from the original, and in some places he deleted what he considered to be redundant sentences in order to avoid the verbosity of the original, occasionally replacing the translation with a general paraphrase. He advocates respect for the characteristics of foreign readers, while at the same time opposing word-for-word translations, which can lead to the trampling of the mother tongue. He therefore advocated translations which, on the one hand, required fidelity to the original in terms of meaning and, on the other, should preserve the original's distinctive features.<br />
As he says in his unfinished 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', commenting on Chateaubriand's translation: 'There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), has failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own conventional rhetorical devices, its own habitual expressions, and it is impossible to translate all this into another language using the corresponding vocabulary." Pushkin's rejection of word-for-word translation can be seen.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's influence on the cause of translation in Russia was immense, and this influence refers neither to his few translations nor to his theoretical views, but to the fact that Pushkin pioneered the translation of Russian literature. Although his ideas on translation cannot be called a theory, they do provide certain translation ideas for later generations of literary translators.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin (Александр Сергеевич Пушкин, 1977-1837), a famous Russian poet and writer of the nineteenth century, was also an outstanding translator. Besides he left behind few works on translation, his ideas on translation are worth studying. Pushkin's translations of poetry were associated with classicism in the early stages of his work and with romanticism later. Although these translations are far removed from the original in a literal sense, they are almost close to composition. Pushkin's significance as a translator, however, lies in the reproduction of foreign originalities in the standard Russian language he established in his translations and the full expression of the realist artistic method in the heyday of his compositions: the focus on typical features and the technique of outlining the historical and individual characteristics that reflect the original.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's translations have their own distinctive characteristics and style. He did not translate all of his works literally from the original context, but in some places he deleted what he considered to be redundant sentences in order to avoid the verbosity of the original, occasionally replacing the translation with a general paraphrase. He advocates to give enough respect for the characteristics of foreign readers, while at the same time opposing word-for-word translations, which may lead to the trampling of the mother tongue. Therefore, He advocated translations which, on the one hand, required fidelity to the original text in terms of meaning and, on the other hand, should preserve the original's distinctive features.<br />
<br />
As he says in his unfinished 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', he comments on Chateaubriand's translation: 'There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), has failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own conventional rhetorical devices, its own habitual expressions, and it is impossible to translate all this into another language using the corresponding vocabulary." Pushkin's rejection of word-for-word translation can be revealed clearly.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's influence on the cause of translation in Russia was huge, and his influence refers neither to his few translations nor to his theoretical views, but to the fact that Pushkin pioneered the translation of Russian literature. Although his ideas on translation cannot be called a theory, they do provide certain unique and new translation ideas for later generations of literary translators. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:29, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.1. Belinsky's ideas on translation. ===<br />
Vissarion Grigorievich Belinsky (Виссарион Григорьевич Белинский, 1811-1848) was a famous literary critic of the nineteenth century and one of the most involved in the world of translation among Russian literary activists of his time. Belinsky was fluent in French and as a young man translated for two magazines, Miscellany and Telescope. Later, after a career in literary criticism, he published numerous articles on translation and criticism of translated works.<br />
Belinsky's and Pushkin's views on translation were very similar, both advocating that translations should not be word-for-word. Belinsky first introduced the term 'theory' of translation, and in his 1838 review of Polevoy's translation of Hamlet, he first proposed the need for a theory of translation. He considered the role of theory: "Any object that man perceives has a theory of its own, and a theory is the knowledge of the laws by which the object exists."<br />
<br />
Belinsky argues that in translation: "Closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original. Each <br />
language has its own distinctive expressions, characteristics and qualities; these are so distinctive that to correctly convey a certain image or sentence, it is sometimes necessary to change them completely in the translation. The corresponding image, like the corresponding sentence, does not necessarily lie in a superficial agreement of words: the inner life of the translation should be made to correspond to the inner life of the original". It can be seen that Belinsky, like Pushkin, was also opposed to word-for-word rigid translations, his view being that the task of translating a language lies in reproducing the spirit of the original. He believed that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of a translation, so the question of the interrelationship between national character and translatability has always troubled Belinsky. He pointed out that 'there is only one rule for translating a literary work - to convey the spirit of the work being translated, and this can only be done by translating it into Russian as the author himself would have written it in Russian, if he had been Russian' (The Complete Works of Belinsky Volume 2).<br />
<br />
Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a number of achievements, and his view of translation as a whole is a complete and rigorous system. His view of translation was developed gradually, and in the process it was dominated by an increasingly firm recognition of the possibility of a successful solution to the task of translation, that is, of translatability. Belinsky believed that a translation must be discerning in its content and form in relation to the original. He has pointed out that "approaching the original is not the same as conveying the letters, but rather the spirit of the original." It is also suggested that the translator and the original author are two different kinds of people. But in order to convey the 'spirit' of the original in the translation, the translator's genius needs to reach a certain tacit understanding with this 'spirit'. He advocates the preservation of exoticism in translation, opposes naturalisation, the arbitrary distortion of the face of the original work, the overwhelming of the original author with the personality of the translator's style, the emphasis on both likeness and likeness, etc. However, while recognising the importance of reproducing the poetic form of the original work in translation, Belinsky also took into account the state of development of Russian literature in translation. This also led him to look favourably on translating good poetry in prose, seeing such translations as a form of transition for Russian readers to the treasures of world literature.<br />
<br />
Although Belinsky wrote little about literary translation, his theoretical views contain the kernel of the realist principles of translation proposed by contemporary Soviet literary translators. His ideas on translation had a very profound influence on the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Vissarion Grigorievich Belinsky (Виссарион Григорьевич Белинский, 1811-1848) was a famous literary critic of the nineteenth century and one of the most active in the world of translation among Russian literary activists of his time. Belinsky was fluent in French and when he was a young man he translated for two magazines, Miscellany and Telescope. Later, after a career in literary criticism, he published numerous articles on translation and criticism of translated works.<br />
<br />
Belinsky's and Pushkin's views on translation were very similar, both advocating that translations should not be word-for-word. Belinsky first introduced the term 'theory' of translation, and in his 1838 review of Polevoy's translation of Hamlet, he first proposed the need for a theory of translation. He considered the role of theory: "Any object that man perceives has a theory of its own, and a theory is the knowledge of the laws by which the object exists."<br />
<br />
Belinsky argues that in translation: "Closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original. Each language has its own distinctive expressions, characteristics and qualities; these are so distinctive that to correctly convey a certain image or sentence, it is sometimes necessary to change them completely in the translation. The corresponding image, like the corresponding sentence, does not necessarily lie in a superficial agreement of words: the inner life of the translation should be made to correspond to the inner life of the original". It can be seen that Belinsky, like Pushkin, was also opposed to word-for-word rigid translations, his view being that the task of translating a language lies in reproducing the spirit of the original. He believed that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of a translation, so the question of the interrelationship between national character and translatability has always troubled Belinsky. He pointed out that 'there is only one rule for translating a literary work - to convey the spirit of the work being translated, and this can only be done by translating it into Russian as the author himself would have written it in Russian, if he had been Russian' (The Complete Works of Belinsky Volume 2).<br />
<br />
Belinsky's career as a translator had a number of achievements, and his view of translation as a whole is a complete and rigorous system. His view of translation was developed gradually, and in this process it was dominated by an increasingly firm recognition of the possibility of a successful solution to the task of translation, that is, of translatability. Belinsky believed that a translation must be discerning in its content and form in relation to the original. He has pointed out that "approaching the original is not the same as conveying the letters, but rather the spirit of the original." It is also suggested that the translator and the original author are two different kinds of people. But in order to convey the 'spirit' of the original in the translation, the translator's genius needs to reach a certain tacit understanding with this 'spirit'. He advocates the preservation of exoticism in translation, opposes naturalisation, the arbitrary distortion of the face of the original work, the overwhelming of the original author with the personality of the translator's style, the emphasis on both likeness and likeness, etc. However, while recognising the importance of reproducing the poetic form of the original work in translation, Belinsky also took into account the state of development of Russian literature in translation. This also led him to look favourably on translating good poetry in prose, seeing such translations as a form of transition for Russian readers to the treasures of world literature.<br />
<br />
Although Belinsky wrote little about literary translation, his theoretical views contain the kernel of the realist principles of translation proposed by contemporary Soviet literary translators. His ideas on translation had a very profound influence on the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:56, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.Conclusion ===<br />
Translation has demonstrated its importance in social activity since antiquity, yet it was only in the twentieth century that it became a widely followed professional discipline. This article reviews Russian translation activity and translation thought in pre-Soviet Russia, exploring its development before the formation of a theoretical system. Throughout the history of translation, Russian scholars have contributed greatly to the development of translation literature in the world. Through combing through the history of Russian translation, we learn that the translation ideas of a number of outstanding writers, though not theoretical, have had an unmistakable impact on later generations. When discussing the translation ideas of 19th-century writers, we are inspired to insist on the principle that "closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original", emphasizing the ideological content and literary value of the translation, that the translation should serve the readers, and that the translation should be people-oriented. These ideas influenced, to a greater or lesser extent, the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, the study of the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia is not only conducive to sorting out Russian translation ideas Russian learners can better understand the characteristics of their translations when translating and improve the accuracy of their translations.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:44, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Translation has played its important role in the social activities since antiquity, yet it was until in the twentieth century that it became a widely followed professional discipline. This paper reviews Russian translators and translation thoughts in pre-Soviet Russia, exploring its development before the formation of a theoretical system. Throughout the history of translation, Russian scholars have contributed greatly to the development of translation literature in the world. By combing through the history of Russian translation, we learn that the translation ideas of a number of outstanding writers, though not very theoretical, have had an unmistakable impact on later generations. When discussing the translation ideas of 19th-century writers, we are inspired to insist on the principle that "closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original", emphasizing the ideological content and literary value of the translation that the translation should serve the readers, and that the translation should be people-oriented. These ideas influenced, to a greater or lesser extent, the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, the study of the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia not only is conducive to sorting out Russian translation ideas, but also make Russian learners better understand the characteristics of their translations when translating and improving the accuracy of their translations. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 14:02, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.References ===<br />
1.Wu, Keli 吴克礼（2006）.俄苏翻译理论流派综述 The Translation Methods and Studies in USSR. 上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
2.Guo Lin 郭琳（2006）.俄罗斯语言学派翻译理论若干问题研究[D] A Study of Some Problems of Translation Theory of the Russian School of Philology.首都师范大学 Capital Normal University.<br />
<br />
3.Feng Xin 冯欣（2009）. 俄罗斯翻译理论史及其影响研究[D] A study of the history of Russian translation theory and its influence.上海外国语大学 Shanghai International Studies University.<br />
<br />
4.Wang，Yulun；Jiang,Wanzhu 王育伦,姜万砫（1989).别林斯基论文学翻译[J] Belinsky on Literary Translation .中国翻译 Chinese translators Journal ,(03):53-55.<br />
<br />
5.Li Zheng, Fan Min 李铮,范敏（2010）. 普希金与翻译[J] Pushkin and Translation. 现代交际 Modern Intercourse Journal,(05):69.</div>Zhang Yiranhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_5&diff=132603Hist Trans Theo EN 52021-12-14T02:41:03Z<p>Zhang Yiran: /* 1.The history of Russian translation and the period of enlightenment of its translation theory. */</p>
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=Chapter 5 History of Translation Theories from Early Russia to the Soviet Union=<br />
<br />
'''从古罗斯到苏联前的翻译理论史'''<br />
<br />
张怡然 Zhang Yiran,Hunan Normal University,China<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation as a means of intercultural communication, each country has a distinctive translation ideology. This article focuses on the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia. Through analyzing the history of translation, can find that Russia has formed a literary tradition of translation studies in the late 18th century. In the 19th century, Pushkin, Lermontov, Turgenev and other outstanding poets and literary scholars were keen on translation, especially in the middle of the century when Belinsky and other famous literary critics published a series of comments on literary translation, which emphasized the literary tradition of Russian translation to an unparalleled extent, which is rare in the history of translation in the world. The general principles of Russian literary translation thought were also formed during this period: namely, to insist on commenting on the merits of a translation in terms of the overall effect of the work, to emphasize the ideological content and literary value of the translation, and that the translation should serve the reader and be people-oriented. The above ideas influenced the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, a study of the history of translation theory in pre-Soviet Russia will help learners of Russian to better understand the characteristics of their translations and to improve the accuracy and peopleliness of their translations.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 12:57, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation is a means of intercultural communication, and each country has its own distinctive translation theory system. This paper focuses on the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia. By analyzing the history of translation, it is obvious that a literary tradition of translation studies has been formed in Russia in the late 18th century. In the 19th century, Pushkin, Lermontov, Turgenev and other outstanding poets and literary scholars were keen on translation, especially in the middle of the century when Belinsky and other famous literary critics published a series of comments on literary translation, which emphasized the literary tradition of Russian translation to an unparalleled extent, which is rare in the history of translation in the world. The general principles of Russian literary translation thoughts were also formed during this period: namely, to insist on commenting on the merits and weakness of a translation in terms of the overall effect of the work, to emphasize the ideological content and literary value of the translation, and the translation should serve the reader and be people-oriented. The above ideas influenced the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, a study of the history of translation theory in pre-Soviet Russia will help learners of Russian to understand the characteristics of their translations profoundly and to improve the accuracy and fluency of their translations.Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:03, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation theories, Translation ideas，History of Translation<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译作为一种跨文化交际的手段，每个国家都有独具特色的翻译思想。本文主要探讨苏联前俄国的翻译历史。通过梳理其翻译史可发现，俄国于18世纪末期就已形成了翻译研究的文学传统。进入19世纪后, 普希金、莱蒙托夫、屠格涅夫等优秀诗人、文学家对翻译的热衷, 尤其是世纪中叶别林斯基等著名文学评论家发表一系列关于文学翻译的评论, 更是把俄国翻译的文学传统强调到无以复加的程度, 这在世界翻译史上都是罕见的。俄国文学翻译思想的总原则也在这一时期形成:即坚持从作品的整体效果上来评论译作优劣, 强调译作的思想内容和文学价值, 翻译应为读者服务, 译文应具有人民性。上述思想影响了苏联时期翻译理论的形成。因此，对苏联前俄国翻译理论史的研究有利于俄语学习者在翻译时更好的理解其翻译特点，提高翻译的准确性和人民性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译理论 翻译思想 翻译史 <br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
This essay provides a comprehensive and concise overview of the history of translation in Russia: Russian written translations began in the Kievan Rus' era, when religious subjects were the main focus of translations, especially the Bible, which was translated from Greek. Religious translations continued to flourish under the Moscow principality, represented by Maksim Gleick (МаксимГрек). At the same time, the national character of Russian translations began to emerge, and the languages of translation expanded from Greek to Latin, German and West Slavic, and the subjects covered included Western chivalric fiction, geographical literature, alchemy and medicine. In the eighteenth century, Peter the Great introduced a number of measures to focus on translation, making this period a turning point in the history of Russian translation. The proliferation of specialised translations (e.g. of legal texts) was the main feature of translation activity in the early eighteenth century. After this period Russian translators began to translate literary works.The main translators were Lomonosov (М.В. Ломоносов) and Tretyakovsky (V.K. Тредьяковский). In the second half of the eighteenth century, translation was given greater importance in Russia, and the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books was founded by Ekaterina II, in which a large number of outstanding translators emerged. The nineteenth century was a golden period in the history of Russian translation. Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин) and Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский) both produced many excellent translations. Pushkin (A.С.Пушкин) and Lermontov (M.Ю.Лермонтов) contributed greatly to the development of Russian literature in translation, while Fetter concentrated on love poetry. In the twentieth century, the Russian translation community made significant achievements in theoretical translation studies. In particular, the rapid development of the philological school and the debate between the literary and philological schools made Soviet translation theory one of the leading theories of translation in the world (Guo,2006:5).--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 12:57, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
This paper provides a comprehensive and concise overview of the history of translation in Russia: Russian written translations began in the Kievan Rus' era, when religious subjects were the main focus of translations, especially the Bible, translated from Greek. Religious translations continued to flourish under the Moscow principality, represented by Maksim Gleick (МаксимГрек). At the same time, the national character of Russian translations began to emerge, and the languages of translation expanded from Greek to Latin, German and West Slavic, and the subjects covered included Western chivalric fiction, geographical literature, alchemy and medicine. In the eighteenth century, Peter the Great introduced a number of measures to focus on translation, leading this period to a turning point in the history of Russian translation. The proliferation of specialised translations (e.g. of legal texts) was the main feature of translation activity in the early eighteenth century. After this period Russian translators began to translate literary works.The main translators were Lomonosov (М.В. Ломоносов) and Tretyakovsky (V.K. Тредьяковский). In the second half of the eighteenth century, translation was paid greater attention in Russia, and the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books was founded by Ekaterina II, in which a large number of outstanding translators emerged. The nineteenth century was a golden period in the history of Russian translation when Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин) and Rukovsky (В.А.Жуковский) both produced many excellent translations. Pushkin (A.С.Пушкин) and Lermontov (M.Ю.Лермонтов) contributed greatly to the development of Russian literature in translation, while Fetter concentrated on love poetry. In the twentieth century, the Russian translation community made significant achievements in theoretical translation studies. In particular, the rapid development of the philological school and the debate between the literary and philological schools made Soviet translation theory one of the leading theories of translation in the world. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:14, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===1.The history of Russian translation and the period of enlightenment of its translation theory. ===<br />
1. The emergence and development of literary translation.<br />
<br />
Translation activity has a long history in Russia, the beginnings of which can be traced back to the time of Kievan Rus'. A relatively sophisticated system of writing, literature and translation was already in place in ancient Russia in the ninth century AD. Frequent cultural and trade exchanges with Byzantine, German, French and Scandinavian countries contributed significantly to the development of translation in Russia at that time, as did contacts with Eastern countries. From Kievan Rus' onwards, Russian translation methods oscillated between two main tendencies, either to follow the original texts exactly, up to the point of translating them word for word, or to be arbitrary, even to the point of rewriting, adding or deleting at will. The first tendency is the main characteristic of translations of the Bible and other sacred books, while the second, though not absolute, can be said to characterize most secular works (Feng,2009:8)(Wu,2006:4)(Wu,2006:4).<br />
<br />
2.Initiation of translation activities-religious translation. <br />
<br />
In 864 AD, the Byzantine king sent two Greek priests, Kirill (Кирилл) and Mephodi (Мефодий), to spread Christianity among the Slavic people. At the beginning of their mission, they created a new alphabet (now known as the Kirill alphabet) and used this writing system to translate many religious texts from Greek into the ancient Church Slavonic. Among the results were the New Testament, hymnals and prayer books(Feng,2009:8). <br />
<br />
In 988 AD, Rus was baptised and Kievan Rus was converted to Christianity. A large number of translations appeared instantly to help Protestants become familiar with the new religious philosophy and ethical system and to understand the rituals and customs of the Church. These translations were in a variety of genres, including the Acts of the Saints, sermons, chronicles and so on. In addition, apocryphal books telling magical and fantastical stories were also popular, and some of them had similarities with the later 'fantasy novels'. Most of these translations were done in Bulgaria and were popularised in Rus. At that time, translations of religious texts were mostly word-for-word. There were also a small number of works that, unlike the 'elaborate copies of the original', had a separate literary value. In one case, a large number of details of Russian life were added to the storyline of a sermon (e.g. The Tales of Achild the Wise). In another case, military historical narratives are interspersed with the terminology of the ancient Russian feudal system and certain literary images from the stories of ancient Russian warriors (e.g. Joseph Flav's History of the Jewish War). This translation can be considered one of the most successful of the period. In the translation, the translator succeeded in avoiding many word-for-word translations). In a third case, the manuscripts copied by Ancient Rus, although based on Greek epic poetry (e.g. The Great Work of Digenes Akritas), often borrowed from Russian folk poetry, so that a large number of folk compositions appeared. As a result of this literary process, the translated literature was smoothly enriched by Russian manuscripts, which contributed to the development of original Russian literature and consolidated its links with the medieval literary process. Unfortunately, at that early stage in the development of translation, the translators were not signed, so it is impossible to verify whether the works were translated at home or abroad(Feng,2009:9). <br />
<br />
During the difficult period of 'Mongol rule' (1228-1480), translations continued to play an important role in the cultural life of the country. The remaining chapters of the Bible were translated one after another, and previous translations were again proofread and revised. In addition to religious translations, more translations of non-religious subjects emerge, such as The Kingdom of India and The Trojan War. Most of the works were still translated from Greek, while works probably translated from Latin and ancient Hebrew also appeared. During this period, Russian began to take shape through the interaction of Old Slavonic (Church Slavonic) and local national languages. However, religious texts were still only translated into Church Slavonic, and the use of this language was by then restricted to ecclesiastical matters. At the same time, political and commercial exchanges with other countries were more likely to be in Russian, which was becoming increasingly sophisticated: elements of the combination of Old Slavonic and Russian can also be found in original works（Wu,2006:6). <br />
<br />
14-15th century literature in translation by Rus was characterised by an obsession with new themes. These were mainly new works of tranquillity-abstinence literature, or works recommended by and familiar to the tranquillists. This mystical genre was introduced to Rus after it had swept through the Byzantine and Yugoslav peoples. It was reflected in the semi-secular translations popular at the time (for example, The Trojan War). <br />
<br />
In the 16th century AD, Moscow eventually became the political centre of Russia, as well as the translation centre of the country. In 1515, the Grand Duke of Moscow, Vassily III (Василий Ⅲ), asked a Greek monastery to send a learned translator to Moscow. This man, who accompanied the Greek mission to Moscow in 1516, was the historically famous Maksim Gleick (Максим Грек). Maksim Gleick worked as a translator throughout his life, studying most of the religious texts and some of the non-religious works during this period. In addition, he also proofread and annotated previously existing translations(Wu,2006:7). <br />
<br />
At the beginning, Maksim knew neither Russian nor Old Slavonic, so he divided the translation into two steps: first, he translated from Greek to Latin, and then his assistant translated from Latin to Old Slavonic. In the process of revising existing translations, he often broke with established tradition and was therefore denounced as blasphemous. Maksim was also a prolific writer, educator and philosopher. His writings contain many insights into the art of translation - the earliest recorded treatise on translation in Russia. Maksim insisted that the original text must be carefully analysed in order to grasp its full subtleties and implications. Therefore, the translator must not only master the language of the original, but also have a broad knowledge of the language and prepare for the translation. To support his argument, Maksim used Greek lexicography, phonetic organisation and phonetics involved in translation. His other major contribution was the compilation of a dictionary containing Greek, Latin and Hebrew nouns, which was also the first of its kind in Russian history. Although it was recognised at the time that translators should have a command of both languages as well as a profound background knowledge, the practitioners of translation at the time lacked the necessary qualities and their translations were not as good as they could have been(Wu,2006:7).--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 13:39, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
1. The emergence and development of literary translation. <br />
<br />
Translation activity has a long history in Russia, the beginnings of which can be traced back to the Time of Kievan Rus'. A relatively sophisticated system of writing, literature and translation was already in ancient Russia in the ninth century AD. Frequent cultural and trade exchanges with Byzantine, German, French and Scandinavian countries contributed significantly to the development of translation in Russia at that time, as did contacts with Eastern countries. From Kievan Rus' onwards, Russian translation methods oscillated between two main tendencies, either to follow the original texts exactly, up to the point of translating them word by word, or to be arbitrary, even to the point of rewriting, adding words or deleting at will. The first tendency is the main characteristic of translations of the Bible and other sacred books, while the second, though not absolutely, can be said to characterize most secular works.<br />
<br />
2.Initiation of translation activities-religious translation. <br />
<br />
In 864 AD, the Byzantine king sent two Greek priests, Kirill (Кирилл) and Mephodi (Мефодий), to spread Christianity among the Slavic people. At the beginning of their mission, they created a new alphabet (now known as the Kirill alphabet) and used this writing system to translate many religious texts from Greek into the ancient Church Slavonic. Among the results were the New Testament, hymnals and prayer books. In 988 AD, Rus was baptised and Kievan Rus was converted to Christianity. A large number of translations appeared instantly to help Protestants become familiar with the new religious philosophy and ethical system and to understand the rituals and customs of the Church. These translations were in a variety of genres, including the Acts of the Saints, sermons, chronicles and so on. In addition, apocryphal books telling magical and fantastical stories were also popular, and some of them had similarities with the later 'fantasy novels'. Most of these translations were done in Bulgaria and were popularised in Rus. At that time, translations of religious texts were mostly word-for-word. There were also a small number of works that, unlike the 'elaborate copies of the original', had a separate literary values. In one case, a large number of details of Russian life were added to the storyline of a sermon (e.g. The Tales of Achild the Wise). In another case, military historical narratives are interspersed with the terminology of the ancient Russian feudal system and certain literary images from the stories of ancient Russian warriors (e.g. Joseph Flav's History of the Jewish War). This translation can be considered one of the most successful of the period. In the translation, the translator succeeded in avoiding many word-for-word translations). Thirdly, the manuscripts copied by Ancient Rus, although based on Greek epic poetry (e.g. The Great Work of Digenes Akritas), often borrowed from Russian folk poetry, so that a large number of folk compositions appeared. As a result of this literary process, the translated literature was smoothly enriched by Russian manuscripts, which contributed to the development of original Russian literature and consolidated its links with the medieval literary process. Unfortunately, at that early stage in the development of translation, the translators were not signed, so it is impossible to verify whether the works were translated at home or abroad. During the difficult period of 'Mongol rule' (1228-1480), translations continued to play an important role in the cultural life of the country. The remaining chapters of the Bible were translated one after another, and previous translations were again proofread and revised. In addition to religious translations, more translations of non-religious subjects emerge, such as The Kingdom of India and The Trojan War. Most of the works were still translated from Greek, while works probably translated from Latin and ancient Hebrew also appeared. During this period, Russian began to take shape through the interaction of Old Slavonic (Church Slavonic) and local national languages. However, religious texts were still only translated into Church Slavonic, and the use of this language was by then restricted to ecclesiastical matters. At the same time, political and commercial exchanges with other countries were more likely to be in Russian, which was becoming increasingly sophisticated: elements of the combination of Old Slavonic and Russian can also be found in original works. 14-15th century literature in translation by Rus was characterised by an obsession with new themes. These were mainly new works of tranquillity-abstinence literature, or works recommended by and familiar to the tranquillists. This mystical genre was introduced to Rus after it had swept through the Byzantine and Yugoslav peoples. It was reflected in the semi-secular translations popular at the time (for example, The Trojan War). In the 16th century AD, Moscow eventually became the political center of Russia, as well as the translation center of the country. In 1515, the Grand Duke of Moscow, Vassily III (Василий Ⅲ), asked a Greek monastery to send a learned translator to Moscow. This man, who accompanied the Greek mission to Moscow in 1516, was the historically famous Maksim Grek (Максим Грек). Maxim Greek worked as a translator throughout his life, studying most of the religious texts and some of the non-religious works during this period. In addition, he also proofread and annotated previously existing translations. At the beginning, Maxim knew neither Russian nor Old Slavonic, so he divided the translation into two steps: first, he translated from Greek to Latin, and then his assistant translated from Latin to Old Slavonic. In the process of revising existing translations, he often broke with established tradition and was therefore denounced as blasphemous. Maxim was also a prolific writer, educator and philosopher. His writings contain many insights into the art of translation - the earliest recorded treatise on translation in Russia. Maxim insisted that the original text must be carefully analysed in order to grasp its full subtleties and implications. Therefore, the translator must not only master the language of the original, but also have a broad knowledge of the language and prepare for the translation. To support his argument, Maxim used Greek lexicography, phonetic organisation and phonetics involved in translation. His other major contribution was the compilation of a dictionary containing Greek, Latin and Hebrew nouns, which was also the first of its kind in Russian history. Although it was recognized at the time that translators should have a command of both languages and profound background knowledge, the practitioners of translation at the time lacked the necessary qualities and their translations were not as good as they should have been. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. Overview of the Russian school of Translation. ===<br />
===2.1 18th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The eighteenth century is an important period in the history of Russian translation. The status of translation in social culture has undergone a qualitative change, and this is due to Peter the Great's reform. At the beginning of the century, translation was still mostly related to professional documents such as laws and contracts. Later, the translator's tentacles gradually expanded to literary translation, for example, French poetry translation. The famous translators of this period are Sumarokov(А.П.Сумароков), Lomonosov(М.В.Ломоносов), Tretyakovsky (В.К.Тредьяковский) and so on. In the second half of the 18th century, the Association for the Translation of Foreign Books officially put forward the importance of translation. The organization has been active for 15 years with over 100 members.<br />
<br />
1.Imperial support for translation. The political reforms introduced by Peter the Great also led to intensive economic and cultural exchanges between Russia and European countries. This created a huge demand for translations of scientific and technical literature and literary works. Translators were required to produce works of a high standard.<br />
<br />
Peter the Great issued a special decree on translation, requiring "faithful" communication of the original text. In a directive issued to his subordinates in 1709, he explicitly stated that when translating foreign books, word-for-word translations were to be avoided and that the content of the original text should be clearly expressed in one's own language, based on an understanding of its content. On the other hand, Peter the Great's subversion of the written language initially caused confusion in Russian translation circles. A large number of foreign languages entered the Russian language, and the piles of foreign syntactic structures distracted attention. In any case, Peter the Great's reforms did set a new norm and a new direction for translation. <br />
<br />
In terms of content, Peter the Great's reforms were, from the very beginning, inextricably linked to the translation of scientific and technical texts, such as the many books on military defence engineering that he ordered to be translated and used to strengthen Russia's military forces. Peter the Great also placed great importance on the translation of prose, poetry and other literary works. During this period, the Russian language began to develop its own literary model, and many educated Russians saw translation as a way of enriching the language and enhancing its uniqueness and expressiveness. <br />
<br />
From around the 1830s, the importance of translating Western European scientific and technical texts gradually gave way to literary works such as prose and poetry. Writers who were also translators turned their attention to the work of new Western European writers, mainly poets, especially French poets. At the same time, the legacy of the Greco-Roman period also entered their minds. They began to translate the works of philosophers and historians, which - on the one hand - gave rise to difficulties in literary rhetoric and scientific terminology and, on the other, played an important role in the formation of a standard Russian language. <br />
<br />
From that time onwards, translation also became an organised activity, with the emergence of specific bodies responsible for the organisation and management of translation work. 1735 saw the establishment of the first specialised translation organisation, the Russian Society, at the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences. The Society had a professional group of translators and some of the academy's scholars, such as Lomonosov and Tretyakovsky, were among its members. The Association was responsible for selecting works, defining the rules or principles of translation, commenting on translations, and training translators. It is worth mentioning that the Academy of Sciences also set up a school of foreign languages to train official translators. In 1748, the Academy implemented Queen Elizabeth's decree to increase the number of translations of non-religious books and publicly appealed to "the nobility and other classes of intellectuals" to take an active part in the translation process. <br />
<br />
In the second half of the 18th century, Ekaterina II's efforts to create a 'civilised state' not only led to the development of literature, but also gave preferential treatment to writers. For example, in order to select the best original texts, she ordered the establishment of the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books (1768 - 1783). The Society was dedicated to providing excellent conditions for translation work throughout Russia. The purchase of manuscripts was financed out of Ekaterina's own funds. Later, the Society also discussed a proposal to establish a translation bureau under the Academy of Sciences (1790). The 114 members of the Society included such notable figures as Tretyakovsky, Sumarokov and Radishev. For 14 years the Association was active, producing numerous literary translations and likewise contributing to the discussion of theoretical issues in translation.<br />
<br />
2.The emergence of poetry translation. Translation of poetry also developed in Russia in the 18th century, and later became one of the jewels of the country's literature. The great Russian scholar and poet Lomonosov was a major contributor to this process. A great deal of the work created by Lomonosov and his contemporaries Sumarokov and Tretyakovsky was poetry in translation. They often translated while exploring theoretical issues in translation: they would explain in their works why they translated this way and not that way; they stressed the importance of translation work and the creative value it contained. Among the most prestigious writers and translators in Russian literature at the time, there were several interesting competitions in which two or three poets translated the same work at the same time, and their translations were published in journals. It was often the case that different translations of the same work were published at the same time, without the translator's name, for the judgement of "literary lovers and peers". This phenomenon also supports the idea that the 18th century was a period of 'experimentation' in the history of Russian translation. <br />
<br />
Lomonosov's translations from Latin, German, French and Greek are numerous and varied, showing his talent for both rhyming and free verse. He was keen to reproduce the rhythmic structure of the original texts, using a variety of iambic and iambic meter to convey the Alexandrian style of French epic and the hexameter style of Greek tragedy. Russian poetry was not very developed at the time and was still based on syllables. <br />
Lomonosov's innovations enriched Russian poetry and established new forms and traditions of Russian poetic style and rhyme. <br />
<br />
In contrast, Kantymir (Д.М.Кантемира) and Tretyakovsky's greatest quest was to insist on a faithful translation of the original. In the process, the translators had to contend with the problems of reams of vocabulary and rhetorical rules. Tretyakovsky became famous for his successful use of Russian rhyme to translate many verses of the original in his translation of Paul Thielmann's A Journey to Love Island. In the introduction to the novel, the translator states his approach to translation: "The translator is only one person away from the author. I would add that if the author is original, the translator should be even more original (I am not referring to myself, but to a good translator)". He believes that "prose to prose" and "poetry to poetry" can be as good as the original, and that a good translation is one that "describes the full meaning of each verse". Kantymir 's translation of Horace's Letters and other poetic works in Latin and French, although less well-known than the former, is equally valuable.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:40, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The eighteenth century is an important period in the history of Russian translation. The status of translation in social culture has undergone a qualitative change, and this is due to Peter the Great's reform. At the beginning of the century, translation was still mostly related to professional documents such as laws and contracts. Later, the translator's tentacles gradually expanded to literary translation, for example, French poetry translation. The famous translators of this period are Sumarokov(А.П.Сумароков), Lomonosov(М.В.Ломоносов), Tretyakovsky (В.К.Тредьяковский) and so on. In the second half of the 18th century, the Association for the Translation of Foreign Books officially put forward the importance of translation. The organization has been active for 15 years with over 100 members. The following points reflected the reasons why translation was paid more attention in the eighteenth century.<br />
<br />
1.Imperial support for translation. <br />
<br />
The political reforms introduced by Peter the Great also led to intensive economic and cultural exchanges between Russia and European countries. This created a huge demand for translations of scientific and technical literature and literary works. Translators were required to produce works of a high standard.Peter the Great issued a special decree on translation, requiring "faithful" communication of the original text. In a directive issued to his subordinates in 1709, he explicitly stated that when translating foreign books, word-for-word translations were to be avoided and that the content of the original text should be clearly expressed in one's own language, based on an understanding of its content. On the other hand, Peter the Great's subversion of the written language initially caused confusion in Russian translation circles. A large number of foreign languages entered the Russian language, and the piles of foreign syntactic structures distracted attention. In any case, Peter the Great's reforms did set a new norm and a new direction for translation. In terms of content, Peter the Great's reforms were, from the very beginning, inextricably linked to the translation of scientific and technical texts, such as the many books on military defence engineering that he ordered to be translated and used to strengthen Russia's military forces. Peter the Great also placed great importance on the translation of prose, poetry and other literary works. During this period, the Russian language began to develop its own literary model, and many educated Russians saw translation as a way of enriching the language and enhancing its uniqueness and expressiveness. <br />
<br />
From around the 1830s, the importance of translating Western European scientific and technical texts gradually gave way to literary works such as prose and poetry. Writers who were also translators turned their attention to the work of new Western European writers, mainly poets, especially French poets. At the same time, the legacy of the Greco-Roman period also entered their minds. They began to translate the works of philosophers and historians, which - on the one hand - gave rise to difficulties in literary rhetoric and scientific terminology and, on the other, played an important role in the formation of a standard Russian language. <br />
<br />
From that time onwards, translation also became an organised activity, with the emergence of specific bodies responsible for the organisation and management of translation work. 1735 saw the establishment of the first specialised translation organisation, the Russian Society, at the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences. The Society had a professional group of translators and some of the academy's scholars, such as Lomonosov and Tretyakovsky, were among its members. The Association was responsible for selecting works, defining the rules or principles of translation, commenting on translations, and training translators. It is worth mentioning that the Academy of Sciences also set up a school of foreign languages to train official translators. In 1748, the Academy implemented Queen Elizabeth's decree to increase the number of translations of non-religious books and publicly appealed to "the nobility and other classes of intellectuals" to take an active part in the translation process. <br />
<br />
In the second half of the 18th century, Ekaterina II's efforts to create a 'civilised state' not only led to the development of literature, but also gave preferential treatment to writers. For example, in order to select the best original texts, she ordered the establishment of the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books (1768-1783). The Society was dedicated to providing excellent conditions for translation work throughout Russia. The purchase of manuscripts was financed out of Ekaterina's own funds. Later, the Society also discussed a proposal to establish a translation bureau under the Academy of Sciences (1790). The 114 members of the Society included such notable figures as Tretyakovsky, Sumarokov and Radishev. For 14 years the Association was active, producing numerous literary translations and likewise contributing to the discussion of theoretical issues in translation.<br />
<br />
2.The emergence of poetry translation.<br />
<br />
Translation of poetry also developed in Russia in the 18th century, and later became one of the jewels of the country's literature. The great Russian scholar and poet Lomonosov was a major contributor to this process. A great deal of the work created by Lomonosov and his contemporaries Sumarokov and Tretyakovsky was poetry in translation. They often translated while exploring theoretical issues in translation: they would explain in their works why they translated this way and not that way; they stressed the importance of translation work and the creative value it contained. Among the most prestigious writers and translators in Russian literature at the time, there were several interesting competitions in which two or three poets translated the same work at the same time, and their translations were published in journals. It was often the case that different translations of the same work were published at the same time, without the translator's name, for the judgement of "literary lovers and peers". This phenomenon also supports the idea that the 18th century was a period of 'experimentation' in the history of Russian translation. <br />
<br />
Lomonosov's translations works in Latin, German, French and Greek are numerous and varied, showing his talent for both rhyming and free verse. He was keen to reproduce the rhythmic structure of the original texts, using a variety of iambic and iambic meter to convey the Alexandrian style of French epic and the hexameter style of Greek tragedy. Russian poetry was not very developed at the time and was still based on syllables. <br />
Lomonosov's innovations enriched Russian poetry and established new forms and traditions of Russian poetic style and rhyme. <br />
<br />
In contrast, Kantymir (Д.М.Кантемира) and Tretyakovsky's greatest quest was to insist on a faithful translation of the original. In the process, the translators had to contend with the problems of reams of vocabulary and rhetorical rules. Tretyakovsky became famous for his successful use of Russian rhyme to translate many verses of the original in his translation of Paul Thielmann's A Journey to Love Island. In the introduction to the novel, the translator states his approach to translation: "The translator is only one person away from the author. I would add that if the author is original, the translator should be even more original (I am not referring to myself, but to a good translator)". He believes that "prose to prose" and "poetry to poetry" can be as good as the original, and that a good translation is one that "describes the full meaning of each verse". Kantymir 's translation of Horace's Letters and other poetic works in Latin and French, although less well-known than the former, is equally valuable. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 12:39, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.2 First half of the19th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The nineteenth century was a golden age in the history of Russian translation. If translation had established itself as a profession in the first hundred years, it was elevated to the level of art in this century. The nineteenth century produced a number of masters of translation, including Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин), Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский), Pushkin (А.С.Пушкин), Lermontov (М.Ю.Лермонтов) and Fetter (А.Фет). <br />
<br />
The new Russian school of translation owes its formation to the historian Nikolai Karamzin and the poet Zhukovsky. Karamzin published a number of translations in several magazines between the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century. He saw translations as a good help in perfecting a writer's style: a source of information that would satisfy human curiosity, inform historical facts, entertain women and provide material for new magazines. As a young man, Karamzin was strongly opposed to the alteration of and disloyalty to the original texts, but later became a champion of free translation, famously saying: "Whoever follows the author of the original text step by step is no different from a servant who serves his lord". Karamzin's translations cover an admirable range of genres and languages: he translated works by both classical and contemporaneous authors, in Greek, French, Latin, German, English, Italian and some Oriental languages. <br />
<br />
Pushkin called Zhukovsky "a genius of translation". After graduating from the Moscow Noble Boarding University in 1802, Zhukovsky devoted himself to translation. It was thanks to his efforts that Russian readers were able to access the works of world literary giants such as Schiller, Goethe, Byron and Walters Scott. Zhukovsky's creative translation activities also ranged from Charles Bello to Grimm's Fairy Tales. From Charles Bellow to Grimm's fairy tales, from Homer's epic Odyssey to the poetic history of ancient Rus' Igor's Expedition, all became his original texts. There is no denying that Zhukovsky is a master in the history of Russian translation. Like Karamzin, Zhukovsky was a fan of free translation, sometimes rewriting the original or even creating a new story from its subject: sometimes transferring the setting of events to Russia and giving Russian names to the characters. For example, in his 1808 translation of the German Romantic poet Bilge's narrative poem Lenore, he changed the heroine's name from Lenore to Lyudmila and moved the story to the time of the Livonian War in 16th-century Russia. Zhukovsky believed that the "unsavoury character" of the work should be weakened while retaining the original author's ideas. His talent enabled him to reproduce the style, rhythm and tone of the original poems, while some of his best works were also faithful to the original. In later years, however, his view of translation changed in response to the tendency to stay close to the original, and he retranslated several of his previous translations to make them more faithful to the original, including Lenore. The Russian school of translation owes much to the tradition of translation created by Zhukovsky.<br />
<br />
Pushkin and Lermontov are also two poets who set the stage for an epoch in the history of Russian translation. Although only a small proportion of their poetry was translated, they made a significant contribution to the improvement of the art of translation in Russia. In their rewriting and imitation of poetry, they were able to reproduce the most important features of foreign poetry, the key point being that their creative translations were no less valuable in their own right than the originals. Their free translation became a model for other translators, and in addition they established the important principle that a good artistic translation must also be a good work in the national literature of the translated language. Pushkin played an indelibly important role in the development of the Russian school of translation. He was always interested in the question of translation, and his critical views on translation were objective and profound. Before translation he stressed the importance of the choice of the original work, and in translation he demanded that the translator should be faithful to the original, while at the same time displaying his deep creative skills and his own literary style. In one of his unfinished posthumous works, 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', Pushkin wrote: 'Chateaubriand's translation (verbatim) compensates to some extent for the faults of the young French writers (free translation), for they have insulted the great man very cruelly, though in a perfectly innocent manner. There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own rhetorical conventions, its own way of expressing itself, and it is impossible to translate into another language with the corresponding vocabulary". These insights had a positive impact on the best Russian translators of the 19th and 20th centuries. In addition, Pushkin's discussion of translation coincided with a turning point in the history of Russian literature, when the Romantic era was being replaced by a new era with a predominantly realist orientation, and a process of 'separation' between translated and national literature was under way. Pushkin's discussion of the work of the translator as distinct from that of the writer contributed to the independence of literature in translation from indigenous literature. <br />
<br />
During this period, while most people advocated free translation, there were a few translators who insisted on maximum fidelity to the original and advocated the word-for-word method, even at the expense of the work's willingness to be translated. Among these were such well-known writers as P.A. Vyazemsky (П.А.Вяземский) and N.I. Gnedzic (Н.И.Гнедич). In fact, they did not always live up to their principles, and sometimes their talent and artistic intuition ended up breaking the bonds of verbatim translation. Vyazemsky's translations of Benjamin Constant and Adam Mickiewicz were not without literary and artistic merit, and his translation of Homer's epic Iliad in particular was highly praised by Pushkin. It was Fetter who was the most insistent on the idea of a verbatim translation. Fetter translated many famous works, and his philosophy throughout was one of sentence-for-sentence, word-for-word translation, retaining all the words of the original. Fetter's extreme word-for-word approach had a negative impact on most of his translations, although he was sometimes able to come up with some effective methods of translation. <br />
<br />
Free translations were also sometimes used to promote democratic ideas in the original that could not pass official scrutiny. A number of translators, such as V. Kurochkin (В.Курочкин), D. M. Minayev (Д.Минаев) and M. M. Mikhalov (М.Михайлов), achieved this by selecting appropriate original works or by using texts in their translations that were superficially imperceptible in their allusion to the conditions in Russia at the time. It was from that time onwards that the use of translation as a weapon to express dissent became part of the Russian tradition.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:41, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The nineteenth century was the golden age in the history of Russian translation. If translation had established its status in the first hundred years, it was elevated to the level of art in this century. The nineteenth century produced a number of masters of translation, including Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин), Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский), Pushkin (А.С.Пушкин), Lermontov (М.Ю.Лермонтов) and Fetter (А.Фет). <br />
<br />
The new Russian school of translation owes its formation to the publishment of a number of translations of historian Nikolai Karamzin and the poet Zhukovsky. Karamzin in several magazines between the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century. He regarded translation as a good help in perfecting a writer's style: a source of information that satisfies human curiosity, informs historical facts, entertains women and provides materials for new magazines. As a young man, Karamzin was strongly opposed to the disloyalty to the original texts, but later became a champion of free translation. His famous saying was: "Whoever follows the author of the original text step by step is no different from a servant who serves his lord". Karamzin's translations cover an admirable range of genres and languages: he translated works by both classical and contemporaneous authors, in Greek, French, Latin, German, English, Italian and some Oriental languages. <br />
<br />
Pushkin called Zhukovsky "a genius of translation". After graduating from the Moscow Noble Boarding University in 1802, Zhukovsky devoted himself to translation. It was thanks to his efforts that Russian readers were able to access the works of world literary giants such as Schiller, Goethe, Byron and Walters Scott. Zhukovsky's creative translation activities also ranged from Charles Bello to Grimm's Fairy Tales. From Charles Bellow to Grimm's fairy tales, from Homer's epic Odyssey to the poetic history of ancient Rus' Igor's Expedition, all became his original texts. There is no denying that Zhukovsky is a master in the history of Russian translation. Like Karamzin, Zhukovsky was a fan of free translation, who sometimes rewrites the original or even creates a new story from its subject, transfers the setting of events to Russia and gives Russian names to the characters. For example, in his 1808 translation of the German Romantic poet Bilge's narrative poem Lenore, he changed the heroine's name from Lenore to Lyudmila and moved the story to the time of the Livonian War in 16th-century Russia. Zhukovsky believed that the "unsavoury character" of the work should be weakened while retaining the original author's ideas. His talent enabled him to reproduce the style, rhythm and tone of the original poems, while some of his best works were also faithful to the original. In later years, however, his view of translation changed in response to the tendency to stay close to the original, and he retranslated several of his previous translations to make them more faithful to the original, including Lenore. The Russian school of translation owes much to the tradition of translation created by Zhukovsky.<br />
<br />
Pushkin and Lermontov are also two poets who gave perfect preparations for an epoch in the history of Russian translation. Although only a small proportion of their poetry was translated, they made a significant contribution to the improvement of the art of translation in Russia. In their rewriting and imitation of poetry, they were able to reproduce the most important features of foreign poetry, the key point being that their creative translations were no less valuable in their own right than the originals. Their free translation became a model for other translators, and in addition they established the important principle that a good artistic translation must also be a good work in the national literature of the translated language. Pushkin played an indelibly important role in the development of the Russian school of translation. He was always interested in the question of translation, and his critical views on translation were objective and profound. Before translation he stressed the importance of the choice of the original work, and in translation he demanded that the translator should be faithful to the original, while at the same time displaying his deep creative skills and his own literary style. In one of his unfinished posthumous works, 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', Pushkin wrote: 'Chateaubriand's translation (verbatim) compensates to some extent for the faults of the young French writers (free translation), for they have insulted the great man very cruelly, though in a perfectly innocent manner. There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own rhetorical conventions, its own way of expressing itself, and it is impossible to translate into another language with the corresponding vocabulary". These insights had a positive impact on the best Russian translators of the 19th and 20th centuries. In addition, Pushkin's discussion of translation coincided with a turning point in the history of Russian literature, when the Romantic era was being replaced by a new era with a predominantly realist orientation, and a process of 'separation' between translated and national literature was under way. Pushkin's discussion of the work of the translator as distinct from that of the writer contributed to the independence of literature in translation from indigenous literature. <br />
<br />
During this period, while most people advocated free translation, there were a few translators who insisted on maximum fidelity to the original and advocated the word-for-word method, even at the expense of the work's willingness to be translated. Among these were such well-known writers as P.A. Vyazemsky (П.А.Вяземский) and N.I. Gnedzic (Н.И.Гнедич). In fact, they did not always live up to their principles, and sometimes their talent and artistic intuition ended up breaking the bonds of verbatim translation. Vyazemsky's translations of Benjamin Constant and Adam Mickiewicz were not without literary and artistic merit, and his translation of Homer's epic Iliad in particular was highly praised by Pushkin. It was Fetter who was the most insistent on the idea of a verbatim translation. Fetter translated many famous works, and his philosophy throughout was one of sentence-for-sentence, word-for-word translation, retaining all the words of the original. Fetter's extreme word-for-word approach had a negative impact on most of his translations, although he was sometimes able to come up with some effective methods of translation. <br />
<br />
Free translations were also used to promote democratic ideas in original that could not pass official scrutiny. A number of translators, such as V. Kurochkin (В.Курочкин), D. M. Minayev (Д.Минаев) and M. M. Mikhalov (М.Михайлов), achieved this by selecting appropriate original works or by using texts in their translations that were superficially imperceptible in their allusion to the conditions in Russia at the time. It was since then that the use of translation was used as a weapon to express dissent became part of the Russian tradition. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:05, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.3 Second half of the19th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The mid-nineteenth century was a period of increasingly intense political and ideological struggle in Russian literature, and a great debate raged in the Russian literary world over the question of 'art for the people' or 'art for art's sake'. The debate was mainly about the choice of material for translation and the method of translation. As far as the choice of material was concerned, the democratic and revolutionary writers who supported 'art for the people' chose to translate works with progressive ideological content and a democratic orientation, such as Heine. The aristocratic and liberal intellectual writers, on the other hand, opted for philosophical poetry with a chanting and individualistic feel. Of course, this is not absolute: "Mikhailov and Dobrolyubov of the democratic revolutionary school also translated Heine's moody love poems The Songbook, while Tolstoy of the aristocratic and liberal school translated some of Goethe's more progressive poems, such as The Fiancée of Corinth and The Whore of God. In terms of their approach to translation, the Democratic-Revolutionary translators, based on the reproduction of the original as a whole, approached their translations very liberally, even adding in many elements typical of Russian culture. The latter, on the other hand, usually adopted a direct translation, focusing on conveying the formal details of the original work. This divergence was mainly due to the different starting points of the two groups of translators, with the democratic revolutionaries seeking to convey advanced ideas to the Russian general public and the aristocratic intellectuals believing that works of art were irrelevant to the people and that artistic creations should not be exposed to "vulgar" reality.<br />
<br />
There were a large number of outstanding literary writers and literary critics who made brilliant statements about literary translation in that era, none more so than Belinsky (В.Г.Белинский), Chernyshevsky (Н.Г.Черныщевский) and Dubrolyovsky (Н.Г.Добролюбов). Belinsky was one of the greatest Russian literary critics of the 19th century. He believed that translations should not be word-for-word, but should reproduce the spirit of the original, in much the same way as Pushkin's view of translation theory. On the other hand, he also opposed arbitrary 'paraphrasing': the ideal translation should not add or delete arbitrarily to the original text, but should enable the reader to understand the foreign work truly and accurately through the translation. Such a viewpoint seems to us to be quite convincing even now. Belinsky played a decisive role in completely burying the 'rewriting' and 'adapting it to Russian custom' arguments. This issue dominates his writings. He argues that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of the translation, and this is one of the criteria by which he judges its merits. He points out, for example, that the greatest strength of Gnedzic's translation of the Iliad is that it "exudes the atmosphere of ancient life" and "the spirit of the ancient Greeks". However, the contradiction between national identity and translatability was once a problem for Belinsky. Initially believing that it was impossible to translate works with a strong national character into other languages, he was only convinced by the success of Turgenev's collaboration with Louis Viardot in translating Gogol's novels into French in 1846, and then became increasingly determined to recognise translatability in translation. Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a series of revisions that led to a complete and rigorous system of translation theory, the first of its kind in the history of Russian translation theory.<br />
<br />
Translation in Russia developed in the second half of the 19th century. From the 1960s onwards, the Russian readership of non-language speakers began to expand, and these readers were keen to see the translation 'replace' the original. This demand led to an unprecedented expansion in the choice of subjects and translations of Russian literature. Interest in foreign theatrical works was particularly high at this stage, and a strong interest in European classical literature also developed. Dickens, Saclay, Victor Hugo, Dumas, Balzac, Flaubert, Tudor, Maupassant and Zola, as well as lesser-known writers of today, were successively brought to the attention of a wide range of Russian readers in the form of translations. At that time, European theatre classics like Shakespeare's plays were translated into Russia in large numbers. Many professional translators were involved, the most successful being the translator P.N.V. Weinberg. He translated foreign literature from the standpoint of progressive Russian literature of the time. His translation of Othello, for example, is notable for its vividness in the Russian language, and has always been recognised as the best translation in terms of conveying the totality of scenes, plots and long dialogues, even though the translation is wordy compared to the original.<br />
<br />
Although there has been a quantitative surge in translations of Russian literature during this period, the quality has generally been poor, manifesting itself in word-for-word translations, redundant sentences and poor vocabulary, not to mention inventiveness. In addition, the language of the characters in the translation is heavily Russified, with Russian proverbs, sayings and idioms that the foreign characters could never have known, and the introduction of Russian-specific life circumstances that cause contradictions with the plot and details of the original work. For example, В Тулу со своим самоваром ехать (Bring your own samovar to Tula - it's superfluous). The reason for this is that the literary world did not attach much importance to the translation of fiction and prose, and there were no specialists working on this task. Another point is that at this stage there was little progress in the study of Russian translation theory, and no valuable theoretical insights emerged. The linguist A.A. Потебня (1835-1891) expressed his views on translation from a psychological standpoint in his essay "Language and Peopleliness ". In his view, it was impossible to express in another language what was originally intended to be expressed in a certain language. He, like many other literary scholars, denied the translatability of language.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:41, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The mid-nineteenth century was a period of increasingly intensively political and ideological struggle in Russian literature, and a great debate raged in the Russian literary world over the question of 'art for the people' or 'art for art's sake'. The debate was mainly about the choice of materials for translation and the methods of translation. As far as the choice of material was concerned, the democratic and revolutionary writers who supported 'art for the people' chose to translate works with progressive ideological content and a democratic orientation, such as Heine. The aristocratic and liberal intellectual writers, on the other hand, opted for philosophical poetry with a chanting and individualistic feel. It's undoubtful that this is not absolute: "Mikhailov and Dobrolyubov of the democratic revolutionary school also translated Heine's moody love poems The Songbook, while Tolstoy of the aristocratic and liberal school translated some of Goethe's more progressive poems, such as The Fiancée of Corinth and The Whore of God. In terms of their approach to translation, the Democratic-Revolutionary translators, based on the reproduction of the original as a whole, approached their translations very liberally, when they even added in many elements typical of Russian culture. The latter, on the other hand, usually adopted a direct translation, focusing on conveying the formal details of the original work. This divergence was mainly due to the different starting points of the two groups of translators, with the democratic revolutionaries seeking to convey advanced ideas to the Russian general public and the aristocratic intellectuals believing that works of art were irrelevant to the people and that artistic creations should not be exposed to "vulgar" reality.<br />
<br />
There were a large number of outstanding literary writers and literary critics who made brilliant statements about literary translation in that era, none more so than Belinsky (В.Г.Белинский), Chernyshevsky (Н.Г.Черныщевский) and Dubrolyovsky (Н.Г.Добролюбов). Belinsky was one of the greatest Russian literary critics of the 19th century. He believed that translations should not be word-for-word, but should reproduce the spirit of the original text, in much the same way as Pushkin's view of translation theory. On the other hand, he also opposed arbitrary 'paraphrasing': the ideal translation should not add or delete arbitrarily to the original text, but should enable the reader to understand the foreign work truly and accurately through the translation. Such a viewpoint seems to us to be quite convincing even now. Belinsky played a decisive role in completely burying the 'rewriting' and 'adapting it to Russian custom' arguments. This issue dominates his writings. He argues that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of the translation, and this is one of the criteria by which he judges its merits. He points out, for example, that the greatest strength of Gnedzic's translation of the Iliad is that it "exudes the atmosphere of ancient life" and "the spirit of the ancient Greeks". However, the contradiction between national identity and translatability was once a problem for Belinsky. Initially believing that it was impossible to translate works with a strong national character into other languages, he was only convinced by the success of Turgenev's collaboration with Louis Viardot in translating Gogol's novels into French in 1846, and then became increasingly determined to recognise translatability in translation. Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a series of revisions that led to a complete and rigorous system of translation theory, the first of its kind in the history of Russian translation theory.<br />
<br />
Translation in Russia developed in the second half of the 19th century. From the 1960s onwards, the Russian readership of non-language speakers began to expand, and these readers were keen to see the translation 'replace' the original. This demand led to an unprecedented expansion in the choice of subjects and translations of Russian literature. Interest in foreign theatrical works was particularly high at this stage, and a strong interest in European classical literature also developed. Dickens, Saclay, Victor Hugo, Dumas, Balzac, Flaubert, Tudor, Maupassant and Zola, as well as lesser-known writers of today, were successively brought to the attention of a wide range of Russian readers in the form of translations. At that time, European theatre classics like Shakespeare's plays were translated into Russia in large numbers. Many professional translators were involved, the most successful being the translator P.N.V. Weinberg. He translated foreign literature from the standpoint of progressive Russian literature of the time. His translation of Othello, for example, is notable for its vividness in the Russian language, and has always been recognised as the best translation in terms of conveying the totality of scenes, plots and long dialogues, even though the translation is wordy compared to the original.<br />
<br />
Although there has been a quantitative surge in translations of Russian literature during this period, the quality has generally been poor, manifesting itself in word-for-word translations, redundant sentences and poor vocabulary, not to mention inventiveness. In addition, the language of the characters in the translation is heavily Russified, that is, contents with Russian proverbs, sayings and idioms that the foreign characters could never have known, and the introduction of Russian-specific life circumstances that cause contradictions with the plot and details of the original work. For example, В Тулу со своим самоваром ехать (Bring your own samovar to Tula - it's superfluous). The reason for this is that the literary world did not attach much importance to the translation of fiction and prose, and there were no specialists working on this task. Another point is that at this stage there was little progress in the study of Russian translation theory, and no valuable theoretical insights emerged. The linguist A.A. Потебня (1835-1891) expressed his views on translation from a psychological standpoint in his essay "Language and Peopleliness ". In his view, it was impossible to express in another language what was originally intended to be expressed in a certain language. Just like many other literary scholars, he denied the translatability of language. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:13, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.Translation ideas of famous writers of the 18-19th centuries. ===<br />
===3.1. Pushkin 's ideas on translation. ===<br />
Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin (Александр Сергеевич Пушкин, 1977-1837), a famous Russian poet and writer of the nineteenth century, was also very much a translator. Although he left behind few works on translation, his ideas on translation are worth studying. Pushkin's translations of poetry were associated with classicism in the early stages of his work and later with romanticism. Although these translations are far removed from the original in a literal sense, they are almost close to composition. Pushkin's significance as a translator, however, lies in 1) the reproduction of foreign originals in the standard Russian language he established in his translations and 2) the full expression of the realist artistic method in the heyday of his compositions: the focus on typical features and the technique of outlining the historical and individual characteristics that reflect the original.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's translations have their own characteristics and style. He did not translate all of his works word for word from the original, and in some places he deleted what he considered to be redundant sentences in order to avoid the verbosity of the original, occasionally replacing the translation with a general paraphrase. He advocates respect for the characteristics of foreign readers, while at the same time opposing word-for-word translations, which can lead to the trampling of the mother tongue. He therefore advocated translations which, on the one hand, required fidelity to the original in terms of meaning and, on the other, should preserve the original's distinctive features.<br />
As he says in his unfinished 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', commenting on Chateaubriand's translation: 'There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), has failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own conventional rhetorical devices, its own habitual expressions, and it is impossible to translate all this into another language using the corresponding vocabulary." Pushkin's rejection of word-for-word translation can be seen.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's influence on the cause of translation in Russia was immense, and this influence refers neither to his few translations nor to his theoretical views, but to the fact that Pushkin pioneered the translation of Russian literature. Although his ideas on translation cannot be called a theory, they do provide certain translation ideas for later generations of literary translators.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin (Александр Сергеевич Пушкин, 1977-1837), a famous Russian poet and writer of the nineteenth century, was also an outstanding translator. Besides he left behind few works on translation, his ideas on translation are worth studying. Pushkin's translations of poetry were associated with classicism in the early stages of his work and with romanticism later. Although these translations are far removed from the original in a literal sense, they are almost close to composition. Pushkin's significance as a translator, however, lies in the reproduction of foreign originalities in the standard Russian language he established in his translations and the full expression of the realist artistic method in the heyday of his compositions: the focus on typical features and the technique of outlining the historical and individual characteristics that reflect the original.<br />
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Pushkin's translations have their own distinctive characteristics and style. He did not translate all of his works literally from the original context, but in some places he deleted what he considered to be redundant sentences in order to avoid the verbosity of the original, occasionally replacing the translation with a general paraphrase. He advocates to give enough respect for the characteristics of foreign readers, while at the same time opposing word-for-word translations, which may lead to the trampling of the mother tongue. Therefore, He advocated translations which, on the one hand, required fidelity to the original text in terms of meaning and, on the other hand, should preserve the original's distinctive features.<br />
<br />
As he says in his unfinished 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', he comments on Chateaubriand's translation: 'There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), has failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own conventional rhetorical devices, its own habitual expressions, and it is impossible to translate all this into another language using the corresponding vocabulary." Pushkin's rejection of word-for-word translation can be revealed clearly.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's influence on the cause of translation in Russia was huge, and his influence refers neither to his few translations nor to his theoretical views, but to the fact that Pushkin pioneered the translation of Russian literature. Although his ideas on translation cannot be called a theory, they do provide certain unique and new translation ideas for later generations of literary translators. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:29, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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===3.1. Belinsky's ideas on translation. ===<br />
Vissarion Grigorievich Belinsky (Виссарион Григорьевич Белинский, 1811-1848) was a famous literary critic of the nineteenth century and one of the most involved in the world of translation among Russian literary activists of his time. Belinsky was fluent in French and as a young man translated for two magazines, Miscellany and Telescope. Later, after a career in literary criticism, he published numerous articles on translation and criticism of translated works.<br />
Belinsky's and Pushkin's views on translation were very similar, both advocating that translations should not be word-for-word. Belinsky first introduced the term 'theory' of translation, and in his 1838 review of Polevoy's translation of Hamlet, he first proposed the need for a theory of translation. He considered the role of theory: "Any object that man perceives has a theory of its own, and a theory is the knowledge of the laws by which the object exists."<br />
<br />
Belinsky argues that in translation: "Closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original. Each <br />
language has its own distinctive expressions, characteristics and qualities; these are so distinctive that to correctly convey a certain image or sentence, it is sometimes necessary to change them completely in the translation. The corresponding image, like the corresponding sentence, does not necessarily lie in a superficial agreement of words: the inner life of the translation should be made to correspond to the inner life of the original". It can be seen that Belinsky, like Pushkin, was also opposed to word-for-word rigid translations, his view being that the task of translating a language lies in reproducing the spirit of the original. He believed that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of a translation, so the question of the interrelationship between national character and translatability has always troubled Belinsky. He pointed out that 'there is only one rule for translating a literary work - to convey the spirit of the work being translated, and this can only be done by translating it into Russian as the author himself would have written it in Russian, if he had been Russian' (The Complete Works of Belinsky Volume 2).<br />
<br />
Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a number of achievements, and his view of translation as a whole is a complete and rigorous system. His view of translation was developed gradually, and in the process it was dominated by an increasingly firm recognition of the possibility of a successful solution to the task of translation, that is, of translatability. Belinsky believed that a translation must be discerning in its content and form in relation to the original. He has pointed out that "approaching the original is not the same as conveying the letters, but rather the spirit of the original." It is also suggested that the translator and the original author are two different kinds of people. But in order to convey the 'spirit' of the original in the translation, the translator's genius needs to reach a certain tacit understanding with this 'spirit'. He advocates the preservation of exoticism in translation, opposes naturalisation, the arbitrary distortion of the face of the original work, the overwhelming of the original author with the personality of the translator's style, the emphasis on both likeness and likeness, etc. However, while recognising the importance of reproducing the poetic form of the original work in translation, Belinsky also took into account the state of development of Russian literature in translation. This also led him to look favourably on translating good poetry in prose, seeing such translations as a form of transition for Russian readers to the treasures of world literature.<br />
<br />
Although Belinsky wrote little about literary translation, his theoretical views contain the kernel of the realist principles of translation proposed by contemporary Soviet literary translators. His ideas on translation had a very profound influence on the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Vissarion Grigorievich Belinsky (Виссарион Григорьевич Белинский, 1811-1848) was a famous literary critic of the nineteenth century and one of the most active in the world of translation among Russian literary activists of his time. Belinsky was fluent in French and when he was a young man he translated for two magazines, Miscellany and Telescope. Later, after a career in literary criticism, he published numerous articles on translation and criticism of translated works.<br />
<br />
Belinsky's and Pushkin's views on translation were very similar, both advocating that translations should not be word-for-word. Belinsky first introduced the term 'theory' of translation, and in his 1838 review of Polevoy's translation of Hamlet, he first proposed the need for a theory of translation. He considered the role of theory: "Any object that man perceives has a theory of its own, and a theory is the knowledge of the laws by which the object exists."<br />
<br />
Belinsky argues that in translation: "Closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original. Each language has its own distinctive expressions, characteristics and qualities; these are so distinctive that to correctly convey a certain image or sentence, it is sometimes necessary to change them completely in the translation. The corresponding image, like the corresponding sentence, does not necessarily lie in a superficial agreement of words: the inner life of the translation should be made to correspond to the inner life of the original". It can be seen that Belinsky, like Pushkin, was also opposed to word-for-word rigid translations, his view being that the task of translating a language lies in reproducing the spirit of the original. He believed that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of a translation, so the question of the interrelationship between national character and translatability has always troubled Belinsky. He pointed out that 'there is only one rule for translating a literary work - to convey the spirit of the work being translated, and this can only be done by translating it into Russian as the author himself would have written it in Russian, if he had been Russian' (The Complete Works of Belinsky Volume 2).<br />
<br />
Belinsky's career as a translator had a number of achievements, and his view of translation as a whole is a complete and rigorous system. His view of translation was developed gradually, and in this process it was dominated by an increasingly firm recognition of the possibility of a successful solution to the task of translation, that is, of translatability. Belinsky believed that a translation must be discerning in its content and form in relation to the original. He has pointed out that "approaching the original is not the same as conveying the letters, but rather the spirit of the original." It is also suggested that the translator and the original author are two different kinds of people. But in order to convey the 'spirit' of the original in the translation, the translator's genius needs to reach a certain tacit understanding with this 'spirit'. He advocates the preservation of exoticism in translation, opposes naturalisation, the arbitrary distortion of the face of the original work, the overwhelming of the original author with the personality of the translator's style, the emphasis on both likeness and likeness, etc. However, while recognising the importance of reproducing the poetic form of the original work in translation, Belinsky also took into account the state of development of Russian literature in translation. This also led him to look favourably on translating good poetry in prose, seeing such translations as a form of transition for Russian readers to the treasures of world literature.<br />
<br />
Although Belinsky wrote little about literary translation, his theoretical views contain the kernel of the realist principles of translation proposed by contemporary Soviet literary translators. His ideas on translation had a very profound influence on the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:56, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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===4.Conclusion ===<br />
Translation has demonstrated its importance in social activity since antiquity, yet it was only in the twentieth century that it became a widely followed professional discipline. This article reviews Russian translation activity and translation thought in pre-Soviet Russia, exploring its development before the formation of a theoretical system. Throughout the history of translation, Russian scholars have contributed greatly to the development of translation literature in the world. Through combing through the history of Russian translation, we learn that the translation ideas of a number of outstanding writers, though not theoretical, have had an unmistakable impact on later generations. When discussing the translation ideas of 19th-century writers, we are inspired to insist on the principle that "closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original", emphasizing the ideological content and literary value of the translation, that the translation should serve the readers, and that the translation should be people-oriented. These ideas influenced, to a greater or lesser extent, the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, the study of the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia is not only conducive to sorting out Russian translation ideas Russian learners can better understand the characteristics of their translations when translating and improve the accuracy of their translations.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:44, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
Translation has played its important role in the social activities since antiquity, yet it was until in the twentieth century that it became a widely followed professional discipline. This paper reviews Russian translators and translation thoughts in pre-Soviet Russia, exploring its development before the formation of a theoretical system. Throughout the history of translation, Russian scholars have contributed greatly to the development of translation literature in the world. By combing through the history of Russian translation, we learn that the translation ideas of a number of outstanding writers, though not very theoretical, have had an unmistakable impact on later generations. When discussing the translation ideas of 19th-century writers, we are inspired to insist on the principle that "closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original", emphasizing the ideological content and literary value of the translation that the translation should serve the readers, and that the translation should be people-oriented. These ideas influenced, to a greater or lesser extent, the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, the study of the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia not only is conducive to sorting out Russian translation ideas, but also make Russian learners better understand the characteristics of their translations when translating and improving the accuracy of their translations. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 14:02, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.References ===<br />
1.Wu, Keli 吴克礼（2006）.俄苏翻译理论流派综述 The Translation Methods and Studies in USSR. 上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
2.Guo Lin 郭琳（2006）.俄罗斯语言学派翻译理论若干问题研究[D] A Study of Some Problems of Translation Theory of the Russian School of Philology.首都师范大学 Capital Normal University.<br />
<br />
3.Feng Xin 冯欣（2009）. 俄罗斯翻译理论史及其影响研究[D] A study of the history of Russian translation theory and its influence.上海外国语大学 Shanghai International Studies University.<br />
<br />
4.Wang，Yulun；Jiang,Wanzhu 王育伦,姜万砫（1989).别林斯基论文学翻译[J] Belinsky on Literary Translation .中国翻译 Chinese translators Journal ,(03):53-55.<br />
<br />
5.Li Zheng, Fan Min 李铮,范敏（2010）. 普希金与翻译[J] Pushkin and Translation. 现代交际 Modern Intercourse Journal,(05):69.</div>Zhang Yiranhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_5&diff=132595Hist Trans Theo EN 52021-12-14T02:18:23Z<p>Zhang Yiran: /* 1.The history of Russian translation and the period of enlightenment of its translation theory. */</p>
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=Chapter 5 History of Translation Theories from Early Russia to the Soviet Union=<br />
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'''从古罗斯到苏联前的翻译理论史'''<br />
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张怡然 Zhang Yiran,Hunan Normal University,China<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
Translation as a means of intercultural communication, each country has a distinctive translation ideology. This article focuses on the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia. Through analyzing the history of translation, can find that Russia has formed a literary tradition of translation studies in the late 18th century. In the 19th century, Pushkin, Lermontov, Turgenev and other outstanding poets and literary scholars were keen on translation, especially in the middle of the century when Belinsky and other famous literary critics published a series of comments on literary translation, which emphasized the literary tradition of Russian translation to an unparalleled extent, which is rare in the history of translation in the world. The general principles of Russian literary translation thought were also formed during this period: namely, to insist on commenting on the merits of a translation in terms of the overall effect of the work, to emphasize the ideological content and literary value of the translation, and that the translation should serve the reader and be people-oriented. The above ideas influenced the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, a study of the history of translation theory in pre-Soviet Russia will help learners of Russian to better understand the characteristics of their translations and to improve the accuracy and peopleliness of their translations.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 12:57, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Translation is a means of intercultural communication, and each country has its own distinctive translation theory system. This paper focuses on the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia. By analyzing the history of translation, it is obvious that a literary tradition of translation studies has been formed in Russia in the late 18th century. In the 19th century, Pushkin, Lermontov, Turgenev and other outstanding poets and literary scholars were keen on translation, especially in the middle of the century when Belinsky and other famous literary critics published a series of comments on literary translation, which emphasized the literary tradition of Russian translation to an unparalleled extent, which is rare in the history of translation in the world. The general principles of Russian literary translation thoughts were also formed during this period: namely, to insist on commenting on the merits and weakness of a translation in terms of the overall effect of the work, to emphasize the ideological content and literary value of the translation, and the translation should serve the reader and be people-oriented. The above ideas influenced the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, a study of the history of translation theory in pre-Soviet Russia will help learners of Russian to understand the characteristics of their translations profoundly and to improve the accuracy and fluency of their translations.Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:03, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Translation theories, Translation ideas，History of Translation<br />
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===摘要===<br />
翻译作为一种跨文化交际的手段，每个国家都有独具特色的翻译思想。本文主要探讨苏联前俄国的翻译历史。通过梳理其翻译史可发现，俄国于18世纪末期就已形成了翻译研究的文学传统。进入19世纪后, 普希金、莱蒙托夫、屠格涅夫等优秀诗人、文学家对翻译的热衷, 尤其是世纪中叶别林斯基等著名文学评论家发表一系列关于文学翻译的评论, 更是把俄国翻译的文学传统强调到无以复加的程度, 这在世界翻译史上都是罕见的。俄国文学翻译思想的总原则也在这一时期形成:即坚持从作品的整体效果上来评论译作优劣, 强调译作的思想内容和文学价值, 翻译应为读者服务, 译文应具有人民性。上述思想影响了苏联时期翻译理论的形成。因此，对苏联前俄国翻译理论史的研究有利于俄语学习者在翻译时更好的理解其翻译特点，提高翻译的准确性和人民性。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
翻译理论 翻译思想 翻译史 <br />
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===Introduction===<br />
This essay provides a comprehensive and concise overview of the history of translation in Russia: Russian written translations began in the Kievan Rus' era, when religious subjects were the main focus of translations, especially the Bible, which was translated from Greek. Religious translations continued to flourish under the Moscow principality, represented by Maksim Gleick (МаксимГрек). At the same time, the national character of Russian translations began to emerge, and the languages of translation expanded from Greek to Latin, German and West Slavic, and the subjects covered included Western chivalric fiction, geographical literature, alchemy and medicine. In the eighteenth century, Peter the Great introduced a number of measures to focus on translation, making this period a turning point in the history of Russian translation. The proliferation of specialised translations (e.g. of legal texts) was the main feature of translation activity in the early eighteenth century. After this period Russian translators began to translate literary works.The main translators were Lomonosov (М.В. Ломоносов) and Tretyakovsky (V.K. Тредьяковский). In the second half of the eighteenth century, translation was given greater importance in Russia, and the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books was founded by Ekaterina II, in which a large number of outstanding translators emerged. The nineteenth century was a golden period in the history of Russian translation. Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин) and Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский) both produced many excellent translations. Pushkin (A.С.Пушкин) and Lermontov (M.Ю.Лермонтов) contributed greatly to the development of Russian literature in translation, while Fetter concentrated on love poetry. In the twentieth century, the Russian translation community made significant achievements in theoretical translation studies. In particular, the rapid development of the philological school and the debate between the literary and philological schools made Soviet translation theory one of the leading theories of translation in the world (Guo,2006:5).--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 12:57, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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This paper provides a comprehensive and concise overview of the history of translation in Russia: Russian written translations began in the Kievan Rus' era, when religious subjects were the main focus of translations, especially the Bible, translated from Greek. Religious translations continued to flourish under the Moscow principality, represented by Maksim Gleick (МаксимГрек). At the same time, the national character of Russian translations began to emerge, and the languages of translation expanded from Greek to Latin, German and West Slavic, and the subjects covered included Western chivalric fiction, geographical literature, alchemy and medicine. In the eighteenth century, Peter the Great introduced a number of measures to focus on translation, leading this period to a turning point in the history of Russian translation. The proliferation of specialised translations (e.g. of legal texts) was the main feature of translation activity in the early eighteenth century. After this period Russian translators began to translate literary works.The main translators were Lomonosov (М.В. Ломоносов) and Tretyakovsky (V.K. Тредьяковский). In the second half of the eighteenth century, translation was paid greater attention in Russia, and the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books was founded by Ekaterina II, in which a large number of outstanding translators emerged. The nineteenth century was a golden period in the history of Russian translation when Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин) and Rukovsky (В.А.Жуковский) both produced many excellent translations. Pushkin (A.С.Пушкин) and Lermontov (M.Ю.Лермонтов) contributed greatly to the development of Russian literature in translation, while Fetter concentrated on love poetry. In the twentieth century, the Russian translation community made significant achievements in theoretical translation studies. In particular, the rapid development of the philological school and the debate between the literary and philological schools made Soviet translation theory one of the leading theories of translation in the world. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:14, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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===1.The history of Russian translation and the period of enlightenment of its translation theory. ===<br />
1. The emergence and development of literary translation.<br />
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Translation activity has a long history in Russia, the beginnings of which can be traced back to the time of Kievan Rus'. A relatively sophisticated system of writing, literature and translation was already in place in ancient Russia in the ninth century AD. Frequent cultural and trade exchanges with Byzantine, German, French and Scandinavian countries contributed significantly to the development of translation in Russia at that time, as did contacts with Eastern countries. From Kievan Rus' onwards, Russian translation methods oscillated between two main tendencies, either to follow the original texts exactly, up to the point of translating them word for word, or to be arbitrary, even to the point of rewriting, adding or deleting at will. The first tendency is the main characteristic of translations of the Bible and other sacred books, while the second, though not absolute, can be said to characterize most secular works (Feng,2009:8)(Wu,2006:4)(Wu,2006:4).<br />
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2.Initiation of translation activities-religious translation. <br />
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In 864 AD, the Byzantine king sent two Greek priests, Kirill (Кирилл) and Mephodi (Мефодий), to spread Christianity among the Slavic people. At the beginning of their mission, they created a new alphabet (now known as the Kirill alphabet) and used this writing system to translate many religious texts from Greek into the ancient Church Slavonic. Among the results were the New Testament, hymnals and prayer books(Feng,2009:8). <br />
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In 988 AD, Rus was baptised and Kievan Rus was converted to Christianity. A large number of translations appeared instantly to help Protestants become familiar with the new religious philosophy and ethical system and to understand the rituals and customs of the Church. These translations were in a variety of genres, including the Acts of the Saints, sermons, chronicles and so on. In addition, apocryphal books telling magical and fantastical stories were also popular, and some of them had similarities with the later 'fantasy novels'. Most of these translations were done in Bulgaria and were popularised in Rus. At that time, translations of religious texts were mostly word-for-word. There were also a small number of works that, unlike the 'elaborate copies of the original', had a separate literary value. In one case, a large number of details of Russian life were added to the storyline of a sermon (e.g. The Tales of Achild the Wise). In another case, military historical narratives are interspersed with the terminology of the ancient Russian feudal system and certain literary images from the stories of ancient Russian warriors (e.g. Joseph Flav's History of the Jewish War). This translation can be considered one of the most successful of the period. In the translation, the translator succeeded in avoiding many word-for-word translations). In a third case, the manuscripts copied by Ancient Rus, although based on Greek epic poetry (e.g. The Great Work of Digenes Akritas), often borrowed from Russian folk poetry, so that a large number of folk compositions appeared. As a result of this literary process, the translated literature was smoothly enriched by Russian manuscripts, which contributed to the development of original Russian literature and consolidated its links with the medieval literary process. Unfortunately, at that early stage in the development of translation, the translators were not signed, so it is impossible to verify whether the works were translated at home or abroad(Feng,2009:9). <br />
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During the difficult period of 'Mongol rule' (1228-1480), translations continued to play an important role in the cultural life of the country. The remaining chapters of the Bible were translated one after another, and previous translations were again proofread and revised. In addition to religious translations, more translations of non-religious subjects emerge, such as The Kingdom of India and The Trojan War. Most of the works were still translated from Greek, while works probably translated from Latin and ancient Hebrew also appeared. During this period, Russian began to take shape through the interaction of Old Slavonic (Church Slavonic) and local national languages. However, religious texts were still only translated into Church Slavonic, and the use of this language was by then restricted to ecclesiastical matters. At the same time, political and commercial exchanges with other countries were more likely to be in Russian, which was becoming increasingly sophisticated: elements of the combination of Old Slavonic and Russian can also be found in original works（Wu,2006:6). <br />
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14-15th century literature in translation by Rus was characterised by an obsession with new themes. These were mainly new works of tranquillity-abstinence literature, or works recommended by and familiar to the tranquillists. This mystical genre was introduced to Rus after it had swept through the Byzantine and Yugoslav peoples. It was reflected in the semi-secular translations popular at the time (for example, The Trojan War). <br />
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In the 16th century AD, Moscow eventually became the political centre of Russia, as well as the translation centre of the country. In 1515, the Grand Duke of Moscow, Vassily III (Василий Ⅲ), asked a Greek monastery to send a learned translator to Moscow. This man, who accompanied the Greek mission to Moscow in 1516, was the historically famous Maksim Greek (Максим Грек). Maksim Greek worked as a translator throughout his life, studying most of the religious texts and some of the non-religious works during this period. In addition, he also proofread and annotated previously existing translations(Wu,2006:7). <br />
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At the beginning, Maksim knew neither Russian nor Old Slavonic, so he divided the translation into two steps: first, he translated from Greek to Latin, and then his assistant translated from Latin to Old Slavonic. In the process of revising existing translations, he often broke with established tradition and was therefore denounced as blasphemous. Maxim was also a prolific writer, educator and philosopher. His writings contain many insights into the art of translation - the earliest recorded treatise on translation in Russia. Maxim insisted that the original text must be carefully analysed in order to grasp its full subtleties and implications. Therefore, the translator must not only master the language of the original, but also have a broad knowledge of the language and prepare for the translation. To support his argument, Maxim used Greek lexicography, phonetic organisation and phonetics involved in translation. His other major contribution was the compilation of a dictionary containing Greek, Latin and Hebrew nouns, which was also the first of its kind in Russian history. Although it was recognised at the time that translators should have a command of both languages as well as a profound background knowledge, the practitioners of translation at the time lacked the necessary qualities and their translations were not as good as they could have been(Wu,2006:7).--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 13:39, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
1. The emergence and development of literary translation. <br />
<br />
Translation activity has a long history in Russia, the beginnings of which can be traced back to the Time of Kievan Rus'. A relatively sophisticated system of writing, literature and translation was already in ancient Russia in the ninth century AD. Frequent cultural and trade exchanges with Byzantine, German, French and Scandinavian countries contributed significantly to the development of translation in Russia at that time, as did contacts with Eastern countries. From Kievan Rus' onwards, Russian translation methods oscillated between two main tendencies, either to follow the original texts exactly, up to the point of translating them word by word, or to be arbitrary, even to the point of rewriting, adding words or deleting at will. The first tendency is the main characteristic of translations of the Bible and other sacred books, while the second, though not absolutely, can be said to characterize most secular works.<br />
<br />
2.Initiation of translation activities-religious translation. <br />
<br />
In 864 AD, the Byzantine king sent two Greek priests, Kirill (Кирилл) and Mephodi (Мефодий), to spread Christianity among the Slavic people. At the beginning of their mission, they created a new alphabet (now known as the Kirill alphabet) and used this writing system to translate many religious texts from Greek into the ancient Church Slavonic. Among the results were the New Testament, hymnals and prayer books. In 988 AD, Rus was baptised and Kievan Rus was converted to Christianity. A large number of translations appeared instantly to help Protestants become familiar with the new religious philosophy and ethical system and to understand the rituals and customs of the Church. These translations were in a variety of genres, including the Acts of the Saints, sermons, chronicles and so on. In addition, apocryphal books telling magical and fantastical stories were also popular, and some of them had similarities with the later 'fantasy novels'. Most of these translations were done in Bulgaria and were popularised in Rus. At that time, translations of religious texts were mostly word-for-word. There were also a small number of works that, unlike the 'elaborate copies of the original', had a separate literary values. In one case, a large number of details of Russian life were added to the storyline of a sermon (e.g. The Tales of Achild the Wise). In another case, military historical narratives are interspersed with the terminology of the ancient Russian feudal system and certain literary images from the stories of ancient Russian warriors (e.g. Joseph Flav's History of the Jewish War). This translation can be considered one of the most successful of the period. In the translation, the translator succeeded in avoiding many word-for-word translations). Thirdly, the manuscripts copied by Ancient Rus, although based on Greek epic poetry (e.g. The Great Work of Digenes Akritas), often borrowed from Russian folk poetry, so that a large number of folk compositions appeared. As a result of this literary process, the translated literature was smoothly enriched by Russian manuscripts, which contributed to the development of original Russian literature and consolidated its links with the medieval literary process. Unfortunately, at that early stage in the development of translation, the translators were not signed, so it is impossible to verify whether the works were translated at home or abroad. During the difficult period of 'Mongol rule' (1228-1480), translations continued to play an important role in the cultural life of the country. The remaining chapters of the Bible were translated one after another, and previous translations were again proofread and revised. In addition to religious translations, more translations of non-religious subjects emerge, such as The Kingdom of India and The Trojan War. Most of the works were still translated from Greek, while works probably translated from Latin and ancient Hebrew also appeared. During this period, Russian began to take shape through the interaction of Old Slavonic (Church Slavonic) and local national languages. However, religious texts were still only translated into Church Slavonic, and the use of this language was by then restricted to ecclesiastical matters. At the same time, political and commercial exchanges with other countries were more likely to be in Russian, which was becoming increasingly sophisticated: elements of the combination of Old Slavonic and Russian can also be found in original works. 14-15th century literature in translation by Rus was characterised by an obsession with new themes. These were mainly new works of tranquillity-abstinence literature, or works recommended by and familiar to the tranquillists. This mystical genre was introduced to Rus after it had swept through the Byzantine and Yugoslav peoples. It was reflected in the semi-secular translations popular at the time (for example, The Trojan War). In the 16th century AD, Moscow eventually became the political center of Russia, as well as the translation center of the country. In 1515, the Grand Duke of Moscow, Vassily III (Василий Ⅲ), asked a Greek monastery to send a learned translator to Moscow. This man, who accompanied the Greek mission to Moscow in 1516, was the historically famous Maksim Grek (Максим Грек). Maxim Greek worked as a translator throughout his life, studying most of the religious texts and some of the non-religious works during this period. In addition, he also proofread and annotated previously existing translations. At the beginning, Maxim knew neither Russian nor Old Slavonic, so he divided the translation into two steps: first, he translated from Greek to Latin, and then his assistant translated from Latin to Old Slavonic. In the process of revising existing translations, he often broke with established tradition and was therefore denounced as blasphemous. Maxim was also a prolific writer, educator and philosopher. His writings contain many insights into the art of translation - the earliest recorded treatise on translation in Russia. Maxim insisted that the original text must be carefully analysed in order to grasp its full subtleties and implications. Therefore, the translator must not only master the language of the original, but also have a broad knowledge of the language and prepare for the translation. To support his argument, Maxim used Greek lexicography, phonetic organisation and phonetics involved in translation. His other major contribution was the compilation of a dictionary containing Greek, Latin and Hebrew nouns, which was also the first of its kind in Russian history. Although it was recognized at the time that translators should have a command of both languages and profound background knowledge, the practitioners of translation at the time lacked the necessary qualities and their translations were not as good as they should have been. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. Overview of the Russian school of Translation. ===<br />
===2.1 18th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The eighteenth century is an important period in the history of Russian translation. The status of translation in social culture has undergone a qualitative change, and this is due to Peter the Great's reform. At the beginning of the century, translation was still mostly related to professional documents such as laws and contracts. Later, the translator's tentacles gradually expanded to literary translation, for example, French poetry translation. The famous translators of this period are Sumarokov(А.П.Сумароков), Lomonosov(М.В.Ломоносов), Tretyakovsky (В.К.Тредьяковский) and so on. In the second half of the 18th century, the Association for the Translation of Foreign Books officially put forward the importance of translation. The organization has been active for 15 years with over 100 members.<br />
<br />
1.Imperial support for translation. The political reforms introduced by Peter the Great also led to intensive economic and cultural exchanges between Russia and European countries. This created a huge demand for translations of scientific and technical literature and literary works. Translators were required to produce works of a high standard.<br />
<br />
Peter the Great issued a special decree on translation, requiring "faithful" communication of the original text. In a directive issued to his subordinates in 1709, he explicitly stated that when translating foreign books, word-for-word translations were to be avoided and that the content of the original text should be clearly expressed in one's own language, based on an understanding of its content. On the other hand, Peter the Great's subversion of the written language initially caused confusion in Russian translation circles. A large number of foreign languages entered the Russian language, and the piles of foreign syntactic structures distracted attention. In any case, Peter the Great's reforms did set a new norm and a new direction for translation. <br />
<br />
In terms of content, Peter the Great's reforms were, from the very beginning, inextricably linked to the translation of scientific and technical texts, such as the many books on military defence engineering that he ordered to be translated and used to strengthen Russia's military forces. Peter the Great also placed great importance on the translation of prose, poetry and other literary works. During this period, the Russian language began to develop its own literary model, and many educated Russians saw translation as a way of enriching the language and enhancing its uniqueness and expressiveness. <br />
<br />
From around the 1830s, the importance of translating Western European scientific and technical texts gradually gave way to literary works such as prose and poetry. Writers who were also translators turned their attention to the work of new Western European writers, mainly poets, especially French poets. At the same time, the legacy of the Greco-Roman period also entered their minds. They began to translate the works of philosophers and historians, which - on the one hand - gave rise to difficulties in literary rhetoric and scientific terminology and, on the other, played an important role in the formation of a standard Russian language. <br />
<br />
From that time onwards, translation also became an organised activity, with the emergence of specific bodies responsible for the organisation and management of translation work. 1735 saw the establishment of the first specialised translation organisation, the Russian Society, at the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences. The Society had a professional group of translators and some of the academy's scholars, such as Lomonosov and Tretyakovsky, were among its members. The Association was responsible for selecting works, defining the rules or principles of translation, commenting on translations, and training translators. It is worth mentioning that the Academy of Sciences also set up a school of foreign languages to train official translators. In 1748, the Academy implemented Queen Elizabeth's decree to increase the number of translations of non-religious books and publicly appealed to "the nobility and other classes of intellectuals" to take an active part in the translation process. <br />
<br />
In the second half of the 18th century, Ekaterina II's efforts to create a 'civilised state' not only led to the development of literature, but also gave preferential treatment to writers. For example, in order to select the best original texts, she ordered the establishment of the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books (1768 - 1783). The Society was dedicated to providing excellent conditions for translation work throughout Russia. The purchase of manuscripts was financed out of Ekaterina's own funds. Later, the Society also discussed a proposal to establish a translation bureau under the Academy of Sciences (1790). The 114 members of the Society included such notable figures as Tretyakovsky, Sumarokov and Radishev. For 14 years the Association was active, producing numerous literary translations and likewise contributing to the discussion of theoretical issues in translation.<br />
<br />
2.The emergence of poetry translation. Translation of poetry also developed in Russia in the 18th century, and later became one of the jewels of the country's literature. The great Russian scholar and poet Lomonosov was a major contributor to this process. A great deal of the work created by Lomonosov and his contemporaries Sumarokov and Tretyakovsky was poetry in translation. They often translated while exploring theoretical issues in translation: they would explain in their works why they translated this way and not that way; they stressed the importance of translation work and the creative value it contained. Among the most prestigious writers and translators in Russian literature at the time, there were several interesting competitions in which two or three poets translated the same work at the same time, and their translations were published in journals. It was often the case that different translations of the same work were published at the same time, without the translator's name, for the judgement of "literary lovers and peers". This phenomenon also supports the idea that the 18th century was a period of 'experimentation' in the history of Russian translation. <br />
<br />
Lomonosov's translations from Latin, German, French and Greek are numerous and varied, showing his talent for both rhyming and free verse. He was keen to reproduce the rhythmic structure of the original texts, using a variety of iambic and iambic meter to convey the Alexandrian style of French epic and the hexameter style of Greek tragedy. Russian poetry was not very developed at the time and was still based on syllables. <br />
Lomonosov's innovations enriched Russian poetry and established new forms and traditions of Russian poetic style and rhyme. <br />
<br />
In contrast, Kantymir (Д.М.Кантемира) and Tretyakovsky's greatest quest was to insist on a faithful translation of the original. In the process, the translators had to contend with the problems of reams of vocabulary and rhetorical rules. Tretyakovsky became famous for his successful use of Russian rhyme to translate many verses of the original in his translation of Paul Thielmann's A Journey to Love Island. In the introduction to the novel, the translator states his approach to translation: "The translator is only one person away from the author. I would add that if the author is original, the translator should be even more original (I am not referring to myself, but to a good translator)". He believes that "prose to prose" and "poetry to poetry" can be as good as the original, and that a good translation is one that "describes the full meaning of each verse". Kantymir 's translation of Horace's Letters and other poetic works in Latin and French, although less well-known than the former, is equally valuable.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:40, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The eighteenth century is an important period in the history of Russian translation. The status of translation in social culture has undergone a qualitative change, and this is due to Peter the Great's reform. At the beginning of the century, translation was still mostly related to professional documents such as laws and contracts. Later, the translator's tentacles gradually expanded to literary translation, for example, French poetry translation. The famous translators of this period are Sumarokov(А.П.Сумароков), Lomonosov(М.В.Ломоносов), Tretyakovsky (В.К.Тредьяковский) and so on. In the second half of the 18th century, the Association for the Translation of Foreign Books officially put forward the importance of translation. The organization has been active for 15 years with over 100 members. The following points reflected the reasons why translation was paid more attention in the eighteenth century.<br />
<br />
1.Imperial support for translation. <br />
<br />
The political reforms introduced by Peter the Great also led to intensive economic and cultural exchanges between Russia and European countries. This created a huge demand for translations of scientific and technical literature and literary works. Translators were required to produce works of a high standard.Peter the Great issued a special decree on translation, requiring "faithful" communication of the original text. In a directive issued to his subordinates in 1709, he explicitly stated that when translating foreign books, word-for-word translations were to be avoided and that the content of the original text should be clearly expressed in one's own language, based on an understanding of its content. On the other hand, Peter the Great's subversion of the written language initially caused confusion in Russian translation circles. A large number of foreign languages entered the Russian language, and the piles of foreign syntactic structures distracted attention. In any case, Peter the Great's reforms did set a new norm and a new direction for translation. In terms of content, Peter the Great's reforms were, from the very beginning, inextricably linked to the translation of scientific and technical texts, such as the many books on military defence engineering that he ordered to be translated and used to strengthen Russia's military forces. Peter the Great also placed great importance on the translation of prose, poetry and other literary works. During this period, the Russian language began to develop its own literary model, and many educated Russians saw translation as a way of enriching the language and enhancing its uniqueness and expressiveness. <br />
<br />
From around the 1830s, the importance of translating Western European scientific and technical texts gradually gave way to literary works such as prose and poetry. Writers who were also translators turned their attention to the work of new Western European writers, mainly poets, especially French poets. At the same time, the legacy of the Greco-Roman period also entered their minds. They began to translate the works of philosophers and historians, which - on the one hand - gave rise to difficulties in literary rhetoric and scientific terminology and, on the other, played an important role in the formation of a standard Russian language. <br />
<br />
From that time onwards, translation also became an organised activity, with the emergence of specific bodies responsible for the organisation and management of translation work. 1735 saw the establishment of the first specialised translation organisation, the Russian Society, at the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences. The Society had a professional group of translators and some of the academy's scholars, such as Lomonosov and Tretyakovsky, were among its members. The Association was responsible for selecting works, defining the rules or principles of translation, commenting on translations, and training translators. It is worth mentioning that the Academy of Sciences also set up a school of foreign languages to train official translators. In 1748, the Academy implemented Queen Elizabeth's decree to increase the number of translations of non-religious books and publicly appealed to "the nobility and other classes of intellectuals" to take an active part in the translation process. <br />
<br />
In the second half of the 18th century, Ekaterina II's efforts to create a 'civilised state' not only led to the development of literature, but also gave preferential treatment to writers. For example, in order to select the best original texts, she ordered the establishment of the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books (1768-1783). The Society was dedicated to providing excellent conditions for translation work throughout Russia. The purchase of manuscripts was financed out of Ekaterina's own funds. Later, the Society also discussed a proposal to establish a translation bureau under the Academy of Sciences (1790). The 114 members of the Society included such notable figures as Tretyakovsky, Sumarokov and Radishev. For 14 years the Association was active, producing numerous literary translations and likewise contributing to the discussion of theoretical issues in translation.<br />
<br />
2.The emergence of poetry translation.<br />
<br />
Translation of poetry also developed in Russia in the 18th century, and later became one of the jewels of the country's literature. The great Russian scholar and poet Lomonosov was a major contributor to this process. A great deal of the work created by Lomonosov and his contemporaries Sumarokov and Tretyakovsky was poetry in translation. They often translated while exploring theoretical issues in translation: they would explain in their works why they translated this way and not that way; they stressed the importance of translation work and the creative value it contained. Among the most prestigious writers and translators in Russian literature at the time, there were several interesting competitions in which two or three poets translated the same work at the same time, and their translations were published in journals. It was often the case that different translations of the same work were published at the same time, without the translator's name, for the judgement of "literary lovers and peers". This phenomenon also supports the idea that the 18th century was a period of 'experimentation' in the history of Russian translation. <br />
<br />
Lomonosov's translations works in Latin, German, French and Greek are numerous and varied, showing his talent for both rhyming and free verse. He was keen to reproduce the rhythmic structure of the original texts, using a variety of iambic and iambic meter to convey the Alexandrian style of French epic and the hexameter style of Greek tragedy. Russian poetry was not very developed at the time and was still based on syllables. <br />
Lomonosov's innovations enriched Russian poetry and established new forms and traditions of Russian poetic style and rhyme. <br />
<br />
In contrast, Kantymir (Д.М.Кантемира) and Tretyakovsky's greatest quest was to insist on a faithful translation of the original. In the process, the translators had to contend with the problems of reams of vocabulary and rhetorical rules. Tretyakovsky became famous for his successful use of Russian rhyme to translate many verses of the original in his translation of Paul Thielmann's A Journey to Love Island. In the introduction to the novel, the translator states his approach to translation: "The translator is only one person away from the author. I would add that if the author is original, the translator should be even more original (I am not referring to myself, but to a good translator)". He believes that "prose to prose" and "poetry to poetry" can be as good as the original, and that a good translation is one that "describes the full meaning of each verse". Kantymir 's translation of Horace's Letters and other poetic works in Latin and French, although less well-known than the former, is equally valuable. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 12:39, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.2 First half of the19th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The nineteenth century was a golden age in the history of Russian translation. If translation had established itself as a profession in the first hundred years, it was elevated to the level of art in this century. The nineteenth century produced a number of masters of translation, including Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин), Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский), Pushkin (А.С.Пушкин), Lermontov (М.Ю.Лермонтов) and Fetter (А.Фет). <br />
<br />
The new Russian school of translation owes its formation to the historian Nikolai Karamzin and the poet Zhukovsky. Karamzin published a number of translations in several magazines between the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century. He saw translations as a good help in perfecting a writer's style: a source of information that would satisfy human curiosity, inform historical facts, entertain women and provide material for new magazines. As a young man, Karamzin was strongly opposed to the alteration of and disloyalty to the original texts, but later became a champion of free translation, famously saying: "Whoever follows the author of the original text step by step is no different from a servant who serves his lord". Karamzin's translations cover an admirable range of genres and languages: he translated works by both classical and contemporaneous authors, in Greek, French, Latin, German, English, Italian and some Oriental languages. <br />
<br />
Pushkin called Zhukovsky "a genius of translation". After graduating from the Moscow Noble Boarding University in 1802, Zhukovsky devoted himself to translation. It was thanks to his efforts that Russian readers were able to access the works of world literary giants such as Schiller, Goethe, Byron and Walters Scott. Zhukovsky's creative translation activities also ranged from Charles Bello to Grimm's Fairy Tales. From Charles Bellow to Grimm's fairy tales, from Homer's epic Odyssey to the poetic history of ancient Rus' Igor's Expedition, all became his original texts. There is no denying that Zhukovsky is a master in the history of Russian translation. Like Karamzin, Zhukovsky was a fan of free translation, sometimes rewriting the original or even creating a new story from its subject: sometimes transferring the setting of events to Russia and giving Russian names to the characters. For example, in his 1808 translation of the German Romantic poet Bilge's narrative poem Lenore, he changed the heroine's name from Lenore to Lyudmila and moved the story to the time of the Livonian War in 16th-century Russia. Zhukovsky believed that the "unsavoury character" of the work should be weakened while retaining the original author's ideas. His talent enabled him to reproduce the style, rhythm and tone of the original poems, while some of his best works were also faithful to the original. In later years, however, his view of translation changed in response to the tendency to stay close to the original, and he retranslated several of his previous translations to make them more faithful to the original, including Lenore. The Russian school of translation owes much to the tradition of translation created by Zhukovsky.<br />
<br />
Pushkin and Lermontov are also two poets who set the stage for an epoch in the history of Russian translation. Although only a small proportion of their poetry was translated, they made a significant contribution to the improvement of the art of translation in Russia. In their rewriting and imitation of poetry, they were able to reproduce the most important features of foreign poetry, the key point being that their creative translations were no less valuable in their own right than the originals. Their free translation became a model for other translators, and in addition they established the important principle that a good artistic translation must also be a good work in the national literature of the translated language. Pushkin played an indelibly important role in the development of the Russian school of translation. He was always interested in the question of translation, and his critical views on translation were objective and profound. Before translation he stressed the importance of the choice of the original work, and in translation he demanded that the translator should be faithful to the original, while at the same time displaying his deep creative skills and his own literary style. In one of his unfinished posthumous works, 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', Pushkin wrote: 'Chateaubriand's translation (verbatim) compensates to some extent for the faults of the young French writers (free translation), for they have insulted the great man very cruelly, though in a perfectly innocent manner. There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own rhetorical conventions, its own way of expressing itself, and it is impossible to translate into another language with the corresponding vocabulary". These insights had a positive impact on the best Russian translators of the 19th and 20th centuries. In addition, Pushkin's discussion of translation coincided with a turning point in the history of Russian literature, when the Romantic era was being replaced by a new era with a predominantly realist orientation, and a process of 'separation' between translated and national literature was under way. Pushkin's discussion of the work of the translator as distinct from that of the writer contributed to the independence of literature in translation from indigenous literature. <br />
<br />
During this period, while most people advocated free translation, there were a few translators who insisted on maximum fidelity to the original and advocated the word-for-word method, even at the expense of the work's willingness to be translated. Among these were such well-known writers as P.A. Vyazemsky (П.А.Вяземский) and N.I. Gnedzic (Н.И.Гнедич). In fact, they did not always live up to their principles, and sometimes their talent and artistic intuition ended up breaking the bonds of verbatim translation. Vyazemsky's translations of Benjamin Constant and Adam Mickiewicz were not without literary and artistic merit, and his translation of Homer's epic Iliad in particular was highly praised by Pushkin. It was Fetter who was the most insistent on the idea of a verbatim translation. Fetter translated many famous works, and his philosophy throughout was one of sentence-for-sentence, word-for-word translation, retaining all the words of the original. Fetter's extreme word-for-word approach had a negative impact on most of his translations, although he was sometimes able to come up with some effective methods of translation. <br />
<br />
Free translations were also sometimes used to promote democratic ideas in the original that could not pass official scrutiny. A number of translators, such as V. Kurochkin (В.Курочкин), D. M. Minayev (Д.Минаев) and M. M. Mikhalov (М.Михайлов), achieved this by selecting appropriate original works or by using texts in their translations that were superficially imperceptible in their allusion to the conditions in Russia at the time. It was from that time onwards that the use of translation as a weapon to express dissent became part of the Russian tradition.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:41, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The nineteenth century was the golden age in the history of Russian translation. If translation had established its status in the first hundred years, it was elevated to the level of art in this century. The nineteenth century produced a number of masters of translation, including Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин), Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский), Pushkin (А.С.Пушкин), Lermontov (М.Ю.Лермонтов) and Fetter (А.Фет). <br />
<br />
The new Russian school of translation owes its formation to the publishment of a number of translations of historian Nikolai Karamzin and the poet Zhukovsky. Karamzin in several magazines between the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century. He regarded translation as a good help in perfecting a writer's style: a source of information that satisfies human curiosity, informs historical facts, entertains women and provides materials for new magazines. As a young man, Karamzin was strongly opposed to the disloyalty to the original texts, but later became a champion of free translation. His famous saying was: "Whoever follows the author of the original text step by step is no different from a servant who serves his lord". Karamzin's translations cover an admirable range of genres and languages: he translated works by both classical and contemporaneous authors, in Greek, French, Latin, German, English, Italian and some Oriental languages. <br />
<br />
Pushkin called Zhukovsky "a genius of translation". After graduating from the Moscow Noble Boarding University in 1802, Zhukovsky devoted himself to translation. It was thanks to his efforts that Russian readers were able to access the works of world literary giants such as Schiller, Goethe, Byron and Walters Scott. Zhukovsky's creative translation activities also ranged from Charles Bello to Grimm's Fairy Tales. From Charles Bellow to Grimm's fairy tales, from Homer's epic Odyssey to the poetic history of ancient Rus' Igor's Expedition, all became his original texts. There is no denying that Zhukovsky is a master in the history of Russian translation. Like Karamzin, Zhukovsky was a fan of free translation, who sometimes rewrites the original or even creates a new story from its subject, transfers the setting of events to Russia and gives Russian names to the characters. For example, in his 1808 translation of the German Romantic poet Bilge's narrative poem Lenore, he changed the heroine's name from Lenore to Lyudmila and moved the story to the time of the Livonian War in 16th-century Russia. Zhukovsky believed that the "unsavoury character" of the work should be weakened while retaining the original author's ideas. His talent enabled him to reproduce the style, rhythm and tone of the original poems, while some of his best works were also faithful to the original. In later years, however, his view of translation changed in response to the tendency to stay close to the original, and he retranslated several of his previous translations to make them more faithful to the original, including Lenore. The Russian school of translation owes much to the tradition of translation created by Zhukovsky.<br />
<br />
Pushkin and Lermontov are also two poets who gave perfect preparations for an epoch in the history of Russian translation. Although only a small proportion of their poetry was translated, they made a significant contribution to the improvement of the art of translation in Russia. In their rewriting and imitation of poetry, they were able to reproduce the most important features of foreign poetry, the key point being that their creative translations were no less valuable in their own right than the originals. Their free translation became a model for other translators, and in addition they established the important principle that a good artistic translation must also be a good work in the national literature of the translated language. Pushkin played an indelibly important role in the development of the Russian school of translation. He was always interested in the question of translation, and his critical views on translation were objective and profound. Before translation he stressed the importance of the choice of the original work, and in translation he demanded that the translator should be faithful to the original, while at the same time displaying his deep creative skills and his own literary style. In one of his unfinished posthumous works, 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', Pushkin wrote: 'Chateaubriand's translation (verbatim) compensates to some extent for the faults of the young French writers (free translation), for they have insulted the great man very cruelly, though in a perfectly innocent manner. There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own rhetorical conventions, its own way of expressing itself, and it is impossible to translate into another language with the corresponding vocabulary". These insights had a positive impact on the best Russian translators of the 19th and 20th centuries. In addition, Pushkin's discussion of translation coincided with a turning point in the history of Russian literature, when the Romantic era was being replaced by a new era with a predominantly realist orientation, and a process of 'separation' between translated and national literature was under way. Pushkin's discussion of the work of the translator as distinct from that of the writer contributed to the independence of literature in translation from indigenous literature. <br />
<br />
During this period, while most people advocated free translation, there were a few translators who insisted on maximum fidelity to the original and advocated the word-for-word method, even at the expense of the work's willingness to be translated. Among these were such well-known writers as P.A. Vyazemsky (П.А.Вяземский) and N.I. Gnedzic (Н.И.Гнедич). In fact, they did not always live up to their principles, and sometimes their talent and artistic intuition ended up breaking the bonds of verbatim translation. Vyazemsky's translations of Benjamin Constant and Adam Mickiewicz were not without literary and artistic merit, and his translation of Homer's epic Iliad in particular was highly praised by Pushkin. It was Fetter who was the most insistent on the idea of a verbatim translation. Fetter translated many famous works, and his philosophy throughout was one of sentence-for-sentence, word-for-word translation, retaining all the words of the original. Fetter's extreme word-for-word approach had a negative impact on most of his translations, although he was sometimes able to come up with some effective methods of translation. <br />
<br />
Free translations were also used to promote democratic ideas in original that could not pass official scrutiny. A number of translators, such as V. Kurochkin (В.Курочкин), D. M. Minayev (Д.Минаев) and M. M. Mikhalov (М.Михайлов), achieved this by selecting appropriate original works or by using texts in their translations that were superficially imperceptible in their allusion to the conditions in Russia at the time. It was since then that the use of translation was used as a weapon to express dissent became part of the Russian tradition. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:05, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.3 Second half of the19th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The mid-nineteenth century was a period of increasingly intense political and ideological struggle in Russian literature, and a great debate raged in the Russian literary world over the question of 'art for the people' or 'art for art's sake'. The debate was mainly about the choice of material for translation and the method of translation. As far as the choice of material was concerned, the democratic and revolutionary writers who supported 'art for the people' chose to translate works with progressive ideological content and a democratic orientation, such as Heine. The aristocratic and liberal intellectual writers, on the other hand, opted for philosophical poetry with a chanting and individualistic feel. Of course, this is not absolute: "Mikhailov and Dobrolyubov of the democratic revolutionary school also translated Heine's moody love poems The Songbook, while Tolstoy of the aristocratic and liberal school translated some of Goethe's more progressive poems, such as The Fiancée of Corinth and The Whore of God. In terms of their approach to translation, the Democratic-Revolutionary translators, based on the reproduction of the original as a whole, approached their translations very liberally, even adding in many elements typical of Russian culture. The latter, on the other hand, usually adopted a direct translation, focusing on conveying the formal details of the original work. This divergence was mainly due to the different starting points of the two groups of translators, with the democratic revolutionaries seeking to convey advanced ideas to the Russian general public and the aristocratic intellectuals believing that works of art were irrelevant to the people and that artistic creations should not be exposed to "vulgar" reality.<br />
<br />
There were a large number of outstanding literary writers and literary critics who made brilliant statements about literary translation in that era, none more so than Belinsky (В.Г.Белинский), Chernyshevsky (Н.Г.Черныщевский) and Dubrolyovsky (Н.Г.Добролюбов). Belinsky was one of the greatest Russian literary critics of the 19th century. He believed that translations should not be word-for-word, but should reproduce the spirit of the original, in much the same way as Pushkin's view of translation theory. On the other hand, he also opposed arbitrary 'paraphrasing': the ideal translation should not add or delete arbitrarily to the original text, but should enable the reader to understand the foreign work truly and accurately through the translation. Such a viewpoint seems to us to be quite convincing even now. Belinsky played a decisive role in completely burying the 'rewriting' and 'adapting it to Russian custom' arguments. This issue dominates his writings. He argues that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of the translation, and this is one of the criteria by which he judges its merits. He points out, for example, that the greatest strength of Gnedzic's translation of the Iliad is that it "exudes the atmosphere of ancient life" and "the spirit of the ancient Greeks". However, the contradiction between national identity and translatability was once a problem for Belinsky. Initially believing that it was impossible to translate works with a strong national character into other languages, he was only convinced by the success of Turgenev's collaboration with Louis Viardot in translating Gogol's novels into French in 1846, and then became increasingly determined to recognise translatability in translation. Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a series of revisions that led to a complete and rigorous system of translation theory, the first of its kind in the history of Russian translation theory.<br />
<br />
Translation in Russia developed in the second half of the 19th century. From the 1960s onwards, the Russian readership of non-language speakers began to expand, and these readers were keen to see the translation 'replace' the original. This demand led to an unprecedented expansion in the choice of subjects and translations of Russian literature. Interest in foreign theatrical works was particularly high at this stage, and a strong interest in European classical literature also developed. Dickens, Saclay, Victor Hugo, Dumas, Balzac, Flaubert, Tudor, Maupassant and Zola, as well as lesser-known writers of today, were successively brought to the attention of a wide range of Russian readers in the form of translations. At that time, European theatre classics like Shakespeare's plays were translated into Russia in large numbers. Many professional translators were involved, the most successful being the translator P.N.V. Weinberg. He translated foreign literature from the standpoint of progressive Russian literature of the time. His translation of Othello, for example, is notable for its vividness in the Russian language, and has always been recognised as the best translation in terms of conveying the totality of scenes, plots and long dialogues, even though the translation is wordy compared to the original.<br />
<br />
Although there has been a quantitative surge in translations of Russian literature during this period, the quality has generally been poor, manifesting itself in word-for-word translations, redundant sentences and poor vocabulary, not to mention inventiveness. In addition, the language of the characters in the translation is heavily Russified, with Russian proverbs, sayings and idioms that the foreign characters could never have known, and the introduction of Russian-specific life circumstances that cause contradictions with the plot and details of the original work. For example, В Тулу со своим самоваром ехать (Bring your own samovar to Tula - it's superfluous). The reason for this is that the literary world did not attach much importance to the translation of fiction and prose, and there were no specialists working on this task. Another point is that at this stage there was little progress in the study of Russian translation theory, and no valuable theoretical insights emerged. The linguist A.A. Потебня (1835-1891) expressed his views on translation from a psychological standpoint in his essay "Language and Peopleliness ". In his view, it was impossible to express in another language what was originally intended to be expressed in a certain language. He, like many other literary scholars, denied the translatability of language.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:41, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The mid-nineteenth century was a period of increasingly intensively political and ideological struggle in Russian literature, and a great debate raged in the Russian literary world over the question of 'art for the people' or 'art for art's sake'. The debate was mainly about the choice of materials for translation and the methods of translation. As far as the choice of material was concerned, the democratic and revolutionary writers who supported 'art for the people' chose to translate works with progressive ideological content and a democratic orientation, such as Heine. The aristocratic and liberal intellectual writers, on the other hand, opted for philosophical poetry with a chanting and individualistic feel. It's undoubtful that this is not absolute: "Mikhailov and Dobrolyubov of the democratic revolutionary school also translated Heine's moody love poems The Songbook, while Tolstoy of the aristocratic and liberal school translated some of Goethe's more progressive poems, such as The Fiancée of Corinth and The Whore of God. In terms of their approach to translation, the Democratic-Revolutionary translators, based on the reproduction of the original as a whole, approached their translations very liberally, when they even added in many elements typical of Russian culture. The latter, on the other hand, usually adopted a direct translation, focusing on conveying the formal details of the original work. This divergence was mainly due to the different starting points of the two groups of translators, with the democratic revolutionaries seeking to convey advanced ideas to the Russian general public and the aristocratic intellectuals believing that works of art were irrelevant to the people and that artistic creations should not be exposed to "vulgar" reality.<br />
<br />
There were a large number of outstanding literary writers and literary critics who made brilliant statements about literary translation in that era, none more so than Belinsky (В.Г.Белинский), Chernyshevsky (Н.Г.Черныщевский) and Dubrolyovsky (Н.Г.Добролюбов). Belinsky was one of the greatest Russian literary critics of the 19th century. He believed that translations should not be word-for-word, but should reproduce the spirit of the original text, in much the same way as Pushkin's view of translation theory. On the other hand, he also opposed arbitrary 'paraphrasing': the ideal translation should not add or delete arbitrarily to the original text, but should enable the reader to understand the foreign work truly and accurately through the translation. Such a viewpoint seems to us to be quite convincing even now. Belinsky played a decisive role in completely burying the 'rewriting' and 'adapting it to Russian custom' arguments. This issue dominates his writings. He argues that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of the translation, and this is one of the criteria by which he judges its merits. He points out, for example, that the greatest strength of Gnedzic's translation of the Iliad is that it "exudes the atmosphere of ancient life" and "the spirit of the ancient Greeks". However, the contradiction between national identity and translatability was once a problem for Belinsky. Initially believing that it was impossible to translate works with a strong national character into other languages, he was only convinced by the success of Turgenev's collaboration with Louis Viardot in translating Gogol's novels into French in 1846, and then became increasingly determined to recognise translatability in translation. Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a series of revisions that led to a complete and rigorous system of translation theory, the first of its kind in the history of Russian translation theory.<br />
<br />
Translation in Russia developed in the second half of the 19th century. From the 1960s onwards, the Russian readership of non-language speakers began to expand, and these readers were keen to see the translation 'replace' the original. This demand led to an unprecedented expansion in the choice of subjects and translations of Russian literature. Interest in foreign theatrical works was particularly high at this stage, and a strong interest in European classical literature also developed. Dickens, Saclay, Victor Hugo, Dumas, Balzac, Flaubert, Tudor, Maupassant and Zola, as well as lesser-known writers of today, were successively brought to the attention of a wide range of Russian readers in the form of translations. At that time, European theatre classics like Shakespeare's plays were translated into Russia in large numbers. Many professional translators were involved, the most successful being the translator P.N.V. Weinberg. He translated foreign literature from the standpoint of progressive Russian literature of the time. His translation of Othello, for example, is notable for its vividness in the Russian language, and has always been recognised as the best translation in terms of conveying the totality of scenes, plots and long dialogues, even though the translation is wordy compared to the original.<br />
<br />
Although there has been a quantitative surge in translations of Russian literature during this period, the quality has generally been poor, manifesting itself in word-for-word translations, redundant sentences and poor vocabulary, not to mention inventiveness. In addition, the language of the characters in the translation is heavily Russified, that is, contents with Russian proverbs, sayings and idioms that the foreign characters could never have known, and the introduction of Russian-specific life circumstances that cause contradictions with the plot and details of the original work. For example, В Тулу со своим самоваром ехать (Bring your own samovar to Tula - it's superfluous). The reason for this is that the literary world did not attach much importance to the translation of fiction and prose, and there were no specialists working on this task. Another point is that at this stage there was little progress in the study of Russian translation theory, and no valuable theoretical insights emerged. The linguist A.A. Потебня (1835-1891) expressed his views on translation from a psychological standpoint in his essay "Language and Peopleliness ". In his view, it was impossible to express in another language what was originally intended to be expressed in a certain language. Just like many other literary scholars, he denied the translatability of language. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:13, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.Translation ideas of famous writers of the 18-19th centuries. ===<br />
===3.1. Pushkin 's ideas on translation. ===<br />
Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin (Александр Сергеевич Пушкин, 1977-1837), a famous Russian poet and writer of the nineteenth century, was also very much a translator. Although he left behind few works on translation, his ideas on translation are worth studying. Pushkin's translations of poetry were associated with classicism in the early stages of his work and later with romanticism. Although these translations are far removed from the original in a literal sense, they are almost close to composition. Pushkin's significance as a translator, however, lies in 1) the reproduction of foreign originals in the standard Russian language he established in his translations and 2) the full expression of the realist artistic method in the heyday of his compositions: the focus on typical features and the technique of outlining the historical and individual characteristics that reflect the original.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's translations have their own characteristics and style. He did not translate all of his works word for word from the original, and in some places he deleted what he considered to be redundant sentences in order to avoid the verbosity of the original, occasionally replacing the translation with a general paraphrase. He advocates respect for the characteristics of foreign readers, while at the same time opposing word-for-word translations, which can lead to the trampling of the mother tongue. He therefore advocated translations which, on the one hand, required fidelity to the original in terms of meaning and, on the other, should preserve the original's distinctive features.<br />
As he says in his unfinished 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', commenting on Chateaubriand's translation: 'There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), has failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own conventional rhetorical devices, its own habitual expressions, and it is impossible to translate all this into another language using the corresponding vocabulary." Pushkin's rejection of word-for-word translation can be seen.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's influence on the cause of translation in Russia was immense, and this influence refers neither to his few translations nor to his theoretical views, but to the fact that Pushkin pioneered the translation of Russian literature. Although his ideas on translation cannot be called a theory, they do provide certain translation ideas for later generations of literary translators.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin (Александр Сергеевич Пушкин, 1977-1837), a famous Russian poet and writer of the nineteenth century, was also an outstanding translator. Besides he left behind few works on translation, his ideas on translation are worth studying. Pushkin's translations of poetry were associated with classicism in the early stages of his work and with romanticism later. Although these translations are far removed from the original in a literal sense, they are almost close to composition. Pushkin's significance as a translator, however, lies in the reproduction of foreign originalities in the standard Russian language he established in his translations and the full expression of the realist artistic method in the heyday of his compositions: the focus on typical features and the technique of outlining the historical and individual characteristics that reflect the original.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's translations have their own distinctive characteristics and style. He did not translate all of his works literally from the original context, but in some places he deleted what he considered to be redundant sentences in order to avoid the verbosity of the original, occasionally replacing the translation with a general paraphrase. He advocates to give enough respect for the characteristics of foreign readers, while at the same time opposing word-for-word translations, which may lead to the trampling of the mother tongue. Therefore, He advocated translations which, on the one hand, required fidelity to the original text in terms of meaning and, on the other hand, should preserve the original's distinctive features.<br />
<br />
As he says in his unfinished 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', he comments on Chateaubriand's translation: 'There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), has failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own conventional rhetorical devices, its own habitual expressions, and it is impossible to translate all this into another language using the corresponding vocabulary." Pushkin's rejection of word-for-word translation can be revealed clearly.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's influence on the cause of translation in Russia was huge, and his influence refers neither to his few translations nor to his theoretical views, but to the fact that Pushkin pioneered the translation of Russian literature. Although his ideas on translation cannot be called a theory, they do provide certain unique and new translation ideas for later generations of literary translators. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:29, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.1. Belinsky's ideas on translation. ===<br />
Vissarion Grigorievich Belinsky (Виссарион Григорьевич Белинский, 1811-1848) was a famous literary critic of the nineteenth century and one of the most involved in the world of translation among Russian literary activists of his time. Belinsky was fluent in French and as a young man translated for two magazines, Miscellany and Telescope. Later, after a career in literary criticism, he published numerous articles on translation and criticism of translated works.<br />
Belinsky's and Pushkin's views on translation were very similar, both advocating that translations should not be word-for-word. Belinsky first introduced the term 'theory' of translation, and in his 1838 review of Polevoy's translation of Hamlet, he first proposed the need for a theory of translation. He considered the role of theory: "Any object that man perceives has a theory of its own, and a theory is the knowledge of the laws by which the object exists."<br />
<br />
Belinsky argues that in translation: "Closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original. Each <br />
language has its own distinctive expressions, characteristics and qualities; these are so distinctive that to correctly convey a certain image or sentence, it is sometimes necessary to change them completely in the translation. The corresponding image, like the corresponding sentence, does not necessarily lie in a superficial agreement of words: the inner life of the translation should be made to correspond to the inner life of the original". It can be seen that Belinsky, like Pushkin, was also opposed to word-for-word rigid translations, his view being that the task of translating a language lies in reproducing the spirit of the original. He believed that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of a translation, so the question of the interrelationship between national character and translatability has always troubled Belinsky. He pointed out that 'there is only one rule for translating a literary work - to convey the spirit of the work being translated, and this can only be done by translating it into Russian as the author himself would have written it in Russian, if he had been Russian' (The Complete Works of Belinsky Volume 2).<br />
<br />
Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a number of achievements, and his view of translation as a whole is a complete and rigorous system. His view of translation was developed gradually, and in the process it was dominated by an increasingly firm recognition of the possibility of a successful solution to the task of translation, that is, of translatability. Belinsky believed that a translation must be discerning in its content and form in relation to the original. He has pointed out that "approaching the original is not the same as conveying the letters, but rather the spirit of the original." It is also suggested that the translator and the original author are two different kinds of people. But in order to convey the 'spirit' of the original in the translation, the translator's genius needs to reach a certain tacit understanding with this 'spirit'. He advocates the preservation of exoticism in translation, opposes naturalisation, the arbitrary distortion of the face of the original work, the overwhelming of the original author with the personality of the translator's style, the emphasis on both likeness and likeness, etc. However, while recognising the importance of reproducing the poetic form of the original work in translation, Belinsky also took into account the state of development of Russian literature in translation. This also led him to look favourably on translating good poetry in prose, seeing such translations as a form of transition for Russian readers to the treasures of world literature.<br />
<br />
Although Belinsky wrote little about literary translation, his theoretical views contain the kernel of the realist principles of translation proposed by contemporary Soviet literary translators. His ideas on translation had a very profound influence on the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Vissarion Grigorievich Belinsky (Виссарион Григорьевич Белинский, 1811-1848) was a famous literary critic of the nineteenth century and one of the most active in the world of translation among Russian literary activists of his time. Belinsky was fluent in French and when he was a young man he translated for two magazines, Miscellany and Telescope. Later, after a career in literary criticism, he published numerous articles on translation and criticism of translated works.<br />
<br />
Belinsky's and Pushkin's views on translation were very similar, both advocating that translations should not be word-for-word. Belinsky first introduced the term 'theory' of translation, and in his 1838 review of Polevoy's translation of Hamlet, he first proposed the need for a theory of translation. He considered the role of theory: "Any object that man perceives has a theory of its own, and a theory is the knowledge of the laws by which the object exists."<br />
<br />
Belinsky argues that in translation: "Closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original. Each language has its own distinctive expressions, characteristics and qualities; these are so distinctive that to correctly convey a certain image or sentence, it is sometimes necessary to change them completely in the translation. The corresponding image, like the corresponding sentence, does not necessarily lie in a superficial agreement of words: the inner life of the translation should be made to correspond to the inner life of the original". It can be seen that Belinsky, like Pushkin, was also opposed to word-for-word rigid translations, his view being that the task of translating a language lies in reproducing the spirit of the original. He believed that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of a translation, so the question of the interrelationship between national character and translatability has always troubled Belinsky. He pointed out that 'there is only one rule for translating a literary work - to convey the spirit of the work being translated, and this can only be done by translating it into Russian as the author himself would have written it in Russian, if he had been Russian' (The Complete Works of Belinsky Volume 2).<br />
<br />
Belinsky's career as a translator had a number of achievements, and his view of translation as a whole is a complete and rigorous system. His view of translation was developed gradually, and in this process it was dominated by an increasingly firm recognition of the possibility of a successful solution to the task of translation, that is, of translatability. Belinsky believed that a translation must be discerning in its content and form in relation to the original. He has pointed out that "approaching the original is not the same as conveying the letters, but rather the spirit of the original." It is also suggested that the translator and the original author are two different kinds of people. But in order to convey the 'spirit' of the original in the translation, the translator's genius needs to reach a certain tacit understanding with this 'spirit'. He advocates the preservation of exoticism in translation, opposes naturalisation, the arbitrary distortion of the face of the original work, the overwhelming of the original author with the personality of the translator's style, the emphasis on both likeness and likeness, etc. However, while recognising the importance of reproducing the poetic form of the original work in translation, Belinsky also took into account the state of development of Russian literature in translation. This also led him to look favourably on translating good poetry in prose, seeing such translations as a form of transition for Russian readers to the treasures of world literature.<br />
<br />
Although Belinsky wrote little about literary translation, his theoretical views contain the kernel of the realist principles of translation proposed by contemporary Soviet literary translators. His ideas on translation had a very profound influence on the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:56, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.Conclusion ===<br />
Translation has demonstrated its importance in social activity since antiquity, yet it was only in the twentieth century that it became a widely followed professional discipline. This article reviews Russian translation activity and translation thought in pre-Soviet Russia, exploring its development before the formation of a theoretical system. Throughout the history of translation, Russian scholars have contributed greatly to the development of translation literature in the world. Through combing through the history of Russian translation, we learn that the translation ideas of a number of outstanding writers, though not theoretical, have had an unmistakable impact on later generations. When discussing the translation ideas of 19th-century writers, we are inspired to insist on the principle that "closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original", emphasizing the ideological content and literary value of the translation, that the translation should serve the readers, and that the translation should be people-oriented. These ideas influenced, to a greater or lesser extent, the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, the study of the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia is not only conducive to sorting out Russian translation ideas Russian learners can better understand the characteristics of their translations when translating and improve the accuracy of their translations.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:44, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Translation has played its important role in the social activities since antiquity, yet it was until in the twentieth century that it became a widely followed professional discipline. This paper reviews Russian translators and translation thoughts in pre-Soviet Russia, exploring its development before the formation of a theoretical system. Throughout the history of translation, Russian scholars have contributed greatly to the development of translation literature in the world. By combing through the history of Russian translation, we learn that the translation ideas of a number of outstanding writers, though not very theoretical, have had an unmistakable impact on later generations. When discussing the translation ideas of 19th-century writers, we are inspired to insist on the principle that "closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original", emphasizing the ideological content and literary value of the translation that the translation should serve the readers, and that the translation should be people-oriented. These ideas influenced, to a greater or lesser extent, the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, the study of the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia not only is conducive to sorting out Russian translation ideas, but also make Russian learners better understand the characteristics of their translations when translating and improving the accuracy of their translations. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 14:02, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.References ===<br />
1.Wu, Keli 吴克礼（2006）.俄苏翻译理论流派综述 The Translation Methods and Studies in USSR. 上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
2.Guo Lin 郭琳（2006）.俄罗斯语言学派翻译理论若干问题研究[D] A Study of Some Problems of Translation Theory of the Russian School of Philology.首都师范大学 Capital Normal University.<br />
<br />
3.Feng Xin 冯欣（2009）. 俄罗斯翻译理论史及其影响研究[D] A study of the history of Russian translation theory and its influence.上海外国语大学 Shanghai International Studies University.<br />
<br />
4.Wang，Yulun；Jiang,Wanzhu 王育伦,姜万砫（1989).别林斯基论文学翻译[J] Belinsky on Literary Translation .中国翻译 Chinese translators Journal ,(03):53-55.<br />
<br />
5.Li Zheng, Fan Min 李铮,范敏（2010）. 普希金与翻译[J] Pushkin and Translation. 现代交际 Modern Intercourse Journal,(05):69.</div>Zhang Yiranhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_5&diff=132591Hist Trans Theo EN 52021-12-14T02:16:34Z<p>Zhang Yiran: /* Introduction */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''History of Translation Theories'''<br />
<br />
[[History_of_Translation_Theories|Overview Page of History of Translation Theories]]<br />
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30 Chapters（0/30)<br />
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[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_1]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_2]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_3]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_4]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_5]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_6]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_7]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_8]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_9]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_10]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_11]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_12]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_13]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_14]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_15]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_16]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_17]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_18]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_19]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_20]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_21]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_22]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_23]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_24]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_25]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_26]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_27]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_28]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_29]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_30]] ...<br />
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[[Book_projects|Back to translation project overview]] [[DCG-To-Do|Zur To-Do-Liste]]<br />
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=Chapter 5 History of Translation Theories from Early Russia to the Soviet Union=<br />
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'''从古罗斯到苏联前的翻译理论史'''<br />
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张怡然 Zhang Yiran,Hunan Normal University,China<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation as a means of intercultural communication, each country has a distinctive translation ideology. This article focuses on the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia. Through analyzing the history of translation, can find that Russia has formed a literary tradition of translation studies in the late 18th century. In the 19th century, Pushkin, Lermontov, Turgenev and other outstanding poets and literary scholars were keen on translation, especially in the middle of the century when Belinsky and other famous literary critics published a series of comments on literary translation, which emphasized the literary tradition of Russian translation to an unparalleled extent, which is rare in the history of translation in the world. The general principles of Russian literary translation thought were also formed during this period: namely, to insist on commenting on the merits of a translation in terms of the overall effect of the work, to emphasize the ideological content and literary value of the translation, and that the translation should serve the reader and be people-oriented. The above ideas influenced the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, a study of the history of translation theory in pre-Soviet Russia will help learners of Russian to better understand the characteristics of their translations and to improve the accuracy and peopleliness of their translations.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 12:57, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation is a means of intercultural communication, and each country has its own distinctive translation theory system. This paper focuses on the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia. By analyzing the history of translation, it is obvious that a literary tradition of translation studies has been formed in Russia in the late 18th century. In the 19th century, Pushkin, Lermontov, Turgenev and other outstanding poets and literary scholars were keen on translation, especially in the middle of the century when Belinsky and other famous literary critics published a series of comments on literary translation, which emphasized the literary tradition of Russian translation to an unparalleled extent, which is rare in the history of translation in the world. The general principles of Russian literary translation thoughts were also formed during this period: namely, to insist on commenting on the merits and weakness of a translation in terms of the overall effect of the work, to emphasize the ideological content and literary value of the translation, and the translation should serve the reader and be people-oriented. The above ideas influenced the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, a study of the history of translation theory in pre-Soviet Russia will help learners of Russian to understand the characteristics of their translations profoundly and to improve the accuracy and fluency of their translations.Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:03, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation theories, Translation ideas，History of Translation<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译作为一种跨文化交际的手段，每个国家都有独具特色的翻译思想。本文主要探讨苏联前俄国的翻译历史。通过梳理其翻译史可发现，俄国于18世纪末期就已形成了翻译研究的文学传统。进入19世纪后, 普希金、莱蒙托夫、屠格涅夫等优秀诗人、文学家对翻译的热衷, 尤其是世纪中叶别林斯基等著名文学评论家发表一系列关于文学翻译的评论, 更是把俄国翻译的文学传统强调到无以复加的程度, 这在世界翻译史上都是罕见的。俄国文学翻译思想的总原则也在这一时期形成:即坚持从作品的整体效果上来评论译作优劣, 强调译作的思想内容和文学价值, 翻译应为读者服务, 译文应具有人民性。上述思想影响了苏联时期翻译理论的形成。因此，对苏联前俄国翻译理论史的研究有利于俄语学习者在翻译时更好的理解其翻译特点，提高翻译的准确性和人民性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译理论 翻译思想 翻译史 <br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
This essay provides a comprehensive and concise overview of the history of translation in Russia: Russian written translations began in the Kievan Rus' era, when religious subjects were the main focus of translations, especially the Bible, which was translated from Greek. Religious translations continued to flourish under the Moscow principality, represented by Maksim Gleick (МаксимГрек). At the same time, the national character of Russian translations began to emerge, and the languages of translation expanded from Greek to Latin, German and West Slavic, and the subjects covered included Western chivalric fiction, geographical literature, alchemy and medicine. In the eighteenth century, Peter the Great introduced a number of measures to focus on translation, making this period a turning point in the history of Russian translation. The proliferation of specialised translations (e.g. of legal texts) was the main feature of translation activity in the early eighteenth century. After this period Russian translators began to translate literary works.The main translators were Lomonosov (М.В. Ломоносов) and Tretyakovsky (V.K. Тредьяковский). In the second half of the eighteenth century, translation was given greater importance in Russia, and the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books was founded by Ekaterina II, in which a large number of outstanding translators emerged. The nineteenth century was a golden period in the history of Russian translation. Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин) and Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский) both produced many excellent translations. Pushkin (A.С.Пушкин) and Lermontov (M.Ю.Лермонтов) contributed greatly to the development of Russian literature in translation, while Fetter concentrated on love poetry. In the twentieth century, the Russian translation community made significant achievements in theoretical translation studies. In particular, the rapid development of the philological school and the debate between the literary and philological schools made Soviet translation theory one of the leading theories of translation in the world (Guo,2006:5).--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 12:57, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
This paper provides a comprehensive and concise overview of the history of translation in Russia: Russian written translations began in the Kievan Rus' era, when religious subjects were the main focus of translations, especially the Bible, translated from Greek. Religious translations continued to flourish under the Moscow principality, represented by Maksim Gleick (МаксимГрек). At the same time, the national character of Russian translations began to emerge, and the languages of translation expanded from Greek to Latin, German and West Slavic, and the subjects covered included Western chivalric fiction, geographical literature, alchemy and medicine. In the eighteenth century, Peter the Great introduced a number of measures to focus on translation, leading this period to a turning point in the history of Russian translation. The proliferation of specialised translations (e.g. of legal texts) was the main feature of translation activity in the early eighteenth century. After this period Russian translators began to translate literary works.The main translators were Lomonosov (М.В. Ломоносов) and Tretyakovsky (V.K. Тредьяковский). In the second half of the eighteenth century, translation was paid greater attention in Russia, and the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books was founded by Ekaterina II, in which a large number of outstanding translators emerged. The nineteenth century was a golden period in the history of Russian translation when Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин) and Rukovsky (В.А.Жуковский) both produced many excellent translations. Pushkin (A.С.Пушкин) and Lermontov (M.Ю.Лермонтов) contributed greatly to the development of Russian literature in translation, while Fetter concentrated on love poetry. In the twentieth century, the Russian translation community made significant achievements in theoretical translation studies. In particular, the rapid development of the philological school and the debate between the literary and philological schools made Soviet translation theory one of the leading theories of translation in the world. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:14, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===1.The history of Russian translation and the period of enlightenment of its translation theory. ===<br />
1. The emergence and development of literary translation.<br />
<br />
Translation activity has a long history in Russia, the beginnings of which can be traced back to the time of Kievan Rus'. A relatively sophisticated system of writing, literature and translation was already in place in ancient Russia in the ninth century AD. Frequent cultural and trade exchanges with Byzantine, German, French and Scandinavian countries contributed significantly to the development of translation in Russia at that time, as did contacts with Eastern countries. From Kievan Rus' onwards, Russian translation methods oscillated between two main tendencies, either to follow the original texts exactly, up to the point of translating them word for word, or to be arbitrary, even to the point of rewriting, adding or deleting at will. The first tendency is the main characteristic of translations of the Bible and other sacred books, while the second, though not absolute, can be said to characterize most secular works (Feng,2006:8)(Wu,2006:4)(Wu,2006:4).<br />
<br />
2.Initiation of translation activities-religious translation. <br />
<br />
In 864 AD, the Byzantine king sent two Greek priests, Kirill (Кирилл) and Mephodi (Мефодий), to spread Christianity among the Slavic people. At the beginning of their mission, they created a new alphabet (now known as the Kirill alphabet) and used this writing system to translate many religious texts from Greek into the ancient Church Slavonic. Among the results were the New Testament, hymnals and prayer books(Feng,2006:8). <br />
<br />
In 988 AD, Rus was baptised and Kievan Rus was converted to Christianity. A large number of translations appeared instantly to help Protestants become familiar with the new religious philosophy and ethical system and to understand the rituals and customs of the Church. These translations were in a variety of genres, including the Acts of the Saints, sermons, chronicles and so on. In addition, apocryphal books telling magical and fantastical stories were also popular, and some of them had similarities with the later 'fantasy novels'. Most of these translations were done in Bulgaria and were popularised in Rus. At that time, translations of religious texts were mostly word-for-word. There were also a small number of works that, unlike the 'elaborate copies of the original', had a separate literary value. In one case, a large number of details of Russian life were added to the storyline of a sermon (e.g. The Tales of Achild the Wise). In another case, military historical narratives are interspersed with the terminology of the ancient Russian feudal system and certain literary images from the stories of ancient Russian warriors (e.g. Joseph Flav's History of the Jewish War). This translation can be considered one of the most successful of the period. In the translation, the translator succeeded in avoiding many word-for-word translations). In a third case, the manuscripts copied by Ancient Rus, although based on Greek epic poetry (e.g. The Great Work of Digenes Akritas), often borrowed from Russian folk poetry, so that a large number of folk compositions appeared. As a result of this literary process, the translated literature was smoothly enriched by Russian manuscripts, which contributed to the development of original Russian literature and consolidated its links with the medieval literary process. Unfortunately, at that early stage in the development of translation, the translators were not signed, so it is impossible to verify whether the works were translated at home or abroad(Feng,2006:9). <br />
<br />
During the difficult period of 'Mongol rule' (1228-1480), translations continued to play an important role in the cultural life of the country. The remaining chapters of the Bible were translated one after another, and previous translations were again proofread and revised. In addition to religious translations, more translations of non-religious subjects emerge, such as The Kingdom of India and The Trojan War. Most of the works were still translated from Greek, while works probably translated from Latin and ancient Hebrew also appeared. During this period, Russian began to take shape through the interaction of Old Slavonic (Church Slavonic) and local national languages. However, religious texts were still only translated into Church Slavonic, and the use of this language was by then restricted to ecclesiastical matters. At the same time, political and commercial exchanges with other countries were more likely to be in Russian, which was becoming increasingly sophisticated: elements of the combination of Old Slavonic and Russian can also be found in original works（Wu,2006:6). <br />
<br />
14-15th century literature in translation by Rus was characterised by an obsession with new themes. These were mainly new works of tranquillity-abstinence literature, or works recommended by and familiar to the tranquillists. This mystical genre was introduced to Rus after it had swept through the Byzantine and Yugoslav peoples. It was reflected in the semi-secular translations popular at the time (for example, The Trojan War). <br />
<br />
In the 16th century AD, Moscow eventually became the political centre of Russia, as well as the translation centre of the country. In 1515, the Grand Duke of Moscow, Vassily III (Василий Ⅲ), asked a Greek monastery to send a learned translator to Moscow. This man, who accompanied the Greek mission to Moscow in 1516, was the historically famous Maksim Grek (Максим Грек). Maksim Greek worked as a translator throughout his life, studying most of the religious texts and some of the non-religious works during this period. In addition, he also proofread and annotated previously existing translations(Wu,2006:7). <br />
<br />
At the beginning, Maksim knew neither Russian nor Old Slavonic, so he divided the translation into two steps: first, he translated from Greek to Latin, and then his assistant translated from Latin to Old Slavonic. In the process of revising existing translations, he often broke with established tradition and was therefore denounced as blasphemous. Maxim was also a prolific writer, educator and philosopher. His writings contain many insights into the art of translation - the earliest recorded treatise on translation in Russia. Maxim insisted that the original text must be carefully analysed in order to grasp its full subtleties and implications. Therefore, the translator must not only master the language of the original, but also have a broad knowledge of the language and prepare for the translation. To support his argument, Maxim used Greek lexicography, phonetic organisation and phonetics involved in translation. His other major contribution was the compilation of a dictionary containing Greek, Latin and Hebrew nouns, which was also the first of its kind in Russian history. Although it was recognised at the time that translators should have a command of both languages as well as a profound background knowledge, the practitioners of translation at the time lacked the necessary qualities and their translations were not as good as they could have been(Wu,2006:7).--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 13:39, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
1. The emergence and development of literary translation. <br />
<br />
Translation activity has a long history in Russia, the beginnings of which can be traced back to the Time of Kievan Rus'. A relatively sophisticated system of writing, literature and translation was already in ancient Russia in the ninth century AD. Frequent cultural and trade exchanges with Byzantine, German, French and Scandinavian countries contributed significantly to the development of translation in Russia at that time, as did contacts with Eastern countries. From Kievan Rus' onwards, Russian translation methods oscillated between two main tendencies, either to follow the original texts exactly, up to the point of translating them word by word, or to be arbitrary, even to the point of rewriting, adding words or deleting at will. The first tendency is the main characteristic of translations of the Bible and other sacred books, while the second, though not absolutely, can be said to characterize most secular works.<br />
<br />
2.Initiation of translation activities-religious translation. <br />
<br />
In 864 AD, the Byzantine king sent two Greek priests, Kirill (Кирилл) and Mephodi (Мефодий), to spread Christianity among the Slavic people. At the beginning of their mission, they created a new alphabet (now known as the Kirill alphabet) and used this writing system to translate many religious texts from Greek into the ancient Church Slavonic. Among the results were the New Testament, hymnals and prayer books. In 988 AD, Rus was baptised and Kievan Rus was converted to Christianity. A large number of translations appeared instantly to help Protestants become familiar with the new religious philosophy and ethical system and to understand the rituals and customs of the Church. These translations were in a variety of genres, including the Acts of the Saints, sermons, chronicles and so on. In addition, apocryphal books telling magical and fantastical stories were also popular, and some of them had similarities with the later 'fantasy novels'. Most of these translations were done in Bulgaria and were popularised in Rus. At that time, translations of religious texts were mostly word-for-word. There were also a small number of works that, unlike the 'elaborate copies of the original', had a separate literary values. In one case, a large number of details of Russian life were added to the storyline of a sermon (e.g. The Tales of Achild the Wise). In another case, military historical narratives are interspersed with the terminology of the ancient Russian feudal system and certain literary images from the stories of ancient Russian warriors (e.g. Joseph Flav's History of the Jewish War). This translation can be considered one of the most successful of the period. In the translation, the translator succeeded in avoiding many word-for-word translations). Thirdly, the manuscripts copied by Ancient Rus, although based on Greek epic poetry (e.g. The Great Work of Digenes Akritas), often borrowed from Russian folk poetry, so that a large number of folk compositions appeared. As a result of this literary process, the translated literature was smoothly enriched by Russian manuscripts, which contributed to the development of original Russian literature and consolidated its links with the medieval literary process. Unfortunately, at that early stage in the development of translation, the translators were not signed, so it is impossible to verify whether the works were translated at home or abroad. During the difficult period of 'Mongol rule' (1228-1480), translations continued to play an important role in the cultural life of the country. The remaining chapters of the Bible were translated one after another, and previous translations were again proofread and revised. In addition to religious translations, more translations of non-religious subjects emerge, such as The Kingdom of India and The Trojan War. Most of the works were still translated from Greek, while works probably translated from Latin and ancient Hebrew also appeared. During this period, Russian began to take shape through the interaction of Old Slavonic (Church Slavonic) and local national languages. However, religious texts were still only translated into Church Slavonic, and the use of this language was by then restricted to ecclesiastical matters. At the same time, political and commercial exchanges with other countries were more likely to be in Russian, which was becoming increasingly sophisticated: elements of the combination of Old Slavonic and Russian can also be found in original works. 14-15th century literature in translation by Rus was characterised by an obsession with new themes. These were mainly new works of tranquillity-abstinence literature, or works recommended by and familiar to the tranquillists. This mystical genre was introduced to Rus after it had swept through the Byzantine and Yugoslav peoples. It was reflected in the semi-secular translations popular at the time (for example, The Trojan War). In the 16th century AD, Moscow eventually became the political center of Russia, as well as the translation center of the country. In 1515, the Grand Duke of Moscow, Vassily III (Василий Ⅲ), asked a Greek monastery to send a learned translator to Moscow. This man, who accompanied the Greek mission to Moscow in 1516, was the historically famous Maksim Grek (Максим Грек). Maxim Greek worked as a translator throughout his life, studying most of the religious texts and some of the non-religious works during this period. In addition, he also proofread and annotated previously existing translations. At the beginning, Maxim knew neither Russian nor Old Slavonic, so he divided the translation into two steps: first, he translated from Greek to Latin, and then his assistant translated from Latin to Old Slavonic. In the process of revising existing translations, he often broke with established tradition and was therefore denounced as blasphemous. Maxim was also a prolific writer, educator and philosopher. His writings contain many insights into the art of translation - the earliest recorded treatise on translation in Russia. Maxim insisted that the original text must be carefully analysed in order to grasp its full subtleties and implications. Therefore, the translator must not only master the language of the original, but also have a broad knowledge of the language and prepare for the translation. To support his argument, Maxim used Greek lexicography, phonetic organisation and phonetics involved in translation. His other major contribution was the compilation of a dictionary containing Greek, Latin and Hebrew nouns, which was also the first of its kind in Russian history. Although it was recognized at the time that translators should have a command of both languages and profound background knowledge, the practitioners of translation at the time lacked the necessary qualities and their translations were not as good as they should have been. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. Overview of the Russian school of Translation. ===<br />
===2.1 18th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The eighteenth century is an important period in the history of Russian translation. The status of translation in social culture has undergone a qualitative change, and this is due to Peter the Great's reform. At the beginning of the century, translation was still mostly related to professional documents such as laws and contracts. Later, the translator's tentacles gradually expanded to literary translation, for example, French poetry translation. The famous translators of this period are Sumarokov(А.П.Сумароков), Lomonosov(М.В.Ломоносов), Tretyakovsky (В.К.Тредьяковский) and so on. In the second half of the 18th century, the Association for the Translation of Foreign Books officially put forward the importance of translation. The organization has been active for 15 years with over 100 members.<br />
<br />
1.Imperial support for translation. The political reforms introduced by Peter the Great also led to intensive economic and cultural exchanges between Russia and European countries. This created a huge demand for translations of scientific and technical literature and literary works. Translators were required to produce works of a high standard.<br />
<br />
Peter the Great issued a special decree on translation, requiring "faithful" communication of the original text. In a directive issued to his subordinates in 1709, he explicitly stated that when translating foreign books, word-for-word translations were to be avoided and that the content of the original text should be clearly expressed in one's own language, based on an understanding of its content. On the other hand, Peter the Great's subversion of the written language initially caused confusion in Russian translation circles. A large number of foreign languages entered the Russian language, and the piles of foreign syntactic structures distracted attention. In any case, Peter the Great's reforms did set a new norm and a new direction for translation. <br />
<br />
In terms of content, Peter the Great's reforms were, from the very beginning, inextricably linked to the translation of scientific and technical texts, such as the many books on military defence engineering that he ordered to be translated and used to strengthen Russia's military forces. Peter the Great also placed great importance on the translation of prose, poetry and other literary works. During this period, the Russian language began to develop its own literary model, and many educated Russians saw translation as a way of enriching the language and enhancing its uniqueness and expressiveness. <br />
<br />
From around the 1830s, the importance of translating Western European scientific and technical texts gradually gave way to literary works such as prose and poetry. Writers who were also translators turned their attention to the work of new Western European writers, mainly poets, especially French poets. At the same time, the legacy of the Greco-Roman period also entered their minds. They began to translate the works of philosophers and historians, which - on the one hand - gave rise to difficulties in literary rhetoric and scientific terminology and, on the other, played an important role in the formation of a standard Russian language. <br />
<br />
From that time onwards, translation also became an organised activity, with the emergence of specific bodies responsible for the organisation and management of translation work. 1735 saw the establishment of the first specialised translation organisation, the Russian Society, at the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences. The Society had a professional group of translators and some of the academy's scholars, such as Lomonosov and Tretyakovsky, were among its members. The Association was responsible for selecting works, defining the rules or principles of translation, commenting on translations, and training translators. It is worth mentioning that the Academy of Sciences also set up a school of foreign languages to train official translators. In 1748, the Academy implemented Queen Elizabeth's decree to increase the number of translations of non-religious books and publicly appealed to "the nobility and other classes of intellectuals" to take an active part in the translation process. <br />
<br />
In the second half of the 18th century, Ekaterina II's efforts to create a 'civilised state' not only led to the development of literature, but also gave preferential treatment to writers. For example, in order to select the best original texts, she ordered the establishment of the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books (1768 - 1783). The Society was dedicated to providing excellent conditions for translation work throughout Russia. The purchase of manuscripts was financed out of Ekaterina's own funds. Later, the Society also discussed a proposal to establish a translation bureau under the Academy of Sciences (1790). The 114 members of the Society included such notable figures as Tretyakovsky, Sumarokov and Radishev. For 14 years the Association was active, producing numerous literary translations and likewise contributing to the discussion of theoretical issues in translation.<br />
<br />
2.The emergence of poetry translation. Translation of poetry also developed in Russia in the 18th century, and later became one of the jewels of the country's literature. The great Russian scholar and poet Lomonosov was a major contributor to this process. A great deal of the work created by Lomonosov and his contemporaries Sumarokov and Tretyakovsky was poetry in translation. They often translated while exploring theoretical issues in translation: they would explain in their works why they translated this way and not that way; they stressed the importance of translation work and the creative value it contained. Among the most prestigious writers and translators in Russian literature at the time, there were several interesting competitions in which two or three poets translated the same work at the same time, and their translations were published in journals. It was often the case that different translations of the same work were published at the same time, without the translator's name, for the judgement of "literary lovers and peers". This phenomenon also supports the idea that the 18th century was a period of 'experimentation' in the history of Russian translation. <br />
<br />
Lomonosov's translations from Latin, German, French and Greek are numerous and varied, showing his talent for both rhyming and free verse. He was keen to reproduce the rhythmic structure of the original texts, using a variety of iambic and iambic meter to convey the Alexandrian style of French epic and the hexameter style of Greek tragedy. Russian poetry was not very developed at the time and was still based on syllables. <br />
Lomonosov's innovations enriched Russian poetry and established new forms and traditions of Russian poetic style and rhyme. <br />
<br />
In contrast, Kantymir (Д.М.Кантемира) and Tretyakovsky's greatest quest was to insist on a faithful translation of the original. In the process, the translators had to contend with the problems of reams of vocabulary and rhetorical rules. Tretyakovsky became famous for his successful use of Russian rhyme to translate many verses of the original in his translation of Paul Thielmann's A Journey to Love Island. In the introduction to the novel, the translator states his approach to translation: "The translator is only one person away from the author. I would add that if the author is original, the translator should be even more original (I am not referring to myself, but to a good translator)". He believes that "prose to prose" and "poetry to poetry" can be as good as the original, and that a good translation is one that "describes the full meaning of each verse". Kantymir 's translation of Horace's Letters and other poetic works in Latin and French, although less well-known than the former, is equally valuable.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:40, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The eighteenth century is an important period in the history of Russian translation. The status of translation in social culture has undergone a qualitative change, and this is due to Peter the Great's reform. At the beginning of the century, translation was still mostly related to professional documents such as laws and contracts. Later, the translator's tentacles gradually expanded to literary translation, for example, French poetry translation. The famous translators of this period are Sumarokov(А.П.Сумароков), Lomonosov(М.В.Ломоносов), Tretyakovsky (В.К.Тредьяковский) and so on. In the second half of the 18th century, the Association for the Translation of Foreign Books officially put forward the importance of translation. The organization has been active for 15 years with over 100 members. The following points reflected the reasons why translation was paid more attention in the eighteenth century.<br />
<br />
1.Imperial support for translation. <br />
<br />
The political reforms introduced by Peter the Great also led to intensive economic and cultural exchanges between Russia and European countries. This created a huge demand for translations of scientific and technical literature and literary works. Translators were required to produce works of a high standard.Peter the Great issued a special decree on translation, requiring "faithful" communication of the original text. In a directive issued to his subordinates in 1709, he explicitly stated that when translating foreign books, word-for-word translations were to be avoided and that the content of the original text should be clearly expressed in one's own language, based on an understanding of its content. On the other hand, Peter the Great's subversion of the written language initially caused confusion in Russian translation circles. A large number of foreign languages entered the Russian language, and the piles of foreign syntactic structures distracted attention. In any case, Peter the Great's reforms did set a new norm and a new direction for translation. In terms of content, Peter the Great's reforms were, from the very beginning, inextricably linked to the translation of scientific and technical texts, such as the many books on military defence engineering that he ordered to be translated and used to strengthen Russia's military forces. Peter the Great also placed great importance on the translation of prose, poetry and other literary works. During this period, the Russian language began to develop its own literary model, and many educated Russians saw translation as a way of enriching the language and enhancing its uniqueness and expressiveness. <br />
<br />
From around the 1830s, the importance of translating Western European scientific and technical texts gradually gave way to literary works such as prose and poetry. Writers who were also translators turned their attention to the work of new Western European writers, mainly poets, especially French poets. At the same time, the legacy of the Greco-Roman period also entered their minds. They began to translate the works of philosophers and historians, which - on the one hand - gave rise to difficulties in literary rhetoric and scientific terminology and, on the other, played an important role in the formation of a standard Russian language. <br />
<br />
From that time onwards, translation also became an organised activity, with the emergence of specific bodies responsible for the organisation and management of translation work. 1735 saw the establishment of the first specialised translation organisation, the Russian Society, at the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences. The Society had a professional group of translators and some of the academy's scholars, such as Lomonosov and Tretyakovsky, were among its members. The Association was responsible for selecting works, defining the rules or principles of translation, commenting on translations, and training translators. It is worth mentioning that the Academy of Sciences also set up a school of foreign languages to train official translators. In 1748, the Academy implemented Queen Elizabeth's decree to increase the number of translations of non-religious books and publicly appealed to "the nobility and other classes of intellectuals" to take an active part in the translation process. <br />
<br />
In the second half of the 18th century, Ekaterina II's efforts to create a 'civilised state' not only led to the development of literature, but also gave preferential treatment to writers. For example, in order to select the best original texts, she ordered the establishment of the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books (1768-1783). The Society was dedicated to providing excellent conditions for translation work throughout Russia. The purchase of manuscripts was financed out of Ekaterina's own funds. Later, the Society also discussed a proposal to establish a translation bureau under the Academy of Sciences (1790). The 114 members of the Society included such notable figures as Tretyakovsky, Sumarokov and Radishev. For 14 years the Association was active, producing numerous literary translations and likewise contributing to the discussion of theoretical issues in translation.<br />
<br />
2.The emergence of poetry translation.<br />
<br />
Translation of poetry also developed in Russia in the 18th century, and later became one of the jewels of the country's literature. The great Russian scholar and poet Lomonosov was a major contributor to this process. A great deal of the work created by Lomonosov and his contemporaries Sumarokov and Tretyakovsky was poetry in translation. They often translated while exploring theoretical issues in translation: they would explain in their works why they translated this way and not that way; they stressed the importance of translation work and the creative value it contained. Among the most prestigious writers and translators in Russian literature at the time, there were several interesting competitions in which two or three poets translated the same work at the same time, and their translations were published in journals. It was often the case that different translations of the same work were published at the same time, without the translator's name, for the judgement of "literary lovers and peers". This phenomenon also supports the idea that the 18th century was a period of 'experimentation' in the history of Russian translation. <br />
<br />
Lomonosov's translations works in Latin, German, French and Greek are numerous and varied, showing his talent for both rhyming and free verse. He was keen to reproduce the rhythmic structure of the original texts, using a variety of iambic and iambic meter to convey the Alexandrian style of French epic and the hexameter style of Greek tragedy. Russian poetry was not very developed at the time and was still based on syllables. <br />
Lomonosov's innovations enriched Russian poetry and established new forms and traditions of Russian poetic style and rhyme. <br />
<br />
In contrast, Kantymir (Д.М.Кантемира) and Tretyakovsky's greatest quest was to insist on a faithful translation of the original. In the process, the translators had to contend with the problems of reams of vocabulary and rhetorical rules. Tretyakovsky became famous for his successful use of Russian rhyme to translate many verses of the original in his translation of Paul Thielmann's A Journey to Love Island. In the introduction to the novel, the translator states his approach to translation: "The translator is only one person away from the author. I would add that if the author is original, the translator should be even more original (I am not referring to myself, but to a good translator)". He believes that "prose to prose" and "poetry to poetry" can be as good as the original, and that a good translation is one that "describes the full meaning of each verse". Kantymir 's translation of Horace's Letters and other poetic works in Latin and French, although less well-known than the former, is equally valuable. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 12:39, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.2 First half of the19th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The nineteenth century was a golden age in the history of Russian translation. If translation had established itself as a profession in the first hundred years, it was elevated to the level of art in this century. The nineteenth century produced a number of masters of translation, including Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин), Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский), Pushkin (А.С.Пушкин), Lermontov (М.Ю.Лермонтов) and Fetter (А.Фет). <br />
<br />
The new Russian school of translation owes its formation to the historian Nikolai Karamzin and the poet Zhukovsky. Karamzin published a number of translations in several magazines between the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century. He saw translations as a good help in perfecting a writer's style: a source of information that would satisfy human curiosity, inform historical facts, entertain women and provide material for new magazines. As a young man, Karamzin was strongly opposed to the alteration of and disloyalty to the original texts, but later became a champion of free translation, famously saying: "Whoever follows the author of the original text step by step is no different from a servant who serves his lord". Karamzin's translations cover an admirable range of genres and languages: he translated works by both classical and contemporaneous authors, in Greek, French, Latin, German, English, Italian and some Oriental languages. <br />
<br />
Pushkin called Zhukovsky "a genius of translation". After graduating from the Moscow Noble Boarding University in 1802, Zhukovsky devoted himself to translation. It was thanks to his efforts that Russian readers were able to access the works of world literary giants such as Schiller, Goethe, Byron and Walters Scott. Zhukovsky's creative translation activities also ranged from Charles Bello to Grimm's Fairy Tales. From Charles Bellow to Grimm's fairy tales, from Homer's epic Odyssey to the poetic history of ancient Rus' Igor's Expedition, all became his original texts. There is no denying that Zhukovsky is a master in the history of Russian translation. Like Karamzin, Zhukovsky was a fan of free translation, sometimes rewriting the original or even creating a new story from its subject: sometimes transferring the setting of events to Russia and giving Russian names to the characters. For example, in his 1808 translation of the German Romantic poet Bilge's narrative poem Lenore, he changed the heroine's name from Lenore to Lyudmila and moved the story to the time of the Livonian War in 16th-century Russia. Zhukovsky believed that the "unsavoury character" of the work should be weakened while retaining the original author's ideas. His talent enabled him to reproduce the style, rhythm and tone of the original poems, while some of his best works were also faithful to the original. In later years, however, his view of translation changed in response to the tendency to stay close to the original, and he retranslated several of his previous translations to make them more faithful to the original, including Lenore. The Russian school of translation owes much to the tradition of translation created by Zhukovsky.<br />
<br />
Pushkin and Lermontov are also two poets who set the stage for an epoch in the history of Russian translation. Although only a small proportion of their poetry was translated, they made a significant contribution to the improvement of the art of translation in Russia. In their rewriting and imitation of poetry, they were able to reproduce the most important features of foreign poetry, the key point being that their creative translations were no less valuable in their own right than the originals. Their free translation became a model for other translators, and in addition they established the important principle that a good artistic translation must also be a good work in the national literature of the translated language. Pushkin played an indelibly important role in the development of the Russian school of translation. He was always interested in the question of translation, and his critical views on translation were objective and profound. Before translation he stressed the importance of the choice of the original work, and in translation he demanded that the translator should be faithful to the original, while at the same time displaying his deep creative skills and his own literary style. In one of his unfinished posthumous works, 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', Pushkin wrote: 'Chateaubriand's translation (verbatim) compensates to some extent for the faults of the young French writers (free translation), for they have insulted the great man very cruelly, though in a perfectly innocent manner. There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own rhetorical conventions, its own way of expressing itself, and it is impossible to translate into another language with the corresponding vocabulary". These insights had a positive impact on the best Russian translators of the 19th and 20th centuries. In addition, Pushkin's discussion of translation coincided with a turning point in the history of Russian literature, when the Romantic era was being replaced by a new era with a predominantly realist orientation, and a process of 'separation' between translated and national literature was under way. Pushkin's discussion of the work of the translator as distinct from that of the writer contributed to the independence of literature in translation from indigenous literature. <br />
<br />
During this period, while most people advocated free translation, there were a few translators who insisted on maximum fidelity to the original and advocated the word-for-word method, even at the expense of the work's willingness to be translated. Among these were such well-known writers as P.A. Vyazemsky (П.А.Вяземский) and N.I. Gnedzic (Н.И.Гнедич). In fact, they did not always live up to their principles, and sometimes their talent and artistic intuition ended up breaking the bonds of verbatim translation. Vyazemsky's translations of Benjamin Constant and Adam Mickiewicz were not without literary and artistic merit, and his translation of Homer's epic Iliad in particular was highly praised by Pushkin. It was Fetter who was the most insistent on the idea of a verbatim translation. Fetter translated many famous works, and his philosophy throughout was one of sentence-for-sentence, word-for-word translation, retaining all the words of the original. Fetter's extreme word-for-word approach had a negative impact on most of his translations, although he was sometimes able to come up with some effective methods of translation. <br />
<br />
Free translations were also sometimes used to promote democratic ideas in the original that could not pass official scrutiny. A number of translators, such as V. Kurochkin (В.Курочкин), D. M. Minayev (Д.Минаев) and M. M. Mikhalov (М.Михайлов), achieved this by selecting appropriate original works or by using texts in their translations that were superficially imperceptible in their allusion to the conditions in Russia at the time. It was from that time onwards that the use of translation as a weapon to express dissent became part of the Russian tradition.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:41, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The nineteenth century was the golden age in the history of Russian translation. If translation had established its status in the first hundred years, it was elevated to the level of art in this century. The nineteenth century produced a number of masters of translation, including Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин), Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский), Pushkin (А.С.Пушкин), Lermontov (М.Ю.Лермонтов) and Fetter (А.Фет). <br />
<br />
The new Russian school of translation owes its formation to the publishment of a number of translations of historian Nikolai Karamzin and the poet Zhukovsky. Karamzin in several magazines between the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century. He regarded translation as a good help in perfecting a writer's style: a source of information that satisfies human curiosity, informs historical facts, entertains women and provides materials for new magazines. As a young man, Karamzin was strongly opposed to the disloyalty to the original texts, but later became a champion of free translation. His famous saying was: "Whoever follows the author of the original text step by step is no different from a servant who serves his lord". Karamzin's translations cover an admirable range of genres and languages: he translated works by both classical and contemporaneous authors, in Greek, French, Latin, German, English, Italian and some Oriental languages. <br />
<br />
Pushkin called Zhukovsky "a genius of translation". After graduating from the Moscow Noble Boarding University in 1802, Zhukovsky devoted himself to translation. It was thanks to his efforts that Russian readers were able to access the works of world literary giants such as Schiller, Goethe, Byron and Walters Scott. Zhukovsky's creative translation activities also ranged from Charles Bello to Grimm's Fairy Tales. From Charles Bellow to Grimm's fairy tales, from Homer's epic Odyssey to the poetic history of ancient Rus' Igor's Expedition, all became his original texts. There is no denying that Zhukovsky is a master in the history of Russian translation. Like Karamzin, Zhukovsky was a fan of free translation, who sometimes rewrites the original or even creates a new story from its subject, transfers the setting of events to Russia and gives Russian names to the characters. For example, in his 1808 translation of the German Romantic poet Bilge's narrative poem Lenore, he changed the heroine's name from Lenore to Lyudmila and moved the story to the time of the Livonian War in 16th-century Russia. Zhukovsky believed that the "unsavoury character" of the work should be weakened while retaining the original author's ideas. His talent enabled him to reproduce the style, rhythm and tone of the original poems, while some of his best works were also faithful to the original. In later years, however, his view of translation changed in response to the tendency to stay close to the original, and he retranslated several of his previous translations to make them more faithful to the original, including Lenore. The Russian school of translation owes much to the tradition of translation created by Zhukovsky.<br />
<br />
Pushkin and Lermontov are also two poets who gave perfect preparations for an epoch in the history of Russian translation. Although only a small proportion of their poetry was translated, they made a significant contribution to the improvement of the art of translation in Russia. In their rewriting and imitation of poetry, they were able to reproduce the most important features of foreign poetry, the key point being that their creative translations were no less valuable in their own right than the originals. Their free translation became a model for other translators, and in addition they established the important principle that a good artistic translation must also be a good work in the national literature of the translated language. Pushkin played an indelibly important role in the development of the Russian school of translation. He was always interested in the question of translation, and his critical views on translation were objective and profound. Before translation he stressed the importance of the choice of the original work, and in translation he demanded that the translator should be faithful to the original, while at the same time displaying his deep creative skills and his own literary style. In one of his unfinished posthumous works, 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', Pushkin wrote: 'Chateaubriand's translation (verbatim) compensates to some extent for the faults of the young French writers (free translation), for they have insulted the great man very cruelly, though in a perfectly innocent manner. There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own rhetorical conventions, its own way of expressing itself, and it is impossible to translate into another language with the corresponding vocabulary". These insights had a positive impact on the best Russian translators of the 19th and 20th centuries. In addition, Pushkin's discussion of translation coincided with a turning point in the history of Russian literature, when the Romantic era was being replaced by a new era with a predominantly realist orientation, and a process of 'separation' between translated and national literature was under way. Pushkin's discussion of the work of the translator as distinct from that of the writer contributed to the independence of literature in translation from indigenous literature. <br />
<br />
During this period, while most people advocated free translation, there were a few translators who insisted on maximum fidelity to the original and advocated the word-for-word method, even at the expense of the work's willingness to be translated. Among these were such well-known writers as P.A. Vyazemsky (П.А.Вяземский) and N.I. Gnedzic (Н.И.Гнедич). In fact, they did not always live up to their principles, and sometimes their talent and artistic intuition ended up breaking the bonds of verbatim translation. Vyazemsky's translations of Benjamin Constant and Adam Mickiewicz were not without literary and artistic merit, and his translation of Homer's epic Iliad in particular was highly praised by Pushkin. It was Fetter who was the most insistent on the idea of a verbatim translation. Fetter translated many famous works, and his philosophy throughout was one of sentence-for-sentence, word-for-word translation, retaining all the words of the original. Fetter's extreme word-for-word approach had a negative impact on most of his translations, although he was sometimes able to come up with some effective methods of translation. <br />
<br />
Free translations were also used to promote democratic ideas in original that could not pass official scrutiny. A number of translators, such as V. Kurochkin (В.Курочкин), D. M. Minayev (Д.Минаев) and M. M. Mikhalov (М.Михайлов), achieved this by selecting appropriate original works or by using texts in their translations that were superficially imperceptible in their allusion to the conditions in Russia at the time. It was since then that the use of translation was used as a weapon to express dissent became part of the Russian tradition. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:05, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.3 Second half of the19th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The mid-nineteenth century was a period of increasingly intense political and ideological struggle in Russian literature, and a great debate raged in the Russian literary world over the question of 'art for the people' or 'art for art's sake'. The debate was mainly about the choice of material for translation and the method of translation. As far as the choice of material was concerned, the democratic and revolutionary writers who supported 'art for the people' chose to translate works with progressive ideological content and a democratic orientation, such as Heine. The aristocratic and liberal intellectual writers, on the other hand, opted for philosophical poetry with a chanting and individualistic feel. Of course, this is not absolute: "Mikhailov and Dobrolyubov of the democratic revolutionary school also translated Heine's moody love poems The Songbook, while Tolstoy of the aristocratic and liberal school translated some of Goethe's more progressive poems, such as The Fiancée of Corinth and The Whore of God. In terms of their approach to translation, the Democratic-Revolutionary translators, based on the reproduction of the original as a whole, approached their translations very liberally, even adding in many elements typical of Russian culture. The latter, on the other hand, usually adopted a direct translation, focusing on conveying the formal details of the original work. This divergence was mainly due to the different starting points of the two groups of translators, with the democratic revolutionaries seeking to convey advanced ideas to the Russian general public and the aristocratic intellectuals believing that works of art were irrelevant to the people and that artistic creations should not be exposed to "vulgar" reality.<br />
<br />
There were a large number of outstanding literary writers and literary critics who made brilliant statements about literary translation in that era, none more so than Belinsky (В.Г.Белинский), Chernyshevsky (Н.Г.Черныщевский) and Dubrolyovsky (Н.Г.Добролюбов). Belinsky was one of the greatest Russian literary critics of the 19th century. He believed that translations should not be word-for-word, but should reproduce the spirit of the original, in much the same way as Pushkin's view of translation theory. On the other hand, he also opposed arbitrary 'paraphrasing': the ideal translation should not add or delete arbitrarily to the original text, but should enable the reader to understand the foreign work truly and accurately through the translation. Such a viewpoint seems to us to be quite convincing even now. Belinsky played a decisive role in completely burying the 'rewriting' and 'adapting it to Russian custom' arguments. This issue dominates his writings. He argues that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of the translation, and this is one of the criteria by which he judges its merits. He points out, for example, that the greatest strength of Gnedzic's translation of the Iliad is that it "exudes the atmosphere of ancient life" and "the spirit of the ancient Greeks". However, the contradiction between national identity and translatability was once a problem for Belinsky. Initially believing that it was impossible to translate works with a strong national character into other languages, he was only convinced by the success of Turgenev's collaboration with Louis Viardot in translating Gogol's novels into French in 1846, and then became increasingly determined to recognise translatability in translation. Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a series of revisions that led to a complete and rigorous system of translation theory, the first of its kind in the history of Russian translation theory.<br />
<br />
Translation in Russia developed in the second half of the 19th century. From the 1960s onwards, the Russian readership of non-language speakers began to expand, and these readers were keen to see the translation 'replace' the original. This demand led to an unprecedented expansion in the choice of subjects and translations of Russian literature. Interest in foreign theatrical works was particularly high at this stage, and a strong interest in European classical literature also developed. Dickens, Saclay, Victor Hugo, Dumas, Balzac, Flaubert, Tudor, Maupassant and Zola, as well as lesser-known writers of today, were successively brought to the attention of a wide range of Russian readers in the form of translations. At that time, European theatre classics like Shakespeare's plays were translated into Russia in large numbers. Many professional translators were involved, the most successful being the translator P.N.V. Weinberg. He translated foreign literature from the standpoint of progressive Russian literature of the time. His translation of Othello, for example, is notable for its vividness in the Russian language, and has always been recognised as the best translation in terms of conveying the totality of scenes, plots and long dialogues, even though the translation is wordy compared to the original.<br />
<br />
Although there has been a quantitative surge in translations of Russian literature during this period, the quality has generally been poor, manifesting itself in word-for-word translations, redundant sentences and poor vocabulary, not to mention inventiveness. In addition, the language of the characters in the translation is heavily Russified, with Russian proverbs, sayings and idioms that the foreign characters could never have known, and the introduction of Russian-specific life circumstances that cause contradictions with the plot and details of the original work. For example, В Тулу со своим самоваром ехать (Bring your own samovar to Tula - it's superfluous). The reason for this is that the literary world did not attach much importance to the translation of fiction and prose, and there were no specialists working on this task. Another point is that at this stage there was little progress in the study of Russian translation theory, and no valuable theoretical insights emerged. The linguist A.A. Потебня (1835-1891) expressed his views on translation from a psychological standpoint in his essay "Language and Peopleliness ". In his view, it was impossible to express in another language what was originally intended to be expressed in a certain language. He, like many other literary scholars, denied the translatability of language.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:41, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The mid-nineteenth century was a period of increasingly intensively political and ideological struggle in Russian literature, and a great debate raged in the Russian literary world over the question of 'art for the people' or 'art for art's sake'. The debate was mainly about the choice of materials for translation and the methods of translation. As far as the choice of material was concerned, the democratic and revolutionary writers who supported 'art for the people' chose to translate works with progressive ideological content and a democratic orientation, such as Heine. The aristocratic and liberal intellectual writers, on the other hand, opted for philosophical poetry with a chanting and individualistic feel. It's undoubtful that this is not absolute: "Mikhailov and Dobrolyubov of the democratic revolutionary school also translated Heine's moody love poems The Songbook, while Tolstoy of the aristocratic and liberal school translated some of Goethe's more progressive poems, such as The Fiancée of Corinth and The Whore of God. In terms of their approach to translation, the Democratic-Revolutionary translators, based on the reproduction of the original as a whole, approached their translations very liberally, when they even added in many elements typical of Russian culture. The latter, on the other hand, usually adopted a direct translation, focusing on conveying the formal details of the original work. This divergence was mainly due to the different starting points of the two groups of translators, with the democratic revolutionaries seeking to convey advanced ideas to the Russian general public and the aristocratic intellectuals believing that works of art were irrelevant to the people and that artistic creations should not be exposed to "vulgar" reality.<br />
<br />
There were a large number of outstanding literary writers and literary critics who made brilliant statements about literary translation in that era, none more so than Belinsky (В.Г.Белинский), Chernyshevsky (Н.Г.Черныщевский) and Dubrolyovsky (Н.Г.Добролюбов). Belinsky was one of the greatest Russian literary critics of the 19th century. He believed that translations should not be word-for-word, but should reproduce the spirit of the original text, in much the same way as Pushkin's view of translation theory. On the other hand, he also opposed arbitrary 'paraphrasing': the ideal translation should not add or delete arbitrarily to the original text, but should enable the reader to understand the foreign work truly and accurately through the translation. Such a viewpoint seems to us to be quite convincing even now. Belinsky played a decisive role in completely burying the 'rewriting' and 'adapting it to Russian custom' arguments. This issue dominates his writings. He argues that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of the translation, and this is one of the criteria by which he judges its merits. He points out, for example, that the greatest strength of Gnedzic's translation of the Iliad is that it "exudes the atmosphere of ancient life" and "the spirit of the ancient Greeks". However, the contradiction between national identity and translatability was once a problem for Belinsky. Initially believing that it was impossible to translate works with a strong national character into other languages, he was only convinced by the success of Turgenev's collaboration with Louis Viardot in translating Gogol's novels into French in 1846, and then became increasingly determined to recognise translatability in translation. Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a series of revisions that led to a complete and rigorous system of translation theory, the first of its kind in the history of Russian translation theory.<br />
<br />
Translation in Russia developed in the second half of the 19th century. From the 1960s onwards, the Russian readership of non-language speakers began to expand, and these readers were keen to see the translation 'replace' the original. This demand led to an unprecedented expansion in the choice of subjects and translations of Russian literature. Interest in foreign theatrical works was particularly high at this stage, and a strong interest in European classical literature also developed. Dickens, Saclay, Victor Hugo, Dumas, Balzac, Flaubert, Tudor, Maupassant and Zola, as well as lesser-known writers of today, were successively brought to the attention of a wide range of Russian readers in the form of translations. At that time, European theatre classics like Shakespeare's plays were translated into Russia in large numbers. Many professional translators were involved, the most successful being the translator P.N.V. Weinberg. He translated foreign literature from the standpoint of progressive Russian literature of the time. His translation of Othello, for example, is notable for its vividness in the Russian language, and has always been recognised as the best translation in terms of conveying the totality of scenes, plots and long dialogues, even though the translation is wordy compared to the original.<br />
<br />
Although there has been a quantitative surge in translations of Russian literature during this period, the quality has generally been poor, manifesting itself in word-for-word translations, redundant sentences and poor vocabulary, not to mention inventiveness. In addition, the language of the characters in the translation is heavily Russified, that is, contents with Russian proverbs, sayings and idioms that the foreign characters could never have known, and the introduction of Russian-specific life circumstances that cause contradictions with the plot and details of the original work. For example, В Тулу со своим самоваром ехать (Bring your own samovar to Tula - it's superfluous). The reason for this is that the literary world did not attach much importance to the translation of fiction and prose, and there were no specialists working on this task. Another point is that at this stage there was little progress in the study of Russian translation theory, and no valuable theoretical insights emerged. The linguist A.A. Потебня (1835-1891) expressed his views on translation from a psychological standpoint in his essay "Language and Peopleliness ". In his view, it was impossible to express in another language what was originally intended to be expressed in a certain language. Just like many other literary scholars, he denied the translatability of language. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:13, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.Translation ideas of famous writers of the 18-19th centuries. ===<br />
===3.1. Pushkin 's ideas on translation. ===<br />
Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin (Александр Сергеевич Пушкин, 1977-1837), a famous Russian poet and writer of the nineteenth century, was also very much a translator. Although he left behind few works on translation, his ideas on translation are worth studying. Pushkin's translations of poetry were associated with classicism in the early stages of his work and later with romanticism. Although these translations are far removed from the original in a literal sense, they are almost close to composition. Pushkin's significance as a translator, however, lies in 1) the reproduction of foreign originals in the standard Russian language he established in his translations and 2) the full expression of the realist artistic method in the heyday of his compositions: the focus on typical features and the technique of outlining the historical and individual characteristics that reflect the original.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's translations have their own characteristics and style. He did not translate all of his works word for word from the original, and in some places he deleted what he considered to be redundant sentences in order to avoid the verbosity of the original, occasionally replacing the translation with a general paraphrase. He advocates respect for the characteristics of foreign readers, while at the same time opposing word-for-word translations, which can lead to the trampling of the mother tongue. He therefore advocated translations which, on the one hand, required fidelity to the original in terms of meaning and, on the other, should preserve the original's distinctive features.<br />
As he says in his unfinished 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', commenting on Chateaubriand's translation: 'There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), has failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own conventional rhetorical devices, its own habitual expressions, and it is impossible to translate all this into another language using the corresponding vocabulary." Pushkin's rejection of word-for-word translation can be seen.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's influence on the cause of translation in Russia was immense, and this influence refers neither to his few translations nor to his theoretical views, but to the fact that Pushkin pioneered the translation of Russian literature. Although his ideas on translation cannot be called a theory, they do provide certain translation ideas for later generations of literary translators.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin (Александр Сергеевич Пушкин, 1977-1837), a famous Russian poet and writer of the nineteenth century, was also an outstanding translator. Besides he left behind few works on translation, his ideas on translation are worth studying. Pushkin's translations of poetry were associated with classicism in the early stages of his work and with romanticism later. Although these translations are far removed from the original in a literal sense, they are almost close to composition. Pushkin's significance as a translator, however, lies in the reproduction of foreign originalities in the standard Russian language he established in his translations and the full expression of the realist artistic method in the heyday of his compositions: the focus on typical features and the technique of outlining the historical and individual characteristics that reflect the original.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's translations have their own distinctive characteristics and style. He did not translate all of his works literally from the original context, but in some places he deleted what he considered to be redundant sentences in order to avoid the verbosity of the original, occasionally replacing the translation with a general paraphrase. He advocates to give enough respect for the characteristics of foreign readers, while at the same time opposing word-for-word translations, which may lead to the trampling of the mother tongue. Therefore, He advocated translations which, on the one hand, required fidelity to the original text in terms of meaning and, on the other hand, should preserve the original's distinctive features.<br />
<br />
As he says in his unfinished 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', he comments on Chateaubriand's translation: 'There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), has failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own conventional rhetorical devices, its own habitual expressions, and it is impossible to translate all this into another language using the corresponding vocabulary." Pushkin's rejection of word-for-word translation can be revealed clearly.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's influence on the cause of translation in Russia was huge, and his influence refers neither to his few translations nor to his theoretical views, but to the fact that Pushkin pioneered the translation of Russian literature. Although his ideas on translation cannot be called a theory, they do provide certain unique and new translation ideas for later generations of literary translators. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:29, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.1. Belinsky's ideas on translation. ===<br />
Vissarion Grigorievich Belinsky (Виссарион Григорьевич Белинский, 1811-1848) was a famous literary critic of the nineteenth century and one of the most involved in the world of translation among Russian literary activists of his time. Belinsky was fluent in French and as a young man translated for two magazines, Miscellany and Telescope. Later, after a career in literary criticism, he published numerous articles on translation and criticism of translated works.<br />
Belinsky's and Pushkin's views on translation were very similar, both advocating that translations should not be word-for-word. Belinsky first introduced the term 'theory' of translation, and in his 1838 review of Polevoy's translation of Hamlet, he first proposed the need for a theory of translation. He considered the role of theory: "Any object that man perceives has a theory of its own, and a theory is the knowledge of the laws by which the object exists."<br />
<br />
Belinsky argues that in translation: "Closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original. Each <br />
language has its own distinctive expressions, characteristics and qualities; these are so distinctive that to correctly convey a certain image or sentence, it is sometimes necessary to change them completely in the translation. The corresponding image, like the corresponding sentence, does not necessarily lie in a superficial agreement of words: the inner life of the translation should be made to correspond to the inner life of the original". It can be seen that Belinsky, like Pushkin, was also opposed to word-for-word rigid translations, his view being that the task of translating a language lies in reproducing the spirit of the original. He believed that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of a translation, so the question of the interrelationship between national character and translatability has always troubled Belinsky. He pointed out that 'there is only one rule for translating a literary work - to convey the spirit of the work being translated, and this can only be done by translating it into Russian as the author himself would have written it in Russian, if he had been Russian' (The Complete Works of Belinsky Volume 2).<br />
<br />
Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a number of achievements, and his view of translation as a whole is a complete and rigorous system. His view of translation was developed gradually, and in the process it was dominated by an increasingly firm recognition of the possibility of a successful solution to the task of translation, that is, of translatability. Belinsky believed that a translation must be discerning in its content and form in relation to the original. He has pointed out that "approaching the original is not the same as conveying the letters, but rather the spirit of the original." It is also suggested that the translator and the original author are two different kinds of people. But in order to convey the 'spirit' of the original in the translation, the translator's genius needs to reach a certain tacit understanding with this 'spirit'. He advocates the preservation of exoticism in translation, opposes naturalisation, the arbitrary distortion of the face of the original work, the overwhelming of the original author with the personality of the translator's style, the emphasis on both likeness and likeness, etc. However, while recognising the importance of reproducing the poetic form of the original work in translation, Belinsky also took into account the state of development of Russian literature in translation. This also led him to look favourably on translating good poetry in prose, seeing such translations as a form of transition for Russian readers to the treasures of world literature.<br />
<br />
Although Belinsky wrote little about literary translation, his theoretical views contain the kernel of the realist principles of translation proposed by contemporary Soviet literary translators. His ideas on translation had a very profound influence on the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Vissarion Grigorievich Belinsky (Виссарион Григорьевич Белинский, 1811-1848) was a famous literary critic of the nineteenth century and one of the most active in the world of translation among Russian literary activists of his time. Belinsky was fluent in French and when he was a young man he translated for two magazines, Miscellany and Telescope. Later, after a career in literary criticism, he published numerous articles on translation and criticism of translated works.<br />
<br />
Belinsky's and Pushkin's views on translation were very similar, both advocating that translations should not be word-for-word. Belinsky first introduced the term 'theory' of translation, and in his 1838 review of Polevoy's translation of Hamlet, he first proposed the need for a theory of translation. He considered the role of theory: "Any object that man perceives has a theory of its own, and a theory is the knowledge of the laws by which the object exists."<br />
<br />
Belinsky argues that in translation: "Closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original. Each language has its own distinctive expressions, characteristics and qualities; these are so distinctive that to correctly convey a certain image or sentence, it is sometimes necessary to change them completely in the translation. The corresponding image, like the corresponding sentence, does not necessarily lie in a superficial agreement of words: the inner life of the translation should be made to correspond to the inner life of the original". It can be seen that Belinsky, like Pushkin, was also opposed to word-for-word rigid translations, his view being that the task of translating a language lies in reproducing the spirit of the original. He believed that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of a translation, so the question of the interrelationship between national character and translatability has always troubled Belinsky. He pointed out that 'there is only one rule for translating a literary work - to convey the spirit of the work being translated, and this can only be done by translating it into Russian as the author himself would have written it in Russian, if he had been Russian' (The Complete Works of Belinsky Volume 2).<br />
<br />
Belinsky's career as a translator had a number of achievements, and his view of translation as a whole is a complete and rigorous system. His view of translation was developed gradually, and in this process it was dominated by an increasingly firm recognition of the possibility of a successful solution to the task of translation, that is, of translatability. Belinsky believed that a translation must be discerning in its content and form in relation to the original. He has pointed out that "approaching the original is not the same as conveying the letters, but rather the spirit of the original." It is also suggested that the translator and the original author are two different kinds of people. But in order to convey the 'spirit' of the original in the translation, the translator's genius needs to reach a certain tacit understanding with this 'spirit'. He advocates the preservation of exoticism in translation, opposes naturalisation, the arbitrary distortion of the face of the original work, the overwhelming of the original author with the personality of the translator's style, the emphasis on both likeness and likeness, etc. However, while recognising the importance of reproducing the poetic form of the original work in translation, Belinsky also took into account the state of development of Russian literature in translation. This also led him to look favourably on translating good poetry in prose, seeing such translations as a form of transition for Russian readers to the treasures of world literature.<br />
<br />
Although Belinsky wrote little about literary translation, his theoretical views contain the kernel of the realist principles of translation proposed by contemporary Soviet literary translators. His ideas on translation had a very profound influence on the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:56, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.Conclusion ===<br />
Translation has demonstrated its importance in social activity since antiquity, yet it was only in the twentieth century that it became a widely followed professional discipline. This article reviews Russian translation activity and translation thought in pre-Soviet Russia, exploring its development before the formation of a theoretical system. Throughout the history of translation, Russian scholars have contributed greatly to the development of translation literature in the world. Through combing through the history of Russian translation, we learn that the translation ideas of a number of outstanding writers, though not theoretical, have had an unmistakable impact on later generations. When discussing the translation ideas of 19th-century writers, we are inspired to insist on the principle that "closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original", emphasizing the ideological content and literary value of the translation, that the translation should serve the readers, and that the translation should be people-oriented. These ideas influenced, to a greater or lesser extent, the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, the study of the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia is not only conducive to sorting out Russian translation ideas Russian learners can better understand the characteristics of their translations when translating and improve the accuracy of their translations.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:44, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Translation has played its important role in the social activities since antiquity, yet it was until in the twentieth century that it became a widely followed professional discipline. This paper reviews Russian translators and translation thoughts in pre-Soviet Russia, exploring its development before the formation of a theoretical system. Throughout the history of translation, Russian scholars have contributed greatly to the development of translation literature in the world. By combing through the history of Russian translation, we learn that the translation ideas of a number of outstanding writers, though not very theoretical, have had an unmistakable impact on later generations. When discussing the translation ideas of 19th-century writers, we are inspired to insist on the principle that "closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original", emphasizing the ideological content and literary value of the translation that the translation should serve the readers, and that the translation should be people-oriented. These ideas influenced, to a greater or lesser extent, the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, the study of the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia not only is conducive to sorting out Russian translation ideas, but also make Russian learners better understand the characteristics of their translations when translating and improving the accuracy of their translations. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 14:02, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.References ===<br />
1.Wu, Keli 吴克礼（2006）.俄苏翻译理论流派综述 The Translation Methods and Studies in USSR. 上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
2.Guo Lin 郭琳（2006）.俄罗斯语言学派翻译理论若干问题研究[D] A Study of Some Problems of Translation Theory of the Russian School of Philology.首都师范大学 Capital Normal University.<br />
<br />
3.Feng Xin 冯欣（2009）. 俄罗斯翻译理论史及其影响研究[D] A study of the history of Russian translation theory and its influence.上海外国语大学 Shanghai International Studies University.<br />
<br />
4.Wang，Yulun；Jiang,Wanzhu 王育伦,姜万砫（1989).别林斯基论文学翻译[J] Belinsky on Literary Translation .中国翻译 Chinese translators Journal ,(03):53-55.<br />
<br />
5.Li Zheng, Fan Min 李铮,范敏（2010）. 普希金与翻译[J] Pushkin and Translation. 现代交际 Modern Intercourse Journal,(05):69.</div>Zhang Yiranhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_5&diff=132588Hist Trans Theo EN 52021-12-14T02:14:31Z<p>Zhang Yiran: /* Introduction */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''History of Translation Theories'''<br />
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=Chapter 5 History of Translation Theories from Early Russia to the Soviet Union=<br />
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'''从古罗斯到苏联前的翻译理论史'''<br />
<br />
张怡然 Zhang Yiran,Hunan Normal University,China<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation as a means of intercultural communication, each country has a distinctive translation ideology. This article focuses on the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia. Through analyzing the history of translation, can find that Russia has formed a literary tradition of translation studies in the late 18th century. In the 19th century, Pushkin, Lermontov, Turgenev and other outstanding poets and literary scholars were keen on translation, especially in the middle of the century when Belinsky and other famous literary critics published a series of comments on literary translation, which emphasized the literary tradition of Russian translation to an unparalleled extent, which is rare in the history of translation in the world. The general principles of Russian literary translation thought were also formed during this period: namely, to insist on commenting on the merits of a translation in terms of the overall effect of the work, to emphasize the ideological content and literary value of the translation, and that the translation should serve the reader and be people-oriented. The above ideas influenced the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, a study of the history of translation theory in pre-Soviet Russia will help learners of Russian to better understand the characteristics of their translations and to improve the accuracy and peopleliness of their translations.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 12:57, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation is a means of intercultural communication, and each country has its own distinctive translation theory system. This paper focuses on the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia. By analyzing the history of translation, it is obvious that a literary tradition of translation studies has been formed in Russia in the late 18th century. In the 19th century, Pushkin, Lermontov, Turgenev and other outstanding poets and literary scholars were keen on translation, especially in the middle of the century when Belinsky and other famous literary critics published a series of comments on literary translation, which emphasized the literary tradition of Russian translation to an unparalleled extent, which is rare in the history of translation in the world. The general principles of Russian literary translation thoughts were also formed during this period: namely, to insist on commenting on the merits and weakness of a translation in terms of the overall effect of the work, to emphasize the ideological content and literary value of the translation, and the translation should serve the reader and be people-oriented. The above ideas influenced the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, a study of the history of translation theory in pre-Soviet Russia will help learners of Russian to understand the characteristics of their translations profoundly and to improve the accuracy and fluency of their translations.Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:03, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation theories, Translation ideas，History of Translation<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译作为一种跨文化交际的手段，每个国家都有独具特色的翻译思想。本文主要探讨苏联前俄国的翻译历史。通过梳理其翻译史可发现，俄国于18世纪末期就已形成了翻译研究的文学传统。进入19世纪后, 普希金、莱蒙托夫、屠格涅夫等优秀诗人、文学家对翻译的热衷, 尤其是世纪中叶别林斯基等著名文学评论家发表一系列关于文学翻译的评论, 更是把俄国翻译的文学传统强调到无以复加的程度, 这在世界翻译史上都是罕见的。俄国文学翻译思想的总原则也在这一时期形成:即坚持从作品的整体效果上来评论译作优劣, 强调译作的思想内容和文学价值, 翻译应为读者服务, 译文应具有人民性。上述思想影响了苏联时期翻译理论的形成。因此，对苏联前俄国翻译理论史的研究有利于俄语学习者在翻译时更好的理解其翻译特点，提高翻译的准确性和人民性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译理论 翻译思想 翻译史 <br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
This essay provides a comprehensive and concise overview of the history of translation in Russia: Russian written translations began in the Kievan Rus' era, when religious subjects were the main focus of translations, especially the Bible, which was translated from Greek. Religious translations continued to flourish under the Moscow principality, represented by Maksim Gleick (МаксимГрек). At the same time, the national character of Russian translations began to emerge, and the languages of translation expanded from Greek to Latin, German and West Slavic, and the subjects covered included Western chivalric fiction, geographical literature, alchemy and medicine. In the eighteenth century, Peter the Great introduced a number of measures to focus on translation, making this period a turning point in the history of Russian translation. The proliferation of specialised translations (e.g. of legal texts) was the main feature of translation activity in the early eighteenth century. After this period Russian translators began to translate literary works.The main translators were Lomonosov (М.В. Ломоносов) and Tretyakovsky (V.K. Тредьяковский). In the second half of the eighteenth century, translation was given greater importance in Russia, and the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books was founded by Ekaterina II, in which a large number of outstanding translators emerged. The nineteenth century was a golden period in the history of Russian translation. Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин) and Rukovsky (В.А.Жуковский) both produced many excellent translations. Pushkin (A.С.Пушкин) and Lermontov (M.Ю.Лермонтов) contributed greatly to the development of Russian literature in translation, while Fetter concentrated on love poetry. In the twentieth century, the Russian translation community made significant achievements in theoretical translation studies. In particular, the rapid development of the philological school and the debate between the literary and philological schools made Soviet translation theory one of the leading theories of translation in the world (Guo,2006:5).--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 12:57, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
This paper provides a comprehensive and concise overview of the history of translation in Russia: Russian written translations began in the Kievan Rus' era, when religious subjects were the main focus of translations, especially the Bible, translated from Greek. Religious translations continued to flourish under the Moscow principality, represented by Maksim Gleick (МаксимГрек). At the same time, the national character of Russian translations began to emerge, and the languages of translation expanded from Greek to Latin, German and West Slavic, and the subjects covered included Western chivalric fiction, geographical literature, alchemy and medicine. In the eighteenth century, Peter the Great introduced a number of measures to focus on translation, leading this period to a turning point in the history of Russian translation. The proliferation of specialised translations (e.g. of legal texts) was the main feature of translation activity in the early eighteenth century. After this period Russian translators began to translate literary works.The main translators were Lomonosov (М.В. Ломоносов) and Tretyakovsky (V.K. Тредьяковский). In the second half of the eighteenth century, translation was paid greater attention in Russia, and the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books was founded by Ekaterina II, in which a large number of outstanding translators emerged. The nineteenth century was a golden period in the history of Russian translation when Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин) and Rukovsky (В.А.Жуковский) both produced many excellent translations. Pushkin (A.С.Пушкин) and Lermontov (M.Ю.Лермонтов) contributed greatly to the development of Russian literature in translation, while Fetter concentrated on love poetry. In the twentieth century, the Russian translation community made significant achievements in theoretical translation studies. In particular, the rapid development of the philological school and the debate between the literary and philological schools made Soviet translation theory one of the leading theories of translation in the world. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:14, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===1.The history of Russian translation and the period of enlightenment of its translation theory. ===<br />
1. The emergence and development of literary translation.<br />
<br />
Translation activity has a long history in Russia, the beginnings of which can be traced back to the time of Kievan Rus'. A relatively sophisticated system of writing, literature and translation was already in place in ancient Russia in the ninth century AD. Frequent cultural and trade exchanges with Byzantine, German, French and Scandinavian countries contributed significantly to the development of translation in Russia at that time, as did contacts with Eastern countries. From Kievan Rus' onwards, Russian translation methods oscillated between two main tendencies, either to follow the original texts exactly, up to the point of translating them word for word, or to be arbitrary, even to the point of rewriting, adding or deleting at will. The first tendency is the main characteristic of translations of the Bible and other sacred books, while the second, though not absolute, can be said to characterize most secular works (Feng,2006:8)(Wu,2006:4)(Wu,2006:4).<br />
<br />
2.Initiation of translation activities-religious translation. <br />
<br />
In 864 AD, the Byzantine king sent two Greek priests, Kirill (Кирилл) and Mephodi (Мефодий), to spread Christianity among the Slavic people. At the beginning of their mission, they created a new alphabet (now known as the Kirill alphabet) and used this writing system to translate many religious texts from Greek into the ancient Church Slavonic. Among the results were the New Testament, hymnals and prayer books(Feng,2006:8). <br />
<br />
In 988 AD, Rus was baptised and Kievan Rus was converted to Christianity. A large number of translations appeared instantly to help Protestants become familiar with the new religious philosophy and ethical system and to understand the rituals and customs of the Church. These translations were in a variety of genres, including the Acts of the Saints, sermons, chronicles and so on. In addition, apocryphal books telling magical and fantastical stories were also popular, and some of them had similarities with the later 'fantasy novels'. Most of these translations were done in Bulgaria and were popularised in Rus. At that time, translations of religious texts were mostly word-for-word. There were also a small number of works that, unlike the 'elaborate copies of the original', had a separate literary value. In one case, a large number of details of Russian life were added to the storyline of a sermon (e.g. The Tales of Achild the Wise). In another case, military historical narratives are interspersed with the terminology of the ancient Russian feudal system and certain literary images from the stories of ancient Russian warriors (e.g. Joseph Flav's History of the Jewish War). This translation can be considered one of the most successful of the period. In the translation, the translator succeeded in avoiding many word-for-word translations). In a third case, the manuscripts copied by Ancient Rus, although based on Greek epic poetry (e.g. The Great Work of Digenes Akritas), often borrowed from Russian folk poetry, so that a large number of folk compositions appeared. As a result of this literary process, the translated literature was smoothly enriched by Russian manuscripts, which contributed to the development of original Russian literature and consolidated its links with the medieval literary process. Unfortunately, at that early stage in the development of translation, the translators were not signed, so it is impossible to verify whether the works were translated at home or abroad(Feng,2006:9). <br />
<br />
During the difficult period of 'Mongol rule' (1228-1480), translations continued to play an important role in the cultural life of the country. The remaining chapters of the Bible were translated one after another, and previous translations were again proofread and revised. In addition to religious translations, more translations of non-religious subjects emerge, such as The Kingdom of India and The Trojan War. Most of the works were still translated from Greek, while works probably translated from Latin and ancient Hebrew also appeared. During this period, Russian began to take shape through the interaction of Old Slavonic (Church Slavonic) and local national languages. However, religious texts were still only translated into Church Slavonic, and the use of this language was by then restricted to ecclesiastical matters. At the same time, political and commercial exchanges with other countries were more likely to be in Russian, which was becoming increasingly sophisticated: elements of the combination of Old Slavonic and Russian can also be found in original works（Wu,2006:6). <br />
<br />
14-15th century literature in translation by Rus was characterised by an obsession with new themes. These were mainly new works of tranquillity-abstinence literature, or works recommended by and familiar to the tranquillists. This mystical genre was introduced to Rus after it had swept through the Byzantine and Yugoslav peoples. It was reflected in the semi-secular translations popular at the time (for example, The Trojan War). <br />
<br />
In the 16th century AD, Moscow eventually became the political centre of Russia, as well as the translation centre of the country. In 1515, the Grand Duke of Moscow, Vassily III (Василий Ⅲ), asked a Greek monastery to send a learned translator to Moscow. This man, who accompanied the Greek mission to Moscow in 1516, was the historically famous Maksim Grek (Максим Грек). Maksim Greek worked as a translator throughout his life, studying most of the religious texts and some of the non-religious works during this period. In addition, he also proofread and annotated previously existing translations(Wu,2006:7). <br />
<br />
At the beginning, Maksim knew neither Russian nor Old Slavonic, so he divided the translation into two steps: first, he translated from Greek to Latin, and then his assistant translated from Latin to Old Slavonic. In the process of revising existing translations, he often broke with established tradition and was therefore denounced as blasphemous. Maxim was also a prolific writer, educator and philosopher. His writings contain many insights into the art of translation - the earliest recorded treatise on translation in Russia. Maxim insisted that the original text must be carefully analysed in order to grasp its full subtleties and implications. Therefore, the translator must not only master the language of the original, but also have a broad knowledge of the language and prepare for the translation. To support his argument, Maxim used Greek lexicography, phonetic organisation and phonetics involved in translation. His other major contribution was the compilation of a dictionary containing Greek, Latin and Hebrew nouns, which was also the first of its kind in Russian history. Although it was recognised at the time that translators should have a command of both languages as well as a profound background knowledge, the practitioners of translation at the time lacked the necessary qualities and their translations were not as good as they could have been(Wu,2006:7).--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 13:39, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
1. The emergence and development of literary translation. <br />
<br />
Translation activity has a long history in Russia, the beginnings of which can be traced back to the Time of Kievan Rus'. A relatively sophisticated system of writing, literature and translation was already in ancient Russia in the ninth century AD. Frequent cultural and trade exchanges with Byzantine, German, French and Scandinavian countries contributed significantly to the development of translation in Russia at that time, as did contacts with Eastern countries. From Kievan Rus' onwards, Russian translation methods oscillated between two main tendencies, either to follow the original texts exactly, up to the point of translating them word by word, or to be arbitrary, even to the point of rewriting, adding words or deleting at will. The first tendency is the main characteristic of translations of the Bible and other sacred books, while the second, though not absolutely, can be said to characterize most secular works.<br />
<br />
2.Initiation of translation activities-religious translation. <br />
<br />
In 864 AD, the Byzantine king sent two Greek priests, Kirill (Кирилл) and Mephodi (Мефодий), to spread Christianity among the Slavic people. At the beginning of their mission, they created a new alphabet (now known as the Kirill alphabet) and used this writing system to translate many religious texts from Greek into the ancient Church Slavonic. Among the results were the New Testament, hymnals and prayer books. In 988 AD, Rus was baptised and Kievan Rus was converted to Christianity. A large number of translations appeared instantly to help Protestants become familiar with the new religious philosophy and ethical system and to understand the rituals and customs of the Church. These translations were in a variety of genres, including the Acts of the Saints, sermons, chronicles and so on. In addition, apocryphal books telling magical and fantastical stories were also popular, and some of them had similarities with the later 'fantasy novels'. Most of these translations were done in Bulgaria and were popularised in Rus. At that time, translations of religious texts were mostly word-for-word. There were also a small number of works that, unlike the 'elaborate copies of the original', had a separate literary values. In one case, a large number of details of Russian life were added to the storyline of a sermon (e.g. The Tales of Achild the Wise). In another case, military historical narratives are interspersed with the terminology of the ancient Russian feudal system and certain literary images from the stories of ancient Russian warriors (e.g. Joseph Flav's History of the Jewish War). This translation can be considered one of the most successful of the period. In the translation, the translator succeeded in avoiding many word-for-word translations). Thirdly, the manuscripts copied by Ancient Rus, although based on Greek epic poetry (e.g. The Great Work of Digenes Akritas), often borrowed from Russian folk poetry, so that a large number of folk compositions appeared. As a result of this literary process, the translated literature was smoothly enriched by Russian manuscripts, which contributed to the development of original Russian literature and consolidated its links with the medieval literary process. Unfortunately, at that early stage in the development of translation, the translators were not signed, so it is impossible to verify whether the works were translated at home or abroad. During the difficult period of 'Mongol rule' (1228-1480), translations continued to play an important role in the cultural life of the country. The remaining chapters of the Bible were translated one after another, and previous translations were again proofread and revised. In addition to religious translations, more translations of non-religious subjects emerge, such as The Kingdom of India and The Trojan War. Most of the works were still translated from Greek, while works probably translated from Latin and ancient Hebrew also appeared. During this period, Russian began to take shape through the interaction of Old Slavonic (Church Slavonic) and local national languages. However, religious texts were still only translated into Church Slavonic, and the use of this language was by then restricted to ecclesiastical matters. At the same time, political and commercial exchanges with other countries were more likely to be in Russian, which was becoming increasingly sophisticated: elements of the combination of Old Slavonic and Russian can also be found in original works. 14-15th century literature in translation by Rus was characterised by an obsession with new themes. These were mainly new works of tranquillity-abstinence literature, or works recommended by and familiar to the tranquillists. This mystical genre was introduced to Rus after it had swept through the Byzantine and Yugoslav peoples. It was reflected in the semi-secular translations popular at the time (for example, The Trojan War). In the 16th century AD, Moscow eventually became the political center of Russia, as well as the translation center of the country. In 1515, the Grand Duke of Moscow, Vassily III (Василий Ⅲ), asked a Greek monastery to send a learned translator to Moscow. This man, who accompanied the Greek mission to Moscow in 1516, was the historically famous Maksim Grek (Максим Грек). Maxim Greek worked as a translator throughout his life, studying most of the religious texts and some of the non-religious works during this period. In addition, he also proofread and annotated previously existing translations. At the beginning, Maxim knew neither Russian nor Old Slavonic, so he divided the translation into two steps: first, he translated from Greek to Latin, and then his assistant translated from Latin to Old Slavonic. In the process of revising existing translations, he often broke with established tradition and was therefore denounced as blasphemous. Maxim was also a prolific writer, educator and philosopher. His writings contain many insights into the art of translation - the earliest recorded treatise on translation in Russia. Maxim insisted that the original text must be carefully analysed in order to grasp its full subtleties and implications. Therefore, the translator must not only master the language of the original, but also have a broad knowledge of the language and prepare for the translation. To support his argument, Maxim used Greek lexicography, phonetic organisation and phonetics involved in translation. His other major contribution was the compilation of a dictionary containing Greek, Latin and Hebrew nouns, which was also the first of its kind in Russian history. Although it was recognized at the time that translators should have a command of both languages and profound background knowledge, the practitioners of translation at the time lacked the necessary qualities and their translations were not as good as they should have been. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. Overview of the Russian school of Translation. ===<br />
===2.1 18th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The eighteenth century is an important period in the history of Russian translation. The status of translation in social culture has undergone a qualitative change, and this is due to Peter the Great's reform. At the beginning of the century, translation was still mostly related to professional documents such as laws and contracts. Later, the translator's tentacles gradually expanded to literary translation, for example, French poetry translation. The famous translators of this period are Sumarokov(А.П.Сумароков), Lomonosov(М.В.Ломоносов), Tretyakovsky (В.К.Тредьяковский) and so on. In the second half of the 18th century, the Association for the Translation of Foreign Books officially put forward the importance of translation. The organization has been active for 15 years with over 100 members.<br />
<br />
1.Imperial support for translation. The political reforms introduced by Peter the Great also led to intensive economic and cultural exchanges between Russia and European countries. This created a huge demand for translations of scientific and technical literature and literary works. Translators were required to produce works of a high standard.<br />
<br />
Peter the Great issued a special decree on translation, requiring "faithful" communication of the original text. In a directive issued to his subordinates in 1709, he explicitly stated that when translating foreign books, word-for-word translations were to be avoided and that the content of the original text should be clearly expressed in one's own language, based on an understanding of its content. On the other hand, Peter the Great's subversion of the written language initially caused confusion in Russian translation circles. A large number of foreign languages entered the Russian language, and the piles of foreign syntactic structures distracted attention. In any case, Peter the Great's reforms did set a new norm and a new direction for translation. <br />
<br />
In terms of content, Peter the Great's reforms were, from the very beginning, inextricably linked to the translation of scientific and technical texts, such as the many books on military defence engineering that he ordered to be translated and used to strengthen Russia's military forces. Peter the Great also placed great importance on the translation of prose, poetry and other literary works. During this period, the Russian language began to develop its own literary model, and many educated Russians saw translation as a way of enriching the language and enhancing its uniqueness and expressiveness. <br />
<br />
From around the 1830s, the importance of translating Western European scientific and technical texts gradually gave way to literary works such as prose and poetry. Writers who were also translators turned their attention to the work of new Western European writers, mainly poets, especially French poets. At the same time, the legacy of the Greco-Roman period also entered their minds. They began to translate the works of philosophers and historians, which - on the one hand - gave rise to difficulties in literary rhetoric and scientific terminology and, on the other, played an important role in the formation of a standard Russian language. <br />
<br />
From that time onwards, translation also became an organised activity, with the emergence of specific bodies responsible for the organisation and management of translation work. 1735 saw the establishment of the first specialised translation organisation, the Russian Society, at the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences. The Society had a professional group of translators and some of the academy's scholars, such as Lomonosov and Tretyakovsky, were among its members. The Association was responsible for selecting works, defining the rules or principles of translation, commenting on translations, and training translators. It is worth mentioning that the Academy of Sciences also set up a school of foreign languages to train official translators. In 1748, the Academy implemented Queen Elizabeth's decree to increase the number of translations of non-religious books and publicly appealed to "the nobility and other classes of intellectuals" to take an active part in the translation process. <br />
<br />
In the second half of the 18th century, Ekaterina II's efforts to create a 'civilised state' not only led to the development of literature, but also gave preferential treatment to writers. For example, in order to select the best original texts, she ordered the establishment of the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books (1768 - 1783). The Society was dedicated to providing excellent conditions for translation work throughout Russia. The purchase of manuscripts was financed out of Ekaterina's own funds. Later, the Society also discussed a proposal to establish a translation bureau under the Academy of Sciences (1790). The 114 members of the Society included such notable figures as Tretyakovsky, Sumarokov and Radishev. For 14 years the Association was active, producing numerous literary translations and likewise contributing to the discussion of theoretical issues in translation.<br />
<br />
2.The emergence of poetry translation. Translation of poetry also developed in Russia in the 18th century, and later became one of the jewels of the country's literature. The great Russian scholar and poet Lomonosov was a major contributor to this process. A great deal of the work created by Lomonosov and his contemporaries Sumarokov and Tretyakovsky was poetry in translation. They often translated while exploring theoretical issues in translation: they would explain in their works why they translated this way and not that way; they stressed the importance of translation work and the creative value it contained. Among the most prestigious writers and translators in Russian literature at the time, there were several interesting competitions in which two or three poets translated the same work at the same time, and their translations were published in journals. It was often the case that different translations of the same work were published at the same time, without the translator's name, for the judgement of "literary lovers and peers". This phenomenon also supports the idea that the 18th century was a period of 'experimentation' in the history of Russian translation. <br />
<br />
Lomonosov's translations from Latin, German, French and Greek are numerous and varied, showing his talent for both rhyming and free verse. He was keen to reproduce the rhythmic structure of the original texts, using a variety of iambic and iambic meter to convey the Alexandrian style of French epic and the hexameter style of Greek tragedy. Russian poetry was not very developed at the time and was still based on syllables. <br />
Lomonosov's innovations enriched Russian poetry and established new forms and traditions of Russian poetic style and rhyme. <br />
<br />
In contrast, Kantymir (Д.М.Кантемира) and Tretyakovsky's greatest quest was to insist on a faithful translation of the original. In the process, the translators had to contend with the problems of reams of vocabulary and rhetorical rules. Tretyakovsky became famous for his successful use of Russian rhyme to translate many verses of the original in his translation of Paul Thielmann's A Journey to Love Island. In the introduction to the novel, the translator states his approach to translation: "The translator is only one person away from the author. I would add that if the author is original, the translator should be even more original (I am not referring to myself, but to a good translator)". He believes that "prose to prose" and "poetry to poetry" can be as good as the original, and that a good translation is one that "describes the full meaning of each verse". Kantymir 's translation of Horace's Letters and other poetic works in Latin and French, although less well-known than the former, is equally valuable.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:40, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The eighteenth century is an important period in the history of Russian translation. The status of translation in social culture has undergone a qualitative change, and this is due to Peter the Great's reform. At the beginning of the century, translation was still mostly related to professional documents such as laws and contracts. Later, the translator's tentacles gradually expanded to literary translation, for example, French poetry translation. The famous translators of this period are Sumarokov(А.П.Сумароков), Lomonosov(М.В.Ломоносов), Tretyakovsky (В.К.Тредьяковский) and so on. In the second half of the 18th century, the Association for the Translation of Foreign Books officially put forward the importance of translation. The organization has been active for 15 years with over 100 members. The following points reflected the reasons why translation was paid more attention in the eighteenth century.<br />
<br />
1.Imperial support for translation. <br />
<br />
The political reforms introduced by Peter the Great also led to intensive economic and cultural exchanges between Russia and European countries. This created a huge demand for translations of scientific and technical literature and literary works. Translators were required to produce works of a high standard.Peter the Great issued a special decree on translation, requiring "faithful" communication of the original text. In a directive issued to his subordinates in 1709, he explicitly stated that when translating foreign books, word-for-word translations were to be avoided and that the content of the original text should be clearly expressed in one's own language, based on an understanding of its content. On the other hand, Peter the Great's subversion of the written language initially caused confusion in Russian translation circles. A large number of foreign languages entered the Russian language, and the piles of foreign syntactic structures distracted attention. In any case, Peter the Great's reforms did set a new norm and a new direction for translation. In terms of content, Peter the Great's reforms were, from the very beginning, inextricably linked to the translation of scientific and technical texts, such as the many books on military defence engineering that he ordered to be translated and used to strengthen Russia's military forces. Peter the Great also placed great importance on the translation of prose, poetry and other literary works. During this period, the Russian language began to develop its own literary model, and many educated Russians saw translation as a way of enriching the language and enhancing its uniqueness and expressiveness. <br />
<br />
From around the 1830s, the importance of translating Western European scientific and technical texts gradually gave way to literary works such as prose and poetry. Writers who were also translators turned their attention to the work of new Western European writers, mainly poets, especially French poets. At the same time, the legacy of the Greco-Roman period also entered their minds. They began to translate the works of philosophers and historians, which - on the one hand - gave rise to difficulties in literary rhetoric and scientific terminology and, on the other, played an important role in the formation of a standard Russian language. <br />
<br />
From that time onwards, translation also became an organised activity, with the emergence of specific bodies responsible for the organisation and management of translation work. 1735 saw the establishment of the first specialised translation organisation, the Russian Society, at the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences. The Society had a professional group of translators and some of the academy's scholars, such as Lomonosov and Tretyakovsky, were among its members. The Association was responsible for selecting works, defining the rules or principles of translation, commenting on translations, and training translators. It is worth mentioning that the Academy of Sciences also set up a school of foreign languages to train official translators. In 1748, the Academy implemented Queen Elizabeth's decree to increase the number of translations of non-religious books and publicly appealed to "the nobility and other classes of intellectuals" to take an active part in the translation process. <br />
<br />
In the second half of the 18th century, Ekaterina II's efforts to create a 'civilised state' not only led to the development of literature, but also gave preferential treatment to writers. For example, in order to select the best original texts, she ordered the establishment of the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books (1768-1783). The Society was dedicated to providing excellent conditions for translation work throughout Russia. The purchase of manuscripts was financed out of Ekaterina's own funds. Later, the Society also discussed a proposal to establish a translation bureau under the Academy of Sciences (1790). The 114 members of the Society included such notable figures as Tretyakovsky, Sumarokov and Radishev. For 14 years the Association was active, producing numerous literary translations and likewise contributing to the discussion of theoretical issues in translation.<br />
<br />
2.The emergence of poetry translation.<br />
<br />
Translation of poetry also developed in Russia in the 18th century, and later became one of the jewels of the country's literature. The great Russian scholar and poet Lomonosov was a major contributor to this process. A great deal of the work created by Lomonosov and his contemporaries Sumarokov and Tretyakovsky was poetry in translation. They often translated while exploring theoretical issues in translation: they would explain in their works why they translated this way and not that way; they stressed the importance of translation work and the creative value it contained. Among the most prestigious writers and translators in Russian literature at the time, there were several interesting competitions in which two or three poets translated the same work at the same time, and their translations were published in journals. It was often the case that different translations of the same work were published at the same time, without the translator's name, for the judgement of "literary lovers and peers". This phenomenon also supports the idea that the 18th century was a period of 'experimentation' in the history of Russian translation. <br />
<br />
Lomonosov's translations works in Latin, German, French and Greek are numerous and varied, showing his talent for both rhyming and free verse. He was keen to reproduce the rhythmic structure of the original texts, using a variety of iambic and iambic meter to convey the Alexandrian style of French epic and the hexameter style of Greek tragedy. Russian poetry was not very developed at the time and was still based on syllables. <br />
Lomonosov's innovations enriched Russian poetry and established new forms and traditions of Russian poetic style and rhyme. <br />
<br />
In contrast, Kantymir (Д.М.Кантемира) and Tretyakovsky's greatest quest was to insist on a faithful translation of the original. In the process, the translators had to contend with the problems of reams of vocabulary and rhetorical rules. Tretyakovsky became famous for his successful use of Russian rhyme to translate many verses of the original in his translation of Paul Thielmann's A Journey to Love Island. In the introduction to the novel, the translator states his approach to translation: "The translator is only one person away from the author. I would add that if the author is original, the translator should be even more original (I am not referring to myself, but to a good translator)". He believes that "prose to prose" and "poetry to poetry" can be as good as the original, and that a good translation is one that "describes the full meaning of each verse". Kantymir 's translation of Horace's Letters and other poetic works in Latin and French, although less well-known than the former, is equally valuable. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 12:39, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.2 First half of the19th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The nineteenth century was a golden age in the history of Russian translation. If translation had established itself as a profession in the first hundred years, it was elevated to the level of art in this century. The nineteenth century produced a number of masters of translation, including Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин), Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский), Pushkin (А.С.Пушкин), Lermontov (М.Ю.Лермонтов) and Fetter (А.Фет). <br />
<br />
The new Russian school of translation owes its formation to the historian Nikolai Karamzin and the poet Zhukovsky. Karamzin published a number of translations in several magazines between the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century. He saw translations as a good help in perfecting a writer's style: a source of information that would satisfy human curiosity, inform historical facts, entertain women and provide material for new magazines. As a young man, Karamzin was strongly opposed to the alteration of and disloyalty to the original texts, but later became a champion of free translation, famously saying: "Whoever follows the author of the original text step by step is no different from a servant who serves his lord". Karamzin's translations cover an admirable range of genres and languages: he translated works by both classical and contemporaneous authors, in Greek, French, Latin, German, English, Italian and some Oriental languages. <br />
<br />
Pushkin called Zhukovsky "a genius of translation". After graduating from the Moscow Noble Boarding University in 1802, Zhukovsky devoted himself to translation. It was thanks to his efforts that Russian readers were able to access the works of world literary giants such as Schiller, Goethe, Byron and Walters Scott. Zhukovsky's creative translation activities also ranged from Charles Bello to Grimm's Fairy Tales. From Charles Bellow to Grimm's fairy tales, from Homer's epic Odyssey to the poetic history of ancient Rus' Igor's Expedition, all became his original texts. There is no denying that Zhukovsky is a master in the history of Russian translation. Like Karamzin, Zhukovsky was a fan of free translation, sometimes rewriting the original or even creating a new story from its subject: sometimes transferring the setting of events to Russia and giving Russian names to the characters. For example, in his 1808 translation of the German Romantic poet Bilge's narrative poem Lenore, he changed the heroine's name from Lenore to Lyudmila and moved the story to the time of the Livonian War in 16th-century Russia. Zhukovsky believed that the "unsavoury character" of the work should be weakened while retaining the original author's ideas. His talent enabled him to reproduce the style, rhythm and tone of the original poems, while some of his best works were also faithful to the original. In later years, however, his view of translation changed in response to the tendency to stay close to the original, and he retranslated several of his previous translations to make them more faithful to the original, including Lenore. The Russian school of translation owes much to the tradition of translation created by Zhukovsky.<br />
<br />
Pushkin and Lermontov are also two poets who set the stage for an epoch in the history of Russian translation. Although only a small proportion of their poetry was translated, they made a significant contribution to the improvement of the art of translation in Russia. In their rewriting and imitation of poetry, they were able to reproduce the most important features of foreign poetry, the key point being that their creative translations were no less valuable in their own right than the originals. Their free translation became a model for other translators, and in addition they established the important principle that a good artistic translation must also be a good work in the national literature of the translated language. Pushkin played an indelibly important role in the development of the Russian school of translation. He was always interested in the question of translation, and his critical views on translation were objective and profound. Before translation he stressed the importance of the choice of the original work, and in translation he demanded that the translator should be faithful to the original, while at the same time displaying his deep creative skills and his own literary style. In one of his unfinished posthumous works, 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', Pushkin wrote: 'Chateaubriand's translation (verbatim) compensates to some extent for the faults of the young French writers (free translation), for they have insulted the great man very cruelly, though in a perfectly innocent manner. There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own rhetorical conventions, its own way of expressing itself, and it is impossible to translate into another language with the corresponding vocabulary". These insights had a positive impact on the best Russian translators of the 19th and 20th centuries. In addition, Pushkin's discussion of translation coincided with a turning point in the history of Russian literature, when the Romantic era was being replaced by a new era with a predominantly realist orientation, and a process of 'separation' between translated and national literature was under way. Pushkin's discussion of the work of the translator as distinct from that of the writer contributed to the independence of literature in translation from indigenous literature. <br />
<br />
During this period, while most people advocated free translation, there were a few translators who insisted on maximum fidelity to the original and advocated the word-for-word method, even at the expense of the work's willingness to be translated. Among these were such well-known writers as P.A. Vyazemsky (П.А.Вяземский) and N.I. Gnedzic (Н.И.Гнедич). In fact, they did not always live up to their principles, and sometimes their talent and artistic intuition ended up breaking the bonds of verbatim translation. Vyazemsky's translations of Benjamin Constant and Adam Mickiewicz were not without literary and artistic merit, and his translation of Homer's epic Iliad in particular was highly praised by Pushkin. It was Fetter who was the most insistent on the idea of a verbatim translation. Fetter translated many famous works, and his philosophy throughout was one of sentence-for-sentence, word-for-word translation, retaining all the words of the original. Fetter's extreme word-for-word approach had a negative impact on most of his translations, although he was sometimes able to come up with some effective methods of translation. <br />
<br />
Free translations were also sometimes used to promote democratic ideas in the original that could not pass official scrutiny. A number of translators, such as V. Kurochkin (В.Курочкин), D. M. Minayev (Д.Минаев) and M. M. Mikhalov (М.Михайлов), achieved this by selecting appropriate original works or by using texts in their translations that were superficially imperceptible in their allusion to the conditions in Russia at the time. It was from that time onwards that the use of translation as a weapon to express dissent became part of the Russian tradition.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:41, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The nineteenth century was the golden age in the history of Russian translation. If translation had established its status in the first hundred years, it was elevated to the level of art in this century. The nineteenth century produced a number of masters of translation, including Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин), Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский), Pushkin (А.С.Пушкин), Lermontov (М.Ю.Лермонтов) and Fetter (А.Фет). <br />
<br />
The new Russian school of translation owes its formation to the publishment of a number of translations of historian Nikolai Karamzin and the poet Zhukovsky. Karamzin in several magazines between the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century. He regarded translation as a good help in perfecting a writer's style: a source of information that satisfies human curiosity, informs historical facts, entertains women and provides materials for new magazines. As a young man, Karamzin was strongly opposed to the disloyalty to the original texts, but later became a champion of free translation. His famous saying was: "Whoever follows the author of the original text step by step is no different from a servant who serves his lord". Karamzin's translations cover an admirable range of genres and languages: he translated works by both classical and contemporaneous authors, in Greek, French, Latin, German, English, Italian and some Oriental languages. <br />
<br />
Pushkin called Zhukovsky "a genius of translation". After graduating from the Moscow Noble Boarding University in 1802, Zhukovsky devoted himself to translation. It was thanks to his efforts that Russian readers were able to access the works of world literary giants such as Schiller, Goethe, Byron and Walters Scott. Zhukovsky's creative translation activities also ranged from Charles Bello to Grimm's Fairy Tales. From Charles Bellow to Grimm's fairy tales, from Homer's epic Odyssey to the poetic history of ancient Rus' Igor's Expedition, all became his original texts. There is no denying that Zhukovsky is a master in the history of Russian translation. Like Karamzin, Zhukovsky was a fan of free translation, who sometimes rewrites the original or even creates a new story from its subject, transfers the setting of events to Russia and gives Russian names to the characters. For example, in his 1808 translation of the German Romantic poet Bilge's narrative poem Lenore, he changed the heroine's name from Lenore to Lyudmila and moved the story to the time of the Livonian War in 16th-century Russia. Zhukovsky believed that the "unsavoury character" of the work should be weakened while retaining the original author's ideas. His talent enabled him to reproduce the style, rhythm and tone of the original poems, while some of his best works were also faithful to the original. In later years, however, his view of translation changed in response to the tendency to stay close to the original, and he retranslated several of his previous translations to make them more faithful to the original, including Lenore. The Russian school of translation owes much to the tradition of translation created by Zhukovsky.<br />
<br />
Pushkin and Lermontov are also two poets who gave perfect preparations for an epoch in the history of Russian translation. Although only a small proportion of their poetry was translated, they made a significant contribution to the improvement of the art of translation in Russia. In their rewriting and imitation of poetry, they were able to reproduce the most important features of foreign poetry, the key point being that their creative translations were no less valuable in their own right than the originals. Their free translation became a model for other translators, and in addition they established the important principle that a good artistic translation must also be a good work in the national literature of the translated language. Pushkin played an indelibly important role in the development of the Russian school of translation. He was always interested in the question of translation, and his critical views on translation were objective and profound. Before translation he stressed the importance of the choice of the original work, and in translation he demanded that the translator should be faithful to the original, while at the same time displaying his deep creative skills and his own literary style. In one of his unfinished posthumous works, 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', Pushkin wrote: 'Chateaubriand's translation (verbatim) compensates to some extent for the faults of the young French writers (free translation), for they have insulted the great man very cruelly, though in a perfectly innocent manner. There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own rhetorical conventions, its own way of expressing itself, and it is impossible to translate into another language with the corresponding vocabulary". These insights had a positive impact on the best Russian translators of the 19th and 20th centuries. In addition, Pushkin's discussion of translation coincided with a turning point in the history of Russian literature, when the Romantic era was being replaced by a new era with a predominantly realist orientation, and a process of 'separation' between translated and national literature was under way. Pushkin's discussion of the work of the translator as distinct from that of the writer contributed to the independence of literature in translation from indigenous literature. <br />
<br />
During this period, while most people advocated free translation, there were a few translators who insisted on maximum fidelity to the original and advocated the word-for-word method, even at the expense of the work's willingness to be translated. Among these were such well-known writers as P.A. Vyazemsky (П.А.Вяземский) and N.I. Gnedzic (Н.И.Гнедич). In fact, they did not always live up to their principles, and sometimes their talent and artistic intuition ended up breaking the bonds of verbatim translation. Vyazemsky's translations of Benjamin Constant and Adam Mickiewicz were not without literary and artistic merit, and his translation of Homer's epic Iliad in particular was highly praised by Pushkin. It was Fetter who was the most insistent on the idea of a verbatim translation. Fetter translated many famous works, and his philosophy throughout was one of sentence-for-sentence, word-for-word translation, retaining all the words of the original. Fetter's extreme word-for-word approach had a negative impact on most of his translations, although he was sometimes able to come up with some effective methods of translation. <br />
<br />
Free translations were also used to promote democratic ideas in original that could not pass official scrutiny. A number of translators, such as V. Kurochkin (В.Курочкин), D. M. Minayev (Д.Минаев) and M. M. Mikhalov (М.Михайлов), achieved this by selecting appropriate original works or by using texts in their translations that were superficially imperceptible in their allusion to the conditions in Russia at the time. It was since then that the use of translation was used as a weapon to express dissent became part of the Russian tradition. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:05, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.3 Second half of the19th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The mid-nineteenth century was a period of increasingly intense political and ideological struggle in Russian literature, and a great debate raged in the Russian literary world over the question of 'art for the people' or 'art for art's sake'. The debate was mainly about the choice of material for translation and the method of translation. As far as the choice of material was concerned, the democratic and revolutionary writers who supported 'art for the people' chose to translate works with progressive ideological content and a democratic orientation, such as Heine. The aristocratic and liberal intellectual writers, on the other hand, opted for philosophical poetry with a chanting and individualistic feel. Of course, this is not absolute: "Mikhailov and Dobrolyubov of the democratic revolutionary school also translated Heine's moody love poems The Songbook, while Tolstoy of the aristocratic and liberal school translated some of Goethe's more progressive poems, such as The Fiancée of Corinth and The Whore of God. In terms of their approach to translation, the Democratic-Revolutionary translators, based on the reproduction of the original as a whole, approached their translations very liberally, even adding in many elements typical of Russian culture. The latter, on the other hand, usually adopted a direct translation, focusing on conveying the formal details of the original work. This divergence was mainly due to the different starting points of the two groups of translators, with the democratic revolutionaries seeking to convey advanced ideas to the Russian general public and the aristocratic intellectuals believing that works of art were irrelevant to the people and that artistic creations should not be exposed to "vulgar" reality.<br />
<br />
There were a large number of outstanding literary writers and literary critics who made brilliant statements about literary translation in that era, none more so than Belinsky (В.Г.Белинский), Chernyshevsky (Н.Г.Черныщевский) and Dubrolyovsky (Н.Г.Добролюбов). Belinsky was one of the greatest Russian literary critics of the 19th century. He believed that translations should not be word-for-word, but should reproduce the spirit of the original, in much the same way as Pushkin's view of translation theory. On the other hand, he also opposed arbitrary 'paraphrasing': the ideal translation should not add or delete arbitrarily to the original text, but should enable the reader to understand the foreign work truly and accurately through the translation. Such a viewpoint seems to us to be quite convincing even now. Belinsky played a decisive role in completely burying the 'rewriting' and 'adapting it to Russian custom' arguments. This issue dominates his writings. He argues that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of the translation, and this is one of the criteria by which he judges its merits. He points out, for example, that the greatest strength of Gnedzic's translation of the Iliad is that it "exudes the atmosphere of ancient life" and "the spirit of the ancient Greeks". However, the contradiction between national identity and translatability was once a problem for Belinsky. Initially believing that it was impossible to translate works with a strong national character into other languages, he was only convinced by the success of Turgenev's collaboration with Louis Viardot in translating Gogol's novels into French in 1846, and then became increasingly determined to recognise translatability in translation. Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a series of revisions that led to a complete and rigorous system of translation theory, the first of its kind in the history of Russian translation theory.<br />
<br />
Translation in Russia developed in the second half of the 19th century. From the 1960s onwards, the Russian readership of non-language speakers began to expand, and these readers were keen to see the translation 'replace' the original. This demand led to an unprecedented expansion in the choice of subjects and translations of Russian literature. Interest in foreign theatrical works was particularly high at this stage, and a strong interest in European classical literature also developed. Dickens, Saclay, Victor Hugo, Dumas, Balzac, Flaubert, Tudor, Maupassant and Zola, as well as lesser-known writers of today, were successively brought to the attention of a wide range of Russian readers in the form of translations. At that time, European theatre classics like Shakespeare's plays were translated into Russia in large numbers. Many professional translators were involved, the most successful being the translator P.N.V. Weinberg. He translated foreign literature from the standpoint of progressive Russian literature of the time. His translation of Othello, for example, is notable for its vividness in the Russian language, and has always been recognised as the best translation in terms of conveying the totality of scenes, plots and long dialogues, even though the translation is wordy compared to the original.<br />
<br />
Although there has been a quantitative surge in translations of Russian literature during this period, the quality has generally been poor, manifesting itself in word-for-word translations, redundant sentences and poor vocabulary, not to mention inventiveness. In addition, the language of the characters in the translation is heavily Russified, with Russian proverbs, sayings and idioms that the foreign characters could never have known, and the introduction of Russian-specific life circumstances that cause contradictions with the plot and details of the original work. For example, В Тулу со своим самоваром ехать (Bring your own samovar to Tula - it's superfluous). The reason for this is that the literary world did not attach much importance to the translation of fiction and prose, and there were no specialists working on this task. Another point is that at this stage there was little progress in the study of Russian translation theory, and no valuable theoretical insights emerged. The linguist A.A. Потебня (1835-1891) expressed his views on translation from a psychological standpoint in his essay "Language and Peopleliness ". In his view, it was impossible to express in another language what was originally intended to be expressed in a certain language. He, like many other literary scholars, denied the translatability of language.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:41, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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The mid-nineteenth century was a period of increasingly intensively political and ideological struggle in Russian literature, and a great debate raged in the Russian literary world over the question of 'art for the people' or 'art for art's sake'. The debate was mainly about the choice of materials for translation and the methods of translation. As far as the choice of material was concerned, the democratic and revolutionary writers who supported 'art for the people' chose to translate works with progressive ideological content and a democratic orientation, such as Heine. The aristocratic and liberal intellectual writers, on the other hand, opted for philosophical poetry with a chanting and individualistic feel. It's undoubtful that this is not absolute: "Mikhailov and Dobrolyubov of the democratic revolutionary school also translated Heine's moody love poems The Songbook, while Tolstoy of the aristocratic and liberal school translated some of Goethe's more progressive poems, such as The Fiancée of Corinth and The Whore of God. In terms of their approach to translation, the Democratic-Revolutionary translators, based on the reproduction of the original as a whole, approached their translations very liberally, when they even added in many elements typical of Russian culture. The latter, on the other hand, usually adopted a direct translation, focusing on conveying the formal details of the original work. This divergence was mainly due to the different starting points of the two groups of translators, with the democratic revolutionaries seeking to convey advanced ideas to the Russian general public and the aristocratic intellectuals believing that works of art were irrelevant to the people and that artistic creations should not be exposed to "vulgar" reality.<br />
<br />
There were a large number of outstanding literary writers and literary critics who made brilliant statements about literary translation in that era, none more so than Belinsky (В.Г.Белинский), Chernyshevsky (Н.Г.Черныщевский) and Dubrolyovsky (Н.Г.Добролюбов). Belinsky was one of the greatest Russian literary critics of the 19th century. He believed that translations should not be word-for-word, but should reproduce the spirit of the original text, in much the same way as Pushkin's view of translation theory. On the other hand, he also opposed arbitrary 'paraphrasing': the ideal translation should not add or delete arbitrarily to the original text, but should enable the reader to understand the foreign work truly and accurately through the translation. Such a viewpoint seems to us to be quite convincing even now. Belinsky played a decisive role in completely burying the 'rewriting' and 'adapting it to Russian custom' arguments. This issue dominates his writings. He argues that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of the translation, and this is one of the criteria by which he judges its merits. He points out, for example, that the greatest strength of Gnedzic's translation of the Iliad is that it "exudes the atmosphere of ancient life" and "the spirit of the ancient Greeks". However, the contradiction between national identity and translatability was once a problem for Belinsky. Initially believing that it was impossible to translate works with a strong national character into other languages, he was only convinced by the success of Turgenev's collaboration with Louis Viardot in translating Gogol's novels into French in 1846, and then became increasingly determined to recognise translatability in translation. Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a series of revisions that led to a complete and rigorous system of translation theory, the first of its kind in the history of Russian translation theory.<br />
<br />
Translation in Russia developed in the second half of the 19th century. From the 1960s onwards, the Russian readership of non-language speakers began to expand, and these readers were keen to see the translation 'replace' the original. This demand led to an unprecedented expansion in the choice of subjects and translations of Russian literature. Interest in foreign theatrical works was particularly high at this stage, and a strong interest in European classical literature also developed. Dickens, Saclay, Victor Hugo, Dumas, Balzac, Flaubert, Tudor, Maupassant and Zola, as well as lesser-known writers of today, were successively brought to the attention of a wide range of Russian readers in the form of translations. At that time, European theatre classics like Shakespeare's plays were translated into Russia in large numbers. Many professional translators were involved, the most successful being the translator P.N.V. Weinberg. He translated foreign literature from the standpoint of progressive Russian literature of the time. His translation of Othello, for example, is notable for its vividness in the Russian language, and has always been recognised as the best translation in terms of conveying the totality of scenes, plots and long dialogues, even though the translation is wordy compared to the original.<br />
<br />
Although there has been a quantitative surge in translations of Russian literature during this period, the quality has generally been poor, manifesting itself in word-for-word translations, redundant sentences and poor vocabulary, not to mention inventiveness. In addition, the language of the characters in the translation is heavily Russified, that is, contents with Russian proverbs, sayings and idioms that the foreign characters could never have known, and the introduction of Russian-specific life circumstances that cause contradictions with the plot and details of the original work. For example, В Тулу со своим самоваром ехать (Bring your own samovar to Tula - it's superfluous). The reason for this is that the literary world did not attach much importance to the translation of fiction and prose, and there were no specialists working on this task. Another point is that at this stage there was little progress in the study of Russian translation theory, and no valuable theoretical insights emerged. The linguist A.A. Потебня (1835-1891) expressed his views on translation from a psychological standpoint in his essay "Language and Peopleliness ". In his view, it was impossible to express in another language what was originally intended to be expressed in a certain language. Just like many other literary scholars, he denied the translatability of language. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:13, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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===3.Translation ideas of famous writers of the 18-19th centuries. ===<br />
===3.1. Pushkin 's ideas on translation. ===<br />
Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin (Александр Сергеевич Пушкин, 1977-1837), a famous Russian poet and writer of the nineteenth century, was also very much a translator. Although he left behind few works on translation, his ideas on translation are worth studying. Pushkin's translations of poetry were associated with classicism in the early stages of his work and later with romanticism. Although these translations are far removed from the original in a literal sense, they are almost close to composition. Pushkin's significance as a translator, however, lies in 1) the reproduction of foreign originals in the standard Russian language he established in his translations and 2) the full expression of the realist artistic method in the heyday of his compositions: the focus on typical features and the technique of outlining the historical and individual characteristics that reflect the original.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's translations have their own characteristics and style. He did not translate all of his works word for word from the original, and in some places he deleted what he considered to be redundant sentences in order to avoid the verbosity of the original, occasionally replacing the translation with a general paraphrase. He advocates respect for the characteristics of foreign readers, while at the same time opposing word-for-word translations, which can lead to the trampling of the mother tongue. He therefore advocated translations which, on the one hand, required fidelity to the original in terms of meaning and, on the other, should preserve the original's distinctive features.<br />
As he says in his unfinished 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', commenting on Chateaubriand's translation: 'There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), has failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own conventional rhetorical devices, its own habitual expressions, and it is impossible to translate all this into another language using the corresponding vocabulary." Pushkin's rejection of word-for-word translation can be seen.<br />
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Pushkin's influence on the cause of translation in Russia was immense, and this influence refers neither to his few translations nor to his theoretical views, but to the fact that Pushkin pioneered the translation of Russian literature. Although his ideas on translation cannot be called a theory, they do provide certain translation ideas for later generations of literary translators.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin (Александр Сергеевич Пушкин, 1977-1837), a famous Russian poet and writer of the nineteenth century, was also an outstanding translator. Besides he left behind few works on translation, his ideas on translation are worth studying. Pushkin's translations of poetry were associated with classicism in the early stages of his work and with romanticism later. Although these translations are far removed from the original in a literal sense, they are almost close to composition. Pushkin's significance as a translator, however, lies in the reproduction of foreign originalities in the standard Russian language he established in his translations and the full expression of the realist artistic method in the heyday of his compositions: the focus on typical features and the technique of outlining the historical and individual characteristics that reflect the original.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's translations have their own distinctive characteristics and style. He did not translate all of his works literally from the original context, but in some places he deleted what he considered to be redundant sentences in order to avoid the verbosity of the original, occasionally replacing the translation with a general paraphrase. He advocates to give enough respect for the characteristics of foreign readers, while at the same time opposing word-for-word translations, which may lead to the trampling of the mother tongue. Therefore, He advocated translations which, on the one hand, required fidelity to the original text in terms of meaning and, on the other hand, should preserve the original's distinctive features.<br />
<br />
As he says in his unfinished 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', he comments on Chateaubriand's translation: 'There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), has failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own conventional rhetorical devices, its own habitual expressions, and it is impossible to translate all this into another language using the corresponding vocabulary." Pushkin's rejection of word-for-word translation can be revealed clearly.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's influence on the cause of translation in Russia was huge, and his influence refers neither to his few translations nor to his theoretical views, but to the fact that Pushkin pioneered the translation of Russian literature. Although his ideas on translation cannot be called a theory, they do provide certain unique and new translation ideas for later generations of literary translators. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:29, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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===3.1. Belinsky's ideas on translation. ===<br />
Vissarion Grigorievich Belinsky (Виссарион Григорьевич Белинский, 1811-1848) was a famous literary critic of the nineteenth century and one of the most involved in the world of translation among Russian literary activists of his time. Belinsky was fluent in French and as a young man translated for two magazines, Miscellany and Telescope. Later, after a career in literary criticism, he published numerous articles on translation and criticism of translated works.<br />
Belinsky's and Pushkin's views on translation were very similar, both advocating that translations should not be word-for-word. Belinsky first introduced the term 'theory' of translation, and in his 1838 review of Polevoy's translation of Hamlet, he first proposed the need for a theory of translation. He considered the role of theory: "Any object that man perceives has a theory of its own, and a theory is the knowledge of the laws by which the object exists."<br />
<br />
Belinsky argues that in translation: "Closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original. Each <br />
language has its own distinctive expressions, characteristics and qualities; these are so distinctive that to correctly convey a certain image or sentence, it is sometimes necessary to change them completely in the translation. The corresponding image, like the corresponding sentence, does not necessarily lie in a superficial agreement of words: the inner life of the translation should be made to correspond to the inner life of the original". It can be seen that Belinsky, like Pushkin, was also opposed to word-for-word rigid translations, his view being that the task of translating a language lies in reproducing the spirit of the original. He believed that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of a translation, so the question of the interrelationship between national character and translatability has always troubled Belinsky. He pointed out that 'there is only one rule for translating a literary work - to convey the spirit of the work being translated, and this can only be done by translating it into Russian as the author himself would have written it in Russian, if he had been Russian' (The Complete Works of Belinsky Volume 2).<br />
<br />
Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a number of achievements, and his view of translation as a whole is a complete and rigorous system. His view of translation was developed gradually, and in the process it was dominated by an increasingly firm recognition of the possibility of a successful solution to the task of translation, that is, of translatability. Belinsky believed that a translation must be discerning in its content and form in relation to the original. He has pointed out that "approaching the original is not the same as conveying the letters, but rather the spirit of the original." It is also suggested that the translator and the original author are two different kinds of people. But in order to convey the 'spirit' of the original in the translation, the translator's genius needs to reach a certain tacit understanding with this 'spirit'. He advocates the preservation of exoticism in translation, opposes naturalisation, the arbitrary distortion of the face of the original work, the overwhelming of the original author with the personality of the translator's style, the emphasis on both likeness and likeness, etc. However, while recognising the importance of reproducing the poetic form of the original work in translation, Belinsky also took into account the state of development of Russian literature in translation. This also led him to look favourably on translating good poetry in prose, seeing such translations as a form of transition for Russian readers to the treasures of world literature.<br />
<br />
Although Belinsky wrote little about literary translation, his theoretical views contain the kernel of the realist principles of translation proposed by contemporary Soviet literary translators. His ideas on translation had a very profound influence on the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Vissarion Grigorievich Belinsky (Виссарион Григорьевич Белинский, 1811-1848) was a famous literary critic of the nineteenth century and one of the most active in the world of translation among Russian literary activists of his time. Belinsky was fluent in French and when he was a young man he translated for two magazines, Miscellany and Telescope. Later, after a career in literary criticism, he published numerous articles on translation and criticism of translated works.<br />
<br />
Belinsky's and Pushkin's views on translation were very similar, both advocating that translations should not be word-for-word. Belinsky first introduced the term 'theory' of translation, and in his 1838 review of Polevoy's translation of Hamlet, he first proposed the need for a theory of translation. He considered the role of theory: "Any object that man perceives has a theory of its own, and a theory is the knowledge of the laws by which the object exists."<br />
<br />
Belinsky argues that in translation: "Closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original. Each language has its own distinctive expressions, characteristics and qualities; these are so distinctive that to correctly convey a certain image or sentence, it is sometimes necessary to change them completely in the translation. The corresponding image, like the corresponding sentence, does not necessarily lie in a superficial agreement of words: the inner life of the translation should be made to correspond to the inner life of the original". It can be seen that Belinsky, like Pushkin, was also opposed to word-for-word rigid translations, his view being that the task of translating a language lies in reproducing the spirit of the original. He believed that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of a translation, so the question of the interrelationship between national character and translatability has always troubled Belinsky. He pointed out that 'there is only one rule for translating a literary work - to convey the spirit of the work being translated, and this can only be done by translating it into Russian as the author himself would have written it in Russian, if he had been Russian' (The Complete Works of Belinsky Volume 2).<br />
<br />
Belinsky's career as a translator had a number of achievements, and his view of translation as a whole is a complete and rigorous system. His view of translation was developed gradually, and in this process it was dominated by an increasingly firm recognition of the possibility of a successful solution to the task of translation, that is, of translatability. Belinsky believed that a translation must be discerning in its content and form in relation to the original. He has pointed out that "approaching the original is not the same as conveying the letters, but rather the spirit of the original." It is also suggested that the translator and the original author are two different kinds of people. But in order to convey the 'spirit' of the original in the translation, the translator's genius needs to reach a certain tacit understanding with this 'spirit'. He advocates the preservation of exoticism in translation, opposes naturalisation, the arbitrary distortion of the face of the original work, the overwhelming of the original author with the personality of the translator's style, the emphasis on both likeness and likeness, etc. However, while recognising the importance of reproducing the poetic form of the original work in translation, Belinsky also took into account the state of development of Russian literature in translation. This also led him to look favourably on translating good poetry in prose, seeing such translations as a form of transition for Russian readers to the treasures of world literature.<br />
<br />
Although Belinsky wrote little about literary translation, his theoretical views contain the kernel of the realist principles of translation proposed by contemporary Soviet literary translators. His ideas on translation had a very profound influence on the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:56, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.Conclusion ===<br />
Translation has demonstrated its importance in social activity since antiquity, yet it was only in the twentieth century that it became a widely followed professional discipline. This article reviews Russian translation activity and translation thought in pre-Soviet Russia, exploring its development before the formation of a theoretical system. Throughout the history of translation, Russian scholars have contributed greatly to the development of translation literature in the world. Through combing through the history of Russian translation, we learn that the translation ideas of a number of outstanding writers, though not theoretical, have had an unmistakable impact on later generations. When discussing the translation ideas of 19th-century writers, we are inspired to insist on the principle that "closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original", emphasizing the ideological content and literary value of the translation, that the translation should serve the readers, and that the translation should be people-oriented. These ideas influenced, to a greater or lesser extent, the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, the study of the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia is not only conducive to sorting out Russian translation ideas Russian learners can better understand the characteristics of their translations when translating and improve the accuracy of their translations.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:44, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Translation has played its important role in the social activities since antiquity, yet it was until in the twentieth century that it became a widely followed professional discipline. This paper reviews Russian translators and translation thoughts in pre-Soviet Russia, exploring its development before the formation of a theoretical system. Throughout the history of translation, Russian scholars have contributed greatly to the development of translation literature in the world. By combing through the history of Russian translation, we learn that the translation ideas of a number of outstanding writers, though not very theoretical, have had an unmistakable impact on later generations. When discussing the translation ideas of 19th-century writers, we are inspired to insist on the principle that "closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original", emphasizing the ideological content and literary value of the translation that the translation should serve the readers, and that the translation should be people-oriented. These ideas influenced, to a greater or lesser extent, the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, the study of the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia not only is conducive to sorting out Russian translation ideas, but also make Russian learners better understand the characteristics of their translations when translating and improving the accuracy of their translations. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 14:02, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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===5.References ===<br />
1.Wu, Keli 吴克礼（2006）.俄苏翻译理论流派综述 The Translation Methods and Studies in USSR. 上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
2.Guo Lin 郭琳（2006）.俄罗斯语言学派翻译理论若干问题研究[D] A Study of Some Problems of Translation Theory of the Russian School of Philology.首都师范大学 Capital Normal University.<br />
<br />
3.Feng Xin 冯欣（2009）. 俄罗斯翻译理论史及其影响研究[D] A study of the history of Russian translation theory and its influence.上海外国语大学 Shanghai International Studies University.<br />
<br />
4.Wang，Yulun；Jiang,Wanzhu 王育伦,姜万砫（1989).别林斯基论文学翻译[J] Belinsky on Literary Translation .中国翻译 Chinese translators Journal ,(03):53-55.<br />
<br />
5.Li Zheng, Fan Min 李铮,范敏（2010）. 普希金与翻译[J] Pushkin and Translation. 现代交际 Modern Intercourse Journal,(05):69.</div>Zhang Yiranhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_5&diff=132582Hist Trans Theo EN 52021-12-14T02:12:30Z<p>Zhang Yiran: /* 1.The history of Russian translation and the period of enlightenment of its translation theory. */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''History of Translation Theories'''<br />
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[[History_of_Translation_Theories|Overview Page of History of Translation Theories]]<br />
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30 Chapters（0/30)<br />
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[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_1]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_2]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_3]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_4]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_5]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_6]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_7]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_8]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_9]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_10]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_11]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_12]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_13]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_14]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_15]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_16]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_17]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_18]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_19]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_20]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_21]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_22]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_23]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_24]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_25]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_26]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_27]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_28]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_29]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_30]] ...<br />
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[[Book_projects|Back to translation project overview]] [[DCG-To-Do|Zur To-Do-Liste]]<br />
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=Chapter 5 History of Translation Theories from Early Russia to the Soviet Union=<br />
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'''从古罗斯到苏联前的翻译理论史'''<br />
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张怡然 Zhang Yiran,Hunan Normal University,China<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
Translation as a means of intercultural communication, each country has a distinctive translation ideology. This article focuses on the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia. Through analyzing the history of translation, can find that Russia has formed a literary tradition of translation studies in the late 18th century. In the 19th century, Pushkin, Lermontov, Turgenev and other outstanding poets and literary scholars were keen on translation, especially in the middle of the century when Belinsky and other famous literary critics published a series of comments on literary translation, which emphasized the literary tradition of Russian translation to an unparalleled extent, which is rare in the history of translation in the world. The general principles of Russian literary translation thought were also formed during this period: namely, to insist on commenting on the merits of a translation in terms of the overall effect of the work, to emphasize the ideological content and literary value of the translation, and that the translation should serve the reader and be people-oriented. The above ideas influenced the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, a study of the history of translation theory in pre-Soviet Russia will help learners of Russian to better understand the characteristics of their translations and to improve the accuracy and peopleliness of their translations.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 12:57, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation is a means of intercultural communication, and each country has its own distinctive translation theory system. This paper focuses on the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia. By analyzing the history of translation, it is obvious that a literary tradition of translation studies has been formed in Russia in the late 18th century. In the 19th century, Pushkin, Lermontov, Turgenev and other outstanding poets and literary scholars were keen on translation, especially in the middle of the century when Belinsky and other famous literary critics published a series of comments on literary translation, which emphasized the literary tradition of Russian translation to an unparalleled extent, which is rare in the history of translation in the world. The general principles of Russian literary translation thoughts were also formed during this period: namely, to insist on commenting on the merits and weakness of a translation in terms of the overall effect of the work, to emphasize the ideological content and literary value of the translation, and the translation should serve the reader and be people-oriented. The above ideas influenced the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, a study of the history of translation theory in pre-Soviet Russia will help learners of Russian to understand the characteristics of their translations profoundly and to improve the accuracy and fluency of their translations.Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:03, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation theories, Translation ideas，History of Translation<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译作为一种跨文化交际的手段，每个国家都有独具特色的翻译思想。本文主要探讨苏联前俄国的翻译历史。通过梳理其翻译史可发现，俄国于18世纪末期就已形成了翻译研究的文学传统。进入19世纪后, 普希金、莱蒙托夫、屠格涅夫等优秀诗人、文学家对翻译的热衷, 尤其是世纪中叶别林斯基等著名文学评论家发表一系列关于文学翻译的评论, 更是把俄国翻译的文学传统强调到无以复加的程度, 这在世界翻译史上都是罕见的。俄国文学翻译思想的总原则也在这一时期形成:即坚持从作品的整体效果上来评论译作优劣, 强调译作的思想内容和文学价值, 翻译应为读者服务, 译文应具有人民性。上述思想影响了苏联时期翻译理论的形成。因此，对苏联前俄国翻译理论史的研究有利于俄语学习者在翻译时更好的理解其翻译特点，提高翻译的准确性和人民性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译理论 翻译思想 翻译史 <br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
This essay provides a comprehensive and concise overview of the history of translation in Russia: Russian written translations began in the Kievan Rus' era, when religious subjects were the main focus of translations, especially the Bible, which was translated from Greek. Religious translations continued to flourish under the Moscow principality, represented by Maxim Gleick (МаксимГрек). At the same time, the national character of Russian translations began to emerge, and the languages of translation expanded from Greek to Latin, German and West Slavic, and the subjects covered included Western chivalric fiction, geographical literature, alchemy and medicine. In the eighteenth century, Peter the Great introduced a number of measures to focus on translation, making this period a turning point in the history of Russian translation. The proliferation of specialised translations (e.g. of legal texts) was the main feature of translation activity in the early eighteenth century. After this period Russian translators began to translate literary works.The main translators were Lomonosov (М.В. Ломоносов) and Tretyakovsky (V.K. Тредьяковский). In the second half of the eighteenth century, translation was given greater importance in Russia, and the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books was founded by Ekaterina II, in which a large number of outstanding translators emerged. The nineteenth century was a golden period in the history of Russian translation. Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин) and Rukovsky (В.А.Жуковский) both produced many excellent translations. Pushkin (A.С.Пушкин) and Lermontov (M.Ю.Лермонтов) contributed greatly to the development of Russian literature in translation, while Fetter concentrated on love poetry. In the twentieth century, the Russian translation community made significant achievements in theoretical translation studies. In particular, the rapid development of the philological school and the debate between the literary and philological schools made Soviet translation theory one of the leading theories of translation in the world (Feng,2006:5).--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 12:57, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
This paper provides a comprehensive and concise overview of the history of translation in Russia: Russian written translations began in the Kievan Rus' era, when religious subjects were the main focus of translations, especially the Bible, translated from Greek. Religious translations continued to flourish under the Moscow principality, represented by Maxim Gleick (МаксимГрек). At the same time, the national character of Russian translations began to emerge, and the languages of translation expanded from Greek to Latin, German and West Slavic, and the subjects covered included Western chivalric fiction, geographical literature, alchemy and medicine. In the eighteenth century, Peter the Great introduced a number of measures to focus on translation, leading this period to a turning point in the history of Russian translation. The proliferation of specialised translations (e.g. of legal texts) was the main feature of translation activity in the early eighteenth century. After this period Russian translators began to translate literary works.The main translators were Lomonosov (М.В. Ломоносов) and Tretyakovsky (V.K. Тредьяковский). In the second half of the eighteenth century, translation was paid greater attention in Russia, and the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books was founded by Ekaterina II, in which a large number of outstanding translators emerged. The nineteenth century was a golden period in the history of Russian translation when Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин) and Rukovsky (В.А.Жуковский) both produced many excellent translations. Pushkin (A.С.Пушкин) and Lermontov (M.Ю.Лермонтов) contributed greatly to the development of Russian literature in translation, while Fetter concentrated on love poetry. In the twentieth century, the Russian translation community made significant achievements in theoretical translation studies. In particular, the rapid development of the philological school and the debate between the literary and philological schools made Soviet translation theory one of the leading theories of translation in the world. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:14, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===1.The history of Russian translation and the period of enlightenment of its translation theory. ===<br />
1. The emergence and development of literary translation.<br />
<br />
Translation activity has a long history in Russia, the beginnings of which can be traced back to the time of Kievan Rus'. A relatively sophisticated system of writing, literature and translation was already in place in ancient Russia in the ninth century AD. Frequent cultural and trade exchanges with Byzantine, German, French and Scandinavian countries contributed significantly to the development of translation in Russia at that time, as did contacts with Eastern countries. From Kievan Rus' onwards, Russian translation methods oscillated between two main tendencies, either to follow the original texts exactly, up to the point of translating them word for word, or to be arbitrary, even to the point of rewriting, adding or deleting at will. The first tendency is the main characteristic of translations of the Bible and other sacred books, while the second, though not absolute, can be said to characterize most secular works (Feng,2006:8)(Wu,2006:4)(Wu,2006:4).<br />
<br />
2.Initiation of translation activities-religious translation. <br />
<br />
In 864 AD, the Byzantine king sent two Greek priests, Kirill (Кирилл) and Mephodi (Мефодий), to spread Christianity among the Slavic people. At the beginning of their mission, they created a new alphabet (now known as the Kirill alphabet) and used this writing system to translate many religious texts from Greek into the ancient Church Slavonic. Among the results were the New Testament, hymnals and prayer books(Feng,2006:8). <br />
<br />
In 988 AD, Rus was baptised and Kievan Rus was converted to Christianity. A large number of translations appeared instantly to help Protestants become familiar with the new religious philosophy and ethical system and to understand the rituals and customs of the Church. These translations were in a variety of genres, including the Acts of the Saints, sermons, chronicles and so on. In addition, apocryphal books telling magical and fantastical stories were also popular, and some of them had similarities with the later 'fantasy novels'. Most of these translations were done in Bulgaria and were popularised in Rus. At that time, translations of religious texts were mostly word-for-word. There were also a small number of works that, unlike the 'elaborate copies of the original', had a separate literary value. In one case, a large number of details of Russian life were added to the storyline of a sermon (e.g. The Tales of Achild the Wise). In another case, military historical narratives are interspersed with the terminology of the ancient Russian feudal system and certain literary images from the stories of ancient Russian warriors (e.g. Joseph Flav's History of the Jewish War). This translation can be considered one of the most successful of the period. In the translation, the translator succeeded in avoiding many word-for-word translations). In a third case, the manuscripts copied by Ancient Rus, although based on Greek epic poetry (e.g. The Great Work of Digenes Akritas), often borrowed from Russian folk poetry, so that a large number of folk compositions appeared. As a result of this literary process, the translated literature was smoothly enriched by Russian manuscripts, which contributed to the development of original Russian literature and consolidated its links with the medieval literary process. Unfortunately, at that early stage in the development of translation, the translators were not signed, so it is impossible to verify whether the works were translated at home or abroad(Feng,2006:9). <br />
<br />
During the difficult period of 'Mongol rule' (1228-1480), translations continued to play an important role in the cultural life of the country. The remaining chapters of the Bible were translated one after another, and previous translations were again proofread and revised. In addition to religious translations, more translations of non-religious subjects emerge, such as The Kingdom of India and The Trojan War. Most of the works were still translated from Greek, while works probably translated from Latin and ancient Hebrew also appeared. During this period, Russian began to take shape through the interaction of Old Slavonic (Church Slavonic) and local national languages. However, religious texts were still only translated into Church Slavonic, and the use of this language was by then restricted to ecclesiastical matters. At the same time, political and commercial exchanges with other countries were more likely to be in Russian, which was becoming increasingly sophisticated: elements of the combination of Old Slavonic and Russian can also be found in original works（Wu,2006:6). <br />
<br />
14-15th century literature in translation by Rus was characterised by an obsession with new themes. These were mainly new works of tranquillity-abstinence literature, or works recommended by and familiar to the tranquillists. This mystical genre was introduced to Rus after it had swept through the Byzantine and Yugoslav peoples. It was reflected in the semi-secular translations popular at the time (for example, The Trojan War). <br />
<br />
In the 16th century AD, Moscow eventually became the political centre of Russia, as well as the translation centre of the country. In 1515, the Grand Duke of Moscow, Vassily III (Василий Ⅲ), asked a Greek monastery to send a learned translator to Moscow. This man, who accompanied the Greek mission to Moscow in 1516, was the historically famous Maksim Grek (Максим Грек). Maksim Greek worked as a translator throughout his life, studying most of the religious texts and some of the non-religious works during this period. In addition, he also proofread and annotated previously existing translations(Wu,2006:7). <br />
<br />
At the beginning, Maksim knew neither Russian nor Old Slavonic, so he divided the translation into two steps: first, he translated from Greek to Latin, and then his assistant translated from Latin to Old Slavonic. In the process of revising existing translations, he often broke with established tradition and was therefore denounced as blasphemous. Maxim was also a prolific writer, educator and philosopher. His writings contain many insights into the art of translation - the earliest recorded treatise on translation in Russia. Maxim insisted that the original text must be carefully analysed in order to grasp its full subtleties and implications. Therefore, the translator must not only master the language of the original, but also have a broad knowledge of the language and prepare for the translation. To support his argument, Maxim used Greek lexicography, phonetic organisation and phonetics involved in translation. His other major contribution was the compilation of a dictionary containing Greek, Latin and Hebrew nouns, which was also the first of its kind in Russian history. Although it was recognised at the time that translators should have a command of both languages as well as a profound background knowledge, the practitioners of translation at the time lacked the necessary qualities and their translations were not as good as they could have been(Wu,2006:7).--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 13:39, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
1. The emergence and development of literary translation. <br />
<br />
Translation activity has a long history in Russia, the beginnings of which can be traced back to the Time of Kievan Rus'. A relatively sophisticated system of writing, literature and translation was already in ancient Russia in the ninth century AD. Frequent cultural and trade exchanges with Byzantine, German, French and Scandinavian countries contributed significantly to the development of translation in Russia at that time, as did contacts with Eastern countries. From Kievan Rus' onwards, Russian translation methods oscillated between two main tendencies, either to follow the original texts exactly, up to the point of translating them word by word, or to be arbitrary, even to the point of rewriting, adding words or deleting at will. The first tendency is the main characteristic of translations of the Bible and other sacred books, while the second, though not absolutely, can be said to characterize most secular works.<br />
<br />
2.Initiation of translation activities-religious translation. <br />
<br />
In 864 AD, the Byzantine king sent two Greek priests, Kirill (Кирилл) and Mephodi (Мефодий), to spread Christianity among the Slavic people. At the beginning of their mission, they created a new alphabet (now known as the Kirill alphabet) and used this writing system to translate many religious texts from Greek into the ancient Church Slavonic. Among the results were the New Testament, hymnals and prayer books. In 988 AD, Rus was baptised and Kievan Rus was converted to Christianity. A large number of translations appeared instantly to help Protestants become familiar with the new religious philosophy and ethical system and to understand the rituals and customs of the Church. These translations were in a variety of genres, including the Acts of the Saints, sermons, chronicles and so on. In addition, apocryphal books telling magical and fantastical stories were also popular, and some of them had similarities with the later 'fantasy novels'. Most of these translations were done in Bulgaria and were popularised in Rus. At that time, translations of religious texts were mostly word-for-word. There were also a small number of works that, unlike the 'elaborate copies of the original', had a separate literary values. In one case, a large number of details of Russian life were added to the storyline of a sermon (e.g. The Tales of Achild the Wise). In another case, military historical narratives are interspersed with the terminology of the ancient Russian feudal system and certain literary images from the stories of ancient Russian warriors (e.g. Joseph Flav's History of the Jewish War). This translation can be considered one of the most successful of the period. In the translation, the translator succeeded in avoiding many word-for-word translations). Thirdly, the manuscripts copied by Ancient Rus, although based on Greek epic poetry (e.g. The Great Work of Digenes Akritas), often borrowed from Russian folk poetry, so that a large number of folk compositions appeared. As a result of this literary process, the translated literature was smoothly enriched by Russian manuscripts, which contributed to the development of original Russian literature and consolidated its links with the medieval literary process. Unfortunately, at that early stage in the development of translation, the translators were not signed, so it is impossible to verify whether the works were translated at home or abroad. During the difficult period of 'Mongol rule' (1228-1480), translations continued to play an important role in the cultural life of the country. The remaining chapters of the Bible were translated one after another, and previous translations were again proofread and revised. In addition to religious translations, more translations of non-religious subjects emerge, such as The Kingdom of India and The Trojan War. Most of the works were still translated from Greek, while works probably translated from Latin and ancient Hebrew also appeared. During this period, Russian began to take shape through the interaction of Old Slavonic (Church Slavonic) and local national languages. However, religious texts were still only translated into Church Slavonic, and the use of this language was by then restricted to ecclesiastical matters. At the same time, political and commercial exchanges with other countries were more likely to be in Russian, which was becoming increasingly sophisticated: elements of the combination of Old Slavonic and Russian can also be found in original works. 14-15th century literature in translation by Rus was characterised by an obsession with new themes. These were mainly new works of tranquillity-abstinence literature, or works recommended by and familiar to the tranquillists. This mystical genre was introduced to Rus after it had swept through the Byzantine and Yugoslav peoples. It was reflected in the semi-secular translations popular at the time (for example, The Trojan War). In the 16th century AD, Moscow eventually became the political center of Russia, as well as the translation center of the country. In 1515, the Grand Duke of Moscow, Vassily III (Василий Ⅲ), asked a Greek monastery to send a learned translator to Moscow. This man, who accompanied the Greek mission to Moscow in 1516, was the historically famous Maksim Grek (Максим Грек). Maxim Greek worked as a translator throughout his life, studying most of the religious texts and some of the non-religious works during this period. In addition, he also proofread and annotated previously existing translations. At the beginning, Maxim knew neither Russian nor Old Slavonic, so he divided the translation into two steps: first, he translated from Greek to Latin, and then his assistant translated from Latin to Old Slavonic. In the process of revising existing translations, he often broke with established tradition and was therefore denounced as blasphemous. Maxim was also a prolific writer, educator and philosopher. His writings contain many insights into the art of translation - the earliest recorded treatise on translation in Russia. Maxim insisted that the original text must be carefully analysed in order to grasp its full subtleties and implications. Therefore, the translator must not only master the language of the original, but also have a broad knowledge of the language and prepare for the translation. To support his argument, Maxim used Greek lexicography, phonetic organisation and phonetics involved in translation. His other major contribution was the compilation of a dictionary containing Greek, Latin and Hebrew nouns, which was also the first of its kind in Russian history. Although it was recognized at the time that translators should have a command of both languages and profound background knowledge, the practitioners of translation at the time lacked the necessary qualities and their translations were not as good as they should have been. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. Overview of the Russian school of Translation. ===<br />
===2.1 18th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The eighteenth century is an important period in the history of Russian translation. The status of translation in social culture has undergone a qualitative change, and this is due to Peter the Great's reform. At the beginning of the century, translation was still mostly related to professional documents such as laws and contracts. Later, the translator's tentacles gradually expanded to literary translation, for example, French poetry translation. The famous translators of this period are Sumarokov(А.П.Сумароков), Lomonosov(М.В.Ломоносов), Tretyakovsky (В.К.Тредьяковский) and so on. In the second half of the 18th century, the Association for the Translation of Foreign Books officially put forward the importance of translation. The organization has been active for 15 years with over 100 members.<br />
<br />
1.Imperial support for translation. The political reforms introduced by Peter the Great also led to intensive economic and cultural exchanges between Russia and European countries. This created a huge demand for translations of scientific and technical literature and literary works. Translators were required to produce works of a high standard.<br />
<br />
Peter the Great issued a special decree on translation, requiring "faithful" communication of the original text. In a directive issued to his subordinates in 1709, he explicitly stated that when translating foreign books, word-for-word translations were to be avoided and that the content of the original text should be clearly expressed in one's own language, based on an understanding of its content. On the other hand, Peter the Great's subversion of the written language initially caused confusion in Russian translation circles. A large number of foreign languages entered the Russian language, and the piles of foreign syntactic structures distracted attention. In any case, Peter the Great's reforms did set a new norm and a new direction for translation. <br />
<br />
In terms of content, Peter the Great's reforms were, from the very beginning, inextricably linked to the translation of scientific and technical texts, such as the many books on military defence engineering that he ordered to be translated and used to strengthen Russia's military forces. Peter the Great also placed great importance on the translation of prose, poetry and other literary works. During this period, the Russian language began to develop its own literary model, and many educated Russians saw translation as a way of enriching the language and enhancing its uniqueness and expressiveness. <br />
<br />
From around the 1830s, the importance of translating Western European scientific and technical texts gradually gave way to literary works such as prose and poetry. Writers who were also translators turned their attention to the work of new Western European writers, mainly poets, especially French poets. At the same time, the legacy of the Greco-Roman period also entered their minds. They began to translate the works of philosophers and historians, which - on the one hand - gave rise to difficulties in literary rhetoric and scientific terminology and, on the other, played an important role in the formation of a standard Russian language. <br />
<br />
From that time onwards, translation also became an organised activity, with the emergence of specific bodies responsible for the organisation and management of translation work. 1735 saw the establishment of the first specialised translation organisation, the Russian Society, at the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences. The Society had a professional group of translators and some of the academy's scholars, such as Lomonosov and Tretyakovsky, were among its members. The Association was responsible for selecting works, defining the rules or principles of translation, commenting on translations, and training translators. It is worth mentioning that the Academy of Sciences also set up a school of foreign languages to train official translators. In 1748, the Academy implemented Queen Elizabeth's decree to increase the number of translations of non-religious books and publicly appealed to "the nobility and other classes of intellectuals" to take an active part in the translation process. <br />
<br />
In the second half of the 18th century, Ekaterina II's efforts to create a 'civilised state' not only led to the development of literature, but also gave preferential treatment to writers. For example, in order to select the best original texts, she ordered the establishment of the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books (1768 - 1783). The Society was dedicated to providing excellent conditions for translation work throughout Russia. The purchase of manuscripts was financed out of Ekaterina's own funds. Later, the Society also discussed a proposal to establish a translation bureau under the Academy of Sciences (1790). The 114 members of the Society included such notable figures as Tretyakovsky, Sumarokov and Radishev. For 14 years the Association was active, producing numerous literary translations and likewise contributing to the discussion of theoretical issues in translation.<br />
<br />
2.The emergence of poetry translation. Translation of poetry also developed in Russia in the 18th century, and later became one of the jewels of the country's literature. The great Russian scholar and poet Lomonosov was a major contributor to this process. A great deal of the work created by Lomonosov and his contemporaries Sumarokov and Tretyakovsky was poetry in translation. They often translated while exploring theoretical issues in translation: they would explain in their works why they translated this way and not that way; they stressed the importance of translation work and the creative value it contained. Among the most prestigious writers and translators in Russian literature at the time, there were several interesting competitions in which two or three poets translated the same work at the same time, and their translations were published in journals. It was often the case that different translations of the same work were published at the same time, without the translator's name, for the judgement of "literary lovers and peers". This phenomenon also supports the idea that the 18th century was a period of 'experimentation' in the history of Russian translation. <br />
<br />
Lomonosov's translations from Latin, German, French and Greek are numerous and varied, showing his talent for both rhyming and free verse. He was keen to reproduce the rhythmic structure of the original texts, using a variety of iambic and iambic meter to convey the Alexandrian style of French epic and the hexameter style of Greek tragedy. Russian poetry was not very developed at the time and was still based on syllables. <br />
Lomonosov's innovations enriched Russian poetry and established new forms and traditions of Russian poetic style and rhyme. <br />
<br />
In contrast, Kantymir (Д.М.Кантемира) and Tretyakovsky's greatest quest was to insist on a faithful translation of the original. In the process, the translators had to contend with the problems of reams of vocabulary and rhetorical rules. Tretyakovsky became famous for his successful use of Russian rhyme to translate many verses of the original in his translation of Paul Thielmann's A Journey to Love Island. In the introduction to the novel, the translator states his approach to translation: "The translator is only one person away from the author. I would add that if the author is original, the translator should be even more original (I am not referring to myself, but to a good translator)". He believes that "prose to prose" and "poetry to poetry" can be as good as the original, and that a good translation is one that "describes the full meaning of each verse". Kantymir 's translation of Horace's Letters and other poetic works in Latin and French, although less well-known than the former, is equally valuable.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:40, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The eighteenth century is an important period in the history of Russian translation. The status of translation in social culture has undergone a qualitative change, and this is due to Peter the Great's reform. At the beginning of the century, translation was still mostly related to professional documents such as laws and contracts. Later, the translator's tentacles gradually expanded to literary translation, for example, French poetry translation. The famous translators of this period are Sumarokov(А.П.Сумароков), Lomonosov(М.В.Ломоносов), Tretyakovsky (В.К.Тредьяковский) and so on. In the second half of the 18th century, the Association for the Translation of Foreign Books officially put forward the importance of translation. The organization has been active for 15 years with over 100 members. The following points reflected the reasons why translation was paid more attention in the eighteenth century.<br />
<br />
1.Imperial support for translation. <br />
<br />
The political reforms introduced by Peter the Great also led to intensive economic and cultural exchanges between Russia and European countries. This created a huge demand for translations of scientific and technical literature and literary works. Translators were required to produce works of a high standard.Peter the Great issued a special decree on translation, requiring "faithful" communication of the original text. In a directive issued to his subordinates in 1709, he explicitly stated that when translating foreign books, word-for-word translations were to be avoided and that the content of the original text should be clearly expressed in one's own language, based on an understanding of its content. On the other hand, Peter the Great's subversion of the written language initially caused confusion in Russian translation circles. A large number of foreign languages entered the Russian language, and the piles of foreign syntactic structures distracted attention. In any case, Peter the Great's reforms did set a new norm and a new direction for translation. In terms of content, Peter the Great's reforms were, from the very beginning, inextricably linked to the translation of scientific and technical texts, such as the many books on military defence engineering that he ordered to be translated and used to strengthen Russia's military forces. Peter the Great also placed great importance on the translation of prose, poetry and other literary works. During this period, the Russian language began to develop its own literary model, and many educated Russians saw translation as a way of enriching the language and enhancing its uniqueness and expressiveness. <br />
<br />
From around the 1830s, the importance of translating Western European scientific and technical texts gradually gave way to literary works such as prose and poetry. Writers who were also translators turned their attention to the work of new Western European writers, mainly poets, especially French poets. At the same time, the legacy of the Greco-Roman period also entered their minds. They began to translate the works of philosophers and historians, which - on the one hand - gave rise to difficulties in literary rhetoric and scientific terminology and, on the other, played an important role in the formation of a standard Russian language. <br />
<br />
From that time onwards, translation also became an organised activity, with the emergence of specific bodies responsible for the organisation and management of translation work. 1735 saw the establishment of the first specialised translation organisation, the Russian Society, at the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences. The Society had a professional group of translators and some of the academy's scholars, such as Lomonosov and Tretyakovsky, were among its members. The Association was responsible for selecting works, defining the rules or principles of translation, commenting on translations, and training translators. It is worth mentioning that the Academy of Sciences also set up a school of foreign languages to train official translators. In 1748, the Academy implemented Queen Elizabeth's decree to increase the number of translations of non-religious books and publicly appealed to "the nobility and other classes of intellectuals" to take an active part in the translation process. <br />
<br />
In the second half of the 18th century, Ekaterina II's efforts to create a 'civilised state' not only led to the development of literature, but also gave preferential treatment to writers. For example, in order to select the best original texts, she ordered the establishment of the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books (1768-1783). The Society was dedicated to providing excellent conditions for translation work throughout Russia. The purchase of manuscripts was financed out of Ekaterina's own funds. Later, the Society also discussed a proposal to establish a translation bureau under the Academy of Sciences (1790). The 114 members of the Society included such notable figures as Tretyakovsky, Sumarokov and Radishev. For 14 years the Association was active, producing numerous literary translations and likewise contributing to the discussion of theoretical issues in translation.<br />
<br />
2.The emergence of poetry translation.<br />
<br />
Translation of poetry also developed in Russia in the 18th century, and later became one of the jewels of the country's literature. The great Russian scholar and poet Lomonosov was a major contributor to this process. A great deal of the work created by Lomonosov and his contemporaries Sumarokov and Tretyakovsky was poetry in translation. They often translated while exploring theoretical issues in translation: they would explain in their works why they translated this way and not that way; they stressed the importance of translation work and the creative value it contained. Among the most prestigious writers and translators in Russian literature at the time, there were several interesting competitions in which two or three poets translated the same work at the same time, and their translations were published in journals. It was often the case that different translations of the same work were published at the same time, without the translator's name, for the judgement of "literary lovers and peers". This phenomenon also supports the idea that the 18th century was a period of 'experimentation' in the history of Russian translation. <br />
<br />
Lomonosov's translations works in Latin, German, French and Greek are numerous and varied, showing his talent for both rhyming and free verse. He was keen to reproduce the rhythmic structure of the original texts, using a variety of iambic and iambic meter to convey the Alexandrian style of French epic and the hexameter style of Greek tragedy. Russian poetry was not very developed at the time and was still based on syllables. <br />
Lomonosov's innovations enriched Russian poetry and established new forms and traditions of Russian poetic style and rhyme. <br />
<br />
In contrast, Kantymir (Д.М.Кантемира) and Tretyakovsky's greatest quest was to insist on a faithful translation of the original. In the process, the translators had to contend with the problems of reams of vocabulary and rhetorical rules. Tretyakovsky became famous for his successful use of Russian rhyme to translate many verses of the original in his translation of Paul Thielmann's A Journey to Love Island. In the introduction to the novel, the translator states his approach to translation: "The translator is only one person away from the author. I would add that if the author is original, the translator should be even more original (I am not referring to myself, but to a good translator)". He believes that "prose to prose" and "poetry to poetry" can be as good as the original, and that a good translation is one that "describes the full meaning of each verse". Kantymir 's translation of Horace's Letters and other poetic works in Latin and French, although less well-known than the former, is equally valuable. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 12:39, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.2 First half of the19th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The nineteenth century was a golden age in the history of Russian translation. If translation had established itself as a profession in the first hundred years, it was elevated to the level of art in this century. The nineteenth century produced a number of masters of translation, including Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин), Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский), Pushkin (А.С.Пушкин), Lermontov (М.Ю.Лермонтов) and Fetter (А.Фет). <br />
<br />
The new Russian school of translation owes its formation to the historian Nikolai Karamzin and the poet Zhukovsky. Karamzin published a number of translations in several magazines between the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century. He saw translations as a good help in perfecting a writer's style: a source of information that would satisfy human curiosity, inform historical facts, entertain women and provide material for new magazines. As a young man, Karamzin was strongly opposed to the alteration of and disloyalty to the original texts, but later became a champion of free translation, famously saying: "Whoever follows the author of the original text step by step is no different from a servant who serves his lord". Karamzin's translations cover an admirable range of genres and languages: he translated works by both classical and contemporaneous authors, in Greek, French, Latin, German, English, Italian and some Oriental languages. <br />
<br />
Pushkin called Zhukovsky "a genius of translation". After graduating from the Moscow Noble Boarding University in 1802, Zhukovsky devoted himself to translation. It was thanks to his efforts that Russian readers were able to access the works of world literary giants such as Schiller, Goethe, Byron and Walters Scott. Zhukovsky's creative translation activities also ranged from Charles Bello to Grimm's Fairy Tales. From Charles Bellow to Grimm's fairy tales, from Homer's epic Odyssey to the poetic history of ancient Rus' Igor's Expedition, all became his original texts. There is no denying that Zhukovsky is a master in the history of Russian translation. Like Karamzin, Zhukovsky was a fan of free translation, sometimes rewriting the original or even creating a new story from its subject: sometimes transferring the setting of events to Russia and giving Russian names to the characters. For example, in his 1808 translation of the German Romantic poet Bilge's narrative poem Lenore, he changed the heroine's name from Lenore to Lyudmila and moved the story to the time of the Livonian War in 16th-century Russia. Zhukovsky believed that the "unsavoury character" of the work should be weakened while retaining the original author's ideas. His talent enabled him to reproduce the style, rhythm and tone of the original poems, while some of his best works were also faithful to the original. In later years, however, his view of translation changed in response to the tendency to stay close to the original, and he retranslated several of his previous translations to make them more faithful to the original, including Lenore. The Russian school of translation owes much to the tradition of translation created by Zhukovsky.<br />
<br />
Pushkin and Lermontov are also two poets who set the stage for an epoch in the history of Russian translation. Although only a small proportion of their poetry was translated, they made a significant contribution to the improvement of the art of translation in Russia. In their rewriting and imitation of poetry, they were able to reproduce the most important features of foreign poetry, the key point being that their creative translations were no less valuable in their own right than the originals. Their free translation became a model for other translators, and in addition they established the important principle that a good artistic translation must also be a good work in the national literature of the translated language. Pushkin played an indelibly important role in the development of the Russian school of translation. He was always interested in the question of translation, and his critical views on translation were objective and profound. Before translation he stressed the importance of the choice of the original work, and in translation he demanded that the translator should be faithful to the original, while at the same time displaying his deep creative skills and his own literary style. In one of his unfinished posthumous works, 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', Pushkin wrote: 'Chateaubriand's translation (verbatim) compensates to some extent for the faults of the young French writers (free translation), for they have insulted the great man very cruelly, though in a perfectly innocent manner. There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own rhetorical conventions, its own way of expressing itself, and it is impossible to translate into another language with the corresponding vocabulary". These insights had a positive impact on the best Russian translators of the 19th and 20th centuries. In addition, Pushkin's discussion of translation coincided with a turning point in the history of Russian literature, when the Romantic era was being replaced by a new era with a predominantly realist orientation, and a process of 'separation' between translated and national literature was under way. Pushkin's discussion of the work of the translator as distinct from that of the writer contributed to the independence of literature in translation from indigenous literature. <br />
<br />
During this period, while most people advocated free translation, there were a few translators who insisted on maximum fidelity to the original and advocated the word-for-word method, even at the expense of the work's willingness to be translated. Among these were such well-known writers as P.A. Vyazemsky (П.А.Вяземский) and N.I. Gnedzic (Н.И.Гнедич). In fact, they did not always live up to their principles, and sometimes their talent and artistic intuition ended up breaking the bonds of verbatim translation. Vyazemsky's translations of Benjamin Constant and Adam Mickiewicz were not without literary and artistic merit, and his translation of Homer's epic Iliad in particular was highly praised by Pushkin. It was Fetter who was the most insistent on the idea of a verbatim translation. Fetter translated many famous works, and his philosophy throughout was one of sentence-for-sentence, word-for-word translation, retaining all the words of the original. Fetter's extreme word-for-word approach had a negative impact on most of his translations, although he was sometimes able to come up with some effective methods of translation. <br />
<br />
Free translations were also sometimes used to promote democratic ideas in the original that could not pass official scrutiny. A number of translators, such as V. Kurochkin (В.Курочкин), D. M. Minayev (Д.Минаев) and M. M. Mikhalov (М.Михайлов), achieved this by selecting appropriate original works or by using texts in their translations that were superficially imperceptible in their allusion to the conditions in Russia at the time. It was from that time onwards that the use of translation as a weapon to express dissent became part of the Russian tradition.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:41, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The nineteenth century was the golden age in the history of Russian translation. If translation had established its status in the first hundred years, it was elevated to the level of art in this century. The nineteenth century produced a number of masters of translation, including Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин), Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский), Pushkin (А.С.Пушкин), Lermontov (М.Ю.Лермонтов) and Fetter (А.Фет). <br />
<br />
The new Russian school of translation owes its formation to the publishment of a number of translations of historian Nikolai Karamzin and the poet Zhukovsky. Karamzin in several magazines between the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century. He regarded translation as a good help in perfecting a writer's style: a source of information that satisfies human curiosity, informs historical facts, entertains women and provides materials for new magazines. As a young man, Karamzin was strongly opposed to the disloyalty to the original texts, but later became a champion of free translation. His famous saying was: "Whoever follows the author of the original text step by step is no different from a servant who serves his lord". Karamzin's translations cover an admirable range of genres and languages: he translated works by both classical and contemporaneous authors, in Greek, French, Latin, German, English, Italian and some Oriental languages. <br />
<br />
Pushkin called Zhukovsky "a genius of translation". After graduating from the Moscow Noble Boarding University in 1802, Zhukovsky devoted himself to translation. It was thanks to his efforts that Russian readers were able to access the works of world literary giants such as Schiller, Goethe, Byron and Walters Scott. Zhukovsky's creative translation activities also ranged from Charles Bello to Grimm's Fairy Tales. From Charles Bellow to Grimm's fairy tales, from Homer's epic Odyssey to the poetic history of ancient Rus' Igor's Expedition, all became his original texts. There is no denying that Zhukovsky is a master in the history of Russian translation. Like Karamzin, Zhukovsky was a fan of free translation, who sometimes rewrites the original or even creates a new story from its subject, transfers the setting of events to Russia and gives Russian names to the characters. For example, in his 1808 translation of the German Romantic poet Bilge's narrative poem Lenore, he changed the heroine's name from Lenore to Lyudmila and moved the story to the time of the Livonian War in 16th-century Russia. Zhukovsky believed that the "unsavoury character" of the work should be weakened while retaining the original author's ideas. His talent enabled him to reproduce the style, rhythm and tone of the original poems, while some of his best works were also faithful to the original. In later years, however, his view of translation changed in response to the tendency to stay close to the original, and he retranslated several of his previous translations to make them more faithful to the original, including Lenore. The Russian school of translation owes much to the tradition of translation created by Zhukovsky.<br />
<br />
Pushkin and Lermontov are also two poets who gave perfect preparations for an epoch in the history of Russian translation. Although only a small proportion of their poetry was translated, they made a significant contribution to the improvement of the art of translation in Russia. In their rewriting and imitation of poetry, they were able to reproduce the most important features of foreign poetry, the key point being that their creative translations were no less valuable in their own right than the originals. Their free translation became a model for other translators, and in addition they established the important principle that a good artistic translation must also be a good work in the national literature of the translated language. Pushkin played an indelibly important role in the development of the Russian school of translation. He was always interested in the question of translation, and his critical views on translation were objective and profound. Before translation he stressed the importance of the choice of the original work, and in translation he demanded that the translator should be faithful to the original, while at the same time displaying his deep creative skills and his own literary style. In one of his unfinished posthumous works, 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', Pushkin wrote: 'Chateaubriand's translation (verbatim) compensates to some extent for the faults of the young French writers (free translation), for they have insulted the great man very cruelly, though in a perfectly innocent manner. There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own rhetorical conventions, its own way of expressing itself, and it is impossible to translate into another language with the corresponding vocabulary". These insights had a positive impact on the best Russian translators of the 19th and 20th centuries. In addition, Pushkin's discussion of translation coincided with a turning point in the history of Russian literature, when the Romantic era was being replaced by a new era with a predominantly realist orientation, and a process of 'separation' between translated and national literature was under way. Pushkin's discussion of the work of the translator as distinct from that of the writer contributed to the independence of literature in translation from indigenous literature. <br />
<br />
During this period, while most people advocated free translation, there were a few translators who insisted on maximum fidelity to the original and advocated the word-for-word method, even at the expense of the work's willingness to be translated. Among these were such well-known writers as P.A. Vyazemsky (П.А.Вяземский) and N.I. Gnedzic (Н.И.Гнедич). In fact, they did not always live up to their principles, and sometimes their talent and artistic intuition ended up breaking the bonds of verbatim translation. Vyazemsky's translations of Benjamin Constant and Adam Mickiewicz were not without literary and artistic merit, and his translation of Homer's epic Iliad in particular was highly praised by Pushkin. It was Fetter who was the most insistent on the idea of a verbatim translation. Fetter translated many famous works, and his philosophy throughout was one of sentence-for-sentence, word-for-word translation, retaining all the words of the original. Fetter's extreme word-for-word approach had a negative impact on most of his translations, although he was sometimes able to come up with some effective methods of translation. <br />
<br />
Free translations were also used to promote democratic ideas in original that could not pass official scrutiny. A number of translators, such as V. Kurochkin (В.Курочкин), D. M. Minayev (Д.Минаев) and M. M. Mikhalov (М.Михайлов), achieved this by selecting appropriate original works or by using texts in their translations that were superficially imperceptible in their allusion to the conditions in Russia at the time. It was since then that the use of translation was used as a weapon to express dissent became part of the Russian tradition. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:05, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.3 Second half of the19th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The mid-nineteenth century was a period of increasingly intense political and ideological struggle in Russian literature, and a great debate raged in the Russian literary world over the question of 'art for the people' or 'art for art's sake'. The debate was mainly about the choice of material for translation and the method of translation. As far as the choice of material was concerned, the democratic and revolutionary writers who supported 'art for the people' chose to translate works with progressive ideological content and a democratic orientation, such as Heine. The aristocratic and liberal intellectual writers, on the other hand, opted for philosophical poetry with a chanting and individualistic feel. Of course, this is not absolute: "Mikhailov and Dobrolyubov of the democratic revolutionary school also translated Heine's moody love poems The Songbook, while Tolstoy of the aristocratic and liberal school translated some of Goethe's more progressive poems, such as The Fiancée of Corinth and The Whore of God. In terms of their approach to translation, the Democratic-Revolutionary translators, based on the reproduction of the original as a whole, approached their translations very liberally, even adding in many elements typical of Russian culture. The latter, on the other hand, usually adopted a direct translation, focusing on conveying the formal details of the original work. This divergence was mainly due to the different starting points of the two groups of translators, with the democratic revolutionaries seeking to convey advanced ideas to the Russian general public and the aristocratic intellectuals believing that works of art were irrelevant to the people and that artistic creations should not be exposed to "vulgar" reality.<br />
<br />
There were a large number of outstanding literary writers and literary critics who made brilliant statements about literary translation in that era, none more so than Belinsky (В.Г.Белинский), Chernyshevsky (Н.Г.Черныщевский) and Dubrolyovsky (Н.Г.Добролюбов). Belinsky was one of the greatest Russian literary critics of the 19th century. He believed that translations should not be word-for-word, but should reproduce the spirit of the original, in much the same way as Pushkin's view of translation theory. On the other hand, he also opposed arbitrary 'paraphrasing': the ideal translation should not add or delete arbitrarily to the original text, but should enable the reader to understand the foreign work truly and accurately through the translation. Such a viewpoint seems to us to be quite convincing even now. Belinsky played a decisive role in completely burying the 'rewriting' and 'adapting it to Russian custom' arguments. This issue dominates his writings. He argues that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of the translation, and this is one of the criteria by which he judges its merits. He points out, for example, that the greatest strength of Gnedzic's translation of the Iliad is that it "exudes the atmosphere of ancient life" and "the spirit of the ancient Greeks". However, the contradiction between national identity and translatability was once a problem for Belinsky. Initially believing that it was impossible to translate works with a strong national character into other languages, he was only convinced by the success of Turgenev's collaboration with Louis Viardot in translating Gogol's novels into French in 1846, and then became increasingly determined to recognise translatability in translation. Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a series of revisions that led to a complete and rigorous system of translation theory, the first of its kind in the history of Russian translation theory.<br />
<br />
Translation in Russia developed in the second half of the 19th century. From the 1960s onwards, the Russian readership of non-language speakers began to expand, and these readers were keen to see the translation 'replace' the original. This demand led to an unprecedented expansion in the choice of subjects and translations of Russian literature. Interest in foreign theatrical works was particularly high at this stage, and a strong interest in European classical literature also developed. Dickens, Saclay, Victor Hugo, Dumas, Balzac, Flaubert, Tudor, Maupassant and Zola, as well as lesser-known writers of today, were successively brought to the attention of a wide range of Russian readers in the form of translations. At that time, European theatre classics like Shakespeare's plays were translated into Russia in large numbers. Many professional translators were involved, the most successful being the translator P.N.V. Weinberg. He translated foreign literature from the standpoint of progressive Russian literature of the time. His translation of Othello, for example, is notable for its vividness in the Russian language, and has always been recognised as the best translation in terms of conveying the totality of scenes, plots and long dialogues, even though the translation is wordy compared to the original.<br />
<br />
Although there has been a quantitative surge in translations of Russian literature during this period, the quality has generally been poor, manifesting itself in word-for-word translations, redundant sentences and poor vocabulary, not to mention inventiveness. In addition, the language of the characters in the translation is heavily Russified, with Russian proverbs, sayings and idioms that the foreign characters could never have known, and the introduction of Russian-specific life circumstances that cause contradictions with the plot and details of the original work. For example, В Тулу со своим самоваром ехать (Bring your own samovar to Tula - it's superfluous). The reason for this is that the literary world did not attach much importance to the translation of fiction and prose, and there were no specialists working on this task. Another point is that at this stage there was little progress in the study of Russian translation theory, and no valuable theoretical insights emerged. The linguist A.A. Потебня (1835-1891) expressed his views on translation from a psychological standpoint in his essay "Language and Peopleliness ". In his view, it was impossible to express in another language what was originally intended to be expressed in a certain language. He, like many other literary scholars, denied the translatability of language.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:41, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The mid-nineteenth century was a period of increasingly intensively political and ideological struggle in Russian literature, and a great debate raged in the Russian literary world over the question of 'art for the people' or 'art for art's sake'. The debate was mainly about the choice of materials for translation and the methods of translation. As far as the choice of material was concerned, the democratic and revolutionary writers who supported 'art for the people' chose to translate works with progressive ideological content and a democratic orientation, such as Heine. The aristocratic and liberal intellectual writers, on the other hand, opted for philosophical poetry with a chanting and individualistic feel. It's undoubtful that this is not absolute: "Mikhailov and Dobrolyubov of the democratic revolutionary school also translated Heine's moody love poems The Songbook, while Tolstoy of the aristocratic and liberal school translated some of Goethe's more progressive poems, such as The Fiancée of Corinth and The Whore of God. In terms of their approach to translation, the Democratic-Revolutionary translators, based on the reproduction of the original as a whole, approached their translations very liberally, when they even added in many elements typical of Russian culture. The latter, on the other hand, usually adopted a direct translation, focusing on conveying the formal details of the original work. This divergence was mainly due to the different starting points of the two groups of translators, with the democratic revolutionaries seeking to convey advanced ideas to the Russian general public and the aristocratic intellectuals believing that works of art were irrelevant to the people and that artistic creations should not be exposed to "vulgar" reality.<br />
<br />
There were a large number of outstanding literary writers and literary critics who made brilliant statements about literary translation in that era, none more so than Belinsky (В.Г.Белинский), Chernyshevsky (Н.Г.Черныщевский) and Dubrolyovsky (Н.Г.Добролюбов). Belinsky was one of the greatest Russian literary critics of the 19th century. He believed that translations should not be word-for-word, but should reproduce the spirit of the original text, in much the same way as Pushkin's view of translation theory. On the other hand, he also opposed arbitrary 'paraphrasing': the ideal translation should not add or delete arbitrarily to the original text, but should enable the reader to understand the foreign work truly and accurately through the translation. Such a viewpoint seems to us to be quite convincing even now. Belinsky played a decisive role in completely burying the 'rewriting' and 'adapting it to Russian custom' arguments. This issue dominates his writings. He argues that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of the translation, and this is one of the criteria by which he judges its merits. He points out, for example, that the greatest strength of Gnedzic's translation of the Iliad is that it "exudes the atmosphere of ancient life" and "the spirit of the ancient Greeks". However, the contradiction between national identity and translatability was once a problem for Belinsky. Initially believing that it was impossible to translate works with a strong national character into other languages, he was only convinced by the success of Turgenev's collaboration with Louis Viardot in translating Gogol's novels into French in 1846, and then became increasingly determined to recognise translatability in translation. Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a series of revisions that led to a complete and rigorous system of translation theory, the first of its kind in the history of Russian translation theory.<br />
<br />
Translation in Russia developed in the second half of the 19th century. From the 1960s onwards, the Russian readership of non-language speakers began to expand, and these readers were keen to see the translation 'replace' the original. This demand led to an unprecedented expansion in the choice of subjects and translations of Russian literature. Interest in foreign theatrical works was particularly high at this stage, and a strong interest in European classical literature also developed. Dickens, Saclay, Victor Hugo, Dumas, Balzac, Flaubert, Tudor, Maupassant and Zola, as well as lesser-known writers of today, were successively brought to the attention of a wide range of Russian readers in the form of translations. At that time, European theatre classics like Shakespeare's plays were translated into Russia in large numbers. Many professional translators were involved, the most successful being the translator P.N.V. Weinberg. He translated foreign literature from the standpoint of progressive Russian literature of the time. His translation of Othello, for example, is notable for its vividness in the Russian language, and has always been recognised as the best translation in terms of conveying the totality of scenes, plots and long dialogues, even though the translation is wordy compared to the original.<br />
<br />
Although there has been a quantitative surge in translations of Russian literature during this period, the quality has generally been poor, manifesting itself in word-for-word translations, redundant sentences and poor vocabulary, not to mention inventiveness. In addition, the language of the characters in the translation is heavily Russified, that is, contents with Russian proverbs, sayings and idioms that the foreign characters could never have known, and the introduction of Russian-specific life circumstances that cause contradictions with the plot and details of the original work. For example, В Тулу со своим самоваром ехать (Bring your own samovar to Tula - it's superfluous). The reason for this is that the literary world did not attach much importance to the translation of fiction and prose, and there were no specialists working on this task. Another point is that at this stage there was little progress in the study of Russian translation theory, and no valuable theoretical insights emerged. The linguist A.A. Потебня (1835-1891) expressed his views on translation from a psychological standpoint in his essay "Language and Peopleliness ". In his view, it was impossible to express in another language what was originally intended to be expressed in a certain language. Just like many other literary scholars, he denied the translatability of language. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:13, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.Translation ideas of famous writers of the 18-19th centuries. ===<br />
===3.1. Pushkin 's ideas on translation. ===<br />
Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin (Александр Сергеевич Пушкин, 1977-1837), a famous Russian poet and writer of the nineteenth century, was also very much a translator. Although he left behind few works on translation, his ideas on translation are worth studying. Pushkin's translations of poetry were associated with classicism in the early stages of his work and later with romanticism. Although these translations are far removed from the original in a literal sense, they are almost close to composition. Pushkin's significance as a translator, however, lies in 1) the reproduction of foreign originals in the standard Russian language he established in his translations and 2) the full expression of the realist artistic method in the heyday of his compositions: the focus on typical features and the technique of outlining the historical and individual characteristics that reflect the original.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's translations have their own characteristics and style. He did not translate all of his works word for word from the original, and in some places he deleted what he considered to be redundant sentences in order to avoid the verbosity of the original, occasionally replacing the translation with a general paraphrase. He advocates respect for the characteristics of foreign readers, while at the same time opposing word-for-word translations, which can lead to the trampling of the mother tongue. He therefore advocated translations which, on the one hand, required fidelity to the original in terms of meaning and, on the other, should preserve the original's distinctive features.<br />
As he says in his unfinished 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', commenting on Chateaubriand's translation: 'There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), has failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own conventional rhetorical devices, its own habitual expressions, and it is impossible to translate all this into another language using the corresponding vocabulary." Pushkin's rejection of word-for-word translation can be seen.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's influence on the cause of translation in Russia was immense, and this influence refers neither to his few translations nor to his theoretical views, but to the fact that Pushkin pioneered the translation of Russian literature. Although his ideas on translation cannot be called a theory, they do provide certain translation ideas for later generations of literary translators.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin (Александр Сергеевич Пушкин, 1977-1837), a famous Russian poet and writer of the nineteenth century, was also an outstanding translator. Besides he left behind few works on translation, his ideas on translation are worth studying. Pushkin's translations of poetry were associated with classicism in the early stages of his work and with romanticism later. Although these translations are far removed from the original in a literal sense, they are almost close to composition. Pushkin's significance as a translator, however, lies in the reproduction of foreign originalities in the standard Russian language he established in his translations and the full expression of the realist artistic method in the heyday of his compositions: the focus on typical features and the technique of outlining the historical and individual characteristics that reflect the original.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's translations have their own distinctive characteristics and style. He did not translate all of his works literally from the original context, but in some places he deleted what he considered to be redundant sentences in order to avoid the verbosity of the original, occasionally replacing the translation with a general paraphrase. He advocates to give enough respect for the characteristics of foreign readers, while at the same time opposing word-for-word translations, which may lead to the trampling of the mother tongue. Therefore, He advocated translations which, on the one hand, required fidelity to the original text in terms of meaning and, on the other hand, should preserve the original's distinctive features.<br />
<br />
As he says in his unfinished 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', he comments on Chateaubriand's translation: 'There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), has failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own conventional rhetorical devices, its own habitual expressions, and it is impossible to translate all this into another language using the corresponding vocabulary." Pushkin's rejection of word-for-word translation can be revealed clearly.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's influence on the cause of translation in Russia was huge, and his influence refers neither to his few translations nor to his theoretical views, but to the fact that Pushkin pioneered the translation of Russian literature. Although his ideas on translation cannot be called a theory, they do provide certain unique and new translation ideas for later generations of literary translators. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:29, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.1. Belinsky's ideas on translation. ===<br />
Vissarion Grigorievich Belinsky (Виссарион Григорьевич Белинский, 1811-1848) was a famous literary critic of the nineteenth century and one of the most involved in the world of translation among Russian literary activists of his time. Belinsky was fluent in French and as a young man translated for two magazines, Miscellany and Telescope. Later, after a career in literary criticism, he published numerous articles on translation and criticism of translated works.<br />
Belinsky's and Pushkin's views on translation were very similar, both advocating that translations should not be word-for-word. Belinsky first introduced the term 'theory' of translation, and in his 1838 review of Polevoy's translation of Hamlet, he first proposed the need for a theory of translation. He considered the role of theory: "Any object that man perceives has a theory of its own, and a theory is the knowledge of the laws by which the object exists."<br />
<br />
Belinsky argues that in translation: "Closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original. Each <br />
language has its own distinctive expressions, characteristics and qualities; these are so distinctive that to correctly convey a certain image or sentence, it is sometimes necessary to change them completely in the translation. The corresponding image, like the corresponding sentence, does not necessarily lie in a superficial agreement of words: the inner life of the translation should be made to correspond to the inner life of the original". It can be seen that Belinsky, like Pushkin, was also opposed to word-for-word rigid translations, his view being that the task of translating a language lies in reproducing the spirit of the original. He believed that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of a translation, so the question of the interrelationship between national character and translatability has always troubled Belinsky. He pointed out that 'there is only one rule for translating a literary work - to convey the spirit of the work being translated, and this can only be done by translating it into Russian as the author himself would have written it in Russian, if he had been Russian' (The Complete Works of Belinsky Volume 2).<br />
<br />
Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a number of achievements, and his view of translation as a whole is a complete and rigorous system. His view of translation was developed gradually, and in the process it was dominated by an increasingly firm recognition of the possibility of a successful solution to the task of translation, that is, of translatability. Belinsky believed that a translation must be discerning in its content and form in relation to the original. He has pointed out that "approaching the original is not the same as conveying the letters, but rather the spirit of the original." It is also suggested that the translator and the original author are two different kinds of people. But in order to convey the 'spirit' of the original in the translation, the translator's genius needs to reach a certain tacit understanding with this 'spirit'. He advocates the preservation of exoticism in translation, opposes naturalisation, the arbitrary distortion of the face of the original work, the overwhelming of the original author with the personality of the translator's style, the emphasis on both likeness and likeness, etc. However, while recognising the importance of reproducing the poetic form of the original work in translation, Belinsky also took into account the state of development of Russian literature in translation. This also led him to look favourably on translating good poetry in prose, seeing such translations as a form of transition for Russian readers to the treasures of world literature.<br />
<br />
Although Belinsky wrote little about literary translation, his theoretical views contain the kernel of the realist principles of translation proposed by contemporary Soviet literary translators. His ideas on translation had a very profound influence on the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Vissarion Grigorievich Belinsky (Виссарион Григорьевич Белинский, 1811-1848) was a famous literary critic of the nineteenth century and one of the most active in the world of translation among Russian literary activists of his time. Belinsky was fluent in French and when he was a young man he translated for two magazines, Miscellany and Telescope. Later, after a career in literary criticism, he published numerous articles on translation and criticism of translated works.<br />
<br />
Belinsky's and Pushkin's views on translation were very similar, both advocating that translations should not be word-for-word. Belinsky first introduced the term 'theory' of translation, and in his 1838 review of Polevoy's translation of Hamlet, he first proposed the need for a theory of translation. He considered the role of theory: "Any object that man perceives has a theory of its own, and a theory is the knowledge of the laws by which the object exists."<br />
<br />
Belinsky argues that in translation: "Closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original. Each language has its own distinctive expressions, characteristics and qualities; these are so distinctive that to correctly convey a certain image or sentence, it is sometimes necessary to change them completely in the translation. The corresponding image, like the corresponding sentence, does not necessarily lie in a superficial agreement of words: the inner life of the translation should be made to correspond to the inner life of the original". It can be seen that Belinsky, like Pushkin, was also opposed to word-for-word rigid translations, his view being that the task of translating a language lies in reproducing the spirit of the original. He believed that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of a translation, so the question of the interrelationship between national character and translatability has always troubled Belinsky. He pointed out that 'there is only one rule for translating a literary work - to convey the spirit of the work being translated, and this can only be done by translating it into Russian as the author himself would have written it in Russian, if he had been Russian' (The Complete Works of Belinsky Volume 2).<br />
<br />
Belinsky's career as a translator had a number of achievements, and his view of translation as a whole is a complete and rigorous system. His view of translation was developed gradually, and in this process it was dominated by an increasingly firm recognition of the possibility of a successful solution to the task of translation, that is, of translatability. Belinsky believed that a translation must be discerning in its content and form in relation to the original. He has pointed out that "approaching the original is not the same as conveying the letters, but rather the spirit of the original." It is also suggested that the translator and the original author are two different kinds of people. But in order to convey the 'spirit' of the original in the translation, the translator's genius needs to reach a certain tacit understanding with this 'spirit'. He advocates the preservation of exoticism in translation, opposes naturalisation, the arbitrary distortion of the face of the original work, the overwhelming of the original author with the personality of the translator's style, the emphasis on both likeness and likeness, etc. However, while recognising the importance of reproducing the poetic form of the original work in translation, Belinsky also took into account the state of development of Russian literature in translation. This also led him to look favourably on translating good poetry in prose, seeing such translations as a form of transition for Russian readers to the treasures of world literature.<br />
<br />
Although Belinsky wrote little about literary translation, his theoretical views contain the kernel of the realist principles of translation proposed by contemporary Soviet literary translators. His ideas on translation had a very profound influence on the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:56, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.Conclusion ===<br />
Translation has demonstrated its importance in social activity since antiquity, yet it was only in the twentieth century that it became a widely followed professional discipline. This article reviews Russian translation activity and translation thought in pre-Soviet Russia, exploring its development before the formation of a theoretical system. Throughout the history of translation, Russian scholars have contributed greatly to the development of translation literature in the world. Through combing through the history of Russian translation, we learn that the translation ideas of a number of outstanding writers, though not theoretical, have had an unmistakable impact on later generations. When discussing the translation ideas of 19th-century writers, we are inspired to insist on the principle that "closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original", emphasizing the ideological content and literary value of the translation, that the translation should serve the readers, and that the translation should be people-oriented. These ideas influenced, to a greater or lesser extent, the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, the study of the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia is not only conducive to sorting out Russian translation ideas Russian learners can better understand the characteristics of their translations when translating and improve the accuracy of their translations.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:44, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Translation has played its important role in the social activities since antiquity, yet it was until in the twentieth century that it became a widely followed professional discipline. This paper reviews Russian translators and translation thoughts in pre-Soviet Russia, exploring its development before the formation of a theoretical system. Throughout the history of translation, Russian scholars have contributed greatly to the development of translation literature in the world. By combing through the history of Russian translation, we learn that the translation ideas of a number of outstanding writers, though not very theoretical, have had an unmistakable impact on later generations. When discussing the translation ideas of 19th-century writers, we are inspired to insist on the principle that "closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original", emphasizing the ideological content and literary value of the translation that the translation should serve the readers, and that the translation should be people-oriented. These ideas influenced, to a greater or lesser extent, the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, the study of the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia not only is conducive to sorting out Russian translation ideas, but also make Russian learners better understand the characteristics of their translations when translating and improving the accuracy of their translations. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 14:02, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.References ===<br />
1.Wu, Keli 吴克礼（2006）.俄苏翻译理论流派综述 The Translation Methods and Studies in USSR. 上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
2.Guo Lin 郭琳（2006）.俄罗斯语言学派翻译理论若干问题研究[D] A Study of Some Problems of Translation Theory of the Russian School of Philology.首都师范大学 Capital Normal University.<br />
<br />
3.Feng Xin 冯欣（2009）. 俄罗斯翻译理论史及其影响研究[D] A study of the history of Russian translation theory and its influence.上海外国语大学 Shanghai International Studies University.<br />
<br />
4.Wang，Yulun；Jiang,Wanzhu 王育伦,姜万砫（1989).别林斯基论文学翻译[J] Belinsky on Literary Translation .中国翻译 Chinese translators Journal ,(03):53-55.<br />
<br />
5.Li Zheng, Fan Min 李铮,范敏（2010）. 普希金与翻译[J] Pushkin and Translation. 现代交际 Modern Intercourse Journal,(05):69.</div>Zhang Yiranhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_5&diff=132578Hist Trans Theo EN 52021-12-14T02:09:36Z<p>Zhang Yiran: /* 1.The history of Russian translation and the period of enlightenment of its translation theory. */</p>
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=Chapter 5 History of Translation Theories from Early Russia to the Soviet Union=<br />
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'''从古罗斯到苏联前的翻译理论史'''<br />
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张怡然 Zhang Yiran,Hunan Normal University,China<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
Translation as a means of intercultural communication, each country has a distinctive translation ideology. This article focuses on the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia. Through analyzing the history of translation, can find that Russia has formed a literary tradition of translation studies in the late 18th century. In the 19th century, Pushkin, Lermontov, Turgenev and other outstanding poets and literary scholars were keen on translation, especially in the middle of the century when Belinsky and other famous literary critics published a series of comments on literary translation, which emphasized the literary tradition of Russian translation to an unparalleled extent, which is rare in the history of translation in the world. The general principles of Russian literary translation thought were also formed during this period: namely, to insist on commenting on the merits of a translation in terms of the overall effect of the work, to emphasize the ideological content and literary value of the translation, and that the translation should serve the reader and be people-oriented. The above ideas influenced the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, a study of the history of translation theory in pre-Soviet Russia will help learners of Russian to better understand the characteristics of their translations and to improve the accuracy and peopleliness of their translations.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 12:57, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Translation is a means of intercultural communication, and each country has its own distinctive translation theory system. This paper focuses on the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia. By analyzing the history of translation, it is obvious that a literary tradition of translation studies has been formed in Russia in the late 18th century. In the 19th century, Pushkin, Lermontov, Turgenev and other outstanding poets and literary scholars were keen on translation, especially in the middle of the century when Belinsky and other famous literary critics published a series of comments on literary translation, which emphasized the literary tradition of Russian translation to an unparalleled extent, which is rare in the history of translation in the world. The general principles of Russian literary translation thoughts were also formed during this period: namely, to insist on commenting on the merits and weakness of a translation in terms of the overall effect of the work, to emphasize the ideological content and literary value of the translation, and the translation should serve the reader and be people-oriented. The above ideas influenced the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, a study of the history of translation theory in pre-Soviet Russia will help learners of Russian to understand the characteristics of their translations profoundly and to improve the accuracy and fluency of their translations.Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:03, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Translation theories, Translation ideas，History of Translation<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译作为一种跨文化交际的手段，每个国家都有独具特色的翻译思想。本文主要探讨苏联前俄国的翻译历史。通过梳理其翻译史可发现，俄国于18世纪末期就已形成了翻译研究的文学传统。进入19世纪后, 普希金、莱蒙托夫、屠格涅夫等优秀诗人、文学家对翻译的热衷, 尤其是世纪中叶别林斯基等著名文学评论家发表一系列关于文学翻译的评论, 更是把俄国翻译的文学传统强调到无以复加的程度, 这在世界翻译史上都是罕见的。俄国文学翻译思想的总原则也在这一时期形成:即坚持从作品的整体效果上来评论译作优劣, 强调译作的思想内容和文学价值, 翻译应为读者服务, 译文应具有人民性。上述思想影响了苏联时期翻译理论的形成。因此，对苏联前俄国翻译理论史的研究有利于俄语学习者在翻译时更好的理解其翻译特点，提高翻译的准确性和人民性。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
翻译理论 翻译思想 翻译史 <br />
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===Introduction===<br />
This essay provides a comprehensive and concise overview of the history of translation in Russia: Russian written translations began in the Kievan Rus' era, when religious subjects were the main focus of translations, especially the Bible, which was translated from Greek. Religious translations continued to flourish under the Moscow principality, represented by Maxim Gleick (МаксимГрек). At the same time, the national character of Russian translations began to emerge, and the languages of translation expanded from Greek to Latin, German and West Slavic, and the subjects covered included Western chivalric fiction, geographical literature, alchemy and medicine. In the eighteenth century, Peter the Great introduced a number of measures to focus on translation, making this period a turning point in the history of Russian translation. The proliferation of specialised translations (e.g. of legal texts) was the main feature of translation activity in the early eighteenth century. After this period Russian translators began to translate literary works.The main translators were Lomonosov (М.В. Ломоносов) and Tretyakovsky (V.K. Тредьяковский). In the second half of the eighteenth century, translation was given greater importance in Russia, and the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books was founded by Ekaterina II, in which a large number of outstanding translators emerged. The nineteenth century was a golden period in the history of Russian translation. Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин) and Rukovsky (В.А.Жуковский) both produced many excellent translations. Pushkin (A.С.Пушкин) and Lermontov (M.Ю.Лермонтов) contributed greatly to the development of Russian literature in translation, while Fetter concentrated on love poetry. In the twentieth century, the Russian translation community made significant achievements in theoretical translation studies. In particular, the rapid development of the philological school and the debate between the literary and philological schools made Soviet translation theory one of the leading theories of translation in the world (Feng,2006:5).--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 12:57, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
This paper provides a comprehensive and concise overview of the history of translation in Russia: Russian written translations began in the Kievan Rus' era, when religious subjects were the main focus of translations, especially the Bible, translated from Greek. Religious translations continued to flourish under the Moscow principality, represented by Maxim Gleick (МаксимГрек). At the same time, the national character of Russian translations began to emerge, and the languages of translation expanded from Greek to Latin, German and West Slavic, and the subjects covered included Western chivalric fiction, geographical literature, alchemy and medicine. In the eighteenth century, Peter the Great introduced a number of measures to focus on translation, leading this period to a turning point in the history of Russian translation. The proliferation of specialised translations (e.g. of legal texts) was the main feature of translation activity in the early eighteenth century. After this period Russian translators began to translate literary works.The main translators were Lomonosov (М.В. Ломоносов) and Tretyakovsky (V.K. Тредьяковский). In the second half of the eighteenth century, translation was paid greater attention in Russia, and the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books was founded by Ekaterina II, in which a large number of outstanding translators emerged. The nineteenth century was a golden period in the history of Russian translation when Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин) and Rukovsky (В.А.Жуковский) both produced many excellent translations. Pushkin (A.С.Пушкин) and Lermontov (M.Ю.Лермонтов) contributed greatly to the development of Russian literature in translation, while Fetter concentrated on love poetry. In the twentieth century, the Russian translation community made significant achievements in theoretical translation studies. In particular, the rapid development of the philological school and the debate between the literary and philological schools made Soviet translation theory one of the leading theories of translation in the world. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:14, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===1.The history of Russian translation and the period of enlightenment of its translation theory. ===<br />
1. The emergence and development of literary translation.<br />
<br />
Translation activity has a long history in Russia, the beginnings of which can be traced back to the time of Kievan Rus'. A relatively sophisticated system of writing, literature and translation was already in place in ancient Russia in the ninth century AD. Frequent cultural and trade exchanges with Byzantine, German, French and Scandinavian countries contributed significantly to the development of translation in Russia at that time, as did contacts with Eastern countries. From Kievan Rus' onwards, Russian translation methods oscillated between two main tendencies, either to follow the original texts exactly, up to the point of translating them word for word, or to be arbitrary, even to the point of rewriting, adding or deleting at will. The first tendency is the main characteristic of translations of the Bible and other sacred books, while the second, though not absolute, can be said to characterize most secular works (Feng,2006:8).<br />
<br />
2.Initiation of translation activities-religious translation. <br />
<br />
In 864 AD, the Byzantine king sent two Greek priests, Kirill (Кирилл) and Mephodi (Мефодий), to spread Christianity among the Slavic people. At the beginning of their mission, they created a new alphabet (now known as the Kirill alphabet) and used this writing system to translate many religious texts from Greek into the ancient Church Slavonic. Among the results were the New Testament, hymnals and prayer books(Feng,2006:8). <br />
<br />
In 988 AD, Rus was baptised and Kievan Rus was converted to Christianity. A large number of translations appeared instantly to help Protestants become familiar with the new religious philosophy and ethical system and to understand the rituals and customs of the Church. These translations were in a variety of genres, including the Acts of the Saints, sermons, chronicles and so on. In addition, apocryphal books telling magical and fantastical stories were also popular, and some of them had similarities with the later 'fantasy novels'. Most of these translations were done in Bulgaria and were popularised in Rus. At that time, translations of religious texts were mostly word-for-word. There were also a small number of works that, unlike the 'elaborate copies of the original', had a separate literary value. In one case, a large number of details of Russian life were added to the storyline of a sermon (e.g. The Tales of Achild the Wise). In another case, military historical narratives are interspersed with the terminology of the ancient Russian feudal system and certain literary images from the stories of ancient Russian warriors (e.g. Joseph Flav's History of the Jewish War). This translation can be considered one of the most successful of the period. In the translation, the translator succeeded in avoiding many word-for-word translations). In a third case, the manuscripts copied by Ancient Rus, although based on Greek epic poetry (e.g. The Great Work of Digenes Akritas), often borrowed from Russian folk poetry, so that a large number of folk compositions appeared. As a result of this literary process, the translated literature was smoothly enriched by Russian manuscripts, which contributed to the development of original Russian literature and consolidated its links with the medieval literary process. Unfortunately, at that early stage in the development of translation, the translators were not signed, so it is impossible to verify whether the works were translated at home or abroad(Feng,2006:9). <br />
<br />
During the difficult period of 'Mongol rule' (1228-1480), translations continued to play an important role in the cultural life of the country. The remaining chapters of the Bible were translated one after another, and previous translations were again proofread and revised. In addition to religious translations, more translations of non-religious subjects emerge, such as The Kingdom of India and The Trojan War. Most of the works were still translated from Greek, while works probably translated from Latin and ancient Hebrew also appeared. During this period, Russian began to take shape through the interaction of Old Slavonic (Church Slavonic) and local national languages. However, religious texts were still only translated into Church Slavonic, and the use of this language was by then restricted to ecclesiastical matters. At the same time, political and commercial exchanges with other countries were more likely to be in Russian, which was becoming increasingly sophisticated: elements of the combination of Old Slavonic and Russian can also be found in original works（Wu,2006:6). <br />
<br />
14-15th century literature in translation by Rus was characterised by an obsession with new themes. These were mainly new works of tranquillity-abstinence literature, or works recommended by and familiar to the tranquillists. This mystical genre was introduced to Rus after it had swept through the Byzantine and Yugoslav peoples. It was reflected in the semi-secular translations popular at the time (for example, The Trojan War). <br />
<br />
In the 16th century AD, Moscow eventually became the political centre of Russia, as well as the translation centre of the country. In 1515, the Grand Duke of Moscow, Vassily III (Василий Ⅲ), asked a Greek monastery to send a learned translator to Moscow. This man, who accompanied the Greek mission to Moscow in 1516, was the historically famous Maksim Grek (Максим Грек). Maksim Greek worked as a translator throughout his life, studying most of the religious texts and some of the non-religious works during this period. In addition, he also proofread and annotated previously existing translations(Wu,2006:7). <br />
<br />
At the beginning, Maksim knew neither Russian nor Old Slavonic, so he divided the translation into two steps: first, he translated from Greek to Latin, and then his assistant translated from Latin to Old Slavonic. In the process of revising existing translations, he often broke with established tradition and was therefore denounced as blasphemous. Maxim was also a prolific writer, educator and philosopher. His writings contain many insights into the art of translation - the earliest recorded treatise on translation in Russia. Maxim insisted that the original text must be carefully analysed in order to grasp its full subtleties and implications. Therefore, the translator must not only master the language of the original, but also have a broad knowledge of the language and prepare for the translation. To support his argument, Maxim used Greek lexicography, phonetic organisation and phonetics involved in translation. His other major contribution was the compilation of a dictionary containing Greek, Latin and Hebrew nouns, which was also the first of its kind in Russian history. Although it was recognised at the time that translators should have a command of both languages as well as a profound background knowledge, the practitioners of translation at the time lacked the necessary qualities and their translations were not as good as they could have been(Wu,2006:7).--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 13:39, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
1. The emergence and development of literary translation. <br />
<br />
Translation activity has a long history in Russia, the beginnings of which can be traced back to the Time of Kievan Rus'. A relatively sophisticated system of writing, literature and translation was already in ancient Russia in the ninth century AD. Frequent cultural and trade exchanges with Byzantine, German, French and Scandinavian countries contributed significantly to the development of translation in Russia at that time, as did contacts with Eastern countries. From Kievan Rus' onwards, Russian translation methods oscillated between two main tendencies, either to follow the original texts exactly, up to the point of translating them word by word, or to be arbitrary, even to the point of rewriting, adding words or deleting at will. The first tendency is the main characteristic of translations of the Bible and other sacred books, while the second, though not absolutely, can be said to characterize most secular works.<br />
<br />
2.Initiation of translation activities-religious translation. <br />
<br />
In 864 AD, the Byzantine king sent two Greek priests, Kirill (Кирилл) and Mephodi (Мефодий), to spread Christianity among the Slavic people. At the beginning of their mission, they created a new alphabet (now known as the Kirill alphabet) and used this writing system to translate many religious texts from Greek into the ancient Church Slavonic. Among the results were the New Testament, hymnals and prayer books. In 988 AD, Rus was baptised and Kievan Rus was converted to Christianity. A large number of translations appeared instantly to help Protestants become familiar with the new religious philosophy and ethical system and to understand the rituals and customs of the Church. These translations were in a variety of genres, including the Acts of the Saints, sermons, chronicles and so on. In addition, apocryphal books telling magical and fantastical stories were also popular, and some of them had similarities with the later 'fantasy novels'. Most of these translations were done in Bulgaria and were popularised in Rus. At that time, translations of religious texts were mostly word-for-word. There were also a small number of works that, unlike the 'elaborate copies of the original', had a separate literary values. In one case, a large number of details of Russian life were added to the storyline of a sermon (e.g. The Tales of Achild the Wise). In another case, military historical narratives are interspersed with the terminology of the ancient Russian feudal system and certain literary images from the stories of ancient Russian warriors (e.g. Joseph Flav's History of the Jewish War). This translation can be considered one of the most successful of the period. In the translation, the translator succeeded in avoiding many word-for-word translations). Thirdly, the manuscripts copied by Ancient Rus, although based on Greek epic poetry (e.g. The Great Work of Digenes Akritas), often borrowed from Russian folk poetry, so that a large number of folk compositions appeared. As a result of this literary process, the translated literature was smoothly enriched by Russian manuscripts, which contributed to the development of original Russian literature and consolidated its links with the medieval literary process. Unfortunately, at that early stage in the development of translation, the translators were not signed, so it is impossible to verify whether the works were translated at home or abroad. During the difficult period of 'Mongol rule' (1228-1480), translations continued to play an important role in the cultural life of the country. The remaining chapters of the Bible were translated one after another, and previous translations were again proofread and revised. In addition to religious translations, more translations of non-religious subjects emerge, such as The Kingdom of India and The Trojan War. Most of the works were still translated from Greek, while works probably translated from Latin and ancient Hebrew also appeared. During this period, Russian began to take shape through the interaction of Old Slavonic (Church Slavonic) and local national languages. However, religious texts were still only translated into Church Slavonic, and the use of this language was by then restricted to ecclesiastical matters. At the same time, political and commercial exchanges with other countries were more likely to be in Russian, which was becoming increasingly sophisticated: elements of the combination of Old Slavonic and Russian can also be found in original works. 14-15th century literature in translation by Rus was characterised by an obsession with new themes. These were mainly new works of tranquillity-abstinence literature, or works recommended by and familiar to the tranquillists. This mystical genre was introduced to Rus after it had swept through the Byzantine and Yugoslav peoples. It was reflected in the semi-secular translations popular at the time (for example, The Trojan War). In the 16th century AD, Moscow eventually became the political center of Russia, as well as the translation center of the country. In 1515, the Grand Duke of Moscow, Vassily III (Василий Ⅲ), asked a Greek monastery to send a learned translator to Moscow. This man, who accompanied the Greek mission to Moscow in 1516, was the historically famous Maksim Grek (Максим Грек). Maxim Greek worked as a translator throughout his life, studying most of the religious texts and some of the non-religious works during this period. In addition, he also proofread and annotated previously existing translations. At the beginning, Maxim knew neither Russian nor Old Slavonic, so he divided the translation into two steps: first, he translated from Greek to Latin, and then his assistant translated from Latin to Old Slavonic. In the process of revising existing translations, he often broke with established tradition and was therefore denounced as blasphemous. Maxim was also a prolific writer, educator and philosopher. His writings contain many insights into the art of translation - the earliest recorded treatise on translation in Russia. Maxim insisted that the original text must be carefully analysed in order to grasp its full subtleties and implications. Therefore, the translator must not only master the language of the original, but also have a broad knowledge of the language and prepare for the translation. To support his argument, Maxim used Greek lexicography, phonetic organisation and phonetics involved in translation. His other major contribution was the compilation of a dictionary containing Greek, Latin and Hebrew nouns, which was also the first of its kind in Russian history. Although it was recognized at the time that translators should have a command of both languages and profound background knowledge, the practitioners of translation at the time lacked the necessary qualities and their translations were not as good as they should have been. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 03:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. Overview of the Russian school of Translation. ===<br />
===2.1 18th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The eighteenth century is an important period in the history of Russian translation. The status of translation in social culture has undergone a qualitative change, and this is due to Peter the Great's reform. At the beginning of the century, translation was still mostly related to professional documents such as laws and contracts. Later, the translator's tentacles gradually expanded to literary translation, for example, French poetry translation. The famous translators of this period are Sumarokov(А.П.Сумароков), Lomonosov(М.В.Ломоносов), Tretyakovsky (В.К.Тредьяковский) and so on. In the second half of the 18th century, the Association for the Translation of Foreign Books officially put forward the importance of translation. The organization has been active for 15 years with over 100 members.<br />
<br />
1.Imperial support for translation. The political reforms introduced by Peter the Great also led to intensive economic and cultural exchanges between Russia and European countries. This created a huge demand for translations of scientific and technical literature and literary works. Translators were required to produce works of a high standard.<br />
<br />
Peter the Great issued a special decree on translation, requiring "faithful" communication of the original text. In a directive issued to his subordinates in 1709, he explicitly stated that when translating foreign books, word-for-word translations were to be avoided and that the content of the original text should be clearly expressed in one's own language, based on an understanding of its content. On the other hand, Peter the Great's subversion of the written language initially caused confusion in Russian translation circles. A large number of foreign languages entered the Russian language, and the piles of foreign syntactic structures distracted attention. In any case, Peter the Great's reforms did set a new norm and a new direction for translation. <br />
<br />
In terms of content, Peter the Great's reforms were, from the very beginning, inextricably linked to the translation of scientific and technical texts, such as the many books on military defence engineering that he ordered to be translated and used to strengthen Russia's military forces. Peter the Great also placed great importance on the translation of prose, poetry and other literary works. During this period, the Russian language began to develop its own literary model, and many educated Russians saw translation as a way of enriching the language and enhancing its uniqueness and expressiveness. <br />
<br />
From around the 1830s, the importance of translating Western European scientific and technical texts gradually gave way to literary works such as prose and poetry. Writers who were also translators turned their attention to the work of new Western European writers, mainly poets, especially French poets. At the same time, the legacy of the Greco-Roman period also entered their minds. They began to translate the works of philosophers and historians, which - on the one hand - gave rise to difficulties in literary rhetoric and scientific terminology and, on the other, played an important role in the formation of a standard Russian language. <br />
<br />
From that time onwards, translation also became an organised activity, with the emergence of specific bodies responsible for the organisation and management of translation work. 1735 saw the establishment of the first specialised translation organisation, the Russian Society, at the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences. The Society had a professional group of translators and some of the academy's scholars, such as Lomonosov and Tretyakovsky, were among its members. The Association was responsible for selecting works, defining the rules or principles of translation, commenting on translations, and training translators. It is worth mentioning that the Academy of Sciences also set up a school of foreign languages to train official translators. In 1748, the Academy implemented Queen Elizabeth's decree to increase the number of translations of non-religious books and publicly appealed to "the nobility and other classes of intellectuals" to take an active part in the translation process. <br />
<br />
In the second half of the 18th century, Ekaterina II's efforts to create a 'civilised state' not only led to the development of literature, but also gave preferential treatment to writers. For example, in order to select the best original texts, she ordered the establishment of the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books (1768 - 1783). The Society was dedicated to providing excellent conditions for translation work throughout Russia. The purchase of manuscripts was financed out of Ekaterina's own funds. Later, the Society also discussed a proposal to establish a translation bureau under the Academy of Sciences (1790). The 114 members of the Society included such notable figures as Tretyakovsky, Sumarokov and Radishev. For 14 years the Association was active, producing numerous literary translations and likewise contributing to the discussion of theoretical issues in translation.<br />
<br />
2.The emergence of poetry translation. Translation of poetry also developed in Russia in the 18th century, and later became one of the jewels of the country's literature. The great Russian scholar and poet Lomonosov was a major contributor to this process. A great deal of the work created by Lomonosov and his contemporaries Sumarokov and Tretyakovsky was poetry in translation. They often translated while exploring theoretical issues in translation: they would explain in their works why they translated this way and not that way; they stressed the importance of translation work and the creative value it contained. Among the most prestigious writers and translators in Russian literature at the time, there were several interesting competitions in which two or three poets translated the same work at the same time, and their translations were published in journals. It was often the case that different translations of the same work were published at the same time, without the translator's name, for the judgement of "literary lovers and peers". This phenomenon also supports the idea that the 18th century was a period of 'experimentation' in the history of Russian translation. <br />
<br />
Lomonosov's translations from Latin, German, French and Greek are numerous and varied, showing his talent for both rhyming and free verse. He was keen to reproduce the rhythmic structure of the original texts, using a variety of iambic and iambic meter to convey the Alexandrian style of French epic and the hexameter style of Greek tragedy. Russian poetry was not very developed at the time and was still based on syllables. <br />
Lomonosov's innovations enriched Russian poetry and established new forms and traditions of Russian poetic style and rhyme. <br />
<br />
In contrast, Kantymir (Д.М.Кантемира) and Tretyakovsky's greatest quest was to insist on a faithful translation of the original. In the process, the translators had to contend with the problems of reams of vocabulary and rhetorical rules. Tretyakovsky became famous for his successful use of Russian rhyme to translate many verses of the original in his translation of Paul Thielmann's A Journey to Love Island. In the introduction to the novel, the translator states his approach to translation: "The translator is only one person away from the author. I would add that if the author is original, the translator should be even more original (I am not referring to myself, but to a good translator)". He believes that "prose to prose" and "poetry to poetry" can be as good as the original, and that a good translation is one that "describes the full meaning of each verse". Kantymir 's translation of Horace's Letters and other poetic works in Latin and French, although less well-known than the former, is equally valuable.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:40, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The eighteenth century is an important period in the history of Russian translation. The status of translation in social culture has undergone a qualitative change, and this is due to Peter the Great's reform. At the beginning of the century, translation was still mostly related to professional documents such as laws and contracts. Later, the translator's tentacles gradually expanded to literary translation, for example, French poetry translation. The famous translators of this period are Sumarokov(А.П.Сумароков), Lomonosov(М.В.Ломоносов), Tretyakovsky (В.К.Тредьяковский) and so on. In the second half of the 18th century, the Association for the Translation of Foreign Books officially put forward the importance of translation. The organization has been active for 15 years with over 100 members. The following points reflected the reasons why translation was paid more attention in the eighteenth century.<br />
<br />
1.Imperial support for translation. <br />
<br />
The political reforms introduced by Peter the Great also led to intensive economic and cultural exchanges between Russia and European countries. This created a huge demand for translations of scientific and technical literature and literary works. Translators were required to produce works of a high standard.Peter the Great issued a special decree on translation, requiring "faithful" communication of the original text. In a directive issued to his subordinates in 1709, he explicitly stated that when translating foreign books, word-for-word translations were to be avoided and that the content of the original text should be clearly expressed in one's own language, based on an understanding of its content. On the other hand, Peter the Great's subversion of the written language initially caused confusion in Russian translation circles. A large number of foreign languages entered the Russian language, and the piles of foreign syntactic structures distracted attention. In any case, Peter the Great's reforms did set a new norm and a new direction for translation. In terms of content, Peter the Great's reforms were, from the very beginning, inextricably linked to the translation of scientific and technical texts, such as the many books on military defence engineering that he ordered to be translated and used to strengthen Russia's military forces. Peter the Great also placed great importance on the translation of prose, poetry and other literary works. During this period, the Russian language began to develop its own literary model, and many educated Russians saw translation as a way of enriching the language and enhancing its uniqueness and expressiveness. <br />
<br />
From around the 1830s, the importance of translating Western European scientific and technical texts gradually gave way to literary works such as prose and poetry. Writers who were also translators turned their attention to the work of new Western European writers, mainly poets, especially French poets. At the same time, the legacy of the Greco-Roman period also entered their minds. They began to translate the works of philosophers and historians, which - on the one hand - gave rise to difficulties in literary rhetoric and scientific terminology and, on the other, played an important role in the formation of a standard Russian language. <br />
<br />
From that time onwards, translation also became an organised activity, with the emergence of specific bodies responsible for the organisation and management of translation work. 1735 saw the establishment of the first specialised translation organisation, the Russian Society, at the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences. The Society had a professional group of translators and some of the academy's scholars, such as Lomonosov and Tretyakovsky, were among its members. The Association was responsible for selecting works, defining the rules or principles of translation, commenting on translations, and training translators. It is worth mentioning that the Academy of Sciences also set up a school of foreign languages to train official translators. In 1748, the Academy implemented Queen Elizabeth's decree to increase the number of translations of non-religious books and publicly appealed to "the nobility and other classes of intellectuals" to take an active part in the translation process. <br />
<br />
In the second half of the 18th century, Ekaterina II's efforts to create a 'civilised state' not only led to the development of literature, but also gave preferential treatment to writers. For example, in order to select the best original texts, she ordered the establishment of the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books (1768-1783). The Society was dedicated to providing excellent conditions for translation work throughout Russia. The purchase of manuscripts was financed out of Ekaterina's own funds. Later, the Society also discussed a proposal to establish a translation bureau under the Academy of Sciences (1790). The 114 members of the Society included such notable figures as Tretyakovsky, Sumarokov and Radishev. For 14 years the Association was active, producing numerous literary translations and likewise contributing to the discussion of theoretical issues in translation.<br />
<br />
2.The emergence of poetry translation.<br />
<br />
Translation of poetry also developed in Russia in the 18th century, and later became one of the jewels of the country's literature. The great Russian scholar and poet Lomonosov was a major contributor to this process. A great deal of the work created by Lomonosov and his contemporaries Sumarokov and Tretyakovsky was poetry in translation. They often translated while exploring theoretical issues in translation: they would explain in their works why they translated this way and not that way; they stressed the importance of translation work and the creative value it contained. Among the most prestigious writers and translators in Russian literature at the time, there were several interesting competitions in which two or three poets translated the same work at the same time, and their translations were published in journals. It was often the case that different translations of the same work were published at the same time, without the translator's name, for the judgement of "literary lovers and peers". This phenomenon also supports the idea that the 18th century was a period of 'experimentation' in the history of Russian translation. <br />
<br />
Lomonosov's translations works in Latin, German, French and Greek are numerous and varied, showing his talent for both rhyming and free verse. He was keen to reproduce the rhythmic structure of the original texts, using a variety of iambic and iambic meter to convey the Alexandrian style of French epic and the hexameter style of Greek tragedy. Russian poetry was not very developed at the time and was still based on syllables. <br />
Lomonosov's innovations enriched Russian poetry and established new forms and traditions of Russian poetic style and rhyme. <br />
<br />
In contrast, Kantymir (Д.М.Кантемира) and Tretyakovsky's greatest quest was to insist on a faithful translation of the original. In the process, the translators had to contend with the problems of reams of vocabulary and rhetorical rules. Tretyakovsky became famous for his successful use of Russian rhyme to translate many verses of the original in his translation of Paul Thielmann's A Journey to Love Island. In the introduction to the novel, the translator states his approach to translation: "The translator is only one person away from the author. I would add that if the author is original, the translator should be even more original (I am not referring to myself, but to a good translator)". He believes that "prose to prose" and "poetry to poetry" can be as good as the original, and that a good translation is one that "describes the full meaning of each verse". Kantymir 's translation of Horace's Letters and other poetic works in Latin and French, although less well-known than the former, is equally valuable. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 12:39, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.2 First half of the19th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The nineteenth century was a golden age in the history of Russian translation. If translation had established itself as a profession in the first hundred years, it was elevated to the level of art in this century. The nineteenth century produced a number of masters of translation, including Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин), Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский), Pushkin (А.С.Пушкин), Lermontov (М.Ю.Лермонтов) and Fetter (А.Фет). <br />
<br />
The new Russian school of translation owes its formation to the historian Nikolai Karamzin and the poet Zhukovsky. Karamzin published a number of translations in several magazines between the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century. He saw translations as a good help in perfecting a writer's style: a source of information that would satisfy human curiosity, inform historical facts, entertain women and provide material for new magazines. As a young man, Karamzin was strongly opposed to the alteration of and disloyalty to the original texts, but later became a champion of free translation, famously saying: "Whoever follows the author of the original text step by step is no different from a servant who serves his lord". Karamzin's translations cover an admirable range of genres and languages: he translated works by both classical and contemporaneous authors, in Greek, French, Latin, German, English, Italian and some Oriental languages. <br />
<br />
Pushkin called Zhukovsky "a genius of translation". After graduating from the Moscow Noble Boarding University in 1802, Zhukovsky devoted himself to translation. It was thanks to his efforts that Russian readers were able to access the works of world literary giants such as Schiller, Goethe, Byron and Walters Scott. Zhukovsky's creative translation activities also ranged from Charles Bello to Grimm's Fairy Tales. From Charles Bellow to Grimm's fairy tales, from Homer's epic Odyssey to the poetic history of ancient Rus' Igor's Expedition, all became his original texts. There is no denying that Zhukovsky is a master in the history of Russian translation. Like Karamzin, Zhukovsky was a fan of free translation, sometimes rewriting the original or even creating a new story from its subject: sometimes transferring the setting of events to Russia and giving Russian names to the characters. For example, in his 1808 translation of the German Romantic poet Bilge's narrative poem Lenore, he changed the heroine's name from Lenore to Lyudmila and moved the story to the time of the Livonian War in 16th-century Russia. Zhukovsky believed that the "unsavoury character" of the work should be weakened while retaining the original author's ideas. His talent enabled him to reproduce the style, rhythm and tone of the original poems, while some of his best works were also faithful to the original. In later years, however, his view of translation changed in response to the tendency to stay close to the original, and he retranslated several of his previous translations to make them more faithful to the original, including Lenore. The Russian school of translation owes much to the tradition of translation created by Zhukovsky.<br />
<br />
Pushkin and Lermontov are also two poets who set the stage for an epoch in the history of Russian translation. Although only a small proportion of their poetry was translated, they made a significant contribution to the improvement of the art of translation in Russia. In their rewriting and imitation of poetry, they were able to reproduce the most important features of foreign poetry, the key point being that their creative translations were no less valuable in their own right than the originals. Their free translation became a model for other translators, and in addition they established the important principle that a good artistic translation must also be a good work in the national literature of the translated language. Pushkin played an indelibly important role in the development of the Russian school of translation. He was always interested in the question of translation, and his critical views on translation were objective and profound. Before translation he stressed the importance of the choice of the original work, and in translation he demanded that the translator should be faithful to the original, while at the same time displaying his deep creative skills and his own literary style. In one of his unfinished posthumous works, 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', Pushkin wrote: 'Chateaubriand's translation (verbatim) compensates to some extent for the faults of the young French writers (free translation), for they have insulted the great man very cruelly, though in a perfectly innocent manner. There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own rhetorical conventions, its own way of expressing itself, and it is impossible to translate into another language with the corresponding vocabulary". These insights had a positive impact on the best Russian translators of the 19th and 20th centuries. In addition, Pushkin's discussion of translation coincided with a turning point in the history of Russian literature, when the Romantic era was being replaced by a new era with a predominantly realist orientation, and a process of 'separation' between translated and national literature was under way. Pushkin's discussion of the work of the translator as distinct from that of the writer contributed to the independence of literature in translation from indigenous literature. <br />
<br />
During this period, while most people advocated free translation, there were a few translators who insisted on maximum fidelity to the original and advocated the word-for-word method, even at the expense of the work's willingness to be translated. Among these were such well-known writers as P.A. Vyazemsky (П.А.Вяземский) and N.I. Gnedzic (Н.И.Гнедич). In fact, they did not always live up to their principles, and sometimes their talent and artistic intuition ended up breaking the bonds of verbatim translation. Vyazemsky's translations of Benjamin Constant and Adam Mickiewicz were not without literary and artistic merit, and his translation of Homer's epic Iliad in particular was highly praised by Pushkin. It was Fetter who was the most insistent on the idea of a verbatim translation. Fetter translated many famous works, and his philosophy throughout was one of sentence-for-sentence, word-for-word translation, retaining all the words of the original. Fetter's extreme word-for-word approach had a negative impact on most of his translations, although he was sometimes able to come up with some effective methods of translation. <br />
<br />
Free translations were also sometimes used to promote democratic ideas in the original that could not pass official scrutiny. A number of translators, such as V. Kurochkin (В.Курочкин), D. M. Minayev (Д.Минаев) and M. M. Mikhalov (М.Михайлов), achieved this by selecting appropriate original works or by using texts in their translations that were superficially imperceptible in their allusion to the conditions in Russia at the time. It was from that time onwards that the use of translation as a weapon to express dissent became part of the Russian tradition.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:41, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The nineteenth century was the golden age in the history of Russian translation. If translation had established its status in the first hundred years, it was elevated to the level of art in this century. The nineteenth century produced a number of masters of translation, including Karamzin (Н.М.Карамзин), Zhukovsky (В.А.Жуковский), Pushkin (А.С.Пушкин), Lermontov (М.Ю.Лермонтов) and Fetter (А.Фет). <br />
<br />
The new Russian school of translation owes its formation to the publishment of a number of translations of historian Nikolai Karamzin and the poet Zhukovsky. Karamzin in several magazines between the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century. He regarded translation as a good help in perfecting a writer's style: a source of information that satisfies human curiosity, informs historical facts, entertains women and provides materials for new magazines. As a young man, Karamzin was strongly opposed to the disloyalty to the original texts, but later became a champion of free translation. His famous saying was: "Whoever follows the author of the original text step by step is no different from a servant who serves his lord". Karamzin's translations cover an admirable range of genres and languages: he translated works by both classical and contemporaneous authors, in Greek, French, Latin, German, English, Italian and some Oriental languages. <br />
<br />
Pushkin called Zhukovsky "a genius of translation". After graduating from the Moscow Noble Boarding University in 1802, Zhukovsky devoted himself to translation. It was thanks to his efforts that Russian readers were able to access the works of world literary giants such as Schiller, Goethe, Byron and Walters Scott. Zhukovsky's creative translation activities also ranged from Charles Bello to Grimm's Fairy Tales. From Charles Bellow to Grimm's fairy tales, from Homer's epic Odyssey to the poetic history of ancient Rus' Igor's Expedition, all became his original texts. There is no denying that Zhukovsky is a master in the history of Russian translation. Like Karamzin, Zhukovsky was a fan of free translation, who sometimes rewrites the original or even creates a new story from its subject, transfers the setting of events to Russia and gives Russian names to the characters. For example, in his 1808 translation of the German Romantic poet Bilge's narrative poem Lenore, he changed the heroine's name from Lenore to Lyudmila and moved the story to the time of the Livonian War in 16th-century Russia. Zhukovsky believed that the "unsavoury character" of the work should be weakened while retaining the original author's ideas. His talent enabled him to reproduce the style, rhythm and tone of the original poems, while some of his best works were also faithful to the original. In later years, however, his view of translation changed in response to the tendency to stay close to the original, and he retranslated several of his previous translations to make them more faithful to the original, including Lenore. The Russian school of translation owes much to the tradition of translation created by Zhukovsky.<br />
<br />
Pushkin and Lermontov are also two poets who gave perfect preparations for an epoch in the history of Russian translation. Although only a small proportion of their poetry was translated, they made a significant contribution to the improvement of the art of translation in Russia. In their rewriting and imitation of poetry, they were able to reproduce the most important features of foreign poetry, the key point being that their creative translations were no less valuable in their own right than the originals. Their free translation became a model for other translators, and in addition they established the important principle that a good artistic translation must also be a good work in the national literature of the translated language. Pushkin played an indelibly important role in the development of the Russian school of translation. He was always interested in the question of translation, and his critical views on translation were objective and profound. Before translation he stressed the importance of the choice of the original work, and in translation he demanded that the translator should be faithful to the original, while at the same time displaying his deep creative skills and his own literary style. In one of his unfinished posthumous works, 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', Pushkin wrote: 'Chateaubriand's translation (verbatim) compensates to some extent for the faults of the young French writers (free translation), for they have insulted the great man very cruelly, though in a perfectly innocent manner. There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own rhetorical conventions, its own way of expressing itself, and it is impossible to translate into another language with the corresponding vocabulary". These insights had a positive impact on the best Russian translators of the 19th and 20th centuries. In addition, Pushkin's discussion of translation coincided with a turning point in the history of Russian literature, when the Romantic era was being replaced by a new era with a predominantly realist orientation, and a process of 'separation' between translated and national literature was under way. Pushkin's discussion of the work of the translator as distinct from that of the writer contributed to the independence of literature in translation from indigenous literature. <br />
<br />
During this period, while most people advocated free translation, there were a few translators who insisted on maximum fidelity to the original and advocated the word-for-word method, even at the expense of the work's willingness to be translated. Among these were such well-known writers as P.A. Vyazemsky (П.А.Вяземский) and N.I. Gnedzic (Н.И.Гнедич). In fact, they did not always live up to their principles, and sometimes their talent and artistic intuition ended up breaking the bonds of verbatim translation. Vyazemsky's translations of Benjamin Constant and Adam Mickiewicz were not without literary and artistic merit, and his translation of Homer's epic Iliad in particular was highly praised by Pushkin. It was Fetter who was the most insistent on the idea of a verbatim translation. Fetter translated many famous works, and his philosophy throughout was one of sentence-for-sentence, word-for-word translation, retaining all the words of the original. Fetter's extreme word-for-word approach had a negative impact on most of his translations, although he was sometimes able to come up with some effective methods of translation. <br />
<br />
Free translations were also used to promote democratic ideas in original that could not pass official scrutiny. A number of translators, such as V. Kurochkin (В.Курочкин), D. M. Minayev (Д.Минаев) and M. M. Mikhalov (М.Михайлов), achieved this by selecting appropriate original works or by using texts in their translations that were superficially imperceptible in their allusion to the conditions in Russia at the time. It was since then that the use of translation was used as a weapon to express dissent became part of the Russian tradition. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:05, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.3 Second half of the19th century Russian translation. ===<br />
The mid-nineteenth century was a period of increasingly intense political and ideological struggle in Russian literature, and a great debate raged in the Russian literary world over the question of 'art for the people' or 'art for art's sake'. The debate was mainly about the choice of material for translation and the method of translation. As far as the choice of material was concerned, the democratic and revolutionary writers who supported 'art for the people' chose to translate works with progressive ideological content and a democratic orientation, such as Heine. The aristocratic and liberal intellectual writers, on the other hand, opted for philosophical poetry with a chanting and individualistic feel. Of course, this is not absolute: "Mikhailov and Dobrolyubov of the democratic revolutionary school also translated Heine's moody love poems The Songbook, while Tolstoy of the aristocratic and liberal school translated some of Goethe's more progressive poems, such as The Fiancée of Corinth and The Whore of God. In terms of their approach to translation, the Democratic-Revolutionary translators, based on the reproduction of the original as a whole, approached their translations very liberally, even adding in many elements typical of Russian culture. The latter, on the other hand, usually adopted a direct translation, focusing on conveying the formal details of the original work. This divergence was mainly due to the different starting points of the two groups of translators, with the democratic revolutionaries seeking to convey advanced ideas to the Russian general public and the aristocratic intellectuals believing that works of art were irrelevant to the people and that artistic creations should not be exposed to "vulgar" reality.<br />
<br />
There were a large number of outstanding literary writers and literary critics who made brilliant statements about literary translation in that era, none more so than Belinsky (В.Г.Белинский), Chernyshevsky (Н.Г.Черныщевский) and Dubrolyovsky (Н.Г.Добролюбов). Belinsky was one of the greatest Russian literary critics of the 19th century. He believed that translations should not be word-for-word, but should reproduce the spirit of the original, in much the same way as Pushkin's view of translation theory. On the other hand, he also opposed arbitrary 'paraphrasing': the ideal translation should not add or delete arbitrarily to the original text, but should enable the reader to understand the foreign work truly and accurately through the translation. Such a viewpoint seems to us to be quite convincing even now. Belinsky played a decisive role in completely burying the 'rewriting' and 'adapting it to Russian custom' arguments. This issue dominates his writings. He argues that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of the translation, and this is one of the criteria by which he judges its merits. He points out, for example, that the greatest strength of Gnedzic's translation of the Iliad is that it "exudes the atmosphere of ancient life" and "the spirit of the ancient Greeks". However, the contradiction between national identity and translatability was once a problem for Belinsky. Initially believing that it was impossible to translate works with a strong national character into other languages, he was only convinced by the success of Turgenev's collaboration with Louis Viardot in translating Gogol's novels into French in 1846, and then became increasingly determined to recognise translatability in translation. Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a series of revisions that led to a complete and rigorous system of translation theory, the first of its kind in the history of Russian translation theory.<br />
<br />
Translation in Russia developed in the second half of the 19th century. From the 1960s onwards, the Russian readership of non-language speakers began to expand, and these readers were keen to see the translation 'replace' the original. This demand led to an unprecedented expansion in the choice of subjects and translations of Russian literature. Interest in foreign theatrical works was particularly high at this stage, and a strong interest in European classical literature also developed. Dickens, Saclay, Victor Hugo, Dumas, Balzac, Flaubert, Tudor, Maupassant and Zola, as well as lesser-known writers of today, were successively brought to the attention of a wide range of Russian readers in the form of translations. At that time, European theatre classics like Shakespeare's plays were translated into Russia in large numbers. Many professional translators were involved, the most successful being the translator P.N.V. Weinberg. He translated foreign literature from the standpoint of progressive Russian literature of the time. His translation of Othello, for example, is notable for its vividness in the Russian language, and has always been recognised as the best translation in terms of conveying the totality of scenes, plots and long dialogues, even though the translation is wordy compared to the original.<br />
<br />
Although there has been a quantitative surge in translations of Russian literature during this period, the quality has generally been poor, manifesting itself in word-for-word translations, redundant sentences and poor vocabulary, not to mention inventiveness. In addition, the language of the characters in the translation is heavily Russified, with Russian proverbs, sayings and idioms that the foreign characters could never have known, and the introduction of Russian-specific life circumstances that cause contradictions with the plot and details of the original work. For example, В Тулу со своим самоваром ехать (Bring your own samovar to Tula - it's superfluous). The reason for this is that the literary world did not attach much importance to the translation of fiction and prose, and there were no specialists working on this task. Another point is that at this stage there was little progress in the study of Russian translation theory, and no valuable theoretical insights emerged. The linguist A.A. Потебня (1835-1891) expressed his views on translation from a psychological standpoint in his essay "Language and Peopleliness ". In his view, it was impossible to express in another language what was originally intended to be expressed in a certain language. He, like many other literary scholars, denied the translatability of language.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:41, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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The mid-nineteenth century was a period of increasingly intensively political and ideological struggle in Russian literature, and a great debate raged in the Russian literary world over the question of 'art for the people' or 'art for art's sake'. The debate was mainly about the choice of materials for translation and the methods of translation. As far as the choice of material was concerned, the democratic and revolutionary writers who supported 'art for the people' chose to translate works with progressive ideological content and a democratic orientation, such as Heine. The aristocratic and liberal intellectual writers, on the other hand, opted for philosophical poetry with a chanting and individualistic feel. It's undoubtful that this is not absolute: "Mikhailov and Dobrolyubov of the democratic revolutionary school also translated Heine's moody love poems The Songbook, while Tolstoy of the aristocratic and liberal school translated some of Goethe's more progressive poems, such as The Fiancée of Corinth and The Whore of God. In terms of their approach to translation, the Democratic-Revolutionary translators, based on the reproduction of the original as a whole, approached their translations very liberally, when they even added in many elements typical of Russian culture. The latter, on the other hand, usually adopted a direct translation, focusing on conveying the formal details of the original work. This divergence was mainly due to the different starting points of the two groups of translators, with the democratic revolutionaries seeking to convey advanced ideas to the Russian general public and the aristocratic intellectuals believing that works of art were irrelevant to the people and that artistic creations should not be exposed to "vulgar" reality.<br />
<br />
There were a large number of outstanding literary writers and literary critics who made brilliant statements about literary translation in that era, none more so than Belinsky (В.Г.Белинский), Chernyshevsky (Н.Г.Черныщевский) and Dubrolyovsky (Н.Г.Добролюбов). Belinsky was one of the greatest Russian literary critics of the 19th century. He believed that translations should not be word-for-word, but should reproduce the spirit of the original text, in much the same way as Pushkin's view of translation theory. On the other hand, he also opposed arbitrary 'paraphrasing': the ideal translation should not add or delete arbitrarily to the original text, but should enable the reader to understand the foreign work truly and accurately through the translation. Such a viewpoint seems to us to be quite convincing even now. Belinsky played a decisive role in completely burying the 'rewriting' and 'adapting it to Russian custom' arguments. This issue dominates his writings. He argues that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of the translation, and this is one of the criteria by which he judges its merits. He points out, for example, that the greatest strength of Gnedzic's translation of the Iliad is that it "exudes the atmosphere of ancient life" and "the spirit of the ancient Greeks". However, the contradiction between national identity and translatability was once a problem for Belinsky. Initially believing that it was impossible to translate works with a strong national character into other languages, he was only convinced by the success of Turgenev's collaboration with Louis Viardot in translating Gogol's novels into French in 1846, and then became increasingly determined to recognise translatability in translation. Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a series of revisions that led to a complete and rigorous system of translation theory, the first of its kind in the history of Russian translation theory.<br />
<br />
Translation in Russia developed in the second half of the 19th century. From the 1960s onwards, the Russian readership of non-language speakers began to expand, and these readers were keen to see the translation 'replace' the original. This demand led to an unprecedented expansion in the choice of subjects and translations of Russian literature. Interest in foreign theatrical works was particularly high at this stage, and a strong interest in European classical literature also developed. Dickens, Saclay, Victor Hugo, Dumas, Balzac, Flaubert, Tudor, Maupassant and Zola, as well as lesser-known writers of today, were successively brought to the attention of a wide range of Russian readers in the form of translations. At that time, European theatre classics like Shakespeare's plays were translated into Russia in large numbers. Many professional translators were involved, the most successful being the translator P.N.V. Weinberg. He translated foreign literature from the standpoint of progressive Russian literature of the time. His translation of Othello, for example, is notable for its vividness in the Russian language, and has always been recognised as the best translation in terms of conveying the totality of scenes, plots and long dialogues, even though the translation is wordy compared to the original.<br />
<br />
Although there has been a quantitative surge in translations of Russian literature during this period, the quality has generally been poor, manifesting itself in word-for-word translations, redundant sentences and poor vocabulary, not to mention inventiveness. In addition, the language of the characters in the translation is heavily Russified, that is, contents with Russian proverbs, sayings and idioms that the foreign characters could never have known, and the introduction of Russian-specific life circumstances that cause contradictions with the plot and details of the original work. For example, В Тулу со своим самоваром ехать (Bring your own samovar to Tula - it's superfluous). The reason for this is that the literary world did not attach much importance to the translation of fiction and prose, and there were no specialists working on this task. Another point is that at this stage there was little progress in the study of Russian translation theory, and no valuable theoretical insights emerged. The linguist A.A. Потебня (1835-1891) expressed his views on translation from a psychological standpoint in his essay "Language and Peopleliness ". In his view, it was impossible to express in another language what was originally intended to be expressed in a certain language. Just like many other literary scholars, he denied the translatability of language. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:13, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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===3.Translation ideas of famous writers of the 18-19th centuries. ===<br />
===3.1. Pushkin 's ideas on translation. ===<br />
Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin (Александр Сергеевич Пушкин, 1977-1837), a famous Russian poet and writer of the nineteenth century, was also very much a translator. Although he left behind few works on translation, his ideas on translation are worth studying. Pushkin's translations of poetry were associated with classicism in the early stages of his work and later with romanticism. Although these translations are far removed from the original in a literal sense, they are almost close to composition. Pushkin's significance as a translator, however, lies in 1) the reproduction of foreign originals in the standard Russian language he established in his translations and 2) the full expression of the realist artistic method in the heyday of his compositions: the focus on typical features and the technique of outlining the historical and individual characteristics that reflect the original.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's translations have their own characteristics and style. He did not translate all of his works word for word from the original, and in some places he deleted what he considered to be redundant sentences in order to avoid the verbosity of the original, occasionally replacing the translation with a general paraphrase. He advocates respect for the characteristics of foreign readers, while at the same time opposing word-for-word translations, which can lead to the trampling of the mother tongue. He therefore advocated translations which, on the one hand, required fidelity to the original in terms of meaning and, on the other, should preserve the original's distinctive features.<br />
As he says in his unfinished 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', commenting on Chateaubriand's translation: 'There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), has failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own conventional rhetorical devices, its own habitual expressions, and it is impossible to translate all this into another language using the corresponding vocabulary." Pushkin's rejection of word-for-word translation can be seen.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's influence on the cause of translation in Russia was immense, and this influence refers neither to his few translations nor to his theoretical views, but to the fact that Pushkin pioneered the translation of Russian literature. Although his ideas on translation cannot be called a theory, they do provide certain translation ideas for later generations of literary translators.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin (Александр Сергеевич Пушкин, 1977-1837), a famous Russian poet and writer of the nineteenth century, was also an outstanding translator. Besides he left behind few works on translation, his ideas on translation are worth studying. Pushkin's translations of poetry were associated with classicism in the early stages of his work and with romanticism later. Although these translations are far removed from the original in a literal sense, they are almost close to composition. Pushkin's significance as a translator, however, lies in the reproduction of foreign originalities in the standard Russian language he established in his translations and the full expression of the realist artistic method in the heyday of his compositions: the focus on typical features and the technique of outlining the historical and individual characteristics that reflect the original.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's translations have their own distinctive characteristics and style. He did not translate all of his works literally from the original context, but in some places he deleted what he considered to be redundant sentences in order to avoid the verbosity of the original, occasionally replacing the translation with a general paraphrase. He advocates to give enough respect for the characteristics of foreign readers, while at the same time opposing word-for-word translations, which may lead to the trampling of the mother tongue. Therefore, He advocated translations which, on the one hand, required fidelity to the original text in terms of meaning and, on the other hand, should preserve the original's distinctive features.<br />
<br />
As he says in his unfinished 'On Milton and Chateaubriand's translation of Paradise Lost', he comments on Chateaubriand's translation: 'There is no doubt that Chateaubriand, while striving to translate Milton word for word (слов в слова), has failed to achieve correctness of meaning and expression in his own translation. A word-for-word translation can never be correct. Each language has its own terminology, its own conventional rhetorical devices, its own habitual expressions, and it is impossible to translate all this into another language using the corresponding vocabulary." Pushkin's rejection of word-for-word translation can be revealed clearly.<br />
<br />
Pushkin's influence on the cause of translation in Russia was huge, and his influence refers neither to his few translations nor to his theoretical views, but to the fact that Pushkin pioneered the translation of Russian literature. Although his ideas on translation cannot be called a theory, they do provide certain unique and new translation ideas for later generations of literary translators. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:29, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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===3.1. Belinsky's ideas on translation. ===<br />
Vissarion Grigorievich Belinsky (Виссарион Григорьевич Белинский, 1811-1848) was a famous literary critic of the nineteenth century and one of the most involved in the world of translation among Russian literary activists of his time. Belinsky was fluent in French and as a young man translated for two magazines, Miscellany and Telescope. Later, after a career in literary criticism, he published numerous articles on translation and criticism of translated works.<br />
Belinsky's and Pushkin's views on translation were very similar, both advocating that translations should not be word-for-word. Belinsky first introduced the term 'theory' of translation, and in his 1838 review of Polevoy's translation of Hamlet, he first proposed the need for a theory of translation. He considered the role of theory: "Any object that man perceives has a theory of its own, and a theory is the knowledge of the laws by which the object exists."<br />
<br />
Belinsky argues that in translation: "Closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original. Each <br />
language has its own distinctive expressions, characteristics and qualities; these are so distinctive that to correctly convey a certain image or sentence, it is sometimes necessary to change them completely in the translation. The corresponding image, like the corresponding sentence, does not necessarily lie in a superficial agreement of words: the inner life of the translation should be made to correspond to the inner life of the original". It can be seen that Belinsky, like Pushkin, was also opposed to word-for-word rigid translations, his view being that the task of translating a language lies in reproducing the spirit of the original. He believed that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of a translation, so the question of the interrelationship between national character and translatability has always troubled Belinsky. He pointed out that 'there is only one rule for translating a literary work - to convey the spirit of the work being translated, and this can only be done by translating it into Russian as the author himself would have written it in Russian, if he had been Russian' (The Complete Works of Belinsky Volume 2).<br />
<br />
Belinsky's career as a translator was marked by a number of achievements, and his view of translation as a whole is a complete and rigorous system. His view of translation was developed gradually, and in the process it was dominated by an increasingly firm recognition of the possibility of a successful solution to the task of translation, that is, of translatability. Belinsky believed that a translation must be discerning in its content and form in relation to the original. He has pointed out that "approaching the original is not the same as conveying the letters, but rather the spirit of the original." It is also suggested that the translator and the original author are two different kinds of people. But in order to convey the 'spirit' of the original in the translation, the translator's genius needs to reach a certain tacit understanding with this 'spirit'. He advocates the preservation of exoticism in translation, opposes naturalisation, the arbitrary distortion of the face of the original work, the overwhelming of the original author with the personality of the translator's style, the emphasis on both likeness and likeness, etc. However, while recognising the importance of reproducing the poetic form of the original work in translation, Belinsky also took into account the state of development of Russian literature in translation. This also led him to look favourably on translating good poetry in prose, seeing such translations as a form of transition for Russian readers to the treasures of world literature.<br />
<br />
Although Belinsky wrote little about literary translation, his theoretical views contain the kernel of the realist principles of translation proposed by contemporary Soviet literary translators. His ideas on translation had a very profound influence on the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:42, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Vissarion Grigorievich Belinsky (Виссарион Григорьевич Белинский, 1811-1848) was a famous literary critic of the nineteenth century and one of the most active in the world of translation among Russian literary activists of his time. Belinsky was fluent in French and when he was a young man he translated for two magazines, Miscellany and Telescope. Later, after a career in literary criticism, he published numerous articles on translation and criticism of translated works.<br />
<br />
Belinsky's and Pushkin's views on translation were very similar, both advocating that translations should not be word-for-word. Belinsky first introduced the term 'theory' of translation, and in his 1838 review of Polevoy's translation of Hamlet, he first proposed the need for a theory of translation. He considered the role of theory: "Any object that man perceives has a theory of its own, and a theory is the knowledge of the laws by which the object exists."<br />
<br />
Belinsky argues that in translation: "Closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original. Each language has its own distinctive expressions, characteristics and qualities; these are so distinctive that to correctly convey a certain image or sentence, it is sometimes necessary to change them completely in the translation. The corresponding image, like the corresponding sentence, does not necessarily lie in a superficial agreement of words: the inner life of the translation should be made to correspond to the inner life of the original". It can be seen that Belinsky, like Pushkin, was also opposed to word-for-word rigid translations, his view being that the task of translating a language lies in reproducing the spirit of the original. He believed that the preservation of the national character of the original is the crux of the vitality of a translation, so the question of the interrelationship between national character and translatability has always troubled Belinsky. He pointed out that 'there is only one rule for translating a literary work - to convey the spirit of the work being translated, and this can only be done by translating it into Russian as the author himself would have written it in Russian, if he had been Russian' (The Complete Works of Belinsky Volume 2).<br />
<br />
Belinsky's career as a translator had a number of achievements, and his view of translation as a whole is a complete and rigorous system. His view of translation was developed gradually, and in this process it was dominated by an increasingly firm recognition of the possibility of a successful solution to the task of translation, that is, of translatability. Belinsky believed that a translation must be discerning in its content and form in relation to the original. He has pointed out that "approaching the original is not the same as conveying the letters, but rather the spirit of the original." It is also suggested that the translator and the original author are two different kinds of people. But in order to convey the 'spirit' of the original in the translation, the translator's genius needs to reach a certain tacit understanding with this 'spirit'. He advocates the preservation of exoticism in translation, opposes naturalisation, the arbitrary distortion of the face of the original work, the overwhelming of the original author with the personality of the translator's style, the emphasis on both likeness and likeness, etc. However, while recognising the importance of reproducing the poetic form of the original work in translation, Belinsky also took into account the state of development of Russian literature in translation. This also led him to look favourably on translating good poetry in prose, seeing such translations as a form of transition for Russian readers to the treasures of world literature.<br />
<br />
Although Belinsky wrote little about literary translation, his theoretical views contain the kernel of the realist principles of translation proposed by contemporary Soviet literary translators. His ideas on translation had a very profound influence on the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 13:56, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.Conclusion ===<br />
Translation has demonstrated its importance in social activity since antiquity, yet it was only in the twentieth century that it became a widely followed professional discipline. This article reviews Russian translation activity and translation thought in pre-Soviet Russia, exploring its development before the formation of a theoretical system. Throughout the history of translation, Russian scholars have contributed greatly to the development of translation literature in the world. Through combing through the history of Russian translation, we learn that the translation ideas of a number of outstanding writers, though not theoretical, have had an unmistakable impact on later generations. When discussing the translation ideas of 19th-century writers, we are inspired to insist on the principle that "closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original", emphasizing the ideological content and literary value of the translation, that the translation should serve the readers, and that the translation should be people-oriented. These ideas influenced, to a greater or lesser extent, the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, the study of the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia is not only conducive to sorting out Russian translation ideas Russian learners can better understand the characteristics of their translations when translating and improve the accuracy of their translations.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:44, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Translation has played its important role in the social activities since antiquity, yet it was until in the twentieth century that it became a widely followed professional discipline. This paper reviews Russian translators and translation thoughts in pre-Soviet Russia, exploring its development before the formation of a theoretical system. Throughout the history of translation, Russian scholars have contributed greatly to the development of translation literature in the world. By combing through the history of Russian translation, we learn that the translation ideas of a number of outstanding writers, though not very theoretical, have had an unmistakable impact on later generations. When discussing the translation ideas of 19th-century writers, we are inspired to insist on the principle that "closeness to the original is not a matter of conveying the literal meaning of the original, but of conveying the spirit of the original", emphasizing the ideological content and literary value of the translation that the translation should serve the readers, and that the translation should be people-oriented. These ideas influenced, to a greater or lesser extent, the formation of translation theory in the Soviet period. Therefore, the study of the history of translation in pre-Soviet Russia not only is conducive to sorting out Russian translation ideas, but also make Russian learners better understand the characteristics of their translations when translating and improving the accuracy of their translations. Corrected by--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 14:02, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.References ===<br />
1.Wu, Keli 吴克礼（2006）.俄苏翻译理论流派综述 The Translation Methods and Studies in USSR. 上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
2.Guo Lin 郭琳（2006）.俄罗斯语言学派翻译理论若干问题研究[D] A Study of Some Problems of Translation Theory of the Russian School of Philology.首都师范大学 Capital Normal University.<br />
<br />
3.Feng Xin 冯欣（2009）. 俄罗斯翻译理论史及其影响研究[D] A study of the history of Russian translation theory and its influence.上海外国语大学 Shanghai International Studies University.<br />
<br />
4.Wang，Yulun；Jiang,Wanzhu 王育伦,姜万砫（1989).别林斯基论文学翻译[J] Belinsky on Literary Translation .中国翻译 Chinese translators Journal ,(03):53-55.<br />
<br />
5.Li Zheng, Fan Min 李铮,范敏（2010）. 普希金与翻译[J] Pushkin and Translation. 现代交际 Modern Intercourse Journal,(05):69.</div>Zhang Yiranhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_4&diff=132374Hist Trans Theo EN 42021-12-13T15:22:14Z<p>Zhang Yiran: /* Period of Pre-Modern translation theory */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''History of Translation Theories'''<br />
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[[History_of_Translation_Theories|Overview Page of History of Translation Theories]]<br />
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[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_1]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_2]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_3]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_4]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_5]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_6]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_7]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_8]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_9]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_10]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_11]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_12]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_13]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_14]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_15]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_16]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_17]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_18]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_19]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_20]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_21]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_22]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_23]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_24]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_25]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_26]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_27]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_28]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_29]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_30]] ...<br />
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[[Book_projects|Back to translation project overview]] [[DCG-To-Do|Zur To-Do-Liste]]<br />
=Chapter 4 An Overview of the Development of Western Translation Theories =<br />
===西方翻译理论发展概述===<br />
'''Zeng Junlin，曾俊霖, Hunan Normal University, China'''<br />
<br />
=== Abstract ===<br />
<br />
Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and modern translation theory period. The main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who represent the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. Translation theory in the period of ancient translation theory, accompanied by the Renaissance and religious reform, is characterized by literary translation and religious translation. The most important cultural phenomenon affecting translation theory in the pre-modern period is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. It can be said that contemporary western translation theory has entered a period of comprehensive development of social sciences such as linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, language philosophy, logic and aesthetics, as well as translation theories such as information theory and computer science. Western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. The basis of western translation theory is relatively broad, and the scope of translation theory is relatively wide, but it always focuses on linguistics.<br />
<br />
Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and contemporary translation theory period. The main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who represent the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. Translation theory in the period of ancient translation theory, accompanied by the Renaissance and religious reform, is characterized by literary translation and religious translation. The most important cultural phenomenon affecting translation theory in the pre-modern period is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. It can be said that contemporary western translation theory has entered a period of comprehensive development of social sciences such as linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, language philosophy, logic and aesthetics, as well as translation theories such as information theory and computer science. Western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. The basis of western translation theory is relatively broad, and the scope of translation theory is relatively wide, but it always focuses on linguistics.Corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:32, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Key Words ===<br />
<br />
Western translation theory，classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period，modern translation theory period<br />
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=== 摘要 ===<br />
<br />
西方译论可以大致分为古典译论期、古代译论期、近代译论期、现代译论期等四个时期。古典译论期的主要译论家是西塞罗、霍拉斯和杰罗姆，他们代表了西方译论长达2000年发展史的源头。古代译论期的译论伴随文艺复兴和宗教改革，以文艺翻译和宗教翻译为特征。前现代期在文化上影响译论的最重要的现象是启蒙中古代语文学和诠释学派的发展。当代西方译论可以说进入了一个综合利用语言学各学科、后现代文论、符号学、修辞学、语言哲学、逻辑学、美学等社会科学以及信息理论、计算机科学等翻译理论综合开发期。西方翻译发轫于古罗马对希腊文明的渴求，即所谓爱琴海文明的西进。西方译论的立论依据比较广，译论范围也比较宽，但始终围绕语言学展开。<br />
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===关键词 ===<br />
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西方译论，古典译论期，古代译论期，近代译论期，现代译论期<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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From the overall historical development process, Chinese and western translation theories have an indissoluble bond with aesthetics from the beginning.<br />
<br />
However, the development of translation theory in the west is different from that in China. Western translation theory and Chinese translation theory are in very different historical and social conditions, in very different national cultural soil and social ecological environment. They have very different philosophical and aesthetic origins, and provide them with theoretical ideas as the driving force of evolution and development. Therefore, western translation theory and Chinese translation theory must move forward along their respective development tracks. No matter from the diachronic vertical or synchronic section, the dependence between western translation theory and philosophy aesthetics is far less than that of Chinese traditional translation theory.<br />
<br />
We can first analyze it from the historical development. Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and modern translation theory period.<br />
<br />
George Steiner divides Western translation theory into the following four periods in his famous book After Babel: The first period is from Cicero and Horace to Taitler, and the later book Essay on the Principles of Translation is published ( 1791) as a symbol; the second period is from the end of the 19th century to the 1940s, with Valery as a representative; the third period is marked by the advent and development of machine translation technology and theory in the 1940s; the fourth period Generally parallel to the third period, it is marked by hermeneutic and metaphysical inquiries (hermeneutic and metaphysical inquiries). Steiner's periodization has been criticized by Western translation theory circles.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
From the overall historical development process, Chinese and western translation theories have an indissoluble bond with aesthetics from the beginning.<br />
<br />
However, the development of translation theory in the west is different from that in China. Western translation theory and Chinese translation theory are in very different historical and social conditions, in very different national cultural background and social ecological environment. They have very different philosophical and aesthetic origins, and provide them with theoretical ideas as the driving force of evolution and development. Therefore, western translation theory and Chinese translation theory must move forward along their respective development tracks. No matter from the diachronic vertical or synchronic section, the dependence between western translation theory and philosophy aesthetics is far less than that of Chinese traditional translation theory.<br />
<br />
We can first analyze it from the historical development. Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and contemporary translation theory period.<br />
<br />
George Steiner divides Western translation theory into the following four periods in his famous book After Babel: The first period is from Cicero and Horace to Taitler, and the later book Essay on the Principles of Translation is published ( 1791) as a symbol; the second period is from the end of the 19th century to the 1940s, with Valery as a representative; the third period is marked by the advent and development of machine translation technology and theory in the 1940s; the fourth period Generally parallel to the third period, it is marked by hermeneutic and metaphysical inquiries (hermeneutic and metaphysical inquiries). Steiner's periodization has been criticized by Western translation theory circles.Corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:38, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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=== Period of classical translation theory ===<br />
<br />
This is the initial period of western translation theory. According to the textual research of Rosetta Stone (discovered in 1799) by Western Egyptologists, western translation activities may have started in 2000 BC. Due to the long history and lack of historical evidence, it is impossible to test whether there were translation theories in 1900 before Cicero. There are four main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory. The first three are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who is the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. The western translation theory in the classical period is mainly based on the ancient Greek philosophers, especially the rhetoric and poetics written by Aristotle. These are two classic works that have a deep impact on Western literary aesthetics. Rhetoric expounds oratory by using the methodology of ancient psychology. Its main purpose is to emphasize the power of language infection and the means to achieve the effect of language infection - language style, and points out that only a beautiful article style can have the power of sensing and imparting. Therefore, speakers must abide by the principle that the use of language should strive to be clear and appropriate, and should not be artificial, so as not to damage the momentum of language due to affectation, and the conditions to ensure the momentum of language are accurate and relevant. In addition, Aristotle believes that the momentum of the article is also closely related to the form of writing. Speakers should adopt prose form. They should neither rhyme, nor ignore the rhythm, nor ignore the vividness of the words. No matter what style is adopted, or slow or high, the writing is naturally the first important meaning. Aristotle is the first classical aesthetic master in the west to affirm "the perceptual reality of beauty".<br />
<br />
Under the influence of ancient Greek philosophers such as Thales, Plato and Aristotle, Cicero put forward the naturalism and momentum theory of translation, opposed the translation of "word for word" and advocated the translation of "sense for sense". This argument has a profound impact on western translation studies. In philosophy, Cicero was influenced by Plato to maintain "reason", but in translation theory, he opposed to damaging the natural beauty and momentum beauty of the translation with "rigid application of reason".Horace agrees with Cicero's proposition, opposes the standard of "rigid notes of" fidelity "as the translation, opposes the translator becoming a slave translator who only follows the mandate of the original text, and advocates the use of" aesthetic criteria "in translation. It can be seen that what is valuable is the methodological dialectical view of Xi and Huo. Jerome was the first translator to translate the Hebrew Bible into Latin, the translator of the Vulgate, and the successor of Cicero's translation style. Jerome advocates the natural theory of translation and maintains Cicero's legacy. He believes that the translator has the right to break through the formal constraints of the original syntax, but must abide by the correspondence of words at the morpheme level and be faithful to the original text. Therefore, Jerome was a popular translation theorist in the 5th century. Augustine, the fourth representative figure in the classical period, plays a connecting role, that is, from Cicero, Horace and Jerome to Thomas Aquinas (c1225 – 1274ad), the most important scholastic philosopher in the middle ages. As a classical ancient translation theorist, Augustine's first achievement is to inherit and develop Aristotle's semiotic theory. When discussing "symbols", Aristotle aims to develop its rhetorical function. For "free word order languages" such as Latin, the beauty of symbolic form obviously has rhetorical visual value. Augustine expanded Aristotle's symbolic formal framework from the signifier function of the symbol to the signified layer, and pointed out that the "signifier", the human psychological structure, is derived from human's "perception of reality", and the "signifier" is a "sound set" associated with it (the group of vocal sounds); as far as words are concerned, it only represents the sign of the reference, which is arbitrary. It can be seen that Austen's views on symbols pointed out the direction for the modern semiotic theory in the early 20th century. Unfortunately, Austen's research was not valued by the translation theorists until the second half of the middle ages. Augustine's second achievement is that he put forward aesthetic propositions such as "beauty is suitability", "order", "harmony" and "unity". Based on his aesthetics, he advocates the advantages of translation. He pays more attention to the problem of form than Jerome. At the same time, he is persistent in the correspondence of semantics at the level of semantic morpheme or sememe. Augustine is a transitional figure entering the Middle Ages in the history of European aesthetics, as well as in translation theory. （Susan Bassnett-Mcquire,1980,43–44）<br />
<br />
The period of classical translation theory is a very important period in the history of western translation studies. At that time, the focus of translation circles was to introduce the culture of ancient Greece, which is called "Hellenization" in history. Classical "Greek culture" is as bright as stars, which makes translators and translation theorists energetic and aspire to it. This is different from Chinese classical translation theory (Buddhist Scripture Translation in China). The introduction of Greek culture by the ancient Romans has nothing to do with religion, but involves epic, lyric poetry, philosophy aesthetics, architecture, rhetoric, literature and art (Poetics), drama, history, war history and so on. Its similarity with Chinese classical translation theory is that they all turn to aesthetic ideas and principles. As far as aesthetic ontology is concerned, Western classical aesthetics involves a wide range of categories, and there are a large number of talents. Thales is the first Western philosopher to replace mythological thinking (ignorant thinking) with rational thinking. He advocates the theory that "the most beautiful is the universe" and advocates nature. Pythagoras (c580 – c500bc) is regarded as the discoverer of the golden section and advocates the "beauty of harmony". Herakleitus (c540 – 470bc) put forward the subjective aesthetic view of "looking for oneself", holding that "harmony comes from opposition", which is the germination of Classical Dialectics. Hester also raised the issue of the relativity of beauty, advocated rationality, and advocated thinking, understanding and the control of the mind. Demokritus (C460 – 370bc) is the first natural science philosopher in the West and the first aesthetician to demonstrate sensory experience and image. These four people are the so-called "pre Socrates" in ancient Greece. Together with Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, they form the origin of western academic thought. Of course, it is natural that the sprouting of translation studies is attached to the theory of sages.<br />
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<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
This is the origin period of western translation theory. According to the textual research of Rosetta Stone (discovered in 1799) by Western Egyptologists, western translation activities may have started in 2000 BC. Due to the long history and lack of historical evidence, it is impossible to test whether there were translation theories in 1900 before Cicero. There are four main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory. The first three are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who is the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. The western translation theory in the classical period is mainly based on the ancient Greek philosophers, especially the rhetoric and poetics written by Aristotle. These are two classic works that have a deep impact on Western literary aesthetics. Rhetoric expounds oratory by using the methodology of ancient psychology. Its main purpose is to emphasize the power of language infection and the means to achieve the effect of language infection - language style, and points out that only a beautiful article style can have the power of sensing and imparting. Therefore, speakers must abide by the principle that the use of language should strive to be clear and appropriate, and should not be artificial, so as not to damage the momentum of language due to affectation, and the conditions to ensure the momentum of language are accurate and relevant. In addition, Aristotle believes that the momentum of the article is also closely related to the form of writing. Speakers should adopt prose form. They should neither rhyme, nor ignore the rhythm, nor ignore the vividness of the words. No matter what style is adopted, or slow or high, the writing is naturally the first important meaning. Aristotle is the first classical aesthetic master in the west to affirm "the perceptual reality of beauty".<br />
<br />
Under the influence of ancient Greek philosophers such as Thales, Plato and Aristotle, Cicero put forward the naturalism and momentum theory of translation, opposed the translation of "word for word" and advocated the translation of "sense for sense". This argument has a profound impact on western translation studies. In philosophy, Cicero was influenced by Plato to maintain "reason", but in translation theory, he opposed to damaging the natural beauty and momentum beauty of the translation with "rigid application of reason".Horace agrees with Cicero's proposition, opposes the standard of "rigid notes of" fidelity "as the translation, opposes the translator becoming a slave translator who only follows the mandate of the original text, and advocates the use of" aesthetic criteria "in translation. It can be seen that what is valuable is the methodological dialectical view of Xi and Huo. Jerome was the first translator to translate the Hebrew Bible into Latin, the translator of the Vulgate, and the successor of Cicero's translation style. Jerome advocates the natural theory of translation and maintains Cicero's legacy. He believes that the translator has the right to break through the formal constraints of the original syntax, but must abide by the correspondence of words at the morpheme level and be faithful to the original text. Therefore, Jerome was a popular translation theorist in the 5th century. Augustine, the fourth representative figure in the classical period, plays a connecting role, that is, from Cicero, Horace and Jerome to Thomas Aquinas (c1225 – 1274ad), the most important scholastic philosopher in the middle ages. As a classical ancient translation theorist, Augustine's first achievement is to inherit and develop Aristotle's semiotic theory. When discussing "symbols", Aristotle aims to develop its rhetorical function. For "free word order languages" such as Latin, the beauty of symbolic form obviously has rhetorical visual value. Augustine expanded Aristotle's symbolic formal framework from the signifier function of the symbol to the signified layer, and pointed out that the "signifier", the human psychological structure, is derived from human's "perception of reality", and the "signifier" is a "sound set" associated with it (the group of vocal sounds); as far as words are concerned, it only represents the sign of the reference, which is arbitrary. It can be seen that Austen's views on symbols pointed out the direction for the modern semiotic theory in the early 20th century. Unfortunately, Austen's research was not valued by the translation theorists until the second half of the middle ages. Augustine's second achievement is that he put forward aesthetic propositions such as "beauty is suitability", "order", "harmony" and "unity". Based on his aesthetics, he advocates the advantages of translation. He pays more attention to the problem of form than Jerome. At the same time, he is persistent in the correspondence of semantics at the level of semantic morpheme or sememe. Augustine is a transitional figure entering the Middle Ages in the history of European aesthetics, as well as in translation theory. （Susan Bassnett-Mcquire,1980,43–44）<br />
<br />
The period of classical translation theory is a very important period in the history of western translation studies. At that time, the focus of translation circles was to introduce the culture of ancient Greece, which is called "Hellenization" in history. Classical "Greek culture" is as bright as stars, which makes translators and translation theorists energetic and aspire to it. This is different from Chinese classical translation theory (Buddhist Scripture Translation in China). The introduction of Greek culture by the ancient Romans has nothing to do with religion, but involves epic, lyric poetry, philosophy aesthetics, architecture, rhetoric, literature and art (Poetics), drama, history, war history and so on. Its similarity with Chinese classical translation theory is that they all turn to aesthetic ideas and principles. As far as aesthetic ontology is concerned, Western classical aesthetics involves a wide range of categories, and there are a large number of talents. Thales is the first Western philosopher to replace mythological thinking (ignorant thinking) with rational thinking. He advocates the theory that "the most beautiful is the universe" and advocates nature. Pythagoras (c580 – c500bc) is regarded as the discoverer of the golden section and advocates the "beauty of harmony". Herakleitus (c540 – 470bc) put forward the subjective aesthetic view of "looking for oneself", holding that "harmony comes from opposition", which is the germination of Classical Dialectics. Hester also raised the issue of the relativity of beauty, advocated rationality, and advocated thinking, understanding and the control of the mind. Demokritus (C460 – 370bc) is the first natural science philosopher in the West and the first aesthetician to demonstrate sensory experience and image. These four people are the so-called "pre Socrates" in ancient Greece. Together with Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, they form the origin of western academic thought. Of course, it is natural that the sprouting of translation studies is attached to the theory of sages.Correted by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:54, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Period of ancient translation theory ===<br />
<br />
The second period of western translation theory, the ancient period, lasted a long time, from the "post Augustine" period at the end of the 5th century to the eve of the European industrial revolution, that is, the late 18th century, covering the whole Middle Ages and about 300 years later (500-1795). Translation theory in this period was accompanied by two great historical achievements: the Renaissance and the religious reform. Therefore, the translation theory in this period is characterized by cultural literary translation and religious (Scripture) translation.<br />
The prelude to the European Renaissance (which began in the 14th century, peaked in the 15th and 16th centuries and ended in the mid-17th century) is the flourishing of Christian civilization, marked by the so-called "edict of Milan" issued by Constantine I (C280 – 337ad). The imperial edict authorized Christianity to obtain legal status in the Roman Empire. Since then, Christianity has become more and more popular through the influence of the Holy See. The Scriptures have been proofread and translated by Jerome and Augustine. Christian civilization has flourished all over Europe in the early Middle Ages.<br />
<br />
At the same time, European social economy also appeared commercialization and handicrafts under the framework of medieval Christian civilization, leading to the emergence of city-state politics and urban landscape, which was the initial light of the Renaissance. By the 13th century, there were many European literary and artistic masters, including Dante (1265 – 1321, the author of Divine Comedy), Boccaccio (1313 – 1375, the author of Decameron), Leonardo da Vinci (1452 – 1519) and raffaelo Sanzio rapheal (1483 – 1520), who awakened European national consciousness and the so-called "all talent ideal"（ The worship and pursuit of "the well-sound personality" had a profound impact. What went hand in hand with the prosperity of literature and art and the development of city-state politics was the popularity of social and political theories and new social trends of thought at that time. Europeans scrambled to study the famous works discoveries on Livy (1531) by Nicolo Machiavelli (1569 – 1527). Someone described the grand translation of the time and said: "The entire city of Rome became a translation factory, specializing in the production of translations from Greek to Latin". In fact, the grand translation at the time was far more than just in Rome, and not only between Greek and Latin. Florence is not inferior to Rome. From the 14th to the 16th century, the city of Buddhism was the center of Italian literature and art. The grand translation of Europe at the time was very much in line with Bruno's (Giordano Bruno, c1548–1600) prediction. He said: "All science can only bear fruit with the help of translation." (Steiner,1975, 259)<br />
<br />
All this made The "translation industry" has developed unprecedentedly. Translation practice has promoted translation research. At this time, there are different translation theories, and the scope of discussion has gone beyond the vision of classical translation theorists, with a strong color of verification. One of the best, which can be said to be the first Western philosopher to comprehensively attack translation, is Roger Bacon (C1214 – 1292) Bacon was a pioneer in the field of Natural Science in the 13th century. He condemned the translation between Greek, Hebrew and Latin as full of semantic distortion "with the philosophical insight of natural scientists", which reduced the translation to a "hodgepodge of errors and misunderstandings". (L. G. Kelly,1979, 9)<br />
<br />
It was driven by Bacon's call to put things right that the Bible appeared John Wycliffe (c1330 – 1384), a religious reformer, translated the first English translation of the Bible of Wycliffe. His influential translation of the Bible of Wycliffe reflects the spirit of verification of Bacon's later progressive translation theory, which was invaluable in the ignorant middle ages. Wycliffe believed that Christ was the master of mankind and opposed the church's "orthodox doctrine" (the orthodox church doctrine) arbitrarily interpreted the meaning of the Bible, denounced the "papal infallibility", refused to accept the Vatican's arbitrary interpretation of the Scriptures and adhered to the semantics of the original language, thus posing strong doubts and challenges to the translation. In fact, this is a religious reform movement advocated by Martin Luther on the European continent (the reform, C1520 – c1525) has a far-reaching impact on the history of translation in Britain and even Europe. Social criticism and scholars' verification have greatly improved the level of translation. Following Roger Bacon, many people in Europe have successively raised challenges to translation, pointing out that there were three major criticisms of translation at that time: one was to know what it said but not what it meant; the other was to know what it meant but not what it meant. ; The third is that they are both ignorant and ignorant. Although this attack is mainly aimed at the translation of the Bible, it is actually very common. This period is a productive period in the history of European translation.(L. G. Kelly,1979, 10)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The second period of western translation theory - the ancient period, lasted a long time, from the "post Augustine" period at the end of the 5th century to the eve of the European industrial revolution, that is, the late 18th century, covering the whole Middle Ages and about 300 years later (500-1795). Translation theory in this period was accompanied by two great historical achievements: the Renaissance and the religious reform. Therefore, the translation theory in this period is characterized by cultural literary translation and religious (Scripture) translation.<br />
The prelude to the European Renaissance (which began in the 14th century, peaked in the 15th and 16th centuries and ended in the mid-17th century) is the flourishing of Christian civilization, marked by the so-called "edict of Milan" issued by Constantine I (C280 – 337ad). The imperial edict authorized Christianity to obtain legal status in the Roman Empire. Since then, Christianity has become more and more popular through the influence of the Holy See. The Scriptures have been proofread and translated by Jerome and Augustine. Christian civilization has flourished all over Europe in the early Middle Ages.<br />
<br />
At the same time, European social economy also appeared commercialization and handicrafts under the framework of medieval Christian civilization, leading to the emergence of city-state politics and urban landscape, which was the initial light of the Renaissance. By the 13th century, there were many European literary and artistic masters, including Dante (1265 – 1321, the author of Divine Comedy), Boccaccio (1313 – 1375, the author of Decameron), Leonardo da Vinci (1452 – 1519) and raffaelo Sanzio rapheal (1483 – 1520), who awakened European national consciousness and the so-called "all talent ideal"（ The worship and pursuit of "the well-sound personality" had a profound impact. What went hand in hand with the prosperity of literature and art and the development of city-state politics was the popularity of social and political theories and new social trends of thought at that time. Europeans scrambled to study the famous works discoveries on Livy (1531) by Nicolo Machiavelli (1569 – 1527). Someone described the grand translation of the time and said: "The entire city of Rome became a translation factory, specializing in the production of translations from Greek to Latin". In fact, the grand translation at the time was far more than just in Rome, and not only between Greek and Latin. Florence is not inferior to Rome. From the 14th to the 16th century, the city of Buddhism was the center of Italian literature and art. The grand translation of Europe at the time was very much in line with Bruno's (Giordano Bruno, c1548–1600) prediction. He said: "All science can only bear fruit with the help of translation." (Steiner,1975, 259)<br />
<br />
All this made The "translation industry" has developed unprecedentedly. Translation practice has promoted translation research. At this time, there are different translation theories, and the scope of discussion has gone beyond the vision of classical translation theorists, with a strong color of verification. One of the best, which can be said to be the first Western philosopher to comprehensively attack translation, is Roger Bacon (C1214 – 1292) Bacon was a pioneer in the field of Natural Science in the 13th century. He condemned the translation between Greek, Hebrew and Latin as full of semantic distortion "with the philosophical insight of natural scientists", which reduced the translation to a "hodgepodge of errors and misunderstandings". (L. G. Kelly,1979, 9)<br />
<br />
It was driven by Bacon's call to put things right that the Bible appeared John Wycliffe (c1330 – 1384), a religious reformer, translated the first English translation of the Bible of Wycliffe. His influential translation of the Bible of Wycliffe reflects the spirit of verification of Bacon's later progressive translation theory, which was invaluable in the ignorant middle ages. Wycliffe believed that Christ was the master of mankind and opposed the church's "orthodox doctrine" (the orthodox church doctrine) arbitrarily interpreted the meaning of the Bible, denounced the "papal infallibility", refused to accept the Vatican's arbitrary interpretation of the Scriptures and adhered to the semantics of the original language, thus posing strong doubts and challenges to the translation. In fact, this is a religious reform movement advocated by Martin Luther on the European continent (the reform, C1520 – c1525) has a far-reaching impact on the history of translation in Britain and even Europe. Social criticism and scholars' verification have greatly improved the level of translation. Following Roger Bacon, many people in Europe have successively raised challenges to translation, pointing out that there were three major criticisms of translation at that time: one was to know what it said but not what it meant; the other was to know what it meant but not what it meant. ; The third is that they are both ignorant and ignorant. Although this attack is mainly aimed at the translation of the Bible, it is actually very common. This period is a productive period in the history of European translation.(L. G. Kelly,1979, 10)Corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:59, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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=== Period of Pre-Modern translation theory ===<br />
This is the third period of western translation theory, or "pre modern period", that is, from the religious reform (1517-1648) of wilcliff and Martin Luther in the mid-17th century to the end of the 19th century, the argument began to gradually turn to classical philology and language philosophy. The major historical events during this period were the European Industrial Revolution (1750's – 1830's) and the French Revolution (1788-1799), as well as the germination and evolution of European middle-class economy and its ideology before and after this period. The most important phenomenon affecting translation theory in culture is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. After the Renaissance, the focus of European language research was still Latin and Greek, which had been in a secondary position. The social and economic development since the enlightenment and the industrial revolution obviously put forward many problems for multilingual communication. The first ones are etymology, semantics and historical comparative linguistics. In fact, historical comparative linguistics is the result of the development and exploration of the first two. Ancient Chinese literature originated in Italy in the 15th century, and its development was also promoted by many factors such as the Renaissance, the spread of Christianity, and the expansion of colonialism that stimulated language contact. The heyday representatives of historical comparative linguistics are the Danish linguist Rask (R. C. Rask, 1787–1832) and the German linguist Bopp (F. Bopp, 1791–1867). Especially after wilcliff and Martin Luther, translators increasingly doubt the interpretation of language by the Holy See, the church and scholastic philosophy in the long middle ages, and doubt the "Deviation", misunderstanding and even intentional distortion of "translation" to the "signified". Rousseau's democratic thought had a strong and profound impact on European conservatism.(V. Thomsen,1960,43）<br />
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Understanding this historical background, we can clearly understand why when Taylor put forward the famous "three principles of translation" at the end of the 18th century (1791), he first pointed out that "translation should completely convey the idea of the original text, supplemented by the natural fluency of the expression and style of the translation". Almost at the same time, tattler and George Campbell, who proposed that "the beauty of the translation can be discussed only if we are loyal to the original meaning", marked the end of the era when the western traditional translation theory mainly relied on classical aesthetics and literature and art. On the other hand, although the Chinese School represented by Goethe is fully mature, it can not solve many major problems raised by the spread of Christian civilization and the unprecedented development of translation practice in breadth and depth since the Renaissance and the industrial revolution. Among these problems, the first and most important is the problem of meaning, that is, the so-called "transfer of the truth value of meaning" in translation. Johann W. von Goethe (Johann W. von Goethe) is known as "the last embodiment of the Renaissance ideal", and his basic translation theory advocates "the perfect identity between the SL and the TL" . To this end, the translator must have ingenuity and creativity, and adopt a unique way of expression. This is the best translation, and the next thing is imitation and prose.<br />
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Exploring "semantic truth" is the basic proposition of the hermeneutic school. The representative of the hermeneutic school in modern translation theory is Friedrich D. E. Schleiermacher (1768 – 1845). Ancient hermeneutics believed that the task of interpretation was to interpret the "oracle", which originated in ancient Greece and was derived from the name of "Hermes", the messenger who conveyed the gods. Before Schleiermacher, hermeneutics was full of religious mysticism in the middle ages, which believed that people's "understanding" or "not understanding" of text (at that time mainly refers to holy scripts, i.e. the Bible) was "all based on divine will", and both of them were "theological subjective phenomena". Schleiermacher's merit lies in pointing out that the so-called "incomprehension" is actually a "misinterpretation", and "the true meaning of the text lies entirely in what it 'seems' to say. If we want to rediscover the true meaning of the text, we must carefully reconstruct the life reality generated by the historical background or meaning at that time."  Schleiermacher also further put forward the means to obtain the true meaning ("original meaning", i.e. philosophical "Sein"), that is, the so-called "theory of hermeneutic circle" and more than 40 norms of "grammatical interpretation" and "psychological interpretation" . There is no doubt about the significance of this to the development of European translation practice. It was driven by the school of hermeneutics that Friedrich Schlegel (1772 – 1879), Samuel T. Coleridge (1772 – 1834), William Morries (1834 – 1896), Thomas Carlyle (1795 – 1881), Matthew Arnold and Dante D. Rossetti (1828 – 1882) were formed European Romanticism (mainly in Germany) and the corresponding wave of critical realism (mainly in Britain) as a response to the French Revolution. During this period, the mainstream of the translation theory forum was the Chinese school with literary masters as the backbone and the hermeneutic school that later kept pace with it. There is no doubt that this is one of the important development periods in the history of European translation.(H. G. Gadamer,1977, xiii)<br />
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This is the third period of western translation theory, or "pre modern period", that is, from the religious reform (1517-1648) of wilcliff and Martin Luther in the mid-17th century to the end of the 19th century, the argument began to gradually turn to classical philology and language philosophy. The major historical events during this period were the European Industrial Revolution (1750's – 1830's) and the French Revolution (1788-1799), as well as the germination and evolution of European middle-class economy and its ideology before and after this period. The most important phenomenon affecting translation theory in culture is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. After the Renaissance, the focus of European language research was still Latin and Greek, which had been in a secondary position. The social and economic development since the enlightenment and the industrial revolution obviously put forward many problems for multilingual communication. The first ones are etymology, semantics and historical comparative linguistics. In fact, historical comparative linguistics is the result of the development and exploration of the first two. Ancient Chinese literature originated in Italy in the 15th century, and its development was also promoted by many factors such as the Renaissance, the spread of Christianity, and the expansion of colonialism that stimulated language contact. The heyday representatives of historical comparative linguistics are the Danish linguist Rask (R. C. Rask, 1787–1832) and the German linguist Bopp (F. Bopp, 1791–1867). Especially after wilcliff and Martin Luther, translators increasingly doubt the interpretation of language by the Holy See, the church and scholastic philosophy in the long middle ages, and doubt the "Deviation", misunderstanding and even intentional distortion of "translation" to the "signified". Rousseau's democratic thought had a strong and profound impact on European conservatism.(V. Thomsen,1960,43）<br />
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Understanding this historical background, we can clearly understand why when Taylor put forward the famous "three principles of translation" at the end of the 18th century (1791), he first pointed out that "translation should completely convey the idea of the original text, supplemented by the natural fluency of the expression and style of the translation". Almost at the same time, tattler and George Campbell, who proposed that "the beauty of the translation can be discussed only if we are loyal to the original meaning", marked the end of the era when the western traditional translation theory mainly relied on classical aesthetics and literature and art. On the other hand, although the Chinese School represented by Goethe is fully mature, it can not solve many major problems raised by the spread of Christian civilization and the unprecedented development of translation practice in breadth and depth since the Renaissance and the industrial revolution. Among these problems, the first and most important is the problem of meaning, that is, the so-called "transfer of the truth value of meaning" in translation. Johann W. von Goethe (Johann W. von Goethe) is known as "the last embodiment of the Renaissance ideal", and his basic translation theory advocates "the perfect identity between the SL and the TL" . To this end, the translator must have ingenuity and creativity, and adopt a unique way of expression. This is the best translation, and the next thing is imitation and prose.<br />
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Exploring "semantic truth" is the basic proposition of the hermeneutic school. The representative of the hermeneutic school in modern translation theory is Friedrich D. E. Schleiermacher (1768 – 1845). Ancient hermeneutics believed that the task of interpretation was to interpret the "oracle", which originated in ancient Greece and was derived from the name of "Hermes", the messenger who conveyed the gods. Before Schleiermacher, hermeneutics was full of religious mysticism in the middle ages, which believed that people's "understanding" or "not understanding" of text (at that time mainly refers to holy scripts, i.e. the Bible) was "all based on divine will", and both of them were "theological subjective phenomena". Schleiermacher's merit lies in pointing out that the so-called "incomprehension" is actually a "misinterpretation", and "the true meaning of the text lies entirely in what it 'seems' to say. If we want to rediscover the true meaning of the text, we must carefully reconstruct the life reality generated by the historical background or meaning at that time."  Schleiermacher also further put forward the means to obtain the true meaning ("original meaning", i.e. philosophical "Sein"), that is, the so-called "theory of hermeneutic circle" and more than 40 norms of "grammatical interpretation" and "psychological interpretation" . There is no doubt about the significance of this to the development of European translation practice. It was driven by the school of hermeneutics that Friedrich Schlegel (1772 – 1879), Samuel T. Coleridge (1772 – 1834), William Morries (1834 – 1896), Thomas Carlyle (1795 – 1881), Matthew Arnold and Dante D. Rossetti (1828 – 1882) were formed European Romanticism (mainly in Germany) and the corresponding wave of critical realism (mainly in Britain) as a response to the French Revolution. During this period, the mainstream of the translation theory forum was the Chinese school with literary masters as the backbone and the hermeneutic school that later kept pace with it. There is no doubt that this is one of the important development periods in the history of European translation.(H. G. Gadamer,1977, xiii)--Corrected by[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 15:03, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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=== Period of Modern translation theory ===<br />
<br />
The fourth period is The Modern Period. This period can actually be divided into two stages. The first stage is from the end of the 19th century to the 1950s. It can also be called the "Pre-Modern Linguistic Period". Parallel to it is The Pre-Modern Linguistic Period. The Swiss linguist Saussure The study of modern linguistics was the starting point (1891), which marked the publication of the first scientific linguistics book "Cours de Linguistique Generale" (Cours de Linguistique Generale, 1916). Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913) is the founder of modern linguistics and a pioneer of structural linguistics. His main contribution is to point out the arbitrariness of linguistic signs and the linearity of the signifier; language has internal and external distinctions, diachronic and synchronic distinctions. The value of language signs is constantly evolving, so a descriptive attitude should be taken to language instead of It is prescribed. Saussure's scientific linguistics has a profound influence on western modern linguistics and translation theories.<br />
<br />
The second stage started from the 1960s to the present, which can also be said to be the period of contemporary translation theory. During this period, modern science and technology developed rapidly. Natural sciences and social sciences were directly or indirectly driven by The Systems Theory, Control Theory or Cybernetics, and Information Theory. Advance. Modern linguistics has developed from structuralism as the mainstream to a situation where there are many new disciplines and schools. Among them, the French functional linguistics, the London school, the transformational generative grammar, sociolinguistics, and modern stylistics ( Functional stylistics), pragmatics, psycholinguistics and other emerging disciplines and schools of applied linguistics.<br />
<br />
In the period of modern translation theory, the development of language science is very closely related to Western translation theory. Roman Jacobson (Roman Jacobson, 1896–1982), a translation theorist at the early stage of modern translation theory, is one of the founders of the Prague School and a well-known phonetician. Obviously, Jacobson's discourse on translated poems is based on phoneme analysis. Jacobson believes that poetry is "untranslatable" strictly speaking, because poetry is subject to the constraints of the arrangement relationship between phonemes and sememes, that is, units of meaning. To get rid of this constraint, translation The family can only resort to "transplantation" and it is "no less than creative transplantation of different language symbols (phonetic arrangements) created". Two prominent translation theorists in the 1950s, Jean Paul Vinay and Jean Darbenet, mainly relied on scientific linguistics to discuss translation rhetoric from the perspectives of functional stylistics and contrastive linguistics. After entering the 1960s, JC Catford clearly quoted the founder of the London School Firth (JR Firth, 1890–1960) and Firth's successor MAK Halliday's basic linguistic theories to solve the bilingual conversion. problem. E. Nida and G. Mounin mainly analyze the translation process from the perspective of structural linguistics. Among them, Nida's research results are the most eye-catching. During the 1970s and 1980s, Nida began to notice the weakness of linguistics that emphasized formal transformation and insufficient semantic research. Around the issue of "meaning" and cultural issues, many more books came out, and proposed "dynamic equivalence" (dynamic equivalence). , 1984), emphasizing the meaning view of social semiotics. In the second half of the 20th century, Western postmodern thoughts spread throughout Europe and the United States. Deconstructionism, in particular, has the deepest influence on cultural thoughts and academic thoughts. Western translation theories have also turned to "postmodernism" (especially comparative literary theory) to absorb theoretical ideas, and the great limitations of "postmodernism" have also emerged. Contemporary Western translation theory can be said to have entered a comprehensive use of various disciplines of linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, philosophy of language (including semantics), logic, aesthetics and other social sciences, as well as information theory, computer science, etc. The "comprehensive development period of translation theories" is a period of full bloom to solve translation problems. It seems that this is also the general trend of Western translation theory in the 21st century.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The fourth period is The contemporary Period. This period can actually be divided into two stages. The first stage is from the end of the 19th century to the 1950s. It can also be called the "Pre-Modern Linguistic Period". Parallel to it is The Pre-Modern Linguistic Period. The Swiss linguist Saussure The study of modern linguistics was the starting point (1891), which marked the publication of the first scientific linguistics book "Cours de Linguistique Generale" (Cours de Linguistique Generale, 1916). Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913) is the founder of modern linguistics and a pioneer of structural linguistics. His main contribution is to point out the arbitrariness of linguistic signs and the linearity of the signifier; language has internal and external distinctions, diachronic and synchronic distinctions. The value of language signs is constantly evolving, so a descriptive attitude should be taken to language instead of It is prescribed. Saussure's scientific linguistics has a profound influence on western modern linguistics and translation theories.<br />
<br />
The second stage started from the 1960s to the present, which can also be said to be the period of contemporary translation theory. During this period, modern science and technology developed rapidly. Natural sciences and social sciences were directly or indirectly driven by The Systems Theory, Control Theory or Cybernetics, and Information Theory. Advance. Modern linguistics has developed from structuralism as the mainstream to a situation where there are many new disciplines and schools. Among them, the French functional linguistics, the London school, the transformational generative grammar, sociolinguistics, and modern stylistics ( Functional stylistics), pragmatics, psycholinguistics and other emerging disciplines and schools of applied linguistics.<br />
<br />
In the period of modern translation theory, the development of language science is very closely related to Western translation theory. Roman Jacobson (Roman Jacobson, 1896–1982), a translation theorist at the early stage of modern translation theory, is one of the founders of the Prague School and a well-known phonetician. Obviously, Jacobson's discourse on translated poems is based on phoneme analysis. Jacobson believes that poetry is "untranslatable" strictly speaking, because poetry is subject to the constraints of the arrangement relationship between phonemes and sememes, that is, units of meaning. To get rid of this constraint, translation The family can only resort to "transplantation" and it is "no less than creative transplantation of different language symbols (phonetic arrangements) created". Two prominent translation theorists in the 1950s, Jean Paul Vinay and Jean Darbenet, mainly relied on scientific linguistics to discuss translation rhetoric from the perspectives of functional stylistics and contrastive linguistics. After entering the 1960s, JC Catford clearly quoted the founder of the London School Firth (JR Firth, 1890–1960) and Firth's successor MAK Halliday's basic linguistic theories to solve the bilingual conversion. problem. E. Nida and G. Mounin mainly analyze the translation process from the perspective of structural linguistics. Among them, Nida's research results are the most eye-catching. During the 1970s and 1980s, Nida began to notice the weakness of linguistics that emphasized formal transformation and insufficient semantic research. Around the issue of "meaning" and cultural issues, many more books came out, and proposed "dynamic equivalence" (dynamic equivalence). , 1984), emphasizing the meaning view of social semiotics. In the second half of the 20th century, Western postmodern thoughts spread throughout Europe and the United States. Deconstructionism, in particular, has the deepest influence on cultural thoughts and academic thoughts. Western translation theories have also turned to "postmodernism" (especially comparative literary theory) to absorb theoretical ideas, and the great limitations of "postmodernism" have also emerged. Contemporary Western translation theory can be said to have entered a comprehensive use of various disciplines of linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, philosophy of language (including semantics), logic, aesthetics and other social sciences, as well as information theory, computer science, etc. The "comprehensive development period of translation theories" is a period of full bloom to solve translation problems. It seems that this is also the general trend of Western translation theory in the 21st century.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 15:06, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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=== Characteristics of the development of western translation theory ===<br />
<br />
To sum up, we can deduce the development track of translation theory in the West for more than 2000 years. Its characteristics are as follows.First, western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. "Greek civilization" covers a wide range. At that time, the translation mainly focused on Homer's epic Philosophy (focusing on the so-called "three philosophies", namely Socrates, Plato and Aristotle), literature and history (focusing on drama, prose and War History) and the democratic politics of Athens. In the west, the Bible The climax of translation did not appear until the 16th century. Due to the wide variety of translation subjects, translation theories also tend to be diversified, not just on the translation standards and requirements of scriptures. At the beginning of Chinese classical translation theory, it has always focused on the review of religious translation.<br />
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Second, western translation theory has a wide basis and a wide range, but it always focuses on linguistics. The main characters of Western classical and ancient translation theories are ancient Romans, based on the philosophy of classical Greece Aesthetics (poetics and classical rhetoric, which are also collectively referred to as ancient philology). Augustine, a classical translation theorist, is a classical aesthetician. Modern translation theory is mainly based on ancient philosophy, semantics, etymology and literature and art (poetics and tragedies) and historical comparative linguistics. In the early stage of modern translation theory, great attention was paid to semantics. At the same time, influenced by Saussure's socio semiotic view of language, structuralism, especially postmodern literary theory, they began to pay attention to language structure and cultural problems. In the later stage of western modern translation theory since the 1960s, translation theory and modern linguistics gradually combined and tended to rely on linguistics From the perspective of linguistics, it is marked by the decline of Bloomfield's structuralism and the prosperity of various disciplines of Applied Linguistics; From the perspective of translation theory, it is the gradual rise of scientific translation theory. Western traditional translation theory (especially in the period of classical translation theory and ancient translation theory) is often the "sideline" of masters in literature, history and philosophy Therefore, they usually develop translation art through literary creation and aesthetics. Since the later stage of modern translation theory, the western translation industry has developed greatly, and the subject matter has gone far beyond the traditional fields such as literature, history and philosophy. The specialization of translation promotes the development of translation theory to specialization, from general linguistics, postmodern literary theory, hermeneutics, traditional rhetoric, semantics The extension of historical comparative linguistics to many branches of Modern Applied Linguistics presents a new situation of all-round development. Another important reason for the early shift of western translation theory from aesthetics to linguistics is that the kinship of western languages makes it easier to realize homologous correspondence in word form and syntactic form This is exactly the purpose of historical comparative linguistics since the end of the 18th century. Translation theory and historical comparative linguistics can be described as "corresponding with one voice and seeking the same spirit". Of course, this is mainly on the side of translation theory.<br />
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Western languages generally belong to Indo European languages. Indo European languages are divided into eastern Indo European languages (mainly Baltic Slavic language group) and Western Indo European languages (mainly Germanic, Latin, Celtic and ancient Greek). As far as translation is concerned, since the source language and the target language belong to the same language family or even the same language family and language branch, and the language origins are the same or similar, translation theory has long paid attention to etymology, historical morphology and semantics, and since the 1950s and 1960s, it has paid great attention to modern linguistics The development of various disciplines, especially the transformational generative school, is one of the outstanding characteristics of western translation theory.<br />
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Third, traditionally, especially compared with Chinese traditional aesthetics, western aesthetics does not pay attention to language aesthetics, The rhetorical aesthetic propositions in Chinese aesthetic thought (wishful thinking and image, spirit and form, literature and quality, emptiness and reality, elegance and vulgarity, artistic conception theory, style theory, composition theory, rhetoric theory, etc.) are all absent in western aesthetics. This is largely due to the fact that western language is not a very perceptual language and emphasizes "grammatical logic" , which is quite different from Chinese. Western aesthetics has always paid attention to the essence of beauty and discussed the beauty of literature and art only as the expression of the essence of beauty. The early western aesthetic thought originated from the Pythagoras School (c580 – c500bc) and flourished in Plato and Aristotle. Ancient Greek and Roman Aesthetics focused on the "essence of beauty". At first, aesthetics was regarded as an integral part of philosophy. Until sugraty began to pay attention to the humanism of beauty and put forward that the standard of beauty lies in "utility to people" 。 Later western aesthetics was deeply influenced by classical aesthetics, and discussed the essence, emergence and expression of beauty. Western medieval aesthetics has a strong theological color. It holds that "the beauty of perceptual things is limited and the beauty of God is infinite". The former is intuitive and non purposeful, while the latter is "the highest beauty" and "the beauty of divinity". The scholastic philosophy aesthetics in the late Middle Ages, represented by the famous philosopher Thomas Aquinas, put forward "three factors of beauty", namely "integrity", "harmony" and "distinctiveness" Claritas basically doesn't talk about language aesthetics. Modern western aesthetics still focuses on the nature and form of beauty, which is deeply influenced by Aquinas. In the 18th century, the British Scholastics aesthetics believed that "beauty is a psychological activity produced by the form of objective foreign objects in line with people's subjective psychological structure". Kant (I. Kant, 1724 – 1804) under the influence of scholastic philosophy aesthetics, he combined the "psychological structure theory" with the "subjective talent theory" of German rationalists to launch the subjectivist "state of mind theory". After the mid-19th century, western modern aesthetics inherited Kant's influence, mostly from human subjectivity From the perspective of subjectivity, this paper discusses the essence of beauty and focuses on the attribute of beauty. The speculative color is very strong, which is basically "metaphysical", and language is the communication tool of "metaphysical". Since the 19th century, the general trend of western aesthetics has been to separate from the philosophical system and develop in the direction of specialization, diversification and multidisciplinary, from the speculative deduction of "top-down" to "top-down" Although the empirical evidence of "bottom-up" still adheres to the discussion of the definition and essential attributes of beauty, the aesthetic subject has gradually expanded to the broader field of the relationship between aesthetic subject and objective, and the methodology has shifted from simple induction or deduction to scientific experimental verification. Scientific empiricism and traditional humanistic aesthetics are the mainstream of Western Aesthetics in the 20th century.(Kant,1972, 103)<br />
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The separation of Western Aesthetics from philosophy coincides with the rise of historical comparative philology. This major historical development and change is to promote the transformation of western translation theory from aesthetics to literature (including modern and postmodern literary theory) and linguistics, which is also a remarkable feature of the development track of western translation theory different from Chinese translation theory. It is no accident that western translation theory is separated from aesthetics and appeals to linguistics.<br />
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=== Conclusion ===<br />
<br />
Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and modern translation theory period. The main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who represent the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. Translation theory in the period of ancient translation theory, accompanied by the Renaissance and religious reform, is characterized by literary translation and religious translation. The most important cultural phenomenon affecting translation theory in the pre-modern period is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. It can be said that contemporary western translation theory has entered a period of comprehensive development of social sciences such as linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, language philosophy, logic and aesthetics, as well as translation theories such as information theory and computer science. Western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. The basis of western translation theory is relatively broad, and the scope of translation theory is relatively wide, but it always focuses on linguistics.<br />
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=== References ===<br />
<br />
Ferdinand De Saussure索绪尔著；高名凯译. 普通语言学教程Course in General Linguistics. 北京：商务印书馆Beijing:The Commercial Press., 2017.<br />
<br />
Ferdinand De Saussure索绪尔著；张绍杰导读. 语言学入门 Introduction to Linguistics. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社Beijing: foreign language teaching and Research Press, 2001.10.<br />
<br />
Ferdinand De Saussure索绪尔著；于秀英译. 普通语言学导论general linguistics. 北京：商务印书馆Beijing:The Commercial Press, 2020.<br />
<br />
H. G. Gadamer，Philosophical Hermeneutics, UC Press, Berkeley, 1977.<br />
<br />
L. G. Kelly，The True Interpreter: A History of Translation Theory and Practice in West, Oxford, 1979.<br />
<br />
Susan Bassnett-Mcquire，Translation Studies, Methuen, London& New York, 1980.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. 西方翻译简史[M] A brief history of Western Translation.北京：商务印书馆 Beijing:The Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
William Thomson威廉·汤姆逊，黄振华译. 十九世纪末以前的语言学史The history of linguistics before the end of the 19th century . 北京/西安：世界图书出版公司Beijing / Xi'an: World Book Publishing Company, 2009.<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzheng 谢天振．中西翻译简史［M］A brief history of Chinese and Western Translation．北京:外语教学与研究出版社 Beijing: foreign language teaching and Research Press.</div>Zhang Yiranhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_4&diff=132373Hist Trans Theo EN 42021-12-13T15:21:24Z<p>Zhang Yiran: /* Period of ancient translation theory */</p>
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=Chapter 4 An Overview of the Development of Western Translation Theories =<br />
===西方翻译理论发展概述===<br />
'''Zeng Junlin，曾俊霖, Hunan Normal University, China'''<br />
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=== Abstract ===<br />
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Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and modern translation theory period. The main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who represent the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. Translation theory in the period of ancient translation theory, accompanied by the Renaissance and religious reform, is characterized by literary translation and religious translation. The most important cultural phenomenon affecting translation theory in the pre-modern period is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. It can be said that contemporary western translation theory has entered a period of comprehensive development of social sciences such as linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, language philosophy, logic and aesthetics, as well as translation theories such as information theory and computer science. Western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. The basis of western translation theory is relatively broad, and the scope of translation theory is relatively wide, but it always focuses on linguistics.<br />
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Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and contemporary translation theory period. The main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who represent the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. Translation theory in the period of ancient translation theory, accompanied by the Renaissance and religious reform, is characterized by literary translation and religious translation. The most important cultural phenomenon affecting translation theory in the pre-modern period is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. It can be said that contemporary western translation theory has entered a period of comprehensive development of social sciences such as linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, language philosophy, logic and aesthetics, as well as translation theories such as information theory and computer science. Western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. The basis of western translation theory is relatively broad, and the scope of translation theory is relatively wide, but it always focuses on linguistics.Corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:32, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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=== Key Words ===<br />
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Western translation theory，classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period，modern translation theory period<br />
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=== 摘要 ===<br />
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西方译论可以大致分为古典译论期、古代译论期、近代译论期、现代译论期等四个时期。古典译论期的主要译论家是西塞罗、霍拉斯和杰罗姆，他们代表了西方译论长达2000年发展史的源头。古代译论期的译论伴随文艺复兴和宗教改革，以文艺翻译和宗教翻译为特征。前现代期在文化上影响译论的最重要的现象是启蒙中古代语文学和诠释学派的发展。当代西方译论可以说进入了一个综合利用语言学各学科、后现代文论、符号学、修辞学、语言哲学、逻辑学、美学等社会科学以及信息理论、计算机科学等翻译理论综合开发期。西方翻译发轫于古罗马对希腊文明的渴求，即所谓爱琴海文明的西进。西方译论的立论依据比较广，译论范围也比较宽，但始终围绕语言学展开。<br />
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===关键词 ===<br />
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西方译论，古典译论期，古代译论期，近代译论期，现代译论期<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
From the overall historical development process, Chinese and western translation theories have an indissoluble bond with aesthetics from the beginning.<br />
<br />
However, the development of translation theory in the west is different from that in China. Western translation theory and Chinese translation theory are in very different historical and social conditions, in very different national cultural soil and social ecological environment. They have very different philosophical and aesthetic origins, and provide them with theoretical ideas as the driving force of evolution and development. Therefore, western translation theory and Chinese translation theory must move forward along their respective development tracks. No matter from the diachronic vertical or synchronic section, the dependence between western translation theory and philosophy aesthetics is far less than that of Chinese traditional translation theory.<br />
<br />
We can first analyze it from the historical development. Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and modern translation theory period.<br />
<br />
George Steiner divides Western translation theory into the following four periods in his famous book After Babel: The first period is from Cicero and Horace to Taitler, and the later book Essay on the Principles of Translation is published ( 1791) as a symbol; the second period is from the end of the 19th century to the 1940s, with Valery as a representative; the third period is marked by the advent and development of machine translation technology and theory in the 1940s; the fourth period Generally parallel to the third period, it is marked by hermeneutic and metaphysical inquiries (hermeneutic and metaphysical inquiries). Steiner's periodization has been criticized by Western translation theory circles.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
From the overall historical development process, Chinese and western translation theories have an indissoluble bond with aesthetics from the beginning.<br />
<br />
However, the development of translation theory in the west is different from that in China. Western translation theory and Chinese translation theory are in very different historical and social conditions, in very different national cultural background and social ecological environment. They have very different philosophical and aesthetic origins, and provide them with theoretical ideas as the driving force of evolution and development. Therefore, western translation theory and Chinese translation theory must move forward along their respective development tracks. No matter from the diachronic vertical or synchronic section, the dependence between western translation theory and philosophy aesthetics is far less than that of Chinese traditional translation theory.<br />
<br />
We can first analyze it from the historical development. Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and contemporary translation theory period.<br />
<br />
George Steiner divides Western translation theory into the following four periods in his famous book After Babel: The first period is from Cicero and Horace to Taitler, and the later book Essay on the Principles of Translation is published ( 1791) as a symbol; the second period is from the end of the 19th century to the 1940s, with Valery as a representative; the third period is marked by the advent and development of machine translation technology and theory in the 1940s; the fourth period Generally parallel to the third period, it is marked by hermeneutic and metaphysical inquiries (hermeneutic and metaphysical inquiries). Steiner's periodization has been criticized by Western translation theory circles.Corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:38, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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=== Period of classical translation theory ===<br />
<br />
This is the initial period of western translation theory. According to the textual research of Rosetta Stone (discovered in 1799) by Western Egyptologists, western translation activities may have started in 2000 BC. Due to the long history and lack of historical evidence, it is impossible to test whether there were translation theories in 1900 before Cicero. There are four main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory. The first three are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who is the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. The western translation theory in the classical period is mainly based on the ancient Greek philosophers, especially the rhetoric and poetics written by Aristotle. These are two classic works that have a deep impact on Western literary aesthetics. Rhetoric expounds oratory by using the methodology of ancient psychology. Its main purpose is to emphasize the power of language infection and the means to achieve the effect of language infection - language style, and points out that only a beautiful article style can have the power of sensing and imparting. Therefore, speakers must abide by the principle that the use of language should strive to be clear and appropriate, and should not be artificial, so as not to damage the momentum of language due to affectation, and the conditions to ensure the momentum of language are accurate and relevant. In addition, Aristotle believes that the momentum of the article is also closely related to the form of writing. Speakers should adopt prose form. They should neither rhyme, nor ignore the rhythm, nor ignore the vividness of the words. No matter what style is adopted, or slow or high, the writing is naturally the first important meaning. Aristotle is the first classical aesthetic master in the west to affirm "the perceptual reality of beauty".<br />
<br />
Under the influence of ancient Greek philosophers such as Thales, Plato and Aristotle, Cicero put forward the naturalism and momentum theory of translation, opposed the translation of "word for word" and advocated the translation of "sense for sense". This argument has a profound impact on western translation studies. In philosophy, Cicero was influenced by Plato to maintain "reason", but in translation theory, he opposed to damaging the natural beauty and momentum beauty of the translation with "rigid application of reason".Horace agrees with Cicero's proposition, opposes the standard of "rigid notes of" fidelity "as the translation, opposes the translator becoming a slave translator who only follows the mandate of the original text, and advocates the use of" aesthetic criteria "in translation. It can be seen that what is valuable is the methodological dialectical view of Xi and Huo. Jerome was the first translator to translate the Hebrew Bible into Latin, the translator of the Vulgate, and the successor of Cicero's translation style. Jerome advocates the natural theory of translation and maintains Cicero's legacy. He believes that the translator has the right to break through the formal constraints of the original syntax, but must abide by the correspondence of words at the morpheme level and be faithful to the original text. Therefore, Jerome was a popular translation theorist in the 5th century. Augustine, the fourth representative figure in the classical period, plays a connecting role, that is, from Cicero, Horace and Jerome to Thomas Aquinas (c1225 – 1274ad), the most important scholastic philosopher in the middle ages. As a classical ancient translation theorist, Augustine's first achievement is to inherit and develop Aristotle's semiotic theory. When discussing "symbols", Aristotle aims to develop its rhetorical function. For "free word order languages" such as Latin, the beauty of symbolic form obviously has rhetorical visual value. Augustine expanded Aristotle's symbolic formal framework from the signifier function of the symbol to the signified layer, and pointed out that the "signifier", the human psychological structure, is derived from human's "perception of reality", and the "signifier" is a "sound set" associated with it (the group of vocal sounds); as far as words are concerned, it only represents the sign of the reference, which is arbitrary. It can be seen that Austen's views on symbols pointed out the direction for the modern semiotic theory in the early 20th century. Unfortunately, Austen's research was not valued by the translation theorists until the second half of the middle ages. Augustine's second achievement is that he put forward aesthetic propositions such as "beauty is suitability", "order", "harmony" and "unity". Based on his aesthetics, he advocates the advantages of translation. He pays more attention to the problem of form than Jerome. At the same time, he is persistent in the correspondence of semantics at the level of semantic morpheme or sememe. Augustine is a transitional figure entering the Middle Ages in the history of European aesthetics, as well as in translation theory. （Susan Bassnett-Mcquire,1980,43–44）<br />
<br />
The period of classical translation theory is a very important period in the history of western translation studies. At that time, the focus of translation circles was to introduce the culture of ancient Greece, which is called "Hellenization" in history. Classical "Greek culture" is as bright as stars, which makes translators and translation theorists energetic and aspire to it. This is different from Chinese classical translation theory (Buddhist Scripture Translation in China). The introduction of Greek culture by the ancient Romans has nothing to do with religion, but involves epic, lyric poetry, philosophy aesthetics, architecture, rhetoric, literature and art (Poetics), drama, history, war history and so on. Its similarity with Chinese classical translation theory is that they all turn to aesthetic ideas and principles. As far as aesthetic ontology is concerned, Western classical aesthetics involves a wide range of categories, and there are a large number of talents. Thales is the first Western philosopher to replace mythological thinking (ignorant thinking) with rational thinking. He advocates the theory that "the most beautiful is the universe" and advocates nature. Pythagoras (c580 – c500bc) is regarded as the discoverer of the golden section and advocates the "beauty of harmony". Herakleitus (c540 – 470bc) put forward the subjective aesthetic view of "looking for oneself", holding that "harmony comes from opposition", which is the germination of Classical Dialectics. Hester also raised the issue of the relativity of beauty, advocated rationality, and advocated thinking, understanding and the control of the mind. Demokritus (C460 – 370bc) is the first natural science philosopher in the West and the first aesthetician to demonstrate sensory experience and image. These four people are the so-called "pre Socrates" in ancient Greece. Together with Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, they form the origin of western academic thought. Of course, it is natural that the sprouting of translation studies is attached to the theory of sages.<br />
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This is the origin period of western translation theory. According to the textual research of Rosetta Stone (discovered in 1799) by Western Egyptologists, western translation activities may have started in 2000 BC. Due to the long history and lack of historical evidence, it is impossible to test whether there were translation theories in 1900 before Cicero. There are four main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory. The first three are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who is the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. The western translation theory in the classical period is mainly based on the ancient Greek philosophers, especially the rhetoric and poetics written by Aristotle. These are two classic works that have a deep impact on Western literary aesthetics. Rhetoric expounds oratory by using the methodology of ancient psychology. Its main purpose is to emphasize the power of language infection and the means to achieve the effect of language infection - language style, and points out that only a beautiful article style can have the power of sensing and imparting. Therefore, speakers must abide by the principle that the use of language should strive to be clear and appropriate, and should not be artificial, so as not to damage the momentum of language due to affectation, and the conditions to ensure the momentum of language are accurate and relevant. In addition, Aristotle believes that the momentum of the article is also closely related to the form of writing. Speakers should adopt prose form. They should neither rhyme, nor ignore the rhythm, nor ignore the vividness of the words. No matter what style is adopted, or slow or high, the writing is naturally the first important meaning. Aristotle is the first classical aesthetic master in the west to affirm "the perceptual reality of beauty".<br />
<br />
Under the influence of ancient Greek philosophers such as Thales, Plato and Aristotle, Cicero put forward the naturalism and momentum theory of translation, opposed the translation of "word for word" and advocated the translation of "sense for sense". This argument has a profound impact on western translation studies. In philosophy, Cicero was influenced by Plato to maintain "reason", but in translation theory, he opposed to damaging the natural beauty and momentum beauty of the translation with "rigid application of reason".Horace agrees with Cicero's proposition, opposes the standard of "rigid notes of" fidelity "as the translation, opposes the translator becoming a slave translator who only follows the mandate of the original text, and advocates the use of" aesthetic criteria "in translation. It can be seen that what is valuable is the methodological dialectical view of Xi and Huo. Jerome was the first translator to translate the Hebrew Bible into Latin, the translator of the Vulgate, and the successor of Cicero's translation style. Jerome advocates the natural theory of translation and maintains Cicero's legacy. He believes that the translator has the right to break through the formal constraints of the original syntax, but must abide by the correspondence of words at the morpheme level and be faithful to the original text. Therefore, Jerome was a popular translation theorist in the 5th century. Augustine, the fourth representative figure in the classical period, plays a connecting role, that is, from Cicero, Horace and Jerome to Thomas Aquinas (c1225 – 1274ad), the most important scholastic philosopher in the middle ages. As a classical ancient translation theorist, Augustine's first achievement is to inherit and develop Aristotle's semiotic theory. When discussing "symbols", Aristotle aims to develop its rhetorical function. For "free word order languages" such as Latin, the beauty of symbolic form obviously has rhetorical visual value. Augustine expanded Aristotle's symbolic formal framework from the signifier function of the symbol to the signified layer, and pointed out that the "signifier", the human psychological structure, is derived from human's "perception of reality", and the "signifier" is a "sound set" associated with it (the group of vocal sounds); as far as words are concerned, it only represents the sign of the reference, which is arbitrary. It can be seen that Austen's views on symbols pointed out the direction for the modern semiotic theory in the early 20th century. Unfortunately, Austen's research was not valued by the translation theorists until the second half of the middle ages. Augustine's second achievement is that he put forward aesthetic propositions such as "beauty is suitability", "order", "harmony" and "unity". Based on his aesthetics, he advocates the advantages of translation. He pays more attention to the problem of form than Jerome. At the same time, he is persistent in the correspondence of semantics at the level of semantic morpheme or sememe. Augustine is a transitional figure entering the Middle Ages in the history of European aesthetics, as well as in translation theory. （Susan Bassnett-Mcquire,1980,43–44）<br />
<br />
The period of classical translation theory is a very important period in the history of western translation studies. At that time, the focus of translation circles was to introduce the culture of ancient Greece, which is called "Hellenization" in history. Classical "Greek culture" is as bright as stars, which makes translators and translation theorists energetic and aspire to it. This is different from Chinese classical translation theory (Buddhist Scripture Translation in China). The introduction of Greek culture by the ancient Romans has nothing to do with religion, but involves epic, lyric poetry, philosophy aesthetics, architecture, rhetoric, literature and art (Poetics), drama, history, war history and so on. Its similarity with Chinese classical translation theory is that they all turn to aesthetic ideas and principles. As far as aesthetic ontology is concerned, Western classical aesthetics involves a wide range of categories, and there are a large number of talents. Thales is the first Western philosopher to replace mythological thinking (ignorant thinking) with rational thinking. He advocates the theory that "the most beautiful is the universe" and advocates nature. Pythagoras (c580 – c500bc) is regarded as the discoverer of the golden section and advocates the "beauty of harmony". Herakleitus (c540 – 470bc) put forward the subjective aesthetic view of "looking for oneself", holding that "harmony comes from opposition", which is the germination of Classical Dialectics. Hester also raised the issue of the relativity of beauty, advocated rationality, and advocated thinking, understanding and the control of the mind. Demokritus (C460 – 370bc) is the first natural science philosopher in the West and the first aesthetician to demonstrate sensory experience and image. These four people are the so-called "pre Socrates" in ancient Greece. Together with Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, they form the origin of western academic thought. Of course, it is natural that the sprouting of translation studies is attached to the theory of sages.Correted by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:54, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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=== Period of ancient translation theory ===<br />
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The second period of western translation theory, the ancient period, lasted a long time, from the "post Augustine" period at the end of the 5th century to the eve of the European industrial revolution, that is, the late 18th century, covering the whole Middle Ages and about 300 years later (500-1795). Translation theory in this period was accompanied by two great historical achievements: the Renaissance and the religious reform. Therefore, the translation theory in this period is characterized by cultural literary translation and religious (Scripture) translation.<br />
The prelude to the European Renaissance (which began in the 14th century, peaked in the 15th and 16th centuries and ended in the mid-17th century) is the flourishing of Christian civilization, marked by the so-called "edict of Milan" issued by Constantine I (C280 – 337ad). The imperial edict authorized Christianity to obtain legal status in the Roman Empire. Since then, Christianity has become more and more popular through the influence of the Holy See. The Scriptures have been proofread and translated by Jerome and Augustine. Christian civilization has flourished all over Europe in the early Middle Ages.<br />
<br />
At the same time, European social economy also appeared commercialization and handicrafts under the framework of medieval Christian civilization, leading to the emergence of city-state politics and urban landscape, which was the initial light of the Renaissance. By the 13th century, there were many European literary and artistic masters, including Dante (1265 – 1321, the author of Divine Comedy), Boccaccio (1313 – 1375, the author of Decameron), Leonardo da Vinci (1452 – 1519) and raffaelo Sanzio rapheal (1483 – 1520), who awakened European national consciousness and the so-called "all talent ideal"（ The worship and pursuit of "the well-sound personality" had a profound impact. What went hand in hand with the prosperity of literature and art and the development of city-state politics was the popularity of social and political theories and new social trends of thought at that time. Europeans scrambled to study the famous works discoveries on Livy (1531) by Nicolo Machiavelli (1569 – 1527). Someone described the grand translation of the time and said: "The entire city of Rome became a translation factory, specializing in the production of translations from Greek to Latin". In fact, the grand translation at the time was far more than just in Rome, and not only between Greek and Latin. Florence is not inferior to Rome. From the 14th to the 16th century, the city of Buddhism was the center of Italian literature and art. The grand translation of Europe at the time was very much in line with Bruno's (Giordano Bruno, c1548–1600) prediction. He said: "All science can only bear fruit with the help of translation." (Steiner,1975, 259)<br />
<br />
All this made The "translation industry" has developed unprecedentedly. Translation practice has promoted translation research. At this time, there are different translation theories, and the scope of discussion has gone beyond the vision of classical translation theorists, with a strong color of verification. One of the best, which can be said to be the first Western philosopher to comprehensively attack translation, is Roger Bacon (C1214 – 1292) Bacon was a pioneer in the field of Natural Science in the 13th century. He condemned the translation between Greek, Hebrew and Latin as full of semantic distortion "with the philosophical insight of natural scientists", which reduced the translation to a "hodgepodge of errors and misunderstandings". (L. G. Kelly,1979, 9)<br />
<br />
It was driven by Bacon's call to put things right that the Bible appeared John Wycliffe (c1330 – 1384), a religious reformer, translated the first English translation of the Bible of Wycliffe. His influential translation of the Bible of Wycliffe reflects the spirit of verification of Bacon's later progressive translation theory, which was invaluable in the ignorant middle ages. Wycliffe believed that Christ was the master of mankind and opposed the church's "orthodox doctrine" (the orthodox church doctrine) arbitrarily interpreted the meaning of the Bible, denounced the "papal infallibility", refused to accept the Vatican's arbitrary interpretation of the Scriptures and adhered to the semantics of the original language, thus posing strong doubts and challenges to the translation. In fact, this is a religious reform movement advocated by Martin Luther on the European continent (the reform, C1520 – c1525) has a far-reaching impact on the history of translation in Britain and even Europe. Social criticism and scholars' verification have greatly improved the level of translation. Following Roger Bacon, many people in Europe have successively raised challenges to translation, pointing out that there were three major criticisms of translation at that time: one was to know what it said but not what it meant; the other was to know what it meant but not what it meant. ; The third is that they are both ignorant and ignorant. Although this attack is mainly aimed at the translation of the Bible, it is actually very common. This period is a productive period in the history of European translation.(L. G. Kelly,1979, 10)<br />
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<br />
<br />
<br />
The second period of western translation theory - the ancient period, lasted a long time, from the "post Augustine" period at the end of the 5th century to the eve of the European industrial revolution, that is, the late 18th century, covering the whole Middle Ages and about 300 years later (500-1795). Translation theory in this period was accompanied by two great historical achievements: the Renaissance and the religious reform. Therefore, the translation theory in this period is characterized by cultural literary translation and religious (Scripture) translation.<br />
The prelude to the European Renaissance (which began in the 14th century, peaked in the 15th and 16th centuries and ended in the mid-17th century) is the flourishing of Christian civilization, marked by the so-called "edict of Milan" issued by Constantine I (C280 – 337ad). The imperial edict authorized Christianity to obtain legal status in the Roman Empire. Since then, Christianity has become more and more popular through the influence of the Holy See. The Scriptures have been proofread and translated by Jerome and Augustine. Christian civilization has flourished all over Europe in the early Middle Ages.<br />
<br />
At the same time, European social economy also appeared commercialization and handicrafts under the framework of medieval Christian civilization, leading to the emergence of city-state politics and urban landscape, which was the initial light of the Renaissance. By the 13th century, there were many European literary and artistic masters, including Dante (1265 – 1321, the author of Divine Comedy), Boccaccio (1313 – 1375, the author of Decameron), Leonardo da Vinci (1452 – 1519) and raffaelo Sanzio rapheal (1483 – 1520), who awakened European national consciousness and the so-called "all talent ideal"（ The worship and pursuit of "the well-sound personality" had a profound impact. What went hand in hand with the prosperity of literature and art and the development of city-state politics was the popularity of social and political theories and new social trends of thought at that time. Europeans scrambled to study the famous works discoveries on Livy (1531) by Nicolo Machiavelli (1569 – 1527). Someone described the grand translation of the time and said: "The entire city of Rome became a translation factory, specializing in the production of translations from Greek to Latin". In fact, the grand translation at the time was far more than just in Rome, and not only between Greek and Latin. Florence is not inferior to Rome. From the 14th to the 16th century, the city of Buddhism was the center of Italian literature and art. The grand translation of Europe at the time was very much in line with Bruno's (Giordano Bruno, c1548–1600) prediction. He said: "All science can only bear fruit with the help of translation." (Steiner,1975, 259)<br />
<br />
All this made The "translation industry" has developed unprecedentedly. Translation practice has promoted translation research. At this time, there are different translation theories, and the scope of discussion has gone beyond the vision of classical translation theorists, with a strong color of verification. One of the best, which can be said to be the first Western philosopher to comprehensively attack translation, is Roger Bacon (C1214 – 1292) Bacon was a pioneer in the field of Natural Science in the 13th century. He condemned the translation between Greek, Hebrew and Latin as full of semantic distortion "with the philosophical insight of natural scientists", which reduced the translation to a "hodgepodge of errors and misunderstandings". (L. G. Kelly,1979, 9)<br />
<br />
It was driven by Bacon's call to put things right that the Bible appeared John Wycliffe (c1330 – 1384), a religious reformer, translated the first English translation of the Bible of Wycliffe. His influential translation of the Bible of Wycliffe reflects the spirit of verification of Bacon's later progressive translation theory, which was invaluable in the ignorant middle ages. Wycliffe believed that Christ was the master of mankind and opposed the church's "orthodox doctrine" (the orthodox church doctrine) arbitrarily interpreted the meaning of the Bible, denounced the "papal infallibility", refused to accept the Vatican's arbitrary interpretation of the Scriptures and adhered to the semantics of the original language, thus posing strong doubts and challenges to the translation. In fact, this is a religious reform movement advocated by Martin Luther on the European continent (the reform, C1520 – c1525) has a far-reaching impact on the history of translation in Britain and even Europe. Social criticism and scholars' verification have greatly improved the level of translation. Following Roger Bacon, many people in Europe have successively raised challenges to translation, pointing out that there were three major criticisms of translation at that time: one was to know what it said but not what it meant; the other was to know what it meant but not what it meant. ; The third is that they are both ignorant and ignorant. Although this attack is mainly aimed at the translation of the Bible, it is actually very common. This period is a productive period in the history of European translation.(L. G. Kelly,1979, 10)Corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:59, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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=== Period of Pre-Modern translation theory ===<br />
This is the third period of western translation theory, or "pre modern period", that is, from the religious reform (1517-1648) of wilcliff and Martin Luther in the mid-17th century to the end of the 19th century, the argument began to gradually turn to classical philology and language philosophy. The major historical events during this period were the European Industrial Revolution (1750's – 1830's) and the French Revolution (1788-1799), as well as the germination and evolution of European middle-class economy and its ideology before and after this period. The most important phenomenon affecting translation theory in culture is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. After the Renaissance, the focus of European language research was still Latin and Greek, which had been in a secondary position. The social and economic development since the enlightenment and the industrial revolution obviously put forward many problems for multilingual communication. The first ones are etymology, semantics and historical comparative linguistics. In fact, historical comparative linguistics is the result of the development and exploration of the first two. Ancient Chinese literature originated in Italy in the 15th century, and its development was also promoted by many factors such as the Renaissance, the spread of Christianity, and the expansion of colonialism that stimulated language contact. The heyday representatives of historical comparative linguistics are the Danish linguist Rask (R. C. Rask, 1787–1832) and the German linguist Bopp (F. Bopp, 1791–1867). Especially after wilcliff and Martin Luther, translators increasingly doubt the interpretation of language by the Holy See, the church and scholastic philosophy in the long middle ages, and doubt the "Deviation", misunderstanding and even intentional distortion of "translation" to the "signified". Rousseau's democratic thought had a strong and profound impact on European conservatism.(V. Thomsen,1960,43）<br />
<br />
Understanding this historical background, we can clearly understand why when Taylor put forward the famous "three principles of translation" at the end of the 18th century (1791), he first pointed out that "translation should completely convey the idea of the original text, supplemented by the natural fluency of the expression and style of the translation". Almost at the same time, tattler and George Campbell, who proposed that "the beauty of the translation can be discussed only if we are loyal to the original meaning", marked the end of the era when the western traditional translation theory mainly relied on classical aesthetics and literature and art. On the other hand, although the Chinese School represented by Goethe is fully mature, it can not solve many major problems raised by the spread of Christian civilization and the unprecedented development of translation practice in breadth and depth since the Renaissance and the industrial revolution. Among these problems, the first and most important is the problem of meaning, that is, the so-called "transfer of the truth value of meaning" in translation. Johann W. von Goethe (Johann W. von Goethe) is known as "the last embodiment of the Renaissance ideal", and his basic translation theory advocates "the perfect identity between the SL and the TL" . To this end, the translator must have ingenuity and creativity, and adopt a unique way of expression. This is the best translation, and the next thing is imitation and prose.<br />
<br />
Exploring "semantic truth" is the basic proposition of the hermeneutic school. The representative of the hermeneutic school in modern translation theory is Friedrich D. E. Schleiermacher (1768 – 1845). Ancient hermeneutics believed that the task of interpretation was to interpret the "oracle", which originated in ancient Greece and was derived from the name of "Hermes", the messenger who conveyed the gods. Before Schleiermacher, hermeneutics was full of religious mysticism in the middle ages, which believed that people's "understanding" or "not understanding" of text (at that time mainly refers to holy scripts, i.e. the Bible) was "all based on divine will", and both of them were "theological subjective phenomena". Schleiermacher's merit lies in pointing out that the so-called "incomprehension" is actually a "misinterpretation", and "the true meaning of the text lies entirely in what it 'seems' to say. If we want to rediscover the true meaning of the text, we must carefully reconstruct the life reality generated by the historical background or meaning at that time."  Schleiermacher also further put forward the means to obtain the true meaning ("original meaning", i.e. philosophical "Sein"), that is, the so-called "theory of hermeneutic circle" and more than 40 norms of "grammatical interpretation" and "psychological interpretation" . There is no doubt about the significance of this to the development of European translation practice. It was driven by the school of hermeneutics that Friedrich Schlegel (1772 – 1879), Samuel T. Coleridge (1772 – 1834), William Morries (1834 – 1896), Thomas Carlyle (1795 – 1881), Matthew Arnold and Dante D. Rossetti (1828 – 1882) were formed European Romanticism (mainly in Germany) and the corresponding wave of critical realism (mainly in Britain) as a response to the French Revolution. During this period, the mainstream of the translation theory forum was the Chinese school with literary masters as the backbone and the hermeneutic school that later kept pace with it. There is no doubt that this is one of the important development periods in the history of European translation.(H. G. Gadamer,1977, xiii)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
This is the third period of western translation theory, or "pre modern period", that is, from the religious reform (1517-1648) of wilcliff and Martin Luther in the mid-17th century to the end of the 19th century, the argument began to gradually turn to classical philology and language philosophy. The major historical events during this period were the European Industrial Revolution (1750's – 1830's) and the French Revolution (1788-1799), as well as the germination and evolution of European middle-class economy and its ideology before and after this period. The most important phenomenon affecting translation theory in culture is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. After the Renaissance, the focus of European language research was still Latin and Greek, which had been in a secondary position. The social and economic development since the enlightenment and the industrial revolution obviously put forward many problems for multilingual communication. The first ones are etymology, semantics and historical comparative linguistics. In fact, historical comparative linguistics is the result of the development and exploration of the first two. Ancient Chinese literature originated in Italy in the 15th century, and its development was also promoted by many factors such as the Renaissance, the spread of Christianity, and the expansion of colonialism that stimulated language contact. The heyday representatives of historical comparative linguistics are the Danish linguist Rask (R. C. Rask, 1787–1832) and the German linguist Bopp (F. Bopp, 1791–1867). Especially after wilcliff and Martin Luther, translators increasingly doubt the interpretation of language by the Holy See, the church and scholastic philosophy in the long middle ages, and doubt the "Deviation", misunderstanding and even intentional distortion of "translation" to the "signified". Rousseau's democratic thought had a strong and profound impact on European conservatism.(V. Thomsen,1960,43）<br />
<br />
Understanding this historical background, we can clearly understand why when Taylor put forward the famous "three principles of translation" at the end of the 18th century (1791), he first pointed out that "translation should completely convey the idea of the original text, supplemented by the natural fluency of the expression and style of the translation". Almost at the same time, tattler and George Campbell, who proposed that "the beauty of the translation can be discussed only if we are loyal to the original meaning", marked the end of the era when the western traditional translation theory mainly relied on classical aesthetics and literature and art. On the other hand, although the Chinese School represented by Goethe is fully mature, it can not solve many major problems raised by the spread of Christian civilization and the unprecedented development of translation practice in breadth and depth since the Renaissance and the industrial revolution. Among these problems, the first and most important is the problem of meaning, that is, the so-called "transfer of the truth value of meaning" in translation. Johann W. von Goethe (Johann W. von Goethe) is known as "the last embodiment of the Renaissance ideal", and his basic translation theory advocates "the perfect identity between the SL and the TL" . To this end, the translator must have ingenuity and creativity, and adopt a unique way of expression. This is the best translation, and the next thing is imitation and prose.<br />
<br />
Exploring "semantic truth" is the basic proposition of the hermeneutic school. The representative of the hermeneutic school in modern translation theory is Friedrich D. E. Schleiermacher (1768 – 1845). Ancient hermeneutics believed that the task of interpretation was to interpret the "oracle", which originated in ancient Greece and was derived from the name of "Hermes", the messenger who conveyed the gods. Before Schleiermacher, hermeneutics was full of religious mysticism in the middle ages, which believed that people's "understanding" or "not understanding" of text (at that time mainly refers to holy scripts, i.e. the Bible) was "all based on divine will", and both of them were "theological subjective phenomena". Schleiermacher's merit lies in pointing out that the so-called "incomprehension" is actually a "misinterpretation", and "the true meaning of the text lies entirely in what it 'seems' to say. If we want to rediscover the true meaning of the text, we must carefully reconstruct the life reality generated by the historical background or meaning at that time."  Schleiermacher also further put forward the means to obtain the true meaning ("original meaning", i.e. philosophical "Sein"), that is, the so-called "theory of hermeneutic circle" and more than 40 norms of "grammatical interpretation" and "psychological interpretation" . There is no doubt about the significance of this to the development of European translation practice. It was driven by the school of hermeneutics that Friedrich Schlegel (1772 – 1879), Samuel T. Coleridge (1772 – 1834), William Morries (1834 – 1896), Thomas Carlyle (1795 – 1881), Matthew Arnold and Dante D. Rossetti (1828 – 1882) were formed European Romanticism (mainly in Germany) and the corresponding wave of critical realism (mainly in Britain) as a response to the French Revolution. During this period, the mainstream of the translation theory forum was the Chinese school with literary masters as the backbone and the hermeneutic school that later kept pace with it. There is no doubt that this is one of the important development periods in the history of European translation.(H. G. Gadamer,1977, xiii)--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 15:03, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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=== Period of Modern translation theory ===<br />
<br />
The fourth period is The Modern Period. This period can actually be divided into two stages. The first stage is from the end of the 19th century to the 1950s. It can also be called the "Pre-Modern Linguistic Period". Parallel to it is The Pre-Modern Linguistic Period. The Swiss linguist Saussure The study of modern linguistics was the starting point (1891), which marked the publication of the first scientific linguistics book "Cours de Linguistique Generale" (Cours de Linguistique Generale, 1916). Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913) is the founder of modern linguistics and a pioneer of structural linguistics. His main contribution is to point out the arbitrariness of linguistic signs and the linearity of the signifier; language has internal and external distinctions, diachronic and synchronic distinctions. The value of language signs is constantly evolving, so a descriptive attitude should be taken to language instead of It is prescribed. Saussure's scientific linguistics has a profound influence on western modern linguistics and translation theories.<br />
<br />
The second stage started from the 1960s to the present, which can also be said to be the period of contemporary translation theory. During this period, modern science and technology developed rapidly. Natural sciences and social sciences were directly or indirectly driven by The Systems Theory, Control Theory or Cybernetics, and Information Theory. Advance. Modern linguistics has developed from structuralism as the mainstream to a situation where there are many new disciplines and schools. Among them, the French functional linguistics, the London school, the transformational generative grammar, sociolinguistics, and modern stylistics ( Functional stylistics), pragmatics, psycholinguistics and other emerging disciplines and schools of applied linguistics.<br />
<br />
In the period of modern translation theory, the development of language science is very closely related to Western translation theory. Roman Jacobson (Roman Jacobson, 1896–1982), a translation theorist at the early stage of modern translation theory, is one of the founders of the Prague School and a well-known phonetician. Obviously, Jacobson's discourse on translated poems is based on phoneme analysis. Jacobson believes that poetry is "untranslatable" strictly speaking, because poetry is subject to the constraints of the arrangement relationship between phonemes and sememes, that is, units of meaning. To get rid of this constraint, translation The family can only resort to "transplantation" and it is "no less than creative transplantation of different language symbols (phonetic arrangements) created". Two prominent translation theorists in the 1950s, Jean Paul Vinay and Jean Darbenet, mainly relied on scientific linguistics to discuss translation rhetoric from the perspectives of functional stylistics and contrastive linguistics. After entering the 1960s, JC Catford clearly quoted the founder of the London School Firth (JR Firth, 1890–1960) and Firth's successor MAK Halliday's basic linguistic theories to solve the bilingual conversion. problem. E. Nida and G. Mounin mainly analyze the translation process from the perspective of structural linguistics. Among them, Nida's research results are the most eye-catching. During the 1970s and 1980s, Nida began to notice the weakness of linguistics that emphasized formal transformation and insufficient semantic research. Around the issue of "meaning" and cultural issues, many more books came out, and proposed "dynamic equivalence" (dynamic equivalence). , 1984), emphasizing the meaning view of social semiotics. In the second half of the 20th century, Western postmodern thoughts spread throughout Europe and the United States. Deconstructionism, in particular, has the deepest influence on cultural thoughts and academic thoughts. Western translation theories have also turned to "postmodernism" (especially comparative literary theory) to absorb theoretical ideas, and the great limitations of "postmodernism" have also emerged. Contemporary Western translation theory can be said to have entered a comprehensive use of various disciplines of linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, philosophy of language (including semantics), logic, aesthetics and other social sciences, as well as information theory, computer science, etc. The "comprehensive development period of translation theories" is a period of full bloom to solve translation problems. It seems that this is also the general trend of Western translation theory in the 21st century.<br />
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<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The fourth period is The contemporary Period. This period can actually be divided into two stages. The first stage is from the end of the 19th century to the 1950s. It can also be called the "Pre-Modern Linguistic Period". Parallel to it is The Pre-Modern Linguistic Period. The Swiss linguist Saussure The study of modern linguistics was the starting point (1891), which marked the publication of the first scientific linguistics book "Cours de Linguistique Generale" (Cours de Linguistique Generale, 1916). Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913) is the founder of modern linguistics and a pioneer of structural linguistics. His main contribution is to point out the arbitrariness of linguistic signs and the linearity of the signifier; language has internal and external distinctions, diachronic and synchronic distinctions. The value of language signs is constantly evolving, so a descriptive attitude should be taken to language instead of It is prescribed. Saussure's scientific linguistics has a profound influence on western modern linguistics and translation theories.<br />
<br />
The second stage started from the 1960s to the present, which can also be said to be the period of contemporary translation theory. During this period, modern science and technology developed rapidly. Natural sciences and social sciences were directly or indirectly driven by The Systems Theory, Control Theory or Cybernetics, and Information Theory. Advance. Modern linguistics has developed from structuralism as the mainstream to a situation where there are many new disciplines and schools. Among them, the French functional linguistics, the London school, the transformational generative grammar, sociolinguistics, and modern stylistics ( Functional stylistics), pragmatics, psycholinguistics and other emerging disciplines and schools of applied linguistics.<br />
<br />
In the period of modern translation theory, the development of language science is very closely related to Western translation theory. Roman Jacobson (Roman Jacobson, 1896–1982), a translation theorist at the early stage of modern translation theory, is one of the founders of the Prague School and a well-known phonetician. Obviously, Jacobson's discourse on translated poems is based on phoneme analysis. Jacobson believes that poetry is "untranslatable" strictly speaking, because poetry is subject to the constraints of the arrangement relationship between phonemes and sememes, that is, units of meaning. To get rid of this constraint, translation The family can only resort to "transplantation" and it is "no less than creative transplantation of different language symbols (phonetic arrangements) created". Two prominent translation theorists in the 1950s, Jean Paul Vinay and Jean Darbenet, mainly relied on scientific linguistics to discuss translation rhetoric from the perspectives of functional stylistics and contrastive linguistics. After entering the 1960s, JC Catford clearly quoted the founder of the London School Firth (JR Firth, 1890–1960) and Firth's successor MAK Halliday's basic linguistic theories to solve the bilingual conversion. problem. E. Nida and G. Mounin mainly analyze the translation process from the perspective of structural linguistics. Among them, Nida's research results are the most eye-catching. During the 1970s and 1980s, Nida began to notice the weakness of linguistics that emphasized formal transformation and insufficient semantic research. Around the issue of "meaning" and cultural issues, many more books came out, and proposed "dynamic equivalence" (dynamic equivalence). , 1984), emphasizing the meaning view of social semiotics. In the second half of the 20th century, Western postmodern thoughts spread throughout Europe and the United States. Deconstructionism, in particular, has the deepest influence on cultural thoughts and academic thoughts. Western translation theories have also turned to "postmodernism" (especially comparative literary theory) to absorb theoretical ideas, and the great limitations of "postmodernism" have also emerged. Contemporary Western translation theory can be said to have entered a comprehensive use of various disciplines of linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, philosophy of language (including semantics), logic, aesthetics and other social sciences, as well as information theory, computer science, etc. The "comprehensive development period of translation theories" is a period of full bloom to solve translation problems. It seems that this is also the general trend of Western translation theory in the 21st century.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 15:06, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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=== Characteristics of the development of western translation theory ===<br />
<br />
To sum up, we can deduce the development track of translation theory in the West for more than 2000 years. Its characteristics are as follows.First, western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. "Greek civilization" covers a wide range. At that time, the translation mainly focused on Homer's epic Philosophy (focusing on the so-called "three philosophies", namely Socrates, Plato and Aristotle), literature and history (focusing on drama, prose and War History) and the democratic politics of Athens. In the west, the Bible The climax of translation did not appear until the 16th century. Due to the wide variety of translation subjects, translation theories also tend to be diversified, not just on the translation standards and requirements of scriptures. At the beginning of Chinese classical translation theory, it has always focused on the review of religious translation.<br />
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Second, western translation theory has a wide basis and a wide range, but it always focuses on linguistics. The main characters of Western classical and ancient translation theories are ancient Romans, based on the philosophy of classical Greece Aesthetics (poetics and classical rhetoric, which are also collectively referred to as ancient philology). Augustine, a classical translation theorist, is a classical aesthetician. Modern translation theory is mainly based on ancient philosophy, semantics, etymology and literature and art (poetics and tragedies) and historical comparative linguistics. In the early stage of modern translation theory, great attention was paid to semantics. At the same time, influenced by Saussure's socio semiotic view of language, structuralism, especially postmodern literary theory, they began to pay attention to language structure and cultural problems. In the later stage of western modern translation theory since the 1960s, translation theory and modern linguistics gradually combined and tended to rely on linguistics From the perspective of linguistics, it is marked by the decline of Bloomfield's structuralism and the prosperity of various disciplines of Applied Linguistics; From the perspective of translation theory, it is the gradual rise of scientific translation theory. Western traditional translation theory (especially in the period of classical translation theory and ancient translation theory) is often the "sideline" of masters in literature, history and philosophy Therefore, they usually develop translation art through literary creation and aesthetics. Since the later stage of modern translation theory, the western translation industry has developed greatly, and the subject matter has gone far beyond the traditional fields such as literature, history and philosophy. The specialization of translation promotes the development of translation theory to specialization, from general linguistics, postmodern literary theory, hermeneutics, traditional rhetoric, semantics The extension of historical comparative linguistics to many branches of Modern Applied Linguistics presents a new situation of all-round development. Another important reason for the early shift of western translation theory from aesthetics to linguistics is that the kinship of western languages makes it easier to realize homologous correspondence in word form and syntactic form This is exactly the purpose of historical comparative linguistics since the end of the 18th century. Translation theory and historical comparative linguistics can be described as "corresponding with one voice and seeking the same spirit". Of course, this is mainly on the side of translation theory.<br />
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Western languages generally belong to Indo European languages. Indo European languages are divided into eastern Indo European languages (mainly Baltic Slavic language group) and Western Indo European languages (mainly Germanic, Latin, Celtic and ancient Greek). As far as translation is concerned, since the source language and the target language belong to the same language family or even the same language family and language branch, and the language origins are the same or similar, translation theory has long paid attention to etymology, historical morphology and semantics, and since the 1950s and 1960s, it has paid great attention to modern linguistics The development of various disciplines, especially the transformational generative school, is one of the outstanding characteristics of western translation theory.<br />
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Third, traditionally, especially compared with Chinese traditional aesthetics, western aesthetics does not pay attention to language aesthetics, The rhetorical aesthetic propositions in Chinese aesthetic thought (wishful thinking and image, spirit and form, literature and quality, emptiness and reality, elegance and vulgarity, artistic conception theory, style theory, composition theory, rhetoric theory, etc.) are all absent in western aesthetics. This is largely due to the fact that western language is not a very perceptual language and emphasizes "grammatical logic" , which is quite different from Chinese. Western aesthetics has always paid attention to the essence of beauty and discussed the beauty of literature and art only as the expression of the essence of beauty. The early western aesthetic thought originated from the Pythagoras School (c580 – c500bc) and flourished in Plato and Aristotle. Ancient Greek and Roman Aesthetics focused on the "essence of beauty". At first, aesthetics was regarded as an integral part of philosophy. Until sugraty began to pay attention to the humanism of beauty and put forward that the standard of beauty lies in "utility to people" 。 Later western aesthetics was deeply influenced by classical aesthetics, and discussed the essence, emergence and expression of beauty. Western medieval aesthetics has a strong theological color. It holds that "the beauty of perceptual things is limited and the beauty of God is infinite". The former is intuitive and non purposeful, while the latter is "the highest beauty" and "the beauty of divinity". The scholastic philosophy aesthetics in the late Middle Ages, represented by the famous philosopher Thomas Aquinas, put forward "three factors of beauty", namely "integrity", "harmony" and "distinctiveness" Claritas basically doesn't talk about language aesthetics. Modern western aesthetics still focuses on the nature and form of beauty, which is deeply influenced by Aquinas. In the 18th century, the British Scholastics aesthetics believed that "beauty is a psychological activity produced by the form of objective foreign objects in line with people's subjective psychological structure". Kant (I. Kant, 1724 – 1804) under the influence of scholastic philosophy aesthetics, he combined the "psychological structure theory" with the "subjective talent theory" of German rationalists to launch the subjectivist "state of mind theory". After the mid-19th century, western modern aesthetics inherited Kant's influence, mostly from human subjectivity From the perspective of subjectivity, this paper discusses the essence of beauty and focuses on the attribute of beauty. The speculative color is very strong, which is basically "metaphysical", and language is the communication tool of "metaphysical". Since the 19th century, the general trend of western aesthetics has been to separate from the philosophical system and develop in the direction of specialization, diversification and multidisciplinary, from the speculative deduction of "top-down" to "top-down" Although the empirical evidence of "bottom-up" still adheres to the discussion of the definition and essential attributes of beauty, the aesthetic subject has gradually expanded to the broader field of the relationship between aesthetic subject and objective, and the methodology has shifted from simple induction or deduction to scientific experimental verification. Scientific empiricism and traditional humanistic aesthetics are the mainstream of Western Aesthetics in the 20th century.(Kant,1972, 103)<br />
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The separation of Western Aesthetics from philosophy coincides with the rise of historical comparative philology. This major historical development and change is to promote the transformation of western translation theory from aesthetics to literature (including modern and postmodern literary theory) and linguistics, which is also a remarkable feature of the development track of western translation theory different from Chinese translation theory. It is no accident that western translation theory is separated from aesthetics and appeals to linguistics.<br />
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=== Conclusion ===<br />
<br />
Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and modern translation theory period. The main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who represent the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. Translation theory in the period of ancient translation theory, accompanied by the Renaissance and religious reform, is characterized by literary translation and religious translation. The most important cultural phenomenon affecting translation theory in the pre-modern period is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. It can be said that contemporary western translation theory has entered a period of comprehensive development of social sciences such as linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, language philosophy, logic and aesthetics, as well as translation theories such as information theory and computer science. Western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. The basis of western translation theory is relatively broad, and the scope of translation theory is relatively wide, but it always focuses on linguistics.<br />
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=== References ===<br />
<br />
Ferdinand De Saussure索绪尔著；高名凯译. 普通语言学教程Course in General Linguistics. 北京：商务印书馆Beijing:The Commercial Press., 2017.<br />
<br />
Ferdinand De Saussure索绪尔著；张绍杰导读. 语言学入门 Introduction to Linguistics. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社Beijing: foreign language teaching and Research Press, 2001.10.<br />
<br />
Ferdinand De Saussure索绪尔著；于秀英译. 普通语言学导论general linguistics. 北京：商务印书馆Beijing:The Commercial Press, 2020.<br />
<br />
H. G. Gadamer，Philosophical Hermeneutics, UC Press, Berkeley, 1977.<br />
<br />
L. G. Kelly，The True Interpreter: A History of Translation Theory and Practice in West, Oxford, 1979.<br />
<br />
Susan Bassnett-Mcquire，Translation Studies, Methuen, London& New York, 1980.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. 西方翻译简史[M] A brief history of Western Translation.北京：商务印书馆 Beijing:The Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
William Thomson威廉·汤姆逊，黄振华译. 十九世纪末以前的语言学史The history of linguistics before the end of the 19th century . 北京/西安：世界图书出版公司Beijing / Xi'an: World Book Publishing Company, 2009.<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzheng 谢天振．中西翻译简史［M］A brief history of Chinese and Western Translation．北京:外语教学与研究出版社 Beijing: foreign language teaching and Research Press.</div>Zhang Yiranhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_4&diff=132371Hist Trans Theo EN 42021-12-13T15:20:51Z<p>Zhang Yiran: /* Period of classical translation theory */</p>
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=Chapter 4 An Overview of the Development of Western Translation Theories =<br />
===西方翻译理论发展概述===<br />
'''Zeng Junlin，曾俊霖, Hunan Normal University, China'''<br />
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=== Abstract ===<br />
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Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and modern translation theory period. The main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who represent the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. Translation theory in the period of ancient translation theory, accompanied by the Renaissance and religious reform, is characterized by literary translation and religious translation. The most important cultural phenomenon affecting translation theory in the pre-modern period is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. It can be said that contemporary western translation theory has entered a period of comprehensive development of social sciences such as linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, language philosophy, logic and aesthetics, as well as translation theories such as information theory and computer science. Western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. The basis of western translation theory is relatively broad, and the scope of translation theory is relatively wide, but it always focuses on linguistics.<br />
<br />
Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and contemporary translation theory period. The main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who represent the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. Translation theory in the period of ancient translation theory, accompanied by the Renaissance and religious reform, is characterized by literary translation and religious translation. The most important cultural phenomenon affecting translation theory in the pre-modern period is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. It can be said that contemporary western translation theory has entered a period of comprehensive development of social sciences such as linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, language philosophy, logic and aesthetics, as well as translation theories such as information theory and computer science. Western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. The basis of western translation theory is relatively broad, and the scope of translation theory is relatively wide, but it always focuses on linguistics.Corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:32, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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=== Key Words ===<br />
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Western translation theory，classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period，modern translation theory period<br />
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=== 摘要 ===<br />
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西方译论可以大致分为古典译论期、古代译论期、近代译论期、现代译论期等四个时期。古典译论期的主要译论家是西塞罗、霍拉斯和杰罗姆，他们代表了西方译论长达2000年发展史的源头。古代译论期的译论伴随文艺复兴和宗教改革，以文艺翻译和宗教翻译为特征。前现代期在文化上影响译论的最重要的现象是启蒙中古代语文学和诠释学派的发展。当代西方译论可以说进入了一个综合利用语言学各学科、后现代文论、符号学、修辞学、语言哲学、逻辑学、美学等社会科学以及信息理论、计算机科学等翻译理论综合开发期。西方翻译发轫于古罗马对希腊文明的渴求，即所谓爱琴海文明的西进。西方译论的立论依据比较广，译论范围也比较宽，但始终围绕语言学展开。<br />
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===关键词 ===<br />
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西方译论，古典译论期，古代译论期，近代译论期，现代译论期<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
From the overall historical development process, Chinese and western translation theories have an indissoluble bond with aesthetics from the beginning.<br />
<br />
However, the development of translation theory in the west is different from that in China. Western translation theory and Chinese translation theory are in very different historical and social conditions, in very different national cultural soil and social ecological environment. They have very different philosophical and aesthetic origins, and provide them with theoretical ideas as the driving force of evolution and development. Therefore, western translation theory and Chinese translation theory must move forward along their respective development tracks. No matter from the diachronic vertical or synchronic section, the dependence between western translation theory and philosophy aesthetics is far less than that of Chinese traditional translation theory.<br />
<br />
We can first analyze it from the historical development. Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and modern translation theory period.<br />
<br />
George Steiner divides Western translation theory into the following four periods in his famous book After Babel: The first period is from Cicero and Horace to Taitler, and the later book Essay on the Principles of Translation is published ( 1791) as a symbol; the second period is from the end of the 19th century to the 1940s, with Valery as a representative; the third period is marked by the advent and development of machine translation technology and theory in the 1940s; the fourth period Generally parallel to the third period, it is marked by hermeneutic and metaphysical inquiries (hermeneutic and metaphysical inquiries). Steiner's periodization has been criticized by Western translation theory circles.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
From the overall historical development process, Chinese and western translation theories have an indissoluble bond with aesthetics from the beginning.<br />
<br />
However, the development of translation theory in the west is different from that in China. Western translation theory and Chinese translation theory are in very different historical and social conditions, in very different national cultural background and social ecological environment. They have very different philosophical and aesthetic origins, and provide them with theoretical ideas as the driving force of evolution and development. Therefore, western translation theory and Chinese translation theory must move forward along their respective development tracks. No matter from the diachronic vertical or synchronic section, the dependence between western translation theory and philosophy aesthetics is far less than that of Chinese traditional translation theory.<br />
<br />
We can first analyze it from the historical development. Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and contemporary translation theory period.<br />
<br />
George Steiner divides Western translation theory into the following four periods in his famous book After Babel: The first period is from Cicero and Horace to Taitler, and the later book Essay on the Principles of Translation is published ( 1791) as a symbol; the second period is from the end of the 19th century to the 1940s, with Valery as a representative; the third period is marked by the advent and development of machine translation technology and theory in the 1940s; the fourth period Generally parallel to the third period, it is marked by hermeneutic and metaphysical inquiries (hermeneutic and metaphysical inquiries). Steiner's periodization has been criticized by Western translation theory circles.Corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:38, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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=== Period of classical translation theory ===<br />
<br />
This is the initial period of western translation theory. According to the textual research of Rosetta Stone (discovered in 1799) by Western Egyptologists, western translation activities may have started in 2000 BC. Due to the long history and lack of historical evidence, it is impossible to test whether there were translation theories in 1900 before Cicero. There are four main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory. The first three are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who is the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. The western translation theory in the classical period is mainly based on the ancient Greek philosophers, especially the rhetoric and poetics written by Aristotle. These are two classic works that have a deep impact on Western literary aesthetics. Rhetoric expounds oratory by using the methodology of ancient psychology. Its main purpose is to emphasize the power of language infection and the means to achieve the effect of language infection - language style, and points out that only a beautiful article style can have the power of sensing and imparting. Therefore, speakers must abide by the principle that the use of language should strive to be clear and appropriate, and should not be artificial, so as not to damage the momentum of language due to affectation, and the conditions to ensure the momentum of language are accurate and relevant. In addition, Aristotle believes that the momentum of the article is also closely related to the form of writing. Speakers should adopt prose form. They should neither rhyme, nor ignore the rhythm, nor ignore the vividness of the words. No matter what style is adopted, or slow or high, the writing is naturally the first important meaning. Aristotle is the first classical aesthetic master in the west to affirm "the perceptual reality of beauty".<br />
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Under the influence of ancient Greek philosophers such as Thales, Plato and Aristotle, Cicero put forward the naturalism and momentum theory of translation, opposed the translation of "word for word" and advocated the translation of "sense for sense". This argument has a profound impact on western translation studies. In philosophy, Cicero was influenced by Plato to maintain "reason", but in translation theory, he opposed to damaging the natural beauty and momentum beauty of the translation with "rigid application of reason".Horace agrees with Cicero's proposition, opposes the standard of "rigid notes of" fidelity "as the translation, opposes the translator becoming a slave translator who only follows the mandate of the original text, and advocates the use of" aesthetic criteria "in translation. It can be seen that what is valuable is the methodological dialectical view of Xi and Huo. Jerome was the first translator to translate the Hebrew Bible into Latin, the translator of the Vulgate, and the successor of Cicero's translation style. Jerome advocates the natural theory of translation and maintains Cicero's legacy. He believes that the translator has the right to break through the formal constraints of the original syntax, but must abide by the correspondence of words at the morpheme level and be faithful to the original text. Therefore, Jerome was a popular translation theorist in the 5th century. Augustine, the fourth representative figure in the classical period, plays a connecting role, that is, from Cicero, Horace and Jerome to Thomas Aquinas (c1225 – 1274ad), the most important scholastic philosopher in the middle ages. As a classical ancient translation theorist, Augustine's first achievement is to inherit and develop Aristotle's semiotic theory. When discussing "symbols", Aristotle aims to develop its rhetorical function. For "free word order languages" such as Latin, the beauty of symbolic form obviously has rhetorical visual value. Augustine expanded Aristotle's symbolic formal framework from the signifier function of the symbol to the signified layer, and pointed out that the "signifier", the human psychological structure, is derived from human's "perception of reality", and the "signifier" is a "sound set" associated with it (the group of vocal sounds); as far as words are concerned, it only represents the sign of the reference, which is arbitrary. It can be seen that Austen's views on symbols pointed out the direction for the modern semiotic theory in the early 20th century. Unfortunately, Austen's research was not valued by the translation theorists until the second half of the middle ages. Augustine's second achievement is that he put forward aesthetic propositions such as "beauty is suitability", "order", "harmony" and "unity". Based on his aesthetics, he advocates the advantages of translation. He pays more attention to the problem of form than Jerome. At the same time, he is persistent in the correspondence of semantics at the level of semantic morpheme or sememe. Augustine is a transitional figure entering the Middle Ages in the history of European aesthetics, as well as in translation theory. （Susan Bassnett-Mcquire,1980,43–44）<br />
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The period of classical translation theory is a very important period in the history of western translation studies. At that time, the focus of translation circles was to introduce the culture of ancient Greece, which is called "Hellenization" in history. Classical "Greek culture" is as bright as stars, which makes translators and translation theorists energetic and aspire to it. This is different from Chinese classical translation theory (Buddhist Scripture Translation in China). The introduction of Greek culture by the ancient Romans has nothing to do with religion, but involves epic, lyric poetry, philosophy aesthetics, architecture, rhetoric, literature and art (Poetics), drama, history, war history and so on. Its similarity with Chinese classical translation theory is that they all turn to aesthetic ideas and principles. As far as aesthetic ontology is concerned, Western classical aesthetics involves a wide range of categories, and there are a large number of talents. Thales is the first Western philosopher to replace mythological thinking (ignorant thinking) with rational thinking. He advocates the theory that "the most beautiful is the universe" and advocates nature. Pythagoras (c580 – c500bc) is regarded as the discoverer of the golden section and advocates the "beauty of harmony". Herakleitus (c540 – 470bc) put forward the subjective aesthetic view of "looking for oneself", holding that "harmony comes from opposition", which is the germination of Classical Dialectics. Hester also raised the issue of the relativity of beauty, advocated rationality, and advocated thinking, understanding and the control of the mind. Demokritus (C460 – 370bc) is the first natural science philosopher in the West and the first aesthetician to demonstrate sensory experience and image. These four people are the so-called "pre Socrates" in ancient Greece. Together with Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, they form the origin of western academic thought. Of course, it is natural that the sprouting of translation studies is attached to the theory of sages.<br />
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This is the origin period of western translation theory. According to the textual research of Rosetta Stone (discovered in 1799) by Western Egyptologists, western translation activities may have started in 2000 BC. Due to the long history and lack of historical evidence, it is impossible to test whether there were translation theories in 1900 before Cicero. There are four main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory. The first three are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who is the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. The western translation theory in the classical period is mainly based on the ancient Greek philosophers, especially the rhetoric and poetics written by Aristotle. These are two classic works that have a deep impact on Western literary aesthetics. Rhetoric expounds oratory by using the methodology of ancient psychology. Its main purpose is to emphasize the power of language infection and the means to achieve the effect of language infection - language style, and points out that only a beautiful article style can have the power of sensing and imparting. Therefore, speakers must abide by the principle that the use of language should strive to be clear and appropriate, and should not be artificial, so as not to damage the momentum of language due to affectation, and the conditions to ensure the momentum of language are accurate and relevant. In addition, Aristotle believes that the momentum of the article is also closely related to the form of writing. Speakers should adopt prose form. They should neither rhyme, nor ignore the rhythm, nor ignore the vividness of the words. No matter what style is adopted, or slow or high, the writing is naturally the first important meaning. Aristotle is the first classical aesthetic master in the west to affirm "the perceptual reality of beauty".<br />
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Under the influence of ancient Greek philosophers such as Thales, Plato and Aristotle, Cicero put forward the naturalism and momentum theory of translation, opposed the translation of "word for word" and advocated the translation of "sense for sense". This argument has a profound impact on western translation studies. In philosophy, Cicero was influenced by Plato to maintain "reason", but in translation theory, he opposed to damaging the natural beauty and momentum beauty of the translation with "rigid application of reason".Horace agrees with Cicero's proposition, opposes the standard of "rigid notes of" fidelity "as the translation, opposes the translator becoming a slave translator who only follows the mandate of the original text, and advocates the use of" aesthetic criteria "in translation. It can be seen that what is valuable is the methodological dialectical view of Xi and Huo. Jerome was the first translator to translate the Hebrew Bible into Latin, the translator of the Vulgate, and the successor of Cicero's translation style. Jerome advocates the natural theory of translation and maintains Cicero's legacy. He believes that the translator has the right to break through the formal constraints of the original syntax, but must abide by the correspondence of words at the morpheme level and be faithful to the original text. Therefore, Jerome was a popular translation theorist in the 5th century. Augustine, the fourth representative figure in the classical period, plays a connecting role, that is, from Cicero, Horace and Jerome to Thomas Aquinas (c1225 – 1274ad), the most important scholastic philosopher in the middle ages. As a classical ancient translation theorist, Augustine's first achievement is to inherit and develop Aristotle's semiotic theory. When discussing "symbols", Aristotle aims to develop its rhetorical function. For "free word order languages" such as Latin, the beauty of symbolic form obviously has rhetorical visual value. Augustine expanded Aristotle's symbolic formal framework from the signifier function of the symbol to the signified layer, and pointed out that the "signifier", the human psychological structure, is derived from human's "perception of reality", and the "signifier" is a "sound set" associated with it (the group of vocal sounds); as far as words are concerned, it only represents the sign of the reference, which is arbitrary. It can be seen that Austen's views on symbols pointed out the direction for the modern semiotic theory in the early 20th century. Unfortunately, Austen's research was not valued by the translation theorists until the second half of the middle ages. Augustine's second achievement is that he put forward aesthetic propositions such as "beauty is suitability", "order", "harmony" and "unity". Based on his aesthetics, he advocates the advantages of translation. He pays more attention to the problem of form than Jerome. At the same time, he is persistent in the correspondence of semantics at the level of semantic morpheme or sememe. Augustine is a transitional figure entering the Middle Ages in the history of European aesthetics, as well as in translation theory. （Susan Bassnett-Mcquire,1980,43–44）<br />
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The period of classical translation theory is a very important period in the history of western translation studies. At that time, the focus of translation circles was to introduce the culture of ancient Greece, which is called "Hellenization" in history. Classical "Greek culture" is as bright as stars, which makes translators and translation theorists energetic and aspire to it. This is different from Chinese classical translation theory (Buddhist Scripture Translation in China). The introduction of Greek culture by the ancient Romans has nothing to do with religion, but involves epic, lyric poetry, philosophy aesthetics, architecture, rhetoric, literature and art (Poetics), drama, history, war history and so on. Its similarity with Chinese classical translation theory is that they all turn to aesthetic ideas and principles. As far as aesthetic ontology is concerned, Western classical aesthetics involves a wide range of categories, and there are a large number of talents. Thales is the first Western philosopher to replace mythological thinking (ignorant thinking) with rational thinking. He advocates the theory that "the most beautiful is the universe" and advocates nature. Pythagoras (c580 – c500bc) is regarded as the discoverer of the golden section and advocates the "beauty of harmony". Herakleitus (c540 – 470bc) put forward the subjective aesthetic view of "looking for oneself", holding that "harmony comes from opposition", which is the germination of Classical Dialectics. Hester also raised the issue of the relativity of beauty, advocated rationality, and advocated thinking, understanding and the control of the mind. Demokritus (C460 – 370bc) is the first natural science philosopher in the West and the first aesthetician to demonstrate sensory experience and image. These four people are the so-called "pre Socrates" in ancient Greece. Together with Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, they form the origin of western academic thought. Of course, it is natural that the sprouting of translation studies is attached to the theory of sages.Correted by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:54, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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=== Period of ancient translation theory ===<br />
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The second period of western translation theory, the ancient period, lasted a long time, from the "post Augustine" period at the end of the 5th century to the eve of the European industrial revolution, that is, the late 18th century, covering the whole Middle Ages and about 300 years later (500-1795). Translation theory in this period was accompanied by two great historical achievements: the Renaissance and the religious reform. Therefore, the translation theory in this period is characterized by cultural literary translation and religious (Scripture) translation.<br />
The prelude to the European Renaissance (which began in the 14th century, peaked in the 15th and 16th centuries and ended in the mid-17th century) is the flourishing of Christian civilization, marked by the so-called "edict of Milan" issued by Constantine I (C280 – 337ad). The imperial edict authorized Christianity to obtain legal status in the Roman Empire. Since then, Christianity has become more and more popular through the influence of the Holy See. The Scriptures have been proofread and translated by Jerome and Augustine. Christian civilization has flourished all over Europe in the early Middle Ages.<br />
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At the same time, European social economy also appeared commercialization and handicrafts under the framework of medieval Christian civilization, leading to the emergence of city-state politics and urban landscape, which was the initial light of the Renaissance. By the 13th century, there were many European literary and artistic masters, including Dante (1265 – 1321, the author of Divine Comedy), Boccaccio (1313 – 1375, the author of Decameron), Leonardo da Vinci (1452 – 1519) and raffaelo Sanzio rapheal (1483 – 1520), who awakened European national consciousness and the so-called "all talent ideal"（ The worship and pursuit of "the well-sound personality" had a profound impact. What went hand in hand with the prosperity of literature and art and the development of city-state politics was the popularity of social and political theories and new social trends of thought at that time. Europeans scrambled to study the famous works discoveries on Livy (1531) by Nicolo Machiavelli (1569 – 1527). Someone described the grand translation of the time and said: "The entire city of Rome became a translation factory, specializing in the production of translations from Greek to Latin". In fact, the grand translation at the time was far more than just in Rome, and not only between Greek and Latin. Florence is not inferior to Rome. From the 14th to the 16th century, the city of Buddhism was the center of Italian literature and art. The grand translation of Europe at the time was very much in line with Bruno's (Giordano Bruno, c1548–1600) prediction. He said: "All science can only bear fruit with the help of translation." (Steiner,1975, 259)<br />
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All this made The "translation industry" has developed unprecedentedly. Translation practice has promoted translation research. At this time, there are different translation theories, and the scope of discussion has gone beyond the vision of classical translation theorists, with a strong color of verification. One of the best, which can be said to be the first Western philosopher to comprehensively attack translation, is Roger Bacon (C1214 – 1292) Bacon was a pioneer in the field of Natural Science in the 13th century. He condemned the translation between Greek, Hebrew and Latin as full of semantic distortion "with the philosophical insight of natural scientists", which reduced the translation to a "hodgepodge of errors and misunderstandings". (L. G. Kelly,1979, 9)<br />
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It was driven by Bacon's call to put things right that the Bible appeared John Wycliffe (c1330 – 1384), a religious reformer, translated the first English translation of the Bible of Wycliffe. His influential translation of the Bible of Wycliffe reflects the spirit of verification of Bacon's later progressive translation theory, which was invaluable in the ignorant middle ages. Wycliffe believed that Christ was the master of mankind and opposed the church's "orthodox doctrine" (the orthodox church doctrine) arbitrarily interpreted the meaning of the Bible, denounced the "papal infallibility", refused to accept the Vatican's arbitrary interpretation of the Scriptures and adhered to the semantics of the original language, thus posing strong doubts and challenges to the translation. In fact, this is a religious reform movement advocated by Martin Luther on the European continent (the reform, C1520 – c1525) has a far-reaching impact on the history of translation in Britain and even Europe. Social criticism and scholars' verification have greatly improved the level of translation. Following Roger Bacon, many people in Europe have successively raised challenges to translation, pointing out that there were three major criticisms of translation at that time: one was to know what it said but not what it meant; the other was to know what it meant but not what it meant. ; The third is that they are both ignorant and ignorant. Although this attack is mainly aimed at the translation of the Bible, it is actually very common. This period is a productive period in the history of European translation.(L. G. Kelly,1979, 10)<br />
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The second period of western translation theory - the ancient period, lasted a long time, from the "post Augustine" period at the end of the 5th century to the eve of the European industrial revolution, that is, the late 18th century, covering the whole Middle Ages and about 300 years later (500-1795). Translation theory in this period was accompanied by two great historical achievements: the Renaissance and the religious reform. Therefore, the translation theory in this period is characterized by cultural literary translation and religious (Scripture) translation.<br />
The prelude to the European Renaissance (which began in the 14th century, peaked in the 15th and 16th centuries and ended in the mid-17th century) is the flourishing of Christian civilization, marked by the so-called "edict of Milan" issued by Constantine I (C280 – 337ad). The imperial edict authorized Christianity to obtain legal status in the Roman Empire. Since then, Christianity has become more and more popular through the influence of the Holy See. The Scriptures have been proofread and translated by Jerome and Augustine. Christian civilization has flourished all over Europe in the early Middle Ages.<br />
<br />
At the same time, European social economy also appeared commercialization and handicrafts under the framework of medieval Christian civilization, leading to the emergence of city-state politics and urban landscape, which was the initial light of the Renaissance. By the 13th century, there were many European literary and artistic masters, including Dante (1265 – 1321, the author of Divine Comedy), Boccaccio (1313 – 1375, the author of Decameron), Leonardo da Vinci (1452 – 1519) and raffaelo Sanzio rapheal (1483 – 1520), who awakened European national consciousness and the so-called "all talent ideal"（ The worship and pursuit of "the well-sound personality" had a profound impact. What went hand in hand with the prosperity of literature and art and the development of city-state politics was the popularity of social and political theories and new social trends of thought at that time. Europeans scrambled to study the famous works discoveries on Livy (1531) by Nicolo Machiavelli (1569 – 1527). Someone described the grand translation of the time and said: "The entire city of Rome became a translation factory, specializing in the production of translations from Greek to Latin". In fact, the grand translation at the time was far more than just in Rome, and not only between Greek and Latin. Florence is not inferior to Rome. From the 14th to the 16th century, the city of Buddhism was the center of Italian literature and art. The grand translation of Europe at the time was very much in line with Bruno's (Giordano Bruno, c1548–1600) prediction. He said: "All science can only bear fruit with the help of translation." (Steiner,1975, 259)<br />
<br />
All this made The "translation industry" has developed unprecedentedly. Translation practice has promoted translation research. At this time, there are different translation theories, and the scope of discussion has gone beyond the vision of classical translation theorists, with a strong color of verification. One of the best, which can be said to be the first Western philosopher to comprehensively attack translation, is Roger Bacon (C1214 – 1292) Bacon was a pioneer in the field of Natural Science in the 13th century. He condemned the translation between Greek, Hebrew and Latin as full of semantic distortion "with the philosophical insight of natural scientists", which reduced the translation to a "hodgepodge of errors and misunderstandings". (L. G. Kelly,1979, 9)<br />
<br />
It was driven by Bacon's call to put things right that the Bible appeared John Wycliffe (c1330 – 1384), a religious reformer, translated the first English translation of the Bible of Wycliffe. His influential translation of the Bible of Wycliffe reflects the spirit of verification of Bacon's later progressive translation theory, which was invaluable in the ignorant middle ages. Wycliffe believed that Christ was the master of mankind and opposed the church's "orthodox doctrine" (the orthodox church doctrine) arbitrarily interpreted the meaning of the Bible, denounced the "papal infallibility", refused to accept the Vatican's arbitrary interpretation of the Scriptures and adhered to the semantics of the original language, thus posing strong doubts and challenges to the translation. In fact, this is a religious reform movement advocated by Martin Luther on the European continent (the reform, C1520 – c1525) has a far-reaching impact on the history of translation in Britain and even Europe. Social criticism and scholars' verification have greatly improved the level of translation. Following Roger Bacon, many people in Europe have successively raised challenges to translation, pointing out that there were three major criticisms of translation at that time: one was to know what it said but not what it meant; the other was to know what it meant but not what it meant. ; The third is that they are both ignorant and ignorant. Although this attack is mainly aimed at the translation of the Bible, it is actually very common. This period is a productive period in the history of European translation.(L. G. Kelly,1979, 10)--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:59, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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=== Period of Pre-Modern translation theory ===<br />
This is the third period of western translation theory, or "pre modern period", that is, from the religious reform (1517-1648) of wilcliff and Martin Luther in the mid-17th century to the end of the 19th century, the argument began to gradually turn to classical philology and language philosophy. The major historical events during this period were the European Industrial Revolution (1750's – 1830's) and the French Revolution (1788-1799), as well as the germination and evolution of European middle-class economy and its ideology before and after this period. The most important phenomenon affecting translation theory in culture is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. After the Renaissance, the focus of European language research was still Latin and Greek, which had been in a secondary position. The social and economic development since the enlightenment and the industrial revolution obviously put forward many problems for multilingual communication. The first ones are etymology, semantics and historical comparative linguistics. In fact, historical comparative linguistics is the result of the development and exploration of the first two. Ancient Chinese literature originated in Italy in the 15th century, and its development was also promoted by many factors such as the Renaissance, the spread of Christianity, and the expansion of colonialism that stimulated language contact. The heyday representatives of historical comparative linguistics are the Danish linguist Rask (R. C. Rask, 1787–1832) and the German linguist Bopp (F. Bopp, 1791–1867). Especially after wilcliff and Martin Luther, translators increasingly doubt the interpretation of language by the Holy See, the church and scholastic philosophy in the long middle ages, and doubt the "Deviation", misunderstanding and even intentional distortion of "translation" to the "signified". Rousseau's democratic thought had a strong and profound impact on European conservatism.(V. Thomsen,1960,43）<br />
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Understanding this historical background, we can clearly understand why when Taylor put forward the famous "three principles of translation" at the end of the 18th century (1791), he first pointed out that "translation should completely convey the idea of the original text, supplemented by the natural fluency of the expression and style of the translation". Almost at the same time, tattler and George Campbell, who proposed that "the beauty of the translation can be discussed only if we are loyal to the original meaning", marked the end of the era when the western traditional translation theory mainly relied on classical aesthetics and literature and art. On the other hand, although the Chinese School represented by Goethe is fully mature, it can not solve many major problems raised by the spread of Christian civilization and the unprecedented development of translation practice in breadth and depth since the Renaissance and the industrial revolution. Among these problems, the first and most important is the problem of meaning, that is, the so-called "transfer of the truth value of meaning" in translation. Johann W. von Goethe (Johann W. von Goethe) is known as "the last embodiment of the Renaissance ideal", and his basic translation theory advocates "the perfect identity between the SL and the TL" . To this end, the translator must have ingenuity and creativity, and adopt a unique way of expression. This is the best translation, and the next thing is imitation and prose.<br />
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Exploring "semantic truth" is the basic proposition of the hermeneutic school. The representative of the hermeneutic school in modern translation theory is Friedrich D. E. Schleiermacher (1768 – 1845). Ancient hermeneutics believed that the task of interpretation was to interpret the "oracle", which originated in ancient Greece and was derived from the name of "Hermes", the messenger who conveyed the gods. Before Schleiermacher, hermeneutics was full of religious mysticism in the middle ages, which believed that people's "understanding" or "not understanding" of text (at that time mainly refers to holy scripts, i.e. the Bible) was "all based on divine will", and both of them were "theological subjective phenomena". Schleiermacher's merit lies in pointing out that the so-called "incomprehension" is actually a "misinterpretation", and "the true meaning of the text lies entirely in what it 'seems' to say. If we want to rediscover the true meaning of the text, we must carefully reconstruct the life reality generated by the historical background or meaning at that time."  Schleiermacher also further put forward the means to obtain the true meaning ("original meaning", i.e. philosophical "Sein"), that is, the so-called "theory of hermeneutic circle" and more than 40 norms of "grammatical interpretation" and "psychological interpretation" . There is no doubt about the significance of this to the development of European translation practice. It was driven by the school of hermeneutics that Friedrich Schlegel (1772 – 1879), Samuel T. Coleridge (1772 – 1834), William Morries (1834 – 1896), Thomas Carlyle (1795 – 1881), Matthew Arnold and Dante D. Rossetti (1828 – 1882) were formed European Romanticism (mainly in Germany) and the corresponding wave of critical realism (mainly in Britain) as a response to the French Revolution. During this period, the mainstream of the translation theory forum was the Chinese school with literary masters as the backbone and the hermeneutic school that later kept pace with it. There is no doubt that this is one of the important development periods in the history of European translation.(H. G. Gadamer,1977, xiii)<br />
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This is the third period of western translation theory, or "pre modern period", that is, from the religious reform (1517-1648) of wilcliff and Martin Luther in the mid-17th century to the end of the 19th century, the argument began to gradually turn to classical philology and language philosophy. The major historical events during this period were the European Industrial Revolution (1750's – 1830's) and the French Revolution (1788-1799), as well as the germination and evolution of European middle-class economy and its ideology before and after this period. The most important phenomenon affecting translation theory in culture is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. After the Renaissance, the focus of European language research was still Latin and Greek, which had been in a secondary position. The social and economic development since the enlightenment and the industrial revolution obviously put forward many problems for multilingual communication. The first ones are etymology, semantics and historical comparative linguistics. In fact, historical comparative linguistics is the result of the development and exploration of the first two. Ancient Chinese literature originated in Italy in the 15th century, and its development was also promoted by many factors such as the Renaissance, the spread of Christianity, and the expansion of colonialism that stimulated language contact. The heyday representatives of historical comparative linguistics are the Danish linguist Rask (R. C. Rask, 1787–1832) and the German linguist Bopp (F. Bopp, 1791–1867). Especially after wilcliff and Martin Luther, translators increasingly doubt the interpretation of language by the Holy See, the church and scholastic philosophy in the long middle ages, and doubt the "Deviation", misunderstanding and even intentional distortion of "translation" to the "signified". Rousseau's democratic thought had a strong and profound impact on European conservatism.(V. Thomsen,1960,43）<br />
<br />
Understanding this historical background, we can clearly understand why when Taylor put forward the famous "three principles of translation" at the end of the 18th century (1791), he first pointed out that "translation should completely convey the idea of the original text, supplemented by the natural fluency of the expression and style of the translation". Almost at the same time, tattler and George Campbell, who proposed that "the beauty of the translation can be discussed only if we are loyal to the original meaning", marked the end of the era when the western traditional translation theory mainly relied on classical aesthetics and literature and art. On the other hand, although the Chinese School represented by Goethe is fully mature, it can not solve many major problems raised by the spread of Christian civilization and the unprecedented development of translation practice in breadth and depth since the Renaissance and the industrial revolution. Among these problems, the first and most important is the problem of meaning, that is, the so-called "transfer of the truth value of meaning" in translation. Johann W. von Goethe (Johann W. von Goethe) is known as "the last embodiment of the Renaissance ideal", and his basic translation theory advocates "the perfect identity between the SL and the TL" . To this end, the translator must have ingenuity and creativity, and adopt a unique way of expression. This is the best translation, and the next thing is imitation and prose.<br />
<br />
Exploring "semantic truth" is the basic proposition of the hermeneutic school. The representative of the hermeneutic school in modern translation theory is Friedrich D. E. Schleiermacher (1768 – 1845). Ancient hermeneutics believed that the task of interpretation was to interpret the "oracle", which originated in ancient Greece and was derived from the name of "Hermes", the messenger who conveyed the gods. Before Schleiermacher, hermeneutics was full of religious mysticism in the middle ages, which believed that people's "understanding" or "not understanding" of text (at that time mainly refers to holy scripts, i.e. the Bible) was "all based on divine will", and both of them were "theological subjective phenomena". Schleiermacher's merit lies in pointing out that the so-called "incomprehension" is actually a "misinterpretation", and "the true meaning of the text lies entirely in what it 'seems' to say. If we want to rediscover the true meaning of the text, we must carefully reconstruct the life reality generated by the historical background or meaning at that time."  Schleiermacher also further put forward the means to obtain the true meaning ("original meaning", i.e. philosophical "Sein"), that is, the so-called "theory of hermeneutic circle" and more than 40 norms of "grammatical interpretation" and "psychological interpretation" . There is no doubt about the significance of this to the development of European translation practice. It was driven by the school of hermeneutics that Friedrich Schlegel (1772 – 1879), Samuel T. Coleridge (1772 – 1834), William Morries (1834 – 1896), Thomas Carlyle (1795 – 1881), Matthew Arnold and Dante D. Rossetti (1828 – 1882) were formed European Romanticism (mainly in Germany) and the corresponding wave of critical realism (mainly in Britain) as a response to the French Revolution. During this period, the mainstream of the translation theory forum was the Chinese school with literary masters as the backbone and the hermeneutic school that later kept pace with it. There is no doubt that this is one of the important development periods in the history of European translation.(H. G. Gadamer,1977, xiii)--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 15:03, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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=== Period of Modern translation theory ===<br />
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The fourth period is The Modern Period. This period can actually be divided into two stages. The first stage is from the end of the 19th century to the 1950s. It can also be called the "Pre-Modern Linguistic Period". Parallel to it is The Pre-Modern Linguistic Period. The Swiss linguist Saussure The study of modern linguistics was the starting point (1891), which marked the publication of the first scientific linguistics book "Cours de Linguistique Generale" (Cours de Linguistique Generale, 1916). Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913) is the founder of modern linguistics and a pioneer of structural linguistics. His main contribution is to point out the arbitrariness of linguistic signs and the linearity of the signifier; language has internal and external distinctions, diachronic and synchronic distinctions. The value of language signs is constantly evolving, so a descriptive attitude should be taken to language instead of It is prescribed. Saussure's scientific linguistics has a profound influence on western modern linguistics and translation theories.<br />
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The second stage started from the 1960s to the present, which can also be said to be the period of contemporary translation theory. During this period, modern science and technology developed rapidly. Natural sciences and social sciences were directly or indirectly driven by The Systems Theory, Control Theory or Cybernetics, and Information Theory. Advance. Modern linguistics has developed from structuralism as the mainstream to a situation where there are many new disciplines and schools. Among them, the French functional linguistics, the London school, the transformational generative grammar, sociolinguistics, and modern stylistics ( Functional stylistics), pragmatics, psycholinguistics and other emerging disciplines and schools of applied linguistics.<br />
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In the period of modern translation theory, the development of language science is very closely related to Western translation theory. Roman Jacobson (Roman Jacobson, 1896–1982), a translation theorist at the early stage of modern translation theory, is one of the founders of the Prague School and a well-known phonetician. Obviously, Jacobson's discourse on translated poems is based on phoneme analysis. Jacobson believes that poetry is "untranslatable" strictly speaking, because poetry is subject to the constraints of the arrangement relationship between phonemes and sememes, that is, units of meaning. To get rid of this constraint, translation The family can only resort to "transplantation" and it is "no less than creative transplantation of different language symbols (phonetic arrangements) created". Two prominent translation theorists in the 1950s, Jean Paul Vinay and Jean Darbenet, mainly relied on scientific linguistics to discuss translation rhetoric from the perspectives of functional stylistics and contrastive linguistics. After entering the 1960s, JC Catford clearly quoted the founder of the London School Firth (JR Firth, 1890–1960) and Firth's successor MAK Halliday's basic linguistic theories to solve the bilingual conversion. problem. E. Nida and G. Mounin mainly analyze the translation process from the perspective of structural linguistics. Among them, Nida's research results are the most eye-catching. During the 1970s and 1980s, Nida began to notice the weakness of linguistics that emphasized formal transformation and insufficient semantic research. Around the issue of "meaning" and cultural issues, many more books came out, and proposed "dynamic equivalence" (dynamic equivalence). , 1984), emphasizing the meaning view of social semiotics. In the second half of the 20th century, Western postmodern thoughts spread throughout Europe and the United States. Deconstructionism, in particular, has the deepest influence on cultural thoughts and academic thoughts. Western translation theories have also turned to "postmodernism" (especially comparative literary theory) to absorb theoretical ideas, and the great limitations of "postmodernism" have also emerged. Contemporary Western translation theory can be said to have entered a comprehensive use of various disciplines of linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, philosophy of language (including semantics), logic, aesthetics and other social sciences, as well as information theory, computer science, etc. The "comprehensive development period of translation theories" is a period of full bloom to solve translation problems. It seems that this is also the general trend of Western translation theory in the 21st century.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The fourth period is The contemporary Period. This period can actually be divided into two stages. The first stage is from the end of the 19th century to the 1950s. It can also be called the "Pre-Modern Linguistic Period". Parallel to it is The Pre-Modern Linguistic Period. The Swiss linguist Saussure The study of modern linguistics was the starting point (1891), which marked the publication of the first scientific linguistics book "Cours de Linguistique Generale" (Cours de Linguistique Generale, 1916). Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913) is the founder of modern linguistics and a pioneer of structural linguistics. His main contribution is to point out the arbitrariness of linguistic signs and the linearity of the signifier; language has internal and external distinctions, diachronic and synchronic distinctions. The value of language signs is constantly evolving, so a descriptive attitude should be taken to language instead of It is prescribed. Saussure's scientific linguistics has a profound influence on western modern linguistics and translation theories.<br />
<br />
The second stage started from the 1960s to the present, which can also be said to be the period of contemporary translation theory. During this period, modern science and technology developed rapidly. Natural sciences and social sciences were directly or indirectly driven by The Systems Theory, Control Theory or Cybernetics, and Information Theory. Advance. Modern linguistics has developed from structuralism as the mainstream to a situation where there are many new disciplines and schools. Among them, the French functional linguistics, the London school, the transformational generative grammar, sociolinguistics, and modern stylistics ( Functional stylistics), pragmatics, psycholinguistics and other emerging disciplines and schools of applied linguistics.<br />
<br />
In the period of modern translation theory, the development of language science is very closely related to Western translation theory. Roman Jacobson (Roman Jacobson, 1896–1982), a translation theorist at the early stage of modern translation theory, is one of the founders of the Prague School and a well-known phonetician. Obviously, Jacobson's discourse on translated poems is based on phoneme analysis. Jacobson believes that poetry is "untranslatable" strictly speaking, because poetry is subject to the constraints of the arrangement relationship between phonemes and sememes, that is, units of meaning. To get rid of this constraint, translation The family can only resort to "transplantation" and it is "no less than creative transplantation of different language symbols (phonetic arrangements) created". Two prominent translation theorists in the 1950s, Jean Paul Vinay and Jean Darbenet, mainly relied on scientific linguistics to discuss translation rhetoric from the perspectives of functional stylistics and contrastive linguistics. After entering the 1960s, JC Catford clearly quoted the founder of the London School Firth (JR Firth, 1890–1960) and Firth's successor MAK Halliday's basic linguistic theories to solve the bilingual conversion. problem. E. Nida and G. Mounin mainly analyze the translation process from the perspective of structural linguistics. Among them, Nida's research results are the most eye-catching. During the 1970s and 1980s, Nida began to notice the weakness of linguistics that emphasized formal transformation and insufficient semantic research. Around the issue of "meaning" and cultural issues, many more books came out, and proposed "dynamic equivalence" (dynamic equivalence). , 1984), emphasizing the meaning view of social semiotics. In the second half of the 20th century, Western postmodern thoughts spread throughout Europe and the United States. Deconstructionism, in particular, has the deepest influence on cultural thoughts and academic thoughts. Western translation theories have also turned to "postmodernism" (especially comparative literary theory) to absorb theoretical ideas, and the great limitations of "postmodernism" have also emerged. Contemporary Western translation theory can be said to have entered a comprehensive use of various disciplines of linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, philosophy of language (including semantics), logic, aesthetics and other social sciences, as well as information theory, computer science, etc. The "comprehensive development period of translation theories" is a period of full bloom to solve translation problems. It seems that this is also the general trend of Western translation theory in the 21st century.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 15:06, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Characteristics of the development of western translation theory ===<br />
<br />
To sum up, we can deduce the development track of translation theory in the West for more than 2000 years. Its characteristics are as follows.First, western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. "Greek civilization" covers a wide range. At that time, the translation mainly focused on Homer's epic Philosophy (focusing on the so-called "three philosophies", namely Socrates, Plato and Aristotle), literature and history (focusing on drama, prose and War History) and the democratic politics of Athens. In the west, the Bible The climax of translation did not appear until the 16th century. Due to the wide variety of translation subjects, translation theories also tend to be diversified, not just on the translation standards and requirements of scriptures. At the beginning of Chinese classical translation theory, it has always focused on the review of religious translation.<br />
<br />
Second, western translation theory has a wide basis and a wide range, but it always focuses on linguistics. The main characters of Western classical and ancient translation theories are ancient Romans, based on the philosophy of classical Greece Aesthetics (poetics and classical rhetoric, which are also collectively referred to as ancient philology). Augustine, a classical translation theorist, is a classical aesthetician. Modern translation theory is mainly based on ancient philosophy, semantics, etymology and literature and art (poetics and tragedies) and historical comparative linguistics. In the early stage of modern translation theory, great attention was paid to semantics. At the same time, influenced by Saussure's socio semiotic view of language, structuralism, especially postmodern literary theory, they began to pay attention to language structure and cultural problems. In the later stage of western modern translation theory since the 1960s, translation theory and modern linguistics gradually combined and tended to rely on linguistics From the perspective of linguistics, it is marked by the decline of Bloomfield's structuralism and the prosperity of various disciplines of Applied Linguistics; From the perspective of translation theory, it is the gradual rise of scientific translation theory. Western traditional translation theory (especially in the period of classical translation theory and ancient translation theory) is often the "sideline" of masters in literature, history and philosophy Therefore, they usually develop translation art through literary creation and aesthetics. Since the later stage of modern translation theory, the western translation industry has developed greatly, and the subject matter has gone far beyond the traditional fields such as literature, history and philosophy. The specialization of translation promotes the development of translation theory to specialization, from general linguistics, postmodern literary theory, hermeneutics, traditional rhetoric, semantics The extension of historical comparative linguistics to many branches of Modern Applied Linguistics presents a new situation of all-round development. Another important reason for the early shift of western translation theory from aesthetics to linguistics is that the kinship of western languages makes it easier to realize homologous correspondence in word form and syntactic form This is exactly the purpose of historical comparative linguistics since the end of the 18th century. Translation theory and historical comparative linguistics can be described as "corresponding with one voice and seeking the same spirit". Of course, this is mainly on the side of translation theory.<br />
<br />
Western languages generally belong to Indo European languages. Indo European languages are divided into eastern Indo European languages (mainly Baltic Slavic language group) and Western Indo European languages (mainly Germanic, Latin, Celtic and ancient Greek). As far as translation is concerned, since the source language and the target language belong to the same language family or even the same language family and language branch, and the language origins are the same or similar, translation theory has long paid attention to etymology, historical morphology and semantics, and since the 1950s and 1960s, it has paid great attention to modern linguistics The development of various disciplines, especially the transformational generative school, is one of the outstanding characteristics of western translation theory.<br />
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Third, traditionally, especially compared with Chinese traditional aesthetics, western aesthetics does not pay attention to language aesthetics, The rhetorical aesthetic propositions in Chinese aesthetic thought (wishful thinking and image, spirit and form, literature and quality, emptiness and reality, elegance and vulgarity, artistic conception theory, style theory, composition theory, rhetoric theory, etc.) are all absent in western aesthetics. This is largely due to the fact that western language is not a very perceptual language and emphasizes "grammatical logic" , which is quite different from Chinese. Western aesthetics has always paid attention to the essence of beauty and discussed the beauty of literature and art only as the expression of the essence of beauty. The early western aesthetic thought originated from the Pythagoras School (c580 – c500bc) and flourished in Plato and Aristotle. Ancient Greek and Roman Aesthetics focused on the "essence of beauty". At first, aesthetics was regarded as an integral part of philosophy. Until sugraty began to pay attention to the humanism of beauty and put forward that the standard of beauty lies in "utility to people" 。 Later western aesthetics was deeply influenced by classical aesthetics, and discussed the essence, emergence and expression of beauty. Western medieval aesthetics has a strong theological color. It holds that "the beauty of perceptual things is limited and the beauty of God is infinite". The former is intuitive and non purposeful, while the latter is "the highest beauty" and "the beauty of divinity". The scholastic philosophy aesthetics in the late Middle Ages, represented by the famous philosopher Thomas Aquinas, put forward "three factors of beauty", namely "integrity", "harmony" and "distinctiveness" Claritas basically doesn't talk about language aesthetics. Modern western aesthetics still focuses on the nature and form of beauty, which is deeply influenced by Aquinas. In the 18th century, the British Scholastics aesthetics believed that "beauty is a psychological activity produced by the form of objective foreign objects in line with people's subjective psychological structure". Kant (I. Kant, 1724 – 1804) under the influence of scholastic philosophy aesthetics, he combined the "psychological structure theory" with the "subjective talent theory" of German rationalists to launch the subjectivist "state of mind theory". After the mid-19th century, western modern aesthetics inherited Kant's influence, mostly from human subjectivity From the perspective of subjectivity, this paper discusses the essence of beauty and focuses on the attribute of beauty. The speculative color is very strong, which is basically "metaphysical", and language is the communication tool of "metaphysical". Since the 19th century, the general trend of western aesthetics has been to separate from the philosophical system and develop in the direction of specialization, diversification and multidisciplinary, from the speculative deduction of "top-down" to "top-down" Although the empirical evidence of "bottom-up" still adheres to the discussion of the definition and essential attributes of beauty, the aesthetic subject has gradually expanded to the broader field of the relationship between aesthetic subject and objective, and the methodology has shifted from simple induction or deduction to scientific experimental verification. Scientific empiricism and traditional humanistic aesthetics are the mainstream of Western Aesthetics in the 20th century.(Kant,1972, 103)<br />
<br />
The separation of Western Aesthetics from philosophy coincides with the rise of historical comparative philology. This major historical development and change is to promote the transformation of western translation theory from aesthetics to literature (including modern and postmodern literary theory) and linguistics, which is also a remarkable feature of the development track of western translation theory different from Chinese translation theory. It is no accident that western translation theory is separated from aesthetics and appeals to linguistics.<br />
<br />
=== Conclusion ===<br />
<br />
Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and modern translation theory period. The main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who represent the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. Translation theory in the period of ancient translation theory, accompanied by the Renaissance and religious reform, is characterized by literary translation and religious translation. The most important cultural phenomenon affecting translation theory in the pre-modern period is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. It can be said that contemporary western translation theory has entered a period of comprehensive development of social sciences such as linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, language philosophy, logic and aesthetics, as well as translation theories such as information theory and computer science. Western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. The basis of western translation theory is relatively broad, and the scope of translation theory is relatively wide, but it always focuses on linguistics.<br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
<br />
Ferdinand De Saussure索绪尔著；高名凯译. 普通语言学教程Course in General Linguistics. 北京：商务印书馆Beijing:The Commercial Press., 2017.<br />
<br />
Ferdinand De Saussure索绪尔著；张绍杰导读. 语言学入门 Introduction to Linguistics. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社Beijing: foreign language teaching and Research Press, 2001.10.<br />
<br />
Ferdinand De Saussure索绪尔著；于秀英译. 普通语言学导论general linguistics. 北京：商务印书馆Beijing:The Commercial Press, 2020.<br />
<br />
H. G. Gadamer，Philosophical Hermeneutics, UC Press, Berkeley, 1977.<br />
<br />
L. G. Kelly，The True Interpreter: A History of Translation Theory and Practice in West, Oxford, 1979.<br />
<br />
Susan Bassnett-Mcquire，Translation Studies, Methuen, London& New York, 1980.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. 西方翻译简史[M] A brief history of Western Translation.北京：商务印书馆 Beijing:The Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
William Thomson威廉·汤姆逊，黄振华译. 十九世纪末以前的语言学史The history of linguistics before the end of the 19th century . 北京/西安：世界图书出版公司Beijing / Xi'an: World Book Publishing Company, 2009.<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzheng 谢天振．中西翻译简史［M］A brief history of Chinese and Western Translation．北京:外语教学与研究出版社 Beijing: foreign language teaching and Research Press.</div>Zhang Yiranhttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_4&diff=132366Hist Trans Theo EN 42021-12-13T15:19:31Z<p>Zhang Yiran: /* Introduction */</p>
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<div>'''History of Translation Theories'''<br />
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=Chapter 4 An Overview of the Development of Western Translation Theories =<br />
===西方翻译理论发展概述===<br />
'''Zeng Junlin，曾俊霖, Hunan Normal University, China'''<br />
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=== Abstract ===<br />
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Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and modern translation theory period. The main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who represent the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. Translation theory in the period of ancient translation theory, accompanied by the Renaissance and religious reform, is characterized by literary translation and religious translation. The most important cultural phenomenon affecting translation theory in the pre-modern period is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. It can be said that contemporary western translation theory has entered a period of comprehensive development of social sciences such as linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, language philosophy, logic and aesthetics, as well as translation theories such as information theory and computer science. Western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. The basis of western translation theory is relatively broad, and the scope of translation theory is relatively wide, but it always focuses on linguistics.<br />
<br />
Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and contemporary translation theory period. The main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who represent the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. Translation theory in the period of ancient translation theory, accompanied by the Renaissance and religious reform, is characterized by literary translation and religious translation. The most important cultural phenomenon affecting translation theory in the pre-modern period is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. It can be said that contemporary western translation theory has entered a period of comprehensive development of social sciences such as linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, language philosophy, logic and aesthetics, as well as translation theories such as information theory and computer science. Western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. The basis of western translation theory is relatively broad, and the scope of translation theory is relatively wide, but it always focuses on linguistics.Corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:32, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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=== Key Words ===<br />
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Western translation theory，classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period，modern translation theory period<br />
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=== 摘要 ===<br />
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西方译论可以大致分为古典译论期、古代译论期、近代译论期、现代译论期等四个时期。古典译论期的主要译论家是西塞罗、霍拉斯和杰罗姆，他们代表了西方译论长达2000年发展史的源头。古代译论期的译论伴随文艺复兴和宗教改革，以文艺翻译和宗教翻译为特征。前现代期在文化上影响译论的最重要的现象是启蒙中古代语文学和诠释学派的发展。当代西方译论可以说进入了一个综合利用语言学各学科、后现代文论、符号学、修辞学、语言哲学、逻辑学、美学等社会科学以及信息理论、计算机科学等翻译理论综合开发期。西方翻译发轫于古罗马对希腊文明的渴求，即所谓爱琴海文明的西进。西方译论的立论依据比较广，译论范围也比较宽，但始终围绕语言学展开。<br />
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===关键词 ===<br />
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西方译论，古典译论期，古代译论期，近代译论期，现代译论期<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
From the overall historical development process, Chinese and western translation theories have an indissoluble bond with aesthetics from the beginning.<br />
<br />
However, the development of translation theory in the west is different from that in China. Western translation theory and Chinese translation theory are in very different historical and social conditions, in very different national cultural soil and social ecological environment. They have very different philosophical and aesthetic origins, and provide them with theoretical ideas as the driving force of evolution and development. Therefore, western translation theory and Chinese translation theory must move forward along their respective development tracks. No matter from the diachronic vertical or synchronic section, the dependence between western translation theory and philosophy aesthetics is far less than that of Chinese traditional translation theory.<br />
<br />
We can first analyze it from the historical development. Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and modern translation theory period.<br />
<br />
George Steiner divides Western translation theory into the following four periods in his famous book After Babel: The first period is from Cicero and Horace to Taitler, and the later book Essay on the Principles of Translation is published ( 1791) as a symbol; the second period is from the end of the 19th century to the 1940s, with Valery as a representative; the third period is marked by the advent and development of machine translation technology and theory in the 1940s; the fourth period Generally parallel to the third period, it is marked by hermeneutic and metaphysical inquiries (hermeneutic and metaphysical inquiries). Steiner's periodization has been criticized by Western translation theory circles.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
From the overall historical development process, Chinese and western translation theories have an indissoluble bond with aesthetics from the beginning.<br />
<br />
However, the development of translation theory in the west is different from that in China. Western translation theory and Chinese translation theory are in very different historical and social conditions, in very different national cultural background and social ecological environment. They have very different philosophical and aesthetic origins, and provide them with theoretical ideas as the driving force of evolution and development. Therefore, western translation theory and Chinese translation theory must move forward along their respective development tracks. No matter from the diachronic vertical or synchronic section, the dependence between western translation theory and philosophy aesthetics is far less than that of Chinese traditional translation theory.<br />
<br />
We can first analyze it from the historical development. Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and contemporary translation theory period.<br />
<br />
George Steiner divides Western translation theory into the following four periods in his famous book After Babel: The first period is from Cicero and Horace to Taitler, and the later book Essay on the Principles of Translation is published ( 1791) as a symbol; the second period is from the end of the 19th century to the 1940s, with Valery as a representative; the third period is marked by the advent and development of machine translation technology and theory in the 1940s; the fourth period Generally parallel to the third period, it is marked by hermeneutic and metaphysical inquiries (hermeneutic and metaphysical inquiries). Steiner's periodization has been criticized by Western translation theory circles.Corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:38, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Period of classical translation theory ===<br />
<br />
This is the initial period of western translation theory. According to the textual research of Rosetta Stone (discovered in 1799) by Western Egyptologists, western translation activities may have started in 2000 BC. Due to the long history and lack of historical evidence, it is impossible to test whether there were translation theories in 1900 before Cicero. There are four main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory. The first three are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who is the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. The western translation theory in the classical period is mainly based on the ancient Greek philosophers, especially the rhetoric and poetics written by Aristotle. These are two classic works that have a deep impact on Western literary aesthetics. Rhetoric expounds oratory by using the methodology of ancient psychology. Its main purpose is to emphasize the power of language infection and the means to achieve the effect of language infection - language style, and points out that only a beautiful article style can have the power of sensing and imparting. Therefore, speakers must abide by the principle that the use of language should strive to be clear and appropriate, and should not be artificial, so as not to damage the momentum of language due to affectation, and the conditions to ensure the momentum of language are accurate and relevant. In addition, Aristotle believes that the momentum of the article is also closely related to the form of writing. Speakers should adopt prose form. They should neither rhyme, nor ignore the rhythm, nor ignore the vividness of the words. No matter what style is adopted, or slow or high, the writing is naturally the first important meaning. Aristotle is the first classical aesthetic master in the west to affirm "the perceptual reality of beauty".<br />
<br />
Under the influence of ancient Greek philosophers such as Thales, Plato and Aristotle, Cicero put forward the naturalism and momentum theory of translation, opposed the translation of "word for word" and advocated the translation of "sense for sense". This argument has a profound impact on western translation studies. In philosophy, Cicero was influenced by Plato to maintain "reason", but in translation theory, he opposed to damaging the natural beauty and momentum beauty of the translation with "rigid application of reason".Horace agrees with Cicero's proposition, opposes the standard of "rigid notes of" fidelity "as the translation, opposes the translator becoming a slave translator who only follows the mandate of the original text, and advocates the use of" aesthetic criteria "in translation. It can be seen that what is valuable is the methodological dialectical view of Xi and Huo. Jerome was the first translator to translate the Hebrew Bible into Latin, the translator of the Vulgate, and the successor of Cicero's translation style. Jerome advocates the natural theory of translation and maintains Cicero's legacy. He believes that the translator has the right to break through the formal constraints of the original syntax, but must abide by the correspondence of words at the morpheme level and be faithful to the original text. Therefore, Jerome was a popular translation theorist in the 5th century. Augustine, the fourth representative figure in the classical period, plays a connecting role, that is, from Cicero, Horace and Jerome to Thomas Aquinas (c1225 – 1274ad), the most important scholastic philosopher in the middle ages. As a classical ancient translation theorist, Augustine's first achievement is to inherit and develop Aristotle's semiotic theory. When discussing "symbols", Aristotle aims to develop its rhetorical function. For "free word order languages" such as Latin, the beauty of symbolic form obviously has rhetorical visual value. Augustine expanded Aristotle's symbolic formal framework from the signifier function of the symbol to the signified layer, and pointed out that the "signifier", the human psychological structure, is derived from human's "perception of reality", and the "signifier" is a "sound set" associated with it (the group of vocal sounds); as far as words are concerned, it only represents the sign of the reference, which is arbitrary. It can be seen that Austen's views on symbols pointed out the direction for the modern semiotic theory in the early 20th century. Unfortunately, Austen's research was not valued by the translation theorists until the second half of the middle ages. Augustine's second achievement is that he put forward aesthetic propositions such as "beauty is suitability", "order", "harmony" and "unity". Based on his aesthetics, he advocates the advantages of translation. He pays more attention to the problem of form than Jerome. At the same time, he is persistent in the correspondence of semantics at the level of semantic morpheme or sememe. Augustine is a transitional figure entering the Middle Ages in the history of European aesthetics, as well as in translation theory. （Susan Bassnett-Mcquire,1980,43–44）<br />
<br />
The period of classical translation theory is a very important period in the history of western translation studies. At that time, the focus of translation circles was to introduce the culture of ancient Greece, which is called "Hellenization" in history. Classical "Greek culture" is as bright as stars, which makes translators and translation theorists energetic and aspire to it. This is different from Chinese classical translation theory (Buddhist Scripture Translation in China). The introduction of Greek culture by the ancient Romans has nothing to do with religion, but involves epic, lyric poetry, philosophy aesthetics, architecture, rhetoric, literature and art (Poetics), drama, history, war history and so on. Its similarity with Chinese classical translation theory is that they all turn to aesthetic ideas and principles. As far as aesthetic ontology is concerned, Western classical aesthetics involves a wide range of categories, and there are a large number of talents. Thales is the first Western philosopher to replace mythological thinking (ignorant thinking) with rational thinking. He advocates the theory that "the most beautiful is the universe" and advocates nature. Pythagoras (c580 – c500bc) is regarded as the discoverer of the golden section and advocates the "beauty of harmony". Herakleitus (c540 – 470bc) put forward the subjective aesthetic view of "looking for oneself", holding that "harmony comes from opposition", which is the germination of Classical Dialectics. Hester also raised the issue of the relativity of beauty, advocated rationality, and advocated thinking, understanding and the control of the mind. Demokritus (C460 – 370bc) is the first natural science philosopher in the West and the first aesthetician to demonstrate sensory experience and image. These four people are the so-called "pre Socrates" in ancient Greece. Together with Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, they form the origin of western academic thought. Of course, it is natural that the sprouting of translation studies is attached to the theory of sages.<br />
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This is the origin period of western translation theory. According to the textual research of Rosetta Stone (discovered in 1799) by Western Egyptologists, western translation activities may have started in 2000 BC. Due to the long history and lack of historical evidence, it is impossible to test whether there were translation theories in 1900 before Cicero. There are four main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory. The first three are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who is the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. The western translation theory in the classical period is mainly based on the ancient Greek philosophers, especially the rhetoric and poetics written by Aristotle. These are two classic works that have a deep impact on Western literary aesthetics. Rhetoric expounds oratory by using the methodology of ancient psychology. Its main purpose is to emphasize the power of language infection and the means to achieve the effect of language infection - language style, and points out that only a beautiful article style can have the power of sensing and imparting. Therefore, speakers must abide by the principle that the use of language should strive to be clear and appropriate, and should not be artificial, so as not to damage the momentum of language due to affectation, and the conditions to ensure the momentum of language are accurate and relevant. In addition, Aristotle believes that the momentum of the article is also closely related to the form of writing. Speakers should adopt prose form. They should neither rhyme, nor ignore the rhythm, nor ignore the vividness of the words. No matter what style is adopted, or slow or high, the writing is naturally the first important meaning. Aristotle is the first classical aesthetic master in the west to affirm "the perceptual reality of beauty".<br />
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Under the influence of ancient Greek philosophers such as Thales, Plato and Aristotle, Cicero put forward the naturalism and momentum theory of translation, opposed the translation of "word for word" and advocated the translation of "sense for sense". This argument has a profound impact on western translation studies. In philosophy, Cicero was influenced by Plato to maintain "reason", but in translation theory, he opposed to damaging the natural beauty and momentum beauty of the translation with "rigid application of reason".Horace agrees with Cicero's proposition, opposes the standard of "rigid notes of" fidelity "as the translation, opposes the translator becoming a slave translator who only follows the mandate of the original text, and advocates the use of" aesthetic criteria "in translation. It can be seen that what is valuable is the methodological dialectical view of Xi and Huo. Jerome was the first translator to translate the Hebrew Bible into Latin, the translator of the Vulgate, and the successor of Cicero's translation style. Jerome advocates the natural theory of translation and maintains Cicero's legacy. He believes that the translator has the right to break through the formal constraints of the original syntax, but must abide by the correspondence of words at the morpheme level and be faithful to the original text. Therefore, Jerome was a popular translation theorist in the 5th century. Augustine, the fourth representative figure in the classical period, plays a connecting role, that is, from Cicero, Horace and Jerome to Thomas Aquinas (c1225 – 1274ad), the most important scholastic philosopher in the middle ages. As a classical ancient translation theorist, Augustine's first achievement is to inherit and develop Aristotle's semiotic theory. When discussing "symbols", Aristotle aims to develop its rhetorical function. For "free word order languages" such as Latin, the beauty of symbolic form obviously has rhetorical visual value. Augustine expanded Aristotle's symbolic formal framework from the signifier function of the symbol to the signified layer, and pointed out that the "signifier", the human psychological structure, is derived from human's "perception of reality", and the "signifier" is a "sound set" associated with it (the group of vocal sounds); as far as words are concerned, it only represents the sign of the reference, which is arbitrary. It can be seen that Austen's views on symbols pointed out the direction for the modern semiotic theory in the early 20th century. Unfortunately, Austen's research was not valued by the translation theorists until the second half of the middle ages. Augustine's second achievement is that he put forward aesthetic propositions such as "beauty is suitability", "order", "harmony" and "unity". Based on his aesthetics, he advocates the advantages of translation. He pays more attention to the problem of form than Jerome. At the same time, he is persistent in the correspondence of semantics at the level of semantic morpheme or sememe. Augustine is a transitional figure entering the Middle Ages in the history of European aesthetics, as well as in translation theory. （Susan Bassnett-Mcquire,1980,43–44）<br />
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The period of classical translation theory is a very important period in the history of western translation studies. At that time, the focus of translation circles was to introduce the culture of ancient Greece, which is called "Hellenization" in history. Classical "Greek culture" is as bright as stars, which makes translators and translation theorists energetic and aspire to it. This is different from Chinese classical translation theory (Buddhist Scripture Translation in China). The introduction of Greek culture by the ancient Romans has nothing to do with religion, but involves epic, lyric poetry, philosophy aesthetics, architecture, rhetoric, literature and art (Poetics), drama, history, war history and so on. Its similarity with Chinese classical translation theory is that they all turn to aesthetic ideas and principles. As far as aesthetic ontology is concerned, Western classical aesthetics involves a wide range of categories, and there are a large number of talents. Thales is the first Western philosopher to replace mythological thinking (ignorant thinking) with rational thinking. He advocates the theory that "the most beautiful is the universe" and advocates nature. Pythagoras (c580 – c500bc) is regarded as the discoverer of the golden section and advocates the "beauty of harmony". Herakleitus (c540 – 470bc) put forward the subjective aesthetic view of "looking for oneself", holding that "harmony comes from opposition", which is the germination of Classical Dialectics. Hester also raised the issue of the relativity of beauty, advocated rationality, and advocated thinking, understanding and the control of the mind. Demokritus (C460 – 370bc) is the first natural science philosopher in the West and the first aesthetician to demonstrate sensory experience and image. These four people are the so-called "pre Socrates" in ancient Greece. Together with Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, they form the origin of western academic thought. Of course, it is natural that the sprouting of translation studies is attached to the theory of sages.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:54, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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=== Period of ancient translation theory ===<br />
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The second period of western translation theory, the ancient period, lasted a long time, from the "post Augustine" period at the end of the 5th century to the eve of the European industrial revolution, that is, the late 18th century, covering the whole Middle Ages and about 300 years later (500-1795). Translation theory in this period was accompanied by two great historical achievements: the Renaissance and the religious reform. Therefore, the translation theory in this period is characterized by cultural literary translation and religious (Scripture) translation.<br />
The prelude to the European Renaissance (which began in the 14th century, peaked in the 15th and 16th centuries and ended in the mid-17th century) is the flourishing of Christian civilization, marked by the so-called "edict of Milan" issued by Constantine I (C280 – 337ad). The imperial edict authorized Christianity to obtain legal status in the Roman Empire. Since then, Christianity has become more and more popular through the influence of the Holy See. The Scriptures have been proofread and translated by Jerome and Augustine. Christian civilization has flourished all over Europe in the early Middle Ages.<br />
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At the same time, European social economy also appeared commercialization and handicrafts under the framework of medieval Christian civilization, leading to the emergence of city-state politics and urban landscape, which was the initial light of the Renaissance. By the 13th century, there were many European literary and artistic masters, including Dante (1265 – 1321, the author of Divine Comedy), Boccaccio (1313 – 1375, the author of Decameron), Leonardo da Vinci (1452 – 1519) and raffaelo Sanzio rapheal (1483 – 1520), who awakened European national consciousness and the so-called "all talent ideal"（ The worship and pursuit of "the well-sound personality" had a profound impact. What went hand in hand with the prosperity of literature and art and the development of city-state politics was the popularity of social and political theories and new social trends of thought at that time. Europeans scrambled to study the famous works discoveries on Livy (1531) by Nicolo Machiavelli (1569 – 1527). Someone described the grand translation of the time and said: "The entire city of Rome became a translation factory, specializing in the production of translations from Greek to Latin". In fact, the grand translation at the time was far more than just in Rome, and not only between Greek and Latin. Florence is not inferior to Rome. From the 14th to the 16th century, the city of Buddhism was the center of Italian literature and art. The grand translation of Europe at the time was very much in line with Bruno's (Giordano Bruno, c1548–1600) prediction. He said: "All science can only bear fruit with the help of translation." (Steiner,1975, 259)<br />
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All this made The "translation industry" has developed unprecedentedly. Translation practice has promoted translation research. At this time, there are different translation theories, and the scope of discussion has gone beyond the vision of classical translation theorists, with a strong color of verification. One of the best, which can be said to be the first Western philosopher to comprehensively attack translation, is Roger Bacon (C1214 – 1292) Bacon was a pioneer in the field of Natural Science in the 13th century. He condemned the translation between Greek, Hebrew and Latin as full of semantic distortion "with the philosophical insight of natural scientists", which reduced the translation to a "hodgepodge of errors and misunderstandings". (L. G. Kelly,1979, 9)<br />
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It was driven by Bacon's call to put things right that the Bible appeared John Wycliffe (c1330 – 1384), a religious reformer, translated the first English translation of the Bible of Wycliffe. His influential translation of the Bible of Wycliffe reflects the spirit of verification of Bacon's later progressive translation theory, which was invaluable in the ignorant middle ages. Wycliffe believed that Christ was the master of mankind and opposed the church's "orthodox doctrine" (the orthodox church doctrine) arbitrarily interpreted the meaning of the Bible, denounced the "papal infallibility", refused to accept the Vatican's arbitrary interpretation of the Scriptures and adhered to the semantics of the original language, thus posing strong doubts and challenges to the translation. In fact, this is a religious reform movement advocated by Martin Luther on the European continent (the reform, C1520 – c1525) has a far-reaching impact on the history of translation in Britain and even Europe. Social criticism and scholars' verification have greatly improved the level of translation. Following Roger Bacon, many people in Europe have successively raised challenges to translation, pointing out that there were three major criticisms of translation at that time: one was to know what it said but not what it meant; the other was to know what it meant but not what it meant. ; The third is that they are both ignorant and ignorant. Although this attack is mainly aimed at the translation of the Bible, it is actually very common. This period is a productive period in the history of European translation.(L. G. Kelly,1979, 10)<br />
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The second period of western translation theory - the ancient period, lasted a long time, from the "post Augustine" period at the end of the 5th century to the eve of the European industrial revolution, that is, the late 18th century, covering the whole Middle Ages and about 300 years later (500-1795). Translation theory in this period was accompanied by two great historical achievements: the Renaissance and the religious reform. Therefore, the translation theory in this period is characterized by cultural literary translation and religious (Scripture) translation.<br />
The prelude to the European Renaissance (which began in the 14th century, peaked in the 15th and 16th centuries and ended in the mid-17th century) is the flourishing of Christian civilization, marked by the so-called "edict of Milan" issued by Constantine I (C280 – 337ad). The imperial edict authorized Christianity to obtain legal status in the Roman Empire. Since then, Christianity has become more and more popular through the influence of the Holy See. The Scriptures have been proofread and translated by Jerome and Augustine. Christian civilization has flourished all over Europe in the early Middle Ages.<br />
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At the same time, European social economy also appeared commercialization and handicrafts under the framework of medieval Christian civilization, leading to the emergence of city-state politics and urban landscape, which was the initial light of the Renaissance. By the 13th century, there were many European literary and artistic masters, including Dante (1265 – 1321, the author of Divine Comedy), Boccaccio (1313 – 1375, the author of Decameron), Leonardo da Vinci (1452 – 1519) and raffaelo Sanzio rapheal (1483 – 1520), who awakened European national consciousness and the so-called "all talent ideal"（ The worship and pursuit of "the well-sound personality" had a profound impact. What went hand in hand with the prosperity of literature and art and the development of city-state politics was the popularity of social and political theories and new social trends of thought at that time. Europeans scrambled to study the famous works discoveries on Livy (1531) by Nicolo Machiavelli (1569 – 1527). Someone described the grand translation of the time and said: "The entire city of Rome became a translation factory, specializing in the production of translations from Greek to Latin". In fact, the grand translation at the time was far more than just in Rome, and not only between Greek and Latin. Florence is not inferior to Rome. From the 14th to the 16th century, the city of Buddhism was the center of Italian literature and art. The grand translation of Europe at the time was very much in line with Bruno's (Giordano Bruno, c1548–1600) prediction. He said: "All science can only bear fruit with the help of translation." (Steiner,1975, 259)<br />
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All this made The "translation industry" has developed unprecedentedly. Translation practice has promoted translation research. At this time, there are different translation theories, and the scope of discussion has gone beyond the vision of classical translation theorists, with a strong color of verification. One of the best, which can be said to be the first Western philosopher to comprehensively attack translation, is Roger Bacon (C1214 – 1292) Bacon was a pioneer in the field of Natural Science in the 13th century. He condemned the translation between Greek, Hebrew and Latin as full of semantic distortion "with the philosophical insight of natural scientists", which reduced the translation to a "hodgepodge of errors and misunderstandings". (L. G. Kelly,1979, 9)<br />
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It was driven by Bacon's call to put things right that the Bible appeared John Wycliffe (c1330 – 1384), a religious reformer, translated the first English translation of the Bible of Wycliffe. His influential translation of the Bible of Wycliffe reflects the spirit of verification of Bacon's later progressive translation theory, which was invaluable in the ignorant middle ages. Wycliffe believed that Christ was the master of mankind and opposed the church's "orthodox doctrine" (the orthodox church doctrine) arbitrarily interpreted the meaning of the Bible, denounced the "papal infallibility", refused to accept the Vatican's arbitrary interpretation of the Scriptures and adhered to the semantics of the original language, thus posing strong doubts and challenges to the translation. In fact, this is a religious reform movement advocated by Martin Luther on the European continent (the reform, C1520 – c1525) has a far-reaching impact on the history of translation in Britain and even Europe. Social criticism and scholars' verification have greatly improved the level of translation. Following Roger Bacon, many people in Europe have successively raised challenges to translation, pointing out that there were three major criticisms of translation at that time: one was to know what it said but not what it meant; the other was to know what it meant but not what it meant. ; The third is that they are both ignorant and ignorant. Although this attack is mainly aimed at the translation of the Bible, it is actually very common. This period is a productive period in the history of European translation.(L. G. Kelly,1979, 10)--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:59, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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=== Period of Pre-Modern translation theory ===<br />
This is the third period of western translation theory, or "pre modern period", that is, from the religious reform (1517-1648) of wilcliff and Martin Luther in the mid-17th century to the end of the 19th century, the argument began to gradually turn to classical philology and language philosophy. The major historical events during this period were the European Industrial Revolution (1750's – 1830's) and the French Revolution (1788-1799), as well as the germination and evolution of European middle-class economy and its ideology before and after this period. The most important phenomenon affecting translation theory in culture is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. After the Renaissance, the focus of European language research was still Latin and Greek, which had been in a secondary position. The social and economic development since the enlightenment and the industrial revolution obviously put forward many problems for multilingual communication. The first ones are etymology, semantics and historical comparative linguistics. In fact, historical comparative linguistics is the result of the development and exploration of the first two. Ancient Chinese literature originated in Italy in the 15th century, and its development was also promoted by many factors such as the Renaissance, the spread of Christianity, and the expansion of colonialism that stimulated language contact. The heyday representatives of historical comparative linguistics are the Danish linguist Rask (R. C. Rask, 1787–1832) and the German linguist Bopp (F. Bopp, 1791–1867). Especially after wilcliff and Martin Luther, translators increasingly doubt the interpretation of language by the Holy See, the church and scholastic philosophy in the long middle ages, and doubt the "Deviation", misunderstanding and even intentional distortion of "translation" to the "signified". Rousseau's democratic thought had a strong and profound impact on European conservatism.(V. Thomsen,1960,43）<br />
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Understanding this historical background, we can clearly understand why when Taylor put forward the famous "three principles of translation" at the end of the 18th century (1791), he first pointed out that "translation should completely convey the idea of the original text, supplemented by the natural fluency of the expression and style of the translation". Almost at the same time, tattler and George Campbell, who proposed that "the beauty of the translation can be discussed only if we are loyal to the original meaning", marked the end of the era when the western traditional translation theory mainly relied on classical aesthetics and literature and art. On the other hand, although the Chinese School represented by Goethe is fully mature, it can not solve many major problems raised by the spread of Christian civilization and the unprecedented development of translation practice in breadth and depth since the Renaissance and the industrial revolution. Among these problems, the first and most important is the problem of meaning, that is, the so-called "transfer of the truth value of meaning" in translation. Johann W. von Goethe (Johann W. von Goethe) is known as "the last embodiment of the Renaissance ideal", and his basic translation theory advocates "the perfect identity between the SL and the TL" . To this end, the translator must have ingenuity and creativity, and adopt a unique way of expression. This is the best translation, and the next thing is imitation and prose.<br />
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Exploring "semantic truth" is the basic proposition of the hermeneutic school. The representative of the hermeneutic school in modern translation theory is Friedrich D. E. Schleiermacher (1768 – 1845). Ancient hermeneutics believed that the task of interpretation was to interpret the "oracle", which originated in ancient Greece and was derived from the name of "Hermes", the messenger who conveyed the gods. Before Schleiermacher, hermeneutics was full of religious mysticism in the middle ages, which believed that people's "understanding" or "not understanding" of text (at that time mainly refers to holy scripts, i.e. the Bible) was "all based on divine will", and both of them were "theological subjective phenomena". Schleiermacher's merit lies in pointing out that the so-called "incomprehension" is actually a "misinterpretation", and "the true meaning of the text lies entirely in what it 'seems' to say. If we want to rediscover the true meaning of the text, we must carefully reconstruct the life reality generated by the historical background or meaning at that time."  Schleiermacher also further put forward the means to obtain the true meaning ("original meaning", i.e. philosophical "Sein"), that is, the so-called "theory of hermeneutic circle" and more than 40 norms of "grammatical interpretation" and "psychological interpretation" . There is no doubt about the significance of this to the development of European translation practice. It was driven by the school of hermeneutics that Friedrich Schlegel (1772 – 1879), Samuel T. Coleridge (1772 – 1834), William Morries (1834 – 1896), Thomas Carlyle (1795 – 1881), Matthew Arnold and Dante D. Rossetti (1828 – 1882) were formed European Romanticism (mainly in Germany) and the corresponding wave of critical realism (mainly in Britain) as a response to the French Revolution. During this period, the mainstream of the translation theory forum was the Chinese school with literary masters as the backbone and the hermeneutic school that later kept pace with it. There is no doubt that this is one of the important development periods in the history of European translation.(H. G. Gadamer,1977, xiii)<br />
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This is the third period of western translation theory, or "pre modern period", that is, from the religious reform (1517-1648) of wilcliff and Martin Luther in the mid-17th century to the end of the 19th century, the argument began to gradually turn to classical philology and language philosophy. The major historical events during this period were the European Industrial Revolution (1750's – 1830's) and the French Revolution (1788-1799), as well as the germination and evolution of European middle-class economy and its ideology before and after this period. The most important phenomenon affecting translation theory in culture is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. After the Renaissance, the focus of European language research was still Latin and Greek, which had been in a secondary position. The social and economic development since the enlightenment and the industrial revolution obviously put forward many problems for multilingual communication. The first ones are etymology, semantics and historical comparative linguistics. In fact, historical comparative linguistics is the result of the development and exploration of the first two. Ancient Chinese literature originated in Italy in the 15th century, and its development was also promoted by many factors such as the Renaissance, the spread of Christianity, and the expansion of colonialism that stimulated language contact. The heyday representatives of historical comparative linguistics are the Danish linguist Rask (R. C. Rask, 1787–1832) and the German linguist Bopp (F. Bopp, 1791–1867). Especially after wilcliff and Martin Luther, translators increasingly doubt the interpretation of language by the Holy See, the church and scholastic philosophy in the long middle ages, and doubt the "Deviation", misunderstanding and even intentional distortion of "translation" to the "signified". Rousseau's democratic thought had a strong and profound impact on European conservatism.(V. Thomsen,1960,43）<br />
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Understanding this historical background, we can clearly understand why when Taylor put forward the famous "three principles of translation" at the end of the 18th century (1791), he first pointed out that "translation should completely convey the idea of the original text, supplemented by the natural fluency of the expression and style of the translation". Almost at the same time, tattler and George Campbell, who proposed that "the beauty of the translation can be discussed only if we are loyal to the original meaning", marked the end of the era when the western traditional translation theory mainly relied on classical aesthetics and literature and art. On the other hand, although the Chinese School represented by Goethe is fully mature, it can not solve many major problems raised by the spread of Christian civilization and the unprecedented development of translation practice in breadth and depth since the Renaissance and the industrial revolution. Among these problems, the first and most important is the problem of meaning, that is, the so-called "transfer of the truth value of meaning" in translation. Johann W. von Goethe (Johann W. von Goethe) is known as "the last embodiment of the Renaissance ideal", and his basic translation theory advocates "the perfect identity between the SL and the TL" . To this end, the translator must have ingenuity and creativity, and adopt a unique way of expression. This is the best translation, and the next thing is imitation and prose.<br />
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Exploring "semantic truth" is the basic proposition of the hermeneutic school. The representative of the hermeneutic school in modern translation theory is Friedrich D. E. Schleiermacher (1768 – 1845). Ancient hermeneutics believed that the task of interpretation was to interpret the "oracle", which originated in ancient Greece and was derived from the name of "Hermes", the messenger who conveyed the gods. Before Schleiermacher, hermeneutics was full of religious mysticism in the middle ages, which believed that people's "understanding" or "not understanding" of text (at that time mainly refers to holy scripts, i.e. the Bible) was "all based on divine will", and both of them were "theological subjective phenomena". Schleiermacher's merit lies in pointing out that the so-called "incomprehension" is actually a "misinterpretation", and "the true meaning of the text lies entirely in what it 'seems' to say. If we want to rediscover the true meaning of the text, we must carefully reconstruct the life reality generated by the historical background or meaning at that time."  Schleiermacher also further put forward the means to obtain the true meaning ("original meaning", i.e. philosophical "Sein"), that is, the so-called "theory of hermeneutic circle" and more than 40 norms of "grammatical interpretation" and "psychological interpretation" . There is no doubt about the significance of this to the development of European translation practice. It was driven by the school of hermeneutics that Friedrich Schlegel (1772 – 1879), Samuel T. Coleridge (1772 – 1834), William Morries (1834 – 1896), Thomas Carlyle (1795 – 1881), Matthew Arnold and Dante D. Rossetti (1828 – 1882) were formed European Romanticism (mainly in Germany) and the corresponding wave of critical realism (mainly in Britain) as a response to the French Revolution. During this period, the mainstream of the translation theory forum was the Chinese school with literary masters as the backbone and the hermeneutic school that later kept pace with it. There is no doubt that this is one of the important development periods in the history of European translation.(H. G. Gadamer,1977, xiii)--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 15:03, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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=== Period of Modern translation theory ===<br />
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The fourth period is The Modern Period. This period can actually be divided into two stages. The first stage is from the end of the 19th century to the 1950s. It can also be called the "Pre-Modern Linguistic Period". Parallel to it is The Pre-Modern Linguistic Period. The Swiss linguist Saussure The study of modern linguistics was the starting point (1891), which marked the publication of the first scientific linguistics book "Cours de Linguistique Generale" (Cours de Linguistique Generale, 1916). Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913) is the founder of modern linguistics and a pioneer of structural linguistics. His main contribution is to point out the arbitrariness of linguistic signs and the linearity of the signifier; language has internal and external distinctions, diachronic and synchronic distinctions. The value of language signs is constantly evolving, so a descriptive attitude should be taken to language instead of It is prescribed. Saussure's scientific linguistics has a profound influence on western modern linguistics and translation theories.<br />
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The second stage started from the 1960s to the present, which can also be said to be the period of contemporary translation theory. During this period, modern science and technology developed rapidly. Natural sciences and social sciences were directly or indirectly driven by The Systems Theory, Control Theory or Cybernetics, and Information Theory. Advance. Modern linguistics has developed from structuralism as the mainstream to a situation where there are many new disciplines and schools. Among them, the French functional linguistics, the London school, the transformational generative grammar, sociolinguistics, and modern stylistics ( Functional stylistics), pragmatics, psycholinguistics and other emerging disciplines and schools of applied linguistics.<br />
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In the period of modern translation theory, the development of language science is very closely related to Western translation theory. Roman Jacobson (Roman Jacobson, 1896–1982), a translation theorist at the early stage of modern translation theory, is one of the founders of the Prague School and a well-known phonetician. Obviously, Jacobson's discourse on translated poems is based on phoneme analysis. Jacobson believes that poetry is "untranslatable" strictly speaking, because poetry is subject to the constraints of the arrangement relationship between phonemes and sememes, that is, units of meaning. To get rid of this constraint, translation The family can only resort to "transplantation" and it is "no less than creative transplantation of different language symbols (phonetic arrangements) created". Two prominent translation theorists in the 1950s, Jean Paul Vinay and Jean Darbenet, mainly relied on scientific linguistics to discuss translation rhetoric from the perspectives of functional stylistics and contrastive linguistics. After entering the 1960s, JC Catford clearly quoted the founder of the London School Firth (JR Firth, 1890–1960) and Firth's successor MAK Halliday's basic linguistic theories to solve the bilingual conversion. problem. E. Nida and G. Mounin mainly analyze the translation process from the perspective of structural linguistics. Among them, Nida's research results are the most eye-catching. During the 1970s and 1980s, Nida began to notice the weakness of linguistics that emphasized formal transformation and insufficient semantic research. Around the issue of "meaning" and cultural issues, many more books came out, and proposed "dynamic equivalence" (dynamic equivalence). , 1984), emphasizing the meaning view of social semiotics. In the second half of the 20th century, Western postmodern thoughts spread throughout Europe and the United States. Deconstructionism, in particular, has the deepest influence on cultural thoughts and academic thoughts. Western translation theories have also turned to "postmodernism" (especially comparative literary theory) to absorb theoretical ideas, and the great limitations of "postmodernism" have also emerged. Contemporary Western translation theory can be said to have entered a comprehensive use of various disciplines of linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, philosophy of language (including semantics), logic, aesthetics and other social sciences, as well as information theory, computer science, etc. The "comprehensive development period of translation theories" is a period of full bloom to solve translation problems. It seems that this is also the general trend of Western translation theory in the 21st century.<br />
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The fourth period is The contemporary Period. This period can actually be divided into two stages. The first stage is from the end of the 19th century to the 1950s. It can also be called the "Pre-Modern Linguistic Period". Parallel to it is The Pre-Modern Linguistic Period. The Swiss linguist Saussure The study of modern linguistics was the starting point (1891), which marked the publication of the first scientific linguistics book "Cours de Linguistique Generale" (Cours de Linguistique Generale, 1916). Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913) is the founder of modern linguistics and a pioneer of structural linguistics. His main contribution is to point out the arbitrariness of linguistic signs and the linearity of the signifier; language has internal and external distinctions, diachronic and synchronic distinctions. The value of language signs is constantly evolving, so a descriptive attitude should be taken to language instead of It is prescribed. Saussure's scientific linguistics has a profound influence on western modern linguistics and translation theories.<br />
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The second stage started from the 1960s to the present, which can also be said to be the period of contemporary translation theory. During this period, modern science and technology developed rapidly. Natural sciences and social sciences were directly or indirectly driven by The Systems Theory, Control Theory or Cybernetics, and Information Theory. Advance. Modern linguistics has developed from structuralism as the mainstream to a situation where there are many new disciplines and schools. Among them, the French functional linguistics, the London school, the transformational generative grammar, sociolinguistics, and modern stylistics ( Functional stylistics), pragmatics, psycholinguistics and other emerging disciplines and schools of applied linguistics.<br />
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In the period of modern translation theory, the development of language science is very closely related to Western translation theory. Roman Jacobson (Roman Jacobson, 1896–1982), a translation theorist at the early stage of modern translation theory, is one of the founders of the Prague School and a well-known phonetician. Obviously, Jacobson's discourse on translated poems is based on phoneme analysis. Jacobson believes that poetry is "untranslatable" strictly speaking, because poetry is subject to the constraints of the arrangement relationship between phonemes and sememes, that is, units of meaning. To get rid of this constraint, translation The family can only resort to "transplantation" and it is "no less than creative transplantation of different language symbols (phonetic arrangements) created". Two prominent translation theorists in the 1950s, Jean Paul Vinay and Jean Darbenet, mainly relied on scientific linguistics to discuss translation rhetoric from the perspectives of functional stylistics and contrastive linguistics. After entering the 1960s, JC Catford clearly quoted the founder of the London School Firth (JR Firth, 1890–1960) and Firth's successor MAK Halliday's basic linguistic theories to solve the bilingual conversion. problem. E. Nida and G. Mounin mainly analyze the translation process from the perspective of structural linguistics. Among them, Nida's research results are the most eye-catching. During the 1970s and 1980s, Nida began to notice the weakness of linguistics that emphasized formal transformation and insufficient semantic research. Around the issue of "meaning" and cultural issues, many more books came out, and proposed "dynamic equivalence" (dynamic equivalence). , 1984), emphasizing the meaning view of social semiotics. In the second half of the 20th century, Western postmodern thoughts spread throughout Europe and the United States. Deconstructionism, in particular, has the deepest influence on cultural thoughts and academic thoughts. Western translation theories have also turned to "postmodernism" (especially comparative literary theory) to absorb theoretical ideas, and the great limitations of "postmodernism" have also emerged. Contemporary Western translation theory can be said to have entered a comprehensive use of various disciplines of linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, philosophy of language (including semantics), logic, aesthetics and other social sciences, as well as information theory, computer science, etc. The "comprehensive development period of translation theories" is a period of full bloom to solve translation problems. It seems that this is also the general trend of Western translation theory in the 21st century.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 15:06, 13 December 2021 (UTC)<br />
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=== Characteristics of the development of western translation theory ===<br />
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To sum up, we can deduce the development track of translation theory in the West for more than 2000 years. Its characteristics are as follows.First, western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. "Greek civilization" covers a wide range. At that time, the translation mainly focused on Homer's epic Philosophy (focusing on the so-called "three philosophies", namely Socrates, Plato and Aristotle), literature and history (focusing on drama, prose and War History) and the democratic politics of Athens. In the west, the Bible The climax of translation did not appear until the 16th century. Due to the wide variety of translation subjects, translation theories also tend to be diversified, not just on the translation standards and requirements of scriptures. At the beginning of Chinese classical translation theory, it has always focused on the review of religious translation.<br />
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Second, western translation theory has a wide basis and a wide range, but it always focuses on linguistics. The main characters of Western classical and ancient translation theories are ancient Romans, based on the philosophy of classical Greece Aesthetics (poetics and classical rhetoric, which are also collectively referred to as ancient philology). Augustine, a classical translation theorist, is a classical aesthetician. Modern translation theory is mainly based on ancient philosophy, semantics, etymology and literature and art (poetics and tragedies) and historical comparative linguistics. In the early stage of modern translation theory, great attention was paid to semantics. At the same time, influenced by Saussure's socio semiotic view of language, structuralism, especially postmodern literary theory, they began to pay attention to language structure and cultural problems. In the later stage of western modern translation theory since the 1960s, translation theory and modern linguistics gradually combined and tended to rely on linguistics From the perspective of linguistics, it is marked by the decline of Bloomfield's structuralism and the prosperity of various disciplines of Applied Linguistics; From the perspective of translation theory, it is the gradual rise of scientific translation theory. Western traditional translation theory (especially in the period of classical translation theory and ancient translation theory) is often the "sideline" of masters in literature, history and philosophy Therefore, they usually develop translation art through literary creation and aesthetics. Since the later stage of modern translation theory, the western translation industry has developed greatly, and the subject matter has gone far beyond the traditional fields such as literature, history and philosophy. The specialization of translation promotes the development of translation theory to specialization, from general linguistics, postmodern literary theory, hermeneutics, traditional rhetoric, semantics The extension of historical comparative linguistics to many branches of Modern Applied Linguistics presents a new situation of all-round development. Another important reason for the early shift of western translation theory from aesthetics to linguistics is that the kinship of western languages makes it easier to realize homologous correspondence in word form and syntactic form This is exactly the purpose of historical comparative linguistics since the end of the 18th century. Translation theory and historical comparative linguistics can be described as "corresponding with one voice and seeking the same spirit". Of course, this is mainly on the side of translation theory.<br />
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Western languages generally belong to Indo European languages. Indo European languages are divided into eastern Indo European languages (mainly Baltic Slavic language group) and Western Indo European languages (mainly Germanic, Latin, Celtic and ancient Greek). As far as translation is concerned, since the source language and the target language belong to the same language family or even the same language family and language branch, and the language origins are the same or similar, translation theory has long paid attention to etymology, historical morphology and semantics, and since the 1950s and 1960s, it has paid great attention to modern linguistics The development of various disciplines, especially the transformational generative school, is one of the outstanding characteristics of western translation theory.<br />
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Third, traditionally, especially compared with Chinese traditional aesthetics, western aesthetics does not pay attention to language aesthetics, The rhetorical aesthetic propositions in Chinese aesthetic thought (wishful thinking and image, spirit and form, literature and quality, emptiness and reality, elegance and vulgarity, artistic conception theory, style theory, composition theory, rhetoric theory, etc.) are all absent in western aesthetics. This is largely due to the fact that western language is not a very perceptual language and emphasizes "grammatical logic" , which is quite different from Chinese. Western aesthetics has always paid attention to the essence of beauty and discussed the beauty of literature and art only as the expression of the essence of beauty. The early western aesthetic thought originated from the Pythagoras School (c580 – c500bc) and flourished in Plato and Aristotle. Ancient Greek and Roman Aesthetics focused on the "essence of beauty". At first, aesthetics was regarded as an integral part of philosophy. Until sugraty began to pay attention to the humanism of beauty and put forward that the standard of beauty lies in "utility to people" 。 Later western aesthetics was deeply influenced by classical aesthetics, and discussed the essence, emergence and expression of beauty. Western medieval aesthetics has a strong theological color. It holds that "the beauty of perceptual things is limited and the beauty of God is infinite". The former is intuitive and non purposeful, while the latter is "the highest beauty" and "the beauty of divinity". The scholastic philosophy aesthetics in the late Middle Ages, represented by the famous philosopher Thomas Aquinas, put forward "three factors of beauty", namely "integrity", "harmony" and "distinctiveness" Claritas basically doesn't talk about language aesthetics. Modern western aesthetics still focuses on the nature and form of beauty, which is deeply influenced by Aquinas. In the 18th century, the British Scholastics aesthetics believed that "beauty is a psychological activity produced by the form of objective foreign objects in line with people's subjective psychological structure". Kant (I. Kant, 1724 – 1804) under the influence of scholastic philosophy aesthetics, he combined the "psychological structure theory" with the "subjective talent theory" of German rationalists to launch the subjectivist "state of mind theory". After the mid-19th century, western modern aesthetics inherited Kant's influence, mostly from human subjectivity From the perspective of subjectivity, this paper discusses the essence of beauty and focuses on the attribute of beauty. The speculative color is very strong, which is basically "metaphysical", and language is the communication tool of "metaphysical". Since the 19th century, the general trend of western aesthetics has been to separate from the philosophical system and develop in the direction of specialization, diversification and multidisciplinary, from the speculative deduction of "top-down" to "top-down" Although the empirical evidence of "bottom-up" still adheres to the discussion of the definition and essential attributes of beauty, the aesthetic subject has gradually expanded to the broader field of the relationship between aesthetic subject and objective, and the methodology has shifted from simple induction or deduction to scientific experimental verification. Scientific empiricism and traditional humanistic aesthetics are the mainstream of Western Aesthetics in the 20th century.(Kant,1972, 103)<br />
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The separation of Western Aesthetics from philosophy coincides with the rise of historical comparative philology. This major historical development and change is to promote the transformation of western translation theory from aesthetics to literature (including modern and postmodern literary theory) and linguistics, which is also a remarkable feature of the development track of western translation theory different from Chinese translation theory. It is no accident that western translation theory is separated from aesthetics and appeals to linguistics.<br />
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=== Conclusion ===<br />
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Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and modern translation theory period. The main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who represent the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. Translation theory in the period of ancient translation theory, accompanied by the Renaissance and religious reform, is characterized by literary translation and religious translation. The most important cultural phenomenon affecting translation theory in the pre-modern period is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. It can be said that contemporary western translation theory has entered a period of comprehensive development of social sciences such as linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, language philosophy, logic and aesthetics, as well as translation theories such as information theory and computer science. Western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. The basis of western translation theory is relatively broad, and the scope of translation theory is relatively wide, but it always focuses on linguistics.<br />
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=== References ===<br />
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Ferdinand De Saussure索绪尔著；高名凯译. 普通语言学教程Course in General Linguistics. 北京：商务印书馆Beijing:The Commercial Press., 2017.<br />
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Ferdinand De Saussure索绪尔著；张绍杰导读. 语言学入门 Introduction to Linguistics. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社Beijing: foreign language teaching and Research Press, 2001.10.<br />
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Ferdinand De Saussure索绪尔著；于秀英译. 普通语言学导论general linguistics. 北京：商务印书馆Beijing:The Commercial Press, 2020.<br />
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H. G. Gadamer，Philosophical Hermeneutics, UC Press, Berkeley, 1977.<br />
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L. G. Kelly，The True Interpreter: A History of Translation Theory and Practice in West, Oxford, 1979.<br />
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Susan Bassnett-Mcquire，Translation Studies, Methuen, London& New York, 1980.<br />
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Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. 西方翻译简史[M] A brief history of Western Translation.北京：商务印书馆 Beijing:The Commercial Press.<br />
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William Thomson威廉·汤姆逊，黄振华译. 十九世纪末以前的语言学史The history of linguistics before the end of the 19th century . 北京/西安：世界图书出版公司Beijing / Xi'an: World Book Publishing Company, 2009.<br />
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Xie Tianzheng 谢天振．中西翻译简史［M］A brief history of Chinese and Western Translation．北京:外语教学与研究出版社 Beijing: foreign language teaching and Research Press.</div>Zhang Yiran