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History of Translation Studies 11

2020-12-30T11:31:44Z

Zhang Yu: /* The Formation and Development of Lu Xun's Translation Theories */

==Reflections of Translation Theory Books 李丽琴 Li Liqin, Student No.202070080595 MTI 英语笔译==

===Abstract===

Rooted in translation practice, Chinese and Western translation theories share many similarities. Since they are bred in different cultural soil, they also have their own characteristics. On the basis of reviewing some books and papers on translation theories, this paper gives a detailed overview of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, and then makes a comparison between them to reveal similarities and differences. In addition, this paper makes a comparative study of translation methods in the Chinese and Western translation circle, aiming to provide readers with a new perspective to have a better understanding of the framework and characteristics of the development of translation theories. In this context, the translation practice and study will be advanced.

===Key Words===

Chinese translation theories; Western translation theories; Translation methods; Similarity; Difference;

===题目===

读翻译理论书籍有感

===摘要===

中西译论根植于翻译实践活动，具有诸多得相似性，但它们孕育在不同的文化土壤之中，故又各具特色。本文在阅读有关翻译理论书籍及论文的基础上，对中西翻译理论的发展历程进行了较为详尽的梳理概述，并在此基础上对中西译论进行对比，揭示其相似性与相异性。此外，本文对中西译界的翻译方法进行对比研究，旨在为读者提供一个全新的视角，认识中西翻译理论发展的框架及各自的特点，有针对性地更好地推动翻译实践以及翻译研究的发展。

===关键词===

中国翻译理论；西方翻译理论；翻译方法；相似性；相异性；

===Introduction===

When it comes to translation, this paper argues that the concepts of translation and translation studies must be distinguished at the first place. On this basis, the relationship between translation theory and translation practice must be explored in depth, so as to better promote the development of translation studies and translation practice.

====Translation and Translation Study====

In 1987, the first National Seminar on Translation Theory was held in Qingdao province, China, which focused on the subject construction and development of translation studies. The issue "since translation studies is a science of translation, whether it should be regarded as an independent disciplinary" was raised and widely discussed at the conference. Tan Zaixi called for the establishment of translation studies after Dong Qiusi, which had a great impact on the translation circle and greatly promoted the development of translation. (Liu Junping 2018, 56)

Tan Zaixi believes that translation is a process of expressing the meaning of the source language into the target language. It is mainly a technology or art, but it is not a science. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 7-10) Translation studies is the study of translation. Its task is to reveal the objective laws of translation process and provide guidance for practical translation work. Translation studies is a comprehensive but independent science closely related to semiotics, literature and art, sociology, psychology, information theory, and linguistics. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 12)

A complete translation theory should include the following five parts. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30-39) First of all, it need to clarify the essence of translation, including what is translation, what is the purpose of translation, what is the function of translation, what are the types of translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30)

Secondly, a complete translation theory should describe the process of translation. In translation circle, the most influential one is the four-step model put forward by Nida: analysis-transliteration-recombination-test. Specifically, it means to analyse a text from the perspectives of semantics, grammar and style firstly. Then, transform the materials into the target language, and reorganize these converted materials to make them meet the requirements of the target language. Finally, translators should compare the translated text with the original one, thus making the translation as close as possible to the original information and maintaining the fluency and style of the original. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 32)

Thirdly, it need to define the principles and standards of translation, which is the key task of a translation theory. Translation is an activity with certain rules to follow. People summarize translation practice and then conclude principles of universal significance in ways that guide the practical translation process and measure the translation. In order to produce a good translation, the translator must have a clear aim or direction in the process of translation and a clear standard or measurement method to measure the translation. However, since the fact that translation is a complex activity with multiple purposes and functions, it should never be studied from a single perspective. Any attempt to hold a specific standard as the highest standard in the absolute sense or to adhere to dogma is not in line with the translation principles and is unreasonable. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 34)

Fourthly, it should describe the methods of translation. It refers to the methods and techniques adopted in the translation process, which directly influence the choice of words and sentence of the translator and the structure of the translation. There are various translation methods commonly used in translation practice, such as augmentation, ellipsis, repetition, conversion, displacement, segmenting long sentences, and free translation. The translation theory must give a comprehensive and systematic summary of these translation methods to help the translator to better leverage translation methods in translation practice. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 37)

Fifthly, it must present a comprehensive explanation of possible contradictions in translation, including the contradiction between content and form, the contradiction between purpose and method, the contradiction between the author and the translator. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 38)

====Translation Theory and Translation Practice====

Corresponding theories will inevitably emerge when social practice of humanity develops to a certain stage. Translation, as a long-term practice activity, is no exception. Therefore, translation theories must come from translation practice. (Zhou Lingshun 2019, 15) Translation theories will never be generated without the in-depth observation and understanding of translation practice and its influences. There is an interactive relationship between translation theory and translation practice. (Xu Jun, Mu Lei 2009, 104)

In the long-term social practice, people will inevitably encounter problems that need to be solved and generate doubts that need to be explained. Theory is the ideological system explaining social practice, and its purpose is to answer questions and eliminate doubts. In this sense, the fact is that practice calls for theory. (Sun Yifeng 2002, 4-5)

Taking China's current translation situation as an example. As the Belt and Road Initiative proposed by China gains increasing popularity in countries along the route, the desire of other countries to know more about China is getting stronger. In this context, the volume of translating Chinese into foreign languages exceeds that of translating foreign languages into Chinese for the first time in translation history, meanwhile, related problems are also arising. (Yang Mingxing 2014, 103) Specifically, if the translation stays faithful to the original text, it external communication function will not be fully leveraged. Therefore, translators is confused about whether the translation should be faithful to the original text.

Although translation practice does not depend on translation theory for its existence, translation theory inevitably comes from translation practice. Once it comes into being, it will guide translation practice in turn.

===Comparison of Translation Theories between China and the West===

Both Chinese and western translation activities enjoy a long history. In the long course of translation practice, translation theory came into being. Chinese translation theories gradually develops towards the direction of systematic and comprehensive since the start of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Meanwhile, western translation theories have witnessed improvement as the advancement of translation practice and translation study. Both the Chinese translation theory and the western translation theory are based on translation practice, and they are gradually developed into systematic theories while guiding translation practice. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)

This chapter first combs the development of Chinese and western translation theories in detail, on this basis, it further reveals the similarities and otherness between the two theories.

====The Development of Western Translation Theory====

The development of Western translation theory can be divided into five stages. (Tan Zaixi 2009, 46-70)

1. Literature and Bible translation theories in ancient Rome

At the end of the 4th century BC, the once flourishing Greek began to decline and Rome grew stronger. However, at that time, the Greek culture was superior to the Roman culture, so it was attractive for Rome. Many of epics of Homer and dramatic works of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides were translated into Latin by many writers. This was the first translation activity with a large scale in Europe and even in the whole western history, which initiated the translation activity and gave birth to the Roman literature. (Liang Dan 2016, 103)

From the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, religious forces in western countries were strong and stubborn, and the Christian church remained hostile to secular literature and tried its best to develop a religious culture for the interests of themselves. As the source of Christian thought and a spiritual weapon, the Bible became the classic in the religious circles. On this basis, the Bible was translated widely. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91)

The earliest translation theorist in the West was Cicero in the Roman Empire. For the first time, he distinguished translations "as a translator" and "as a speaker". (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Cicero viewed translation from the perspectives of a rhetorician and speaker. A translation "as a translator" refers to a translation that is not creative, while a translation "as a speaker" refers to one that is creative and comparable to the original work. After that, the history of western translation theories has been focusing on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-for-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93)

2. Translation theories from the Middle Ages to Renaissance

Boethius contributed to the introduction of Greek philosophical thoughts by translation, and also had unique views on translation theory. According to Boethius, it is impossible to maintain both content and style in translation. Translators should put aside subjective judgment, especially for some religious translations, which only require accurate content rather than elegant style. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) What’s more, Dante put forward the theory of "literary untranslatability", in which he contended that the characteristics of the original text can hardly be reflected in the translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Therefore, he believed that literary translation is impossible.

At the end of the Middle Ages, people's demand for national language became urgent. In this context, a large-scale translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the upsurge of nationalism. Bruni, the representative of this period, believed that a translator should act according to his ability. Specifically, a translator should never do anything beyond his capacity for fear that it will waste energy and come to nothing. In addition, he believed that translators should have a wide range of knowledge; the best translation method is to keep the style of the original work as much as possible; translators should figure out the attitude and standpoint of the original author and try to imitate the rhetoric devices and idioms used by the original author. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)

3. Theories of literary translation in the Renaissance

The Renaissance refers to the revival of literature, art and science in ancient Greece and Rome. It began in Italy at the end of the 14th century and spread to Europe, especially western European countries, in the 15th and 16th centuries. During this period, many translators compared their achievements in translation to "trophies" of literary knowledge. Besides, they translated many works relating to building a prosperous country into national languages, including political, philosophical, social systems, literature, art and other classic works. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91) There are also many representatives in this period.

Erasmus did not submit to the authority of theology, and believed that the translation of the Bible depended on the language knowledge of the translator; while Luther put forward that translation must adopt and absorb the humanist thought of popular language. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55) In terms of Amyot, he held the opinion that the translator must fully understand the original text and concentrate efforts to the translation of the content; the writing style of translation must be simple and natural. He emphasized the unity of literal translation and free translation as well as the combination of content and form. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)

''On How to Translate Excellently'' was published in 1540. In this article, Dolet proposed five basic principles to be followed in the process of translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163) That is, the translator must understand the original content; the translator must be bilingual; the translator must avoid word-for-word translation, for the reason that word-for-word translation damages the communication and linguistic beauty of the original text; the translator must adopt colloquial forms of language; the translator must pay attention to the diction and adjust word order properly, so as to reproduce the equivalent effects as the original one. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 165)

4.Theories of literary translation in Modern times

Influenced by the impetus of the Renaissance, translation in western countries continued to march forward in modern times. The 18th century was an important period in the course of Western translation. In the 19th century, translation began to shift its focus from ancient works to modern or contemporary works. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)

According to Bartow, the original author is the master while the translator is the servant in translation activities. The translator can only follow the original work closely and faithfully reproduce the idea and style of it, instead of creating, modifying and subtracting. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)

Tytler put forward three basic translation principles in his book ''Essay on the Principles of Translation'': a translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; a translation should have all the ease of the original composition. In addition, he also proposed the standards of an excellent translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163)

Schlermacher, one of the leading figures in German romanticism, had extensive knowledge and made great contributions in hermeneutics and translation studies. He proposed two translation methods in ''On the Different Methods of Translating''. One is to do not disturb the author and let the reader get closer to the author, while the other is to make the author approach readers and do not disturb the reader, among which the former is regarded as the source of foreignizing translation by later generations. At the same time, he took the lead in making a clear distinction between interpretation and translation and to elaborate on it. Although his views on interpretation were wrong, they were still of great significance. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)

Humboldt believed that language determines the world view and put forward the theory that language is both translatable and untranslatable. This had a great impact in the 20th century, making the translatability and untranslatability of language once again become one of the hot topics discussed by translation theorists. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)

5.Contemporary translation theories since the World War II

Since the end of the World War II, the world has been in a state of relative peace. After the baptism of the war, western countries began to restore and develop production and economy in full swing. In this context, translation has also entered a new stage of development in which the dimensions, forms, scales and achievements of translation are unparalleled in any other period in history. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 100)

During this period, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological and other professional translations witness unprecedented development; translation teaching is widely carried out; many organizations of translators are established and the publications on translation-related studies are increasing; machine translation is emerging; works on translation theory emerge in an endless stream. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)

Jakobson, an outstanding Russian linguist, divided translation into three categories from the perspective of semiotics: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to the use of language signs to explain other language signs in the same language, which is also called "the change of expression"; interlingual translation is the interpretation between two languages, that is, to explain certain language signs with the signs of another language; intersemiotic translation is to interpret linguistic signs through the non-linguistic sign system, or to interpret non-linguistic signs with linguistic signs. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 157)

Nida is an American linguist, translator and translation theorist. On the basis of previous research results, he constantly improved his theory from the practical point of view. The core concept of Nida's theory is "functional equivalence", which means that the translation should achieve functional equivalence between two languages instead of the rigid correspondence of words. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 139)

Levy is a Czech literary theorist and translation theorist. He believed that the process of translation is the process in which the translator makes decisions constantly, and discussed the translator's decision strategies in detail. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)

====The Development of Chinese Translation Theory====

The development of Chinese translation theory can be divided into four stages.(Tan Zaixi 2005, 188)

1. Translation theory of Buddhist in the Late Han, Sui and Tang Dynasties

The first stage mainly focused on classical translation theory, which began in the East Han period and ended in the Opium War. The translation theory of this period mainly discusses the translation of Buddhist scriptures, generating a positive enlightenment to the later translation theory. Zhi Qian, Dao An, Kumarajiva and Xuanzang are the representative figures of this period. (Liang Dan 2016, 103)

Zhi Qian broke the shackles of literal translation and pursued the elegance of the text. Different from Zhi Qian, Dao An advocated literal translation for fear of distortion when he was responsible for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. What’s more, he put forward the famous translation principle of "Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation", believing that in translating Buddhist scriptures, there are five circumstances in which the translation will lose its original features and three dimensions that are difficult to achieve in translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188-189)

Kumarajiva was in charge of over four hundred volumes of Buddhist scriptures translation, which played an important role in the formation and development of Buddhism in China during the Six Dynasties period. His views on translation methods was profound and unique, but unfortunately there are few written records. Xuanzang is regarded as one of the influential figures in the ancient Chinese translation field. He put forward the translation standard of "a good translation should be both faithful to the original and intelligible to the public", believing that the translation must be faithful and smooth. (Li Yuntao 2007, 107)

2. Translation theory of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties

The second stage began with the Opium War and ended with the May 4th Movement. Against the background of domestic turmoil and foreign aggression, translators engaged in scientific and technological translation by adhering to the philosophy of "beat foreigners by learning from their advantages". (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Therefore, the translation theory in this period is practical.

The main representatives were Ma Jianzhong, Yan Fu, Reform Scholars, members of the Westernization School and so on. Ma Jianzhong put forward "good translation" and tried to eliminate the disadvantages of the translation of the Westernization School. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189) In addition, Yan Fu called for "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", which not only had a great impact at that time, but also generated an unprecedented influence on the entire translation circle for years to come. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 190)

3. Modern translation theory from 1919 to 1949

The third stage began with the May 4th Movement and ended with the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188) During this period, there were a great number of foreign literature being introduced in the translation field, resulting in flourishing literary translation.

Qu Qiubai put forward the concept of "equivalence", that is, translation should deliver the meaning of the original text to Chinese readers in a complete and correct manner, so that the Chinese readers can receive the meaning as the readers of the original text. (Liang Dan 2016, 103)

Chen Xiying drew a conclusion of the three realms of translation--resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit--from the experience of artistic creation and copying. He combined translation theories with the aesthetics of literature and art, directly inspiring the translation theories of Fu Lei and others. (Liang Dan 2016, 103)

Fu Lei emphasized the resemblance of spirit but not of form. Besides, Mao Dun believed that the reproduction of artistic conception is the most important task of literary translation, so that the target readers can receive the same feelings as if reading the original text. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189)

4. Contemporary translation theory since the 1950s

During this period, translation is considered as a discipline by translators. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) In 1951, Dong Qiusi published On the Construction of Translation Theory, which marked the beginning of the transformation of Chinese translation theory towards a systematic development. In 1990, Liu Miqing published Modern Translation Theories, marking the establishment of a modern translation system in China. (Liang Dan 2016, 103)

====Similarities and Differences====

By sorting out the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be found that due to the differences in economic, political, cultural and social backgrounds between China and the West, there are some differences between Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222)

First of all, the purposes of establishing translation theory are different for both sides. Chinese theorists stress the practicality of theories and and emphasize the function of theories to better guide the translation practice. However, theorists in western countries pay more attention to the abstractedness, systematicness and organization of translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222-224)

Secondly, there are different thinking patterns. The Chinese people attach great importance to understanding ability and sensitivity, while the West is rationality-oriented. Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism require people’s understanding ability and sensitivity; the western philosophy, which originated from Plato and Aristotle, emphasizes rational thinking of humanity. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 226)

Thirdly, they have different ways of expressing translation theories. In China, translation theorists tend to refine their words and condense their meanings, thus giving people more space for understanding. So Chinese theorists explain translation theories in a vague and implicit way. For example, after putting forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” in the first half of his great work Evolution and Ethics, Yan Fu did not make any further supplement or explanation for this translation standard. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)

Fourthly, China maintains relatively conservative in translation studies while the West pursues innovation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 233) Traditionally, the Chinese people have a strong tendency to worship the ancient and authority, and their thinking pattern is influenced by the philosophy of "universal application". For instance, the “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” proposed by Yan Fu is regarded as an insuperable existence by some people.

The difference is inevitable. Although Chinese and Western translation theorists have their own terminology and experience in translation, there are strikingly similarities in terms of principles, methods, standards and categories of translation. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163) It reveals the inherent commonness in the thinking mode of translation, and indicates that translation has rules to follow, which are objective and break the shackles of different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi, 2005, 213)

First of all, there are similarities in basic translation methods between Chinese and Western translation history. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 216) Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theorists have considered similar issues, including the principle of translation, the purpose of translation, the process of translation, the relationship between the author, the translator and the reader, and so on. In terms of translation methods, it can be found that literal translation and free translation are distinguished by both Chinese and Western theorists in the study of translation methods, and that the commonly used methods are amplification, abridgement, adaptation, interpretation, transliteration and so on. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)

Secondly, issues relating to "faithfulness" have always been the core topic of translation theories in both China and the West since ancient times. (Liang Dan 2016, 104) When expressing the concept of "the translation must be faithful to the original", various terms are used both in China and in the West, mainly including fidelity, loyalty, accuracy, equivalence, correspondence, etc. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 218-219)

Thirdly, the principles and methods of translation have been systematically summarized by both Chinese and Western translation theorists. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 220) For example, Dolet summarized the "five elements of translation"; Tytler put forward "three principles of translation"; Dao An proposed ""Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation"; Xuanzang proposed a concrete principle of "Five Categories of Untranslated Terms”. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)

After a detailed analysis of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be concluded that the difference in philosophical thoughts, value systems, and languages and cultures has always posing an important impact on the development of Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193-194) Although Chinese and Western translation theories have different development backgrounds and show some differences, the similarity between them should be observed. Similarity is the main characteristic of the development of translation thoughts, which is not restricted by different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193)

It can be reflected in the striking similarity between Chinese and Western translation principles, methods and standards. For example, Yan Fu's translation standard presents similarity with that of Tytler. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) The development of translation theories of the two sides is independent from each other, but they share some commonality. This exactly reveals that translation is objective and transcends the barriers of different languages and cultures.

===Reflections on Translations Methods===

====Domestication and Doreignization====

Domestication and foreignization are proposed by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, in the Translator's Invisibility in 1995. (Zhang Mei, Wang Rongyuan 2019, 19) As two translation methods, domestication and foreignization are contrary, united and mutually reinforcing.

Domestication is to localize the source language. (Venuti 1995, 19-21) It adopts the expressions that the target reader is accustomed to to convey the content of the source language. In addition, it helps readers to understand the source text better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. Foreignization is to adapt to the language features of foreign cultures, absorb foreign language expressions. (Venuti 1995, 29)

Since this method fully takes the difference and diversity of national cultures into consideration and reflects the characteristics of foreign language styles, its purpose is to preserve and reflect the exoticism. In other words, domestication is oriented toward the target language culture, while foreignization is source language culture oriented. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 13) For example, the sentence”something is springing up like mushrooms”, if handled in foreignizing translation, its Chinese version will be”犹如蘑菇一般”; but if in domestication, it will be “如雨后春笋一般’。

Some scholars believe that translators should only use one translation strategy in entire translation process, and that domestication or foreignization should be separated. However, it is difficult for translators to adhere to it in translation practice. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the ideas and styles of the original authors, which are of strong exotic atmosphere, so it is inevitable to adopt the foreignizing method. Meanwhile, the translation should also take the reader's response and the smoothness of the original text into consideration. In this context, the domestication method is essential. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17)

This paper holds the opinion that translation is more likely to be dominated by domestication. The essential purpose of translation is to facilitate communication and help the target readers to understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, in most cases, translation should conform to the norms of the target language, so as to make it possible for readers to understand the foreign cultures and achieve the purpose of translation. However, although the paper contends that domestication is in a dominant role, it doesn’t mean the foreignization method should be abandoned. Actually, foreignization and domestication are not two antagonistic concepts, instead, they are complementary and mutually reinforcing. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17-18)

====The Three Principles of Tytler and Yan Fu’s Theory====

In the long course of translation development in both China and the West, various schools of translators have put forward important translation standards. Among them, Yan Fu proposed "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" and Tytler put forward the “three principles of translation”. These two standards are of great importance and far-reaching influence in the translation circle. More importantly, the similarity between them has drawn wider attention among translators. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)

In 1989, Yan Fu mentioned in the preface of the Evolution and Ethics, "three things are hard to achieve in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance". (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220) However, Yan Fu did not present detailed definition of it, instead, he further stated that "it is difficult to stay faithful to the original text; if the translation is faithful without expressiveness, it is equal to untranslated ones; therefore, expressiveness should be put at priority”. It is the statement that generates controversy of its definition in the academic circle. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)

In 1790, Tytler proposed the three principles of translation in his great work Essay on the Principles of Translation, that is, a translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; a translation should have all the ease of the original composition. (Tytler 1790, 9) It caused extensive repercussions in the translation circle and is considered as a milestone in the history of Western translation. (Ren Qingliang 2016, 201)

The three principles of Tytler pose put requirements on the translator from three aspects: meaning, style and spirit. (Reng Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) In addition, according to Tytler, the three principles are ranked in order of importance. When the three principles are in conflict, the third principle should be abandoned first, the next is the second principle. Tytler contended that at no time should the content of the original be abandoned for the sake of the fluency of the translation. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220)

Yan Fu believed that translation should pursue faithfulness, but if it is inexpressive, it would be equivalent to untranslated ones. Thus it can be seen that Yan Fu emphasized the relationship and coordination among faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, and elevated importance of “expressiveness” to the same position as "faithfulness". (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)

====Free Translation and Literal Translation====

The central problem of translation has always been whether to translate literally or freely. The argument has been going on since at least the first century BC. (Newmark, Peter 1988, 45) In China, as early as the late Eastern Han Dynasty, a famous translator of Buddhist scriptures Zhi Chen put forward his opinion of literal translation that pays more attention to the preservation of the original intention than wording. He advocated that since scriptures are abstruse and hard to understand, the translation should focus on the content and meaning of the original text rather than the flowery language. However, his disciple Zhi Qian objected to the method of literal translation from the perspective of literary form and called for free translation. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99)

Literal translation refers to an adequate representation of the original. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) It reproduces both the style and the ideological content of the original, and retains as much as possible the figures of speech or sentence structures. Free translation does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original while only maintains the content of the original work. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) For instance, the Chinese sentence “你不要班门弄斧”, if handled in free translation, it English version will be “don’t teach fish to swim”; but if in literal translation, it will be “don’t display your axe at Lu Ban’s door”.

In the process of translation, only by having a thorough understanding of the thoughts and emotions in the original text and using the two strategies flexibly, can the original text be translated into a fluent and expressive target language. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99) Both literal translation and free translation should be accurate and reproduce the original meaning both in form and in spirit. There should be no judgement of good or bad between the two strategies. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 100)

Nevertheless, the differences between the two can not be ignored. Literal translation requires higher degree of faithfulness to the original. It is generally used in the science, technology and law-related translations for the reason that such article types require precise words and avoid ambiguity. Free translation, on the other hand, is relatively abstract. It is often used in translating poetry, prose and other literary works, to express the main connotation of the original text with divergent thinking, thus increasing the aesthetic feeling and artistry of translation.(Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 100)

===Conclusion===

Translation is the process of replacing the source language with the target language. (Catford 1965, 20) In the final analysis, translation is an activity closely related to language, while language cannot be separated from thinking ability. It is the overlap of human thought patterns that makes translation possible. However, the difference between Chinese and Western way of thinking is universal, which will be manifested in all fields, including the translation circle. Traditionally, the Chinese people were good at synthesizing, while people in the West were adept in analyzing. Therefore, traditional Chinese translation theories are mostly a summary of experience, which largely depends on the subjective feelings of the translator. However, western translation theories are based on rational analysis and scientific research, instead of relying on subjective feelings.

Translation has its own rules of development, which is proved by the similarity between Chinese and Western translation theories. Since translation theories in China and the West have their own advantages, this paper proposes that more tolerance should be given to the diversity and the essence should be absorbed so as to promote the development of translation theories in the world.

Both Chinese and Western translation theories are important parts of the translation systems, and they provide strong theoretical support for translation practice. There is no superiority or inferiority of translation theories. Translation theories in China and the West are rooted in translation practice but nurtured in different linguistic environments and cultural backgrounds. It must be realized that the similarities are greater than differences, and that the significance of differences more important than similarities. It is because of the differences that China and the West need to draw on strengths and learn from each other.

===References===

*Catford, J. C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. London: Oxford University Press.

*Lawrence Venuti. (1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation''. London and NewYork: Routledge.

*Newmark, Peter. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. New York: Prentice Hall.

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==A Brief Introduction to Lu Xun's Translation Theory - 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 202070080625, MTI英语笔译==
<center>张瑜 Zhang Yu 202070080625 </center>

===Abstract===
Lu Xun, as China's renowned writer, thinker and one of founders of Chinese modern literature, has left a great amount of precious spiritual wealth. His representative works include ''Outcry'', ''A Madman's Diary'', ''Dawn Blossoms Plucked at Dusk'', ''Wild Grass'' and so on, which are the bright pearls of Chinese literature. We have a general understanding of his identity as a writer. In fact, as a translator, Lu Xun has also left profound translation works for next generations, including translations of literature and theory works. Even from the time line, the records of his translation activities are far prior to his literary creation. His earliest novel, ''Nostalgia'', was finished in 1911, while his earliest translation, ''Mournful World'', was finished in 1903. In the process of translating different works, Lu Xun gradually formed his own translation theory. Therefore, learning more about his translation theory is conducive to comprehensively recognizing him. This paper mainly introduces Lu Xun's translation theory as well as its formation and development. The purpose is to lead everyone to have a more profound understanding to Lu Xun's theory.

===Key Words===
Lu Xun, Translation Theory, Literal Translation, Hard Translation, Rather to be Faithful than Fluent

===题目===
浅谈鲁迅的翻译思想

===摘要===
鲁迅作为我国著名的文学家、思想家、中国现代文学的奠基人之一，给我们留下了一大批宝贵的精神财富，如他的代表作品《呐喊》、《狂人日记》、《朝花夕拾》、《野草》等，都是我国文学宝库中璀璨的明珠。而我们对他的了解可能始于他的作家身份，但事实上，作为翻译家的鲁迅也给后人留下了内容丰富的翻译作品，其中包括文学作品翻译和理论著作翻译。甚至从时间上来看，他从事翻译活动要远远早于文学创作活动，鲁迅最早的小说《怀旧》创作于1911年，而他最早的译文《哀尘》则完成于1903年。鲁迅在从事翻译活动的过程中，逐渐形成了自己的翻译思想，所以了解鲁迅的翻译思想有助于我们更加全面地了解鲁迅。本章回将主要介绍鲁迅的翻译思想及其形成与发展,以此让大家对鲁迅的翻译思想有一个更深刻的了解。

===关键词===
鲁迅，翻译思想，直译，硬译，宁信不顺

===Introduction===
It is estimated that Lu Xun has translated 144 pieces of works of 110 writers from 15 countries and regions in his whole lifetime. Meanwhile, Lu Xun was engaged in translating foreign literary works from 1903 to 1936, starting from the translation ''Yue Jie Lv Xing'' and ending with the ''Death Souls'', which last a long period. Therefore, his identity as a translator cannot be neglected. In fact, in the process of undertaking translation, Lu Xun has made great contributions to the Chinese translation history, such as coming up with a series of translation theory. This paper intends to introduce Lu Xun's translation theory, including his purpose of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent", retranslation and translation criticism. Then it discusses the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theories from the perspective of "intermediate". At last, it analyzes the social reasons for the formation and development.(Xu Lan 2017,447)

===Lu Xun's Translation Theories===
About the translation theory, Lu Xun had not written a book to expound it. His translation theory is embodied in his numerous translation works, and concluded by late scholars. In this part, it intends to introduce five aspects of his translation theory, namely purposes of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent", retranslation as well as translation criticism.

====Purpose of Translation====
From 1903 to 1936, the works and articles translated by Lu Xun can be divided into two categories. One includes scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works; another includes other articles and works such as children's literature. However, the translations of these two categories have different purposes.（Chen 2000, 289）

For the first category, he hoped that these translation works are able to serve for the revolution and serve as the "guide of future revolutions". In the ''Hard translation and Hierarchy of Literature'' published in 1930, Lu Xun responded that "it works for me, for some who claim proletarian literary critics, and for some readers who are willing to learn more about the theory in spite of having difficulties" (Chen 2000,289). From the remarks of Lu Xun, it can be seen that his translations aimed at not only improving and introspecting himself, but also helping those literature workers who stand with him. In his essays, he usually compared the importance of translation to the Greek mythology that the hero Prometheus stole fire from the gods and gave it to earthly mortals. In his views, he believed that these scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works were able to bring "fire and light" for people. For example, the purpose of translating the Russian work, ''Destruction'', was to introduce steel-willed characters and struggles without fear of sacrifice, encourage Chinese people to engage themselves in revolutionizing the old society, and provide references for Chinese revolutionary writers to create more inspiring works. (Chen 2000,289-290)

For the second category, Lu Xun hoped that these translation works were able to provide reference materials for people. In the preface of his translation work, ''Ideology, Landscape, Figure'', he mentioned that "my translation and introduction aim at making partial readers learn the existence of those things, persons, ideology and remarks…Therefore, if I believe that it’s useful and beneficial, I would attempt to translate it (Chen 2000,290)." It’s obvious that as long as Chinese people could learn something from these works translated by him, the value of translations has been achieved. (Chen 2000,290-291)

There are two aspects to explain Lu Xun's translation of children's literature. On the one hand, there was no fairy tales in Chinese literature at that time. Thus, he wanted to make up for the blank. Meanwhile, children, as the future of nation, were deemed to the white paper, which had the boundless possibility to develop and shape. On the other hand, the feudal thoughts of old China had some detrimental effects on cultivating children (Wu 2009,183). Therefore, Lu Xun translated foreign works about children's literature to introduce new educational views and patterns and attract people's attention to dissolve constraints. (Wu 2009, 183-184)

====Literal Translation and Hard Translation====
The concept of "literal translation" was proposed by Lu Xun and his brother Zhou Zuoren in the 1920s. In the ''Outside Novels'', they definitely put forward the concept literal translation, which played an important role in the modern history of translation and triggered heated discussion. Their purposes mainly focused on the problem of prevailing translation methods including mistranslation and random correction and deletion at that time. They hoped that the introduction of literal translation could give a definite direction to the chaotic situation. They mentioned that "it is better to choose the word-for-word translation, and if not, it should be translated as a sentence rather than be translated in the middle" (Chen 2000,176) in order to keep the style of the original text. Besides, they also distinguished the differences between literal translation and irresponsible translation. In the preface of his collected translation ''Peg-top'', Zhou Zuoren proposed that "the precondition of literal translation was that it should convey the meaning of the original and preserve its style as much as possible. In other words, it should be "faithful" and "expressiveness". Some people were seemed to misunderstand the meaning of the literal translation and they regarded literal translation as rigid translation word for word. For example, they translated 'lying on his back' into '卧着在他的背上' instead of '仰卧着'. Here, the former was irresponsible translation and the latter was literal translation (Chen 2000,177)." Lu Xun also supported his statement. In the following translation practice, Lu Xun has been sticking to literal translation. (Chen 2000, 176-177)

In 1929, Lu Xun formally proposed the concept of hard translation in ''The Supplement to the Translators of Literature and Criticism''. "Because of the inadequate ability of translators and the shortcomings of the Chinese text, the translation is obscure, making it difficult for readers to comprehend many parts of the translation. If the text was translated word for word, the refined original tone will be lost. However, there is no other methods other than hard translation. The only remaining hope is that the readers are still willing to read it in spite of difficulties (Lu 1958,286)." On September 10, 1929, Liang Shiqiu published ''Discussion on Lu Xun's Hard Translation'' and he believed that "hard translation" was just "rigid translation". In the reply to Liang Shiqiu, Lu Xun expounded his opinions on "hard translation" from the perspective of academy. Firstly, the works used with hard translation including scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works aimed at specific readers. Here, it closely related to the purpose of his translation. Lu Xun hoped that these translation works could awaken insensitive Chinese people and make them learn more about the reality of western countries to change the current situation of old China. Therefore, he chose hard translation and present readers the authentic pictures as much as possible. Secondly, in fact, Lu Xun also confessed that his translation was not satisfactory, but he had not found more appropriate methods to translate these books. And he believed that there were excellent translators who were able to translate faithful articles without using of hard translation or distortions in translation. When the better translation appeared, the version of his translation would be discarded naturally. However, in the period from nothing to good versions, his translation was willing to serve as the intermediate to make up for the blank.(Chen 2000,294-295)

====Rather to be Faithful than Fluent====
In the ''Message About Translation'', Lu Xun definitely proposed the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent" in the process of translating. In Lu Xun's views, he believed that the translation should not only keep the "exoticness" and "foreignness" of the original text in its contents and culture, but also imitate the word order and sentence structures of foreign language, which naturally led to be non-fluent. In the ''Title of Essays are Not Fixed'', Lu Xun pointed out that "every translation must take care of both sides, the first side is that it should be easy to understand, and the other is to preserve the richness of the original. But the second one often contradicts the first one. That means readers can't understand it. The original text is foreign to the target reader. For the sake of the readability, the translator has to change the original structure, but he should not shorten the original expression" (Huang 2018,24). At that time, Zhao Jingshen proposed his own view "rather to be fluent than faithful". His view was criticized by Lu Xun. As for the idea of "rather to be faithful than fluent", readers were able to understand the contents; if not, they could understand when connecting it with practice. While "rather to be fluent than faithful" emphasized the fluency instead of faithfulness, it resulted that readers were unable to understand the original text or even misunderstood based on subjective speculation. It obviously made no sense. For example, due to supporting the idea of "rather to be fluent than faithful", Zhao Jingshen translated the "Milky Way" into "牛奶路" instead of "银河". This kind of translation was ridiculous and easy to misdirect and confuse targeted readers. (Chen 2000, 296)

There were two purposes for Lu Xun to put forward the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent". Firstly, one was to resist ethnocentrism and introduce foreign culture to reform and rebuild the profound impression on Chinese culture. Therefore, he introduced the new vocabulary, new grammas and new expressions from the foreign languages, and then involve the readers into the new foreign context. He pointed out that being non-fluent was temporary. It resulted from unfamiliarity and intolerance of Chinese readers to the foreign language. And then it would change into fluency when native language absorbed the foreign language and people began to be accustomed to it (Li 2019,204). Secondly, another purpose was to change Chinese people's thinking model and language expression. The language controlled people's thinking pattern. It was necessary to reform Chinese language in order to change the national spirit. In the ''Message About Translation'', he said that "in addition to introducing the original contents to Chinese readers, translation had another important function, that is, to help us create new and modern Chinese language (Lu 2005,380)." Lu Xun also mentioned that Chinese had many disadvantages such as a lack of explicitness and accuracy. In the introduction of ''Little Jones'', he said that "European language is explicit, but my ability is limited (Lu 1981,256)." Besides, at that time the development of vernacular was immature. Then Lu Xun also said that "the biggest reason that the Europeanized grammar intruded into the Chinese vernacular was for the necessity rather than curiosity (Lu 1981,520)" Therefore, based on the deep understanding to flaws of Chinese, it was necessary to introduce useful expression and vocabulary to reform Chinese.(Li 2019, 201-209)

In conclusion, although the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent" was attacked by other scholars after its introduction, in fact, this concept showed Lu Xun's progressive thoughts and his tolerance to foreign cultures.

====Retranslation====
Retranslation refers to two kinds of translation, that is, one is using the third language to indirectly translate the original works, and another is having different translation versions for the same work. Although the first type of retranslation is not an ideal method, it's quite common in the history of translation. For example, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was from foreign languages to Chinese instead of being translated directly from Sanskrit. As for Lu Xun's attitude towards retranslation, he believed that the ideal translation should be translated by those who mastered the original-text language. However, in the first quarter of 20th century, no one understood or had a good command of eastern European languages. Therefore, under the circumstance retranslation was the best choice to introduce other nations' literature. In the foreword of the ''Russian Fairy Tales'', Lu Xun even candidly confessed that "I was not satisfied with my version of retranslation, but there are no other translation versions because of objective limitations. My version existed just for the period of vacancy. Once someone directly translated it, and its version must be much better. Then my version was willing to be replaced (Chen 2000,302-303)." In his point of view, he agreed that retranslation was much easier than direct translation. It included two reasons: firstly, the translator who directly translated the original text spent a large amount of time to research and digest the unintelligible and complex contents, and then he was able to express the meaning of the original text as much as possible. Secondly, as for those excellent but indigestible contents, the translator who was faithful to the original text would provide annotations to explain them. (Gu 2009, 26)

The second type of retranslation was having different translation versions for the same work. At the beginning, Lu Xun's attitude towards it was firmly against it. He believed that bookstores and readers at that time were unable to accept two translation versions for the same book. However, later Lu Xun actually put forward the necessity of retranslating the same work. In 1935, he wrote a piece of monograph and explained the reasons (Chen 2000,305). On the one hand, retranslation was the only choice to repel irresponsible translation. If there was only one version for the original text, it was unavoidable for the irresponsible translator to randomly tamper the original meaning or add subjective opinions. On the other hand, retranslation was conducive to improving the levels of new literature. When different versions appeared, comparison and critical analysis appeaered. Consequently, people were willing to choose the better one to read. Besides, Lu Xun also mentioned that the later translators could learn from the previous translation and add their own new ideas in order to make the new translation version closer to the original text. (Gu 2009, 27)

====Translation Criticism====
As for the translation criticism, Lu Xun came up with two questions, that is, the methods of making translation criticism and the importance of translation criticism. Firstly, about the methods of translation criticism, in the ''Defended for Translation Criticism'', Lu Xun proposed that "the major responsibility of translation criticism depended on translator, and circles of readers and publishing should take a part of responsibility. The correct methods of translation criticism were to point out the bad one and reward the best one; if not, the better one could also be considered (Chen 2000,306)." Besides, in order to explain the methods of translation criticism, Lu Xun used a vivid comparison. He compared the translation problems to apples with scars. As for the previous methods, once there were scars in the apples, people would discard them completely, which led to a high price. Later as long as the apples with scars were edible, they were worthwhile to criticize. Then the latter one led to less losses. In other words, previously, if the translation had obvious problems, people would forsake it without hesitation. But people also found that it was likely to waste a great amount of time and energy. The later methods further improved the disadvantage of the first one. If translation problems were found, people were able to exploit the useful part and learn something from the problems to create a better translation. This method not only helped people distinguish the quality of translation, but also saved time and reduced losses. (Chen 2000, 306-307)

Secondly, Lu Xun also expounded the importance of translation criticism. In the ''Rediscussion on translation'', he mentioned that translation criticism "undertook the responsibility of cultivation or deletion, and avoided numerous and miscellaneous translations swarming into the translation field" (Chen 2000,308). In the face of a multitude of translation works, translation criticism was conducive to distinguishing high quality works and dispelling translation of poor quality. Besides, the difficulty of translation criticism also provided great challenges for translation critics. The previous part had mentioned that Lu Xun was in favor of retranslation. Therefore, one foreign work was likely to have several different translation versions, which required translation critics to read all the translation versions, compared their advantages and disadvantages, and then made conclusions. It took a great amount of time and energy to do this work. Meanwhile, the standards of translation criticism were difficult to master. As for the same version, different people had different opinions. The qualification of translation critics should also take into consideration. (Chen 2000, 308)

===The Formation and Development of Lu Xun's Translation Theory===
Lu Xun's translation theory did not take shape in a short time. It took a long time for it to form and develop through long-lasting translation practice and improvement. In this part, it intends to introduce the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory from the perspective of "intermediate", and then analyze the social reasons for the changes.

====Philosophy of "Intermediate"====
In the ''Postscript of Tomb'' published in 1926, the philosophy of "intermediate" was firstly proposed. It intended to expound that everything was in the process of change, and it should go through the middle process to eventually reach a higher level. The philosophy originated from the "survival of the fittest" advocated by Darwin, the "gold mean" in traditional Chinese philosophical culture as well as the ideas of Nietzsche's superman (Liu and Luo 2019,34). The philosophy of "intermediate" was embodied in the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory and had played a significant role in the process. It intends to analyze his philosophy of "intermediate" from the following two aspects. (Liu and Luo 2019, 34)

=====From the Perspective of Language=====
In the aspect of language, it experienced three phrases, that is, the writings in classical style, vernacular Chinese and modern language (Wu 2009,74). At the beginning, Lu Xun regarded language as the instrument and use native language and style to change original text. Thus, he mixed the writings in classical style and vernacular Chinese to translate foreign literary works such as ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre''. In the two scientific novels, he even used the traditional pattern of chapters and delete some psychological descriptions as well as narrations of scientific knowledge in order to cater readers' taste. However, he still founded that the translation was obscure to understand for Chinese people. Later he realized that the flaws of writings in classical style were the primary cause and gradually adopted vernacular Chinese to translate and further improved it. In the ''Classical Books and Vernacular'', Lu Xun said that "the classical language has died; the vernacular Chinese was the bridge in the process of reform (Lu 2005,228)." It obviously showed that vernacular Chinese was just the intermediate or middle process with the development of new culture and literature. (Wu 2009, 74-75)

=====From the Perspective of Translation Strategy=====
In his earlier translation of late Qing Dynasty, Lu Xun mostly adopted free translation or adaptation to translate foreign literary works. For example, when translating two works written by Jules Verne, ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre'', there were obvious indications of free translation. In his translation, "''Yue Jie Lv Xing'', a total of 28 chapters of the novel were cut into only 14 chapters, and the article was deleted. The wording and writing style are suitable for Chinese readers (Lu 1981,152)." Then starting from the ''Outside Novels'', Lu Xun changed his translation style and began to use literal translation. Then from his late translation works such as ''Dead Souls'', it can be seen that he still adopted the method of literal translation. The change was that his style of literal translation became more proficient and mature in this period. In conclusion, Lu Xun's translation style changed from free translation into literal translation, and later he even used hard translation and the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent". In the process of exploring the most appropriate translation strategy, Lu Xun began to recognize his own limitations. He mentioned that his translation versions could serve as the "intermediate" to make up for the vacancy. When the better version appeared, his translation version would be discarded naturally. He also confessed that his translations were not satisfied in terms of hard translation and one reason was that his ability was limited and unable to find better translation methods. However, he was willing to provide the "intermediate" for readers and late translators for reference. (Xu 2017, 448)

Another statement was that Lu Xun's translation strategy changed from domestication into foreignization. In the history of Chinese translation, under the trend of "domestication", Lu Xun was the first one to express new and different opinions and advocated the translation strategy of "foreignization". Changing from the domestication into foreignization, his real purpose was to optimize the Chinese language. In fact, the translation strategy of "domestication" included free translation, adaptation and translation in classical style, while the strategy of "foreignization" just referred to the literal translation. Therefore, the first statement and the second one achieved the same effect through different description.(Wu 2009, 82-85)

====Social Reasons for the Formation and Development====
Lu Xun's translation activities lasted about 33 years. His translation theory can be found among his numerous translation works. The following intends to explore the reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. It intends to mainly expound the social reasons.

In the first stage of his translation activity (1903-1908), affected by Liang Qichao and Lin Shu, Lu Xun adopted the free translation to translate scientific novels. On the one hand, the translation notion advocated by Liang Qichao had a deep influence on selection of translation materials. Liang Qichao believed that translation has played an important role in reforming thinking and pushing Chinese people to make advance. From his early translation works, it can be concluded that the category of these works mainly focused on the scientific novels, which closely related to the ideology that used science to renovate people's ideas. On the other hand, in the late Qing Dynasty, the free translation adopted by Lin Shu was popular and widely accepted. Lu Xun praised that Lin Shu's translation works can convey a kind of fun. Therefore, under the influence of Lin Shu, Lu Xun began to imitate Lin Shu and used free translation to translate foreign scientific works. (Chen 2000, 170-175)

In the second stage (1909-1926), Lu Xun changed his translation method from the free translation into literal translation. At the same time, the materials he selected had also changed into literary works of weakest and oppressed nations. In the ''Youth of Lu Xun'', Zhou Zuoren mentioned that "''Gulliver's Travels'' written by Swift and ''The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon'' written by Irving were valuable books, but the translation versions of them were terrible. ''Don Quijote de la Mancha'' written by Cervantes was renamed as the ''Tale of the Daredevil'' (''Mo Xia Zhuan''), and in the translation, there were lots of mistranslation and irresponsible translation (Wu 2009,104)." It can be seen that Lu Xun criticized the novels translated by Lin Shu as well as the free translation he used. Besides, the translation works translated by Lin Shu mainly focused on the literature of developed countries including Europe and America. In order to change the situation and make up for the blank at that time, Lu Xun put forward the literal translation and translated literary works of weakest and oppressed nations to encourage Chinese people to revolution and change the current situations of old China. Therefore, the Outside Novels, born in this background, symbolized the transformation of Lu Xun's translation style. (Wu 2009, 104-105)

In the third stage (1927-1936), Lu Xun definitely and firmly stuck to literal translation. And the materials he selected mainly focused on the works of Soviet-Russian literary theory. This stage was also the most productive period with the appearance of large number of translation works. In this period, he had a deeper understanding of literal translation and wanted to introduce the new ideas and expressions to reform the shortcomings of early vernacular. In 1930, the league of left-wing was established. Lu Xun, as the leader of the league, took actions to practice his translation theory. At the same time, many opponents opposed his theory, leading to heated debate between different schools. Therefore, the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent" were proposed in the following. He still believed that literal translation and hard translation were the most appropriate methods to present foreign literary works. (Wu 2009, 109-111)

===Conclusion===
Lu Xun made great contributions to modern Chinese literature. One of his contributions was his translation theory. In the first part, this paper mainly introduces five aspects of Lu Xun's translation theory, that is, his translation purposes, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent", retranslation as well as translation criticism. At that time, when the free translation was prevailing, he put forward the concept of "literal translation" to break the convention and adopted new translation strategy. In the process of practicing his translation theory, he further proposed the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent". Although his ideas were opposed by other scholars, his purpose that enlightened Chinese people and save the old China by learning from foreign literary works promoted him to stick his translation theory all the time. Besides, his ideas about retranslation provided possibility for the appearance of more and more translation versions. And the translation criticism was the critical step to prevent miscellaneous and poor translations from circulating among people. Then in the second part, it mainly introduces the formation and development of his translation theory. It put forward the concept of "intermediate" to expound its formation and dynamic development from two perspectives including change of preferential language as well as translation strategy. Finally, it also mentions the social reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. In conclusion, this paper strives for exploring Lu Xun's translation theory and having a deep understanding of his translation activity.

===References===
*鲁迅 Lu Xun.《鲁迅全集》 [''The Complete Works of Lu Xun'' ]. 北京：人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House]. 1981年.
*鲁迅 Lu Xun.《鲁迅全集补遗》 [''Supplement to the Complete Works of Lu Xun'' ]. 天津：天津人民出版社[Tianjin People's Publishing House]. 2018年.
*陈福康 Chen Fukang.《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》 [''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory (Revised)'' ]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House ]. 2000年.
*顾钧 Gu Jun.《鲁迅翻译研究》 [''Study of Lu Xun's Translation'' ].福建：福建教育出版社[Fujian Education Publishing House]. 2009年.
*吴钧 Wu Jun.《鲁迅翻译文学研究》 [''Study of Lu Xun's Literature in Translation'' ]. 齐鲁书社[Shandong Book Club]. 2009年.
*李文革 Li Wenge.“重释鲁迅的‘宁信而不顺’——西方解构主义的视角” [Reinterpreting Lu Xun's "Rather to be Faithful Than Fluent: a Western Deconstructionist Perspective]. 跨语言文化研究[Cross Linguistic and Cultural Studies]. 2019年.
*刘孔喜，骆贤凤 Liu Kongxi and Luo Xianfeng.“鲁迅翻译思想的‘中间物’哲学理据” [The Philosophical Justification of 'Intermediates' in Lu Xun's Thought on Translation]. 绍兴文理学院学报[Journal of Shaoxing College of Arts and Sciences]. 2019年.
*黄琼英 Huang Qiongying. “鲁迅语言观与翻译策略关系初探” [A Preliminary Study on the Relationship between Lu Xun's View of Language and Translation Strategy]. 曲靖师范学院学报 [Journal of Qujing Normal College]. 2008年.
*Huang Xiaojun 黄晓军. "The Difference Between Lawrence Venuti's Foreignization and Lu Xun's Foreignization" [劳伦斯·韦努蒂的异化与鲁迅的异化的差别]. Proceedings of 2018 7th International Conference on Applied Social Science (ICASS 2018)[2018年第七届国际应用社会科学大会论文集]. Ed. 2018.
*Zhu Xiaodong 朱晓东 and Ding Ting 丁婷. "The Influence of Lu Xun's 'Hard Translation' Concept on the Transformation of Modern Chinese Culture" [鲁迅的 "硬译 "理念对中国现代文化转型的影响]. Proceedings of 7th International Workshop on Arts, Culture, Literature, and Education (IWACLE 2018) [2018年第七届国际艺术、文化、文学和教育研讨会论文集]. 2018.
*Xu Lan 徐兰. "On Lu Xun's Translation Activities in the 1930s Viewed Through Bourdieu's Sociological Theory" [论从布迪厄的社会学理论看20世纪30年代鲁迅的翻译活动]. Sino-US English Teaching 14[中美英语教学14期]. 2017.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 12:45, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology Theory 刘怡瑜 Liu Yiyu, 202070080598, MTI==
===Abstract===
Translation is not just an activity that refers to the practice of translation. In translation, theories form an integral part. With translation practice comes translation theory, and advances in theory will better guide practice. Perhaps the translation theories that translators are most familiar with are Skopos theory, domestication and foreignization, dynamic equivalence and the like, but these are all translation theories developed by celebrated foreign scholars.

The foreign translation theories have been introduced to China and have developed in China, perhaps tinged with Chinese characteristics in order to adapt to Chinese translation, but we have always lacked translation theories that originate from China. Eco-translatology is a theory from the local. This thesis is aimed to give a brief introduction to ecological translation theory, embracing the inspiration for ecological translation theory, the three-dimensional transformation as a main strategy and the emphasis on the subjectivity of translators.

In this paper, the translation of the subtitles of the American drama Prison Break will be taken as an application of the ecological translation theory strategy, so as to deepen the readers' understanding of the theory and possibly provide references for other translators on the application of ecological translation theory.

===Keywords is missing===

--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 10:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===题目 is missing===

--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 10:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===摘要===
翻译不仅仅是指翻译实践这样一种活动。在翻译的世界里，翻译理论占了不可或缺的一部分，有了翻译实践就会产生翻译理论，而理论的进步也会更好地指导翻译实践。或许译者最为熟悉的有翻译目的论、异化和归化、动态对等等一些翻译理论，但是这些都是国外著名学者所提出的翻译理论。

国外的翻译理论传到中国，在中国变化发展，也许有了中国特色，从而适应中国翻译，但我们始终缺乏从本土出发的翻译理论。生态翻译理论，就是从本土出发的翻译理论。本篇论文旨在对生态翻译理论进行一个简要地介绍，其中包括生态翻译理论的灵感来源、生态翻译的主要策略三维转换以及该理论对译者主体性的强调与诠释。

理论要应用就少不了实践，本文将会以美剧《越狱》的字幕翻译作为生态翻译理论策略的应用对象，从而深化读者对该理论的理解，也尽可能给其他研究者提供生态翻译理论应用的参考。
===关键词===
Eco-translatology; Subtitle Translation; Three-dimentional transformation
===1 Introduction===
In the study of translation theory, Eco-translatology, as an important methodological tool, a way of interpreting translation activities and a method of exploring translation theories, has increasingly shown its unique function and great charm. It is in the process of dynamic development and continuous improvement.

The theory of Eco-translatology and the proposal of Eco-translatology have undoubtedly achieved breakthroughs and its methods reached a new stage. Therefore, the study and exploration of the ideological basis of Eco-translatology and the three-dimensional transformation of the core methodology of Eco-translatology will help us fully understand the significance of Eco-translatology in contemporary translation studies and theoretical analysis of translation.

In this study, the author will introduce the inspiration of Eco-translatology and its practical translation strategy as multi-dimensional transformations then analyze the subjectivity of translators in the second chapter,. Finally, the author will integrate the theory of Eco-translatology with American TV show Prison Break.
===2 Eco-translatology===
===2.1 Inspiration of Eco-translatology===
Professor Hu Gengshen, driven by Darwin's adaptive selection theory, put forward and further developed the theory of ecological translation. The adaptation theory of translation choice is the core concept of this theory, which defines translation as "the translator's selection activities adapted to the translation ecological environment".(Hu Gengshen, 2010) The ecological environment of translation refers to “the world presented by the source language, the source language and the target language, that is, language, communication, culture, society, authors, readers and clients.”

For instance, Friends as a celebrated sitcom, only its translation must take these specific group of people into consideration can it achieve its purpose. In this process, the translator is the only subject with subjective initiative.(Hu Gengshen, 2010) As the strategy of translation, multi-dimensional adaptation and adaptive selection appear to be crucially significant. The three-dimensional transformation of language, culture and communication dimensions are included in translation methods.

What can be considered as the best translation is that the translation with the highest degree of integration adaptation and selection. The definition of translation ecological environment is the sum of all external conditions that affect the survival and development of translation theme. It includes the author, translator, reader, initiator, sponsor, publisher, and other characters of the original text.

The external environment related to the natural and economic environment, language and culture environment, social and political environment which concerns translation activities. The ecological environment of translation is interwoven by various elements, which is the sum of natural and humanistic factors in the occurrence, existence and development of translation activities. Cultural dimension and communicative dimension into practice by putting the transformation of linguistic dimension.

Three-dimensional transformation reveals its sweeping influence in translation. Language dimension transformation amounts to the translator's adaptation and selection of language forms in the process of translation. This transformation can occur at different stages, levels and aspects of the translation process. To transmit information accurately and faithfully, the translator should choose and transform the language form in an adaptive way.

Cultural dimension transformation adds up to the translator's methods to the transmission and interpretation of bilingual cultural connotations in the process of translation. More crucially, profound comprehension for the cultural discrepancy is the key to communicate accurate information. In this study, it demands translators must take the characteristics of historical and cultural documentary into account, and to use accurate language to transform the expression of cultural characteristics.

Communication dimension transformation emphasizes the adaptation and selection of translators' attention to bilingual communicative intentions in the process of translation. Only through multi-dimensional adaptation and at least three-dimensional selection and transformation can proper translation be carried out. (Hu Gengshen, 2004)

===2.2 Three Dimentional Transformation of Eco-tranlatology===
In order to make sure the precise and correctness of translation, the translator must consider the translation from multiple perspectives, levels and integrate various factors. Only in this way can the translation be closer to the original context. However, it is nearly impossible to achieve this goal in reality. After all, translation concerns a variety of contexts, cultures and other intricate factors. The environment is complex and changeable, which is difficult for translators to grasp those comprehensively.

As long as the translator find the key links and points, appropriate translation can be achieved to a certain extent. According to the theory of Eco-translation, three key dimensions must be transformed during translating the information, which is considered as three-dimensional transformation.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)

What language dimension transformation stresses is that the translator's adaptation and selection of language forms in the process of translation. Since adaptation requires to be achieved, the original text must be understood and analyzed, and the translator must have a full insight of the meaning of the translated text.

What cultural dimension transformation indicates is that the translation process in which the translator pays attention to the transmission and interpretation of bilingual cultural connotations. America and China both has totally different historical background, thus formed very distinguished cultural features. It needs translators to mind the cultural discrepancy between these two countries.

What communicative dimension transformation serves is that it requires translators to focus on the level of communication and whether the communicative intentions of the original text can be reflected in the translation, in addition to the transformation of linguistic information and the transmission of cultural connotations. Communication is unavoidable. If we want to communicate properly, then we should have a proper tone. When translating, the translator must grasp the emotion expressed by the author of the original text and accurately express the message the speaker wants to convey. (Hu Gengshen, 2008)

===2.3 The subjectivity of Translators===
Katherine Reiss proposed the text type theory, which summarized various types of text into informative, expressive and operative types. She believes that almost all texts can find their own classification based on these three types, but there are also mixed text types, such as the autobiography of statesmen, which may have the function of operative as well as informative. Reiss believes that the specific translation method is determined by the text type.

However, as translation theories continue to develop, and more and more translators find that text type theory may be too restrictive, ecological translation theories also propose translator subjectivity, aiming at transforming the translator from an invisible role to an explicit one.

The previously popular textual determinism or other factor determinism may ignore the creativity of the translator to a certain extent, treating the translator as a mere "servant" of the two languages, and the translator's subjectivity is not given full play and many translations lose their vitality.

From the point of view of ecological translation theory, we can re-understand the relationship between the translator and the translation ecological environment in the translation process, so as to highlight the influence of the translator and emphasise that the translator is no longer invisible.

Eco-translatology believes that in the translation process, the translator's subjectivity is primary and the object, the original text, is secondary. This is a significant reversal of the previous theory of focusing on the original text, and is in fact more in line with the reality that the translator plays an active and creative role in actual translation activities. Nowadays, machine translation is developing rapidly, and common economic and trade texts can be edited and modified after translation, greatly improving the efficiency of translation.

However, in literary translations, especially on subjects such as poetry, the subjectivity of the translator cannot be ignored, both in terms of understanding the content and the creativity of the output. In addition, the translation ecosystem boasts some characteristics: The translation as a whole is greater than the sum of its parts. The parts include the various elements of the translation process, such as the original work, the translation ecosystem, the translator and the reader.

Moreover, through the adaptation and choice of the translator, the nature and function of each translation element interacts with each other, which ultimately affects the translation system as a whole and manifests itself in the translator's work.

As we can see from these points, the translator-centred theory does not mean that the translator is completely free to create regardless of the original text. Eco-translation theory emphasises that translators adapt and make choices in an ecological translation environment, and that they should focus on their own creativity as well as the original text in order to produce dynamic translations.(Dong Jie, Yi Yongzhong, 2020)
===3 Application of the Theory in Subtitle Text Analysis of Prison Break===
===3.1 The Characteristics of America Television Show===
After the reform and opening up, people's living standards and quality of life have improved dramatically. People no longer just pursue food and clothing satisfaction, but have started to enrich their spiritual world. With the opening up of the country's policies, not only economic exchanges have been brought in, but also the spread of American films and TV shows has had a deeper impact on the country. It is said that art comes from life, so to a certain extent, American TV shows also reflects its style of life, attitudes and humanistic values.

Subtitle translation of movies and TV plays proves to be a relatively new field of translation. A film with vivid subtitle translation can better convey the complete information to be expressed. As global economy and cultural exchanges advance, a large number of foreign films and TV programs have been introduced into China. As a medium, film and television works have made important contributions to the cultural exchange between China and the West.
Seriousness and colloquialism go hand in hand.

Films and TV dramas are not just for the entertainment. Therefore, translators should take a serious attitude towards the subtitling of American dramas in order to avoid any inadvertent misunderstanding of different cultures. This gives the dialogue of American dramas a certain seriousness. However, seriousness does not mean that the subtitling of American dramas needs to be written throughout, as most of the plots take place in everyday life and the characters' dialogue is as commonplace as when we go out to eat, which requires the translators to avoid written language as much as possible, giving the audience a sense of being close to life and in reality.

Flexibility.
Film and television translation is a special literary form. While choosing accurate and vivid language to reproduce the ideological and artistic features of the original film to ensure the accuracy and vividness of the translated language, the translator should also make it consistent with the expressions and accents of the characters in the play. The most fundamental principle is the flexible handling of retention and innovation in subtitle translation.

First of all, there is a huge difference between Chinese and English languages, so the translator should pay special attention to the language difference when translating, and change the word class flexibly to avoid the situation where the words are not clear and the meaning is difficult to understand. Secondly, intonation is also very important as part of the dialogue.

The seriousness or liveliness, formality or casualness of the dialogue has a direct impact on the character, so the translator should ensure the accuracy of the translation and choose suitable language styles according to the different types of films in order to make the audience feel the same as the original language audience.

In the process of translation, the translator should fully understand the connotation of the film, and flexibly handle the retention and innovation in subtitle translation according to the language characteristics and cultural background of both parties, making the subtitle translation more suitable for the cultural context through vocabulary and word class conversion, to show the charm of the film and retain the artistic value of the film to the greatest extent.（Qian Shaochang, 2000）
===3.2 A Introduction of Prison Break===
Prison Break is a crime-thriller, with an exciting, interlocking plot, adored by national and international audiences,. In this show, Mike (Wentworth Miller) and his brother Lincoln (Dominic Purcell) are interdependent. Lincoln borrows $90,000 from a loan shark to cover the tuition of his brother, and Mike uses the money to become a successful building and structural engineer.

Lincoln, however, reluctantly agrees to shoot a man in order to repay the loan shark, and is then set up as a scapegoat by a senior government official. Mike takes advantage of his career and learns about the prison structural system. After deliberately robbing a bank, he insists that he wants to be put in the same prison as his brother, and then tries his best to save him from being sentenced to death. quotation is missing--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 08:40, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

===3.3 Adaptive Selections in Linguistic Dimension===
After discussed the basis of Eco-translatology, the characteristics of American TV shows, we should put it into practice so as to deepen our understanding.
Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese emphasizes meaning, while English appears to be in strict accordance with the structure of sentences. Nida said that from a linguistic light, the biggest difference between Chinese and English is hypotaxis and parataxis.(Nida, 2001) In the process of translation, subtitle translators should learn by heart that the specific language characteristics so as to make the information transmission smoothly and authentically.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)

Original and Translation:
-You don't have a violent bone in your body,
我知道你天性善良，
-I said,are you being a smartass?
我问你是不是喜欢讽刺人？
-Just trying to fly low,avoid the radar,boss.
只不过想保持低调，不想引起注意，长官
-Do my time... and get out.
服完刑...就走人
Analysis: Reverse translations can also be considered to be a linguistic translation strategy, which can sometimes have a much more different effect than literal translations. This conversation occurs when Mike chats with a prison guard on arrival at the prison. “Don't have a violent bone in your body” is translated into “天性善良”. The reverse translation here show Mike's desire to impress the guard in order to facilitate a quiet environment in which to carry out his plans. In addition, “do my time” originally meant to pass the time, but the translator has chosen to adapt the translation to make it easier to understand and fit the context.

Original and Translation:
-He just sort of rolled over. He didn't put up a fight.
他就当睡觉翻个身似的，没任何反抗
Analysis: In a particular context, the meaning of a word often transcends its original meaning, and a context-dependent meaning appears, which is regarded as semantic addition. Therefore, the translator should jump out of the original meaning of the word and rely on the context in which the word is located to translate its meaning outside the context. The original meaning of “roll over” was to make a rolling motion or turn, but the phrase was translated to fit the context, adding the meaning of sleep over, which shows Mike's attitude to letting it run its course after being sentenced, and also provides an ambush for the plot to save his brother.

Original and Translation:
-Kellerman: There's a lawyer poking around.
有个律师在多管闲事
-Caroline: Anyone that's a threat is expendable.
对这种人不要心慈手软
Analysis: It is difficult to understand this sentence just by looking at the meaning of the word expendable. But according to the meaning of the whole sentence it is clear that what is meant here is that anyone who is a threat should be dealt with without considering the cost. Sometimes, the meaning of an adjective is far from restricted to its original, which embodies that the context matters.

===3.4 Adaptive Selections in Cultural Dimension===
China and America share dramatically different historical background and culture, thus there are some idioms, jargon, or any other adages that the two countries may has their own definition and explanation. In the process of translation, subtitle translators should bear in mind that the specific cultural characteristics between two countries so as to cause no misunderstanding.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)

Original and Translation:
-Someone wants him dead,Veronica.
有人要置他于死地，Veronica
-Something more is going on here.
这背后有阴谋
-This is desperation,Michael.
你是在孤注一掷，Michael
-You're grabbing at straws.
是想抓救命稻草
Analysis: The above sentences relatively use“want him dead”“desperation”“grab at straws”and the translator relatively selects typical Chinese sayings which are “置于死地”“孤注一掷”“救命稻草”. These Chinese idioms all have specific meanings and historical origins. “置于死地” means to put the opponent in a position to perish. This Chinese idiom is from Sun Wu's The Art of War: A person who falls into the water suddenly finds a straw and is saved by breathing underwater through a hollow straw.

It is now often used in a metaphorical sense to refer to a person's only hope in a difficult situation. The context of this conversation is Mike and his brother's friend discussing the situation in which his brother has been set up and imprisoned, and these idioms are appropriate for the feeling of being set up and yet having no choice.

Original and Translation:
-Look where it got me.I'm not asking you to love me. I already screwed up that chance long ago. I'm asking you to love yourself. You can still put the brakes on this thing.
可看看我现在身处的地方，我不是在恳求你再爱我，很久以前我就失去了这个机会。我是让你要自爱，亡羊补牢，为时不晚。
Analysis: “亡羊补牢，为时不晚” is a Chinese proverb. Once upon a time there was a child called Zhang San whose family had many sheep, but he was sloppy in his work. One day, there came a hole in the railing of the sheep pen. When Zhang San's neighbours saw the hole, they reminded him to repair the sheep pen. He shook his head and said, "It's only a small hole, it doesn't matter, you can fix it in a few days. When Zhang San was about to mend the fence of the sheep pen to see how the baby lambs were growing, he noticed that many of the sheep had run away and there were not many left.

An old man heard Zhang San's cries and asked him with concern. “It is not too late to fix it now, and you can save the remaining sheep.” Zhang San came to his senses. Zhang San thanked the old man, picked up a hammer and repaired the fence on the sheep pen firmly.

Since then, Zhang San has completely changed his bad habit of dragging his feet. Although Zhang San lost a lot of sheep, he learned a great lesson from the incident, and from then on developed a good habit of correcting mistakes as soon as they were made. This proverb is very appropriate in the translation of this paragraph.

When the Mike's brother ends up in prison and his child come to visit and see his father's decadence in prison, he wants to drop out of school, and the father says this to the child to make up for the bad influence he has had on him. The English word literally means you should step on the brakes, but the Chinese idiom is more apt.

Original and Translation:
-Westmoreland: Three days inside,and he's already thinking about turning rabbit.
才在牢里呆了三天，他就想着要大闹天官。
Analysis: In this dialogue, the translator translates turning rabbit as “大闹天宫”. For Chinese audiences, the Great Tribulation is a very familiar episode of Journey to the West. In the original story, Sun Wukong, was sued by the Dragon King for forcibly borrowing the East Sea Needle of the Goddess of Certainty, a treasure of the sea and also a powerful weapon.

After being humiliated and disgraced at the Peach Party, he fought his way to heaven. The Jade Emperor's Heavenly Hall was turned upside down and the immortals were helpless. This Chinese story is more graphic to the Chinese audience than the image of a turning rabbit.

Original and Translation:
-Michael: Van Gogh over there is my new cellmate.
那边的“梵高”是我的新牢友
-Fernando: But you're going to do something about it, right?You're gonna get rid of him.
但我知道你不会坐以待毙的对吗?你会想办法摆脱他的。
Analysis: This dialogue contains an idiom that is “坐以待毙”, which describes a person in extreme difficulty who is not actively trying to find a way out. The idiom is from the book ZhuKo Kungming's Second Memorial to the Throne on his Expedition. In the context of the whole episode, Mike wants to dig a hole to escape, but there is a new cellmate in the prison, who is unable to sleep at night due to mental problems, which makes the job of digging extremely difficult, as night is the only period to be free. So Fernando was worried that the plan could not be carried out, and if it was, most of the condemned prisoners in the prison would indeed be sitting around waiting to die.

Original and Translation:
-Told you not to go around me to the Pop. But you just keep making waves, don't you?
跟你说了别去找狱长，但你还在惹是生非。
Analysis: In this dialogue, “make waves” is translated as to “惹是生非”. This idiom means to stir up trouble, to cause trouble, and is taken from Feng Menglong's Instruction Stories to Enlighten the World. All of the escape partners just want to escape in peace and quiet, but the main character, Mike, has his own agenda, so he keeps the prison warden on his toes to achieve his goal. However, the other inmates think that Mike is just trying to disturb the warden, and “惹是生非” is a very accurate translation here.
===3.5 Adaptive Selections in Communicative Dimension===
Communication proves to be a crucial intention of words. Audience needs to get the idea of what movies or documentaries want to express thus communicative purpose can be achieved.(Yangli, 2013)

Original and Translation:
-Top of your class at Loyola. Magna cum laude, in fact. I can't help wondering what someone with your credentials is doing in a place like this.
Loyola的尖子生，优等成绩，我就纳闷了象你这么优秀的人才，跑到这种鬼地方干什么？
-Michael:Took a wrong turn a few months back,I guess.
也许是几个月前拐错弯了。
-You make it sound like a traffic infraction.
你说的好像是交通违规似的。
-Michael: Like all you did was turn the wrong way up a one-way street. Everyone turns up one sooner or later.
就像在单行道上开错方向，人人迟早都会发生点意外。
Analysis: In the process of translation, it is very important to choose the right words. And proper words refer not only to the correspondence of meaning, but also to the tone in a certain context. This translation method includes mood reproduction. Mood refers to the speaker's attitude towards what he says. It is a grammatical feature in the form of intonation and mood words. In the way of mood expression, there is only exclamation in English, such as oh my god, gosh, oh dear lord, and the like, which tries to show the audience the tone of surprise, praise, pain, but there is a lack of mood words with the same emotional meaning as in Chinese, such as“哦”“呢”“呀”.

Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese translation, the translator should have a keen sense and a deep understanding of the mood in the original English text, managing to transplant the original characters' tone to the translation by appreciating the diverse moods in the ordinary English text. In this dialogue, it is nearly impossible to tell the tone of the speaker by the literal meaning of the words alone.

But the translator has made his own adaptations in the context. The protagonist, a talented student, devises his own plan to rob a bank and get arrested in order to save his wrongly accused brother from prison. The prison governor, after reading the Mike's CV, expresses his own incomprehension. Phrases such as “纳了闷” and “鬼地方” convey the tone of the speaker very well.

Original and Translation:
-Michael:we only got a few minutes. We're gonna spend them spitting on each other, or are we gonna talk some business?
我们只有几分钟，我们是要用这几分钟来互相扯皮，还是我们来谈点儿正经事儿？
Analysis: The dialogue includes the words “互相扯皮” and “谈点儿正经事”, which fits Mike's irritation at the lack of cooperation from his "teammates" at the time. The colloquialisation is also very much in line with the Chinese.

Original and Translation:
-Caroline: Move on the younger brother. Do it preemptively before anything rises up,bites any of us in the ass.
把他弟弟弄走，早做打算。
Analysis: The use of the word “弄” in this dialogue shows Caroline's disregard for human life and the coldness of her character. The officials became a little worried when they found out that Mike was in his brother's prison. A literal translation of “move on” would not have had this effect. In addition, the second sentence does not translate the meaning of every single word, but rather uses only “早做打算”, which is very much in keeping with the leadership style of the person behind the plan.

Original and Translation:
-Michael: I think I've got enough grout out to bust through. I'm going to need you to make some noise.
我想我已经挖得够多了，你得帮我制造点噪音。
-Is that the best you can do?
你就这么点能耐？
-all: Shut up!
闭嘴!
-Berwick: Not one more word!
谁也别出声！
Analysis: This conversation took place when Mike was organising a tunnel excavation for people in the prison. While the digging was going on, Mike was worried that the noise would attract the guards, so he asked his cellmates to make other noises to attract attention. However, when the inmates saw that Mike was digging just a little bit of a tunnel, they shouted at him. The translator has chosen to translate this as “这点能耐”, which is a good way of conveying the impatience and arrogance of the cellmate, both in terms of content and tone. For communicative purposes, it serves as a warning.
===4 Conclusion===
From the perspective of Eco-translatology, this paper analyses the subtitle translation strategies of Prison Break. Under the guidance of this theory, its subtitle translation language can be described as quite refined, from which we can see the translator's cultural connotation and translation ability, and the application of Eco-translatology theory in subtitle translation of the show is in place.

However, this study is still very limited in the use of analytical Eco-translatology theory. The first is that translation studies are scattered but not specialized. Second, this study is still at the stage of quoting relevant terms or general concepts of ecology, and it has not yet given a systematic, in-depth and detailed description and interpretation of translation activities according to the basic connotation of ecology.

Third, the thesis is narrow-minded, lacking multi-dimensional interpretation and generalization of more problems. In addition, some studies are only on the matter, not on the background of global ecological trend and academic trend of thought. Therefore, Eco-translation theory needs to be enriched and developed in subtitle research.

===References===
[1]Nida, Eugene A. 2001. Language and culture: Context in translating[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,114.

[2]胡庚申.生态翻译学:产生的背景与发展的基础[J].外语研究,2010(4).

[3]胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社，2004.

[4]胡庚申.从术语看译论——翻译适应选择论改观[J].上海翻译, 2008 (2).

[5]胡庚申.例示“适应选择论”的翻译选择和翻译方法[D].外语与外语教学，2006 (3).

[6]钱邵昌.字幕翻译——翻译园地中愈来愈重要的领域[J].中国翻译, 2000(1).

[7]杨丽.文学作品翻译中的语气翻译策略研究[J].语文学刊,2013(9).

[8]董捷,易永忠.生态翻译学视角下译者主体性在字幕翻译中的体现[J].校园英语,2020(19):243-244.

参考文献需要中英双语--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 10:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==A Study of English Translation of HUAWEI’s Advertising Videos from the Eco-translatology Perspective 张宇星 Zhang Yuxing 202070080650 英语口译==

===摘要===

随着经济全球化的发展，越来越多的中国公司步入国际化行列，竞相抢占国际市场。广告片是宣传产品、公司项目，提升企业形象的重要手段之一，对广告片翻译进行研究对企业的国际化发展具有重大意义，因此国际化企业对此十分重视。华为技术有限公司成立于1987年，历经30余年的发展，已成为有国际影响力的大公司。为对产品进行有效的宣传，华为摄制较多高质量的双语宣传片，这些宣传片激发了较多潜在顾客。然而，由于东西方文化差异的存在，宣传片字幕翻译对译者提出了较高的要求。

本文以生态翻译学为理论框架对华为三个宣传片的英译进行了研究。作者根据生态翻译学的三维转换理论，考虑到中英文在语言习惯、文化背景和文本交际意图的差异，分别对华为的三个宣传片，即关于华为Mate20登月的故事，华为海洋，科技普济天下，进行评析。最后通过分析总结发现：译者在进行商务字幕翻译实践时，需要充分了解源语与目的语在语言、文化等方面的差异，充分适应具体的翻译环境，传递文本的交际意图，只有达到了语言维、文化维和交际维三者的统一，才是真正成功的译文。

===关键词===

生态翻译学；三维转换；华为；宣传片；广告语翻译

===Abstract===

With the development of globalization, more and more Chinese enterprises are stepping into the competition of global market. As advertising video contributes a lot to promoting products projects as well as the image of enterprises, its translation is critical to enterprises to go global and has caught businessmen’s attention greatly. Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, founded in 1987, has evolved into an international corporate with profound influence over the last 30 years. In order to advertise products, HUAWEI has shot many high-quality bilingual advertising videos which have attracted many potential customers. However, the subtitle translation of advertising videos requires high professional skills for translators as many cultural differences lie between the West and the East.

This paper aims to study the English translation of advertising videos Eco-translatology theory perspective. Based on three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory, the author gives full consideration to differences in linguistic tradition, cultural background and communicative intention of the text between Chinese and English, and comments the subtitle translation of three HUAWEI’s advertising videos, A Story about the Moonfall of HUAWEI Mate 20, Huawei Marine and TECH4ALL. In the end, the conclusion comes that translators should fully understand the linguistic and cultural differences between the source text and target text and adapt themselves in specific translation environment so as to transmit the whole communicative intention when they translate commercial subtitles. And successful translation texts should be those realizing the unification of linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension.

===Key Words===

Eco-translatology, three dimensional transformations, HUAWEI, advertising video; subtitle translation

===1 Introduction===

As early as 2001, Hu Gengshen has put forth the notion of “approach to translation as adaptation and selection” and “translation is adaption and selection” in the FIT Third Asian Translators’ Forum (Hu Gengshen, 2001, 5), which marked the birth to Eco-translatology. In Eco-translatology, Hu combined the translation process with Darwinism, “survival of fitness”, and proposed that translators, when they translate a text, should fully adapt themselves to source languages’ environment to understand its specific meaning and find out targeted readers at first, and then, on the basis of good command of the source language and its culture, write down appropriate words so that readers using target language can get the same and correct information about the whole text. As the theory gives an inspiration for many translators, there are an increasing number of translators conducting translation, translation criticism and other activities in accordance with Eco-translatology.

In addition, the background of this paper is that the advent of Internet and convenient transports arouses most enterprises’ awareness of the importance and necessity of advertising videos in products or business promotion. Especially in the era of scientific technology, Internet and advanced transportation are breaking the geographical boundaries to a large extent, therefore, enterprises can expand their operation worldwide, enjoying a larger business scope than ever before (Chen K., Yang F. F, 2019, 21). However, there still exit language and cultural limits when enterprises promote a product, so proper translation is quite important for companies to extend their business scope.

Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, the tech giant enjoying satisfactory reputation coming from both customers and competitors, has shown its presence in many countries and regions with advertising videos presented in various languages. For HUAWEI’s advertising video, there is a common sense that people feel passionate about learning more about the product or the company and even want to buy it after they watch those videos, so undoubtedly, HAEWEI does a good job in advertising videos. Meanwhile, HUAWEI, on behalf of domestic Communications Service Provider, has wide influence over international market. Considering all those facts, the author tends to comment the subtitle translation of HUAWEI’s advertising videos from the perspective of Eco-translatology and hope for some possible enlightenment for subtitle translation.

The thesis applies qualitative analysis, case study and contrastive analysis to study both the Chinese versions and English versions of three videos about HUAWEI. For each video, the author comments them respectively from linguistic dimensional transformation, cultural dimensional transformation and communicative dimensional transformation, the processes of translation in Eco-translatology theory.

===2 Literature Review===

Eco-translatology, put forward by Hu Gengshen, is a systematic translation theory to explain the translation process. It studies and guides the translation practice(practices)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) from the perspective of ecology, which provides a new way for translators to conduct translation, so since its birth, the theory has widely broadened the theoretical researches in both China and abroad (Hu Gengshen, 2001).

===2.1 Eco-translatology===

At the beginning of the 21st century, Hu Gengshen put emphasis on translators’ adaptation and selection when they translate a text, which is the origin of Eco-translatology theory. In Eco-translatology theory, translation process is similar to Darwinism’s “natural selection”. Translators, like all creatures in evolutionary history, also experience the selection and adaptation in translating so as to create masterpieces to satisfy variable purposes and people using different languages (Hu Gengshen, 2001, 17). As well, their works tend to confront the “natural selection”, the market, and finally the best works will be preserved as time goes by. So, in order to create high-quality and ever-lasting translated texts, translators have to bury themselves in different eco-environments so as to get the pure and true understanding of the source text, and translate it into the target language with appropriate words which will meet different needs. During the process, the “natural selection” is the market, or readers’ feedback.

Since Hu proposed the notion of “approach to translation as adaptation and selection” and “translation is adaption and selection” in 2001 (Hu Gengshen, 2001, 103), studies on Eco-translatology began to grow vigorously. In 2004, Hu published a book, An Approach to Translation as Adaptation and Selection. This book focuses on translators’ adaptation and selection, including their relations, mechanisms, basic characteristics and principles, so as to describe or interpret translation process, standards and methods in a new perspective (Hu Gengshen, 2004). After that, Hu continued to study “adaption and selection” and briefly summarized translation principle as multidimensional adaptions and adaptive selection, and translation methods as “three dimensional transformations” (Hu Gengshen, 2006).

As Eco-translatology developed in a positive way, Hu reviewed the development of the theory, including basic connotation, background, current situation and existed limits, and pointed out directions for future research (Hu Gengshen, 2008, 23 ). And then, Hu expounded on nine focuses on research and theoretical tenets from the perspective of Eco-translatology (Hu Gengshen, 2011, 3). As Eco-translatology has widely been accepted by most translators and employed in many fields, Hu, in Eco-translatology: Construction & Interpretation, was commitment to give a general overview and description of the translation ecology and translation theory viewing from ecology (Hu Gengshen, 2013, 11).

In order to provide some inspiration in translation practices, Hu, based on the present research concerning Eco-translatology, put forward different research focus in the future from several angles and aspects in light of Eco-translatology so that scholars could get certain enlightenments and directions for their future studies (Hu Gengshen, 2017, 34).

Apart from Hu’s studies on Eco-translatology, many scholars have conducted a lot of researches in previous years. Tang applied Eco-translatology in advertisement translation and proposed that translators, from linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions, should have focus according to advertisement’s contents, targeted audiences, source language and cultural background of the target text (Tang Yixin, 2015, 52).

The theory has also been employed to analyze the Chinese-English translation of corporate profiles (Xing Yanchao and Dong Hailin, 2017, 142). Just in the same year, in order to assist Chinese films to go global, Zhu researched films’ subtitle translation with the exemplification of “Mr. Six” from three dimensional transformation in Eco-translatology, that is, linguistic dimensions, cultural dimensions and communicative dimensions (Zhu Jingyan, 2017, 78).

Over the past ten years with countless scholars and translators’ efforts, Eco-translatology has developed to cover many points, such as translator-centeredness, eco-paradigm, sequence chain, adaptive selection and selective adaption, eco-environment and post-event penalty (Hu Gengshen, 2011, 5). Viewing from translation process, Eco-translatology theory requires translators to select different translation environments and adapt themselves in it for many times; from translation principles, Eco-translatology theory is multi-dimensional selective adaption and adaptive selection; from translation skill, Eco-translatology promotes the translation from three dimensional transformation, linguistic dimensional transformation, cultural dimensional transformation and communicative dimensional transformation (Hu Gengshen, 2003, 283).

===2.2 Subtitle Translation===

Subtitle translation of advertising videos, an essential part of translation of commercial texts, generally refers to inter-lingual translation. Since the flourishment of domestic films in 21st century, more and more high-quality films with interesting plots compete to go global to boast Chinese traditional culture and tell Chinese stories, which is part of Chinese dream of great rejuvenation. Therefore, in order to promote Chinese culture, provide Chinese solution and tell Chinese story well, quite a few scholars and translators are commitment to subtitle translation and relative studies.

According to Wang (2007, 13), subtitle translation, a special language transformation, should be focused on condensing the oral language in videos into written language. Then, Wu studied language features of subtitle translation, which are instantaneity and popularization, and proposed that translators should pay more attention to logicality, artistry and affection of the words (Wu Wei, 2013, 154). Yu studied the features and technical constraints of dubbing and subtitling English into Chinese, and found that standardization and simplification were two major techniques for subtitling while lip synchronization, gestures and pauses were major constraints for dubbing (Yu Haikuo, 2015, 493).

2019 witnessed the prosperity of not only films but also studies related to subtitle translation. In the same year, several scholars studied the machine translated subtitles, all of which were selected from MOOCs, and found that “participants who were offered full PEMT subtitles scored better overall on our reception metrics than those who were offered raw MT subtitles” (Hu et al., 2019, 13), and Zheng discussed the features and limitations of subtitle translation (Zheng Jie, 2019, 247).

After that, Zheng furthered the study about subtitle translation and proposed that different comments about subtitle translation, be it satisfactory or not, came out when audiences viewed it in different situation and prospects (Zheng Xiqing, 2020), and Wang briefly discussed subtitle translation of Chinese films in ''Western Leather'' by commenting several cases (Wang An, 2020). Just in the same year, Wang analyzed and prospected the subtitling abroad through empirical research, suggesting that the subtitle translation in the future should be focused on the translation in dynamic images (Wang Juan, 2020, 89).

All in all, subtitle translation, as a special part of translation, should be emphasized on not only the basic information of the text but also the emotional awareness, the contextual effects, which are the focus of translators. Moreover, few studies concerning subtitle translation were conducted from the perspective of Eco-translatology theory, so the author comments subtitle translation of advertising videos through three dimensional transformations promoted by Eco-translatology theory.

===3 A Case Study of HUAWEI’s Advertising Videos: Three Dimensional Transformations===

Since the reform and opening-up in China, Chinese enterprises have boosted their business operation all over the world and won worldwide recognition and reputation in over three decades. Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd is a tech giant with commitment to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world (https://www.huawei.com/en/fully-connected-intelligent-world/ ). As HUAWEI has been expanding business presence in every corner of the world, many advertising videos have been created to promote the products, enhance corporate image and advertise projects. However, according to the author’s research, few studies on subtitle translation of advertising videos are conducted from the perspective of Eco-translatology theory.

According to Eco-translatology theory, translators should conduct translation practices based on the principle of multi-dimensional selective adaption and adaptive selection, while the translation approach is three dimensional transformations, which are linguistic transformation, cultural transformation and communicative transformation (qtd. in Zhu Jingyan, 2017, 80). In the translation process, the translator has to select different eco-environment and adapt himself based on different dimensions. For example, if the translator translates from linguistic dimension, the top priority for translator is to keep syntax and grammar correction and among others; if the translator does translation from cultural dimension, he has to consider the cultural background, local customs etc.; if the translator translates text from communicative dimension, he should pay more attention to the communicative function of the text.

In order to elaborate on subtitle translation of advertising videos from the perspective of Eco-translatology, the author selects three advertising videos of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, and analyzes them from linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension respectively.

Three videos are related to mobile phone’s promotion: Mate 20, corporate promotion, Huawei Marine, and projects promotion, TECH4ALL (https://www.huawei.com/minisite/tech4all/cn/ ). The first video, focusing on the release of HUAWEI Mate 20, a smartphone designed by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd in 2018, marked the expansion of Huawei’s commercial landscape in telecommunication all over the world.

In 2018, both domestic and abroad customers have been completely amazed by the performance of Mate 20, and even in 2020 when many new series of masterpieces of mobile-phones were releases, there still exist many customers keeping using HUAWEI Mate 20. In fact, apart from great performance and customers’ excellent experience, what attracts and retains customers includes the contribution of the eye-catching advertising video, A Story about the Moonfall of HUAWEI Mate 20. The video is about the communication between an astronaut and the ground, so the whole eco-environment in linguistic dimension is the daily communication, and every word and sentence should conform to characteristics of daily interactions.

The second advertising video is about Huawei Marine (http://www.huaweimarine.com/cn/Company/CorporateVideo ). Huawei Marine has combined competitive edges of both parent companies with strong commitment to the establishment of submarine cable network globally. And the vision of Huawei Marine, being “Connecting the World, One Ocean at a Time”, has also fully reflected the vision of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, “Building a Fully Connected, Intelligent World”. This video is selected from the official website of Huawei Marine, aiming to give a brief introduction of the company as well as what they have done over the past decade. As it is an official video concerning Huawei Marine’s corporate image, the words employed in subtitle are very formal, and the same is true to subtitle translation.

The last advertising video introduces HUAWEI’s non-profit project, TECH4ALL (https://www.huawei.com/minisite/tech4all/cn/). It is a non-profit project launched by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd with strong commitment to bring technology to everyone and everywhere, both rich and poor, in the world. It is certain that the wealth people are more likely to get advanced technology and information to catch more wealth while poor people would face the embarrassing situation of getting poorer, which is the application of the Matthew Effect in information era.

In the following analysis, specific comments about the subtitle translation of those advertising videos are offered from linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions, key points of Eco-translatology theory.

===3.1 Linguistic Dimensional Transformations===

The adaptive selection transformation in linguistic dimension means that translators have to focus on the transformation of linguistic form. The basic requirements for translators in linguistic dimensional transformations are grammatically correction, clearness, accuracy and others. The author gave some specific comments about the subtitle translation of selected videos from linguistic dimensional transformation, part of three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory (Tang, 2015, 143). In the following analysis, examples are given with their translations, and the source text is marked as ST and translated target text, TT, and specific comments about those examples, from linguistic dimensional transformation, are provided in the following text.

Eg.1 ST: 在这广阔的海域下，正是这一条条蓝色的信息脉络，传递你我的声音，想法传递着每一份情感，让想象呈现于现实，连接五洲四洋，承载沟通梦想，让世界无界。

TT: Deep under our vast seas, there is a blue highway of information, spreading our voices, ideas, and feelings, allowing our imaginations become reality, carrying our dreams across the oceans, and making a world without boundaries.

It is the last part of the advertising video about Huawei Marine focusing on its vision. This video ends with “连接五洲四洋，承载沟通梦想，让世界无界”, which includes broad words of “洲” and “洋”. In Chinese, “五洲四洋” is a word developed from a Chinese four-character idiom, “五洲四海” which refers to “世界各地”, every corner in the world, and it originates from the essay, 《魔鬼的笛音》 written by Sima Da. Meanwhile, the literal meaning of “五洲四洋” is continents and oceans, while the translator put it into “oceans” solely. The reason behind is that the translator tried to satisfy the requirements of(in)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) corporate promotion.

Just as the advertising video presented before, Huawei Marine aims to promote the image of International enterprises, Huawei Marine, and it gives some basic information about Huawei Marine, such as the business landscape. Most tasks Huawei Marin has conducted are on the ocean, rather than continents, by establishing as much as optical fibers across the ocean to connect the whole world, and the mission of Huawei Marine is “Connecting the World, One Ocean at a Time”. Based on the mission of Huawei Marine and its business landscape, the translator chose the image, ocean, and threw away another image, continent. Just in this way, the action translator conducted echoes to the purpose of this advertising video.

Eg.2

ST: 这里是位于印度洋深处的海洋秘境，仅5万人口，但他们的存在却无法让世界忽视或遗忘

TT: And on one secluded island in the Indian Ocean, that only has a population of 50,000, people have made their existence unforgettable and un-ignorable.

In this example, the translator applies “secluded island” to translate “海洋秘境” in describing the tough situation in Mauritius. “秘境”, in Chinese, is a phrase with many far-reaching meanings. Meanwhile, the conception, “海洋秘境”, conforms to Chinese perceptual knowledge since ancient times. In addition, according to Oxford dictionary, “secluded” also has diverse meanings, such as “(of a place) quiet and private, not used or disturbed by other people” and “without much contact with other people” (Oxford Dictionary, 2018, 297), which are correspondence to secret places of “秘境”. Although “secluded island” is lack of some meaning and the artistic conception of “秘境”, it has fully transmitted the key points in this passage, so the translator performed excellently.

From above examples, it is easy to conclude that translators should fully understand the translation eco-environment, the context or the background, adapt themselves in it, and aim to satisfy the requirements of linguistic style, accuracy, readability, customs and clearness on the basis of local translation eco-environments, when they understand the source text or conduct the translation practices. Otherwise, tedious, boring and untie in with reality may be the likely result of translation.

===3.2 Cultural Dimensional Transformations===

The adaptive selection transformation in cultural dimension requires that translators should pay pay special attention to convey and interpret the cultural connotations in both languages (Hu Gengshen, 2006, 49). As different countries have different history, people in this country have been cultivated with different culture, so it is naturally that people in China and other English-speaking countries own many differences, including opinions, values, cultural backgrounds, attitudes, customs and so many others.

As the existence of cultural differences, the top priority for translators, to broadcast a product or a company, is to eliminate differences or narrow the gap in cognition of people in two different cultural environments. So in order to make customers learn more about and accept the product or an enterprise, translators should exhaust their knowledge and skills to eliminate those cognitive differences towards some specific things, which carry completely different meanings in different cultures. The author has employed the subtitle translation of advertisement video to make specific comments from cultural dimensional transformations. The followings are some examples and comments about the subtitle translation from cultural transformation dimension.

Eg.3

ST: 70%的表面被海洋覆盖，这里孕育着神奇的物种，埋藏着丰富的资源，也成为人类沟通的天堑。

TT: 70% of our world is covered by oceans, which are home to amazing species and rich resources. Now, they will bring a new era of communication.

“天堑” is a literary word referring to natural chasms unable to be conquered easily, most of which are big rivers. In Southern Dynasty, people viewed “天堑” as the Changjiang River. Mr. Fan, a famous writer of the Northern Dynasty, once said that “长江天堑，古来限隔，虏军岂能飞度?”, which means that enemy troops of Sui Dynasty could not pass the Changjiang River, because it separated the north and south. Although the Sui Dynasty succeed in this battle because of militaries of that the Northern Dynasty led a befuddled life while militants in the Sui Dynast, we could still get a glimpse of difficulties of the natural chasm.

After that, people employed “天堑” to describe many natural chasms, especially the Changjiang River. For example, in 1957 when Wuhan Yangtze River Bridge was completed, Mao Zedong wrote a poem 《水调歌头•游泳》 to celebrate the great events. In 《水调歌头•游泳》, there exists a saying of “天堑变通途”, which means that the Changjiang River, the natural chasms are conquered to be clear roads.

In English, there is no specific words corresponding to “天堑”, so the translator turned to the specific meaning of the sentence and rendered it into that the ocean “will bring a new era of communication”. It is also the mission of Huawei Marine. Both Chinese version and English version transform the vision of Huawei Marine differently based on different cultural background.

Meanwhile, as “天堑” has such a few profound meanings, it not only illustrates how hard those places are and how extraordinary achievements Huawei Marine has made, but also creates an artistic conception that there are a lot of challenges lying in Huawei Marine’s projects. The artistic conception refers to the situation which is created by the integration of emotion and scene, void-solid combination and poetic space with profound meanings and the rhythms of vibrant life. For most people, they cannot get the specific points when they read such words, but after watching the whole video and relating those words to specific situation in this video, they would catch a glimpse of the corporate image.

Apart from that, the translator translated “天堑” as “they will bring a new era of communication” in English. These words echo to the beginning words which have shown the rich resources and coverage of the vast ocean, because people may not view the ocean as a way leading to communication era as it is generally accepted that continents are divided by ocean so that ideas are unable to communicate freely. Therefore, “bring a new era of communication” in the video introduces Huawei Marine’s business landscape, showing its presence in creating a new era of communication in the vast ocean. The English version has less twists in the whole passage and targets at the theme, introducing Huawei Marine, directly, which satisfies Westerners’ customs and advocates the corporate image in a more appropriate way.

Eg.4

ST: 科技普济天下。

TT: Tech for all. Pass it on.

This comes from the advertising video about the non-profit project, TECH4ALL. “科技普济天下” can be easily related to a Chinese old saying, “穷则独善其身，达则兼济天下” with the English meaning being “In hard time, try to seek self-development; in success, try to let others be benefited”, which is the highest mission of scholars in ancient China. It tends to arouse Chinese people’s admiration to HUAWEI. The English version, “Tech for all. Pass it on”, is a fixed expression that passes on something from generation to generation or from one man to another. To some extent, the last sentence, being the finishing touch, promotes HUAWEI’s corporate image greatly. And both versions have transferred the theme to the audiences successfully.

From the above analysis, the conclusion emerges. Viewing from cultural dimensions, translators should consider not only the cultural differences between source language and target language, but also the theme of the advertising videos, describing the performance of a company. And as cultural tradition, Chinese version prefers to employ broader words to create an atmosphere while the English version tends to use more specific and direct ones. Only in this way, customers with different cultural background would know the company or product in a correct and positive way.

===3.3 Communicative Dimensional Transformations===

The adaptive selection transformation in communicative dimension focuses on the communicative ability of the text (Hu Gengshen, 2006, 97). In other words, the purpose of an advertising video is to introduce and promote a product, projects or enterprise, so the video would contain the basic information of the product, project or enterprise, so as to enable potential customers to know more about them or engage in the project or join in the company.

In this dimension, it will focus on the translation of the communicative ability. For example, if an advertising video of Chinese version focuses on a mobile phone and introduces its basic information, and most of the domestic customers itch to buy one after watching that video, the translator has to translate not only all of the basic information but also the emotion–appealing. If the translator fails to arouse customers’ impulse to buy the phone, the translation practice is a failure (Hu Gengshen, 2008, 13). However, in this aspect, HUAWEI’s advertising videos are excellent examples, and the followings are some specific analysis of subtitle translation of those advertising videos from communicative dimensional transformation.

Eg.5

ST: 偏远的尼日利亚村民第一次连接外部世界，一根科技木杆，立起数字信号覆盖村落。无法离家的孟加拉农村女性，第一次掌握数字工具，六部培训巴士，带着数字技能穿梭百万公里。特殊的聋哑孩子，第一次享受到阅读的乐趣，一款移动应用，让手机通晓数十种语言。

TT: In remote areas of Nigeria, connectivity brings new life to local communities, opening doors to trade, banking, better education and healthcare. In Bangladesh, digital training has given more than 240,000 women new opportunities in life. With AI, deaf children everywhere can translate written words into sign language, so no child misses out on the joy of story time.

This example is selected from TECH4ALL (https://www.huawei.com/minisite/tech4all/cn/index.html#stories ), a non-profit project. As a non-profit project, the most important point is to elaborate on the purpose of the project and reflect on the corporate’s social responsibility. According to the advertising video, both Chinese and English version, the project focuses on bringing the general access to people with some troubles, such as people in remote areas in Nigeria and Bangladesh, and vulnerable children.

For those villagers in remote Nigeria, the translator translated “第一次连接外部世界” as “connectivity brings new life to local communities”. That is overstatement in the first sight of “new life”, but it conveys that how dramatically that power of Internet is and how great the project, conducted by HUAWEI, is in the information era. Again, women in poor Bangladesh can visit places, break the limit of ignorant and backward idea and “have new opportunities in life” with the power of digital technology. As for those children with self-inability, they miss many joys in the word. However, they “cannot miss out on the joy of story time”, and is able to write a completely new chapter with AI, the digital technology, compared with that when they lack of AI before.

From those three examples, three vulnerable groups with characteristic can meet a brighter world and enjoy the colorful life with the access to technology, Internet and AI. Although they fail to connect and communicate with the world because of geographical limits, financial limits and self-inability, their life can also be changed with the advanced technologies, just as HUAWEI did in this project. From this communicative dimension, the subtitle translation of this advertising video has been conveyed completely and successfully----Technology, to great extent, has changed their life completely.

Eg. 6

ST: 世界并非天生完美，数字包容改变世界。

TT: Our planet may not be perfect, but digital technology can help make it better.

In this example, “世界并非完美，数字包容改变世界” has two implications. The first is that the world has many imperfections, which echoes to those vulnerable group. The second implication is the theme of this advertising video. Meanwhile, the English version is also a fixed expression. The words, “help make it better”, means that something can promote another thing in a more positive way. Apparently, both source text and target text reemphasizes the importance of digital technology and underlines the vision of this project---making a better world.

From the comments above, it seems clear that translators should exhaust their efforts to transform the communicative intention of the text so that customers in both languages would arouse the same or similar emotion and get the same or similar information of the project, product or enterprise, when conducting translation practice. Only in this way, the translation can be deemed as successful translation.

===4 Conclusion===

In the first chapter, this thesis gives a basic overview of the development of Eco-translatology theory and mentions the current fruits of the theory. Then the author gives an overview of studies related to subtitle translation in recent years, and introduces the focus of this paper. With the help of theoretical support listed above, the author researches the subtitle translation of advertising video from three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory.

With the development of technology and Internet, more and more domestic enterprises are going global. Considering HUAWEI is a tech giant with far-reaching influence in both China and the world, the author selects three advertising videos about product, enterprise and project concerning HUAWEI to comment in three dimensions respectively. The product’s advertising video is about HUAWEI Mate 20, a mobile phone catching world’s eye since its release.

The enterprise’s advertising video is that of Huawei Marine, a joint venture established by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd and Global Marine System Limited. And the project’s advertising video concerns a non-profit project launched by HUAWEI, TECH4ALL. The author analyzes those three videos from linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension respectively, and finds that translators should consider the linguistic customs, cultural background and communicative ability of both cultures so as to enable more people to know more about what advertising videos have advertised and to buy the product, join in the enterprises and engage in the project.

Eco-translatology, an emerging theory put forward by Hu Gengshen, offers an insight to subtitle translation of advertising videos. Although commercial translation is booming in recent years, it seems that not enough attention is given to translation practices from the perspective of Eco-tranlatology. Thus, this paper, with analysis of advertising video from the perspective of Eco-translatology, provides people who are involved in subtitle translation of advertising video and bilingual video makers with new inspiration.

From the perspective of linguistic dimensional transformation, translators should adapt themselves in specific translation ecology so as to ensure the linguistic style, accuracy, readability, and clearness of the translated text; from the perspective of cultural dimensional transformation, translators, in order to make sure target audiences grasp what the advertising video promote in a correct and positive way, should consider the cultural differences between source language and target language more; from the perspective of communicative dimensional transformation, translators need to transmit the communicative intention of the text so that customers in both languages would arouse similar emotion which helps build similar image of the project, product or enterprise.

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--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 13:01, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

='''Translation Theories'''=

==A study on a History of Translation Theory 李梦 Li Meng 202020080613 亚非语言文学==
<center>李梦 Li Meng </center>
===Abstract===
Translation theory guides translation practice, and the technical aspects demonstrated in translation practice are also based on translation theory. Therefore, translation theory is of great importance to both translation teaching and translation practice. To understand a subject, one must first understand its history.By studying the history of Chinese and Western translation theories, this paper analyzes the similarities and characteristics of Chinese and Western translation theories, and expounds the importance of the history of translation theories to translation studies.

===Key words===
Translation Theory, History of Translation, History of Translation Theory, History of Chinese Translation Theory , History of Western Translation Theory

===摘要===
翻译理论指导翻译实践，在翻译实践中所展示的技术层面也是以翻译理论为基础。因此翻译理论对翻译教学和翻译实践都至关重要。而要了解一门学科，必须先读懂它的历史。本文将通过研究中西方翻译理论史，分析中西翻译理论史的共性与特性，阐述翻译理论史对翻译研究重要性。

===关键词===
翻译理论，翻译史，翻译理论史，中国翻译理论史，西方翻译理论史

===1. Introduction===
Translation, as a cross-cultural communication activity, has a history as long as the origin and development of mankind. With the acceleration of human civilization and globalization, translation has gradually shouldered the heavy responsibility of promoting communication and exchange among people of all nationalities in the world and promoting common development and progress. However, as an important part of translation studies, the history of translation theory has received far less attention than the study of translation theories and techniques. (Luo Hui 2017,198)

The study of translation history, translation theory and translation technique is considered to be the three main components of translation research, but from the books on translation research published over the years, we can see that the research achievements and academic theories of translation theory and translation skills far outweigh the research of translation history, which shows that translation history has not attracted enough attention. (Luo Hui 2017,198)

Translation, however, has historical characteristics, and when we study translation, we must examine the translation activities in the long river of human history, so that we can find out more clearly that the form and connotation of translation activities are constantly enriched, and that it plays different roles in different historical stages. Therefore, if you want to do a good translation study, you have to understand the history of translation theory.(Luo Hui 2017,198)

===2. The History of Chinese Translation Theory===
Chinese translation theory was born out of contact with vassal states during the Zhou Dynasty. It developed through translations of Buddhist scripture into Chinese. It is a response to the universals of the experience of translation and to the specifics of the experience of translatingfrom specific source languages into Chinese. It also developed in the context of Chinese literary and intellectual tradition. There have been three high tide of translation in the history of Chinese translation: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Song Dynasty, the translation of Western studies from the late Ming to the early Qing Dynasty and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement. (Liang Dan 2016,104)

====2.1 The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Song Dynasty====
From the Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song dynasties, Buddhism was introduced into China and blended with traditional Chinese Confucianism and Taoism.Indian philosophy, literature and art, medicine, astronomy, arithmetic and even language have some influence in our country with the translation of Buddhist scriptures, but the translation activities of this period mainly focus on spreading religion.(Cai jie 2018,1)

Important Translators in this period and their translation theories：

Zhi Qian(3rd c.AD)
Zhi Qian (支谦) 's preface (序)is the first work whose purpose is to express an opinion about translation practice. The preface was included in a work of the Liang Dynasty. It recounts an historical anecdote of 224AD, at the beginning of the Three Kingdoms period. A party of Buddhist monks came to Wuchang. One of them, Zhu Jiangyan by name, was asked to translate some passage from scripture. He did so, in rough Chinese. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)

When Zhi Qian questioned the lack of elegance, another monk, named Wei Qi (维祇), responded that the meaning of Buddha should be translated simply, without loss, in an easy-to-understand manner: literary adornment unnecessary. All present concurred and quoted two traditional maxims: Laozi's "beautiful words are untrue, true words are not beautiful " and Confucius s "speech cannot be fully recorded by writing, and speech cannot fully capture meaning". Zhi Qians own translations of Buddhist texts are elegant and literary, so the "direct translation" advocated in the anecdote is likely Wei Qi's position, not Zhi Qians. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)

Dao An(314-385AD)
Dao An focused on loss in translation. His theory is the Five Forms of Loss (五失本).
① Changing the word order. Sanskrit word order is free with a tendency to SOV. Chinese is SO.
② Adding literary embellishment where the original is in plain style.
③ Eliminating repetitiveness in argumentation and panegyric (颂文).
④ Cutting the concluding summary section (义说).
⑤ Cutting the recapitulative material in introductory section.(Chen Fukang 1996,320)

Dao An criticized other translators for loss in translation, asking: how they would feel if a translator cut the boring bits out of classics like the Shi Jing or the Classic of History?
He also expanded upon the difficulty of translation, with his theory of the Three Difficulties (三不易).
① Communicating the Dharma to a different audience from the one the Buddha addressed.
② Translating the words of a saint.
③ Translating texts which have been painstakingly composed by generations of disciples. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)

Kumarajiva(344 - 413AD)
Kumarajiva's translation practice was to translate for meaning. The story goes that one day Kumarajiva criticized his disciple Sengrui for translating "heaven sees man, and man sees heaven"(天见人，人见天). Kumarajiva felt that " man and heaven connect, the two able to see each other"(人天交接，两得相见) would be more idiomatic, though heaven sees man, man sees heaven is perfectly idiomatic. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)

In another tale, Kumarajiva discusses the problem of translating incantations at the end of sutras. In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people (嚼饭于人).(Chen Fukang 1996,320)

Huiyuan(334-416AD)
Huiyuan' s theory of translation is middling, in a positive sense. It is a synthesis that avoids extremes of elegant (文雅) and plain (质朴). With elegant translation, " the language goes beyond the meaning"(文过其意)of the original. With plain translation, "the thought surpasses the wording" (理胜其辞). For Huiyuan, "the words should not harm the meaning"(文不害意). A good translator should "strive to preserve the original"(务存其本). (Chen Fukang 1996,321)

Sengrui(371-438AD)
Sengrui investigated problems in translating the names of things. This is of course an important traditional concern whose locus classicus is the Confucian exhortation to "rectify names" (正名). This is not merely of academic concern to Sengrui, for poor translation imperils Buddhism. Sengrui was critical of his teacher Kumarajiva's casual approach to translating names, attributing it to Kumarajiva's lack of familiarity with the Chinese tradition of linking names to essences. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)

Sengyou(445-518AD)
Much of the early material of earlier translators was gathered by Sengyou and would have been lost but for him. Sengyou's approach to translation resembles Huiyuan's, in that both saw good translation as the middle way between elegance and plainness. However, unlike Huiyuan Sengyou expressed admiration for Kumarajiva's elegant translation. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)

Xuanzang(600-664AD)
Xuanzang's theory is the Five Untranslatables (五不翻). or five instances where one should transliterate:
① Secrets: Dharani (陀罗尼), Sanskrit ritual speech or incantations, which includes mantras.
②Polysemy: bhaga (as in the Bhagavad Gita) (薄伽), which means comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed.
③ None in China: jambu tree (门浮树)，which does not grow in China.
④ Deference to the past: the translation for anuttara-samyak-sambodhi is already established as Anouputi (阿耨菩提).
⑤ To inspire respect and righteousness: Prana (般若) instead of "wisdom"(智慧) (Chen Fukang 1996,325)

====2.2 The Translation of Western Studies from the Late Ming to the Early Qing Dynasty====
In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, due to the need for external transportation, Sanyi Hall was established to train translators.At the end of the Ming Dynasty, Western studies gradually began to advance eastward, and translation became more active.But by this time the translation has completely changed, and it is no longer the Buddhist scriptures of India, but rather the classics of astronomy, geometry and medicine in Europe, and the history of Chinese translation has reached a new stage.(Cai jie2018,2)

====2.3 The Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement ====
After the Opium War, Chinese intellectuals felt the need to learn from the West in pain, and the translation activities began to rise again, forming a new stage in the history of Chinese translation. After the May 4th Movement, Chinese history entered modern times, and the importance of translation went back to ancient times.The rise of China's new literature is inseparable from translation. (Fang Wenhua 2005,108)

Important Translators in this period and their translation theories：

Yan Fu(1854-1921)
Yan Fu is famous for his theory of fidelity, clarity and elegance (信达雅), which some believe originated with Tytler. Yan Fu wrote that fidelity is difficult to begin with. Only once the translator has achieved fidelity ane clarity should be attend to elegance. The obvious criticism of this theory is that it implies that inelegant originals should be translated elegantly. Clearly, if the style of the original is not elegant or refined, the style of the translation should not be elegant either. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)

Liang Qichao(1873-1929)
Liang Qichao put these three qualities of a translation in the same order, fidelity first, then clarity, and only then elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)

Lin Yutang(1895-1976)
Lin Yutang stressed the responsibility of the translator to the original, to the reader, and to art. To fulfill responsibility, the translator needs to meet standards of fidelity (忠实), smoothness (通顺) and beauty. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)

Lu Xun(1881-1936)
Lu Xun' s most famous dictim relating to translation is "I'd rather be faithful than smooth"(宁信而不顺). (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)

Ai Siqi(1910-1966)
Ai Siqi described the relationship between fidelity, clarity and elegance in terms of Western ontology, where clarify and elegance are to fidelity as qualities are to being. (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)

Zhou Zuoren(1885-1967)
Zhou Zuoren assigned weightings, 50% of translation is fidelity, 30% is clarity, and 20% elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)

Zhu Guangqian(1897-1986)
Zhu Guangqian wrote that fidelity in translation is the root which you can strive to approach but never reach. This formulation perhaps invokes the traditional idea of returning to the root in Daoist philosophy. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)

Fu Lei(1908-1966)
Fu Lei held that translation is like painting: what is essential is not formal resemblance but rather spiritual resemblance (神似). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)

Qian Zhongshu(1910-1998)
Qian Zhongshu wrote that the highest standard of translation is transformation (化, the power of transformat in nature): bodies are sloughed off, but the spirit (精神), appearance and manner (姿致) are the same as before (故我, the old me or the old self). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)

===3. The History of Western Translation Theory===

====3.1 Translation Studies of the Romans====
Studies on translation go back to the Romans. Eric Jacobson claims that translating is a Roman invention. Cicero and Horace (1st century B.C.) were the first theorists who made an important distinction between word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Their views on translation influenced successive generations of translators up to the twentieth century.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)

Important Roman Translator and his Translation Theory：

Marcus Tulluis Cicero(106-43B.C.)
①A Translator must, like an oratore, use idiomatic Roman language in expressing what is conveyed by a foreign language.
②A translator must avoid word-for-word translation and try to retain genus omne vimque (meaning).
③One who translates Demosthenes must be Demosthenes as translation means literary production.
④Different rhetorical devices in different languages share smilarities, which enables a translator to achieve correspondence in style.
⑤ The translation should surpass the original and the translator is superior to the original author.(Liu Danna 2016,1)

====3.2 Bible Translation in the Middle Ages ====
In the Middle Ages，from the end of the Roman Empireto the Renaissance, the Bible translation holds a very important positionin the Western translation history. With the spread of Christianity, translation came to acquire another role, that of dissemination the word of God. Translation of the New Testment was marked by St Jerome (fourth century CE). His approach to translating the Greek Septuagint Bible into Latin would affect later translations of the scriptures. In the sixteenth century the history of Bible translation acquired new dimensions with the advent of printing. (Fan Ningyu 2017,123)

The sixteenth century saw the translation of the Bible into a large number of European languages, in both Protestant and Roman Catholic versions, and revised version of existing translations continued to appear in English, Dutch, German and French.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)

Important Bible Translators and their Translation Theories :

(1)St Jerome(331-420 A.D.)
①Fexibility is a very important principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible.
②It is necessary to distinguish between literary translation and religious translation.
③Correct translation must depend upon correct understanding of the source text.
④While doing translation, the translator must be as flexible as he can, as flexibility is a very mportant principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible Languages differ from each other in diction, style, idiomatic usage, syntax and meaning and content. Therefore word-for-word rendition is not workable.
⑤The translator must differentiate between - literary translation and - religious translati. In the former, the translator must adopt what is easier to understand to convey the original thought. However, in the Bible translation, the translator can not always use sense for sense method, but literal rendition. Cicero preferred sense for sense to word for word, but Jerome considered them to be complementary to each other. He applied this to his translation practice.
⑥Correct translation must depend on correct understanding of the source text. He did not believe the inspiration of God.
⑦Jerome's principles and methods of translation greatly influenced the later translation especially the Bible translation in other western countrie.
(Zhang Yan 2011,117)

(2)St. Augustine(345-430A.D.)
①A translator must meet the following requirements:(a)a good command of the two languages,(b)knowledge of the subject matter selected for translation,(c)capability of proofreading.
②Pay full attention to three kinds of style: plain, refined and sublime.
③Pay due attention to the triangle relationship between signified, signifier and the translators judgment.
④The basic level in translation is word.
⑤Translating the Bible must be done under the inspiration of God.(Zhang Yan 2011,118)

====3.3 Translation Theory during the Renaissance====
Translation in Renaissance Europe came to play a role of central importance. And translation was by no means a secondary activity, but a primary one, exerting a shaping force on the intellectual life of the age, and at times the figure of the translator appears almost as revolutionary activist rather than the servant of an original author or text. Renaissance is the period in Europe between the 14th and 17 centuries, when the art, literature, and ideas of ancient Greece were discovered again and widely studied, causing a rebirth ofactivity in all these things. The role translation plays in Renaissance: means of transplanting new ideas and thoughts, compared to war trophies in literature and art. (Fan Ningyu 2017,123)

Renaissance in turn influenced translation greatly in terms of attitudes toward translation and translation methods or approaches. The Renaissance period witnessed a considerable increase in the number of translations, due to the stimulating influence of the Renaissance and the introduction of printing technology and perception of translation as a means of disseminating knowledge to a wider audience. In addition, new views on translation appearedand translation activities centered not only on the Bible and classical literary texts, but also on other kinds of texts such as scientific ones and helped develop the national languages.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)

Important Renaissance Translators and their Translation Theories :

(1)Martin Luther(1483-1546)
①Translation must adopt the language accepted by the people.
②Translation must pay much attention to the relation of grammar to sense.
③Translation must follow seven principles:(a) the translator can change the original word order,( b) the translator can chose proper helping words,(c) the translator can supply necessary words,(d) the translator can omit the words which can not find exact counterparts in TL,(e) the translator can render a word a phrase,(f) the translator can translate metaphorical expressions into nonmetaphorical expressions and vice versa,(g) the translator must pay due attention to the deviation of language and the accuracy of interpretation
④Translation must draw on collective wisdom and absorb all useful ideas. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)

(2)Etienne Dolet(1509-1546)
①The translator must understand what he wants to translate.
②The translator must know SL and TL.
③The translator must avoid word for word rendition, which harms the conveyance of the origina message and the beauty of the language.
④The translator must use the common speech.
⑤The translator must make the version appropriate in effect through diction and adjustment of syntactical components.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)

====3.4 Translation Theory in the Early Modern Times====
17th century - 19th century is a very important period of translation and translation studies in the west. Translation became prosperous because of boosting of production, prosperous economy, more and more people receiving education and being eager to read and write. In this period each period differs from the other and each country differs from the other in translation. Translation is characterized by inaccurate representation of the original message in the TL in many cases in some countries. Translation theories began to develop systematically interms of their framework in the 18th century and foundits center in the 19th century Germany. (Fan Ningyu 2017,123)

The focus of translation practice began to be shifted from classics to modern works. Jesus Christ school: inaccurate translation, making classics religious in translation version. Port-Royal school: stressing the present, often addingsomething to the original content or omitting something of the ST in the translation. The 19th century French translators such as Francoise-Rene de Chateaubriand (1768- 1848), Gerard Nerval(1808-1855) and Charles Baudelaire(1821-1867) focused their attention on translating modern work such as those of Shakespeare and Allen Poe. By the mid-seventeenth century the widening of the gap between traditional Christian Humanism and science had all led to radical changes in the theory ofliterature and hence to the role of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)

Important Translators in the Early Modern Times and their Translation Theories：

(1)John Dryden (1631-1700), formulated the trichotomy oftranslation:
① Metaphrase (直译), or turning an author word by word, and line by line, from one language into another.
② Paraphrase (意译), or translation with latitude (flexibility), the Ciceronian "sense-for-sense" view of translation.
③ Imitation (仿译), where the translator can abandon the text of the original as he sees fit.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)

Of these types Dryden chooses the second (paraphrase) as the more balanced path, provided the translator fulfils certain criteria: To translate poetry, he argues, the translator mustbe a poet, must be a master of both languages, and must understand both the characteristics and spirit ofthe original author, besides conforming to the aesthetic canons of his own age. He uses the metaphor of the translator/portrait painter, that was to reappear so frequently in the eighteenth century, maintaining that the painter has theduty of making his portrait resemble the original.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)

Dryden's views on translation were followed fairly closely by Alexander Pope (1688 - 1744),who advocates the same middle ground as Dryden, with stress on close reading of the original to note the details of style and manner whilst endeavoring to keep alive the "fire" of the poem. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)

In the Eighteenth Century, underlying Dryden's and Pope's concept of translation is another element, beyond the problem ofthe debate between overfaithfulness and looseness: the whole question of the moral duty of the translatorto his contemporary readers. The impulse to clarify and make plain the essential spirit of a text led to large scale rewritings of earlier texts to fit them to contemporary standards of language and taste. Hence the famous re-structuring of Shakespearian texts, and the translations of Racine. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)

(2)Alexander Fraser Tytler(1747-1813)published a volume entitled The principles of translation, the first systematic study in English of the translation processes.
Tytler set up three basic principles:
①The translation should give a complete transcript ofthe idea of the original work
②The style and manner of writing should be of thesame character with that of the original.
③The translation should have all the ease of theoriginal composition.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)

In the Romantic Period, so many texts were translated at this time that were tohave a seminal effect on the TL. Stress on the impact of the translation in the target culture in fact resulted in a shift of interest away from theactual processes of translation. Moreover, two conflicting tendencies can be determined in the early nineteenth century: one exalts translation as a category of thought, with the translator seen as a creative genius in his own right, in touch with the geniusof his original and enriching the literature and language into which he is translating; the other sees translation interms of the more mechanical function of "making known" a text or author.(Liu Danna 2016,3)

====3.5 Translation Theory in the Twentieth Century====
In the second half of the twentieth century, studies on translation became an important course in language teaching and learning at schools. The grammar-translation model studies the grammatical rules and structures of foreign languages. The cultural model is also a witness for the development of translation studies in the period. It required in translation not only a word-for-word substitution, but also a cultural understanding of the way people in different societies think. With this model, we can distinguish between the ethnographical-semantic method and the dynamic equivalent method.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)

Another model that appears in the period is text-based translation model, which focuses on texts rather than words or sentences in translation process. This model includes avariety of sub-models: the interpretative model, the text linguistic model and models of translation quality assessments that in turnprovide us with many models such as those of Riess,Wilss, Koller, House, North. The period is also characterized by pragmatic andsystematic approach to the study of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)

Important Translators in the Twentieth Century and their Translation Theories：

(1)Arne Jacobson(1896-1982)
①Jakobson points out that "there is ordinarily no full equivance between code-units".
②From a lingusitic and semiotic angle, Jakobson approaches the problem of equivance with the following definition: "Equivalence in difference is the cadinal problem of language and the pivotalconcern of linguistics."
③In Jakobson's discussion, the problem of meaning and equivalence thus focuses on differences in the structure and terminology of languages rather than on any inability of one language to render a message that has been written in another verbal language. Thus Russian can still express the full semantic meaning of cheese even if it breaks it down into two seperate concepts.
④For Jakobson, cross-linguistic differences center around obligatory grammatical and lexical forms: "Languages differ essentially in what they must convey and not in what they may convey".
⑤On the basis of semiotic theory, Jacobson divides translation into Intralingual translation, Interlingual translation and Intersemiotic translation.(Zhao Shanshan 2020,143）

(2)Eugene A. Nida(1914-2011)
Eugene A. Nida's most notable contribution to translation theory is functional equivalence theory. According to Nida's theory, the best translation should never sound like a translation. To studiously avoid." translationese", certain fundamental sets of precedence in translating should be established, such as the precedence of contextual consistency over verbal consistency, the precedence of dynamie equivalence over formal consistency and the precedence of forms that are acceptable to the audience for which a translation is intended over the forms that may be traditionally more practicable. (Jia Xiuhai 2008,25)

Aocording to functional equivalence theory, testing the quality of translation does not consist in a comparison of corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical classes, and rhetorical devices to see the extent of verbal consistency, but in how well the receptors understand and appreciate the translated text. Funetional equivalence focuses on reader's response, which calls for the response of the receptors to translated text is the same as the response of the original receptors to original text.(Jia Xiuhai 2008,25)

(3)Peter Newmark(1916-?)
Newmark divided the translation into four main categories: semantic translation, communicative translation, literal translation and dead translation. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Semantic translation focuses primarily on the semantic content of the source text. Communicative translation focuses essentially upon the comprehension and response of receptors. (Liang Dan 2016,105）

Newmark argues that translation is both a science and an art, and that translation is a science because something in the language has been standardized, allowing only two types of translation, and that when the two languages are translated into one another, the translation is basically fixed.(Liang Dan 2016,105）

Translation is art because some things in language allow for various options, various translations, and not standardization.resort to other theories to perfect its theoretical foundation and exist as a whole as a whole in terms of artistic appeal and rhetoric. Newmark thought that translation had rules to follow.To make the content of the original the same as the translation, metaphors, proverbs, idioms, slang terms, terms, judicial structures, and orders should be the same as the original in terms of frequency of use of the language.(Liang Dan 2016,105）

===4. The Commonality and Characteristics of Chinese and Western Translation Theory History===
The commonality of the history of Chinese and Western translation theory can be summed up from three aspects: content, process and influence.In terms of content, the West attaches great importance to the translation of the Bible, while China is keen to translate the Buddhist scriptures, both of which belong to the translation of religious documents, and this stage is considered one of the high tide of translation in Chinese and Western history.(Luo Hui 2017,199)

In terms of process and influence, the field of translation of Chinese and Western translation has changed from single to pluralism, from the original translation of religious literature to the translation of historical, political, and literary fields, and has become more and more important, and the people of different regions have become more and more closely intercommunicated, the social culture has spread more rapidly, and the influence on human history has been deepened. (Luo Hui 2017,199)

Although the translation of religious documents has sparked a high tide in the history of Chinese and Western translation, because religion's position and influence in the two societies are very different, China is far less concerned about translation of Buddhist scriptures than in the West. The effect of translating the Bible cannot be compared with that of translating the Bible. In addition, Ma Zuyi scholars have shown that during the long period of the Zhou and Qing dynasties, there have been three high tides of translation in the history of Chinese translation.Since the third century AD, Western translations have had six high tides in history, and although their translation activities are later than in China, they have developed at a relatively rapid rate.Especially in modern times, Western translation theory and school of thought are increasingly scientific and systematic, and are in the lead position. (Luo Hui 2017,199)

===5. Conclusion===
As a cross-cultural communication activity with a long history, translation has reduced the communication barriers between people of different regions and languages and accelerated the development of human civilization. The history of translation theory is the historical record and witness of the origin and development of translation activities. It is an indispensable part in the process of translation studies and should be paid enough attention to. With the research results of translation theory history, this paper provides a clear and definite guidance for translation studies, thus promoting the vigorous development of translation activities.

===6. References===

Fang Wenhua方文华.(2005). "二十世纪中国翻译史" [History of Chinese Translation in the 20th Century]. "西北大学出版社" [Northwestern University Press].(02):200-203.

Chen Fukang陈福康.(1996). "中国译学理论史稿" [Historical Drafts of Chinese Translation Theory]. "上海外语教育出版社" [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].(03):320-321.

Cai Jie蔡杰.(2018). "概述中国翻译理论与实践的发展" [Summarize the Development of Chinese Translation Theory and Practice]. "课程研究" [Curriculum Research and Education].(G64):1-2.

Liu Danna刘丹娜.(2016). "西方翻译理论通史述评" [Commentary on the General History of Translation Theory in the West]. "语言研究" [Language Study].(18):1-3.

Zhang Yan张艳. (2011). "从范式理论评介中西翻译理论的发展" [A Study on the Development of Chinese and Western Translation Theory from the Paradigm Theory]. "大学英语" [College English]. (08):117-119.

Zou Yujuan邹雨娟. (2019). "中西翻译简史述评" [Commentary on the Brief History of Chinese and Western Translation]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (23):239-240

Fan Ningyu樊宁瑜.(2017). "西方翻译简史之浅析" [A Brief Analysis of the History of Western Translators]. "文史纵横" [Literature and History].(18):123.

Liang Dan梁旦.(2016). "中西翻译理论对比" [Comparison between Chinese and Western translation Theory]. "海外英语" [Overseas English]. (04):104-108.

Luo Hui罗辉.(2017). "浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义" [The Meaning of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History in Translation Research]. "语言文化" [Language and Culture]. (H059):198-199.

Zhao Shanshan赵珊珊.(2020). "翻译理论研究现状与趋势研究" [A Study on the Present Situation and Trend of Translation Theory Research]. "语言艺术研究" [The Study of Language Arts].(059):141-145.

==A Comparative Study of Translation Theory between Bell and Liu Zhongde 林鑫 Lin Xin 202020080617 英美文学==

<center>林鑫 Lin Xin </center>
===Abstract===
Roger T. Bell is recognized as a famous sociolinguist. As a linguist, Bell has framed his translation theories in terms of diagrams and models, and developed unique insights into translation issues. His main work on translation is "Translation and Translating:Theory and Practice". He objects seeing translating as evaluation of the product of translation, but stressing the importance of translation process.

Liu Zhongde is one of the most influential translation theory researchers and translators, and he has made great contribution to translation circle of theory as well as practice. Liu's research on translation theory is comprehensive and profound, and he not only pays attention to traditional Chinese translation theories, but also focuses on introducing and studying new western translation theories.

A comparison of Bell's and Liu's translation theories is useful for comparing the similarities and differences in their translation theories and providing references for the practice of translation theories.

===Key words===
Roger T. Bell; Liu Zhongde; Translation Theory; Comparative Study

===题目===
贝尔与刘重德翻译理论的比较研究

===摘要===
罗杰·贝尔是著名社会语言学家。作为一名语言学家，贝尔用图表和模型来构建他的翻译理论,并对翻译问题形成了独特的见解。他在翻译方面的主要著作是《翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践》。他反对把翻译看作是对翻译结果的评价，而是更加强调翻译过程的重要性。

刘重德是最具影响力的翻译理论研究者和翻译家之一，他对翻译界的理论以及实践都做出了巨大的贡献。刘重德对翻译理论的研究全面而深刻，他不仅重视中国传统的翻译理论,而且注重引进和研究西方新的翻译理论。

对贝尔和刘重德的翻译理论进行对比，有利于对比二者翻译理论中的异同，为翻译理论的实践提供借鉴和参考。

===关键词===
罗杰·贝尔；刘重德；翻译理论；比较研究

===1. Introduction===

====1.1 Introduction to Roger T. Bell's Translation Theory====
As a sociolinguist, Bell is characterized by applying linguistic method in translating. He is trying to set a model to explain and study the translating process, thus put the translator at the center instead of the product. The shift from emphasizing of the translated text to the call of paying attention to the process is significant. When the focus is on the process of translation, Bell inevitably put the translator at the centre of his translation study. From a functional linguistic perspective, Bell describes the translator's working process by using linguistics and psychology. He advocates an investigation of the psycholinguistic mechanisms of decoding and encoding in the context of bilingual rather than monolingual information exchange. He places the translator at the center, because the meaning and memory he discusses in his translation theory must be based on the translator, and it is on this basis that he builds his translation model.(Wu Yicheng Li Yingyuan 1998, 55)

Bell tries to be objective and modest. He gives examples of translation only to conduct the working mode of translating. He is a translation theorists, in my opinion, he studies the study of translation. Because he denies the importance of setting rules and maxims for translation and regards it as superficial. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged. He is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that this is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.(Bell 1987, 10-12)

====1.2 Introduction to Liu Zhongde's Translation Theory====

Critically inherited the translation principles proposed by Yan Fu, Liu Zhongde put forward the translation concept of "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "closeness". This means faithfulness in content, expressiveness in language, and closeness to the style of the original work. Yan Fu's translation concept is "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu thinks that if the original text is not elegant, then the translation couldn't be elegant. The two schools: school of science and school of art is influential in translation history. Liu Zhongde's thoughts about translation's essence: translation is of double nature-both a kind of science and an art. Moreover, this is proved and commonly greed by scholars in academic circle. Now many researchers are attempting to probe into translation more scientifically; translators are striving to translate literature works more artistically. (Mao Liyin 2011, 5)

However, we feel regretful that Mr. Liu passed away. Otherwise, he could have been keeping on with this meaningful work arduously. Fortunately, scholars are coming to some agreements on the double nature of translation activity. No matter which one of these two characteristics of translation outweighs the other, we at least confess that on one hand, translation can be discussed from the perspective of natural science, like psychology and physiology; on the other hand, translation can be probed from the perspective of social science, such as linguistics and sociology. Therefore, it can be concluded that Mr. Liu's qualitative research on translation was credible and useful; his opinion on the nature of translation was convincing: translation is both a science and an art.(Guo Meng 2010, 25)

===2. Comparative Study on Bell and Liu Zhongde's Translation Theory===

To do a comparative study on Bell and Liu Zhongde's translation thoery, firstly, it is necessary to take the background of their translation theory into consideration. Understanding the social background of their theory helps better understand what their translation theory is and focuses on. Though very different in study perspective, their thoughts towards translation and practice bear much similarities.This article compares the two people's translation theory in the nature of translation, principles of translation,literal or free translation and literary translation practices in poems.

====2.1 Comparison on Background of Translation Theory====
In the west, since the twentieth century, the phenomenon of translation has been increasingly examined and discussed from a scientific and especially linguistic perspective. Although there are still many misunderstandings and differences between traditional translation studies and linguistic translation studies (but the latter tend to prevail). The former often accuses the latter of being fanciful and out of touch with reality, while the latter considers the former as subjective, arbitrary and unscientific. According to Bell, the essential orientation of translation theory, in the English-speaking world in particular, is still towards the evaluation of translation as product.The situation at that time, however, is one in which translation theory has, for the most part, concentrated on the product to the exclusion of the process and has adopted a normative attitude to it by making inferences back to it through the description and evaluation of the product.(Bell 1987, 3)

The attempt to describe and explain the process and that the process itself is, essentially, mental rather than physical, according to Bell's explanation. Mental aspect here refers to the investigation within the discipline of psychology, or to be more specifically, studies of perception, information processing and memory within the cognitive science and psychological framework. There is no doubt that translation process crucially involves language. Bell draws on the resources of linguistics and, more precisely, those branches of linguistics which are concerned with the psychological and social aspects of language use: psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics. The first of these examines the process in the mind of the translator, the second places the source language text and target language text in their cultural contexts. Although Bell puts forward the importance of putting translation process in cultural contexts, in his "Translation and Translating: Process and Practice", he doesn't stress it in his models. He tells us the importance of cultural importance, but for how to practice it, he doesn't have a deep explanation. (Bell 1991, F30)

In China, There has also been a long debate between three basic principles are the of Yan Fu's "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu points out that elegance is actually only one of the styles, and translation cannot be uniformly elegant in their style. "Closeness" is a neutral word and it is applicable to various styles. Indeed, the original text is not elegant, so why translate it with elegance? The original poem is not elegant, so how can it be translated with elegance? The fundamental of translation is faithfulness. The content should be remained if the style is hard to copy.(Liu Zhongde 1991, 27-29)

Both Bell and Liu Zhongde critically and creatively tackle problems in translation and they try hard to make perfection, but they are different in their study perspectives, which is due to the difference of their times and social background. Bell is doing linguistic translation studies. In Bell's view, translation theorists almost invariably make little systematic use of contemporary linguistic techniques and perspectives, while linguists either despise translation theory or remain silent about translation studies. His translation mode is an effort and practice to conduct linguistic and psychological ideas in translation process. However, his translation theory does not give enough consideration to the cultural factor in translation activities, which is a hot topic that has gradually become more and more valued by translators. Liu Zhongde is not the first one who doubted about Yan Fu's translation principle, but he develops it and makes it objective and applicable, which is really thoughtful in this aspect.(Weng Tao 2008, 99-100)

====2.2 Comparison on Nature of Translation====
Bell conforms in the definition of regarding translation as "the expression in another language (or target language) of what has been expressed in another, source language, preserving semantic and stylistic equivalences".(Bell,1991:5）So translation can be regarded as the replacement of a representation of a text in one language by a representation of an equivalent text in a second language. Bell holds the view that "Essentially, a theory is judged on the extent to which it is externally and internally adequate. It must correspond with the data (which is external to itself) and also conform to particular (internal) design feature." (Bell 1991, 4-5)

As for the nature of translation, Bell makes comparisons between three different kinds of view. First, the view of translation as product, which means merely translated texts. This would require a study of texts not merely by means of the traditional levels of linguistic analysis syntax and semantics but also making use of stylistics and recent advances in discourse analysis. Second, the view of translation as both process and product, which means a theory of translating and translation. This would require the integrated study of both and such a general theory is, presumably, the long-term goal for translation studies. Third, the view of translation as process. He calls for a shift from only the product to paying attention to translation process. In translation, topics as perception, memory and the encoding and decoding of messages, happens at the same time. It is an information processing and would draw heavily on psychology and on psycholinguistics. (Bell 1991, 14)

His translation mode is based on linguistic and psychological analysis. Clearly, Bell knows that a theory of translation, to be comprehensive and useful, must attempt to describe and explain both the process and the product. But he regards it as a long-term goal for translation studies, which cannot be achieved at present. Bell thinks that overall schema is involved even at the beginning of the translation of a text. Translators shall be very cautious indeed and, on this occasion, try to be as “faithful” as possible to the conception of the original, and moreover to reproduce its forms and meanings, its style and temporal characteristics in a text. By "faithfulness", Bell here means the translation neither adds nor deletes content. (Bell 1991, 11)

As proposed in at the very beginning of “Ten Lectures on Literary Translation”, Liu Zhongde also proposed “translation” means “translating”, which refers to the process of translation, in which something is translated instead of the work translated. Liu Zhongde lists six definition of translation and he thinks they are all true in a specific angle, that is Translation is a science; Translation is an art; Translation is a craft; Translation is a skill; Translation is an operation; Translation is a language activity; Translation is communicating. The view that translation is a science represents the school of science. It holds the view that translating should reproduce the message of the original by means of the transformation of linguistic equivalence. The view that translation is an art represents the school of art. The school advocates recreating a literary work by using expressions of another language. It emphasizes the effect of translation.（Liu Zhongde 1991, 1)

Bell and Liu Zhongde agrees in that their translation all means translating, which means the focus on the process of translation rather than merely the product of translation. Their consensus in this aspect makes their translation theory is comparable in some aspects. Bell objects creating a set of normative maxims for the production of the ideal translation by means of such evaluation. What is proposed by him here is a shift of focus away from the translation as an artifact or a product towards translating as process. His translation is not putting prescriptive rules but offer descriptive linguistic options for translators to choose ad select. Bell thinks that translation should achieve equivalence. The equivalence is similar to Liu’s faithfulness in content. Both of them think that translation should neither deletes nor adds content, because translation is a process of representing the original text rather than creating the original text. Translation is not for showing off the translator’s artistic talent, so the mark of the translator should be reduced to the least necessity. For the lonely debated discussion of whether translation is science or art, obviously, Bell thinks translation is science and discusses it from linguistic perspective. However, Liu thinks translation is both science and art.(Mao Liyin 2011, 6)

====2.3 Comparison on Principles of Translation====
According to Bell, there are three principles in translation. Firstly, the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. And thirdly the Translation should have all the ease of original composition. However, it doesn't mean that he thinks that translation theory should be prescriptive. Actually, he thinks translation is essentially arbitrary norms of behavior. Nonnative prescriptions deriving directly from the subjective and evaluative description of the “good” translation. These prescriptive translating rules are like the rules of etiquette. Translators are told what they ought and ought not to do in particular translation circumstances. But very rarely, why they are to conform to these dictates, they have not been told the reason. The rules discussed in linguistics seek to be descriptive, a constitutive type. Bell's principles of translation is his effort of seeking descriptive rules in translation from a linguist view. (Bell 1991, 37)

The frequent assumption that the purpose of a theory of translation is to devise and impose prescriptive rules as a means of both regulating the process and evaluating the product. For Bell, his position is (when playing the role of a descriptive linguist), necessarily, the converse; he is in search of descriptive rules which help us to understand the process, not normative rules which we use to monitor and judge the work of others. The notion of the good translator is inherent in any discussion of translation. That, however, is only part of the specification we need. While we would reaffirm our desire not to subscribe to the notion of the good translation, which has dominated translation theory for two centuries, we would not allow our rejection of that position to lead us also to preclude the study of the good translator as one element of an integrated, interdisciplinary, multi-method and multilevel approach to the description of the process.(Bell 1991, 10)

According to Mr. Liu, faithfulness refers to the translation must express the profound meaning of the original. In terms of meaning, the translation must conform to the original text. Besides, the transmission of ideas is the most significant one in the principles of translation. There is no any controversy on this, which is determined by the function and characteristic of translation. Translation is the transformation between two languages, while it is the fact that meaning convection lies in the middle level, and culture transmission is in the depth of translation activity. Correct meaning convection is the basic assurance to the fulfillment of translation function. Therefore, the faithfulness at the content of the original texts by Mr. Liu should be actually “loyalty to the meaning of the original texts”. (Jiang Hongxin 2005, 65)

The faithfulness at the content lies in the correct convection of the meaning. Here is an example of Mr. Liu’s translation practice in two editions for the translation of Emma.

Me! I should be quite in the way. Miss Wood house looks as if she did not want me.”(2009:174)

“我！我会是十分不受欢迎的。但是也许——我在这里也同样不受欢迎。伍德豪斯小姐的神气，好像并不要我。”(Liu Zhongde,1982: 303)

“我！我会是十分不受欢迎的。但是也许——我在这里也同样不受欢迎。伍德豪斯小姐的神气，好像并不欢迎我。”（Liu Zhongde,1993:223）

The translation of “want” as “to be” in the 82nd edition is a direct translation that superficially fits the meaning of the original. The translation of "want" in the 82nd edition is a literal translation, which superficially conforms to the meaning of the original text and expresses the meaning of the English and Chinese languages very aptly. But in fact, it did not fit the context of the time and did not have the effect of expression. The translation of "want" as “welcome", on the other hand, reflects the meaning of the context in which the original text was spoken. The translation of "welcome" is apt, smooth and natural. (Mao Liyin 2011, 7)

Mr. Liu has discussed this translation principle to be as expressive as the original many times in different places. But this is a tough demand. One of the reasons is that there are too many differences between two languages, particularly in the structure of them. Just taking Chinese and English as an example, we will find that Chinese is a typical language depending on its structure. This bamboo-like structure makes Chinese language connect meaning by assembling one word after another in linear form. Conversely, English is grape-like-structure language, which transmits meaning by logical connection. Therefore, we must transform the structure of these two languages so as to translate them well. Otherwise, the translation we do will be unreadable: either loosing meaning or being difficult to be understood.This three-character principle proposed by Mr. Liu is the reflection of his staidness towards academic researches. He held his opinion on how researchers should look on the relationship between inheriting and developing in translation theory research circle. The proper attitude, according to Mr. Liu, should be “making best use of the old theories for reference; taking advantage of foreign thoughts to create”.(Jiang Jiansong 2003, 210)

====2.4 Comparison on Views of Literal Translation and Free Translation====

According to Bell's theory, the choice is between translating word-for-word (literal translation) or meaning-for-meaning (free translation). Pick the first and the translator is criticized for the "ugliness" of a faithful translation; pick the second and there is criticism of the inaccuracy of a "beautiful" translation. Bell doesn't show his personal preference between this two translation method. Actually, he thinks both literal translation and free translation is acceptable. Here Bell stresses the achievement of semantic and stylistic equivalence. The semantic and stylistic equivalence actually is hard to achieve since the source language and target language are much different in their forms. (Bell 1991, 7)

According to functional linguistic perspective, forms contain meaning. Languages are different from each other because they are different in form, thus having distinct codes and rules regulating the construction of grammatical stretches of language. These forms have different meanings. To shift from one language to another is, by definition, to alter the forms. There is even no absolute synonymy between words in the same language, let alone finding synonymy between languages. Furthermore, the contrasting forms convey meanings in two languages cannot but fail to coincide totally. The process of translating from one language to another language actually impair the source language. It is a loss or inappropriate gain for the source language. Something is always lost or gained in the process of translating and translators can find themselves being accused of reproducing only part of the original and so betraying the author's intentions. (Wu Yicheng Li Yingyuan 1998, 56)

Although it is a fallacy to achieve complete equivalence, texts in different languages can be equivalent in different degrees, either highly or partially equivalent.Here Bell bring in the definition of the term: the nature of equivalence for the conducting of semantic and stylistic equivalence. So the equivalence can be fulfilled in respect of different levels of presentation such as equivalent in respect of context, of semantics, of grammar, of lexis, etc. Moreover, it can also be equivalent at different ranks: word-for-word, phrase-for-phrase and sentence-for-sentence. If equivalence is to be preserved at a particular level at all costs, which level is it to be? What are the alternatives? The answer, it turns out, hinges on the dual nature of language itself. Language is a formal structure and also a code, which consists of elements which can combine to signal semantic sense and, at the same time, a communication system which uses the forms of the code to refer to entities (in the world of the senses and the world of the mind) and create signals which possess communicative value. The translator has the option, then, of focusing on finding formal equivalents which preserve the context-free semantic sense of the text at the expense of its context-sensitive communicative value or finding functional equivalents which preserve the context-sensitive communicative value of the text at the expense of its context-free semantic sense. (Bell 1997, 6-10)

The controversy over direct translation and paraphrase has always been a matter of great concern to Mr. Liu, who has put forward his own unique opinion on this issue: the two phenomena and methods of translation, direct translation and paraphrase, have been objectively proven by a large number of historical facts and cannot be denied. Both literal translation and paraphrase must basically be based on the unit of sentence translation and on the premise of successfully realizing the three principles of translation. Here are three versions of translation to a poem in "A Dream of Red Mansions".

《红楼梦》卷头诗

满纸荒唐言，

一把辛酸泪。

都云作者痴，

谁解其中味？

1.Liu Zhongde

The Prologue to A Dream of Red Mansions

Papers here are full of such words as sound queer,

Mixed with a handful of drops of bitter tear,

People, one and all, call the author insane ,

But who understands how his words one should explain?

2. David Hawkes:

Pages full of idle words

Penned with hot and bitter tears

All men call the author fool

None his secret message hears.

3. 杨宪益：

Pages full of fantastic talk

Penned with bitter tears

All men call the author mad

None his message hears.

Xu Yuanchong divided them into three schools: classical school, who translate poems in the form of classical poetry, represented by Giles; free school , who translate poems in the form of free verse, represented by Waley; and creative school, who creatively adapt the original into English, represented by Ezra Pound. According to my opinion, a translated poem should convey the content of the original poem and take the form of the original poem. Only a poem in translation that meets these two requirements can be considered the ideal translated poem. Liu is well aware of the difficulties, so in his technical treatment, he adds, "In most cases, free and literal translations should be used flexibly or in combination." It is obvious that Liu opposes the extreme of scientific translation which falls into dull and unintelligible, as well as the artistic translation which is detached from the original text and pursues the translator's self-expression. In his view, free translation and literal translation are two complementary methods of translation, and of course, literal translation is the main one, while free translation is the supplement, which can be used alternately if necessary.(Jiang Hongxin 2005, 64)

====2.5 Comparison on Literary Translation Practices in Poems====
Bell divided translation of poetry into three steps:
Firstly, the analysis of the source language text;
Secondly, the organization of the semantic representations of the individual clauses of the poem into an integrated schema which contains the whole of the information the reader has been able to accumulate in the course of reading the text;
Thirdly, the synthesis of the new target language text. There are plenty of alternatives and the strategic options available to the literary translator. (Bell 1991, 61)

They can be presented as the extremes of five continua:
(1)to reproduce either the forms (syntax and lexis) or the ideas (the semantic content) of the original;
(2)to retain the style of the original or adopt a different style; retain or abandon the source language form; for example, to translate a poem as a poem or as prose;
(3)to retain the historical stylistic dimension of the original or to render it in contemporary form; to translate Dante into Middle English or into modem English
(4)to produce a text which reads like an original or one which reads like a translation;
(5)to add or omit words, phrases, clauses. . . or to attempt to transfer everything from source to target text.(Bell 1991, 68)

Bell admits the importance of retaining style in translation, but Bell tries to be as objective as possible. He clarifies that the procedure is in no sense being suggested as the best or only way of tackling the text nor are the translations themselves offered as models. He intend to make no judgement, merely to work through the process, indicating, as we do so, what kinds of decision need to be made and what means we have at our disposal for making and realizing our decisions. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged, in a book which is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that This is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.(Bell 1991, 70)

Liu defines the characteristics of translated poetry in a macro way. He concisely summarizes the basic characteristics of poetry translation as poetry translation is not one's own creation, not the translator's own writing of poetry, and not borrowing ideas from the original poem to write poetry. The translation of poetry is obviously different from the creation of poetry. The translation of poetry is only a kind of reworked copy of the poem created by the translator after fully understanding the poet and expressing it again in another language. It goes without saying that in this process of reproduction, the translator inevitably has to exert creative labor in order to effectively and equivalently convey the content and style of the original poem, that is, the translator cannot be completely free from creation in the process of mental activity of translation, but, nevertheless, it is difficult to identify this mental activity as creation in the true sense of the word. (Guo Meng 2011, 9-13)

In the process and practice of poetry translation, Liu also stresses the importance of retaining the style. To show how style influence poetry, he cites a comparison between Li Bai and Du Fu, the style of the former is elegant and forceful and the later is profound and thoughtful. Liu pays much attention to the style of translation, and he compares an excellent translator to a good actor, who should reach the state of forgetfulness in the process of translation and be fully absorbed into the work.(Liu Zhongde 1991, 128)

He firmly holds that it is possible to translate poems though it is difficult to translate poems satisfactorily and successfully. As to the reason why poems are translatable, firstly, Liu said : “There exist many things in common among men. For instance, they all have the thinking powers to reason logically and the feelings to express joy or sorrow, love or hatred , and possess the same nature, world and universe no matter what races they may be. In other words, all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has the same function so that they can commune with one another. Poetry is a literary form by which poets express their thought and emotions. As a consequence, poetry, a product of the mind, is understandable, enjoyable and translatable.” Not only is poetry-translating possible, it is also necessary. Through poetry translating between Chinese and English, English and Chinese poetry have exerted mutual influence and as a result promoted the development of both. For example, Chinese classical poetry deeply influenced the school of imagism in the West, while Chinese new poetry was greatly inspired by West poetry. (Liu Zhongde 1988, 4-9)

Due to differences in language, social customs and cultural background, a translator of poetry, who should represent in another language the beauty of the original in meaning, sound and form, is confronted with many difficulties which may cause obstacles in understanding and expression. The difficulties will be discussed from three aspects. First, there exist linguistic differences in the two languages. From a grammatical perspective, English is a language which is in the main connected in grammar by hypotaxis whereas Chinese by parataxis. Secondly, difference in culture also adds to the difficulty of poetry translating. As English poetry and Chinese poetry take in different cultural backgrounds, some poems with particular cultural factors are extremely hard to handle in translating. For example, poets' selection of images in poems may vary. Concrete images are often used in Chinese poetry while some abstract images are often used in English poetry. Another example is the use of allusion in poetry. Poets sometimes expound their views and express emotions through historical incidents, fairy tales, legends and folk stories. Liu also adopts his new three-character principles to rendering poetry.(Liu Wenbin 1996, 295-298)

Liu Zhongde is an advocator of "rendering poetry as poetry". He puts forward views on three specific situations of poetry translating: translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, translation of English regular into Chinese and translation of English free verse into Chinese. As for the translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, Liu holds that the original meaning and artistic conception is most important and on the prerequisite that they are fully conveyed, we may try to reproduce the neatness of the original form and adopt the same or similar rhyme scheme as the original. If necessary, when it is difficult to translate a poem in rhyme, it can also be translated in a loose form, so as not to harm the meaning by rhyme. If the translation looks like a poem but has no poetic meaning, it is better to be in harmony with the appearance. It is much better to make people feel the interest of the original poem than to make it look like a poem. Finally, he believed that the ideal translation of poetry should be a translation of metrical poetry with metrical poetry.However, Liu also pointed out dialectically that one should not be absolute, and when necessary, when the meaning and artistic conception of the original poem must be preserved.(Liu Zhongde 1996, 31-33)

===3.Conclusion===
Bell's and Liu Zhongde's translation theory have many similarities. For the nature of translation, they both agree in translating, namely process, instead of products.Bell puts the focus on generalizing descriptive rules in process. In that way, Bell is trying to study the study of transtion. To understand the equivalence all his theory Bell thinks tranlation shouldn't delete or add content, which is similar to Liu's principle of "faithfulness" in translation. On the question whether translation is science or art, Bell agrees in the former while Liu combines school of science and school of art. The method of literal translation is weighed more by them when compared with free translation. However, Liu adds that when literal translation is difficult to achieve, it is also acceptable to apply free translation into practice. Liu thinks that the shift between literal translation and free tranlation can be flexible under different kinds of texts and styles.

Bell and Liu put their theory into practice in poetry's translation. However, the purpose for Bell's three steps and five schema is to prove the feasibility of his model theory. Though he uses it as an example, which is quite specific. He thinks that poetry translation should be like a poem. That is to say the translated poem should also be made to have a certain poetic form and a certain rhyme scheme and rhythm. He vividly represents the whole translating process and suggests translators should choose from many versions to figure out the closest translation. Bell is tryinng to be objective, so he doesn't give advice on how to achieve "good" translation. He firmly believe that the judgement should be made by translators, tranlator-trainers and readers. Liu's view is not so general but more specific.He thinks poetry translation sometimes can be difficult, but not untranslatable. He gives his preference to poetey which is faithful to the original text.

By comparising Bell's translation theory with Liu Zhongde's, it is found that Bell's translation theory seems to be more objective but less applicable. With a systematic linguistic model, Bell attempts to describe the translation process and the knowledge and skills that translators should acquire. He also apply psychological and information-theoretic models to describe the workings of the translator's brain during the translation process. The effort he makes is based on his hope that these models he created will eventually become a theoretical and practical model for translation research in the broad field of applied linguistics.

If we generalize Liu's translation theory as a summary of translation problems and methods to tackle with it. Then obviously, Bell's research is undoubtedly more difficult than the summary of translation experience or the analysis of translated works. Though whether the model he tries to create really reflects the mental activity of translators in the translation process remains to be further studied. We cannot expect one theoretical model to solve all translation phenomena and all the problems encountered by translators, but Bell's innovative attempt to break through the traditional translation theoretical model and establish a scientific research model is worthy of recognition. His views and model can at least provide useful references for translator's in-depth study of translation phenomena.

===Reference===
Bell, Roger T. Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman.(1991)

Bell, Roger T. Translation Theory: Where Are We Going?. Meta (1987).

Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "文学翻译十讲"[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation].1991.

Jiang Hongxin.蒋洪新. "刘重德翻译理论与实践研究"[A Study of Liu Chongde's Translation Theory and Practice]. 外国语第四期[The fouth edition on Jounal of Foreign Language]. 2005:62-67.

Wu Yicheng.Li Yingyuan.吴义诚,李英垣. "贝尔的《翻译与翻译过程:理论与实践》评介"[Review of Bell's Translation and the Translation Process:Theory and Practice].中国翻译(第五期)[The fifth edition on Chinese Translation]. 1998:55-56.

Mao Liyin.毛利尹. "刘重德翻译观研究"[J].[A Study of Liu Chongde's View of Translation]. 传奇:传记文学选刊(第五期)[Legend: Selected Biographical Literature]. 2011:5-7.

Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "论译诗(上)——《中国古诗汉英比译五十三首》序"[J][On the translation of poems (above)--Preface to "Fifty-three Chinese ancient poems in Chinese and English"]. 现代外语(第二期)[Modern Foreign Languages]. 1996:26-30.

Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "论译诗(下)——《中国古诗汉英比译五十三首》序"[J][On the translation of poems (below)--Preface to "Fifty-three Chinese ancient poems in Chinese and English"]. 现代外语(第三期)[Modern Foreign Languages]. 1996:31-33.

Liu Wenbin.刘文彬. "刘重德教授的译诗观"[Professor Liu Zhongde's View on Translating Poetry].中国英汉语比较研究会第二次全国学术研讨会论文集[Proceedings of the Second National Symposium of the Chinese Society for Comparative English and Chinese Studies]. 1996;293-299.

Weng Tao.翁涛. "罗杰·贝尔的翻译理论在汉译英中的应用"[Application of Roger Bell's Translation Theory in Chinese to English Translation]. 大学英语(学术版) [University English] (Academic Edition). 2008:99-101.

Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "翻译原则刍议"[Rumination on Translation Principles]. 中国翻译(第四期）[The fourth period on Chinese Translation]. (1983):9-13.

Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "文学风格翻译问题商榷"[The Question of Literary Style Translation]. 中国翻译（第二期）[Chinese Translation]. (1988):4-9.

Guo Meng.郭猛. "刘重德翻译思想研究"[D][A Probe into Liu Zhongde's Translation Thoughts]. 天津理工大学[Tianjin University of Technology]. 2011.

Jane Austen.简·奥斯汀. 《爱玛》[M][Emma]. 上海:上海世界图书出版公司[Shanghai: Shanghai World Book Publishing Company]. 2009.

Jane Austen. Translated by Liu Zhongde.奥斯汀.爱玛[M][Emma].刘重德译. 桂林:漓江出版社[Guilin: Lijiang Publishing House]. 1982.

Jane Austen. Translated by Liu Zhongde.奥斯汀.爱玛[M][Emma].刘重德译. 广州:广州花城出版社[Guangzhou: Guangzhou Huacheng Publishing House]. 1993.

Jiang Jiansong.Peng Liyuan.蒋坚松,彭利元. 刘重德翻译思想及其他[Liu Chongde's Translation Thought and Others]. 湖南：湖南师范大学出版社[Hunan: Hunan Normal University Press]. 2003.

==A Comparative Study of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect 罗维嘉 Luo Weijia 202070080600 MTI==

<center>罗维嘉 Luo Weijia</center>

===Abstract===

Since the introduction of Nida’s translation theory into China in the 1980s, Jin Di, a Chinese translation scholar, has explored the applicability of “dynamic equivalence” to literary translation between English and Chinese. And on the basis of Nida’s theory he formulated his own theory of “equivalent effect”. When Jin was translating James Joyce’s ''Ulysses'', he put his theory into practice. Jin’s translation practice as well as his exploration of “dynamic equivalence” provides us a good chance to further scrutinize some aspects of Nida’s theory and its application to English-Chinese literary translation. By studying Jin’s theory and his Chinese translation of ''Ulysses'', we will examine the applicability of Nida’s theory to literary translation between Chinese and English. A comparative study on Nida’s theory and Jin’s theory is also made to reveal the differences and similarities between the two theories.

===Key words===

dynamic equivalence; equivalent effect; Eugene Nida; Jin Di

===题目===
A Comparative Study of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect

===摘要===

自20世纪80年代奈达的翻译理论传入中国以来，中国翻译学者金堤开始探索“动态对等”在英汉文学翻译中的适用性。在奈达理论的基础上，他形成了自己的“等效理论”。金堤的《尤利西斯》翻译实践以及他对“动态对等”翻译理论的探索为我们进一步审视奈达理论及其在英汉文学翻译中的应用提供了良好机会。通过对金堤理论及其汉译《尤利西斯》的研究，我们将分析奈达动态对等理论对中英文学翻译的适用性。通过对奈达与金堤理论的比较研究，揭示两者的异同。

===关键词===

动态对等；等效理论；尤金·奈达；金堤

===Introduction===

Prior to his reception of Nida’s theory, Jin had already been an experienced translator and formed his own views about translation. Jin spelled out how he looked at the nature of translation and the gist of his argument was that “translating must meet requirements of accuracy and smoothness” (Jin Di 1998, 119). Evidently, Jin regarded the combination of accuracy and smoothness as a translation criterion and smoothness played a very important role in accomplishing the goal of accuracy in translating. We can see that before Jin’s reception of Nida’s theory, his focus was still on the old debate over faithfulness and smoothness, which began in the 1930s and continued to the late 1970s.

Before Jin knew Nida’s theory, he had already noticed the important role of target readers in translating in his years of translation experience. When discussing how to achieve the objective of accuracy and smoothness at the same time, he mentioned more than once the close relationship between accuracy and target readers. He wrote:

"A translation should be smooth and natural so that target readers do not feel big gaps between the two languages concerned. Accuracy and smoothness as a translation standard are like two sides of a coin, and one cannot be separated from the other. If the reader cannot understand the so-called “accurate” translation and do not know what it means, there is of little significance for such “accuracy”. If the translator only pays attention to smoothness in his work, but ignores the consistency between the original text and the translated text, his translation is not legitimate (Jin Di 1998, 119). "

Evidently, Jin shared similar views with Nida about the role of target readers in translating. This paved the way for his ready reception of “dynamic equivalence” as soon as he got in touch with it in the late 1970s.

===Introduction of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect===

====Nida's Translation Theory of Dynamic Equivalence====

“Dynamic equivalence” is a key concept in Nida’s translation theory. The essential idea of “dynamic equivalence” is first mentioned by Nida in his article “Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating” (Nida, Eugene A. 1959, 326). In his attempt to define translating, Nida writes:

"A definition of translating... could be stated as follows: "Translating consists in producing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent to the message of the source language, first in meaning and secondly in style." (Nida, Eugene A. 1975, 33)

In Toward a Science of Translating (1964) Nida distinguishes two types of equivalence and first postulates his concept of “dynamic equivalent” translation as follows:

"In such a translation (dynamic equivalent translation) one is not so concerned with matching the receptor-language message with the source-language message, but with the dynamic relationship, that the relationship between receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and the message (Nida, E. A. 1964, 159)."

In this book, Nida also proves the legitimacy of dynamic equivalent translation from the viewpoint of information theory and communication theory. However, he does not give a clear definition of " dynamic equivalence" until 1969. In his 1969 textbook The Theory and Practice of Translation, “dynamic equivalence" is defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language" (Nida, E. A. 1969, 24)

In From One Language to Another (De Waard, Jan and E. A. Nida 1986), the expression “dynamic equivalence is superseded by "functional equivalence". But essentially there is not much difference between the two concepts. The substitution of " functional equivalence is just to stress the concept of function and to avoid misunderstandings of the term dynamic", which is mistaken by some persons for something in the sense of impact. In Language, Culture and Translating (1993), “functional equivalence " is further divided into categories on two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level. The minimal level of “functional equivalence" is defined as " The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it". The maximal level is stated as "The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did" (Nida, E. A. 1993, 118; 1995, 224). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level is ideal. For Nida, good translations always lie somewhere between the two levels (Nida, E. A. 1995, 224). Clearly, “functional equivalence" is a flexible concept with different degrees of adequacy.

In Nida's theory, " dynamic equivalence" is defined with “receptors' response" as its nature. Unlike traditional translation theories, which focus on verbal comparison between the original text and its translation, Nida's concept of translating shifts from "the form of the message" to " the response of the receptor. Thus, the importance of receptors' role in translating is emphasized. In Nida's view, when determining whether a translation is faithful to the original text or not, the critic should not compare the formal structures between the source text and its translation but compare "receptors' response". If he finds that the reader in the receptor language understands and appreciates the translated text in essentially the same manner and to the same degree as the reader in the source language did, such a translation can be evaluated as a dynamic equivalent translation. That is to say, the critic should judge a translation not by verbal correspondence between the two texts in question, but by seeing how the receptor, for whom the translated text is intended, reacts to it. Nida likens his theory of “readers' response to market research. When judging a product, one should test how consumers react to the product, for “regardless of how theoretically good a product might be or how seemingly well it is displayed, if people do not respond favorably to it, then it is not going to be accepted” (Nida and Taber 1969, 162). Similarly, in evaluating a translation, when a high percentage of people misunderstand a rendering, or find it difficult to understand, the critic cannot regard it as a legitimate translation (Nida and Taber 1969, 2). Nida's theory of “readers' response” emphasizes the importance of the acceptance of a translated text by the intended reader in the receptor language and avoids the subjective evaluation of the critic.

"Dynamic equivalence" has been widely adopted by Bible translators since the 1950s and has been successful. Its value, however, is not merely restricted to Bible translation. Some scholars agree that “dynamic equivalence” can be used to guide general translation practice. Jin Di claims that the principle of " equivalent effect", a modified dynamic equivalence, is applicable to all translation practice (Jin Di 1995). Newmark considers the principle of “equivalent effect” an important concept in translating with reservation. He states that “equivalent effect is the desirable result, rather than the aim of any translation...it is an important concept which has a degree of application to any type of text, but not the same degree of importance... in the communicative translation of vocative texts, equivalent effect is not only desirable, it is essential” ( Jin Di 1988, 48). But some scholars express their doubts about the application of “dynamic equivalence” to translation practice, especially literary translation. I suggest that Nida’s theory has practical significance for literary translation in some aspects, but it is a fact that it fails to address the issue of transferring aesthetic values of literary work in literary translation.

====Jin Di's Translation Theory of Equivalent Effect====

Jin Di is renowned for his translation theory of “equivalent effect” and his Chinese version of ''Ulysses''. His theoretical study on translation and translation activity contribute a lot to the development of contemporary translation studies. In this section Jin’s theory of “equivalent effect”will be concentrated, for a survey of Jin’s theory may give us insight into some aspects of Nida’s theory and its application to literary translation.

When Nida’s theory was introduced into China, Jin studied intensively Nida’s works on translation and endeavored to apply “dynamic equivalence” to his Chinese-English translation practice. In ''On Translation'': with special reference to Chinese and English (Jin Di 1984, with Nida), Jin basically adopted Nida's “dynamic equivalence”, which was defined in terms of a dynamic relationship, namely, “the relation of target language receptors to the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptors and the original text” (Jin Di 1984, 85, with Nida). As the first author, Jin furnished many convincing examples from his experience as a translator and proved that “dynamic equivalence” could provide practical help for translators in dealing with many difficulties in translating from English into Chinese and from Chinese to English. In fact, this book was acclaimed as “a masterpiece of combination of Nida’s translation theory with Chinese translation practice”. (Lao Long 1987, 56)

When Jin made a further study on Nida's theory, he discerned some biblical elements in it which were not applicable to general translation practice. As a result, a discrepancy appeared between Jin and Nida. According to Jin, when Nida talked about the relationship between message and receptors, he did not make any distinction between “impact” and “response”. For instance, Nida sometimes said“the impact of the message upon the receptors” and sometimes claimed “the receptors’ response to the message”. In Jin's view, Nida further highlighted the term “response” both in his definition of “dynamic equivalence” and his explanation of it. Jin argued that this was because Nida's theory was intended to guide Bible translating for evangelism, and the ultimate purpose of Bible translating was to make receptors “respond to the translated message in action” (Jin Di 1998, 17-18). Thus, according to Jin, the concept of “response” in Nida's theory was not suitable for a theory of general translation. Jin explained:

"In terms of the nature of language behavior, the impact of a translation upon receptors and receptors' response or reaction to the translation belong to opposite directions. Although receptors' response could be used as an important feedback to evaluate how the receptors understand and appreciate the translation to some extent, and the translator could test the quality of his translation according to receptors' response, such activity occurs only after the translation is completed. Since each receptor's response and reaction involve a number of subjective and objective personal factors, it is unnecessary for us to explore these factors in our study of translation process. Hence, in our discussion the term “effect refers to the impact of the translated message upon the receptors.” instead of the receptors’ response. (Jin Di 1998, 18)"

This was the reason why Jin modified Nida's “dynamic equivalence” and put forward his own theory of “equivalent effect”. Jin also gave specific definition of his principle of “equivalent effect”. He wrote:

"The objective of an equivalent effect translation is that although the form of a translated text may be different from that of the original text, the receptor-language reader can obtain a message as substantially the same as the source-language reader does from the original, including main spirit, concrete facts and artistic imagery. This is what I mean by an equivalent effect translation or similar effect translation (Jin Di 1998, 40)."

In Jin's view, only when the three essential factors (“main spirit", “concrete facts" and “artistic imagery”) of the original were successfully reproduced in the receptor language could a translation be termed as a translation of equivalent effect. He admitted that it was not always possible for the translator to produce" main spirit", " concrete facts" and "artistic imagery" at the same time, and necessary semantic adjustments should be made on condition that the main spirit of the original was better represented in the translation (Jin Di 1998, 20).

In short, the delimitation of the concept of “effect” as “impact” instead of “response”, and the emphasis on the reproduction of the three factors constitute Jin's theory of “equivalent effect”. We can see that Jin has attempted to improve Nida's “dynamic equivalence” in order to make it more applicable to general translation practice, especially literary translation.

In the 1990s, Jin further developed his theory of " equivalent effect" with insights gained from his translation experience of ''Ulysses''. In his article, “Translating Spirit” (1996), he borrowed two characters from Yan Fu's three-character translation principle (“faithfulness , expressiveness and elegance”) and advanced his theory of “faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit” (信、达、神韵). The term “spirit” in Jin's theory was used in a broad sense, indicating various artistic styles of literary works (Jin Di 1998, 162).

Jin's redefinition of the three-character principle was another way to describe his theory of “equivalent effect”. He elaborated:

"The three-character principle of “faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit” indicates faithful representation of the fundamental facts, transference of effect and reproduction of artistic style respectively. I think the goal of making the translated text similar to the original text in the above mentioned three aspects is what I strive for in the art kingdom of translation (Jin Di 1998, 162)."

In recent years Jin began to put more emphasis on the " reproduction of artistic style" , and tried to develop his theory of “equivalent effect” by making use of Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism. It seemed that Jin's theory deviated away from Nida's theory. One may ask, what accounts for such a change? According to Jin, this was because Nida, having changed his theory from “dynamic equivalence” to “functional equivalence”, no longer took the principle of “equivalent effect” as a translation objective (Wang Zhenping 2000, 56). The real reason is that Nida's theory fails to adequately address the problem of transference of aesthetic values in literary translation; while Jin, having attempted to solve it, has to absorb Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism, where discussions about stylistic or aesthetic effects and their transference are abundant. The evolution of Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” reveals his continuous effort to make Nida's theory applicable to literary translation as well as the inadequacy of Nida's theory in guiding literary translation.

===Similarities and Differences===
====Similarities between the Two Theories====
There are several similarities between the two theories. “The relation of target language receptors to the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptors and the original text”(Jin Di and Nida 1984,85). Such relationship indicates that translating is not completed unless the translated message is received by the reader in the receptor language in substantially the same manner as the original message is received by the original reader. As we can see, they both emphasized three important concepts of "receptor", "effect" and "equivalence". Jin Di's equivalent effect theory is close to Nida's dynamic equivalence theory, and their views on translation methods are basically consistent with their understanding of equivalent translation.

==== Differences between the Two Theories and the Reasons====

What are the differences between Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” and Nida’s “dynamic equivalence” except that the concept of effect in Jin's theory refers to “impact” rather than“ response”? Jin held that he basically adapted Nida's translation principles, and only made some adjustments in respect of some biblical elements which he found to have originated from religious and particularly missionary demands, and removed a certain residue of the old “free translation” tendency in Nida's theory (Nida, 1998). But this is only part of the problem. ln this section we will concentrate on the differences between the two theories from three aspects.

=====Reader-Oriented vs. Text-Oriented=====

“Dynamic equivalence” pays more attention to the target readers, while Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” attaches more importance to the original text. This distinction can be revealed by the definitions of the two translation principles. “Dynamic equivalence” is defined in terms of readers' response. For Nida, to measure “dynamic equivalence”, one should “only rightly compare the equivalence of response”(Nida 1969, 23). Jin's equivalent effect translation, however, requires reproduction of the “main spirit”, “concrete facts” and “artistic imagery” of the original text. Nida's focus on readers' response allows necessary linguistic adjustments. For example, if the expression “white as snow” was rendered into a language that had no corresponding word for “snow”, Nida suggested that the translator could replace it with comparable idioms, such as “white as egret feathers” in the receptor language. In Nida's view, such rendering was a dynamic equivalent translation, for it was functionally equivalent to “white as snow”(Nida 1964, 171-172). According to Jin's theory of “equivalent effect”, however, this rendering of “white as egret feathers” for “white as snow” was not a translation of equivalent effect, for the concrete fact “snow” was not reproduced in the receptor language.

Another example to illustrate Jin's adherence to the concrete fact of the original text is about the rendering of “butter for fish” in his Chinese version of ''Ulysses'':
(1)-And so say all of us, says Jack.
-Thousand a year, Lambert, says Crofton or Crawford.
-Right, says Ned, taking up his John Jameson. And butter for fish. （U12）

-我们大家也都这样说，杰克说。
-一年一千，兰伯特，克罗夫顿或是克罗福德说。
-对，内德拿起自己的约翰.詹姆森威士忌说。吃鱼有黄油。(金译第12章)

The original describes a scene of toast in a drinking party among common Irishmen. In “REVIEWS: ULYSSES, by James Joyce, translated by Jin Di”(Jin Di 1995), Dr. Kun-liang Chuang expressed his views about Jin's translation of the phrase“Butter for fish”:

“Butter for fish,”according to Don Gifford and Robert J. Seidman, is a lower class Dublin toast, also meaning “wealth and good fortune.” Jin's literal, word-for-word translation, “吃鱼有黄油”(pronounced chi yu you huang you) which is definitely not a common Chinese expression, creates more bewilderment than understanding for his Chinese readers. In fact, the Irish toast, “fish for butter”(sic) has a Chinese equivalent, “干杯” (pronounced gan bei). I believe that, in some cases, an appropriate annotation that explains cultural life is needed in terms of slang translation. In Jin's case here, the playfulness of the "toast" is lost in his loyalty to simple verbal equivalence (Chuang, Kun-liang 1995, 765).

Judging by the concept of “dynamic equivalence” , I think Chuang' s suggestion “干杯” for “butter for fish” is adequate. However, Jin did not think so. In his opinion, Chuang disregarded the transference of the concrete fact in the original text, and such translation could not achieve a translational equivalence, though it might attain a pragmatic equivalence (Jin Di 1998, 22). We can see that Jin is unwilling to sacrifice the content for the intelligibility of the translated text to the average target reader, who has not enough background knowledge to understand the implied meanings of the translated message.

Some people held a similar view with Jin. For example, Wang Zhenping said that Jin's rendering “吃鱼有黄油”was justified, because the Chinese reader learn Irish culture when reading this version. Wang argued that if the translator put the three toasts in the dialogue above into “干杯” , the original language variation would be spoiled and the reader be deprived of a chance of learning typical Irish culture and of understanding Joyce (Wang, Zhenping 2000, 35). In my opinion, Wang has pushed his argument to the extreme. If a toast, such as “Thousand a year”, is not a hindrance for the average readers to understanding, there is no reason to render it into “干杯”. This could be verified with Chuang's another suggestion of putting the English saying "[y]ou cannot eat your cake and have it as “鱼与熊掌，不可兼得”(Chuang, Kun-liang 1995, 764) instead of Jin's rendering “一块蛋糕，你不能又吃又拿”(Jin Di 1994, 311). In terms of naturalness and forcefulness, Chuang's suggestion is acceptable. Just as Lin Yuzhen commented, Jin's literal rendering was not so direct and forceful as Chuang's version (Jin Di 1996, 166). Besides, for average Chinese readers, who have little knowledge of Irish culture, it is difficult to understand the specific cultural meaning of “吃鱼有黄油”without the help of any annotation. Yuen Ren Chao, the noted Chinese linguist, expressed his views about a similar case in translating:

“A very important dimension of fidelity which translators often neglect is comparability in frequency of occurrence, or the relatively familiarity of the expressions in the original text and the translation. Too great a discrepancy in this respect will affect fidelity, even though the translation is accurate in other respects. As it is well-known in information theory, the less often a thing is talked about, the more it means to talk about it. Sometimes the very things one talks about may be a familiar thing in one culture and strange and exotic in another. In such a case, if the thing is the main topic of the discourse, it cannot be helped. . . However, in cases where a familiar expression is used casually as a figure of speech, then sometimes a translation by a different figure of speech of the same import but with a comparable degree of familiarity will result in a higher degree of overall fidelity than an apparently faithful translation which is very unfamiliar. For example, to speak of reaching the third base might be rendered, in Chinese, as reaching the “listening stage” in a game of mahjong, where the apparently “free” translation has greater fidelity, because it is a better match in the frequency of occurrence.”

Chao's view about fidelity is dialectical and comprehensive. In fact, it is in accord with Nida's “dynamic equivalence”. To Chao, whether or not naturalizing translation was adopted should depend on the context. If a figure of speech was the main topic of a discourse, the translator should faithfully reproduce it into the receptor language. If it was used in a casual way, it could be replaced with an idiomatic equivalent in the receptor language (such as Nida's suggestion of “white as snow” into “white as egret feathers”, or Liu Zhongde's “as lean as a rake” into “骨瘦如柴”). Jin's disapproval shows that he tends to be text-oriented both in theory and practice.

===== Flexible vs. Inflexible=====
Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is more flexible than Jin's theory of“equivalent effect”. A dynamic equivalent translation tends to be a type of free translation, while Jin's equivalent effect translation tends to be a literal translation, though such a classification is made in a quite loose manner. Jin's literal tendency is clearly reflected in the reviews about his Chinese version of ''Ulysses'' by some critics. Liu Junping stated that in translating ''Ulysses'' , “Jin insisted on literal translation and paid more attention to the transference of the form of the original text. As a result, his version was stiff to a certain degree in respect of language expression” (Liu Junping 1997, 35). Wang Yougui expressed a similar view in stating that Jin's translation was “like a leech, adhering closely to the original text” (Wang Yougui 1998, 69). In an interview Jin himself admitted that his translation was not so flexible as Nida's dynamic equivalent translation:

“Wang: ... Briefly speaking, the discrepancy between your theory and Nida's theory is that you put more emphasis on loyalty to the original text and the writer, and Nida is more flexible in translating. Do you agree with me?

Jin: Yes. The scope of flexibility in Nida's theory is much greater. That is to say, according to Nida, the translator is not required to adhere closely to the original text. This is because his theory is to guide Bible translation, and his translation purpose is to make people believe in Christianity. So Nida holds that the most important thing in translating is not words or content, but “receptors' response”, namely, their belief in Christianity. In my opinion, such a view is not suitable for literary translation. What I strive for is “effect”,i.e. the impact of the translation upon its readers is similar to the impact of the original text upon its readers (Wang Zhenping 2000, 56).”

In Jin's view, a literary translation must adhere closely to the original text. As long as the three factors of the original text, namely, the “main spirit”, “concrete facts” and “artistic imagery”, are faithfully reproduced, an equivalent effect can be achieved. Evidently, Jin's theory of “equivalent effect is less flexible than Nida's “dynamic equivalence”. To illustrate this point, we may look at some examples from Jin's Chinese version of ''Ulysses'':

(2) Steak, kidney, liver, mashed at meat fit for princes sat princes Bloom and Goulding. Princes at meat they raised and drank Power and cider. (U11)

V1牛排、腰子、肝、马铃薯泥，可供王侯享用的菜肴，坐着享用的王侯是布卢姆和古尔丁。两位用餐的王候，他们举杯喝酒，帕尔威士忌和苹果酒。(金译第11章）

V2布卢姆和古尔丁俨然像王候一般坐下来，牛排、腰子、肝、土豆泥，吃那顿适宜给王侯吃的饭。他们像进餐中的王侯似的举杯而饮鲍尔威士忌和苹果酒。（萧、文译第11章）

Comparing the two versions with the original text, we can find that Jin's version sticks closely to the English syntax, while the Xiao's version reconstructs the original sentences according to normal Chinese syntactical structure. In Jin's version, the objects“牛排、腰子、肝、马铃薯泥” is placed before the verb“坐着”, and the subjects“布卢姆和古尔丁”are placed at the end of sentence; while in the Xiao's version the normal Chinese syntactical structure “Subject + Verb” is adopted.

(3) By the sandwichbell in screening shadow, Lydia her bronze and rose, a lady's grace, gave and withheld: as in cool glaucous eau de Nil Mina to tankards two her pinnacles of gold.

V1 网状阴影中的三明治罩旁站着莉迪亚，古铜衬玫瑰，贵妇风度，欲授又止:同时在清凉的淡湖色的eau de Nil中，米娜的金色高髻向着啤酒缸子两只。（金译第11章）

V2在帘子的遮荫下，钟形三明治容器旁边，莉迪亚胸前插了朵玫瑰。一头褐发淑女的娴雅派头，忽隐忽现; 而头发挽成高髻、沉浸在冰凉而银光闪闪的一片淡绿蓝色中的米娜，在两位举着大酒杯的顾客面前也是这样。（萧、文译第11章）

In this example, Jin's version adheres so closely to the original text that it is difficult for the average Chinese reader to understand such expressions as “古铜衬玫瑰” and“欲授又止”. Moreover, one can recognize at first sight that“向着啤酒缸子两只”is a word-for-word translation even if he does not read the original text. Owing to Jin's inflexibility, some renderings of his Chinese version ''Ulysses'' appear unnatural and awkward.

=====Ideal Objective vs. Realistic Goal=====

Some scholars have assumed that Nida's “dynamic equivalence”and Jin's principle of “equivalent effect”are ideal goals, which could not be realized in translating. However, such assertion is too simplistic. In fact, Jin's translation objective is ideal while Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is far more than an ideal goal. Jin emphasized more than once that an equivalent effect translation was an ideal aim, for which the translator must strive in his work. In “Where Is the Spirit of Ulysses?” (Jin Di 1996), Jin stated that an equivalent effect translation was “an ideal objective”. Though there was no perfect translation, it was desirable for a serious translator to work at it (Jin Di 1998, 214). In “What is a Perfet Translation” (Jin Di 1997), he even summarized that “the theory of equivalent effect” was an attempt to define the ideal of the non-existent perfect translation and to explore the approach to approximating it in practice, i.e. t producing a rendition as close to the ideal as possible” (Jin Di 1998, 229). Jin's theory, like Chinese traditional translation theories, is really an ideal translation standard.

However, Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is not an ideal criterion. As we all know that Nida's attitudes toward “dynamic equivalence” / “ functional equivalence” were different from phase to phase. In phase one (1959-1964), Nida simply described the features of two basic translation equivalences: “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence”, and did not point out which equivalence was better. Dynamic equivalent translations were not always good, while formal equivalent translations were not always bad. Rather, some formal equivalent translations were“often perfectly valid translations of certain types of messages for certain types of audiences” , and some dynamic equivalent translations were likely to obscure “the intent of the original” (Nida 1964, 166, 191-192). Both dynamic equivalent translations and formal equivalent translations could be achieved in actual translating. Furthermore, between strict formal equivalence and complete dynamic equivalence, there were“a number of intervening grades, representing various acceptable standards of literary translating” ( Nida 1964: 160). There were also “varying degrees” of dynamic equivalent translations. For example, according to Nida, both J. E. Philips' rendering “a hearty handshake” and “brotherly kiss” in the Today's English Version were dynamic equivalent translations. The difference between the two renderings was only a matter of degree.

A dynamic equivalent translation did not mean that the more a translation approached the original text, the better it was. In fact, there was no such thing as the best dynamic equivalence. If a dynamic equivalent translation went to extremes, the very freedom of form tended to distort the original message as well (Nida 1964, 191-192). For Nida "dynamic equivalence" was not an ideal objective, but just one of the basic types of equivalence, which had varying degrees.

In phase two (1969-1984), Nida discussed "dynamic equivalence" in opposition to "formal correspondence". During this period, he suggested that "dynamic equivalence" was a good translation, in which the form was restructured to preserve the same meaning, whereas "formal correspondence" and "paraphrase" were bad translations, for the former preserved the form but distorted the meaning of the original text, and the latter had addition, deletion, or skewing of the message in the translated text (Nida and Taber 1969, 173). Though Nida in this phase considered dynamic equivalent translations good, he did not take it as an ideal goal for which the translator must strive in his work. This could be verified with his attitudes towards the following three renderings of a verse in the Hebrew text of the Bible:

KJV:
I returned, and saw under the sun, that the race is not to the swift, nor the battle to the strong, neither yet bread to the wise, nor yet riches to men of understanding, nor yet favour to men of skill; but time and chance happeneth to them all. (Ecclesiastes9, 11)

TEV:
I realized another thing, that in this world fast runners do not always win the races, and the brave do not always win the battles. Wise men do not always earn a living, intelligent men do not always get rich, and capable men do not always rise to high positions. Bad luck happens to everyone. (Ecclesiastes 9, 11)

NEB (The New English Bible):
One more thing I have observed here under the sun; speed does not win the race nor strength the battle. Bread does not belong to the wise, nor wealth to the intelligent, nor success to the skillful; time and chance govern all. (Ecclesiastes9, 11)

Both renderings of the NEB and of the TEV were considered by Nida as "dynamic equivalent" translations, though they were at two quite distinct rhetorical levels. The NEB "preserved more the aphoristic style of the passage "while the TEV" adopted a style more characteristic of modern-day practical philosophy". The NEB was "semantically more condensed", while the TEV was expanded with "sufficient redundancy". This was because the former was intended to be read by readers themselves, and the latter was for people who heard the scriptures. "It is essentially for this reason that one can justify two different types of dynamic equivalent translations designed primarily for two rather different purposes" (Jin Di and Nida 1984, 87-89). It is safe for us to say that dynamic equivalent translations are not those that are closest to the original text in lexicon and grammar. Rather, depending on the readers for whom the translation is made, there are more than one dynamic equivalent translations.

At phase three (1984-), " functional equivalence" was divided into two levels of equivalence: the maximal level and the minimal level. The maximal level was an ideal, but Nida did not suggest that the translator must take it as an aim to work at. On the contrary, he claimed that this maximal level of equivalence was "rarely, if ever, achieved, except for text having little or no aesthetic value and involving only routine information" (Nida 1993, 118). In Nida's view, such an ideal goal could only be achieved in certain limited types of texts, and it was impossible to attain such an objective in literary translation. In brief, a functional equivalent translation was not an ideal goal that the translator must pursue in their work. Rather, it had "different degrees of adequacy" from minimal to maximal level and a good translation always lay somewhere in between the two levels (Nida 1993, 1995).

=====Reasons for the Differences between the Two Theories =====

There are mainly two reasons for the differences between Jin's theory and Nida's theory:(1) Jin's theory is, to some extent, very much influenced by traditional Chinese translation theories, and (2) Nida's theory fails to address the issue of transference of aesthetic elements.

Before Jin accepted Nida's theory in the late 1970s, he had formed his own views about translation, and taken the combination of "accuracy and smoothness" as the standard of a good translation. In his view, "accuracy is the ultimate objective of a translation while smoothness is the necessary means to attain it. The translator's objective is to accurately reproduce the content and feeling of the original text in an idiomatic language" (Jin Di 1998, 119- 120). Theoretically, it is desirable to achieve this objective, but in actual translating it is hard to accomplish it. Just as a saying goes: "Translation is like a mistress. If she is beautiful, she is not faithful. If she is faithful, she is not beautiful". Certainly, Jin had to face this dilemma of keeping "accuracy and smoothness" at the same time in his translation practice. After he had contact with Nida's theory, he tried to find the way out of it from the standpoint of readers and communication theory. He wrote:

"Accuracy and smoothness in translating are inseparable from target readers. Translating is communicating across two languages. An accurate translation indicates that the message the target reader obtains from the translated text should be substantially the same as the message the original reader has acquired from the original text. A smooth translation indicates that the target reader can understand the translation and receive the translated message e without any difficulty. (Jin Di 1998, 114)."

The fact is that even after Jin advanced his own theory of " equivalent effect" in the 1980s, he was not totally free from the bondage of his former translation standard of " accuracy and smoothness". For instance, he held that an equivalent effect translation was to preserve "accuracy and smoothness" at the same time (Jin Di 1998, 39). This explained why he emphasized the importance of transference of "concrete facts" in his definition of equivalent effect translation, and why he was strongly opposed to the alteration of "concrete facts" in his arguments against Phillip's rendering of " a hearty handshake" and Chuang's suggestion of "干杯" .

In the 1990s, Jin's dependence upon Chinese traditional translation theory was more conspicuous. In his article "Translating Spirit" (1996), Jin borrowed "faithfulness and expressiveness" from Yan Fu's three-character translation principle and put forward his translation principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit". He held that to accomplish an equivalent effcet translation, the translator should “make the translated text similar to the original text in terms of faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit" (Jin Di 1998, 162). Clearly, during this period, Jin's theory of "equivalent effect mainly depended on faithful representation of the original text, and the target reader was no longer involved ass the decisive role in translating. It is safe for r us to say that when Jin absorbed the useful elements from traditional Chinese translation theory, Chinese classic literary criticism and aesthetics to discuss his translation objective, his theory went further away from Nida’s "dynamic equivalence", though he claimed that his translation criteria " faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit" were similar to his translation principle of " equivalent effect” (Wang Zhenping 200, 56).

Another reason for the discrepancy ' between the two theories is the limitations of Nida's theory. "Dynamic equivalence" is not restricted to Bible translation, but it has some limitations in guiding literary translation. This is simply because Nida's immediate concern is not about literary translation, hence it fails to address the transference of formal structures possessing stylistic values and aesthetic effects.

As we all know, the general background against which Nida formulated his translation theory in the early 1960 was that the English Revised Version of the Bible and the American Standard Version of the Bible (1901) were very literal to the extent that "they simply did not communicate effectively, owing to their 16th century forms and the literal, awkward syntax" (Nida 1964, 20). Due to this fact, Nida in his theory objected to word-for-word translation of "formal correspondence", and advocated a free approach to translation, i.e. a meaning-oriented dynamic equivalence. This translation approach has great significance for translators, providing them with theoretical support to break the chains of literalism. However, as far as literary translation is concerned, merely translating sense is not enough. Just as Lin Yutang says, there are two types of literary works. One originates from the writer's experience and thoughts, and the other lies in the language itself, i.e. the specific means to express the writer's experience and thoughts. The first type does not rely on the native language of the writer to a certain degree, while the second is inseparable from the spirit of his mother tongue (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 430-431). Jin Yuelin also states: "Translating sense, which only requires expressiveness and faithfulness, is not an easy thing, and in some cases it is very difficult. Nevertheless, the difficulty is only a technical problem. Translating flavor, however, is quite another matter, for it requires recreation in translating" (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 464). When meaning and flavor in the original text cannot be kept at the same time in literary translation, in some cases the translator retains flavor and sacrifices sense. But in Nida's theory translating means translating meaning, and his exploration of style or spirit is very inadequate for literary translation. When Jin translated Joyce's ''Ulysses'', he had to face the problem of spirit transference. This is the reason why Jin eventually turns to Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism to seek for support for his theory of "equivalent effect".

===Conclusion===

There are some similarities between Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect. They both have profound research and insight into the theory of equivalent translation, and have a lot of common points in their understanding of the theory. There are also some differences between the two theories. Jin Di is deeply influenced by traditional Chinese translation theories and lacks a scientific basis for translation analysis. However, Nida's theory does not mention aesthetics, which has its limitations in guiding literary translation. Therefore, Nida's theory is not applicable to general translation, but only to biblical translation and informative or vocative translation. How to learn from the two translations to better guide translation practice is a task that translation researchers need to do in the future.

===References===

Chuang, Kun-liang 庄坤良. (1995). "Ulysses, by James Joyce, translated by Jin Di." [金堤译《尤利西斯》]James Joyce Quarterly 32.

De Waard, Jan and E. A. Nida 得·瓦得和尤金·奈达. (1986). From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating [从一种语言到另一种语言]. New York: Nelson.

Jin Di 金堤.(1998). In Search of the Principle of Equivalent Effect [等效反应原则]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.

Jin Di and Eugene A. Nida 金堤和尤金·奈达. (1996). On Translation: with special reference to Chinese and English [论翻译]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.

Jin Di 金堤. (1995). Equivalence Effect in Translation [翻译中的等效反应]. Chinese University Press.

Jin Di 金堤. (1994-1996). trans. Ulysses(You Li Xi Si). By James Joyce[尤利西斯]. Beijing: People's Literature Press.

Liu, Junping 刘军平.(1997). "Comments on Two Chinese Versions of Ulysses." [《尤利西斯》两种译文的比较研究]. Chinese Translators Journal 3.

Lao Long. (1988). "Book Review: On Translation by Jin Di and Eugene A. Nida" [书评: 论翻译]. Chinese Translators Journal 2: 56-57.

Luo, Xinzhang 罗新璋. (1984). An Anthology of Writings on Translation [翻译论集]. Beijing: Commercial Press.

Nida, E. A. 尤金·奈达 (1975). Language Structure and Translation: Essays by Eugene A. Nida [语言结构与翻译]. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

Nida, E. A. 尤金·奈达 (1959). Principles of translation as exemplified by bible translating [从圣经翻译看翻译原则]. Bible Translator, 72(4), 323-342.

Nida, Eugene A. 尤金·奈达. (1993).Language, Culture and Translating [语言、文化与翻译]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Nida, Eugene A. 尤金·奈达. (1964). Towards a Science of Translating: with Special Reference to Principles and Procedures Involved in Bible Translating [翻译的科学探索]. Leiden: Brill.

Nida, Eugene A. and C. R. Taber. 尤金·奈达和查尔斯·泰伯. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation [翻译理论与实践]. Leiden: Brill.

Wang, Zhenping 王振平. (2000). "An Interview with Prof. Jin Di." [金堤教授访谈录] Chinese Translators Journal.

Wang, Yougui 王友贵. (1998). "On Two Chinese Versions of Ulysses"[《尤利西斯的两个中译本研究》]. Chinese Comparative Literature 4.

==Translation , Translating and Interpreting 漆凯 Qi Kai, 202020080636 亚非语言文学==

<center>漆凯 Qi Kai </center>
===Abstract===
First of all, this paper briefly introduces the Chinese and western studies of translation theory and translation principles, and then introduces the definitions of translating and interpreting centering on translation and interpretation.then it discusses what they have in common from four aspects: basic principles, requirements for translators, operational procedures and quality assessment standards. Then it discusses the differences between interpretation and translation in terms of criteria, translation process and requirements for the quality of translators. Mastering the similarities and differences between the two can help us to better deal with different types of translation, which is the only way to become an excellent translator.

===Key words===
Translation; Translation Theory; Translation Principles; Translating; Interpreting

===题目===
翻译，笔译与口译

===摘要===
本文首先以翻译理论和翻译原则为出发点，简要介绍了两者的中西方研究状况，其次以笔译和口译为中心，对两者的定义进行了介绍，然后从基本原则、对译者的要求、操作流程、质量评定标准四个方面论述了两者的共同点，紧接着论述口译和笔译在衡量标准、翻译过程以及对译员的素质要求方面的差异。掌握两者的同于不同，能够帮助我们更好地处理不同类型的翻译，是成为一个优秀翻译工作者的必经之路。

===关键词===
翻译、翻译理论、翻译原则、笔译、口译

===Introduction===
With the enhancement of China's national strength and the increasing complexity of international exchanges, the market needs more and more high-quality translators. The establishment of MTI and BTI majors in colleges and universities in China also meets this demand. Translation includes two different forms: translation and interpretation. many people will be shocked by the real-time translation of the interpreter around the prime minister and admire the ability of the interpreter. Translation plays an important role in Mo Yan's winning the Nobel Prize for Literature. The comparison between interpretation and translation can give us a correct understanding of the relationship between them, so as to better guide the study of translation and improve the ability of translation.(Liu Heping 2009,35)

This paper first defines translation and holds that translation refers to the expression of the meaning of one language in another language, or the expression of symbols or numbers that represent language and literature, and translation is a conversion between two symbols. But this kind of transformation is not only the language transformation at the literal level, but also the transfer of ideas and the transplantation of culture.(Liu Heping 2009,35)

Secondly, it discusses the similarities and differences between translation and interpretation, focusing on the differences between them. Specifically, firstly, the common points of the two are discussed from four aspects: the basic principles, the requirements for the translator, the operation process and the quality evaluation standard. As for the difference between the two, the criteria for evaluating the advantages and disadvantages of translation and interpretation are discussed. Interpretation needs an interpreter to make a quick response because of its immediacy. Then it analyzes the process of the two translation methods and points out their differences.(Liu Heping 2009,35)

Finally, it discusses the different requirements for the quality of interpreters. In view of the particularity of interpretation, it focuses on the requirements for interpreters, including psychological quality, listening, memory and shorthand ability. It is hoped that through the analysis and discussion of this paper, we can once again realize the importance of translation and let readers have a further understanding of the similarities and differences between interpretation and translation.(Liu Heping 2009,35)

===Definition of Translation===
Translation is an activity with a long history. Both Chinese and Western translators have experienced several thousand years of development. During such a long period of time, people have benefited from translation activities; at the same time, people have actively thought about issues related to translation.(Huang Yongchang 2003,36)

First, people need to give a precise definition of translation. As a matter of fact, most of the first translation activities performed by human beings were oral translations. The communication of language and ideas between two primitive tribes was dependent on translation. Later, with the need for narration and communication, translation activities also emerged, and the initial translations were all related to the translation of religious texts.(Huang Yongchang 2003,36)

In modern society, with the development of science and technology, translation activities have covered more colorful forms: human translation and machine translation; literary translation and non-literary translation; excerpt translation, compilation, translation evaluation, etc.; there are also research institutions and training institutions for translation and its works. It can be said that after a long historical development, translation activities have become very diverse in form.Therefore, it is very difficult to give a precise definition of translation. Many experts and scholars have made attempts to define translation from various perspectives, such as culture, sociology, semiotics and psychology.(Huang Yongchang 2003,36)

Secondly, according to the Modern Chinese Dictionary, translation refers to expressing the meaning of one - language and literature in another language and literature, or expressing the symbols or digits representing language and literature in language and literature. (Huang Yongchang 2003,36)

Translation is a conversion activity between two symbols. Therefore, in the activity of conversion of two linguistic symbols, that is, in the activity of translation, one's primary task is to work on the regeneration of symbolic meaning. And translation is fundamentally about translating meaning. Then, what is the meaning becomes an important and crucial question.(Huang Yongchang 2003,36)

For example, Ogden and Richards, the British scholars of semantics, published in 1923, put forward a theory of meaning, which represents the typical view of traditional semantics. The theory refers to a mutually constraining and interactive relationship between symbols, meanings and objective things. And this theory has also influenced translation activities. Language philosophers often think about this issue and give an essential requirement to translation, which should not be a literal level of language conversion, but a transfer of ideas and a cultural transplantation.(Liu Heping 2009,37)

Thirdly, the activity of translation, which has undergone thousands of years of development, has played an important role in the evolution of human society, and it is always going on, and the various functions it can achieve are constantly evolving. Jacobson, one of the founders of the Prague School, divided translation into three types: intra-linguistic translation, interlinguistic translation and inter-rational translation.(Liu Heping 2009,37)

By understanding these three types, it helps us to recognize the functions and roles of translation. There is no doubt that translation facilitates communication between people and enables ideas to be spread. For the ideas and culture of a country to be expanded geographically, it is inevitable to resort to translation. Moreover, translation also plays the function of creation, and through translation activities, the original ideas are developed and extended.(Ma Chao 2010,18)

In the process of translating Buddhist scriptures, our country has made a bold creation, creating. The creation of new vocabulary and new ideas not only expands the substance of the language, but also introduces new ideas and new thoughts. And in the West, especially in the process of translating the Bible, the role of translation for linguistic transformation has been more profoundly highlighted.Therefore, in order to study translation, it is necessary to understand the definition of translation, the content of translation and the function of translation.(Ma Chao 2010,18)

===Research status of Translation principles in China and the West===
From ancient times to the present, Chinese and Western scholars have never stopped exploring the principles of translation. There are also differences between Chinese and Western translation principles in terms of development history, research direction and system integrity.

====Research status of Translation Principles in China====
Yan Fu once spoke in the Theory of Heaven. In the translation example, it has been pointed out that there are three difficulties in translating things: faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance. It is very difficult to ask him to believe himself.(Ma Chao 2010,19)

Although the translation is still not done, "faithfulness" means that the content of the translation does not violate the original and expresses the meaning of the original. "expressiveness" requires that the translation is smooth and easy to understand. "elegance" refers to the literary style, suitability and readability of the choice of words, as well as the proper use of language style. "elegance" refers to the choice of words, suitability and readability, as well as the proper use of language style. In fact, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" is not completely pioneered by Yan Fu, but is systematically summarized, refined and summarized.(Ma Chao 2010,19)

Before Yan Fu, there were Zhiqian's "follow this purpose without literary decoration", the "struggle for cultural quality" in the Sui and Tang dynasties, the "five losses and three difficult" by Dao'an, "rather be simple and reasonable, not skillfully but from the source" by Yan Yi. Xuan Zang's "five do not turn", Zanning's "six examples", Ma Jianzhong's "good translation" and so on. (Huang Yongchang 2003,37)After Yan Fu, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" also has a new development.(Ma Chao 2010,19)

For example, Lu Xun said that "it would rather be faithful than smooth" and "all translators must take into account two sides: one is to strive for ease of understanding, and the other is to preserve the grace of the original work." Lin Yutang put forward the standard of "faithfulness, smoothness and beauty". Fu Lei's "attaching importance to spirit but not form", "harmony between spirit resemblance and form resemblance", Qian Zhongshu's "transformation environment", Jin Shi's "equivalence" translation principle, Liu Zhongde's "faith, reach, cut" regiment, Zhang Jin's "truth, goodness, beauty", and Xu Yuanchong summed up the "beauty of meaning, sound, form" and so on. (Ma Chao 2010,19)

Although various translation standards emerge one after another, the translation standard of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" has always been the "golden rule" in the field of translation. The translation standard of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" is Yan Fu's summary and sublimation of a great deal of practice, raising the translation theory from the dual standard of "literal translation and free translation" to the ternary standard, which is also the development and inheritance of the previous translation theory. At the same time, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" is also a discussion on the traditional Chinese philosophy of "the unity of man and nature", "the subject is integrated into the object", and it is a "incidental discussion" of translation. (Yang Zijian 1994,52)

Although many other translation standards have appeared after the translation standard of faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance, the scope of influence of faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance. It's always been widespread. This is because the subsequent translation standards are based on the translation criteria of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance", and the contents of the framework are updated and inherited critically with the development of the times. Although it has some historical limitations, as a translation concept and basic proposition, as Guo Hongan said: as long as we keep pace with the times and constantly update the interpretation of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", we will continue to give it new vitality.(Yang Zijian 1994,55)

====Research status of Translation Principles in the West====
According to different periods, there are many representative translation principles in the West. Such as "translation as a commentator" put forward by Cicero Cicero of the traditional empirical period, Alexander FraserTytler's "completely interpreting the advantages of the source text into another language", the "functional equivalence theory" and the thought circle of "response" and "domestication" advocated by Eugene A. Nida in the period of modern linguistics, CatFord's "equivalent translation", PeterNewmark's semantic translation and communicative translation theory. And the hermeneutics theory "understanding is translation" advocated by GeorgeSteiner in the contemporary pluralistic theory period, Andre Lefevere's "translation is rewriting" Hermans's "the text is manipulated by the translator" and so on.(Yang Zijian 1994,53)

In the process of development, western translation theories pay more attention to the intuitive way of thinking and the integrity of the system. In the process of using and developing translation theory, we can take it as a reference, absorb its essence, and combine it with domestic translation principles and translation practice to form a domestic characteristic translation theory. For example, when using the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", we should comprehensively consider other translation theories at home and abroad, fully consider the style and content of the text, apply the idea of "domestication", and choose suitable translation methods. so that the content and style of the text can be restored to the maximum extent.(Xu Jun 2009,36)

===Definitions of Translating and Interpreting===
Translating is a written process. It converts the written text in the source language into another written language. Translators must have a deep understanding of the source text and accurately translate it into the target language in terms of meaning, structure and style. The translator has enough time, tools and ways to ponder over and over the language sentences so as to complete the translation. In "language and Culture: context in Translation", Eugene A. Nida (2006 105)holds that the first step is for the translator to analyze the source text by reading many times, consulting references or dictionaries and consulting experts in relevant fields in order to deepen their understanding.(Marianne Lederer 2011,12)

After the conversion from the source language to the target language, translators also need to transform and improve the target language in order to obtain the satisfaction of the readers or the target audience. Before that, translators can ask people in the target audience to read the translation on behalf of the target audience, so as to get feedback on the translation, and have time to correct and polish it again. In terms of the connotation of translation, translation requires higher satisfaction with accurate grasp of language, creativity, artistic level of language and aesthetic style.(Marianne Lederer 2011,12)

Interpreting can be divided into impromptu translation and simultaneous interpretation. Impromptu translation, also known as consecutive Interpreting or continuous translation, is mainly in the form of segmented expression of what the speaker is going to express, and the translator translates during each pause. The time of each speech varies from a few seconds to a few minutes according to the specific situation. Consecutive Interpreting is widely used, such as tourism translation, banquet speeches and so on.(Sun Sucha 2008, 44)

Simultaneous interpretation, also known as simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter provides instant translation through special interpretation equipment without interrupting the speaker's speech,constantly interpreting the contents of his speech to the audience. Simultaneous interpretation is suitable for large-scale seminars and international conferences, usually conducted by two interpreters in rotation.(Sun Sucha 2008, 44)

===Similarities and Differences between Translating and Interpreting===
As two practical forms of translation, the relationship between interpreting and translating is self-evident. If interpreting is the superstructure. Then the written review is the lower building. To put it simply, interpretation is based on written reviews. Before oral training or practice, the written details should be passed (at least step by step): the two not only go hand in hand. And the quality of the former often determines to a large extent the level of interpretation or the potential for development in the future.Although interpretation and translation have different forms of translation, they share many common basic principles. In some basic translation strategies and techniques.And it is also consistent or similar.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,147)

Fundamentally speaking, these two kinds of translation practices are guided or dominated by general translation theories and principles, which are always accepted and digested first in the training process of written reviews. If the cultivation of oral and detailed talents is not only based on translation training, but also not far away from the training of translation, the cultivation of oral talents is not far away from the basis of translation training. If you ignore the importance of translation. Or the amount of translation training is not enough. In that case, it is bound to be top-heavy and light, and it is difficult to make further progress in interpretation.(Li Jun 2007,54)

====Similarities between Translating and Interpreting====
First of all, the basic principles of translation are the same. In an introduction to Translation, Xu Jun (2009) pointed out that translation is the fundamental meaning of translation; Li Jun (2007) also believes that the basic task of translation is to understand and retell the meaning that the source language is trying to express. It can be seen that as far as its basic principles are concerned, translation should faithfully express the meaning and ideas that the source language wants to express in accordance with the language habits of the target language.(Marianne Lederer 2011,108)

Whether interpreting or translating, it is not the formal translation of words or sentence-by-sentence translation, but the translation of the source language information and the transmission of the original meaning, which is the first basic principle that we should make clear when learning interpreting and translating. The explanation of interpretive translation by French interpretive theory further clarifies this principle: the purpose of translation is to "understand"-"discourse", and then "re-express", the "discourse" (Marianne Lederer 2011,108)

Secondly, the requirements for translators and translators have something in common. From the perspective of software, both translators and translators must have a solid bilingual foundation, profound encyclopedic knowledge accumulation and strong autonomous learning ability; from the perspective of hardware, both must have great enthusiasm for translation. and have good physical fitness.Since translation is simply a process of understanding and expressing the meaning of the source language in the target language, and understanding requires the reserve of knowledge of the source language and knowledge outside the language, and expression requires both the level of the target language and the level of expression, then the importance of software construction is self-evident.(Sun Sucha 2008,45)

Moreover, in order to do any work well, we need to be enthusiastic about it and put it into practice. Translation is a time-consuming and energy-consuming work that requires the attention of translators and translators. The improvement of hardware is particularly important. To sum up, only when we have both hardware and software, can we do a good job in translation. (Sun Sucha 2008,45)

Thirdly, the translation process is similar. The process of completing the translation work is like the process of producing a certain product, which must be put in place step by step. If you relax a little bit, the final product may be defective. Generally speaking, whether you are an interpreter or a translator, you need to make full preparations before translation, including reading a large number of parallel texts, mastering knowledge in related fields, communicating with experts or scholars, and understanding the key points: to establish your own corpus and corpus so as to be easy to extract and use at any time. And lost-translation feedback and summary are needed after translation, and translation is also subject to one or more post-translation revision.In addition, in many cases, the same complicated translation work is often done by the cooperation of two or more translators and translators.(Chen Kaisha 2012,134)

Finally, although there is no final conclusion on the evaluation criteria of translation quality, in professional translation, from the results of translation, the evaluation criteria of translation quality are the same between interpretation and translation. (Chen Kaisha 2012,134)These similarities can be simply summarized as "three looks": to see whether the result of the translation accurately conveys the message of the source language; to see whether the result of the translation has produced the desired effect on the audience; finally, in professional translation, we also need to see whether the result of the translation work is satisfactory to the customer.(Chen Kaisha 2012,134)

====Differences between Translating and Interpreting====
(1) Differences in measurement criteria
As two different forms of translation, the criteria for evaluating translation and interpretation are also different. Although translation theorists have not formed a unified opinion on the issue of translation standards, especially after the "cultural turn", a hundred schools of thought contend among translation theorists, the main criteria for evaluating translation quality in China are still faithfulness and fluency, which is in line with the "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" standard put forward by Yan Fu, which requires the translation to be consistent with the source text in terms of content, form, style and style as far as possible. And make it smooth.

Based on the characteristics of interpretation, some interpretation experts and scholars have put forward corresponding theories to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of interpretation.(Yang Zijian 1994,62) According to the Dayism theory of French interpretation expert Celeskovic, interpretation is a kind of interpretive translation, its purpose is to achieve meaning, and the standard is to achieve meaning and fluency.(Li Jinze 2010,23)

The interpretation standard put forward by interpretation expert Li Yueran is accurate, smooth and fast. Accuracy is the soul of English interpretation, which requires the interpreter to accurately convey the information of one party to the other in English or Chinese, so as to achieve the purpose of communication between the two parties. Fluency, that is, the interpreter should fluently convey the information obtained, it is easy for people to understand; fast, because the interpretation is immediate, its own time limit requires the interpreter to be able to respond quickly.(Li Jinze 2010,23)

Zhong Weihe, an interpreter, argues that interpretation should be faithful and timely. Faithfulness means that the target language must be faithful to the content of the source language and the emotional color of the language under specific circumstances, while timely communication means timely communication. As a relatively new discipline, the development of interpretation theory is not as complete as translation theory, and the evaluation criteria are not the same.(Yang Zijian 1994,64)

However, the basic requirements for interpretation are as follows: the translation results should be accurate, rather than speculating on the content of the source text according to the interpreter's own understanding; aiming at the recipient of the translation result,the expression form of the translation result must conform to the recipient's language habits to facilitate their understanding; in addition, the translator needs to adjust the tone, speed and intonation according to the actual situation.(Yang Zijian 1994,64)

(2) The difference of translation process
The process of translation is the process of correctly understanding the original text and creatively reproducing it in another language. Translation and interpretation have their own characteristics, and the translation process also differs greatly. There are also great differences in the translation process. One of the differences between the two stems from the difference between written and spoken language, with written language being more rigorous and spoken language being more casual and loose.(Zhao Shuo 1999,100)

Interpreting is an activity with strong immediacy. It emphasizes the effectiveness, independence, field, and one-time nature, and belongs to a kind of individual labor (Zhao Shuo 1999,99). The immediacy of interpretation requires the interpreter to analyze, understand and express the speaker's words continuously within a limited time, so that the speaker's meaning can be correctly conveyed to the audience and both parties can communicate with each other. Due to this fundamental characteristic of immediacy, interpreters tend to "use frequently used words and small words with monosyllables or few syllables, as well as words and abbreviations with strong generality" (Zhao Shuo 1999,100)

Due to the time constraint, the interpreter cannot refer to any documents or materials, nor can he or she discuss with others or ask experts for advice. Interpreting in ordinary situations should be as colloquial as possible, and the sentence structure used is relatively simple and in line with the spoken habits. In addition, interpreters generally cannot make a lot of corrections and additions to what has been translated, unless there are major errors or omissions.The translator, on the other hand, communicates with the reader in the form of text, which is generally not limited by time. The interpreter expresses the original text in written form through a thorough understanding of the text, and then uses the help of the materials, and then repeats the translation until he or she is satisfied.(Liu Heping 2009,37)

In terms of sentence structure, translation requires sentence components to be in place and sentence structure to be complete.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,148) Translators can use parallel sentences, compound sentences and rhetorical methods such as metaphor and prose in order to beautify the translation; translators can also have time to discuss with others and ask for their help before writing the translation.(Liu Heping 2009,37)

Fang Fanquan, an interpreter scholar, proposed the process of translation and interpretation. The basic process of translation is reading - thinking and analyzing - converting and reorganizing - writing and expressing; while the basic process of interpretation is recording - coding - expressing. Recording, or temporary storage, means storing the perceived coded information temporarily; encoding means decoding the information in the source language and assigning it to the expression form of the target language; expression means the interpreter translates the encoded information in the target language through oral expression.(Liu Heping 2009,37)

(3) Different requirements for interpreters
Translators and interpreters have some common basic requirements, for example, they should have good bilingual understanding and expression, and be able to convert between Chinese and English skillfully and accurately; they should have a broad knowledge, especially familiar with Chinese and foreign cultural background; they should go through systematic professional knowledge and skills learning and practical training, and so on. However, in view of the immediacy of interpretation, the requirements for interpreters are different from those for translators, and the special requirements for interpreters are mainly reflected in the following points:(Ma Chao 2010,19)

①Psychological quality
Interpreting is a hard and intense mental work, a complex thinking process. Interpreters are often unprepared to understand the information they hear instantly and then convert it into another language and express it orally, which often puts them under greater pressure (Guo Jirong, 2008: 232). Therefore, interpreters must have good psychological quality. "the psychological factor of the interpreter, although invisible and intangible, plays a role in the translation process." The interpreter will undergo psychological changes due to the occasion of interpretation, the level of knowledge, the degree of understanding of the subject matter, etc.(Li Jinze 2010,102)

Interpreters who are still shallow are prone to be in a nervous mood before interpreting, unable to start, and even unable to get into the state immediately after the meeting starts. This psychological state will affect the level of play, and even cause serious adverse consequences. The specific method is to practice more, try to contact with the conference organizers and speakers before the meeting, learn more about the background knowledge of the meeting, and also read some relevant information in advance, so as to have the bottom in mind and prevent the translation quality from being affected by emotional tension. The interpreter can also judge whether he/she understands according to the expression of the audience, and can change the expression or add some explanation, which cannot be done in the translation.(Chen Kaisha 2012,134)

②Listening
Interpreting is built on the basis of "listening" and relies on "listening". To receive information, keen listening is a prerequisite for becoming an excellent interpreter. If you encounter obstacles in receiving information, it will be difficult to carry out the following steps of interpretation.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,148)

Interpreters should have the basic conditions of bilingual communication, good bilingual comprehension and expression ability, be able to use the previously acquired knowledge to understand the new discourse, know how to analyze and synthesize the content while listening, and understand the content of language expression with the help of cognitive knowledge and encyclopedic knowledge, instead of the conditioned reflex or accumulation of language words.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,148)

In order to express better when interpreting, interpreters must pay attention to listen to more English accents, dialects and variants, pay attention to summarize their characteristics and rules, and learn to reason logically and judge the causes and consequences of speech, and correctly judge the message and intention of the speaker. There are many dialects of Chinese, and there are many dialects and variants of English. British English and American English differ in speech, expression and even the meaning of the same word; even people from the same English-speaking country speak different English due to their social class, educational background and geographical differences.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,149)

For example, there is a big difference in the language used by the aristocracy and the lower class in Britain. For example, the language used by the aristocracy and the lower class in Britain is very different. When foreigners whose mother tongue is not English speak English, it is inevitable that they have their own accent. Therefore, as an interpreter, you must first understand the dialect and accent of the translation target in order to carry out the translation smoothly. In addition, the interpreter must have a pure accent, be fluent in English and Mandarin Chinese, and be familiar with various expressions of foreign languages and Chinese.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,149)

③Memory and shorthand ability
Due to the constraints brought by the immediacy of interpreter communication and the potential influence of the "absence factor" of the context, interpretation work shows its great challenge (Xie Zhaolin 2012,149).As an interpreter, it is necessary to have an excellent memory, because it is impossible for the interpreter to consult information during the interpretation process, so he or she must remember a large number of words, abbreviations and idioms.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,149)

===Conclusion===
This paper focuses on the differences between translation and interpretation in terms of measurement standards, translation process and the quality requirements for translators. Mastering the differences between the two can help us to better deal with different types of translation. Want to be a good translator, whether interpreter or interpreter. Both workers and translators must have solid bilingual language skills and rich cultural background knowledge.

In cultivating and improving translation skills, there are more requirements for the accuracy of language expression. Therefore, translators need to read literary classics widely, improve their literary appreciation and their ability to master English and Chinese bilingualism. It can not only be faithful to the original text but also be accurately conveyed in beautiful and fluent words in translation. The original message. When developing interpreting skills, it is necessary to strengthen the training of English-Chinese bilingual pronunciation, intonation and articulation, strengthen psychological quality, improve adaptability, enhance memory, and train shorthand ability in order to attain a yet higher goal.

===References===

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--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 11:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==A Brief Introduction to Chinese Translation Theories in the Late 19th Century 郭露 Guo Lu 202070080588 英语笔译==

<center>郭露 Guo Lu 202070080588</center>

===Abstract===

As China suffered from wars in the late 19th century, western culture was introduced into China inevitably. Chinese intellectuals at that time knew little about western works and were prejudiced against them.

During this period, translation acted as a bridge between China and the rest of the world. There were several translators and scholars who had translated numerous western works and came up with their translation theories, which promoted the development of translation studies and helped people to know more about the western countries.

This paper mainly discusses the translation theories of Yan Fu and Lin Shu who were of great significance at that time, and it also introduces Yan Fu’s and Lin Shu’s translation theories through case analysis, so as to deepen our understanding towards translation theories in this period.

===Key Words===

Translation theory, Chinese translation theory, Yan Fu, Lin Shu

===题目===

19世纪晚期中国翻译理论简介

===摘要===

19世纪晚期，中国遭受战争磨难的同时，外国文化随之涌入中国。当时中国各界人士对于西方作品的了解极少，并对其作品抱有较大的偏见。在这一时期，翻译充当了中外交流的桥梁，中国涌现出了许多伟大的译者，他们的作品为中国的翻译发展做出极大贡献。本文旨在讨论当时的翻译发展以及严复和林纾两位在当时具有突出贡献的译者，并通过案例分析对严复和林纾的翻译理论进行了简要概括和介绍，以加深我们对于该时期翻译理论的了解。

=== 关键字===

翻译理论；中国翻译理论；严复；“信达雅”；林纾

===Introduction===

The failure in the First Sino-Japanese War at the end of the Qing Dynasty put China and the Chinese nation as well in great danger. In order to educate people and save the nation, scholars including Yan Fu and Lin Shu realized that they need to learn from Western countries and bring in their culture and advanced thought. (Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 2002, 1-3) Therefore, those scholars started to translate western works. For example, during the translation of Thomas H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'', Yan Fu quoted the survival of the fittest and called for people to save the nation from subjugation and ensure its survival. (Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 2002, 1-3)

In addition, with the growing demand for culture and entertainment, coupled with the improvement of printing technology, the market for books and magazines also underwent rapid development, which also provided room for the development of novels. While scholars favoured classical books, common people preferred novels, providing an opportunity for the development of novel translation.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 34-35)

As many scholars began to translate foreign books, they too formed a variety of translation theories in the process of translation, which made a lot of contributions to the development of translation.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 34-35)

===Yan Fu===

1. Introduction

Yan Fu(1854-1921), courtesy name Ji Dao, is a scholar and translator in modern China. He is famous for introducing Western thoughts, including Darwin’s idea of “natural selection” into China and was singled out among a few who contributed most to China’s knowledge of the West at that period. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)

Yan Fu is especially famous for ''Tianyanlun'', the rendering of Thomas H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics''. The survival of the fittest in this book took wing in time in the fermenting air of nationwide struggle for survival. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)

Besides that, Yan stated in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics'' that "there are three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance". Although he did not set them as general standards for translation, since the publication of that work, the phrases "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" have been attributed to Yan Fu as standards for any good translation, giving rise to numerous debates. Therefore, it has been the catchword among Chinese translation theories. (Wang Shi 1986, 1321-1322)

Yan Fu was also one of the most influential scholars of his generation as he worked to introduce Western social, economic and political ideas to China. During his lifetime, Yan Fu translated the following major works of Western liberal thought: ''Evolution and Ethics'' by Thomas Henry Huxley as ''Tianyan lun'', ''The Wealth of Nations'' by Adam Smith as ''Yuan fu'', and ''The Study of Sociology'' by Herbert Spencer as ''Qunxue yiyan'', most of them inspired later scholars to better learn about Western culture. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91-99)

2. Translation Theory

Yan Fu’s theories, which include faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness(''da'') and elegance(''ya''), plays a vital important role among Chinese translation theories. Another English version is fidelity, fluency, and elegance. Still, another is fidelity, fluency and flair rendered by Brian Holton, using the alliterative "f" for the sake of memory. They are cited as follows:

(1)Translation involves three difficult requirements to fulfil: faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness (''da'') and elegance(''ya''). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance.(Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 44-47)

(2)In addition to faithfulness and expressiveness, we should strive for elegance in translation. This is not just for extending the effects far. In using the syntax and style of the pre-Han period one actually facilitates the expressiveness of the profound principles and subtle thoughts whereas in using the modern vernacular one finds it difficult to make things comprehensible. (Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 44-47)

Here, faithfulness means to be faithful to the content of the original, the translation should be accurate, and translators are not allowed to change the meaning in the original text. “Meanwhile, translators should translate words correctly and concisely, and omission and amplification are not recommended.”(Wang Rui, Wei Shengxin 2020, 1-4)

Furthermore, expressiveness means to be expressive as the original, and the translation should be in accordance with the expression of Chinese habits and be fluent and readable. And as for elegance, which is ''ya'', it originally means the authentic and correct use of the Chinese language. However, with the development of the times, the meaning of ''ya'' has also undergone much development. It doesn’t require translators to keep the syntax and style of the pre-Han period, instead, they should translate the original text depending on its language style. (Wang Shi 1986, 48)

3. Case Analysis

Example1: He was an old man who fished alone in a skiff in the Gulf Stream and he had gone eighty-forty days now without taking a fish. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)

Translation 1: 他是一个老头子，一个人划着一只小船，在墨西哥湾大海流打鱼，而他已经有84天没有捕到一条鱼了。 (Zhang Ailing 2015, 5)

Translation 2: 那老人独驾轻舟，在墨西哥湾流里捕鱼，如今出海已有84天仍是一鱼不获。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 1)

Translation 3: 他是个独自驾一只小帆船在湾流上捕鱼的老人。到今天为止，老头儿已经接连下海84天，一条鱼也没捕到。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 2)

Translation analysis: In this example, the skiff was translated into “小船”, “轻舟” and “小帆船”, and according to the context, we can easily draw a conclusion that the third one is the best, as “小船” didn’t tell the reader what the skiff looks like, so it has a much broader definition. Besides that, “轻舟” in China is a poetic word, which does not conform to the style of the original text. And “小帆船” seems more vivid and specific. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 1)

Example 2: The old man was thin and gaunt with deep wrinkles in the back of his neck. The brown blotches of the benevolent skin cancer the sun brings from its reflection on the sides of his face and his hands had the deep-creased scars from handling heavy fish on the cords. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)

Translation 1: 老人瘦而憔悴，颈后有深的皱纹。面颊上生着棕色的肿起一块块，那是热带的海上反射的阳光晒出的一种无害的瘤。顺着脸的两边，全长满了那肿起的一块块。他的手因为拉绳子，拖曳沉重的鱼，有纹路很深的创痕。 (Zhang Ailing 2015, 5)

Translation 2: 老人瘦削而憔悴，颈背皱纹很深。热带海上阳光的反射引起善性的皮癌，那种褐色的疮痍便长满两颊，两手时常用索拉扯大鱼，也留下深折的瘢痕。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 1)

Translation 3: 老头儿身形单薄，脖颈子上皱纹很深。从他的腮帮子上一溜顺着颊边往下，长着些褐色的疙瘩，那是太阳在热带海面上的反光晒出来的良性皮肤瘤。他那双手则因为同大鱼较量，被钓索勒出了深深的伤痕。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 3)

Translation analysis: Among all the translation versions, the last is the most understandable one for it is in accordance with the logical order and more natural. For example, “较量” in the third version seems very different from the original meaning of “handling”, but considering the context, “较量” is more authentic than “拖曳” or “拉扯” which are just translated literally. This also reflects the importance of expressiveness and elegance. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 2)

Example 3: He did not remember when he had first started to talk aloud when he was by himself. He had sung when he was by himself in the old days and he had sung at night sometimes when he was alone steering on his match in the smacks or in the turtle boats. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)

Translation 1: 他记不起自己从什么时候开始，便爱一个人大声自言自语。往日，在孤独的时候，他曾爱唱歌自娱；有时夜间独自在渔船上或龟船上轮班掌舵，他也会唱起歌来。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 27)

Translation 2: 他记不得一个人独处的时候是何时开始大声说话的。以前他独个儿时曾唱过歌。在小帆船或者捕龟船里，独自值班掌舵时曾在夜里唱过。 (Huang Yuanshe 2011,16)

Translation 3: 他不记得自己从什么时候起，在独自一人的情形下会大声说话。从前独自一人时，他会唱歌；当年在渔船或捕龟船上轮夜掌舵的时候，他有时也会唱歌。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 22)

Translation Analysis: Though these translations are all faithful to the original text, the first one is uncomparable among all the versions. By reading the first one, we can have a deep understanding of the loneliness of the old man who was fishing on the sea and we can also feel his optimism, especially in “自言自语” and “唱歌自娱”. This translation can undoubtedly arouse the sympathy of the readers. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 1-3)

4. The Criticism of Yan Fu’s Theory

Though Yan Fu’s translation theory was widely recognized by Chinese scholars, it also provoked heated debates, and elegance, which is ya, was criticized mostly by other scholars. Some of them even believed that it is useless. And the reason why Yan put elegance into his translation theory is that he preferred the writing style of Tong Cheng School. Since this pompous style is obsolete, the standard of ya may also out of fashion. (Gao Xiaopeng 2017, 1-2)

Nevertheless, “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are still one of the most important translation theories in China. Faithfulness means being faithful to the author and conveys the core values and meanings of the work to the readers. Expressiveness means the translation should be plain and fluent. And elegance requires the translation to obey the aesthetic concepts of the target language. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 28-30) This theory has inspired later scholars in translation practice and theoretical exploration. Due to the limit of time and history, the translation study should be conducted in a historical context, so we also need to evaluate Yan Fu’s translation thought and translation works historically.

===Lin Shu===

1. Introduction

Lin Shu(1852-1924) is a traditional Chinese literatus and translator, most famous for introducing the Western literary works into China in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Though being ignorant of foreign languages, Lin Shu collaborated with different interpreters and translated more than 180 western literary works, mostly novels, from England, the United States, France, Russian, Switzerland, Belgium, Spain and Norway, etc. into classical Chinese in his lifetime. (Zhu Yu 2008, 3-7)

Because of his ignorance of foreign languages, Lin seldom concerned himself with the original or with the equivalence of any sort. What he cared about most was the functions of his translation works. In Lin’s opinion, to translate books is to enlighten the mind of our people in a contest against foreigners. In his foreword to ''Yilin Monthly'', he stated:

“The inferiority of Asia to Europe can be attributed to the fact that the Europeans are daily intent on learning whereas the Asian peoples moon away in a stupor or, jealous of the European learnings and slandering them as eccentric extremity, throw themselves into blind combats, fancying of victory. That is the so-called landlubber swimming against the good swimmer. As for me, to enlighten the mind of our people, we must begin with the establishment of schools. But the schools work steadily and slowly, so timely speeches in academic associations are preferable. Considering the inconveniences in preparing speeches, translating books becomes the ultimate choice.” (Chen Fukang 1992, 133)

2. Translation Methods

Lin Shu knew no foreign languages, so he had to cooperate with a collaborator who was familiar with foreign languages and worked as an interpreter for him. Though he was an efficient translator, he didn’t come up with any significant translation theories. Having said that, during his translation process, there were four translation methods that he mainly used, which include omission, addition, alteration and adaption. (Chen Jianyong 2013, 20)

(1) Omission

In his translation process, Lin deleted some words or sentences for some reasons. Omission is a very common practice in his translation. He deleted some contents for the sake of Chinese literary norms and so as to arose the Chinese reader’s interests. In the late 19th century, Western literature was novel to the Chinese people. As Chinese readers prefer the tradition of story-telling in traditional Chinese fiction like ''The Water Margin'', Lin had to delete the psychological description in the western novel as it has nothing to do with the development of the story.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)

(2) Addition

During his translation, Lin Shu made some additions to polish and improve the original text so as to help the readers to have a better understanding of the original. Being a writer and a good story-teller, Lin excelled in making the translation more interesting and appealing through addition. Even Qian Zhongshu, another Chinese translator and writer, mentioned Lin's addition in his translations: “When Lin Shu found a perceived void in the source text, he would add here and polish there so that the wording in the version was more concrete, the scene more vivid, and the description more substantial.” (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)

For example: The married couple were enjoying their honeymoon... (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 20)

彼夫妇在蜜月期内，两情忻合无间（蜜月者，西人娶妇时，即挟其妇游历，经月而归） (Lin Shu 1981, 3)

Here, Lin translated “honeymoon” literally into Chinese, but to help his readers better understand the Western tradition, Lin made a specific explanation of this word. Addition is quite a common phenomenon in Lin's translations. He took the readers into consideration, which makes his translation popular in China. In the meantime, he broadened the horizon of his readers and narrowed the gaps between Chinese and Western cultures.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)

(3) Alteration

Due to the social and cultural differences between the source and target languages, alterations are inevitable. Hence Lin Shu made some compensation or replacement in his translation. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)

For example: The slanting light of the setting sun quivers on the sea-like expanse of the river; the shivery canes, and the tall, dark cypress, hung with wreaths of dark, funeral moss, glow in the golden ray. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 23)

日脚斜穿云罅而出，直射江上芦港。芦叶倒影，万绿荡漾于风漪之内，景物奇丽，江光如拭。 (Lin Shu 1981, 4)

Lin Shu made the alteration considering the Chinese readers' aesthetic tendencies. Although Lin Shu changed the word order of the original, the style and literary effects of the original are reproduced.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)

(4) Adaptation

Considering the Chinese culture and the readers' acceptability, Lin Shu had to retranslate or rewrite the original text, which is similar to domestication. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)

For example: On which Mr. Micawber delivered a eulogium on Mrs. Micawber's character and said she had ever been his guide, philosopher, and friend and that he would recommend me, when I came to marrying time of life, to marry such another woman, if such another woman could be found. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 18)

密考泊遂历称其妻嘉言懿行，为世贤女，能相夫教子，共处患难，且谓余曰：“汝论娶者，所娶亦当如吾妻。惟不审闺秀中更有贤类吾妻否?” (Lin Shu 1981, 3)

In Lin's time, the wife had a very low status. For her, the most important responsibility was to take care of the husband and rear the children. So here in Lin's version, it was rewritten according to Chinese feudal ethics. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)

3. Case Analysis

Example 1: In that pleasant district of merry England which is watered by the river Don, there extended in ancient times a large forest, covering the greater part of the beautiful hills and valleys which lie between Sheffield and the pleasant town of Doncaster. The remains of this extensive wood are still to be seen at the noble seats of Wentworth, of Warncliffe Park, and around Rotherham. Here haunted of yore the fabulous Dragon of Wantley; here were fought many of the most desperate battles during the Civil Wars of the Roses; and here also flourished in ancient times those bands of gallant outlaws, whose deeds have been rendered so popular in English song. (Ivanhoe 2009, 25)

Translation 1: 英国东河流域之内，前此有大树林，踞歇非儿、东加斯德二城之间，楼橹雉堞，均为树荫所被。至今老树凋残，尚有一二根株在焉。相传古来有神龙窟蟠其地。当时玫瑰之战，兄弟争立，即以此地为战场。而绿林豪客，仗侠尚义，亦据为寨。至今诗人歌曲恒举其事，播为美谈。 (Lin Shu 1981, 5)

Translation Analysis: In this translation, Lin translated the original text in classical style, which was more acceptable to his readers at that time. Instead of translating the word literally, he even translated the “Dragon of Wantley” and “gallant outlaws” into “神龙窟蟠” and “绿林豪客” respectively, which are two positive phrases. （Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 49）

Example2: Here the door opened, and a small quadroon boy, between four and five years of age, entered the room. There was something in his appearance remarkably beautiful and engaging. His black hair, fine as floss silk, hung in glossy curls about his round, dimpled face, while a pair of large dark eyes, full of fire and softness, looked out from beneath the rich, long lashes, as he peered curiously into the apartment. A gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid, carefully made and neatly fitted, set off to advantage the dark and rich style of his beauty; and a certain comic air of assurance, blended with bashfulness, showed that he had been not unused to being petted and noticed by his master. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 5)

Translation 2: 门辟，陡入一稚子，约四五岁，貌绝慧黯，雏发未燥，笑处辄动微涡，两目精光耿然。见海留，意殊骇。海留见其服饰之善，心知此奴必为主。 (Lin Shu 1981, 1)

Translation Analysis: There are many descriptive words in this example like “a gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid”, “the dark and rich style of his beauty”, and etc., which makes the sentences more appealing and attractive. However, considering the Chinese literary norm, Lin Shu translated all these phrases into “服饰之善”, which is much more concise compared with the original one. (Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 49）

4. The Criticism of Lin Shu’s theory

During the 1917-1919 New Culture and May Fourth movements, Lin Shu was severely criticized and his popularity suffered badly. Many scholars deemed Lin as an unfaithful translator and there exists non-correspondence between his translations and their sources as they thought he deleted and edited the source texts at will, which violates the principle of “faithfulness”. “In Lin Shu’s opinion, however, retelling the story is more important than acting as a faithful intermediary between the writer and his Chinese readers.” (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 38-39)

In the meantime, his translation changed Chinese people’s disregard of foreign literature. During the late 19th century, the intellectuals in China lacked interest to learn from the West.They even thought that they had nothing to learn from there in the areas of art and literature. And Lin was the first translator who introduced such famous writers as Shakespeare and Charles Dickens to Chinese readers. With the help of Lin’s translation, those intellects and the younger generation began to eliminate their prejudice against the Western literature and realized its value. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 39-41)

===Similarities and Differences Between Yan Fu and Lin Shu===

Being two famous translators in the late Qing Dynasty, Yan Fu and Lin Shu achieved remarkable success in translation theories and practice, both of whom played critical roles in China. And there are several similarities and differences between them. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)

After the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War, Yan Fu started to translate western works so as to introduce western advanced culture to Chinese people. Yan once stated that he wants to serve the nation through translation. Lin Shu, however, started his translation out of interest. But as time went by, he also translated western books to enlighten Chinese people. Therefore, we can say that both of them tried to save the nation through translation. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)

Besides that, Yan Fu had a higher contribution than Lin Shu in terms of translation thoughts. He is known for “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which is one of the most outstanding translation theories in China while Lin Shu didn’t come up with a systematic translation theory during his lifetime. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)

Furthermore, as Yan Fu had an opportunity to study abroad while Lin Shu learnt Chinese traditional Confucianism, Yan had a better understanding of western culture. Meanwhile, most of the western works Yan Fu translated were about social science, he was the first person who introduced western social science in the 19th century to all Chinese people. As for Lin Shu, who was especially famous for novel translation, translated ''La Dame aux Camélias'' and was well-received by Chinese readers. They are quite different in terms of translation works. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1-2)

And as for translation theories, Yan Fu once put forward faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. He attached great importance to faithfulness and believed that being faithful to the original text is of great importance during translation. And this translation theory helped people to know more about western society and culture. Meanwhile, Lin Shu preferred faithfulness, too, but during the translation, he tended to delete those unnecessary words and sentences so as to help readers have a better understanding of the text. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1-2)

To sum up, while Yan Fu and Lin Shu are similar to each other, they are quite different in some aspects. However, both of them made great contributions to Chinese translation and left a profound impact on later translation theories. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 2)

===Conclusion===

During the 19th century, Chinese people’s lives were filled with untold suffering. Being the two great translators, Yan Fu and Lin Shu had made great contributions to not only the nation but also the whole world. The principle of Yan Fu stands as one of the most significant translation theories in China, which guided numerous translators and scholars as well of later generations. Meanwhile, Lin Shu’s translation works broadened people’s horizon at that time, enriching their lives as well as eliminating their prejudice against Western literature. Although there are several shortcomings in their translation thoughts and translation works, they had a far-reaching influence on future generations. Until now, there are still many scholars that analyze and learn from their translation theories.

===References===

* Charles Dickens. (2008). David Copperfield. Oxford University Press.

* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (1992). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [Draft of Chinese translation theory]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.

* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). ''中国译学史'' [A History of Chinese Translation]. Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House 上海人民出版社.

* Chen Jianyong 陈建永. (2013). 从《黑奴吁天录》看林纾的翻译策略 [A Study of Lin Shu’s Translating Strategies: Taking Uncle Tom’s Cabin as an Example]. 山东大学 Shandong University 20-36.

* Ernest Hemingway. (2016). The Old Man and the Sea. Beijing: Affairs Press知识出版社.

* Gao Xiaopeng 高晓鹏. (2017). 严复翻译标准——“信达雅”再思考 [Yan Fu’s Translation Standard: A Rethinking of “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”]. 四川外国语大学 Sichuan International Studies University 1-2.

* Harriet Beecher Stowe. (2008). Uncle Tom's Cabin. Oxford University Press.

* Huang Yuanshen. (2011). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Nanjing: Yilin Press 译林出版社.

* Li Changbao, Shao Bin 黎昌抱, 邵斌. (2013). ''中外翻译理论教程'' [Translation Theory: A Coursebook]. Hangzhou: Zhejiang University Press 浙江大学出版社.

* Lin Shu 林纾. (1981). ''撒克逊劫后英雄略'' [Ivanhoe]. Shanghai: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.

* Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 欧阳利锋, 尚敏锐. (2002). 以西方观点解读二十世纪中国翻译理论 [Twentieth--century Chinese Translation Theory Against the Background of Western Views]. 语言与翻译 Language and Translation (01) 1-3.

* Sun Yanyu 孙演玉. (2019). 经典儿童小说的复译与信、达、雅——以《老人与海》为例 [Retranslation of Classical Children’s Fiction and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance: Taking The Old Man and the Sea as an Example]. 英语广场 English Square (04) 2-3.

* Walter Scott. (2009). Ivanhoe. Signet Classics.

* Wang Rui, Wei Shengxin 王蕊, 韦生鑫. (2020). “信、达、雅”翻译原则在文学翻译中的应用.[Analysis of the Application of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in Literary Translation]. 吉林化工学院学报 ''Journal of Jilin Institute of Chemical Technology'' (10) 1-4.

* Wang Shi 王栻. (1986). ''严复集'' [Yan Fu Ji]. Shanghai: Zhonghua Book Company 中华书局.

* Wang Tao 王涛. (2016). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Qunyan Press 群言出版社.

* Wu Yingli, Li Yan 吴萤丽, 李艳. (2018). 严复与林纾: 中国近代两大翻译家的对比 [Yan Fu and Lin Shu: A Comparison Between Two Chinese Modern Translators]. 开封教育学院学报 ''Journal of Kaifeng Institute of Education'' (09) 1-2.

* Yu Guangzhong 余光中. (2010). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Nanjing: Yilin Press 译林出版社.

* Zhang Ailing 张爱玲. (2015). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Beijing October Arts and Literature Publishing House 北京十月文艺出版社.

* Zhang Chiheng 张炽恒. (2015). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Beijing Institute of Technology Press 北京理工大学出版社.

* Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 张政, 彭发胜. (2007). ''中西翻译理论简明教程'' [A Coursebook of Chinese and Western Translation Theories]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.

* Zhu Yu 朱瑜. (2008). 林纾的翻译和时代 [Lin Shu’s Translation and His Time]. Beijing: 中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Studies (05) 3-7.

--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 07:00, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

='''Comparison of Translation Theories'''=

==Comparison Of Translation Theory Between Yan Fu And Tytler 陈涵 Chen Han 202070080580 MTI 英语笔译==
<center> Chen Han 陈涵 202070080580 </center>

===Abstract===

Yan Fu and Tytler are outstanding translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. Tytler's “Three Principles of Translation” and Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are representatives of the most important translation theories. It is believed that the two theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. Although they lived in different times, their theories were quite similar which aroused much controversy. This paper will expound “Three Principles of Translation” and “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and focus on the similarities and differences between these two theories in terms of content, theoretical basis and culture. It aims to figure out the relationship between the two theories, better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a dialectical perspective, thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.

===Key Words===

Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Three Principles of Translation; Yan Fu; Tytler

===题目===

严复与泰特勒的翻译理论比较

===摘要===

严复与泰特勒分别是中西方翻译史上的杰出翻译家。严复的“信达雅” 与泰特勒的“翻译三原则”分别是中西翻译史上最重要的翻译理论之一，对翻译理论与实践方面有着广泛深刻的影响。严复与泰特勒二人虽处于不同的时代，但他们的翻译理论却十分相似，从而引起许多争议。本文将系统阐述二人的翻译理论，从这两种理论的内涵、文化背景和理论基础等方面比较二者的相似点和不同点。这种做法有助于理清两个理论之间的关系，更好的将翻译理论应用于翻译实践，并主张我们辩证看待中西方翻译理论，从而使翻译研究更具有系统性与科学性。

===关键词===

信达雅；翻译三原则；严复；泰特勒

===1. Introduction===

In the history of translation, many outstanding scholars and translators have emerged both in China and in the West. They have never stopped discussing translation, and most of them have systematically summarized translation standards (Xu Baoqiang & Yuan Wei 2001, 162). In ancient China, many translation thoughts and translation theories emerged, including Shi Daoan’s “Five Instances of Losing the Source and Three Instances of Difficulties” and Xuan Zang’s “Five Guidelines for Not-Translation a Term” (Martha P.Y. Cheung, 2006). Later, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” appeared successively. Prominent representatives of Western translation theory include five elements of translation put forward by a French linguist Etienne Dolet in the 16th century, seven rules of translation put forward by a German translation theorist Martin Luther, three principles of translation by a British translation theorist Tytler in the 18th century, semantic translation and communicative translation of Newmark in the 20th century, and the dynamic equivalence of Nida (Tan Zaixi 2004, 213).

In this process, Chinese and Western translation theories developed independently in a relatively isolated state. It was not until about the beginning of the 20th century that initial exchanges and dialogues have begun. Translation standards are the core issue of translation theory and practice. At the beginning of the exchange, the translators were concerned about it (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 201). At the end of the 18th century, Tytler proposed three basic principles for translation and evaluation of translation, which had a great impact on later translation theorists. More than 100 years later, Yan Fu’s translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” was put forward (Di Dongrui 2012, 132). This chapter will discuss two representative translation theories from China and the West — Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation", and analyze the two theories from the historical and cultural background and their theoretical basis. Through comparison, we can grasp the similarities and differences between the two theories, so as to contribute to translation studies and guide future translation practices.

===2. An Overview of the Two Theories===

Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation" have had a profound impact on the history of translation at home and abroad. If we compare and analyze the two theories, we must first correctly understand the connotation of each theory.

====2.1 Yan Fu’s "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance"====

Yan Fu was a Chinese scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas. His three translation principles—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance first made its appearance in Yan’s preface to his own translation of T. H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'' (Liu Miqing 2012, 1).

“Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (''xin''), expressiveness (''da'') and elegance (''ya''). Faithfulness is difficult to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by Shipping, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so.” (Luo Xinzhang & Chen Yingnian 2009, 202)

In his words, the three principles indicate that the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression in the target language and elegant in style. Faithfulness emphasizes the fidelity to the original. Yan believes that the translator cannot begin his work until he has mastered the connotation of the original text. Expressiveness stresses the fluency and acceptability of the translation. As for elegance, Yan holds that dictation without elegance cannot reach far. So far, elegance has led some discussions in the study of translation. (Fan Yun 2007, 97)

Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and his own translation practices, Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” which has become the fundamental tenets of 20th Chinese translation theory. (Liu Miqing 2012, 1)

====2.2 Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation"====

Alexander Fraser Tytler is an eminent British translation theorist. In 1790, he proposed three principles of good translation in his book, ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. When it comes to a good translation, he described that the merit of the original work is so completely transfused into another language, as to be as distinctly apprehended, and as strongly felt by a native of the country to which that language belongs, as it is by those who speak the language of the original work (Tytler 2007, 8-9).

According to his description of good translation, it can be easily seen that Tytler has attached great importance to mastery of ideas in the original texts. Therefore, he put forward three principles on the basis of good translation: (1) That the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; (2) That the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original; (3) That the Translation should have all the ease of original (Tytler 2007, 9).

The first principle is that the translation should be faithful to the content and ideas of the original. The second principle is that the translation should be faithful to the form and style of the original. The faithfulness to the style is not limited to the equivalence of the original style or subject, but consistent with the original author’s personal writing style and the background of the corresponding period. The third principle is to emphasize that the translation should be as natural and smooth as the original writing do. From Tytler’s point of view, the order of these three principles is appropriate and natural, and it is arranged by importance. If translating a text, one cannot pursue the smoothness and elegance at the cost of ignoring the ideas in the source language. (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)

The appearance of Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation" laid a good foundation for Western translation studies. And it is not only a very important milestone in the history of British translation theory, but also the entire history of Western translation theory. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 132)

===3. The Social and Theoretical Background of the Two Theories===

Due to the rapid development of social production, the increasing prosperity of the economy and the increasing number of educated people, more and more people have demands for reading, writing and translation (Tan Zaixi 2004, 84).

====3.1 The Social Background====

The emergence of new theories is often related to the prevailing translation practice at that time. Tytler lived in the 18th century. The rise of the industrial revolution and the further development of modern technology have highlighted the importance of translation, especially the demand for scientific and technological translation, which has increased dramatically during this period. In addition, Renaissance and classicism occupy the main position in the literary field, which also played a role in promoting the development of translation activities. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)

Yan Fu had a solid foundation in Chinese when he was young and then he learned from Wu Rulun, a master of the Tongcheng School, acquiring a rich knowledge of ancient Chinese. In 1877, Yan Fu studied in the United Kingdom to delve deeply into the Western society, and began to come into contact with some important Western classics (Chen Fukang 2010, 91). As a result, profound research on Chinese and Western culture and language has laid a good foundation for Yan Fu’s translation career.

At the end of the 19th century, China suffered from internal and external troubles. The Sino-Japanese War of 1894 to 1895 was an important turning point to Yan Fu. He realized that the backwardness of China included political, economic, social and ideological factors, so that he believed that learning from the West could help the country get rid of the predicament. The political purpose of Yan Fu’s translation was quite clear. He wanted to arm the minds of scholar-officials. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)

In addition, A large number of people with lofty ideals realized that the only way to save the country was to learn advanced political ideas, economic systems and democratic ideas from the West. Under this circumstance, translation may be the best way to bring those to China, which also promoted the second translation climax in the history of our country. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)

====3.2 The Theoretical Background====

Both “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and "Three Principles of Translation" were proposed on the basis of other translation theories or thoughts (Di Dongrui 2012, 132). In other words, Yan Fu and Tytler learned from their predecessors and put forward their ideas.

Like many translation theories in the 18th century, Tytler’ s "Three Principles of Translation" was influenced by some ideas from outstanding translation theorists. Etienne Dolet, a French linguist and translation theorist, proposed translation principles in ''La manière de bien traduired d’une langue en autre'' in 1540: The translator must fully understand the content of the original text; the translator must be proficient in both the source language and the target language; the translator must avoid translating word by word, because word-by-word translation is detrimental to convey the original meaning and aesthetic value; the translator must use popular language form; the translator must make the translation produce the appropriate effect by choosing proper words and adjusting the order of them. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 70-71)

John Dryden was a prominent translator in the 17th century and he put forward a number of translation principles and views. From his perspective, translation is an art; translators should master the characteristics of the original; target readers should be taken into consideration; translators need to absolutely follow the original meaning; translation can be divided into three types—metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation (Tan Zaixi 2004, 120-122). It is easy to find that Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation can be partially derived from his theories.

“Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is also not new. The basis of it can date back to the Three Kingdom Period. During the Qing Dynasty, there was another translation theorist, Ma Jianzhong, who was ignored by the public. Before Yan Fu’s translation principles made its first appearance, Ma Jianzhong put forward three requirements for good translations in ''On the Establishment of Translation Academy'': The translator is proficient in foreign languages and Chinese, and knows the similarities and differences between the two languages; the translator should fully understand the meaning, spirit and style of the original text and express these accurately in the translation; there should be no difference between the translation and the original text. That is, the translation and the original are the same. (Chen Fukang 2010, 77-78)

It is shown that Ma Jianzhong sets a high demand for translators which can be summarized by “faithfulness” (''xin''). This word includes not only the faithfulness to the original text and the translation, but also the consistency in style and spirit. Therefore, compared with Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Ma Jianzhong’s requirements are more comprehensive. However, his translation theory is not as influential as Yan Fu’ principles. Generally, speaking, there are two reasons. One is that Ma is a grammarian, not a translator. The other is that he did not do any translation practice. (Fan Yun 2007, 98)

From the analysis and comparison of Tyler's and Yan Fu’s social and theoretical background, it can be seen that both of them are affected by political, economic, cultural and other factors. And both of them were influenced by the previous translation theories and put forward their theories similar to the previous ones. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)

===4. Similarities and Differences Between the Two Theories===

====4.1 Similarities====

Although Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation" were not put forward during the same era, the two theories could be found some common ground (Di Dongrui 2012, 132).

By comparing the content of the two theories, three similarities can be found. Firstly, both Yan Fu and Tytler emphasize the importance of faithfulness, namely the fidelity to the original. From their perspectives, it is necessary to convey the meaning or ideas of the original text. They both agree that a translator should put faithfulness first. Secondly, both Yan Fu and Tytler stress the importance of fluency and acceptability of translation. Yan believes that a translation which is faithful but not expressive is no translation at all. And in the third principle of Tytler’s theory, all the ease of the original text is highlighted which refers to the translation should be natural, fluent and readable. In other words, translators need to regard their translating process as a re-creating one. It requires that they not only convey the ideas of the original but also make their words smooth and readable. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)

====4.2 Differences====

Both Chinese and Western translation theories have a long history. At the very beginning, they almost developed independently. It was not until the early 20th century that the two theories began to communicate. As the focus of translation theory research, translation standards have attracted many scholars at the beginning of their exchanges. Some scholars believe that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is extracted from Ttyler’s “Three Principles of Translation”, which is a copy of Ttyler’s translation theory (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 681-687). In fact, there are indeed similarities between the two theories literally. But a deeper look will present the difference between the two.

=====4.2.1 Differences in Content=====

In the previous chapter, we have discussed the similarities literally in terms of the content. However, the two theories are not quite similar. First of all, the most prominent characteristic of Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is the semantic vagueness (Liu Junbiao 2009, 221). He did not clearly define the three. If “faithfulness” includes the style of the work, the word ''xin'' can cover all the content of Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation". In Yan Fu’s opinion, “faithfulness” is the core, and achieving the principles of “expressiveness” and “elegance” is on the basis of the core. As for Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation", although they are arranged by importance, the principles are not presented to tell which one is the most important (Di Dongrui 2012, 132).

Yan Fu’s “faithfulness” and Tytler’s first principle focus on different scopes. According to Yan Fu’s point of view, the translator should accurately reproduce the ideas of the original work, and he also emphasizes the important role of understanding. But Tytler’s “that the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work” (Tytler 2007, 9) discusses the fidelity from three aspects: meaning, form and language. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133)

In addition, the main difference between their translation principles is the translation technique and style (Fan Yun 2007, 97). Tytler’s second principle and Yan Fu’s “elegance” both discuss this issue. In Yan Fu’s opinion, “elegance” refers to use elegant words, especially the words before the Han Dynasty. This is a special method used by Yan Fu in a specific historical period to attract specific target readers and achieve specific translation purposes. The “elegance” explained by later generations is equivalent to “consistency in technique and style”, which has actually deviated from Yan Fu’s original intention. But Tytler’s “style and manner of writing” refers to a broad sense. He believes that an outstanding translator should be able to quickly identify the characteristics of the original author’s writing style and apply this style to his translation. In other words, the translation should correspond to what kind of writing style the original work is. (Tytler 2007, 9)

=====4.2.2 Differences in Cultural Origin=====

Yan Fu and Tytler are in different cultural backgrounds, and the formation of their theories have their own cultural characteristics.

It is believed that Yan Fu’s theory of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is deeply rooted in traditional Chinese cultural origin. As we all know, Chinese translation has a long history, and the discussion of translation standards has been recorded in Zhi Qian’s ''Preface to the Translation of he Dharmapada''(''Faju jing xu''). He emphasized that although Jiangyan (将炎) was good at the language of India, he was not necessarily versed in Chinese. Thus, in his translations there were either Sanskrit expressions literally rendered or simply literal transliterations. (Martha P.Y. Cheung 2006, 57)

Zhi Qian used to dislike Jiangyan’s work for lack of elegance. Weidinan (维祗难) argued that the translation of Buddha’s words should be adherent to the meaning, disregarding rhetoric, and we should retain its Dharma, free of rigidity. Those who translate should stress on transparency without losing the original meaning, hence good translations. Laozi said that beautiful words are not faithful and faithful words are not beautiful. And Confucius believed that words fail a book and senses fail a form. What a saint said is the profound of the profoundest. Therefore, Zhi Qian argued that when translating sutras, we should follow the original import without using ornate words. (Martha P.Y. Cheung 2006, 59-60)

It can be seen from the above that traditional Chinese translation theories often appear in the form of prefaces, which are relatively fragmented and conforms to the characteristics of Chinese people’s emphasis on perceptual thinking rather than rational analysis, and personal perception rather than logical reasoning (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 202). In addition, it can prove that Yan Fu’s translation principles are not new but put forward on the basis of some thoughts from the ancients. We can see that theories similar to “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” have appeared in the past.

Chinese translation theory is closely related to the words of sages and classic literary theory so that translation theorists often use the words of the ancients to make arguments or the aesthetic standards in literary theory to evaluate good translations. On the one hand, it embodies the inheritance of classical translation theory which advocated the ancients, and on the other hand it reflects the profound literary tradition of classical translation theory. It can be seen that the principles were put forward by Yan Fu in the preface to his own translation of T. H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'', which is consistent with the traditional Chinese tendency to place important points in the preface. In the era when Yan Fu lived, people greatly respected the words of the ancients. The language of Yan Fu’s translation theory is as concise as the traditional literary theory, and the connotation is profound. It often brings endless speculation for future generations with uncertain meaning. (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 202)

Different from the Chinese cultural accumulation carried by Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, western translation theories pay much attention to the inherent continuity (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 202). In western culture, people emphasize rigorousness in language so that they treat translation as rigorously as science. Scholars have studied on translation standards for a long time and their generalization of standards is much more systematic (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203).

Eticnne Dolet was the relatively early one who summarized the translation standards systematically. He put forward four principles of a successful translation. Then came Martin Luther’s “Seven Principles for Translation”. An in the 18th century, Charles Batteux, a French translation theorist, put forward twelve rules in ''Principes de littérature'' for dealing with issues such as word order in translation. Compared with the 17th century, although some achievements have been made in the study of translation theory in the 18th century, substantial progress has not been made and some research just focused on the theory of Dryden in the 17th century. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 127)

However, at the end of the 18th century, there was a breakthrough in the history of translation theory. Theoretical research was no longer limited to scattered viewpoints and methods, and monographs on translation issues have begun to appear comprehensively, scientifically and systematically. The first to bring this breakthrough was the translation theorist George Campbell (Tan Zaixi 2004, 127). Before Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation" appeared, he had put forward the three principles of translation for the first time: translation should accurately reproduce the meaning of the original work; on the premise of conforming to the characteristics of the target language, translation should try to transplant the spirit and style of the original author as much as possible; the translator should make the translation as natural and smooth as the original. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 128)

From the discussion of translation standards by many translation theorists above, we can see that Western translation theories are rigorous in thinking and clear in expression as a whole. They represent a unique academic spirit and character, which deeply reflects the inherent continuity of their thinking and methodology of Western translation theories (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203). According to the previous discussion, it can be found that there is an obvious relationship between Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation and Dryden’s translation theories. The two theories from Yan Fu and Tytler are from different cultures, featuring Chinese and Western signs respectively.

=====4.2.3 Differences in Thinking Patterns=====

Translation itself is a complex practical activity, and it has a close relation with the way of thinking. The huge differences between Chinese and Western historical and cultural traditions and thinking habits are reflected in language that has such characteristics: Chinese people pay attention to understanding in the way of expression, focusing on grasping things through intuitive understanding of the whole. Chinese are not as good at logical reasoning and experimental argumentation as Westerners. (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 202)

The consciousness of subject and object has always been prominent in western thought (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203). Tytler’s framework of his principles tends to be rational and aims to seek the truth, while Yan Fu’s framework tends to be perceptual and aims to be practical. In the historical context of the Enlightenment, Tytler inherited rationalism of the European continent, thus his three principles of translation all reflected the speculative, logical and systematic nature of philosophy. When he discussed the three principles of translation, they were clear, progressive, and well-organized, but they were too fragmented, ignoring the internal connection. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133)

When it comes to Yan Fu’s proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, although it refers to three simple words in Chinese, it condenses the traditional Chinese doctrine of the golden mean and profoundly embodies the influence of traditional culture on the research of translation theory (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203). Compared with Western translation theories, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” includes more humanistic spirit and pays more attention to humanistic care. Although Yan Fu’s translation theory lacks logic, organization and system, its refined and implicit artistic conception bring endless imagination for future generations. If people want to understand “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” comprehensively, it is necessary to have an understanding of the thoughts from our ancestors. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 221)

=====4.2.4 Differences in Motivations=====

When it comes to their motivation, the times where Yan Fu and Tytler lived have a huge impact on their translation studies. Tytler was in a relatively comfortable environment, and the society at that time was relatively relaxed and free, making it possible for him to learn for the sake of academics. Tytler put forward the three principles of translation only for theoretical research, not for practical purposes. (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 203)

However, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” came from the enthusiasm of waking up the world and saving the country. The old China where Yan Fu lived suffered from internal and external troubles. The social and historical environment enabled him to spread Western learning through translation. The works translated by Yan Fu were all Western classics. They either promoted natural selection, survival of the fittest, or explained human rights, democracy and freedom. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)

Undoubtedly, reading Yan Fu’s translations became a major way for Chinese intellectuals and even the whole society to learn the development of the world. The target readers of these translations were the increasingly decadent feudal ruling class and intellectuals. Feudal thoughts were deeply ingrained in their minds, and they could not immediately accept the advanced thoughts of the West. As a translator, Yan Fu put forward the standards of Faithfulness Expressiveness and Elegance on the basis of summarizing traditional Chinese translation theories. He used the language of Han and Tang dynasties to promote the Western democracy, so as to make the feudal scholar-officials easy to accept. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) It can be seen that “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” reflects Yan Fu’s desire to save the country and his awareness of difficulties and risks.

In addition, a misunderstanding should be mentioned. After Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” made its first appearance, many scholars gave it various titles such as translation principles, translation standards and translation norms. As a matter of fact, Yan Fu did not describe it as standards or norms. He only realized that there were three requirements difficult to fulfill from his own translation practice. In his opinion, the difficulties of translating were also the ''dao'' (道) of problem-solving (Liu Miqing 2012, 1). Therefore，Yan’s ''dao'' of translation was expressed by “translation principles” in the West. To a certain extent, people tended to regard Yan Fu’s propositions as translation standards, thus deviating from Yan Fu’s motivation.

In short, by comparing the content, cultural origins, thinking and motivation of the two theories, we can see that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation" are quite different. In other words, although the two theories are very similar in terms of forms, they are quite different in essence.

===5. Significance of the Comparison===

Generally speaking, different translation principles are essentially the same for they are all determined by the nature of translation (Fan Yun 2007, 98). In a broad sense, translation is a bridge for international communication. It involves the source language and the target language or the original text and the translated text. No one can deny the extraordinary contribution of translation in exchanging ideas, spreading knowledge, and enhancing intercultural communication. As an ancient activity, translation has a history of more than 3,000 years in China and has been popular in the West for more than 2,000 years (Tan Zaixi 2004, 2). Although the translation principles put forward by translators and translation theorists seem to be different, they are essentially the same and cannot be mentioned without translation itself. (Fan Yun 2007, 98)

Through comparison, we can realize the characteristics and development of their translation principles respectively. The Chinese and Western translation principles are the same on the macro level, but different on the micro level. The differences are mainly determined by the characteristics of the Chinese and Western languages and do not reflect the subjective wishes of people. Both the traditional Chinese and Western translation theories focus on faithfulness or truth. They are based on the original texts, and at the same time do not neglect the reception of the readers and the artistic and aesthetic value of the translated texts. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133)

Through the analysis between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s theories and their development, we can know that Chinese and Western translation principles present a diversified pattern of development, but the West seems to be more open in terms of research ideas and academic view. Western theorists place translation in the multi-dimensional space between the original text and the target text, and they are good at analyzing from different perspectives. What’s more, Western theorists have comparatively strong awareness in theory. Any research is carried out under the guidance of a certain theory, making full use of the achievements of related subjects to make translation principles and research methods become truly diversified. (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 203) Therefore, the achievements of translation research in the West are more fruitful.

However, we must learn from each other. In fact, there is no gap between Chinese and Western translation theories. Although the study of translation theory in the West is earlier than that in China (Tan Zaixi 2004, 1), we should not belittle ourselves. The development environment of Chinese and Western theories is different so that the theories put forward are definitely different. Through comparison, we can grasp advanced Western theories, and with Western theories as a reference, we can avoid detours and make progress in Chinese translation theories.

===Conclusion===

This chapter compares the similarities and differences between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s theories by reviewing the theories of them and pointing out social and theoretical backgrounds of their theories. The translation theory is often closely related to cultural background, theoretical background and way of thinking. From the above analysis, it can be seen that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation are different in specific content, cultural origin, theoretical basis, way of thinking and motivation. If these differences are not analyzed and pointed out, it is easy to think that the two theories are roughly the same.

The comparison between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s translation principles gives us the following enlightenment: When studying Chinese and Western translation theories, we must correctly understand the advantages and limitations of traditional Chinese translation theories, and we cannot ignore the achievements of other countries. We should actively absorb the achievements of western translation theories on the basis of developing the traditional Chinese translation theories to make contributions to the translation studies.

===References===

* Alexander Fraser Tytler. (2007). ''Essays on Principles of Translation''. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.
* Martha P.Y. Cheung. (2006). ''An Anthology of Chinese Discourse on Translation''. London/New York: Routledge.
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). ''中国译学史'' [History of Chinese Translation] Shanghai: Shanghai People's Publishing House 上海人民出版社.
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* Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 任庆亮, 邓晶晶. (2016). 严复“信达雅”与泰特勒翻译三原则的比较 [A comparison of Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and Tytler's Three Principles of Translation] ''太原城市职业技术学院学报'' Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College (05) 201-203.
* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short History of Translation in the West] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.
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* Zhao Meiguo 赵美国. (2011). 从思维方式看严复与泰特勒翻译原则比较 [A comparison of Yan Fu and Tytler's translation principles from a mindset perspective] ''海外英语'' Overseas English (02) 203-204.

--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 11:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

== Comparison between Nida and Newmark 李丽丽 Li Lili NO.202070080594 MTI 英语笔译==

===Abstract===

Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark are famous representatives of the Western linguists. Their translation theories are based on linguistics. Nida puts forward the famous "dynamic equivalence" theory and "functional equivalence" theory, which has made outstanding contributions to the translation of the Bible. Newmark devotes himself to teaching and puts forward some famous theories such as semantic translation, communicative translation and relevance translation. Their translation theories have many similarities and differences. This paper will make a systematic comparison from the same and different points and represent my own views on their advantages and disadvantages.

===Key words===

Nida; Newmark; similarities; differences

===摘要===

尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是著名的语言学家。他们的翻译理论建立在语言学的基础上，奈达提出了著名了“动态对等”理论和“功能对等”理论，为翻译《圣经》做出了杰出贡献。纽马克一声致力于教学工作，由此提出了著名的“语义翻译”，“交际翻译”，“关联翻译”等理论。他们的翻译理论有诸多相同之处和不同之处。本论文将从相同以及不同之处来进行系统综合的比较，并就其优缺点提出自己的看法。

===关键词===

奈达；纽马克；相同；不同

===Introduction===

====Eugene Nida====

Eugene Nida is a famous American linguist, a biblical research and a translation expert, as well as one of the outstanding representatives of the western contemporary translation theory research center. Nida's academic activities and achievements are multifaceted, but Nida's main theoretical contribution is that he helps to create a new attitude towards different languages and cultures, so as to improve the language communication and understanding among human beings. （Liao Qiyi 2000，85）

He thinks that what can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another. Different languages and cultures can communicate with each other by searching for translation equivalents and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of information in an appropriate way. With the help of linguistic achievements, Nida has made a descriptive rather than a normative study of various subjects in translation studies, and made a serious discussion on the problems that may be encountered in the theoretical research and practice of translation. His thoughts can be roughly divided into three stages: first， descriptive linguistics; second, communicative theory; third, social semiotics.（Liao Qiyi 2000，85）

=====The Stage of Descriptive Linguistics=====

At this stage, Nida publishes a series of works and articles on the study of English syntax and gramma. Besides, he tries to clarify the structural nature of language through the description of syntax, morphology and language translation. He is greatly influenced by the American structuralist school. In language research, he attaches much importance to the collection and analysis of language materials and collects many examples of differences between different languages. However, he does not regard these differences as insurmountable barriers between languages, but as different phenomena of their same nature. （Liao Qiyi 2000，86）

=====The Stage of Communication Theory =====

Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill, but also a science. Its so-called science refers to the scientific way to deal with language structure, semantic analysis and information when there are problems in translation. Nida applies information theory to translation studies and believes that translation is communication and judgment. Whether a translation activity is successful or not depends on whether it is understood by the receiver or whether it can play the role of communicating thoughts, information and feelings. Nida points out all languages in the world have the same ability of expression and that the first task of translation is to make the readers understand the translation clearly. （Liao Qiyi 2000，87）

That is to say, the translation should be fluent and natural, so that readers can easily understand it even if they do not have the cultural background knowledge of the original language. This requires that in the process of translation, we should use as few rigid words in the source language as possible and use as many expressions as possible coming from the target language. For example, in the language without snow, “白如雪” may be confusing, so we had better change it into something as white as frost or as white as egret hair. （Liao Qiyi 2000，87）

According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language message” (Tan Zaixi 1984,10). Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translators cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, they should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. （Liao Qiyi 2000，88）

And in response to questions like how and what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers have the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. （Liao Qiyi 2000，88）

For example, “black tea” can be literally translated into “黑茶”，but it should be translated into“红茶”to achieve equivalence. Another example: “The old man was the worst form of unluck.” because “worst form” is used to modify “unluck”, it can be translated into “这个老人倒霉到了极点。” instead of “这个老人是倒霉的最高形式。” Such examples achieve lexical equivalence.

=====The Stage of Social Semiotics=====

At this stage, he describes his theory as follows: first, based on the translation theory of social semiotics, he emphasizes that everything in the text has meaning, including language form, which means form cannot be easily overlooked; second, rhetorical features of language play an important role in language communication and should not be underestimated; third, it is to replace the dynamic equivalence theory with the functional equivalence theory in order to make the meaning of the terms clearer and easier to be understood.（Liu Junping 2009,143）

====Newmark====

Peter Newmark is a famous translation theorist and educator in Britain. He has devoted his whole life to the teaching of translation between English and German or English and French. He has made a lot of research on translation theory, applied the research results of cross-cultural communication theory and modern linguistics to translation practice, and made a brilliant exposition on translation theory, teaching translation, linguistics and translation skills. As a result, he puts forward the famous communicative translation and semantic translation method, and then puts forward the correlative translation method, which indicates that his translation theory is becoming more and more systematic and perfect. （Liao Qiyi 2000，123）

Most of his views are reflected in the papers published in the past 20 years. Communicative translation and semantic translation theories, which have a great influence in the field of translation, were introduced into China as early as the 1980s and have aroused great repercussions in the fields of Chinese translation. He focuses on the past and present of western translation studies, states the views of various schools, and then puts forward his own opinions. He is a typical practical theorist. The purpose of his research on translation theory is to solve the practical problems in translation, and he always discusses translation from the details. （Liao Qiyi 2000，123-124）

The classic Romance of the Three Kingdoms writes: “谋事在人，成事在天”. There are two versions for this sentence, which are "man proposals, heaven disposes." and "man proposals, God disposes." Although the translated versions are short, they fully reflect the different translation strategies of translators. In Chinese traditional culture, "heaven" dominates the nature, while in the western world, what controls nature is not heaven, but God. Therefore, different cultural concepts are deeply rooted in the hearts of people in the East and the West. (Hu Aiping 2014,81)

In the first version, the translator translates "天" into "heaven", which faithfully retains the Taoist concept of the original language culture and conveys the meaning of the original text; while the later translation transforms the Taoist concept into Christian culture familiar to westerners on the basis of "communicative translation" strategy, so that the translated version is more acceptable to western readers. (Hu Aiping 2014,81)

For another example ”grandmother”, when it is translated into Chinese, we can put it into”奶奶” or “外婆” according to real situation. That is because people in western culture do not pay much attention to relationship between family members. And they view father’s mother and mother’s mother as the same. By contrast, Chinese have long held the view that families are quite important, especially those sharing the same surname. We often suppose we come from the same family with “奶奶” rather than “外婆”. As a result, we tend to believe that we have a more intimate relationship with father’s mother than mother’s mother. So we need to distinguish “奶奶” from “外婆”.

===Similarities and Differences===

====The Similarities Between the Theories by Nida and the Theories by Newmark====

=====Both Are Translatable=====

Nida believes that "translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style. " (Nida 1969,1）Newmark thinks that: "translation is to take the meaning of a text into another language according to its original author." (Newmark 1988,21) Nida's and Newmark's translation theories have similar theoretical basis, and they both think that there are similarities between different languages. Nida's translation theory is "Anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another Language. " (Nida 1969,4）He believes that although different nationalities have different languages and cultures, yet the commonness is more than the individuality. Because language of any nation can be used to describe the objective world. No matter what the language form is, the object can be basically reflected. (Lin Minyu 2008,61)

In his "About Translation" , Newmark also points out clearly that “the every layer of meaning can be interpreted in the original text, so everything is translatable. “(Newmark 1991,28）Therefore, both Nida and Newmark recognize translatability in different languages. At the same time, they both realize that translatability is limited because it is impossible to achieve absolute equivalence. In the process of translation, a certain degree of meaning will be missing, so one of the most important tasks of the translators is to minimize the loss after language conversion. (Lin Minyu 2008,61)

=====Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status=====

Newmark's text category theory divides the text into three categories. Among them, the appealing text thinks readers are the most important, putting readers in the first place, and taking full account of readers' needs, knowledge level and background. Newmark also divides readers into experts, ordinary educators and illiterates. Nida, on the other hand, believes that the success of a translation activity depends on whether it can be accepted by the target readers. The target readers are object of translation services. Nida also divides readers into children readers, primary readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)

For example, for the phrase“鱼米之乡，丝绸之府”, when translated into “the land of rice and fish, and the home of silk”, it may cause confusion among western readers who have no idea what is the meaning of “the land of rice and milk”. Therefore, in order to arouse the similar reaction between the target readers and the original readers, it is better for the translators to change it as follows: "a land of honey and milk", which is in line with British and American culture. In this way, western readers and Chinese readers will be able to respond to the phrase in the same way, so as to achieve the purpose of conversion. (Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 2010(1),41-)

Another example: “济公劫富济贫，深受穷苦人民爱戴。” It is translated into" Ji Gong, Robin Hood in China, robbed the rich and helped the poor and was deeply loved by the poor people". In this case, the translator compares Ji Gong to the hero Robin Hood in western countries. When western readers see Robin Hood, they would have roughly the same reaction as Chinese readers. (Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 2010(1),41-42)

=====Both Constantly Develop Their Theories=====

Nida and Newmark are real theorists. In their own translation practice, they constantly improve and perfect their own theories. In his initial interpretation of dynamic equivalence, Nida highlights the idea of "content first, form second". This has caused people's misunderstanding so that they think translation is only the content of translation, without considering the form of language expression. Therefore, all kinds of free translation are characterized by dynamic equivalence. Later, in his book From One Language to Another, he changes "dynamic equivalence" into "functional equivalence". In functional equivalence, Nida further defines "information", stating that information includes not only ideological content but also linguistic form. The translation of functional equivalence is not only the equivalence of information content, but also the equivalence of form as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),108)

What’s more, Nida makes a further elaboration on "functional equivalence" and hence "the highest level of equivalence" and "the lowest level of equivalence" are proposed. In short, the highest level of equivalence refers to a high degree of equivalence in the translation, which makes the response of the target language readers and that of the source language readers basically the same when they appreciate and understand a text. But this is almost impossible. Equivalence at the lowest level refers to the full equivalence of the translated text, so that the target language readers can appreciate the source language readers' understanding for the original text. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),108)

Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are prone to bringing misunderstanding and criticism. Therefore, Newmark later puts forward "correlative translation". In the past, he believed that language, linguistics and text typology were the main themes of text study. It does not need to always consider the text, discourse, author, reader, source language and target language. （Fang Mengzhi 2011, 534）

But by summarizing the translation activities, he finds that translation is mainly reflected in the details of the text processing, that is, when the text is adjusted and changed, there will be under translation. If the metaphor is converted or not translated, there will be over translation. So the method of translation should not only depend on the whole text. The definition of "correlative translation" is that the more important the language of the original text or the target text is, the more closely it should be translated.（Fang Mengzhi 2011, 534）

====The Differences Between the Theories by Nida and the Theories by Newmark====

=====Different Definition of Translation=====

Translation, as an independent discipline, should first answer the question of what is translation? Nida points out: "the so-called translation refers to the reproduction of the source language information in the receiving language with the most appropriate and natural equivalence from semantics to style" (Nida, 1969:1). Newmark's interpretation of translation is: "translation is to translate the meaning of a text into another language in the way the original author intends. " (Newmark, 1988:21) After comparing the two definitions, it can be seen that Nida emphasizes "equivalence", "information", "meaning" and "style", while Newmark focuses on "meaning" and "text". （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）

Nida's definition seems to be more comprehensive and specific than Newmark's, but throughout their theoretical systems, we realize that the actual starting point of the two definitions is different. On the basis of semantics and information theory, the former emphasizes the communicative function of translation. Although "information" includes "meaning" and "style", it only exists at the level of communication. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）

On the contrary, the latter emphasizes "textual meaning", which is complex, multi-level and rich. Therefore, it can be said that "text-oriented theory" is the pillar of Newmark's translation theory framework, while Nida's theory is "functional equivalence" at its root. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）

=====Different Nature of Translation=====

The nature of translation has been long discussed. Both Nida and Newmark have changed in their understanding of whether translation is a science or an art. Nida's understanding of translation has gone through a process from regarding translation as a science to viewing it as an art. In the second stage of Nida's translation theory- communicative theory stage, translation is a science, which is a scientific description of translation. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88)

At the same time, he also admits that the description of translation can be carried out at three functional levels: science, skill and art. In the third stage of Nida's translation, that is, the stage of social semiotics, he tends to see translation as an art. He believes that translation is an art at its root, and excellent translators are born with it. Meanwhile, he changes the original "translation is science" into "translation research is science". In the 1990s, he proposed that translation is basically a skill. He believes that translation is not only an art, but also a science and a skill. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88)

Newmark's understanding of translation has also undergone some kinds of changes. At first, he believes that translation is not only a science but also an art and a skill. Later, he thinks that translation is partly a science, a skill, an art. He divides language into standard language and non-standard language. He says that translation is a science, because there is usually only one correct translation method for standard language, and there are rules to follow, which shows that translation is scientific. This is really true in technical terms.（Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88)

By contrast, there are many correct translation methods in non-standard language. How to choose the appropriate translation method depends on the translator's own vision and ability, which reflects the nature of translation as an art. But the translation must also be scientifically tested to avoid obvious mistakes in content and wording, and the style should be natural. As a result, although Newmark believes that translation is a science, he thinks with a lack of unified and all-round systems in current translation theories, there are no scientific translation. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）

=====Different Translation Theories=====

The core of Nida's translation theory is equivalence theory, including formal equivalence and functional equivalence. Formal equivalence, with the source language as its center, requires to reproduce the form and content of the original text. The equivalence theory pays more attention to readers' reflection and requires the closest and most natural response in order to make the target readers and the original readers get the same information as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)

The center of Newmark's translation theory is semantic translation and communicative translation. In his opinion, translators should adopt different translation strategies according to different types of texts. Semantic translation is mainly used to translate expressive texts (such as literary works, essays, autobiographies and personal letters). Communicative translation is mainly put into translating informative texts (such as academic papers and teaching subjects, books, newspapers, etc.) and appealing texts (such as advertisements and notices). (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)

Semantic translation, from the perspective of the original texts, demands the author pays attention to the meaning and form, and keeps the style and features of the original text as far as possible. Communicative translation takes the target readers as the starting point and focuses on the effect of the translation on the readers. As a result, appropriate rewriting or adaptation is allowed in the translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)

=====Application for Different Kinds of Text=====

Nida puts forward "formal equivalence" and "dynamic equivalence" in guiding the practice of Bible translation, but he really advocates the latter one and believes that dynamic equivalence is applicable to all text types. Nida's translation theory focuses too much on the intelligibility and communicability of the translation, which limits its application. It is reasonable to emphasize the intelligibility of the translated version in the translation of the Bible and similar original works aimed at expressing information. However, if it is used in literary translation, it will inevitably lead to the simplification of language and the loss of literary charm. So it has only been applied to some specific texts. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)

Newmark points out that the translation method should depend on different text types. He divides the text into expression function, information function and calling function. On the one hand, in the texts with expressive function, such as literary works and private letters, the priority is to express the meaning, and the form and content of language are equally important, so semantic translation should be mainly adopted. On the other hand, texts with information function, such as textbooks and academic papers, whose core is the real world outside the language, should adopt communicative approach; For texts with calling function, such as notices and advertisements, its core is to call on readers to act and think, so communicative approach should be put into use. Therefore, we can see that Newmark's translation theory is more applicable than Nida’s. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)

=====Different Attitudes towards Translators=====

When seeing translation as an art, Newmark puts forward the following three requirements that an brilliant translator should be equipped with: first, one should be able to master rich vocabulary and various sentence patterns, and be excellent in writing elegant, lively and concise articles in the aspect of native language; second, be proficient in foreign languages, and have abilities to distinguish common sayings from original ideas and innovations; third, be able to express the meaning obtained from the original works with accurate wording. Thus, Newmark believes that good translators can be developed through hard work. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 89）

However, Nida doesn’t agree with him. He thinks that most translators with outstanding achievements and creative spirit seldom use translation theory. In fact, he thinks that only those who can't do translation well do translation theory. Outstanding translators are born, not made. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 89）

=====Different Level of Emphasis on Readers' Response=====

Although Newmark thinks that readers' acceptance should be taken into account in the process of translating informative texts and appealing texts, but the reader is only a part of the translation criteria. During translating expressive texts, it is necessary to ensure the "sacred status of the original author", and different readers may have different understandings and reactions to a text because of their different educational level, mode of thinking and cultural background. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)

On the contrary, Nida believes that the reader's response is the only criterion to judge whether the translated version is good or not. This is because, from the perspective of information theory, he believes that "translation is communication". If the original information cannot be fully transmitted to the target text in the process of translation, the translation activity will not be successful. It can be seen that Nida pays more attention to reader response than Newmark. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)

===My Views on Their Theories===

Before the new translation principles were put forward, translation was mainly divided into literal translation and free translation. Functional equivalence theory by Nida and semantic translation and communicative translation strategies by Newmark have exerted great influence on the western translation circles. Their theories end the endless debate between literal translation and free translation in the west, and provide a new perspective for the guiding translation practice. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131 )

The principle of "dynamic equivalence" plays an important role in guiding the translation of the Bible. It can also be applied to the translation of some texts that mainly convey information. However, it overemphasizes the communicative nature of the translation, so it has certainly limitations. If applied to literary translation, it may lead to the loss of literariness. One of the defects of Nida's functional equivalence is that the translator not only changes the original information according to his own understanding, but also covers up the cultural differences between different languages. He equates translation with simple language conversion and blurs the cultural characteristics of language. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131)

For example, due to the different geographical locations between China and Britain, their monsoon and wind direction are not the same, and hence there are also differences between their translations. Chinese poems mainly praise east wind while English poems focus on west wind. For example, for “东风破早梅，向暖一枝开” and “小楼昨夜又东风，故国不堪回首月明中”, “东风” should be converted into “west wind” in order to achieve equivalence. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131)

Besides, the absence of culture-loaded words is another defect of functional equivalence. As we all know, the concepts expressed by culture-loaded words in the source language may not correspond to those in the target language because many English words are derived from religious allusions. In the sentence "John can be relieved on. He eats no fish and plays the game", “eat no fish “comes from the following allusion: in the era of Queen Elizabeth in England, in order to show their loyalty to the government, the Jesuits refused to abide by the anti-government Rome Catholics’ habit of eating fish on every Friday, so “eat no fish” means loyalty. " (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 132)

There are a lot of allusions from the Bible in English. But if you don't understand its symbolic meaning, you may be confused. For example: “thirty pieces of silver” means getting money from betraying others and “apple” means temptation. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 132)

Newmark's greatest theoretical contribution is communicative translation and semantic translation, and he believes that all translation is both semantic translation and communicative translation to a certain extent, which makes up for the defects of Eugene Nida's theory. Newmark advocates that communicative translation and semantic translation should not be viewed in the same way, but should be combined together. Actually, during translating an article, the two are often used together. At the same time, determining the type of text before translation is helpful to select appropriate translation methods. (Newmark 2001, 40)

However, there are following limitations for his communicative translation: first, the translator has an imaginary reader in his mind. If he wants to conform to the readers’ expression habits, his expression will get out of the original form or meaning; second, it is difficult to determine to what extent basic information is simplified and emphasized, because the knowledge and emotion of readers are difficult to define; third, it is not objective to examine a text only through the readers’ reaction. (Newmark 2001, 40)

===Conclusion===

There is no universally applicable theory in the world. Nida and Newmark have been developing their own theories. We should treat them dialectically. It is undeniable that Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are very rich in content and have practical value for the majority of later translators. But we should also see the shortcomings of these theories. We should extract their essence and then we will further study and learn more valuable things in practice of translation and further improve our translation theory. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)

===References===

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*Liu Junping 刘军平.（2009). ''西方翻译理论通史''[Translation and translation] 武汉：武汉大学出版社Wuhan: [Wuhan University Press]
**Fang Mengzhi 方梦之.（2011). ''中国译学大辞典'' [Dictionary of Chinese Translation] 上海：上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai: [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 534
*Lin Min-yu 林敏煜.（2008). 浅议纽马克与奈达翻译理论之异同 [The similarities and differences between Newmark and Nadar translation theories] ''文教资料''[Journal of Translation and Education] 61-62
*Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 崔建周，卢静.（2006). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较 [ A Comparison of the Translation Thought of Eugene Nadar and Peter Newmark ] ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Higher Commercial College] 106-108
**Xu Xianghui 徐向晖.（2010). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想之对比探讨[A Comparative Discussion of the Translation Thought of Eugene Nadar and Peter Newmark] ''漯河职业技术学院学报''[Journal of Luohe Institute of Vocational Technology] 88-89
*Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 杨山青，饶家林.（2010). 奈达与纽马克的翻译理论在旅游资料翻译中的运用[The Application of Neda and Newmark's Translation Theory in the Translation of Tourism Materials] ''黔西南民族师范高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Qianxi Southwest China's National Teachers College] 41-42
*Hu Aiping 胡爱萍.（2014). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译理论对比研究[A comparative study of Eugene Neda and Peter Newmark's translation theory ] ''铜陵学院学报'' [Journal of Tongling College] 81
*Wang Xiaodan 王小丹.（2009). 奈达的功能对等论及其评价[Naida's functional equivalence theory and its evaluation] ''陕西师范大学学报''[Journal of Shaanxi Normal University ] 131-132
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*Eugene A. Nida. (1986). ''From One Language to Another'' Thomas Nelson Incorporated
*Eugene A. Nida. (1964). ''Towards a Science of Translating'' Leiden: E. J. Brill
*Eugene A. Nida, (1969). Charles Taber. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill
*Peter Newmark. (1991). ''About Translation'' Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd,
*Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Text Book of Translation'' London: Prentice Hall International (UK)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:44, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==A Study On The Division Of Western Translation Theories - 刘柳 Liu Liu, 202070080596 MTI==

<center>刘柳 Liu Liu </center>

===Abstract===

Western transaltion theories have been paid more and more attention in modern times and will be of graet help and value to our translation practice and further development of transaltion.Western translation theories have a strict methodology, precise theoretical description, delicate and qualitative and quantitative analysis. Western translation studies have flourished with a variety of translation schools and outstanding translators after the World War Ⅱ, as well as a great many of translation thoughts, translation methods, and views of research.Based on this background, this paper discusses and analyzes a great number of schools of western translation theories, its representative translators and their representative works, and expresses opinions on the significance and value of western translation theories from a historical perspective.

===Keywords===

Western translation theories; translation schools; translation theorists

===题目===

西方翻译理论划分之研究

===摘要===

西方翻译理论在现代受到越来越多的关注，其对我们的翻译实践和翻译的进一步发展有很大的帮助和价值。西方翻译理论具有严谨的方法论、精确的理论描述、细腻的定性和定量分析。西方翻译研究在二战后蓬勃发展，出现了各种翻译流派和优秀的翻译家，也出现了大量的翻译思想、翻译方法和研究观点。本文基于此背景，讨论并分析了西方翻译理论诸多流派及其代表人物和代表译作，并从历史的角度对西方翻译理论的意义和价值陈述相关意见。

===关键词===

西方翻译理论; 翻译流派; 翻译理论家

===Ⅰ.Introduction===

Throughout the development of Western translation studies in the past 30 years, there are many transaltion schools and excellent translators. Western translation theorists had different points of view towards the division of western translation theories. Peter Newmark divided the development of translation theories by major translation activities. According to the development of translation thoughts, Nida divided western translation into philological translation, linguistic translation, communicative translation and socio-semantic translation.(Nida 1984, 9-15)

According to George Steiner, the study of Western translation theories has gone through four periods: 1) from classical translation theory to the publication of the "three principles of translation" by Tytler and Campbell at the end of the eighteenth century, 2) from Schleiermacher to the middle of the twentieth century, 3) from the post-war period to the 1970s, marked by the rise of the translation linguistics school, represented by Nida, Mounin and Catford, 4) from the 1970s to the present, marked by the emergence of new schools of thoughts and the flourishing of interdisciplinary research.

Liu Miqing basically adopts this classification method. Tan Zaixi divided western translation into six periods: 1) the beginning of the fourth century B.C., 2) from the late period of Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, 3) the Middle Ages, 4) the Renaissance, 5) the modern translation period, i.e., from the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, 6) from the period after World War II to the present. E. Gentzler divided modern translation theories into five schools based on translation thoughts, which is The American Translation Workshop, The Science of Translation, Early Translation Studies, Polysystem Theory and Deconstruction.

Western translation theories research realizes the transition from linguistics to literary, and to culture and science of international politics. Accordingly, the trend of translation research has changed from the source language text to target language text, from the prescriptive to the descriptive, and the status of target language text has changed from inferior to the source language text to be equal to it,and in the end, more important than the source language text, and the status of translator has changed from less important than the author of source language to play a decisive part in translation activities and so on.(Pan Wenguo, 2002)

Li Wenge analyzed and studied eight schools of translation, including the literary theory of translation, the linguistic school, the translation studies school, the Hermeneutics, the deconstruction, the American Translation Workshop, the French interpretive theory, etc. The literary theory of western translation includes: the literary theory of western translation before the 20th century, such as the literary theory of Russian translation, the literary theory of translation in the former Soviet Union, and the literary theory of western translation in the 20th century.

The linguistic school of translation includes the Prague School of Jakobson, the London School of Catford and Newmark, the American Structuralists of Quine, the Communicative Theory of Nida and Wilss, the German Functionalists translation theory of Nord, and the Soviet Linguistic School of Federov and Barkhudarov. The Translation Studies school includes the Early translation Studies school of Holmes, the Polysystem Theory of Even-Zohar, the Descriptive Translation Studies of Toury, the Cultural School of Lefevere and Bassenett, the Integrated School of Snell-Hornby, Feminism, "Cannibalism", and post-colonial translation studies.

The Hermeneutics includes two ways of translation of Schleiermacher, the hermeneutic model of translation of Steiner, and the hermeneutic view of understanding of Heidegger and Gadamer. The deconstruction of translation includes the idea of "différance" deconstruction translation of Derrida, the idea of "pure language" deconstruction translation of Benjamin, and the deconstruction translation strategy of Venuti. The American Translation Workshop includes the theoretical foundation of Translation Workshop of Richards, detailed translation theory of Pound, contradictory view of translation of Will.

The French interpretative theory includes the basic problems of interpretative theory, translation procedure, translation evaluation criteria, interpretative theory and translation teaching. From the ancient Roman Empire to the European Union, from the establishment of nation-states to the foundation of the United Nations, cultural (including philosophy, literature, art, science, technology, etc.) exchanges between countries and political and economic exchanges and communication have been increasingly expanded and strengthened through the participation of translators.(Tan Zaixi 2004,15)

===Ⅱ.The division of western translation theories===

====2.1 Translation in Ancient Times====

The history of Western translation started in the third century B.C. The translation activities in ancient Rome was the first great upsurge in the history of Western translation, with a distinctive literary character. In the late Roman Empire, religious translation gradually became the mainstream of the western translation. In a broad sense, the earliest western translation was the translation of ''Old Testament'', i.e. ''Septuagint'', which was translated by 72 Jewish scholars in Alexandria, Egypt, between the third and second century B.C.. Strictly speaking, the first western translation work was the Homer's Epic ''Odyssey'' translated in Latin by Andronicos in Rome around the middle of the third century B.C..(Tan Zaixi 1991, 4)

=====2.1.1 Marcuss Tullirs Cicero=====

The earliest theorist of translation in the West was Marcuss Tullirs Cicero in the Roman Empire. He first made a distinction between translation as interpreter and translation as orator. He wrote in Volume 5, Chapter 14 in ''De Optimo Genere Oratorum'', "...And I did not translate them as an interpreter, but as an orator, keeping the same ideas and the forms, or as one might say, the 'figures’of thought, but in language which conforms to our usage.And in so doing , I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language. For I did not think I ought to count them out to the reader like coins, but to pay for them by weight, as it were.(Robinson 1997, 9)

Cicero viewed translation from the perspective of a rhetorician and an orator. Translation as interpreter is a translation without creativity, while a translation as orator is a translation that is creative and comparable to the source language text. In this way, Cicero set the seal on the two basic methods of translation, thus pioneered in the field of theory and methodology of translation studies. Subsequently, the history of western translation theories has developed centred on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-by-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy.

=====2.1.2 Quintus Heratius Flaccus=====

Quintus Heratius Flaccus was deeply influenced by Marcuss Tullirs Cicero in the aspect of literary criticism and translation theory, he insisted that translation should be flexible, and opposed word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation. He also believed that translation should be "sense for sense". At the same time, Heratius advocated to create new words or introduce foreign words in creation and translation when necessary in order to enrich the national language and enhance the expressive power of the work. He advocated that "a translator who is faithful to the original text is not fit to translate word for word". This sentence is often quoted to criticize those of literal translation by those of free translation."(Tan Zaixi 1991, 26).

=====2.1.3 St. Jerome=====

St. Jerome is considered one of the four leading theologians in the West, who was proficient in Hebrew and Latin, and was fond of Latin literature.He translated ''The Vulgate'' in the late Roman Empire and proposed that literary translation and religious translation should be treated differently, arguing that when translating ''The Bible'', literal translation should not be used in the whole text, but mainly in literal translation.But in literary translation, translators could and should convey the meaning of the original text in an understandable style, so as to use one's own style and language to make the translation as beautiful as the original text. It is a good idea to use a combination of literal transaltion and free translation.

=====2.1.4 St. Augustine=====

St. Augustine did not translate many works, only revised some parts of ''The Vulgate'', but his translation theories are extremely valuable, which can be mainly found in ''On Christian Education'', as well as several interpretations of the ''Psalms'' and two letters, one of which is to his son Adeodatus.He believed that a good translator must be proficient in two languages, familiar with the material to be translated and have the ability to revise. He suggested that people should use "simple", "elegant", or "sacred" style according to different readers.

He related the style of target language text to targeted readers, holding that people should use "simple" style when translating enlightment texts, use "elegant" style when it comes to texts praising the God, and use "sacred" style to translate texts with the characteristic of exhortation and guidance. He quoted the "semiotics theory" of Aristotle and emphasized the triangular relationship of the "significatio", "sonus" and "judgment" in translation. He is regarded as the originator of the linguistic school in the history of western translation, whose theories have exerted profound influence on linguistics and translation studies.

====2.2 Translation in the Middle Ages====

Between the eleventh and twelfth centuries A.D., Western translators gathered in Toledo, Spain, to translate a large number of works from Arabic into Latin. As a result, Toledo became the center of European academic world (similar to the "Translation Institute" in Baghdad), its translation and academic activities has continued for more than a hundred years with far-reaching effects.

=====2.2.1 Manlius Boethius=====

Manlius Boethius contributed not only to translating and introducing Greek philosophical thoughts, but also to translation theories. His views can be mainly found in the preface to the translation of Porphyrius's work (Kelly 1979, 71, 134-135, 204, 222-224), which can be summarized as follows: 1) Content and style are contrary, either style or content can be preserved. 2) Translation is centralized on objective things, and the translator should abandon subjective judgment. In the translation of some works, what the translator seek is accurate content rather than elegant style. Therefore, in order to express "truth without error", the translator should use word-for-word translation.

=====2.2.2 Dante=====

Dante held a pessimistic view on translation in his work ''The Banquet'', holding the view that poetry is untranslatable. The significance of this viewpoint strated the long debate on translatability and untranslatability of literary translation in the history of western translation, and at the same time, it drew people's attention to the organic connection between poetry and language in poetry translation, which was very helpful for future generations to establish the correct principles of poetry translation. Don Quixote, the protagonist in the Spanish writer Cervantes's novel ''Don Quixote'', held the similar point of view.

====2.3 Translation in Renaissance====

The Renaissance Movement that took place in Europe from the fourteenth to the sixteenth centuries was a major movement of intellectual and literary innovation, it was also a major development in the history of Western translation. Especially in the sixteenth century and the period afterwards, when the Renaissance Movement was widespread in Western European countries, translation activities reached an unprecedented peak, involving various fields such as thought, politics, philosophy, literature and religion, covering major works of ancient times and contemporary times, and a large number of outstanding translators and a series of excellent translation works emerged at that time.

=====2.3.1 Martin Luther=====

Martin Luther was a German translator and the leader of Religious Reform. His translations of ''The New Testament'', which was written in Greek and ''The Old Testament'' written in Hebrew were published in 1522 and 1534 respectively, and his translation of ''The Bible'' in German became the model of German, exerting an unprecedented influence on the development of the national language in German. In addition, his translation of ''Aesop's Fables'' is also of high literary value. His outstanding contributions to translation theories can be summarized as follows: First, he held the view that people should translate in a language that is straightaway and easy to understand, and is acceptable to the public.

He insisted on the humanistic view of language, believing that different languages cannot be equated absolutely in terms of structure and vocabulary. Since the target readers of The Bible is the public, "we must use authentic German instead of Latinized German." (Tan Zaixi 1991, 81), and get rid of the traditional principles that ''The Bible'' can only be translated in Latin, "let the prophets of ''The Old Testament'' use natural German." (Nida 1984, 10) Secondly, Luther believed that the form, style, and spiritual essence of the original text can only be reproduced in free translation to some extent. Thirdly, translators should respect the original text, understand its spiritual essence in depth, and should not be credulous about the traditional explanations of priests.

In order to reproduce the spiritual essence of the original text, the translator can add some meanings which are implicit between the lines but not literally Fourth, translators ought to put heads together. Finally, he proposed seven principles that translators should follow: they can change the word order of the original text; they can use modal particles; they can add conjunctions; they can omit words; they can substitute words with phrases; they can replace metaphor with non-metaphor and vice versa; and they should pay attention to the variation of words and the accuracy of translation. (Tan Zaixi 1991, 83)

=====2.3.2 Etienne Dolet=====

Etienne Dolet was the first person who put forward translation theory in a systematic way in the history of modern western translation. Apart from several translations and monographs on Greek and Latin, his contributions to translation can mainly be reflected in his famous paper ''La manière de bien traduire d'une langue en autre'', which was published in 1540. The paper was short but innovative, and the issues involved have already been connected to the matters of principle which were raised by later translation theorists.

The basic principles of translation he listed in his paper were as follows: 1) The translator must fully understand the content of the texts to be translated. 2) The translator must have a good knowledge of source language and target lanuage. 3) The translator should avoid word-for-word translation, which can not express the original meaning of the text accurately and the sense of beauty of the language. 4) The translator must translate in an understandable way. 5) The translator must make the target language text an appropriate one through diction and adjustment of word order.

====2.4 Translation in the Early Modern Times====

After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, Western translation kept on moving forward. Although in terms of scale and influence, translation in this period was not as good as that of the Renaissance, a large number of excellent translation works emerged. Its most important character was that translators not only continued to translate classical works, but also developed a great interest in modern and contemporary works. The works of great writers such as Cervantes, Shakespeare, Balzac, and Goethe were repeatedly translated into various languages, and translations of Oriental literature came out one after another.

=====2.4.1 John Dryden=====

John Dryden was a famous poet, translator and translation theorist, whose contributions to translation exceeded that of his predecessors and other contemporaries, with a large number of translation works and systematic theories. His most well-known translation work is Virgil's ''Aeneid'', which was published in 1697. In his numerous papers and prefaces, he clearly put forward comprehensive and systematic views of translation.

First of all, translation is an art, translators must have the temperament of an artist, a keen appreciation of art and a rich expressive power, only in this way can they grasp and reproduce the artistic features of the original text. Secondly, translators must consider target readers. When translating dialects, translators should focus on the fact that whether target readers can accept and understand it or not, and can appropriately borrow some foreign words, but these words should be carefully considered. Thirdly, translators are slaves of the original author, "only working in other's manor, fertilizing and pruning the grapes, but the wine is for the master's". (Tan Zaixi 1991, 153)

Finally, he roughly divided translation into three categories: metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation,arguring that imitation was close to creation, which broke away from the original text. Therefore, he advocated paraphrase that emphasizes the meaning while neglects the linguistic form. His division of translation broke through the limitations of traditional classificationof translation, i.e. free translation and literal translation, which was a major development in the history of western translation and was of great significance.

=====2.4.2 Alexander Fraser Tytler=====

Alexander Fraser Tytler's translation theories and thoughts can be mainly found in the book ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. In this book, which was the first monograph of western translation theory, Tytler put forward the famous three principles of translation. The translator should be proficient in the language and subject matter of the original work, and completely reproduce the thoughts of the original work. In translation, the translator can limitedly add essential contents to the original work and reduce unnecessary contents that are bad for the original work.

The translator should have the ability to accurately judge and appreciate the style and writing technique of the original work, and imagine how the original author would express himself if he composed in target language to make the style and writing technique of the translation be equal to that of the original work. The translation should be as fluent as the original work. Although the translator is engaged in imitation as well as the painter, the translator can't copy the original's brushwork and use the same colors, instead, he must use his own techniques and another language to express the soul of the original work.

In addition, Tytler believed that poetry can only be translated in the form of poem, idioms can be transformed into meaning and translated in an understandable language, and good translations must make the readers appreciate the merits of the original work and get "the same strong feeling" (Tan Zaixi 1991, 164). The three principles of translation, which are "the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work", "the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original" and "the translation should have all the ease of original composition" became the tenet followed by numerous translators later, and had a positive influence on translation theories in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.

=====2.4.3 Matthew Arnold=====

In modern English translation theories, the debate between Arnold and Newman on the translation of ''Homer's Epic'' is of positive significance. Matthew Arnold put forward his insights in the following six aspects: 1) Translating ''Homer's Epic'' must first clarify the characteristics of Homer. 2) The essential features of ''Homer's Epic'' must be preserved. 3)Translating poem must have the insight of a poet. 4)The translation must resemble a poem. 5)The translation must have the same appeal as the original text. 6)It is the scholars, not the general readers, who test the fidelity of the translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 134-135)

=====2.4.4 Francis W. Newman=====

Newman evaluated Arnold's translation based on his points of view, his viewpoints are as follows: 1) Homer is a poet, and the translation must reproduce him as a poet. 2) The criterion for measuring the translation is mainly the reaction of general readers rather than scholars. 3) The translation is a kind of compromise, and the more outstanding the original work is, the less the translation work can be compared with it. Their differences lie in their respective translation principles, techniques and viewing perspectives, so it is difficult for us to to say which is right and which is better. Their arguments have played an active role in enlivening the academic atmosphere and promoting the study of translation theory from multiple perspectives and multiple aspects.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 135-136)

=====2.4.5 Friedrich Schleiermacher=====

Friedrich Schleiermacher published his paper ''On the Methods of Translation'', which discussed the close relationship between translation and understanding from a hermeneutical point of view, theoretically discussed the principles and approaches of translation.He put forward the hermeneutic proposition of examining semantics, including grammatical interpretation and psychological interpretation, and believed that the translator cannot accept the original work passively, but must create it actively, "and must grasp a 'pre-structure' beyond the text according to the original author's mental process and thought track" (Liu Miqing 1989, 3).

He proposed the differences between interpreting and translation for the first time, believing that interpreting is similar to a mechanical activity, while translation is a creative activity. Similarly, translation can be divided into literary translation and mechanical translation. The former is the translation of works of literature, art and natural science, which requires independent thinking and creativity of the translator, and strong comprehension and expression skills. While the latter involves only commercial and business interpreting, which "can be done with a general command of two languages" (Wells 1988, 24), and is not of high quality because it involves something tangible and clearly defined.

In addition, Schleiermacher divided translation into two approaches: obedience to the original work and obedience to the translation work. The former is to let the readers approach the original author, and the translator only "fills in the blanks where the readers don't understand the language of the original work" (Tan Zaixi 1991, 135), i.e., using literal translation to let the readers understand the meaning of the original work. The translator usually adopts flexible translation and free translation, so that the readers can easily understand the original work.

His thoughts has inspired the classification of prospective and retrospective of Postgate in the twentieth century.Friedrich Schleiermacher's translation theories had a great impact in the 19th century and is still significant even today. Although he was the first theorist to distinguish between interpreting and translation, his views on interpreting were wrong. From the perspective of modern translation theories, interpreting is not a mechanical activity, but also a skill that requires a high level of language expression ability and the ability to recreate, and because interpreting is a kind of simultaneous interpretation, there is no room for careful thinking, and it is even more difficult than translation in many aspects.

=====2.4.6 Wilhelm von Humboldt=====

Wilhelm von Humboldt's translation theory was based on his unique philosophy of language. He believed that language is only the "external manifestation of the spirit of each nation", and that the language of each nation is their spirit, and the spirit of each nation is also their language. Due to the differences of each language, translators are in a dilemma of either following the original tex too closely and losing the charm of their own language, or sticking to their own language and sacrificing the elegance of the original work (Wells 1988, 27-28).

However, Humboldt also suggested that "there is nothing that language cannot express" and that "language is the nature of human, and all languages hold the key to understanding any other languages" (Wells 1988, 29). This dialectical thinking on the issues of translatability and untranslatability, language as system and language as speech act has greatly influenced linguists such as Saussure and Chomsky in the twenties century.

====2.5 Translation in Contemporary Times====

After the World War II, the West entered a relatively stable period, production got developed, the economy gradually recovered, and science and technology were changing day by day. This was the material basis of the prosperity of translation. Due to the evolution of the times, the characteristics of translation have also changed a lot. The translation in the new period differs from that of any period in the past in scope, scale, function and form and has made great progress.

The first change is the expansion of translation scope. While the traditional translation mainly focused on the translation of literary and religious works, the translation in the new period expands to other fields, especially in science, technology and commerce fields.

Secondly, the scale of translation greatly exceeds that of the past. In the past, only a few literary giants worked on translation, but now translation has become a specialized profession, with not only litterateur, philosophers and theologians engaging in translation, but also a specially trained professional team undertaking various translation tasks. Moreover, the function of translation is unparalleled in the past.

Especially after the foundation of the United Nations and the European Common Market, exchanges among Western countries in various fields, such as literature, art, science, technology, politics and economics, have become increasingly frequent and close, and all these communications are carried out through translation, because translation plays an increasingly practical role in the process. Finally, the form of translation has also changed and progressed greatly. The three changes are in fact an important sign of the development of the new period.

=====2.5.1 Roman Jakobson=====

Roman Jakobson was originally from Russia, then moved to the Czech Republic, and then moved to the United States during World War II and became an American citizen. As one of the founders of the linguistic school, his contributions to translation theory is mainly reflected in his article ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation''. From the perspective of linguistics, the article provided a detailed analysis and discussion of the relationship between language and translation, the importance of translation, and the problems in translation. Since its publication in 1959, this article has been regarded as one of the classics of translation studies in western theoretical field.

There are five main points of Jakobson's discussion. Translation is divided into three categories: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The so-called intersemiotic translation refers to the interpretation of some linguistic symbols by other linguistic symbols in the same language, that is rewording. Interlingual translation refers to the interpretation of the symbols of one language into the symbols of another language between two languages, i.e., translation in the strict sense. Intersemiotic translation refers to the interpretation of linguistic symbols by non-linguistic symbol systems, or the interpretation of non-linguistic symbols by linguistic symbols, such as the transformation from semaphore or gesture into verbal expressions.

The understanding of the meaning of words depends on translation. He believed that translation plays a decisive role in the process of language learning and language comprehension. Accurate translation depends on information symmetry. What translation involves is the reciprocal information in two different speech symbols. All languages have equal expressive power. If there is a lack of vocabulary in a language, the language can be processed by borrowing words, creating words or paraphrasing them. The grammatical category is the most complex issue in translation.

=====2.5.2 John Catford=====

John Catford, a linguist and translation theorist of University of Edinburgh, published ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' in 1965, in which he interpreted the previous problems of translation from a novel modern linguistic perspective and created the new approach to the study of translation theory in the West, thus exerting a great influence in Western linguistic and translation theory circles. John Catford used the "Scale and Category Grammar" of the descriptive linguist Han Lide to describe translation.

He focused on the central question of "what is translation" in terms of the nature, categories, equivalence, shifts, and limits of translation. The nature of translation. According to Catford's definition, translation is "the substitution of textual material from one language (source language) for its equivalent in another language (target language)". (Catford 1965, 20-21) The categories of translation. In terms of its extent, it can be divided into "full translation" and "partial translation". In terms of language level, it can be divided into "total translation" and "restricted translation". In terms of the level of linguistic structure, it can be divided into "level restricted" translation and "level unlimited" translation.

The equivalence of translation. It is the center of translation practice and translation theoretical research, and must be explained in two ways. On the one hand, translation equivalence is an empirically based phenomenon that is found on the basis of a comparison between two languages. On the other hand, translation equivalence must make sure that whether the target text and the source text have the same or at least partially the same substantive features. The shifts of translation. It refers to the deviation from formal correspondence when turning the source text into the target text. There are two main types of shifts,which are level shifts and category shifts.

The limits of translation. It refers to untranslatability. There are two types of untranslatability in translation. The first one is linguistic untranslatability, which includes puns and ambiguous grammatical structures. The other is cultural untranslatability which is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs and different backgrounds of the times.

John Catford's translation theory has injected fresh blood into translation studies in Britain and even the West as a whole, and it has advanced the modern linguistic consciousness in the field of contemporary Western translation studies. In a sense, all kinds of contemporary Western translation theories that have emerged so far have benefited from this increased linguistic consciousness. No matter whether, or to what extent and within what limits, his proposition of using the linguistic theory of "Scale and Category" to explain translation problems is effective or not, the proposition itself has made a contribution to the development of contemporary Western translation theories.

=====2.5.3 Eugene A. Nida=====

Eugene A. Nida was one of the most important representatives of the linguistic school who published two famous translation theoretical works ''Toward A Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1964 and 1965 respectively and proposed the concept of "the science of translation", whose theory has made great contributions to contemporary translation studies in the West. He proposed "dynamic equivalence" theory, and then proposed "functional equivalence" theory from the viewpoint of sociolinguistics and communicative function of language.

He proposed the four-step model of "analysis", "transformation", "reorganization" and "examination" of the translation process. His main academic activities in his life were centered on the translation of ''The Bible''. In the process of translating ''The Bible'', Nida developed his own translation theory from a practical point of view, which eventually became one of the classics of translation studies. Nida's most important theory is "functional equivalence" theory,which means that the translation should not seek for a rigid correspondence between words on the surface, but to achieve functional equivalence between two languages.

In this theory, he pointed out that "translation is the reproduction of the information of source language from semantics to style in the most appropriate, natural and reciprocal language" (Guo Jianzhong 2000, 65). The "dynamic equivalence" theory includes four aspects, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, chapter equivalence and stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believed that "meaning is the most important, and form is the second" (Guo Jianzhong 2000, 67).

Form is likely to conceal the cultural meaning of the source language and hinder cultural communication. Therefore, in literary translation, according to Nida's theory, the translator should take the four aspects of "dynamic equivalence" theory as the principle of translation to accurately reproduce the cultural connotation of source language in target language.

=====2.5.4 James Holmes=====

James Holmes is the founder of Translation Studies, and his book, ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies'' (1972), is the founding manifesto of Translation Studies. He first argued that translation theory should arise from the scientific description of the translation process, and then apply the theory to translation practice and translation teaching. The translation of poetry can be regarded as a kind of meta-literature, which is both an evaluation and interpretation of the original work, and at the same time a new and independent literary work itself. Translation studies should focus on the relationships between the translated text and the original work and between the translated text and the target language culture, rather than the traditional equivalence or fidelity.

=====2.5.5 Peter Newmark=====

Peter Newmark is a professor of modern linguistics at the University of Surrey, who is mainly engaged in teaching translation theory and practice. After the publication of his masterpieces ''Approaches to Translation'' (1981) and ''A Textbook of Translation'' (1988), semantic and communicative translation theory has been highly regarded by the translation circles. In 1991, his another famous work ''About Translation'' was published, which collected Newmark's most important translation theoretical findings in recent years. ''Paragraphs on Translation'', which was published in 1991, is a collection of detailed discussions of translation theory, translation teaching, translation linguistics, and translation techniques that were published in the journal ''The Linguist'' from 1989 to 1992.

===Ⅲ.Discussion===

The Western translation theory system consists of two main theories. One is the literature and art translation theory. It is the oldest theory, extending from ancient dramatic translators such as Terrence to modern translation theorists (e.g. Levy in the Czech Republic, Gachechiladze in the former Soviet Union, Steiner in the UK, etc.), and it focused on how to translate literary texts in order to realize literary and cultural exchanges in the ideal sense. In this theory, translation was considered as literarature and art, and the focus of translation was on recreation. The theorists not only discussed the pros and cons of literal translation and free translation, word-for-word translation and flexible translation, but analyzed the purposes and effects of translation.

They also emphasized respecting target language culture, paid attention to the style and literariness of target texts, and required the translators to have a natural literary talent. The other is the linguistic translation theory. It extended from Augustine in ancient times to the structural linguistics school in the 20th century, which closely combined translation theories with the analysis of semantics and grammar, discussed translation in terms of language usage techniques, believing that translation aims to produce a text that is semantically equivalent to the original, and seeked to explain how to produce such semantic equivalence in terms of vocabulary and grammatical structure.

It was more concerned with how to realize the transformation of the words of the two languages in order to convey the information in source language. Looking back at the history of Western translation theories over the past two thousand years, especially the above two main theories constituting the Western translation theory system, we can easily find that, from ancient times to contemporary times, although each period has its own peak of development, on the whole, the contemporary times since the end of World War II in the middle of the 20th century can be regarded as the highest peak of the development of Western translation theories so far.

===Ⅳ.Conclusion===

We should study the outline, changes and development of Western translation theories, and state our opinions on the significance and value of the study of Western translation theories from a historical perspective. On the one hand, we should absorb the relevant contemporary research results at home and abroad, make comments on the representative figures and their representative works, schools of thought and important historical events in Western translation of various historical periods, especially in the 20th century.On the other hand, we should make an in-depth analysis and discussion on the mutual promotion, evolution and the development process of translation practice and translation theory, and elaborate our basic understanding on the nature and direction of the development of translation thoughts and theories.

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Catford,J.C.约翰·坎尼森·卡特福德.(1965).''翻译的语言学理论''.[A Linguistic Theory of Translation].牛津大学出版社[Oxford University Press].

Nida, Eugene A.尤金·A·奈达.(1984).''论翻译''.[On Translation].中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation and Publishing Corporation].--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 13:19, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

== A Comparison of the Translation Theory of Eugene. A. Nida and J. C. Catford – 陈莎 Chen Sha, 202020080596==
<center>陈莎 Chen Sha </center>
<center>Foreign Linguistics and Applied Linguistics </center>

===Abstract===
This paper made a comparison between Eugene. A. Nida's translation theories and J. C. Catford's translation theories from three perspectives, that is, their linguistic foundations, their perspectives regarding some important concepts such as meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability, and the impact of their translation theories in the realm of translation. Although both of them are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theory, Nida and Catford elaborate their respective translation theories from different perspectives and even the same term has been endowed with different meanings in the two translation theories, thus having different influences on the academic world. A clear grasp of the differences between the two theories will be conducive to the further understanding of translation theory.

===Key words===
Eugene. A. Nida; J. C. Catford; Translation Theory; Comparison

===题目===
尤金•奈达和约翰•卡特福德翻译理论之比较

===摘要===
本文比较了尤金•奈达和约翰•卡特福德各自的翻译理论中所涉及的语言学基础、对意义、形式、对等以及不可译性等概念的观点以及他们的翻译理论对学界产生的影响。尽管同属于西方翻译理论语言学派的代表人物，奈达和卡特福德却分别从不同的角度论述各自的翻译理论，甚至同一个术语在两种译论中具有不同含义的现象也常有见之，因此不免对学界产生了不同的影响。清晰地把握这两种译论中的不同之处，将有利于我们对翻译理论的进一步认识。

===关键词===
尤金•奈达；约翰•卡特福德；翻译理论；比较

===1. Introduction===
Nowadays, it has become an irreversible trend to integrate the translation theory researches into the field of linguistics, which broke through the traditional translation theories and created a new approach to explore them. Nida and Catford are two prominent representatives in this field. As to Nida, he is a famous contemporary American translation theorist, known as the father of modern Western translation theory, with ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''as his major works. As to Catford, he is a famous English linguist and translation theorist, with ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' as his masterpiece.

From what I have mentioned above, it can be seen clearly that both Nida and Catford are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theories. However, in spite of this fact, their respective translation theories are actually based on different linguistic schools. As a result, it is no wonder that they have different understandings and interpretations in terms of the same concept and the acceptability of their respective translation theories are largely varied in the academic world. Therefore, this paper will elaborate the differences of the translation theories between Eugene. A. Nida and J. C. Catford from these three perspectives, namely, their linguistic foundations, their perspectives regarding some concepts such as meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability, and the impact of their translation theories in the realm of translation.

===2. Linguistic Foundation===
Both Nida's and Catford's translation theories are systematic and scientific due to the fact that both of them are rooted in linguistics. However, what deserves noticing is that they are actually based on different linguistic schools.

Specifically speaking, Nida's translation theories are mainly based on Noam Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar, in which grammatical structure is divided into deep structure and surface structure, kernel sentences and a series of transformational rules are put forward and a whole set of grammatical system is established.(Jiang Li 2010, 44)

Based on transformational-generative grammar, especially the principle of kernel sentences, a new model of translation is put forward by Nida, that is, to translate on the level of deep structure. Therefore, a complete inter-lingual conversion process is created, which can be generally divided into three steps. The first step is to convert the surface structure of the source language to the deep structure of the source language; the second step is to identify a deep structure that is equivalent to the deep structure of the source language in the target language; the final step is to convert the deep structure of the target language to the surface structure of the target language. Generally speaking, this process can be viewed as such a transformational mode:(Jiang Li 2010, 44)

[[File:chenshachenshachensha111.jpg]]

In addition, through the analysis of the semantic relations of vocabularies in the context, Nida broke through the limitations of the traditional translation view holding that the parts of speech should be correspondent between source language and target language. He puts forward four semantic categories, namely objects that correspond roughly to nouns, events that correspond roughly to verbs, abstracts that correspond roughly to the modifiers of objects and events and relations that correspond roughly to the prepositions and connectives in Indo-European languages. (Lin Shuwu 1981, 5) And then based on his semantic categories, Nida comes up with seven kernel sentences that are used to discuss the inner relationship of sentences. (Jiang Li 2010, 44)

In summary, Nida broke through the limitations of the traditional translation views that pursues the correspondence of words or sentence patterns on the level of surface structure. He believes that there are great similarities among the kernel structure of different languages, and these similarities are much more pronounced in terms of their deep structure than their surface structure. What’s more, he holds the opinion that the transformation between languages on the level of deep structure can guarantee the faithfulness of the translated text to the original text to the greatest extent. In addition, since the surface structure of the target language is the free expression transformed from the deep structure of the target language, the smoothness of the translated text can also be guaranteed to some extent. (Shi Xishu & Du Ping 2004, 70) In this way, Nida's translation theories broke through the formal constraints in translation and retained the content of the original text, which plays a great guiding role in the specific translation practices.

In contrast, Catford's translation theories are mainly based on Michael A.K. Halliday's systematic linguistics, which consists of two basic points. Firstly, it emphasizes the systematicness of language and holds that languages are systems containing many subsystems. Secondly, systematic linguistics emphasizes the close relationship between language and society, so it holds the opinion that the study of language should start from the society. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)

However, Catford does not adopt the two points completely. Based on the first point that different languages are actually different systems, Catford concludes that translation cannot convey one hundred percent of the meaning of the original text. Nevertheless, when it comes to the second point, it seems that Catford does not delve into the relationship between language and society, and some people even think that his theoretical research is purely static language comparison and serves only for computers. What’s more, Catford focuses on analyzing the relationship among such substances as phonic substance, graphic substance and situation substance from such four levels as phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary, based on which, Catford stresses that under no circumstances can complete translation be achieved, that is, translation cannot be carried out on the four levels of phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary simultaneously. He also holds that even if the translation is carried out at only one level, the complete translation is impossible. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)

In summary, Catford's translation theories are based on Halliday’s systematic linguistics, but he does not confine himself within the scope of systematic linguistics. Instead, he applies systematic linguistics to his translation theories in a selective way, which makes his translation theories innovative and in turn has a positive effect on Halliday's systematic linguistics.

===3. Different Perspectives Regarding Some Important Concepts===

====3. 1 Different Perspectives Regarding Meaning====
Nida's translation theories mainly serve the translation of ''The Bible'', with the ultimate aim of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of ''the Bible'', the transmission of information is the most important goal. In order to spread the doctrine, Nida not only regards meaning as translatable, but even as sacrosanct because he wants to convey the will of God. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)

In Nida's opinion, “translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style.” (Nida 1969, 13) Nida's definition regarding translation clearly pointed out the relationship between meaning and form, claiming that meaning comes first while form comes second. In the analysis of meaning, Nida refined it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning and connotative meaning, which is the basis for the four modes of analysis, transformation, reorganization and verification in the process of translation. As a faithful supporter of language universality, Nida always maintains that the information contained in one language can be conveyed into another language, that is to say, the meaning is fixed. (Jiang Li 2010, 46) In the communication between different languages and cultures, equivalent words and expressions can be found. There is no such thing as an unbridgeable gap between languages. (Xiong Demi 2001, 88)

Compared with Nida's translation theories, Catford's translation theories does not discuss the specific problems encountered in the process of translation, but focuses on the essence of translation, that is, what the translation is. Catford emphasizes the individuality of different languages and that each language has its own unique semantic system formed under the influence of its unique culture and the lexical and grammatical systems which embody the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship among languages, and analyzes the root causes of their differences.(Jiang Li 2010, 46)

According to Catford, meaning is a property of language, so the source language and the target language have their respective meanings. The opinion that the source language has the same meaning as the target language or that there is transfer of meaning in the process of translation is untenable. Obviously, this argument is a kind of deconstruction and subversion of people’s perspectives regarding meaning in traditional translation theory, which is why his translation theories arouse suspicion of other scholars. Actually, readers who do not carefully read his original work tend to come to their lopsided conclusions according to its literal meaning, so there is no wonder why they will misunderstand Catford and his translation theories. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)

====3. 2 Different Perspectives Regarding Form ====
Both Nida and Catford have involved form in their translation theories. However, the term has different meanings in the two theories.

In Nida's translation theories, form mainly refers to the concept corresponding to content, including prosody, word selection, duality, parallelism and other grammatical structures with distinct features. For biblical translation, meaning must be prioritized in order to convey content and information,so its translation can sometimes be greatly altered in form. In other words, if form and content cannot be retained at the same time, then the content should be retained while the form be discarded. (Jiang Li 2010, 46) Of course, this does not mean that Nida thinks that form is not important at all in the process of translation. On the contrary, Nida believes that when it comes to some cases in which form is very important to the original text, like poetry, the original form should be retained as far as possible.

As for Catford, he regards language as forms, a concept corresponding to entities. In his opinion, forms include phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary, which are all linguistic aspects while entities refer to such raw materials as phonic substance, graphic substance and situation substance, which are all non-linguistic aspects. He also holds the opinion that a form always corresponds to an objective entity in the real world. In Carford translation theories, forms can actually be understood as systems, that is, each language is composed of different systems, which in turn include numerous subsystems.(Jiang Li 2010, 46)

Thus, to translate between two languages belonging to different systems is to look for entity features that are identical (at least partially identical) in both the source language and the target language. Since there can never be a completely identical system among different languages and even the most closely related languages have their own unique forms, the forms and meanings of different languages can never be completely the same. Therefore, in the process of translation, meaning cannot be fully conveyed from one language to another, which is also an important point that makes Catford's translation theories different from others’. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)

====3. 3 Different Perspectives Regarding Equivalence====
Nida believes that the reason why there is equivalence in the process of translation is that different languages can perform exactly the same function. Based on this belief, Nida put forward the concept of dynamic equivalence, which is “defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptor in the source language.” (Nida 1969, 25) What’s more, in elaborating functional equivalence, which is the modified version of dynamic equivalence, considering the differences in terms of languages and cultures in bilingual communication, Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels, namely, the maximum level of equivalence which refers to the one in which the readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it essentially the same as the original readers did and the minimal level of equivalence which refers to the one in which the readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it. (Xiong Demi 2001, 88)

In addition, Nida pointed out that the translation should not excessively pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should shift the attention to accurately convey the meaning of the original text. Therefore, translators can be allowed to change the form of the original text when readers are prone to misunderstand the original text. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)

In summary, Nida's dynamic equivalence theory broke the previous static model of focusing solely on text comparison and held that only by getting the receptors of the target language to completely understand the translated text, can they respond in much the same way as the receptors of the source language. That is to say, dynamic equivalence emphasizes readers' response.

As for Catford, he believes that "translation is the replacement of textual materials in one language by equivalent textual materials in another language." (Catford 1965, 13) In his definition, Catford did not use the word "text", but "textual materials", because he believes that the meaning of a text could not be completely translated into another text, at least when it comes to the meaning at two or more levels, the equivalence could not be found, but only a substitute is available. Catford regards translation equivalence in traditional translation theory as an empirical phenomenon and puts forward the conditions for translation equivalence,that is, in order to get the text or words of the source language and the target language to be equivalent, there must be some consistency between the entities they refer to.(Jiang Li 2010, 45)

Apparently, according to Catford's theory, equivalence can only exist if the entities involved in the two languages share some common characteristics. Moreover, such equivalence can only exist on the same level, that is, phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary. Equivalence on the four levels cannot be achieved simultaneously, because there are different entities on different levels, and it is impossible for two equivalent words to have the exactly identical entity characteristics. In other words, perfect equivalence does not exist. This also explains why there is no complete translation in Catford's point of view. At this point, Catford's translation theories seem to go deeper into the nature of language. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)

In short, Nida's perspective regarding equivalence is not the same as Catford's. By emphasizing equivalence, Nida means emphasizing the effect of translation. In order to achieve the desired effect of translation, the form sometimes can be abandoned; while Catford’s translation theories focus on the fact that there is no such a thing called perfect translation. Despite their different emphasis, both of them are of guiding significance to the translation practices.

====3. 4 Different Perspectives Regarding Untranslatability====
No discussion of untranslatability can avoid the subject of the essence of translation, which also applies to the translation theories of Nida and Catford.

In the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida pointed out that translation refers to the reproduction of source language information with the closest and most natural equivalent in the target language from the semantic to the stylistic. (Nida 1969, 13) In his opinion, the maximum equivalence that can be achieved in translation is only the so-called "closest" and no real equivalence can be achieved. In other words, Nida holds that untranslatability is ubiquitous and the complete equivalence both on the level of meaning and style can only be impossible. Translation is like a seesaw, and the two ends of the board are the meaning and the style of source language, which in most cases cannot be completely retained at the same time.(Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)

Therefore, translators should make a choice and decide whether to care more about the meaning of the source language or the style of the source language. In Nida’s opinion, meaning should come first while style should come later. In short, as far as Nida’s translation theories are concerned, the equivalence refers to the one hundred percent transmission of the information of the source language in the target language, while the correspondence means that both the information and the style of the source language are one hundred percent transmitted into the target language, which is of course impossible. Hence, Nida chooses to use equivalence to describe the translatability rather than correspondence. (Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)

Catford, on the other hand, is more pessimistic about translatability. In his book ''A linguistic Theory of Translation'', he defines translation as the process of replacement of the textual materials of source language with the equivalent textual materials of the target language,(Catford 1965, 13) Catford uses "replacement" to correspond to Nida's "reproduction", just because he realizes that different languages are actually different systems that can never be coincided with each other. As a result, there will never be the so-called transformation and reproduction between two languages. Whether the equivalence can be achieved depends on the degree of coincidence of the described entities in the two languages.(Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)

Catford also further elaborates in this book that the idea that the source language and the target language have the same meaning or there exists such a thing called transmission in the process of translation is untenable. In order to better prove his point of view, Catford introduced a new viewpoint, that is, different languages are actually different systems and each system has its own unique linguistic forms, syntactic relations and grammatical relations. In general, there are basically two kinds of untranslatability in the broad sense. One is the untranslatability on the level of language and the other is the untranslatability on the level of culture. (Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)

All in all, we can draw a conclusion regarding Nida’s and Catfort’s views of untranslatability. On the one hand, Catford’s idea that linguistic forms refer to the formal characteristics of the original text is very close to what Nida calls style. However, on the other hand, what Catford calls the untranslatability on the level of culture is totally different from what Nida calls information. Therefore, we can see that Catfort has a much more strict standard towards translation equivalence.

===4. Significance===

====4.1 Contributions to Translation Studies ====
Nida views the communication and integration between different languages and cultures with a new perspective. He jumped out of the bondage of language and instead paid attention to the pragmatic function of language and the external linguistic equivalence. As a faithful supporter of language universality, he insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can also be expressed in another and that communication can be achieved by looking for translation equivalence among different languages and cultures and reorganizing the form of the original text and semantic structure in an appropriate way, which is also the basis for his establishment of equivalence translation theory. In short, Nida's dynamic equivalence theory breaks the previous static mode of solely emphasizing text comparison and creates a new mode of fully respecting the response of the receptors of the target language to translated text. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)

Catford believes that the main concern of translation practice is to find equivalent components and the central task of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of these equivalent components. His equivalence theory mainly focuses on the study of language, which relates the analysis of translation theory closely to the analysis of the functions of semantics and grammar, aiming at explaining how such a semantic equivalence on the level of vocabulary and grammatical structure is achieved. In his opinion, translators’ main task is to seek content equivalence rather than form correspondence, which is exactly what Catford calls translation conversion. In summary, as a means to realize the equivalence in terms of text, Catford’s translation theory has its positive significance in specific historical periods. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)

=====4.2 Influences in China=====
In the early 1980s, Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories were introduced into China almost at the same time, but their occasions in China were quite different.

As soon as Nida’s translation theories were introduced, the research and citation of them achieved a climax. From 1980 to 2000, 147 papers citing Nida's translation theories were published on ''China Translation'', the core journal of Chinese translation circle. According to the statistics of Wanfang database, 25 papers on Nida’s translation theories were published on such core journals as ''Chinese Science and Technology Translation'' from 2000 to 2012. In 2012 alone, there were 80 journal papers, doctoral papers and master's papers on Nida translation theory. (Li Zhidan 2014, 95)

Compared with Nida's translation theories, Catford's translation theories have not attracted enough attention in domestic academic circles. According to the statistics of Wanfang database, only 3 papers on the Catford’s translation theories were published on ''Chinese Science and Technology Translation'' from 2000 to 2012 and there were only 8 journal papers, doctoral papers, master's papers and bachelor's papers on Catford's translation theories. (Li Zhidan 2014, 95) What’s more, from the number of Chinese papers published on CNKI regarding Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, the domestic influence of the two theories are also evident.

[[File:Chenshachenshachensha222.jpg]]

[[File:Chenshachenshachensha333.jpg]]

In summary, compared with Catford's translation theories, which are abstract and difficult to understand due to its professionalism, Nida's translation theories are more easily accepted and play a greater guiding role in Chinese-English translation.(Li Zhidan 2014, 95)

====4.3 Limitations====
Nida's research is mainly carried out from a macro perspective and is about the universal principle, which will inevitably ignore the research and discussion of specific skills at the micro level. As a result, the theories obtained will also inevitably be out of touch with practice. Nida's equivalence theory is mainly applicable to the translation of ''The Bible'', and the specific purpose of ''The Bible'' to educate and influence people makes it reasonable to sacrifice the form equivalence and strengthen the functional equivalence in a moderate way.(Li Zhidan 2014, 94)

However, if this theory is used to guide the translation of those texts whose forms cannot be ignored, such as the translation of poems, the limitations show up. What’s more, equivalence theory is based on the assumption that readers will have a consistent response, but the problem is that the reader's response is not uniform in any case. It is difficult or almost impossible for readers with different cultural levels, ideologies and positions to produce the same or similar response to the same translation in real life. Therefore, it is difficult to measure the translation effect with this standard. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)

As for Catford, as soon as his theory of equivalence translation was put forward, severe criticism in academic circles was brought about, with most of which focusing on the abstraction and idealization of Catford's examples used to prove his theory. In addition, Newmark pointed out that the interpretation of comparative linguistics conducted by Catford was conducive to translators' judgment and selection in translation practices, but had little contribution to translation theory. Venuti pointed out that the words, sentences and instances used by Cadford were created by himself rather than real. Hornby pointed out that the examples used by Catford were simple and decontextualized, while in fact, the process of translation cannot be simply viewed as language practices, actually, it wiould also be influenced by such factors as text, culture and environment. At the same time, she did not agree with Catford's view that linguistics is the only support of translation research. In addition, Mu Lei believes that the examples Catford used to support his theory are mainly the translation within Germanic languages or Slavic languages, or between Germanic and Slavic languages, so his theory does not have universally guiding significance. In other words, whether Catford’s theory is applicable to the translation between different language families, especially the translation between Chinese and English or not still needs to be discussed. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)

===5. Conclusion===
In summary, although both Nida and Catford are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theory, their translation theories are actually different in many aspects. Firstly, their translation theories are based on different linguistic schools, with Nida’s based on Noam Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar and Catford’s on Halliday’s systematic linguistics. Secondly, their perspectives in terms of some important concepts are different, such as their perspectives regarding meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability. Last but not least, their translation theories have caused different impact on the field of translation and this difference is especially prominent in China.

Of course, due to their different linguistic foundations, the two translation theories also have different limitations. It seems that Nida’s translation theories are more widely accepted than Catford’s in China because it is a theoretical system that is more compatible to the traditional Chinese translation theories. However, what we should keep in mind is that when we introduce foreign translation theories, in order to broaden our horizon, translation theories that seem to be incompatible to our traditional opinions are as important as those that are similar to our traditional translation views. Only in this way, can the translation theories be improved and developed further.

===References===
Cui Yangtong. 崔洋通. (2018). 不可译性:奈达与卡特福德之对比研究. [Untranslatability: A Comparative Study of Nida and Catford]. ''“校园英语” [Campus English]'' 241.

Jiang Li. 姜丽. (2010). 奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较. [A Comparison of Several Concepts in Nida's and Catford's Translation Theories]. ''“文教资料” [Cultural and Educational Materials]'' 44-46.

Lin Shuwu. 林书武. (1981). 奈达的翻译理论简介. [An Introduction to Nida's Translation Theory]. ''“国外语言学” [Foreign Linguistics]'' 1-7.

Li Zhidan. 李志丹. (2014). 卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨. [A Speculation on Catford’s and Nida's "Equivalence" Translation Theory]. ''“哈尔滨学院学报” [Journal of Harbin Institute]'' 93-95.

Shi Xishu & Du Ping. 石锡书 & 杜平. (2004). 辩证地看待奈达的“功能对等”理论. [A Critical Look at Nida's "Functional Equivalence" Theory]. ''“翻译科学初探” [A Preliminary Study on Translation Science]'' 69-71.

Xiong Demi. 熊德米. (2001). 奈达翻译理论评述. [A Review of Nida's Translation Theory]. ''“重庆大学学报” [Journal of Chongqing University]'' 85-89.

Catford, J. C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: E.J. Brill.

==Comparison of Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's Poetry Translation Principles 徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie 202020080657 英美文学==

<center> 徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie </center>

===Abstract===
Ezra Pound is a representative poet and literary critic at the beginning of 20th Century in western literary world. Together with important literary figures such as T.S. Eliot, he started a new trend in poetry creation and study, and at the same period, China was also undergoing an essential transition from old style poetry to free verse written in vernacular language. Inevitably, associations were made between them. Wen Yiduo's poetic theory is thought to be deeply influenced by Pound's, but growing out of specific cultural and social background, Wen's theory still has his own features which should be distinguished from Pound's. Therefore, it's necessary for us to distinguish their principles in poetry translation so as to better comprehend their contributions.

This paper aims to analyze the differences and similarities between Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's principles in poetry translation from comparisons of their translation principles in rhyme, image, and structure.

===Key words===
Poetry translation; Wen Yiduo; Ezra Pound

===题目===
埃兹拉·庞德和闻一多诗歌翻译原则的对比研究

===摘要===
20世纪初,埃兹拉·庞德是西方文坛一位具有代表性的诗人和文学批评家。他和艾略特等其他重要的文坛人物一起开创了诗歌创作和研究的新潮流。在同一时期的中国，一场重要的文化运动也正在进行，即从旧诗向白话新诗的转变。这两场运动之间也难以避免地有所联系。人们认为闻一多的诗歌理论深受庞德的影响，但是考虑到闻一多诗歌理论诞生的文化和社会背景，他的一些诗歌翻译原则和庞德的有不同之处。因此，为了更好地理解两者，我们有必要进行对比研究。

本文通过对比分析闻一多和庞德在诗歌韵律，意象，结构三方面的翻译原则，来看两者观点的异同。

===关键词===
诗歌翻译理论；闻一多；埃兹拉·庞德

===I.Introduction===

1. Research Background

With the fast development, China began to play a much more important role on world stage, naturally giving rise to the need of recommending Chinese culture to the world. From traditional Chinese literary creation to today's modern culture, it's vernacular literary movement that deserves our attention. At the beginning of 20th century, China was in an urgent need of opening up and learning from the western world. Some extreme ideas even caused the split between classical Chinese literary compositions and modern compositions， but at the same time， traditional Chinese culture was revived by western scholars like Ezra Pound， Amy Lowell, etc. Ezra Pound published ''Cathy''in 1915, setting off Imagist Movement (1909-1917). Wen Yiduo is a representative of the vernacular writing movement, and his first new poetic compositions might be ''A Rainy Night'' (雨夜) and ''Moon and Men'' (月亮和人)(Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993(1), 172-173).

Wen distinguished himself from the other representatives of vernacular writing movement by his relative complete frame both in literary composition as well as in literary criticism. Besides, Wen Yiduo's personal painting learning experience and his contact with western poets at that time are materials also worthy of discussion (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（12），432-433).

The reasons why these two figures are chosen to be compared in this paper are because, first, they two lived in the same time period ,and participated in two important literary movements of the time; second, both of them interpreted and applied Chinese traditional poems into modern composition but in different ways. Therefore, comparison on their understanding of poetic translation is a way to learn the role of Chinese traditional culture in modern times and to know these two poets and translators better.

2. Research Method

Close reading: this paper has collected relative works of Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound and papers on them. Through close reading, we come to know their ways of poem composing and their principles of poetry translation. Works covered in this chapter are, ''Complete Collections of Wen Yiduo'', ''Biography of Wen Yiduo'', ''Cathy'' of Ezra Pound, etc.

Comparative study: since there are some common points between these two poets and translators, comparisons are made between them to better distinguish their roles in relatively vernacular writing movement and imagist movement, in inheriting the old and making the new, and lastly in their poem translation principles(Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），37).

===II.Literature Review===

Wen Yiduo has been widely studied as a composer of new poetry, a painter, a researcher of classical poetry, as well as a revolutionist. Papers on Wen Yiduo focused more on his identity as a poetry composer than as a translator, so this chapter mainly studies his identity as a translator, complemented by his identity as a poet.

[[File:A.png]]

Papers on Wen Yiduo cover almost all aspects including his multiple identities as well as his further studies of traditional Chinese mythologies, classical poetry, etc. From the 1970s to present, this chapter chose recent papers on Wen Yiduo's translation. We can see from the picture below that studies of Wen Yiduo are still favored by scholars and in recent years even more papers on his translation principles were published. In 2005, a paper by Lv Jing is a watershed, for he announced the dawn of a new age of modern metrical poetry. Wen Yiduo is a pioneer of metrical poetry at the beginning of 20th century but he is inevitably constrained by his time. With the development of culture , now we are gradually entering a new era of modern metrical poetry(Lv Jing 2005，133-134).

[[File:8.png]]

Major works often cited by scholars are these two biggest black dots in the picture, works of Qian Liqun's (1998) ''Chinese Literature in Recent 30 Years'' (中国现代文学30年) and ''Collection on Translation Theories''(1984).

As for papers about comparison between Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound,there are 18 papers published in recent years in China.

Among the 18 papers, the most mentioned phrases are "Chinese new poetry", "poetry in translation", "the beauty of painting" in these papers. Most of these papers study on Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound from a general comparison between two movements (vernacular writing movement and imagist movement) with only one paper directly comparing the two figures in a comprehensive manner. It was written by Fu Jianan and Zhang Li in 2019. In this paper, the authors pointed out that Wen Yiduo was heavily influenced by Ezra Pound, which can be seen from his three principles of beauty: the beauty of music, the beauty of painting, and the beauty of architecture. Besides, they also believed that Wen Yiduo was influenced by the national and creative features of Ezra Pound's literary creation and criticism (Fu Jianan, Zhang Li 2019, 101-102).

====III.Discussion====

Wen Yiduo is a representative poet and translator in China at the beginning of 20th Century. At that time, China was experiencing a social and cultural upheaval with collapse of the old and emerging of the new. Since Wen Yiduo was born in a family with avant-garde thoughts, he came to get revolutionary idea at an early age. Although Wen Yiduo didn't participate directly in the May 4th movement, he demonstrated his firm support of students through a passionate patriotic poem. Clearly, Wen Yiduo's literary creation is indispensable from his social ideas. This could be revealed in subjects of his poems, for instance, ''Songs of Seven Sons'' (七子之歌), ''Song of the Sun''（太阳吟）, ''Silent Night'' (静夜), etc. As for his ideas in translation which are also closely associated with his understanding of poem composing, based on his personal learning and experiences (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（1）, 92).

Wen Yiduo experienced several transitions in his poetic writing throughout his life. He was at first a poet of classical poems (1916-1925) with works like, ''Ode on Horse'' (马赋), ''Ode on Pine'' （松赋), ''Spring Willow'' （春柳), etc. Later influenced by Hu Shi and vernacular writing movement, he devoted himself to new poem writing and criticized that classical poem shouldn't be composed and it should be totally abandoned (评本学年《周刊》里的新诗). After several tries in composing new poems, Wen Yiduo later went to America to continue his study on painting and literature. Here he came into contact with the Chicago poets and the American Imagists, which made his another transition. He then again criticized Hu Shi's absolute abandonment of rhyme and rhythm and advocated retrospectively drawing on classical Chinese culture, partly enlightened by his painting and classical poem study experiences in Chicago. After he was back to China, he pioneered in creating metrical poems, which associated western new poems' features together with image and structure of classical Chinese verses. He asked for beauty in music, beauty in image, and beauty in Architecture. His best work which realized his principles is ''Dead Water'' (死水) (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（1），275-277).

Ezra Pound had a same starting point of translation, which was to find an answer for his epoch and to solve problems existing in society. He even leveled the importance of Confucianism to that of Christianism, which is of immense importance in Western culture. He believed that the "order" and "benevolence" mentioned by Confucius were exactly what was needed, to conquer the social plight brought by industrialism, periodic economic crisis, isolation between human beings, etc (Jiang Hongxin 2001,78-79). Ezra Pound denied that poem translation should be word-to-word but maintain connotations behind it. He decided the name "imagism" for the writing movement in 1912 and later published ''Cathy''in 1915. He was delighted when he discovered that Chinese characters were full of beauty of images and classical poems like ''The Books of Songs''all could be a good source for imagist movement.

In ''A Pact'', Pound likened Whitman as his father in literature and himself as his son. Although he held some disagreements with his father, they two had to share the same root and sap. Whitman is like Hu Shi in China, who highlighted the importance of free expression, direct use of vernacular language, and relatively neglected the significance of structure, rhyme, and rhythm. Wen Yiduo had also mentioned that, he disagreed with Hu Shi's composition of absolute free verses in his ''Experiment'' (尝试集). In Wen Yiduo's view, sound and music are what contained within words, and only a concise expression like poem can produce powerful emotions with its natural, artistic syllables (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），62).

====1. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in image translation====

Wen Yiduo started painting when he was young and continued his study of painting in Chicago Academy of Fine Arts. All these experience provided him a chance to paint poems and he had a unique understanding of images based on his study on both classical Chinese poems and new poems. At the beginning of his composing of new poems, poems on nature took a great part of them. Yet he later found that his direct use of a lot of common images in classical poems made his poem too direct and superficial. He therefore decided to use more uncommon images. When he came to America and knew Chicago poets like Carl Sandburg as well as imagists like Amy Lowell, he was affected by their ideas in poem composing. The Chicago poets use direct language and free verse to paint out the world in a vivid way. Images are important to Chicago poets but they put rhythm and rhyme in a non-essential position (Jiao Jianping 2001, 134-135). Wen Yiduo therefore, at the earlier period of his poem composing, he paid great attention to image use and also disregarded rhythm and rhyme. Here we have one short excerpt of his earlier composition:

太阳辛苦了一天，
赚得一个平安的黄昏，
喜得满面通红，
一气直往山洼里狂奔。

This excerpt was from one of his earlier vernacular poem and it's very direct and daily, yet lacking beauty in music, image, and depth, and he soon gave up this style. He agreed with Hu Shi's idea in liberating human mind by literature revolution, but he still enhanced the importance of literary form (Bei Ta 2011,105-106). Wen Yiduo therefore, criticize Hu Shi's writing for lacking beauty in music and in image. As a translator, his principles of poem translation are heavily impacted by his identity as a poet. He believed that translator of poem should be a poet himself and the process of translation could be viewed as a process of recreation. Wen Yiduo compared poem composing as traditional Chinese painting; the blending of colors creates a new harmonious image and words should be like colors (Sun Dandbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），202).

Take Wen Yiduo's poem ''Red Candler''as an example, he used the image of red candler to praise the selfless spirit of sacrifice and affirmed his belief in brightness. In Wen Yiduo's own writing, we could see the transition in his using of color image, which shifted from bright ones to dim ones as we can discover from ''Red Candler'' (红烛), ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Color'' (色彩) to ''Dead Water'' (死水). Images of colors in his poems are often studied by scholars. And it is taken as a clear combination of his idea on both painting and poetry composing. And as we've mentioned above, Wen Yiduo's poetry contained his patriotic idea which is not only shown in subjects but also in his insistence on the form of poetry. As we can see in both ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Dead Water'' (死水), Wen Yiduo pursued a visual presentation of descriptive pictures. Although Wen Yiduo had studied painting in America, he had shown more freehand sketch in his poem rather then western fine brush work (Xin Chunsheng 2011, 28-29). All his principles in poem composition were applied to his translation later. Wen Yiduo asked for concrete image rather than mystery one which also coincides with Pound's idea.

''"这种空空疏疏模模糊糊的描写法使读者丝毫得不着一点具体的印象，当然是弱于幻想力底结果。" （Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），62).

"Don’t use such an expression as "dim lands of peace." It dulls the image. It mixes an abstraction with the concrete. It comes from the writer’s not realizing that the natural object is always the adequate symbol." (A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste)''

Ezra Pound can be taken as an orientalist for his love and study on eastern cultures. Before he came to know Chinese, he was captured by the conciseness but rich connotation contained in Chinese traditional culture. His interests in traditional Chinese poems was started by ''A History of Chinese Literature ''(Herbert Giles) and later became addicted to it for Fenollosa's introduction of oriental art (Guo Wei 1988,110). In the process of translating Chinese traditional poem, he formed his poem composing principles. He believed that poem should not be written in superfluous words; abstraction should not be mixed with concrete natural symbols; and expressions should be polished with good ornaments (Ezra Pound, A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste). Pound had many practices of image-using and he was known for his superimposition of images.

“落叶依于重扃。（''落叶哀蝉曲'' 刘彻）”"A wet leaf that clings to the threshold."

This sentence has shown Pound's superimposition of images well. Here "wet leaf" and "threshold" are two different images but the verb "cling" is used well to paint a picture of deep autumn and to arouse the feeling of departure. Even the leaf is hesitating of leaving, how about humans? Both "fallen leaf" and "threshold" are classical images used in Chinese poems. Pound chose concrete images to convey the abstract melancholy just as Chinese classical poem did. In ''Cathy'', ''The Beauiful Toilet'' has shown that Ezra Pound also had his own understanding of color image. "Blue, blue is the grass about the river", "White, white of face, hesitates, passing the door." There are 6 duplicated words in original poem but Pound only kept the duplicated forms of the color words "青青" and "皎皎", which reflects his high attention to color image although he didn't mentioned that in his essay (''Cathy'').

Both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound drew nourishment from classical Chinese poems and attached great importance to image using. Yet, since Wen Yiduo had experiences as a painter, he was more sensitive to color images than Pound, though Pound also had his own preference to images. Therefore, we may assume that Wen Yiduo was affected by imagism and Ezra Pound, but Wen Yiduo also had his personally preference and choice of image application based on his understanding of classical Chinese poems and painting just as what was shown in ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（1），94).

====2. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in rhyme translation====

Wen Yiduo composed poems in classical Chinese with traditional style at first, when he was at school. Later deeply affected by ideas of vernacular poem composing as highlighted by Hu Shi, he accepted that we should liberate citizen's mind from constraints of classical writing and shifted his composing from classical style to vernacular free verse. When Wen Yiduo started to compose his new poem, he realized too direct an expression was would lose the hazy beauty. Different from Hu Shi, Wen Yiguo attached great importance to rhyme and rhythm of poems. This might have some association with his experience of Tang poem studies. He appreciated the beauty of classical poem and even believed that it's almost impossible for us to translate these poems into English, otherwise it woud be a waste of classical poems. To translate Yuefu folksongs, free verse is thought to be the best choice to him, for their similarity in form. And translator is given more space to think about rhyme (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），54).

In his comment on Shigeyoshi Obata's translation on Li Po's poems, Wen blamed the translator for using free verse to translate Li Po's metrical poems. Because Wen himself is a big fan of Li Po, he denied that Li Po's grander style and imposing manner could be kept in free verses (Huang Yanjie 2014, 611). He then practiced his translation believes into his own writings. In the next year(1927), he translated a poem of John Masefield.

Sea Fever (1902)
by： John Masefield

I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky,

And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by,

And the wheel's kick and the wind's song and the white sail's shaking,

And a gray mist on the sea's face, and a gray dawn breaking.

I must go down to the seas again, for the call of the running tide

Is a wild call and a clear call that may not be denied;

And all I ask is a windy day with the white clouds flying,

And the flung spray and the blown spume, and the sea-gulls crying.

I must go down to the seas again, to the vagrant gypsy life,

To the gull's way and the whale's way, where the wind's like a whetted knife;

And all I ask is a merry yarn from a laughing fellow-rover,

And quiet sleep and a sweet dream when the long trick's over.

我要回海上去

我要回海上去，再回到荒凉的天涯海角，

我要求的是一只楼船，一颗星儿做她的向导，

还有龙骨破着浪，风声唱着歌，白帆在风里摇，

海面上一阵灰色的雾，一个灰色的破晓。

我要回海上去，因为那一阵潮水的呼声

是狂暴的呼声，嘹亮的呼声，你没有法子否认

我要求的是一个刮风的天儿，还飞着些白云，

再加上海水翻着浪花儿，海鸥也在叫你。

我要回海上去，再过那漂泊的生涯才好！

走上海鸥的道，鲸鱼的道，那里的风像把快刀；

我要的是做完了的活，大伙儿谈着天儿说着笑，

临了，来一场甜蜜的梦，一宿安稳的觉。（''时事新报·学灯'' 1927）

John Masefield's Sea Fever is a rhymed poetry and Wen chose end rhyme to echo the original version, in order to achieve the musical beauty in poem. Besides a lot alliterations "a star to steer/ a clear call, etc." are used in the original poem to form the enormous power and repetition is another figure of speech in this poem, "I must go down to the seas again", which could emphasize the poet's emotion.

To maintain the original features, Wen Yiduo preserved the original repetition and parallels in his translation. Wen Yidou thought that art is an artificial decoration together with natural beauty. In his translation, to achieve the parallel structure and concise expression, he had chopped off unnecessary conjunctions and shift the order of words. For example, "I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky, And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by," "again" this world was shifted into the latter part of the translation and "lonely sea and the sky " was translated into a Chinese four-character idiom "天涯海角". The infinitive "To steer" was translated into a verb-object structure-"做她的向导" to ensure the balance of translation (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），54).

Compared with the original version, we can discover the translated version is even more concise and has clear beats to form music. To form a parallel structure and the clear rhythm, Wen Yiduo added some decorative elements or deleted some unimportant ones to achieve his ideal music. “龙骨”，“风声”，“白帆”are words chosen by translator based on original expression, in order to match both requirements of images and readability. “还”，“临了”，“天儿”， these are words added by the translator which are rich in Chinese culture and are tainted by vernacular feature. This can help to achieve an effect of a balance between the looseness and the tense within poem. Wen Yiduo believes that poems should have multiple rhythms serving for one theme, which can catch reader's attention and arouse emotions. It's more natural (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），54). In this poem, Wen wanted to present the poem in the rhythm of waves.

Different from Wen Yiduo's insistence on the rhyme and rhythm of poems, Ezra Pound believed that "It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music, but if it does rely on its music that music must be such as will delight the expert" (Ezra Pound, ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste'', 1913). Take ''The River-Merchant's Wife: a Letter'' as an example, Pound translated Chinese poem into a prose than a rhymed poem, and to this extent his emphasis is more on the other side as himself said that he agreed that music was important but he didn't take it as a priority. He believed that poems could be divided into three kinds, and poems of sounds is one of them. Poems of sounds could be appreciated without being translated, for its musicality to some extent is untranslatable. But he regarded images as conveyable and was devoted to convey images in Chinese poems to English translations.

Thus we can see, the rhyme and rhythm are as important as images to Wen Yiduo, for he thought these were indispensable ways to convey emotion and arouse feeling. Wen Yiduo asked for not only beauty in image but also beauty in music, and he showed no preference between the two, yet, to Pound, as said in ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste'', "It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music". Wen Yiduo attached so much importance to music, so that he once said, some five-character quatrains of Li Po could not be translated into another language for he believed that Li Po's five-character quatrains were ancient soul in modern cover with decorations added. The beats and syllables form the imposing manner of his poem and once these verses were transplanted into another container, the favor might be lost (Wen Yiduo 1926，1).

====3. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in translation of architecture====

Pound studied both Chinese and Japanese poems. Therefore, the structure of his translations can often be traced back to parallelism of Chinese poem as well as the Japanese Haiku.

In a Station of the Metro
The Apparition of these faces in the crowd;
Petals on a wet, black bough.

This is one of Pound's most famous poems and Pound regarded it as his masterpiece of imitation of Japanese Haiku. However, some scholars hold a different view, such as Wu Di, who believed that this poem is closer to an imitation of Chinese parallelism. He listed the reasons as follows: First, the poem has parallel compositions of time and space and contrasts of colors of flower petals and branches. Second, Wu thought that metrical unit of this poem is "word", which is distinct from "syllable" in English poems and Japanese Haiku. Haiku highlighted more on artistic conception than metrical harmony. Besides, this poem paid more attention to the conceptual words than functional words (Wu Di 2007，55-56).

Pound's translation of poems are influenced by forms of folk songs, sonnets, Greek-style lyric poems, and elegy, etc. and it can be traced back to Provence love song, Japanese Haiku and Chinese traditional poetry (Wang Guiming, Liujia 2006，85).

Wen Yiduo is the pioneer of new metrical poems in China and he asked poets to learn from western metrics and combined them with Chinese traditional poems. He advocated that the highest form of art should be "pure form". That is why he called for "beauty of architecture". In Chinese architecture, balance is taken as beauty in tidy form, which is also asked for in poem composed by himself (Cheng Liming 2016，72-73). Wen Yiduo once said that balance was very essential in Chinese aesthetic appreciation, and we could see it in both Chinese architectures and poems. Pattern, syntax, diction and coordination are elements required in a well composed poem.

Thursday
——Edna St. Vincent Millay

And if I loved you Wednesday,

Well, what is that to you?

I do not love you Thursday—

So much is true.

And why you come complaining

Is more than I can see.

I loved you Wednesday,

—yes—but what Is that to me?

礼拜四

即使我礼拜三爱你，

你管它做什么？

礼拜四我并不爱你，

却一点也不错。

我真不懂，你何为还

找着我来纠缠。

礼拜三我爱你—对—

可是那与我又何干？（　——原载1927年11月5日上海《时事新报文艺周刊》第9期）

This is a poem translated by Wen Yiduo which reflects his ideas in poem translation, especially in achieving beauty in architecture. First, this poem consists of two stanzas and in each stanza, the second and the fourth lines are shorter than the first and the third lines. We can see that the translator transferred the original form of the poem into the translation but did a little alternation to achieve a better presentation. In this sentence, "—yes—but what/Is that to me?", to balance the length of sentences, the translator shift the word "—yes—" to the verse before the last one, "礼拜三我爱你—对—" to match the number of words. Another instance in this poem is this sentence -"And why you come complaining/Is more than I can see". To ensure the balance of two stanzas, the translator broke the sentence, "你何为还找着我来纠缠" into two verses, "你何为还/找着我来纠缠"(Fan Shouyi 2004，101-102).

Besides, there is a semantic symmetry designed by the translator. There is no obvious transitional word before the last line of the first stanza but a dash to indicate it. Therefore the author added "却" to echo "可是" in the last line of the last stanza and replaced the dash to achieve the balance in form as well as in meaning. All these efforts of the translator are devoted to achieve the aesthetic sense in architecture(Fan Shouyi 2004，101-102).

In a word, both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound ask for beauty in form but they draw their nourishment from different places with different focus, for example, Ezra Pound studied and composed Provence love poems and Japanese Haiku. In ''Cathy'', we can see that many classical Chinese poems were translated into prose which are more loose in form, but in Wen Yiduo's translation, he highlighted the structural balance and was stick to Chinese traditional sense of beauty in architecture (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），3).

====4.Conclusion====
To sum up, Ezra Pound as a imagist had absorbed elements in Chinese traditional culture and reinterpreted Chinese images in his translation. What should be emphasized is that his understanding of Chinese poems and images comes from Fenollosa, and ''Cathy'' is rewriting of Fenollosa's writing. In his translation, Ezra Pound calls for artistic conception through the image superimposition. And as for his form of translation, it's more loose than that of Wen Yiduo's, for Ezra Pound though required order in literary works, he didn't take "order" as "balance". His order may exist in his position of images but it does not have to be balance in number of words or pattern of expressions. Being a fan of Li Po, Wen Yiduo even though influenced by vernacular writing movements, Chicago poets, and imagist movements, he advocated the importance of form and highlighted artistic feature of poems, the metric, which was a combination of the old and the new.

Basing on comparisons of Ezra Pound and Wen Yiduo in these three aspects, we come to know that Wen Yiduo was influenced by the imagist movement and he did pay high attention to image-using later in his works, but Wen Yiduo's literary understanding should also be attributed to his family background, China's social environment at that time, and his life experiences. Before he becomes a poet, he is a patriotic citizen. Wen Yiduo's literary works have a solid patriotic foundation and that's why he always tried to maintain Chinese traditional culture and to spread it through literary creations. This explains the elements of traditional Chinese painting and Chinese aesthetic sense of architecture in his poems, as well as the specific Chinese images contained in his poems like chrysanthemum, candler, red bean, etc. It's better to say that Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound are two poets and translators born in a similar social environment than to say that one is an exact imitator of the other. Since they two have their unique cultural background and are both passionate lover of Chinese poems, they naturally share some common features in literary presentations, but there are also distinctions reflecting their own cultural identity like what we discovered in both their own writings and translations.

===V.Reference===

*Ezra Pound. Cathy. ''London: Elkin Mathews, Cork Street Mcmxv.伦敦:埃尔金·马修斯，科克街 Mcmxv''

*Ezra Pound (1913).A Few Don’ts by an Imagiste.[意象派不该做的几件事]. ''Poetry 诗歌''.

*Bei Ta 北塔.(2011).略论闻一多诗歌之英文翻译[On the English Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Researches Series''(12):97-108.

*Cheng Liming 陈历明.(2016).闻一多的诗歌翻译与格律诗学的生成[On Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poetry and the Generation of Metrical Poetics].''文艺理论研究 Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art'' 36(01):64-75.

*Fan Shouyi 范守义.(2004).论诗歌的句法结构美──汉英诗歌比较研究[On the Syntactic Structure of Poetry -- A Comparative Study of Chinese and English Poetry].''外交学院学报 Journal of China *Foreign Affairs University''(04):98-107.

Fu Jianan Zhangli 傅建安,张立.(2019). 论艾兹拉·庞德对闻一多的诗学影响[On Ezra Pound's influence on Wen Yiduo's poetics].''城市学刊 Urban Journal'' 40(05):99-102.

*Guo Wei 郭为.(1988).埃兹拉·庞德的中国汤[The Chinese Soup of Ezra Pound].''读书 Reading''(10):104-110.

*Jiang Hongxin 蒋洪新.(2001).庞德的翻译理论研究[Study on Pound's Translation Theory ].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University)''(04):77-80.

*Bei Ta 北塔.(2011).略论闻一多诗歌之英文翻译[On the English Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Researches Series''(12):97-108.

*Cheng Liming 陈历明.(2016).闻一多的诗歌翻译与格律诗学的生成[On Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poetry and the Generation of Metrical Poetics].''文艺理论研究 Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art'' 36(01):64-75.

*Jiao Jianping 焦建平.(2001).卡尔·桑德堡与“意象主义”[Carl Sandburg and Imagism].''西北大学学报(哲学社会科学版) Journal of Northwestern University (Philosophy and Social Sciences)''(04):134-137.

*Huang Lina黄丽娜.(2013) 闻一多诗歌翻译研究[Research on the Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''湖南师范大学 Hunan Normal University''.

*Huang Yanjie黄焰结.(2014) 英译李太白——闻一多与小畑薰良译诗对话的文化考量[English Translation of Li Po's Poems-- Cultural Study on Wen Yiduo and Shigeyoshi Obata's Talk on Poetic Translation ].''外语教学与研究 Foreign Language Teaching and Research'' 46(04):605-615+641.

*Lv Jing 吕进.(2005)三大重建:新诗,二次革命与再次复兴[Three Major Reconstructions: New Poetry, the Second Revolution and Rejuvenation ].''西南师范大学学报(人文社会科学版)Journal of Southwest Normal University (Humanities and Social Sciences edition)''(01):130-135.

*Sun Dangbo, Yuan Zhengchun 孙党伯袁春正.(1993).闻一多全集. [Complete Works of Wen Yiduo] ''武汉：湖北人民出版社 Wuhan: Hubei People's Publishing House.''12

*Wu Di吴笛.(2007)论庞德“在地铁车站”中的汉诗特性[On Characteristics of Chinese Poetry in Pound's ''In a Station of the Metro''].''外国文学研究 FOREIGN LITERATURE STUDIES''(05):53-57.

*Wen Yiduo.(1926)英译李太白诗[English translation of Li Po's poems]''《北平晨报》副刊 Supplement to Peiping Morning Post''.

*Wang Guiming, Liu Jia王贵明,刘佳.(2006)今韵古风——论埃兹拉·庞德诗歌翻译和创作中的仿古倾向[Archaic Style in Modern Form-- On the Archaic Tendency in Ezra Pound's Poetry Translation and Creation].''北京理工大学学报(社会科学版)Journal of Beijing University of Science and Engineering (Social Sciences Edition)''(06):79-85.

*Xin Chunsheng辛春生.(2011) 闻一多《忆菊》诗的绘画美新探[A new Exploration on the Beauty of Painting of Wen Yiduo's Poem "Reminicence of Chrysanthemum"].''名作欣赏 Master Pieces
Review''(35):28-29.

==A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Versions of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory 彭丹 Peng Dan==
<center> 彭丹 Peng Dan 202020080631 日语语言文学</center>

===Abstract===
With the development of cultural exchanges among all countries, more and more famous works, novels and films have been translated into many versions for people to enjoy. It has become a headache for many translators to realize the original style. In 1969, Eugene Nida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward the theory of functional equivalence, which focuses on the realization of communication between different cultures and languages. This thesis, from the perspective of functional equivalence, through comparing Fu Weici's and Li Jihong's two Chinese versions of ''The Moon and Sixpence'', which written by Maugham, sums up the way to realize the equivalence of words, sentences and semantics during the translation and the way to present the readers' response. Some scholars think that the functional equivalence theory ignores the equivalence of form and the style of the original work. However, the theory of functional equivalence is derived from practice, so its achievements are obvious and it makes great contribution to translation. In this paper, the author will propose that the form equivalence does not affect the reader's understanding of the original work. This paper focuses on the application of functional equivalence theory in the two versions and describes how translators realize the equivalence of meaning, form and cultural equivalence. In the end, the author will give opinions on the theory of functional equivalence and have a commentation on which version is more suitable for readers

===KEY WORDS:===
Functional Equivalence; Formal Equivalence; Reader's Response

===题目===
功能对等理论视角下《月亮与六便士》的两个汉译本对比研究

===摘要===
随着各国文化交流的发展，越来越多的名著、小说或影视作品被译成多种版本供人们欣赏。如何完美地展现原著的风采是让众多译者感到头疼的事情。1969年，美国著名翻译理论学家尤金.奈达提出的功能对等理论，强调实现不同文化、语言之间的沟通对等，侧重读者的反映。本文从功能对等理论的视角，通过对比研究傅惟慈和李继宏关于《月亮与六便士》的两个中文译本，总结出译者在小说翻译的过程中是如何实现单词、句子、语义和文化的对等以及实现读者的反映。有学者认为功能对等理论忽略了形式的对等和原著的文体，但功能对等理论源于实践，它的成果有目共睹并为翻译界做出了巨大贡献。本文会提及译者在翻译过程中所忽略的形式对等并不影响读者对原著的理解，侧重描写功能对等理论在这两本译文中的应用，并详细描写它是如何实现意思、形式以及文化的对等。最后我会提出自己对于功能对等理论的见解，并评判出我认为更加适合读者的译本。
===关键词===

功能对等；沟通对等；读者反映

===1. Introduction===

====1.1 Research Background====

Coincident with the development of cultural globalization, more and more foreign literary works are translated into Chinese for domestic people to read and appreciate. Whereas after reading the original works which have been translated frequently, we may still feel that there are many regrets in most works. On the one hand, if the translators only quest corresponding words, it may limit the reader's thought in a large aspect so that the readers couldn't deeply understand the emotion that the author wants to express. On the other hand, if the translators only pursue semantics and thought, it probably can not reflect the profound meaning of a word which the author wants to express. Furthermore, there are many differences between eastern and western cultures and everyone has their own style of expression. If a translator has polarity style for the original author to translate his works, the difference between the two may be obvious. In order to show the original works better and reduce the difference between source language and target language, Eugene Nida, according to the nature of translation, puts forward the famous Functional Equivalence Theory. It states that translation is not only the equivalence of words, but also the equivalence of style, semantic and type of writing. The information conveyed by translation not only includes the surface information but also the deepe culture information.(Nida 1984,21）

====1.2 Literature Review====

In 1969, Eugene Nida put forward the functional equivalence theory. In 1986, he published a book which called From One Language to Another. This work is a representative in his theoretical pursuit of translation. He also made numerous amendments and supplements according with his previous translation theories. He used the "functional equivalence" to replace the "dynamic equivalence".

From nearly five years of development at home and abroad, we can see that the functional equivalence theory not only involves the translation of novels but also the news, politics, traditional Chinese medical name, the loaded culture words, the road science and technology, drama and other related aspects of text translation and film translation etc.. After searching the published papers, we could find some papers which use the perspective of functional equivalence theory. Such as Zhou Xiaohui's "Translating Strategies of Movie and TV Scripts from English to Chinese from the Perspective of Functionalist Equivalence: as Shown in the Translation of the Script of Crash", published in Beijing Foreign Studies University. And Chen Anqi's "Applying Nida's Functional Equivalence to the Translation of the Non-Technical Part of Sci-tech Texts", published in Beijing Foreign Studies University and etc.

In 1919, Maugham's ''The Moon and Sixpence'' was published which described a British painter went to south Pacific Tahiti and had the primitive life with the Indigenous people here. And ultimately he became the successful painter. In China, there are numerous translation versions about ''The Moon and Sixpence''. In this thesis, I want to introduce Fu Weici's translation version and Li Jihong's tra versions in particular and compare these two Chinese versions.

====1.3 Research Methodology====

1. Literature study: in order to get the first-hand information of the functional equivalence theory, it is necessary for us to read many literature such as taking the thesis and journals in the CNKI or VIP. Through these materials, we can learn a lot unknown and complete the thesis more comprehensive.

2. Example-analysis: in this thesis, I will list a majority of examples. These examples are classified on words, sentences and semantics etc.. At the same time, this thesis will also illustrate some examples which do not seem to achieve the functional equivalence. Through these examples we can get a better understanding of the functional equivalence theory and its characteristic in application.

3. Comparative study: in this thesis, I will choose Fu Weici's and Li Jihong's Chinese versions to make comparison in words, style, culture and semantics. By comparing the differences of the two Chinese versions, we can have a deeper understanding on the functional equivalence theory in application.

4. Summarize experience: This thesis will take the summarize experience of two Chinese versions to show their relation with functional equivalence and the difference between them. This thesis will also list some summarize experience which maybe not be suitable for translation.

===2. The Functional Equivalence Theory===

====2.1 Introduction of Eugene Nida====

Eugene Nida is an outstanding theorist in translation in American. And his translation theory largely influence on the translation works in both foreign countries and domestic land. His theory on the translation is a landmark of studies in modern translation. Moreover, in contrast to contemporary theorists, he is evaluated as the most noted theorist.

Eugene Nida was born in a city of Oklahoma on the November 11, 1914. He went to university in Los Angeles where he elected the Greek as the major degree and he found that he liked the Bible. Then he created outstanding academic records during the university. Afterwards, he got master's degree in Greek new translation at Southern California. In 1943, he got his doctor degree after graduation. Then he was employed by American Bible Society and his duty was to check and estimate the publications of the Bible. He needed to provide the services for the missionary translators and given the advices to them about how to translate better. To help the translator to solve the questions about translation and different culture, he went to 85 countries and experienced various aspects of culture and language. In 1970, Eugene Nida was elected as the coordinator for the translations research in United Bible Society. His responsibility is to write the translators handbooks and prepare the materials for teaching the translators and test them. After long, there were many new versions about the bible were sold well all around the world. These new versions about the bible all translated by guidance of the Nida's dynamic equivalence. Eugene Nida has devoted decades to bible translation and he has contributed to the flourishing of the bible translation in twentieth century.

====2.2 Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory====

In the early period of Nida's essays, he emphasized that there were not complete equivalence between two languages so that there were no absolute translation. Subsequently, he devoted to finding the closest equivalence about the nature, on the basis of that, he developed three translation theories which were the formal equivalence theory, the dynamic equivalence theory and the functional equivalence theory.

The formal equivalence that mainly emphasizes the equivalence of language's formal and content. Therefore, in the translation process, the translators often due to excessively focus the grammatical structure of the source language, word's coherence and interior literal meaning so that neglect the target language reader's response, the different culture is the ascribed leads to the target language readers couldn't understand the original meaning. But it also has its own strength like Kelly said it could indicate how the meaning was expressed in original works, preserving un-translated idiom and rhetorical.

The dynamic equivalence theory has no essential difference with functional equivalence theory and it develops from formal equivalence. For avoiding it is often misunderstood that Nida uses the expression of functional equivalence to describe the accuracy of the translation. The former emphasizes the importance of formal and content, the latter more emphasizes on the communication with language and culture.

The functional equivalence is defined as "a term referring to the type of equivalence reflected in a target text which seeks to adapt the functional of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced" in the dictionary. From this definition it indicated functional equivalence not only emphasizes the linguistics and form but also emphasizes the communication of different background. Such as we could translate the "white as frost" to replace the "white as snow" if there isn't snow this word. If both of them are impracticable we could translate into "very very white". Form this example we could deeply understand the definition of the functional equivalence about communication. This theory pays attention to the target language reads' response under the different cultural and language. So he used "the functional equivalence" to replace "the dynamic equivalence" in the year of 1969.(Zhang Dongdong 2015,5)

The functional equivalence had made a great contribution for translation field. But there are also some critics about it by some translation scholars with different perspectives. First some scholars think it pays too attention about readers' repose that neglects the authority of text. They point out that sometimes the reader's response is subjective so it impossible to realize the equivalence of target language according to the readers' response. Secondly some scholars it is the superior to the form equivalence. Therefore it has litter emphasis on the form. As we all known that different countries have the different cultures and there are also great difference on the people's abilities about learning. So it means that it is not necessary to reduce much original difficulty to realize the communicative purpose.(Zhang 2015,7)

Although there are many critics about it, his theories come from the practice and these theories had strong guiding for our translation. What's more, the functional equivalence had solved the long-standing argument between the "literal translation" and the "liberal translation".

====2.3 Research of Functional Equivalence at Home and Abroad====

Presently at home and abroad, the functional equivalence theory's research is mainly focused on the study of translation's guidance of literary works. As opposed to business letters and legal materials, the functional equivalence theory is more inclined to convey the original works' content and connotation rather than grammatical forms. Currently there are majority researches on the versions about ''The Moon and Sixpence'' at home and aboard. However most of them are analyzing the protagonist's characteristic or the author's background and living condition. There are few researches that are about the compassion-studying and analyzing ''The Moon and sixpence'' from the perspective of the functional equivalence theory of Nida.(Liu Qiong 2016,14)

=== 3. Introduction of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' and Its Two Chinese versions===

====3.1 Brief Introduction of ''The Moon and sixpence''====

The moon and sixpence is one of the great works of William Somerset Maugham, a British novelist, written in 1919. The book is sold subject to the condition that is shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, resold, hired out, or otherwise circulated without the publisher's prior consent in any form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published and without a similar condition. First it published in Great Britain by William Heinemann in 1919. In this novel, Maugham tells the whole story in the first person narrative. This book is based on the French impressionist painter Gauguin's life who originally is a securities broker at the middle-aged. However he gave up everything to the South Pacific island of Tahiti and lived with the indigenous people. Finally he got inspiration and created many masterpieces of art. This novel became popular in the twentieth Century and it revealed the theme of escaping the reality. (Fu Weici 1994,12)

The work relates the content by the first person perspective. The protagonist is a writer who knows about Charles Strickland's family. The family looked happiness and perfectly satisfactory, however, Charles Strickland was always lacking in energy. After long, he left home to Paris that to decide look for his own art.

The protagonist goes to aboard and founds the Charles Strickland who denotes to struggle out of this life which he couldn't drawing absolutely obey his own heart. He firmly left his wife and children with nothing left. Fortunately, his wife found the skills to live well with the children. After five years, the protagonist met Charles Strickland in Paris that he lived in poverty and no friends with him but he still immersed his dream and never felt regret. His talent increasingly got the recognition during the progress of quest the art. (Fu 1994,136)

Latterly he decided to abandon the civilized life to the original islands in the South Pacific island of Tahiti where the protagonist met by chance. Charles Strickland married a native girl and had three children, spending three years short of happiness.

Finally the children died and he also had leprosy. Eventually, he finished a piece of work on the wall when he was blind. The native wife buried him, according to his wishes, destroyed his work on the wall which makes the protagonist feel regret. However the protagonist understood his pursuit in his paintings. (Fu 1994,198)

After the publishing of ''The Moon and Sixpence'', it attracts the readers by the plots and profound words and it makes a noise in the world.

====3.2 The Characteristics of the language====

Maugham is recognized the British with deeply influence of French literary. The largest characteristic of his work is that the language is humorous and interesting for readers. This mainly comes down to the fact that he is good at conceiving and telling stories. What's more it also in addition to what he often shows in his novels. Maugham's text is not tense and there are always cold tone of a British style detached from outside the novels and readers.

His works inevitably have some acrimonious words which could accurately describe the social reality by he own sees and hears. For in ''The Moon and Sixpence'' when he describes the success of the Charles Strickland that he write "I do not speak of that greatness which is achieved by the fortunate politician or the successful soldier; that is a quality which belongs to the place he occupies rather than to the man; and a change of circumstance reduces it to very discreet proportions. The prime Minister out of office is seen, too often, to have been but a pompous rhetorician, and the General without an army is but the tame hero of a market town. The greatness of Charles Strickland was authentic. It may be that you do not like his art, but at all events you can hardly refuse it the tribute of your interest. He disturbs and arrests." By these sentences we can know about the success clearly of the Charles Strickland by comparison. It may be that these languages are too direct to attack politicians and generals, but we can't deny the fact. Maugham's writing style is short and humorous and we can see the reality of society quickly by his text. (Guo Xiaoling 2014,4)

The novel describes Charles Strickland's feeling with three different women's. These three women basically represent the characteristics of the world most women. The first woman is most common who quest the materialistic, selfish, good face, and with a direct survival instinct. The second women considers the love is supremacy and she is weak and locking the ability to survive. The most pure is his third women. Maybe we couldn't define her feeling to Charles Strickland. Their marriage is like a merger of similar items, she lived just for him and she has been with him together. In my opinion, these three women are sympathy-worthy and pitiful. Since if eventually Charles Strickland said “Women are strange little beasts. You can treat them like dogs, you can beat them till your arm aches, and still they love you." These sentences are very simple neither too many gorgeous words nor long winded repetition words. However it is always able to impress deeply you from the heart and it can let you know what the emotion the author wants to express. (Guo 2014,4)

Likely these instances, Charles Strickland took keen to pursuit his own dream and he does not care these things around him so that he can't understand why women will follow him without any condition. He thinks they are sympathy-worthy and stupid. In order to vividly embody this feeling, the woman is compared to a dog. Even though you treat them as the dog, they still do not abandon you and love you as before. Through these words I believe that although you haven't read this book you could also understand the meaning which the author wants to express. Charles Strickland hates the limit of loving and family and he also couldn't feel the women's feeling. (Cao Jing 2013,2)

Charles Strickland shrugged his shoulders and said "Of course, it is one of the most absurd illusions of Christianity that they have souls." This sentence through the description of that they have the soul reflected that the pure in his heart. And he pitied them only because he thinks people have more important things to pursue and the people should follow their own heart to do what they want to do. He thinks women have souls, but they don't realize what they really want to do. Maugham's character and the inner world of the characters reflected in the simple humorous sentences have to admit that a simple sentence has a huge amount of information.

====3.3 Introduction of Fu Weici's and Li Jihong's Chinese Versions====

Fu Weici was born in Harbin in 1923. He is the remarkable translator of modern literary. Fu Weici worked in western language and literature respectively in the Fu Jen Catholic University, Zhejiang University and Peking University. He graduated from Peking University in 1950 and worked in Tsinghua University and Peking University for the job of Chinese teaching. Eventually he died in March 16, 2014 at the age of 91. As far as I am concerned and researching from computer, Fu Weici' version is more simple and there are a lot of language are very straightforward and particularly close to the social situation at that time. There are even a lot of vernacular and dialect. But this version is more close to the original so that the story does not seem boring.

Li Jihong was born in 1980 and his native is Guangdong, now resides in Shanghai. He is also remarkable translator but younger than Fu Weici. His publication has millions of best-selling translation of Kite Runne, conversations with God, the great Gatsby, the little prince and so on. His contributions are covering novels, prose, translations of sociology, economics, philosophy and religion etc. Comparing Fu Weici's version, Li Jihong's version is more close to people's voice habits and there are many languages are very smooth and complete, giving people a sense of comfort and in the language it has also increased a lot of modern elements. The specific differences of the two translations will be put forward in the following article.

===4. A Comparative Study of ''The Moon and Sixpence'''s Two Chinese versions===

====4.1 A Comparative Study on the Meaning====

=====4.1.1 A Comparative Study on the Designative Meaning=====

The designative meaning refers to referents in the realistic world. It is mainly based on observation of world's objects and experience and it is objective and easy to understand. The translators are easy to achievement equivalence of expression in another language to translate the word's designative meaning.

There are some instances of the two versions of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' following.

Example 1: "All we know is that the blackguard gone to Paris."

Fu Weici's version: "我们只知道那个流氓跑到巴黎去了。"

Li Jihong's version: "我们只知道那混蛋去了巴黎。"

In this word, we can see that either 流氓 Or 混蛋 are all to describe Charles Strickland and expresses the people's resentful to him. In the original work the author uses blackguard to describe Charles Strickland. The most meaning of this word is 流氓 and there is rarely 混蛋 this meaning on the Internet. If we translate it into 流氓 that we could understand that this people are homeless and are derelict in duty and run irrelevant business. And this people show low-down means or break the law and so on. Another if we translate into 混蛋 that expresses this person are unreasonable and are impervious to reason. In the original work the Charles Strickland abandon his wife and children without leaving anything and there are not any wrongs with his wife. We can learn from the post that he just to pursuit his dream and he considers the loving is the obstacle for him. The people around his wife all mostly think that he had mistress and he is heartless. From this we can see that he did not do the heinous thing or violate the law, merely because what he has done attracted people's discontent. Therefore I consist it is more appropriated to translate the blackguard into 混蛋. The 流氓 just release the equivalence of meaning. However the 混蛋 release the equivalence of functuionsal. (Cao Jing 2013,23)

Example 2: "It was about five years after this."

Fu Weici's version: "这件事过去大约五年之后。"

Li JIhong's version: "大概过了五年。"

The after five years it has happened a important thing and it points the Charles Strickland abandon his wife and children with nothing to left. The author mostly emphasize the protagonist had underwent this thing and it had influenced him. Moreover the main plot of this article is to express Charles Strickland's experience and his life of persuading his dream.

In first version Fu Weici points this thing but it doesn't be referred in Li Jihong's. So I think when the translators translating this sentence they need translate this thing.

Example 3: "The satyr in him suddenly took possession, and he was powerless in the grip of an instinct which had all the strength of the primitive forces of nature."

Fu Weici's version: "他内心深处的那个半人半兽的东西把他捉到手里,在这种具有大自然的原始力量的天性的掌心里他完全无能威力。"

Li Jihong's version: "他内心的兽欲猝然发难，而他根本无力摆脱那种本能的操控。"

The satyr of this sentence points to thought that he does not want love and he hasn't time for it but he is a man and sometimes he wants a woman. He hates this state but he couldn't control himself. By comparing the two versions, I think Li Jihong's translation is better than Fu Weici's. In the dictionary the satyr points a man who has strong sexual desire and is amorist. And in the Myths of Greece and Rome it points the God of half man and half beast. The first version reflects the equivalence of words' meaning. And later he used the power of nature to indicate this power. We can see that he mostly translates by word to word and it closes to the original's language characteristic. The second translators pay more attention to cultural equivalence and the influence of modern elements. Li Jihong translates the satyr into sexual desire and he describes this power is the instinct of the people. As far as I am concerned, the satyr points the sexual desire and it is the instinct which people couldn't control. (Cao Jing 2013,2)

=====4.1.2 A Comparative Study on the Associative Meaning=====

The associative meaning is an expression of the speakers by individual mental understandings. Sometimes the correct and faithful translation needs correct translating of designative Meaning and it is basis of language. However the associative meaning also is very important. There are different associative meanings though the terms have the same images. Because with the different culture and language that the readers have the different understanding. A closest equivalence of natural translation requires the target readers to fully and positively appreciate corresponding message of source text. For translating the source language's associative meaning, the translators need figure out correct associative meaning's expression. And they need do proper responses to original readers that can get from source text. Eventually the translators make the equivalence between the source text readers and target text readers.(Sun Zhili 1997,2）

Example 1: "Yes, she hadn't a drop of white blood in her."

Fu Weici's version: "是的,一滴白人的血液也没有。"

Li Jihong's version: "是的,她的身上没有半滴白人的血。"

It's about the last journey of Strickland's life, he met his wife who was indigent and without a drop of white. This sentence emphasizes she is born at here and she doesn't touch the white at all. In the Fu Weici's version, he translates a drop of white into 一滴白人的血,however in Li Jihong's, it is translated 半滴白人的血. Comparing to the original description of a drop of a blood, the later more reflects the equivalence of associative meaning and more vividly describing that she was native. 半滴 always is translated into half a drop in English. Although the translation here uses a half drop instead of a drop, I still don't think there is any not equivalence. There is not much difference between a drop and a half drop in the number, but in the degree of modification the half a drop more deeply to embody the noting. And the half drop is more strengthening the tone. From without a drop or a half drop of white to describe she is native, which indicates the equivalence of associative meaning. As far as I concerned, in this sentence, Li Jihong's version is better than Fu Weici's version.(Sun 1997,2）

Example 2: "Strickland had burst the bonds that hitherto had held him."

Fu Weici's version: "思特里克兰德已经把那一直束缚着的桎梏打碎了。"

Li Jihong's version: "思特里克兰已经打破了禁锢他的桎梏。"

"桎梏" is instruments of torture in ancient China and it is called "桎" when is worn on hand, on the contrast, it is called "梏" when is worn on foot. This thing usually used to punish the people who had committed a crime. In this part, the original work used the bonds to describe "桎梏". In the dictionary the bonds point to imprison or confine somebody to do something and make people not free. Foreigners who don't understand the Chinese culture maybe can't understand what the shackles are. However in China, almost every reader knows it and the meaning what it wants to express if they know the shackles is instruments of torture. In original work, the author wants to express Strickland had burst the bonds of thought that hitherto had held him. In the version of Fu Weici and Li Jihong, they both translate the Strickland broke the shackles which always constrained him on the thought. As we all know, thought is a thing which we could not see and grasp, and it is impossible for us to restrain a thing which is not exist with instruments of torture. Yet the translators translate that the shackles that constrain the thought. From using a real thing to show a thing which is not existing, we could deeply feel the thing that does not exist as if it were real. Although the shackles are different with bonds in the surface meaning, they both express the confine of thought and they are equivalence in associative meaning.（Wang Jia 2014,31）

====4.2 A Comparative Study on the Level of Style====

=====4.2.1 A Comparative Study on the Metaphor or Simile=====

Example 1: "He reminded you of a frightened sheep running aimlessly hither and thither."

Fu Weici's version: "像一只受了惊的小羊，没有目的地东跑西窜，张皇失措，晕头转向。"

Li Jihong's version: "他像慌不择路、到处乱跑的绵羊。"

The "小羊" refers to the sheep which small and relating thin, it does not specifically what kind of sheep. By comparing it the "绵羊" is more specific. When it comes to "绵羊", the first impression is timid and easily bullied. In the original work, the author described him like a frightened sheep. He did not point which kind of sheep but we could feel the sheep's fear and weak. Even more we could fell the sheep is timid and fearsome. Fu weici describes the sheep is little sheep. From little sheep we also could feel the meaning what the author wants to express. In Li jiong's version, he translates the sheep into Bujumbura. From Bujumbura we could know the sheep's character. Nowadays, when we express one person is timid and obedient. Usually we could use the Bujumbura. From sheep to little sheep or Bujumbura, we all were able to realize the Strickland's friend respects him and cherishes his talent. When he met Strickland’s work he felt that he was a clown. He wanted to destroy it but he is afraid. He loved his work and talent from the heart. From this sentence we know that the author and translators all use the way of metaphor. They compared Strickland friend to frightened sheep running aimlessly hither and thither. In my opinion, I more like the Li Jihong’s version because the jumbuck is more closed to our modern life. Although the original work doesn't show the kind of sheep however through metaphor we could realize the degree of the people's fear.（Wang 2014,31）

Example 2: "She was desire."

Fu Weici's version: "成了欲念的化身。"

Li Jihong's version: "她变成了欲望的化身。"

The author uses the rhetorical devices of simile in the sentence. He is desire that the two translators both compared him to the embodiment of desire. There aren't essential difference between the "欲念" and "欲望". They both express the desire for getting something. The former most points the desire of getting something in thought. The latter more inclined to express the desire for a specific thing. In original work, the author describes Strickland just pursuit the satisfaction of physiology. He only uses women to satisfy his desire and not really love them. He hated the woman just pursuit the love in life especially when he met the second woman. He didn't give her any more birthright and he didn't get married with her. He just wanted her to satisfy his desire of physiology. So when he was asked why he was with her he said that he just wanted her. The two translators both realize the equivalence of simile through compare him to the embodiment of desire.（Wang 2014,32）

Example 3: "I don't disapprove of the boa-constrictor; on the contrary, I'm interested in his mental processes."

Fu Weici's version: "我对蟒蛇的习性并不反对，相反我对它的心理活动倒很感兴趣。"

Li Jihong's version: "我并不鄙视毒蛇，恰恰相反，我对他的思维过程很有兴趣。"

The main features of "蟒蛇" is thick and long and it is the largest snakes compared to more primitive snakes in the world. "毒蛇" refers to the snakes which could secrete special venom. They are found of using stratagem to attract the vicious. They are beautiful animals, but also the embodiment of evil. In the original work, the author wants to express the protagonist’s dissatisfaction with his action. He abandoned his wife and two lovely children with leaving nothing. Even more he didn't feel this mistake and he had no need to take responsibility for them. In the eyes of ordinary people this is totally inconsistent with common sense. The true husband should love his wife and take care of the family. So many people think he is cold-bloode and the protagonist is no exception. The author uses the boa to describe. The Strickland's action calls the opposition from the people. Fu Weici translates the boa into the "蟒蛇". According to the introduction of the python, we can see that the boa is larger and they are carnivores. But these maybe the result of natural selection and these are not their nature is bad. On the contrary, the "毒蛇" are different and they are the real bad guys and they are devil incarnate. Through the description of the original text, we can know that the hero complained that he abandoned his family and he was not human. So I think compare him to "毒蛇" is more appropriate. It reflects his cold-bloodedness and unfeeling.（Wang 2014,33）

=====4.2.2 A Comparative Study on the Repetition=====

Example 2: "I will never have him in my house-never."

Fu Weici's version: "我永远也不让他进咱们的家门-永远也不让。"

Li Jihong's version: "我绝不让他踏进我的家-绝不。"

Never and absolutely not both describe the no. However the latter tone is more serious. Repetition is to emphasize a certain meaning and it is to highlight a certain emotion. Especially when using some certain repetition of words, sentences or paragraphs. Through this chapter, we can see that Strickland is ill, however, Mrs. Stroeve against him to move to her home. She says "I will never have him in my house-never". Two repetition of "never" shows the Mrs. Stroeve's firm attitude. After reading, we can know the reason why she firmly opposed because she did not want to admit that she was falling in love with a penniless pauper, and he does not have what advantage. She was afraid to see him because she was afraid that it would come true. So we can know that she is very reluctant Strickland to come to her house for recuperating. The repetition of never and absolutely not both could reflect this feeling.（Zhao Dandan 2011,54）

====4.3 A Comparative Study on the Cultural Transmission====

The culture is very complicated and it refers to the entire way of life in the society. It involves many aspects that knowledge, art, law, translation and other habits in the society. Eugene Nida depicts the relationship between the culture and language in the translating practice like that in whole translating and interpreting, the source language and the target language should be implicitly or explicitly compared, but all such interlinguas communication extend far beyond the mechanizes of linguistic similarities and difference. The main reason is that the meaning of verbal symbols on every level depends on the communication of culture and language. The language also is a part of culture, and it is the most complicated part of the habits comparing the other culture factors. Language provides access to the culture, reflects culture and in the some aspects it constitutes a model of culture. Eugene Nida also indicates that if there were not so many misunderstandings about the language and the function within a society relation between the culture and the language couldn't constitute such difficulties for intersecting culture understanding.（Zhao 2011,55）

From Eugene Nida's perspective, the language and the culture are closely related. He thinks the words should denote to show the corresponding culture. The language is loaded by culture and the culture is expressed, transmitted, preserved and promoted by language. Thus the translator should take considerable account of the culture factors in their translation. That means the translators should try to find the closed equivalence in the translation of the culture connotation. The translation couldn't beyond the target language readers' acceptance or give them a distorted understanding. On the contrast, the translators need make sure their translations can enable the target language readers to accurately and adequately understand the source texts. "Eugene Nida considers culture as the totality of the beliefs and practices of a society, and classifies culture into five categories: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture." (Nida 1964,91)

===5. Conclusion===

====5.1 Evaluation of the Two Chinese Versions====

Through the comparison of the two papers, I prefer to Li Jihong's version. It is more closed to modern reading habits. In this version, functional equivalence is used in many place, which not only the pursuit of literal meaning but the pursuit of the original expression of emotion. By comparing Li Jihong's version, the Fu Weici's version is more reflecting the equivalence of the meaning and sometimes pursuit the equivalence of words. On the other hand, the two versions differ 19 years. With the change of time, cultural background and the reader's preferences also changed. By comparing, the latter's translation is more closed to modern readers' reading habit. More accurately, the latter is more in line with my reading habits.

To summarize, the author hopes that this study may contribute a little to the research field of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' and its translation. What is done in this thesis is just an elementary study concerning translation strategy. There are much more needed to be explored in this field.

====5.2 The Limitation of Present Study====

As all above, this thesis has studied the translation of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' on the aspects on meaning, study and culture. Some examples are analyzed under each type of device to evaluate the two versions of translation based on the functional equivalence theory. However there are too much pages of these two translations, and just some parts of them are taken as examples to discuss in the study in the chapter three of this paper. Therefore, this study may not be comprehensive and it has to be confined due to the author's personal perspective and the limitation of research material and time.

===References===

*W.Somerset Maugham. The Moon and Sixpence[M].England: Vintage Classics Press, 2008-5-1.

*Halliday, M.A.K. Language Structure and Language Function[M].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2008.

*Nida, Eugene. On Translation[M]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Cooperation, 1984.

*Nida, Eugene. Toward a Science of Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.

*Halliday, M.A.K. An Introduction to Function Grammar [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2008.

*Nida, Eugene.A. & Jan De Ward. From One Language to Another[M]. Nashville: Thomas Nelson Inc, 1986.

*Nida, Eugene.A. Language, Culture and Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993.

*Ma Huijuan. A Study on Nida’s Translation Thery[M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2003.

*傅惟慈.月亮与六便士[M].上海：上海译文出版社，1994.

*李继宏.月亮与六便士[M].天津：天津人民出版社，2015.

*张东东，姜立维.功能翻译理论与应用笔译研究[M].黑龙江：哈尔滨工程大学出版社，2015-5.

*刘琼.“功能对等理论”指导下文化负载词的翻译--以《金翅雀》为例[D].北京：北京外国语大学，2016.

*孙致礼.关于我国翻译理论建设的几点思考[J]. 中国翻译, 2(1997).

*刘宓庆.当代翻译理论[M].北京: 中国对外翻译出版社， 2005.

*顾维勇.实用文体翻译[M].北京: 国防工业出版社, 2005.

*陈安琪.用奈达功能对等理论指导当代科技文本非技术部分的翻译[D].北京：北京外国语学院，2014.

*王佳.从功能对等理论看《爱玛》的翻译[J]. 2014（10）：31-33.

*赵丹丹.浅论奈达的功能对等理论[J]. 2011（03）：54-55.

*王德春.语言学概论[M].上海: 上海外语教育出版, 1997.

*马会娟.奈达翻译理论研究[M].北京: 中国对外翻译出版社，2003.--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 14:51, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Differences in style and language expression in Japanese-English narrative translation 谢子熠 Xie Ziyi==

--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 14:01, 9 December 2020 (UTC)

'''Abstract:''' When Japanese narrative texts translated into English, the translated versions often have different forms and syntax from the original texts. From the perspective of cognitive linguistics, it is thought that the difference in form and structure is due to the difference in cognitive practices of the actors who recognize and conceptualize the situation in the narrative as a linguistic expression. In the present paper, mainly based on Langacker 's theory, I argue that there are two opposing modes of situation recognition, one in which the conceptualize　perceives the situation objectively from outside and the other in which the conceptualize perceives it subjectively from inside the situation, and that before and after translation, the former is dominant in the English narrative and the latter in the Japanese This study confirms the fact that the trend appears in the trend. The paper concludes with the following points: (1) the present tense in the past-tense story, (2) the clarification of the person who experienced the situation (mainly the subject), and (3) the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words as useful objects for future contrastive analysis in Japanese and English.

'''Key words:''' Conceptualization, conceptualization, subject (gender), perspective, Japanese-English translation

'''1. Introduction'''

In one study, I contrasted Soseki Natsume's "I am a Cat" with its Chinese translation, focusing on the use of poses, and found that there were far more examples of translating the original passive sentence into the active voice than the reverse. This means that it is essentially a misuse (or non-use) of Chinese to express its context passively. It can be said that I consciously changed the form of expression to the Chinese form from the perspective that it would be a good fit. Even if the Japanese conception is natural for the passive, it may be an unnatural idea that does not fit in with the Chinese language. The same can be said for the translation of narrative text in Japanese and English. Japanese to English and vice versa. In both cases, the forms and syntax used in the translated language are often different from those in the original.

In one study, I contrasted Soseki Natsume's "I am a Cat" with its Chinese translation, focusing on the use of poses, and found that there were far more examples of translating the original passive sentence into the active voice than the reverse. This means that it is essentially a misuse (or non-use) of Chinese to express its context passively. It can be said that I consciously changed the form of expression to the Chinese form from the perspective that it would be a good fit. Even if the Japanese conception is natural for the passive, it may be an unnatural idea that does not fit in with the Chinese language. The same can be said for the translation of narrative text in Japanese and English. Japanese to English and vice versa. In both cases, the forms and syntax used in the translated language are often different from those in the original.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

This paper considers the above-mentioned problems in the translation of Japanese and English narrative texts within the framework of cognitive linguistics. In cognitive linguistics, every linguistic expression reflects the subject's interpretation of the situation it represents; in other words, the subject conceptualizes the situation it perceives on its own initiative, and the product of that interpretation is the linguistic expression. In other words, subjects conceptualize the situation they perceive on their own, and the product is their linguistic expression. If different forms of expression and syntax used to express the same situation before and after Japanese/English translation, the degree of subjectivity of the cognitive subject's interpretation is different.

This paper considers the above-mentioned problems in the translation of Japanese and English narrative texts within the framework of cognitive linguistics. In cognitive linguistics, every linguistic expression reflects the subject's interpretation of the situation it represents; in other words, the subject conceptualizes the situation it perceives on its own initiative, and the product of that interpretation is the linguistic expression. In other words, subjects conceptualize the situation they perceive on their own, and the product is their linguistic expression. If different forms of expression and syntax used to express the same situation before and after Japanese/English translation, the degree of subjectivity of the cognitive subject's interpretation is different.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Based on this concept, the present paper structured as follows. First, we mainly support previous studies and this "subjectivity" and "conceptualization" and their closely related "perspectives" and "perspectives". The concepts of cognitive linguistics that form the basis of the analysis are presented, and at the same time, these concepts are used as the basis for the analysis of Japanese and English. I will describe the differences in the style of situation recognition in the language. Next, we will describe them in the narrative sentences of Japanese and English. In the following section, we present the framework of "cognitive narrative" contrastive research, which is applied to the contrastive analysis of The following are some examples of the use of the present tense in past tense stories in Japanese and English narratives via translation use, the clarification of the cognoscenti, and the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. We have shown that differences found in English and that it is the style of situational awareness in Japanese and English differences. In addition, in Section 4, we will show a concrete example of this in the actual Japanese English Briefly presented with examples of analysis of the translation of narrative sentences, and in the final section as the cornerstone of the subsequent specific linguistic analysis. We shall describe the prospects. In other words, this thesis is the first of many Japanese English narrative texts and their adaptations in the future. Contrast analysis with the translated version and consider the stylistic and syntactic differences between the Japanese and English versions. In doing so, we will focus on the above perspectives from the framework of cognitive linguistics, and thus we will be able to translate the narrative text into Japanese and English The purpose is to describe the basis for trying to explore contributions to language typology in terms of it is.

Based on this concept, the present paper structured as follows. First, we mainly support previous studies and this "subjectivity" and "conceptualization" and their closely related "perspectives" and "perspectives". The concepts of cognitive linguistics that form the basis of the analysis are presented, and at the same time, these concepts are used as the basis for the analysis of Japanese and English. I will describe the differences in the style of situation recognition in the language. Next, we will describe them in the narrative sentences of Japanese and English. In the following section, we present the framework of "cognitive narrative" contrastive research, which is applied to the contrastive analysis.

The following are some examples of the use of the present tense in past tense stories in Japanese and English narratives via translation use, the clarification of the cognoscenti, and the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. We have shown that differences found in English and that it is the style of situational awareness in Japanese and English differences. In addition, in Section 4, we will show a concrete example of this in the actual Japanese English Briefly presented with examples of analysis of the translation of narrative sentences, and in the final section as the cornerstone of the subsequent specific linguistic analysis. We shall describe the prospects. In other words, this thesis is the first of many Japanese English narrative texts and their adaptations in the future. Contrast analysis with the translated version and consider the stylistic and syntactic differences between the Japanese and English versions. In doing so, we will focus on the above perspectives from the framework of cognitive linguistics, and thus we will be able to translate the narrative text into Japanese and English The purpose is to describe the basis for trying to explore contributions to language typology in terms of it is.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

'''2. Definitions of cognitive linguistic concepts'''

Since language is a product of human activities, it is not in itself independent of the language user. Rather, all linguistic expressions reflect the subjective and subjective interpretation of the language user subject. The "subject" is, specifically, the language in which a situation verbalized. It is the subject of conceptualization, and at the same time, it is the conceptualizer that interprets the situation that the linguistic expression represents. In other words, as a conceptualizer, the language user is the subject that first recognizes the situation around him or her, conceptualizes it subjectively, and then expresses it in language. Behind every linguistic expression, there is always a conceptualizer who interprets the situation it represents. Perspective" is a concept that focuses on the role of this conceptualizer. It includes (i) orientation, (ii) vantage point, (iii) directonality, (iv) how subjectively or objectively one interprets an entity (i.e., how subjectively or objectively It contains four elements: (anentity is construed). To recognize a situation, the conceptualizer stands on a standpoint and perceives the situation from there. The concept that encompasses the conceptualizer's standpoint and the direction of his or her gaze is the "viewpoint" (viewpoint). In other words, "viewpoint" is a concept that encompasses not only the position from which one looks at an object, but also the extent to which one interprets an object as subject-object. The subject interprets the situation by focusing on the subjectively selected perspective, and reflects it in words. And then individual language expressions are produced on that basis.

Since language is a product of human activities, it is not in itself independent of the language user. Rather, all linguistic expressions reflect the subjective and subjective interpretation of the language user subject. The "subject" is, specifically, the language in which a situation verbalized. It is the subject of conceptualization, and at the same time, it is the conceptualizer that interprets the situation that the linguistic expression represents. In other words, as a conceptualizer, the language user is the subject that first recognizes the situation around him or her, conceptualizes it subjectively, and then expresses it in language.

Behind every linguistic expression, there is always a conceptualizer who interprets the situation it represents. Perspective" is a concept that focuses on the role of this conceptualizer. It includes (i) orientation, (ii) vantage point, (iii) directonality, (iv) how subjectively or objectively one interprets an entity (i.e., how subjectively or objectively It contains four elements: (anentity is construed). To recognize a situation, the conceptualizer stands on a standpoint and perceives the situation from there. The concept that encompasses the conceptualizer's standpoint and the direction of his or her gaze is the "viewpoint" (viewpoint). In other words, "viewpoint" is a concept that encompasses not only the position from which one looks at an object, but also the extent to which one interprets an object as subject-object. The subject interprets the situation by focusing on the subjectively selected perspective, and reflects it in words. And then individual language expressions are produced on that basis.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In cognitive linguistics, these concepts considered to produce linguistic expressions, and it is known that the subject that produces the linguistic expressions perceives the situation in various cognitive modes when it conceptualizes the situation. There are cases in which the subject grasps the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, and there are cases in which the subject grasps the situation as a part of the situation. There are also cases in which the situation is grasped as neither subject nor object, but rather as an existence that forms the situation. In other words, depending on the perspective of the subject, the same situation can be interpreted in several ways.

In cognitive linguistics, these concepts considered to produce linguistic expressions, and it is known that the subject that produces the linguistic expressions perceives the situation in various cognitive modes when it conceptualizes the situation. There are cases in which the subject grasps the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, and there are cases in which the subject grasps the situation as a part of the situation. There are also cases in which the situation is grasped as neither subject nor object, but rather as an existence that forms the situation. In other words, depending on the perspective of the subject, the same situation can be interpreted in several ways.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Based on the above conceptualization and discussion, I will confirm the facts that have been pointed out in the previous Japanese/English contrastive studies. It has been said that English is a language that prefers objective expressions, while Japanese is a language that prefers subjective expressions. While English native speakers tend to grasp the situation objectively, Japanese native speakers tend to grasp the situation subjectively. Unlike English native speakers, Japanese native speakers tend to place themselves in a situation and directly grasp the situation as a whole by feeling it with their own bodies. In Japanese, there are many linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings that reflect this kind of cognition of a situation. In other words, in English, linguistic expressions that reflect a point of view taken outside of a situation are prototypical, and linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings established through the special process of manifesting conceptual operations. On the other hand, at least in Japanese, it is more prototypical to take a point of view into a situation and express a subjective and subjective understanding of the situation through it.

Based on the above conceptualization and discussion, I will confirm the facts that have been pointed out in the previous Japanese/English contrastive studies. It has been said that English is a language that prefers objective expressions, while Japanese is a language that prefers subjective expressions. While English native speakers tend to grasp the situation objectively, Japanese native speakers tend to grasp the situation subjectively. Unlike English native speakers, Japanese native speakers tend to place themselves in a situation and directly grasp the situation as a whole by feeling it with their own bodies.

In Japanese, there are many linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings that reflect this kind of cognition of a situation. In other words, in English, linguistic expressions that reflect a point of view taken outside of a situation are prototypical, and linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings established through the special process of manifesting conceptual operations. On the other hand, at least in Japanese, it is more prototypical to take a point of view into a situation and express a subjective and subjective understanding of the situation through it.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Furthermore, the following facts have been identified as characteristic characteristics of the linguistic representation of Japanese stories. There are two attitudes to narrative expression in Japanese writing: one is to explain the development of the situation from the standpoint of an observer, and the other is to describe it as such from the author's point of view. In addition, there is a proactive narrative attitude of accepting events from the point of view of the characters in the story. Moreover, one is allowed to use them all at will, sometimes even shifting to a different level of narrative attitude. For example, in addition to the author, there may be another person in the story, and the story described from that person's point of view. In other words, there is a shift in perspective in the relationship between the two parties in the story. In other words, there is a shift in point of view from a bystander to a character in the story. In other cases, when explaining a topical scene, the author does not look down on the overall geographical situation with the eyes of a bystander, but rather passively perceives the scene from his own point of view within the realm of the story. Here, too, we can see the peculiarity of the Japanese language way of thinking. In any case, what is prototypical in the Japanese language is a mode of situational awareness that conceptualizes and expresses a situation from a point of view within the context of a situation.

Furthermore, the following facts have been identified as characteristic characteristics of the linguistic representation of Japanese stories. There are two attitudes to narrative expression in Japanese writing: one is to explain the development of the situation from the standpoint of an observer, and the other is to describe it as such from the author's point of view. In addition, there is a proactive narrative attitude of accepting events from the point of view of the characters in the story. Moreover, one is allowed to use them all at will, sometimes even shifting to a different level of narrative attitude. For example, in addition to the author, there may be another person in the story, and the story described from that person's point of view.

In other words, there is a shift in perspective in the relationship between the two parties in the story. In other words, there is a shift in point of view from a bystander to a character in the story. In other cases, when explaining a topical scene, the author does not look down on the overall geographical situation with the eyes of a bystander, but rather passively perceives the scene from his own point of view within the realm of the story. Here, too, we can see the peculiarity of the Japanese language way of thinking. In any case, what is prototypical in the Japanese language is a mode of situational awareness that conceptualizes and expresses a situation from a point of view within the context of a situation.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

'''3. Cognitive Narrative Theory'''

Before going into a specific translation analysis of Japanese and English narrative sentences, it is necessary to describe here the basic idea of cognitive narrative theory as its foundation.

If we define narrative as a formal text in which a speaker, who is a cognitive subject, manipulates the narrator to convey the situation he or she grasps (constructs) to the receiver, the problematic aspect of cognitive narrative theory is how the cognitive subject perceives and expresses the event or event. From this perspective, it can be said that the perspective of how we perceive a situation plays an important role in narrative structure. Even when describing the same object, the way of describing it differs depending on the viewpoint from which the object viewed. The narrative world reflects the dynamic cognitive process of the subject presenting that world. This kind of cognitive process is created by the subject's mode of interpretation, such as viewpoint projection, gaze movement/transformation, etc. The subject's cognitive processes constrain various aspects of narrative representation, including form and structure.

Before going into a specific translation analysis of Japanese and English narrative sentences, it is necessary to describe here the basic idea of cognitive narrative theory as its foundation.

If we define narrative as a formal text in which a speaker, who is a cognitive subject, manipulates the narrator to convey the situation he or she grasps (constructs) to the receiver, the problematic aspect of cognitive narrative theory is how the cognitive subject perceives and expresses the event or event. From this perspective, it can be said that the perspective of how we perceive a situation plays an important role in narrative structure. Even when describing the same object, the way of describing it differs depending on the viewpoint from which the object viewed. The narrative world reflects the dynamic cognitive process of the subject presenting that world. This kind of cognitive process is created by the subject's mode of interpretation, such as viewpoint projection, gaze movement/transformation, etc. The subject's cognitive processes constrain various aspects of narrative representation, including form and structure.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

If we apply Nishitaya's cognitive narrative theory, a study of Japanese and English narrative texts in terms of translation and contrast will ultimately depend on the differences in cognitive styles between languages, how the subject and conceptualizer of a situation perceives and expresses the situation in language, as well as the form of expression and syntax before and after translation. It can be considered to make a difference above. Hence, in the following, we will first describe typical human cognitive styles and then identify which cognitive style predominantly adopted by Japanese and English as the dominant language. If differences in the predominant tendency of the cognitive style of the situation reflected in both languages clarified, it can be a basis for differences in the forms and syntax produced before and after translation of the same situation.

If we apply Nishitaya's cognitive narrative theory, a study of Japanese and English narrative texts in terms of translation and contrast will ultimately depend on the differences in cognitive styles between languages, how the subject and conceptualizer of a situation perceives and expresses the situation in language, as well as the form of expression and syntax before and after translation. It can be considered to make a difference above. Hence, in the following, we will first describe typical human cognitive styles and then identify which cognitive style predominantly adopted by Japanese and English as the dominant language. If differences in the predominant tendency of the cognitive style of the situation reflected in both languages clarified, it can be a basis for differences in the forms and syntax produced before and after translation of the same situation.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

'''4. Findings from translation studies'''

As mentioned above, the subjective interpretation of the translator enters into the translation. It is impossible in principle for a source text to be objectively interpreted, objectively represented in its meaning, and objectively textualized in the target language on the basis of these objective representations. The act of translation is (1) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the individual translator, which is subject to the indeterminacy of meaning, and (2) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the translator. That is to say, there is an inherent indeterminacy of interpretation of the original text itself, as well as of the linguistic structure of its expression in the target language. Second, at the micro level, the habitus acquired by the individual translator in the professional field of translation plays a role as a control factor and influences the translator's disposition to act in a greater or lesser degree. There are also translation instructions and power dynamics from publishers and clients, as well as political, social, and cultural macro-contextual factors (the main ones being "norms" and "purpose," which will be discussed below) that are behind the translator's disposition to translate. At the same time, the indeterminacy and subjective bias of the translator inherent in the act of translation will inevitably lead to different results in the translation. Therefore, when we make a translation into a counter-language study, we need to pay attention to the (1) linguistic and social actions of the translation act, and (2) the interpretive tendencies of the individual translator.

As mentioned above, the subjective interpretation of the translator enters into the translation. It is impossible in principle for a source text to be objectively interpreted, objectively represented in its meaning, and objectively textualized in the target language on the basis of these objective representations. The act of translation is (1) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the individual translator, which is subject to the indeterminacy of meaning, and (2) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the translator. That is to say, there is an inherent indeterminacy of interpretation of the original text itself, as well as of the linguistic structure of its expression in the target language.

Second, at the micro level, the habitus acquired by the individual translator in the professional field of translation plays a role as a control factor and influences the translator's disposition to act in a greater or lesser degree. There are also translation instructions and power dynamics from publishers and clients, as well as political, social, and cultural macro-contextual factors (the main ones being "norms" and "purpose," which will be discussed below) that are behind the translator's disposition to translate. At the same time, the indeterminacy and subjective bias of the translator inherent in the act of translation will inevitably lead to different results in the translation. Therefore, when we make a translation into a counter-language study, we need to pay attention to the (1) linguistic and social actions of the translation act, and (2) the interpretive tendencies of the individual translator.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The following is a summary of the changing trends in translation studies. There are two aspects of translation: linguistic action and social action, and theories have been shifting their analysis from the former to the latter. Theories that focus on the linguistic action of translation are the linguistic stages of translation studies: equivalence, translation shift, translation strategies, and text-type theory. When socio-actionality was added to these theories, Scopos theory, register analysis, systems theory, and normative theory were developed, which became the next generation of the linguistic stage. However, as translation studies experienced a "cultural and ideological turn" from its textual analysis-centered era, it began to focus on "translation as rewriting," "translation of gender," "postcolonial translation theory," "(non)visibility of translation," and "power networks of translation," among others. This covers not only translation but also the social, cultural, and historical significance and role of the social practice of representation. In recent years, research has also focused on "people," with a focus on the translator's life history and life story, and an analysis of how the individual translator's habitus affects the translation. To summarize this trend, we can see a shift from (1) focusing on the linguistic action of translation to (2) social action, and (3) research that takes into account the interpretive tendencies of individual translators.

The following is a summary of the changing trends in translation studies. There are two aspects of translation: linguistic action and social action, and theories have been shifting their analysis from the former to the latter. Theories that focus on the linguistic action of translation are the linguistic stages of translation studies: equivalence, translation shift, translation strategies, and text-type theory. When socio-actionality was added to these theories, Scopos theory, register analysis, systems theory, and normative theory were developed, which became the next generation of the linguistic stage.

However, as translation studies experienced a "cultural and ideological turn" from its textual analysis-centered era, it began to focus on "translation as rewriting," "translation of gender," "postcolonial translation theory," "(non)visibility of translation," and "power networks of translation," among others. This covers not only translation but also the social, cultural, and historical significance and role of the social practice of representation. In recent years, research has also focused on "people," with a focus on the translator's life history and life story, and an analysis of how the individual translator's habitus affects the translation. To summarize this trend, we can see a shift from (1) focusing on the linguistic action of translation to (2) social action, and (3) research that takes into account the interpretive tendencies of individual translators.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

On the basis of the above, let's first discuss the aforementioned case of Ikegami (2007) in the context of translation studies. For now, the case of Snow Country can be reduced to the issue of equivalence and shift. The concept of equivalence itself is disputed and has been defined and characterized in numerous ways (see Pym 2010, pp. 7-42), but I will operationally define it as the same linguistic and cultural value between the source and target texts. Five levels can be assumed for this equivalence: word level, phrase level, grammatical level, textual level (thematic progression and cohesion), and pragmatic level (Baker 1992), and this paper will mainly focus on the grammatical level. The "shift" is a linguistic shift between the source and target texts due to structural differences between the source and target languages (Catford 1965). In this connection, "conversion operations" refer to various operations to achieve a translation shift, either obligatory because of linguistic structure, or selective in order to achieve target language identity or certain stylistic effects.

On the basis of the above, let's first discuss the aforementioned case of Ikegami (2007) in the context of translation studies. For now, the case of Snow Country can be reduced to the issue of equivalence and shift. The concept of equivalence itself is disputed and has been defined and characterized in numerous ways (see Pym 2010, pp. 7-42), but I will operationally define it as the same linguistic and cultural value between the source and target texts. Five levels can be assumed for this equivalence: word level, phrase level, grammatical level, textual level (thematic progression and cohesion), and pragmatic level (Baker 1992), and this paper will mainly focus on the grammatical level. The "shift" is a linguistic shift between the source and target texts due to structural differences between the source and target languages (Catford 1965). In this connection, "conversion operations" refer to various operations to achieve a translation shift, either obligatory because of linguistic structure, or selective in order to achieve target language identity or certain stylistic effects.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Let's apply this to the case of Ikegami (2007). If we assume that there is a certain situation objectively portrayed in the original text, then if we can faithfully reproduce that situation in the target text, we have achieved an "equivalent" translation. However, because of the difference in linguistic structure between Japanese and English, and the different grammatical categories that must be expressed as linguistic expressions, obligatory conversion operations must be performed to conform to the linguistic norms of the target language (for example, the subject is zeroed in Japanese, but in English it is basically, because the subject is obligatory, do the operation of making the subject stand up).

Let's apply this to the case of Ikegami (2007). If we assume that there is a certain situation objectively portrayed in the original text, then if we can faithfully reproduce that situation in the target text, we have achieved an "equivalent" translation. However, because of the difference in linguistic structure between Japanese and English, and the different grammatical categories that must be expressed as linguistic expressions, obligatory conversion operations must be performed to conform to the linguistic norms of the target language (for example, the subject is zeroed in Japanese, but in English it is basically, because the subject is obligatory, do the operation of making the subject stand up).

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In practice, however, there is a process of chronological translation involved, which means that there are more than just static differences in linguistic structure. (1) The translator first interprets the source text (interpretation; a situation from the words). Then, (2) based on this interpretation, he or she contextualizes it in the target language (construal).

In practice, however, there is a process of chronological translation involved, which means that there are more than just static differences in linguistic structure. (1) The translator first interprets the source text (interpretation; a situation from the words). Then, (2) based on this interpretation, he or she contextualizes it in the target language (construal).

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

'''5. Subject's Perspective and Style of Situational Awareness in Japanese and English'''

In general, there are two kinds of opposing modes of conceptualizer subject's perception of a situation.

''Form A. Subject (C) grasps a situation (O) in which it is not a participant from outside the situation, corresponding to Langacker's optimal viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "objective grasping," and Nakamura's "D mode.

''Form B. The subject (C) enters a situation and grasps its situation (O), corresponding to Langacker's egocentric viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "subjective grasping" and Nakamura's "I-mode".

In general, there are two kinds of opposing modes of conceptualizer subject's perception of a situation.

''Form A. Subject (C) grasps a situation (O) in which it is not a participant from outside the situation, corresponding to Langacker's optimal viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "objective grasping," and Nakamura's "D mode.

''Form B. The subject (C) enters a situation and grasps its situation (O), corresponding to Langacker's egocentric viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "subjective grasping" and Nakamura's "I-mode".

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In terms of these viewpoint arrays, English tends to prefer the optimal viewpoint array and Japanese tends to prefer the egocentric viewpoint array.
When the subject takes a perspective, as in Form B, where the language subject enters a situation that is the object of conceptualization and interprets it subjectively and subjectively, the degree of subjectivity is very high in the language expression reflecting that subjectivity, e.g., in (1) a. below. On the other hand, when the subject interprets the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, as in Form A, the linguistic expressions reflecting the subjectivity of the subjectivity are less subjective (or in other words, more objective), such as b. and c. below. In b., the existence of the subject as a reference point is explicitly stated, but here the subject "conceptually splits" itself up and objectively perceives another real self in the situation from outside the situation. In other words, the speaker plays the role of both the subject of conceptualization and the object of conceptualization. In contrast, in c., the subject, as the subject of the conceptualization, perceives it objectively from the outside without entering the object of the conceptualization. Therefore, c. has a lower degree of subjectivity than b. It is the linguistic expression that expresses the most object-oriented meaning among the three linguistic expressions. The degree of subjectivity reflected in each linguistic expression depends on the degree to which the linguistic expression reflects the subjective and subjective interpretation of the subject. In other words, differences in the degree of subjectivity based on each cognitive style embodied in differences in the form and syntax of the resulting language expressions.

In terms of these viewpoint arrays, English tends to prefer the optimal viewpoint array and Japanese tends to prefer the egocentric viewpoint array.
When the subject takes a perspective, as in Form B, where the language subject enters a situation that is the object of conceptualization and interprets it subjectively and subjectively, the degree of subjectivity is very high in the language expression reflecting that subjectivity, e.g., in (1) a. below. On the other hand, when the subject interprets the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, as in Form A, the linguistic expressions reflecting the subjectivity of the subjectivity are less subjective (or in other words, more objective), such as b. and c. below. In b., the existence of the subject as a reference point is explicitly stated, but here the subject "conceptually splits" itself up and objectively perceives another real self in the situation from outside the situation.

In other words, the speaker plays the role of both the subject of conceptualization and the object of conceptualization. In contrast, in c., the subject, as the subject of the conceptualization, perceives it objectively from the outside without entering the object of the conceptualization. Therefore, c. has a lower degree of subjectivity than b. It is the linguistic expression that expresses the most object-oriented meaning among the three linguistic expressions. The degree of subjectivity reflected in each linguistic expression depends on the degree to which the linguistic expression reflects the subjective and subjective interpretation of the subject. In other words, differences in the degree of subjectivity based on each cognitive style embodied in differences in the form and syntax of the resulting language expressions.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

⑴ a. Vanessa is sitting across the table.
b. Vanessa is sitting across the table from me.
c. Vanessa is sitting across the table from Veronica.
（深田・仲本2008：171-172）

As seen in the present example, multiple linguistic expressions based on cognitive styles with different degrees of subjectivity are possible in English as well, but as mentioned earlier, style A tends to be used relatively more often than style B.
I will now mention what Langacker calls the "stage model". The "stage model" is a cognitive model that idealizes the meaning of linguistic expressions and the typical positioning of "speakers". According to this model, the speaker typically observes what is on the stage from the outside and encodes the conceptualization of it into a linguistic representation. In this case, the speaker is the "subject" of the concept and the object of expression is the "object" of the conceptualization, and their roles completely separated. In other words, we can say that the speaker's perspective is "off-stage". From this point of view, subjectivization is a phenomenon in which the speaker that not directly depicted, but rather the speaker that is non-explicitly incorporated into part of the semantic structure of the object of description (the object). In other words, in subjectivized, highly subjective linguistic expressions, the speaker's perspective is "on-stage". A relative comparison between English and Japanese shows that the "off-stage" type is more prevalent in English forms and syntax, while the "on-stage" type is more prevalent in Japanese.

As seen in the present example, multiple linguistic expressions based on cognitive styles with different degrees of subjectivity are possible in English as well, but as mentioned earlier, style A tends to be used relatively more often than style B.

I will now mention what Langacker calls the "stage model". The "stage model" is a cognitive model that idealizes the meaning of linguistic expressions and the typical positioning of "speakers". According to this model, the speaker typically observes what is on the stage from the outside and encodes the conceptualization of it into a linguistic representation. In this case, the speaker is the "subject" of the concept and the object of expression is the "object" of the conceptualization, and their roles completely separated.

In other words, we can say that the speaker's perspective is "off-stage". From this point of view, subjectivization is a phenomenon in which the speaker that not directly depicted, but rather the speaker that is non-explicitly incorporated into part of the semantic structure of the object of description (the object). In other words, in subjectivized, highly subjective linguistic expressions, the speaker's perspective is "on-stage". A relative comparison between English and Japanese shows that the "off-stage" type is more prevalent in English forms and syntax, while the "on-stage" type is more prevalent in Japanese.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Next, let us look at the two cognitive modes presented by Nakamura. This is also true for Japanese and English. Tendentious differences which is found according to Nakamura, from the aspect of subjectivity, there are two types of human perception of the situation, two modes of cognition, and each syntax (linguistic representation) is thought to reflect one of these two modes more strongly. The first is called "I-mode" (situationally attuned cognitive mode), which is the predominant mode in Japanese for situational perspective; in relation to Langacker, it is "on-stage" and is often viewed as "situation-centered" and the speaker is the participant in the situation (S-perspective). Also, because the perspective is within the situation, it is "direct experience" and its expression is "non-reporting" in that it is experiential and not reportive in tone. These are exactly the features that have been revealed to predominant in the linguistic expressions of Japanese narrative sentences. In contrast, the "D-mode" (cognitive mode from outside the situation) is the predominant mode in English that places the perspective outside the situation; in relation to Langacker, it is an "off-stage" and "out-of-situation" mode, so the perspective is literally "extrinsic" and "external" to each participant in the situation, which will be the focus of attention (the "person-centered" view, O-Perspective). Thus, the expression is "reportive". These are, if anything, the predominant features of linguistic representation in English narrative writing.

Next, let us look at the two cognitive modes presented by Nakamura. This is also true for Japanese and English. Tendentious differences which is found according to Nakamura, from the aspect of subjectivity, there are two types of human perception of the situation, two modes of cognition, and each syntax (linguistic representation) is thought to reflect one of these two modes more strongly. The first is called "I-mode" (situationally attuned cognitive mode), which is the predominant mode in Japanese for situational perspective; in relation to Langacker, it is "on-stage" and is often viewed as "situation-centered" and the speaker is the participant in the situation (S-perspective).

Also, because the perspective is within the situation, it is "direct experience" and its expression is "non-reporting" in that it is experiential and not reportive in tone. These are exactly the features that have been revealed to predominant in the linguistic expressions of Japanese narrative sentences. In contrast, the "D-mode" (cognitive mode from outside the situation) is the predominant mode in English that places the perspective outside the situation; in relation to Langacker, it is an "off-stage" and "out-of-situation" mode, so the perspective is literally "extrinsic" and "external" to each participant in the situation, which will be the focus of attention (the "person-centered" view, O-Perspective). Thus, the expression is "reportive". These are, if anything, the predominant features of linguistic representation in English narrative writing.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The predominant cognition in Japanese, where the speaker interacts with the situation/object, is the situation-based cognition, or "I-mode," which is a subjective cognition in which the speaker and the experiencer assimilate (and thus the speaker himself becomes the cognitive subject). In other words, it is a state in which the cognitive subject and the object of cognition fused together, which called "subject-object unity. On the other hand, the cognitive mode of objective recognition of a situation/object, which is dominant in English, is the extrinsic cognitive mode, or the "D-mode", which does not presuppose the interaction between the subject and the situation/object. This is characterized by the point that the cognitive subject goes outside the interactive cognitive field and takes a viewpoint as if it were viewed objectively from the outside. In that sense, this one is a "separation of subject and guest," so to speak, against the former.

The predominant cognition in Japanese, where the speaker interacts with the situation/object, is the situation-based cognition, or "I-mode," which is a subjective cognition in which the speaker and the experiencer assimilate (and thus the speaker himself becomes the cognitive subject). In other words, it is a state in which the cognitive subject and the object of cognition fused together, which called "subject-object unity. On the other hand, the cognitive mode of objective recognition of a situation/object, which is dominant in English, is the extrinsic cognitive mode, or the "D-mode", which does not presuppose the interaction between the subject and the situation/object. This is characterized by the point that the cognitive subject goes outside the interactive cognitive field and takes a viewpoint as if it were viewed objectively from the outside. In that sense, this one is a "separation of subject and guest," so to speak, against the former.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The Japanese language has a self-centered viewpoint arrangement and Mode I dominance, while the English language has an optimal viewpoint arrangement and Mode D dominance, and for this reason, the following differences in linguistic expressions expected to appear in the narrative as a tendency. This difference in cognitive mode is thought to be the basis of the different structures and forms of expression in translation, which may lead to the selection of linguistic expressions, and thus to the differences in expression between the source and target texts.

The Japanese language has a self-centered viewpoint arrangement and Mode I dominance, while the English language has an optimal viewpoint arrangement and Mode D dominance, and for this reason, the following differences in linguistic expressions expected to appear in the narrative as a tendency. This difference in cognitive mode is thought to be the basis of the different structures and forms of expression in translation, which may lead to the selection of linguistic expressions, and thus to the differences in expression between the source and target texts.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The reason for (1) and (2) in the Japanese language, where the I-mode is predominant, is that the narrator describes the situation in a way that puts him or her in it. The following argument about the frequent use of the present tense in Japanese narrative writing will also reinforce this point. The underlined part of the sentence is only possible when the narrator puts himself in the situation.

The reason for (1) and (2) in the Japanese language, where the I-mode is predominant, is that the narrator describes the situation in a way that puts him or her in it. The following argument about the frequent use of the present tense in Japanese narrative writing will also reinforce this point. The underlined part of the sentence is only possible when the narrator puts himself in the situation.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The use of the non-present present tense effectively moves past events to the present moment, so the reader or listener can re-experience the story.
The use of the present tense in Japanese narratives has the effect of giving immediacy, making the reader feel the suspense and assimilate into the author's inner world in the time in which the story is going on.

The use of the non-present present tense effectively moves past events to the present moment, so the reader or listener can re-experience the story.
The use of the present tense in Japanese narratives has the effect of giving immediacy, making the reader feel the suspense and assimilate into the author's inner world in the time in which the story is going on.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The reason for (3) is that onomatopoeia and mimetic words are situationally relevant forms of expression. In general, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently in Japanese than in English and other languages. In Japanese, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently than in English and other languages, such as "pochan" and "shito", respectively. A linguistic expression that expresses the phenomenon in its entirety, without the need for the subject to enter into the situation and adhere to it. If we consider that a situation cannot be grasped as a whole unless the subject enters into the situation and follows it closely, we can say that Japanese onomatopoeia and mimetic words are linguistic expressions expressing subjective meanings that manifest the existence of the subject who recognizes and interprets the situation subjectively. Therefore, they can be considered to be forms reflecting the I-mode. In Japanese narratives, which are much richer in onomatopoeia and mimetic words than in English, the I-mode is dominant.

The reason for (3) is that onomatopoeia and mimetic words are situationally relevant forms of expression. In general, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently in Japanese than in English and other languages. In Japanese, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently than in English and other languages, such as "pochan" and "shito", respectively. A linguistic expression that expresses the phenomenon in its entirety, without the need for the subject to enter into the situation and adhere to it. If we consider that a situation cannot be grasped as a whole unless the subject enters into the situation and follows it closely, we can say that Japanese onomatopoeia and mimetic words are linguistic expressions expressing subjective meanings that manifest the existence of the subject who recognizes and interprets the situation subjectively. Therefore, they can be considered to be forms reflecting the I-mode. In Japanese narratives, which are much richer in onomatopoeia and mimetic words than in English, the I-mode is dominant.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

'''6. Japanese and English Narrative Sentence Contrastive Analysis'''

In order to confirm the previous discussion, I will look at and analyze the actual narrative text in Japanese and English through translation. The purpose of this paper is to examine how the cognitive style of the situation in the narrative texts of Japanese and English before and after translation reflected in the linguistic expressions and how it leads to the differences in the linguistic expressions in Japanese and English, especially in the three points mentioned in the previous section. The quantitative and quantitative data analysis itself will be done another time due to space constraints. Therefore, in this section, we will limit ourselves to a fact-finding exercise.

In order to confirm the previous discussion, I will look at and analyze the actual narrative text in Japanese and English through translation. The purpose of this paper is to examine how the cognitive style of the situation in the narrative texts of Japanese and English before and after translation reflected in the linguistic expressions and how it leads to the differences in the linguistic expressions in Japanese and English, especially in the three points mentioned in the previous section. The quantitative and quantitative data analysis itself will be done another time due to space constraints. Therefore, in this section, we will limit ourselves to a fact-finding exercise.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

First, let's see how explicit and non-explicit tenses and situation recognizers in past-tense narratives differ between Japanese and English, depending on the conceptualizer's perspective. These perspectives correspond to those of (1) and (2) in the previous section. I will use Kawabata Yasunari's novel Yukiguni (Snow Country) and its English translation as the subject matter. From the previous discussion, it can be seen that the degree of subjectivity increases as we go from 1. to 4. below. In other words, 1. is the typical D-mode, which is dominant in English, and 4. is the typical I-mode, which is dominant in Japanese.

First, let's see how explicit and non-explicit tenses and situation recognizers in past-tense narratives differ between Japanese and English, depending on the conceptualizer's perspective. These perspectives correspond to those of (1) and (2) in the previous section. I will use Kawabata Yasunari's novel Yukiguni (Snow Country) and its English translation as the subject matter. From the previous discussion, it can be seen that the degree of subjectivity increases as we go from 1. to 4. below. In other words, 1. is the typical D-mode, which is dominant in English, and 4. is the typical I-mode, which is dominant in Japanese.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

1.Past tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "Off Stage”
2.Past tense, experienced non-explicit, perspective. "Off Stage”
3.Present tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "On Stage”
4.Present tense, experienced person non-explicit, point of view. "On Stage”

1.Past tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "Off Stage”
2.Past tense, experienced non-explicit, perspective. "Off Stage”
3.Present tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "On Stage”
4.Present tense, experienced person non-explicit, point of view. "On Stage”

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

⑵ a. …女はぷいと窓へ立っていって国境の山々を眺めたが、そのうちに頰を染めて、…
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)
b. She stood up abruptly and went over to the window, her face reddening as she looked out at the mountains.
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)

⑶ a. …島村が内湯から上がって来ると、もう全く寝静まっていた。古びた廊下は彼の踏む度にガラス戸を微かに鳴らした。その長いはずれの帳場の曲り角に、裾を冷え冷えと黒光りの板の上へ拡げて、女が高く立っていた。
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)
b. ...and by the time Shimamura had come up from the bath the place seemed to be asleep. The glass doors rattled slightly each time he took a step down the sagging corridor. At the end, where it turned past the office, he saw the tall figure of the woman, her skirts trailing coldly off across the dark floor.
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)

⑷ a. …島村はなぜかそれが心のどこかで見えるような気持ちもする。
(Present tense; empiricist explicit: the conceptualizer's Perspective is "On Stage”.)
b. Somewhere in his heart Shimamura saw a question, as clearly as if it were standing there before him.
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)

⑸ a. 島村はその方を見て、ひょっと首を縮めた。鏡の奥が真白に光っているのは雪である。その雪のなかに女の真赤な頰が浮んでいる。
(Present tense; empiricist non-explicit: the conceptualizer's perspective is "On stage”.)
b. Shimamura glanced up at her, and immediately lowered his head. The white in the depths of the mirror was the snow, and floating in the middle of it were the womanʼs bright red cheeks.
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)

⑵ a. …女はぷいと窓へ立っていって国境の山々を眺めたが、そのうちに頰を染めて、…
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)
b. She stood up abruptly and went over to the window, her face reddening as she looked out at the mountains.
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)

⑶ a. …島村が内湯から上がって来ると、もう全く寝静まっていた。古びた廊下は彼の踏む度にガラス戸を微かに鳴らした。その長いはずれの帳場の曲り角に、裾を冷え冷えと黒光りの板の上へ拡げて、女が高く立っていた。
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)
b. ...and by the time Shimamura had come up from the bath the place seemed to be asleep. The glass doors rattled slightly each time he took a step down the sagging corridor. At the end, where it turned past the office, he saw the tall figure of the woman, her skirts trailing coldly off across the dark floor.
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)

⑷ a. …島村はなぜかそれが心のどこかで見えるような気持ちもする。
(Present tense; empiricist explicit: the conceptualizer's Perspective is "On Stage”.)
b. Somewhere in his heart Shimamura saw a question, as clearly as if it were standing there before him.
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)

⑸ a. 島村はその方を見て、ひょっと首を縮めた。鏡の奥が真白に光っているのは雪である。その雪のなかに女の真赤な頰が浮んでいる。
(Present tense; empiricist non-explicit: the conceptualizer's perspective is "On stage”.)
b. Shimamura glanced up at her, and immediately lowered his head. The white in the depths of the mirror was the snow, and floating in the middle of it were the womanʼs bright red cheeks.
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

From the above example, it can be seen that the English translation has a reduced degree of subjectivity in its form compared to the original Japanese.
Now let's look at the perspective in the previous section (3), i.e., examples of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. The following is the original English text of Hemingway's "The Old Man and the Sea" and its translation into Japanese, in which the situation is expressed subjectively in Japanese as onomatopoeia and mimetic words, respectively. In the Japanese translation, the subject's point of view penetrates into the situation and which is closely connected to it to understand the situation as a whole. In this respect, it can be said that the degree of subjectivity of the cognizant subject is relatively greater than in English.

From the above example, it can be seen that the English translation has a reduced degree of subjectivity in its form compared to the original Japanese.
Now let's look at the perspective in the previous section (3), i.e., examples of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. The following is the original English text of Hemingway's "The Old Man and the Sea" and its translation into Japanese, in which the situation is expressed subjectively in Japanese as onomatopoeia and mimetic words, respectively. In the Japanese translation, the subject's point of view penetrates into the situation and which is closely connected to it to understand the situation as a whole. In this respect, it can be said that the degree of subjectivity of the cognizant subject is relatively greater than in English.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

⑹ a. ...and he loved to walk on them on the beach after a storm and hear them pop when he stepped on them with the horny soles of his feet.
b. また彼は嵐のあとなど、海岸に打ちあげられた浮袋を、角のように硬くなった踵で踏みつけては、それがプスッ、プスッと音をたてるのをききながら歩くのが好きだった。

⑺ a. In the dark, the old man could feel the morning coming and as he rowed he heard the trembling sound as flying fish left the water and the hissing that their stiff set wings made as they soared away in the darkness.
b. 老人は暗黒のうちに朝の近寄る気配を感じとっていた。飛魚が水を離れるときに生じるブルンという音、その硬い翼が暗い空をよぎるヒューという音、オールを操りながら老人はそれらの物音をはっきりききとっていた。

⑻ a. It floated cheerfully as a bubble with its long deadly purple filaments trailing a yard behind it in the water.
b. 黒ずんだ紫色の細い糸が水中に一ヤードも尾を引いていたが、それはまるで水泡のように、のんきにふわふわと漂っていた。

⑼ a. The bird went higher in the air and circled again, his wings motionless.
b. 鳥はさらに上空めがけて舞いあがり、ふたたびぐるぐる輪を描きはじめた。

'''7. Conclusion'''

In this paper, the framework and considerations of the contrastive study of Japanese and English narrative texts through translation are presented from the perspective of cognitive linguistics, with a particular focus on the concepts of "perspective" and "subjectivation," and some of the possibilities, methods, and examples of the analysis of linguistic representations of situation recognition in Japanese and English narrative texts have been seen. In particular, the contrastive analysis of Japanese and English The analysis from the standpoint of the opposition between the self-centered viewpoint arrangement and the optimal viewpoint arrangement proposed by Langacker, the I-mode and the D-mode proposed by Nakamura, and the subjective and objective grasping that Ikegami advocates seems to be effective, but it is necessary to collect data and attempt a quantitative analysis of more works in the future. In particular, with regard to item (1) of section 3, the position of the conceptualizer's point of view differs between the past and present tenses, with the former in the off-stage and the latter in the on-stage. Also, the item (2) in section 3, i.e., whether or not the perceiver of the situation is explicitly stated in the linguistic representation, may be explained by whether or not it is profiled in the direct scope. Further data analysis is needed to verify these as well. It should be noted that this Japanese-English controlled study may contribute to the further advancement of Nakamura's "cognitive typology".

In this paper, the framework and considerations of the contrastive study of Japanese and English narrative texts through translation are presented from the perspective of cognitive linguistics, with a particular focus on the concepts of "perspective" and "subjectivation," and some of the possibilities, methods, and examples of the analysis of linguistic representations of situation recognition in Japanese and English narrative texts have been seen. In particular, the contrastive analysis of Japanese and English The analysis from the standpoint of the opposition between the self-centered viewpoint arrangement and the optimal viewpoint arrangement proposed by Langacker, the I-mode and the D-mode proposed by Nakamura, and the subjective and objective grasping that Ikegami advocates seems to be effective, but it is necessary to collect data and attempt a quantitative analysis of more works in the future. In particular, with regard to item (1) of section 3, the position of the conceptualizer's point of view differs between the past and present tenses, with the former in the off-stage and the latter in the on-stage. Also, the item (2) in section 3, i.e., whether or not the perceiver of the situation is explicitly stated in the linguistic representation, may be explained by whether or not it is profiled in the direct scope. Further data analysis is needed to verify these as well. It should be noted that this Japanese-English controlled study may contribute to the further advancement of Nakamura's "cognitive typology".

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

'''Bibliography:'''

[1] 川端康成『雪国』、岩波書店、1952年.

[2] Kawabata Yasunari Snow Country. translated by Edward G. Seidensticker, Charles E. Tuttle Company, 1957.

[3] Hemingway Ernest The Old Man and the Sea. Kodansha International, 1991.

[4] アーネスト，ヘミングウェイ『老人と海』（福田恒在訳）、新潮社、1966.

[5] 森田良行『話者の視点がつくる日本語』ひつじ書房、2006年

[6] 籾山洋介・深田智「意味の拡張」松本曜編著『認知意味論』大修館書店

[7] 深田智・仲本康一郎『概念化と意味の世界』研究社、2008年

[8] 本多啓『アフォーダンスの認知意味論』、東京大学出版会、2005年

[9] 西口純代「物語文の現在時制における視点と文脈の変化」河上誓作・谷口一美共編『ことばと視点』、英宝社、2007年

[10] ベルク，オギュスタン『空間の日本文化』（宮原信訳、ちくま学芸文庫）、筑摩書房、1994年

==The Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Communication 莫南 Mo Nan,202020080627,比较文学==
'''文化负载词在中英交流中的翻译'''

===摘要===
文化负载词是民族文化智慧的结晶，蕴含着深厚的民族文化遗产。文化负载词的准确翻译不仅可以促进跨文化交际的顺利进行，而且有助于传播民族文化，保持民族特色，促进各民族之间的友好交流。尽管文化负载词的翻译存在困难，但它仍然是可译的。前进模型、块模型、标注模型、集成模型和自适应模型是有效的转换模型;直译、意译和音译都是有效的翻译策略。译者应根据不同情况选择合适的翻译模式和翻译策略。

===关键词===
文化负载词，翻译，交际--[[User:Mo Nan|Mo Nan]] ([[User talk:Mo Nan|talk]]) 13:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Abstract===
Culture-loaded words are the crystallization of national cultural wisdom and contain deep national cultural heritage. Accurate translation of culture-loaded words can not only promote smooth cross-cultural communication, but also help spread national culture, maintain national characteristics and promote friendly exchanges among ethnic groups. Although there are difficulties in translation of culture-loaded words, it is still translatable. The go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models; literal translation, liberal translation and transliteration are all effective translation strategies. Translators should choose the appropriate translation models and strategies in different situations.

===Key words===
Culture-loaded words; translation, communication--[[User:Mo Nan|Mo Nan]] ([[User talk:Mo Nan|talk]]) 13:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===1 Introduction===
Culture-loaded words are words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations. Culture-load words have strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, and in the language system they can best reflect the cultural information carried and inherited by language and the social life of human beings. Culture-loaded words are important carriers to reflect national culture, and they are a special kind of information text, which has both textual meaning and rich cultural connotation.
Nowadays, economic and cultural exchanges among various ethnic groups are becoming more and more frequent. In order to better promote friendly exchanges between Chinese and Western nations, eliminate cultural barriers and conflicts caused by cultural differences, and smoothly carry out cross-cultural communication, it is especially important to understand national cultures and characteristics, especially to study the translation of culture-loaded vocabularies.

===2 Definition, Classification and Translatability of Culture-loaded Words===

====2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words====
Since Professor Xu Guozhang (1980) published “Culture Loaded Words and English Language Teaching” in Modern Foreign Languages, the study of culture-loaded words has attracted great attention from the academic circles. However, scholars in China have different opinions on the definition of culture-loaded words. In his book Contemporary Western Translation Theory, Liao Qiyi (2000) argues that it “refers to the words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations.”--[[User:Mo Nan|Mo Nan]] ([[User talk:Mo Nan|talk]]) 13:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)
This kind of vocabulary carries a lot of cultural information and is very regional and national, i.e. “culture-loaded words”. Some scholars inherited and developed Mr. Liao’s definition, for example, Hu Wenzhong (1999) pointed out that “culture-loaded words are vocabularies of a specific cultural category, which are directly or indirectly reflected in the vocabulary level of national culture”. Since then, some scholars have argued that culture-loaded words are the phenomenon of lexical vacancies, that is, cultural information in the source language cannot find a corresponding word in the target language.
Culture-loaded words signify the changes of a country and a nation. In both domestic and foreign social life, culture-loaded words are a kind of words that cannot be ignored, which are conducive to the export of local culture and the introduction of foreign culture, so as to achieve the purpose of communication and integration between different cultures. The connotation of culture-loaded words determines that they have many distinctive features. The first characteristic is that it is very rich in meaning. In different contexts, it can express ever-changing and rich meanings. The second characteristic is that its usage is very flexible. It can not only play a significant role in longer and more complex sentences, but also play a similar role as a metaphor in short and sharp sentences. The third characteristic is that it is short and flexible. A few words can express a customary thing, so it can be applied separately to news and notifications, while ensuring that it does not deviate from the subject of news or notifications.

====2.2 Classification of Culture-loaded Words====

The classification of culture-loaded words is as diverse as the definition of it, but most scholars classify culture-loaded words on the basis of cultural categorization. Wang Rongpei (2002) classifies culture-loaded words into eight categories based on various aspects of human life: political words, social words, color words, legendary allusion words, human body words, animal and plant words, food words, and other words. Based on the classification of cultural factors in language by the famous American translation theorist Eugene A. Naida, Li Xuejun (2015) classifies culture-loaded words into material culture words, ecological culture words, linguistic culture words, social cultural words and religious culture words. The words themselves are characterized by generality, ambiguity and ethnicity in their meanings, an they are constantly changing with the development of society. The vocabulary is rich and the classification standards are difficult to unify, which hinders the classification of culturally loaded words.--[[User:Mo Nan|Mo Nan]] ([[User talk:Mo Nan|talk]]) 13:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.3 Translatability of Culture-loaded Words====

On the question of whether culture is translatable, Steiner, a well-known translation theorist, argues that “Human commonalities make translation possible” (2001: 259). Translatability and untranslatability is a crucial issue for translation studies to establish its principles and make it an independent discipline. Firstly, to deny the translatability of translation is essentially to deny the ability of language to express and describe the unknown. Secondly, untranslatability originates from the limited knowledge and ability of the translator, which is actually unknowable. Thirdly, translation cannot be classified as untranslatable just because it is difficult. The so-called untranslatable actually means that when the source language is translated into the target language, the loss of the source language is great. --[[User:Mo Nan|Mo Nan]] ([[User talk:Mo Nan|talk]]) 13:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)
In addition, it is believed that only by understanding the differences between national cultures and acknowledging the translatability of culture-loaded words, can we effectively communicate with each other and achieve the goal of communication. Translatability is the mark of human language, and the development of human language and culture is built on the basis of translatability, without which there is no way to talk about human cultural exchange.
Due to the great linguistic and cultural differences between the source culture and the translated culture, the translator can only translate on the basis of making the translation as close to the original as possible. The translation of culture-loaded words should follow the following principles (Liao Qiyi, 2000): a. the reproduction of the meaning of the original words is better than the reproduction of the form; b. the context in which the original words are used must be taken into account in the choice of words; c. the key implied meaning of the original words should be converted into non-implied meaning in the translation. All these principles require us to: a. translate the connotation of the original language; b. pay attention to the cultural context of the original language; c. transform the more difficult cultural vocabulary in the original text into easily acceptable vocabulary in the target language. In view of this, when dealing with culture-loaded words, it is important for the content of the translation to be faithful to the original, but the cultural connotation should be paid more attention to. A translation without cultural connotation will make the readers of a different language get a wrong understanding.

===3 Difficulties in the translation of culture-loaded words==

====3.1 Differences in Worldview and Ideology====

Worldview refers to how people perceive the universe, nature, and how they perceive the relationship between humans and nature. As such, it affects all aspects of human perception, such as beliefs, ideas and behaviors. Chinese and Western cultures with different worldviews may contain different values and perceptions of the same objective thing. Generally speaking, China emphasizes unity, while the West emphasizes independence, which is the biggest difference between China and the West in terms of worldview. For example, the Chinese preach “harmony is precious” and advocate and glorify “collectivism”. However, Western culture focuses on individual independence, individual freedom and individual rights. It encourages people to realize and express themselves, believing that “everyone is unique”.--[[User:Mo Nan|Mo Nan]] ([[User talk:Mo Nan|talk]]) 13:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.2 Differences in the Natural and Geographical Environment====

Language is a reflection of the objective world in real life, and the environment in which people live produces the languages they speak. In the process of producing and developing a language, any nation is influenced to varying degrees by the geographical environment and climatic conditions in which it lives. Therefore, differences in the natural and geographical environment are also important factors in the formation of different culture-loaded words. For example, the true meaning of the phrase “east wind” and “west wind” in Chinese is very different from that in English.--[[User:Mo Nan|Mo Nan]] ([[User talk:Mo Nan|talk]]) 13:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)
The “east wind” in the minds of the Chinese is warm and can make the grass and trees grow, similar to the spring wind. Because China’s topography is high in the west and low in the east, facing the sea in the east. In China, the east wind is given the cultural connotation of “vitality”, “spring”, “new life” and so on. In the Chinese winter, however, the northwest wind from Siberia is bitterly cold and harsh. In the West, for example, in the United Kingdom, the east wind comes from the northern part of the European continent and is extremely cold, while the west wind from the Atlantic Ocean is warm, humid and pleasant. This is why the famous English poet Shelley’s lyrical poem Ode to the West Wind appeared.

====3.3 Differences in Historical Culture====

There are significant differences in the historical culture backgrounds of China and the West. China’s feudal ruling system lasted for more than 3,000 years, and before 1840, China’s traditional philosophical thinking was mainly based on Confucianism, with the addition of Taoism. In the West, for example, the United Kingdom has been developing in the transition to capitalism since 1640. Due to the different historical development backgrounds of the two cultures, their cultural differences are also reflected in the use of words. For example, the English idiom “is it necessary to use a steam hammer to crack nuts?” means “no need to make a fuss”, which is equivalent to the Chinese saying “why use a cow's knife when killing a chicken? (杀鸡焉用牛刀)”. This idiom shows that Britain had entered the industrial age, while China was still in a backward production based on agriculture.--[[User:Mo Nan|Mo Nan]] ([[User talk:Mo Nan|talk]]) 13:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.4 Differences in Religious Beliefs====

China is a country that mainly believes in Buddhism, and Buddhism has a very wide influence in people’s social life. For example, the Chinese idioms “菩萨心肠”, “跑得了和尚跑不了庙”, “临时抱佛脚” and “借花献佛” are accompanied by connotations of Chinese culture, which are difficult for Westerners to understand. In the West, religion occupies an extremely important position in social life, thought and culture, and is one of the main characteristics of Western culture. For example, for the Chinese, the “End of World” can easily be understood as a terrifying moment when a catastrophe is imminent and mankind is about to be destroyed. However, for Westerners, it does not mean terror, but it means that one day the world will finally end, and everyone will accept God’s final judgment, which means that the time for justice is coming.--[[User:Mo Nan|Mo Nan]] ([[User talk:Mo Nan|talk]]) 13:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===4 Approaches to Translate Culture-loaded Words===

====4.1 Translation on the Macro Basis of the Values of the Source Language Region====

The word “worldview” encompasses a large category that reflects people’s understanding of the universe, the world, nature and the relationship between human beings and nature. At the same time, the influence of worldview is also very broad and significant. It affects people’s recognition of the value of things, and influences the way people perceive and think about things. Therefore, if someone want the translation of culture-loaded words to make the target readers feel the same as the readers in the source language, he or she should translate them on the premise of understanding the worldview and values of the source language.--[[User:Mo Nan|Mo Nan]] ([[User talk:Mo Nan|talk]]) 13:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====4.2 Explanation of the Social and Historical Background and Religious Culture====

The English-speaking countries of the West believe in the spirit and values transmitted by the ancient Greek and Roman cultures, while China mainly believes in the spirit transmitted by the Confucian culture, which also includes the spirit of Taoist culture. China has a history and culture of 5,000 years, more than half of which has been ruled by the feudal monarchy, while the feudal system in Western countries was established later and developed mainly towards capitalism after the Industrial Revolution. Such differences will be shown in the English vocabulary, so in the translation of culture-loaded words, explanation of the different social and historical backgrounds and religious and cultural beliefs is very necessary.--[[User:Mo Nan|Mo Nan]] ([[User talk:Mo Nan|talk]]) 13:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====4.3 Understanding of the Natural and Humanistic Environment====

The differences in the natural environment between the East and the West have a very important impact on the differences in English and Chinese culture-loaded words. For example, “east wind” in China means a good implied meaning, whereas “east wind” in the western population means desperate. It is mainly caused by geographical environment factors and climate factors in the east and west. The humanistic environment here refers mainly to customs and habits, and more specifically in the appellation of relatives and the use of honorific expressions. Easterners pay more attention to respect and courtesy, while Westerners emphasize equality.--[[User:Mo Nan|Mo Nan]] ([[User talk:Mo Nan|talk]]) 13:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====4.4 Guided by the Semantic Basis of the English-Chinese Culture-loaded Words====

Through various comparative studies between English and Chinese, linguists have found that there are four main types of culture-loaded words: vacancy words, conflict words, reciprocity words and iterative words. Among them, iterative words are divided into two types, one is words with the same meaning but different shapes, and the other is words with the same shape but different meanings. For example, in English, “red” (红) is not only used as “red”, but also as “black” (black tea 红茶) and “brown” (brown sugar 红糖) in some fixed words. It is a common phenomenon that people associate the same word with different meanings. For example, in the West, the English word “dog” is used in a sentence describing a person to express praise. While from the Chinese people’s perspective, the word “dog” is often used in a derogatory way, such as “走狗” (flunky/lackey).--[[User:Mo Nan|Mo Nan]] ([[User talk:Mo Nan|talk]]) 13:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===5 Translation Models of Culture-loaded Words===

Each language has many words that are used to express its own specific cultural concepts, and their signified is the clearest only in a particular cultural context. The problem of translation may arise once one moves out of a specific cultural context into one that is quite different from one’s own. The principle of translating culture-loaded mainly depends on the cultural background of the source language, the social background, the translator’s cultural concept and the cultural acceptance mentality of the targeted readers, and other factors, which are closely related and mutually reinforcing. In dealing with the translation of culture-loaded words, translators can take the following models.--[[User:Mo Nan|Mo Nan]] ([[User talk:Mo Nan|talk]]) 13:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====5.1 Go-ahead Model====

The go-ahead model refers to the direct entry of cultural expressions from the source language into the translation. Many cultural words are translated with the go-ahead model, which means that transliteration or literal translation is used in translation. There are transliterated words such as microphone, yin and yang, sofa, fans and the literal translation of words such as hot dog and three representations.--[[User:Mo Nan|Mo Nan]] ([[User talk:Mo Nan|talk]]) 13:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====5.2 Block Model====

The cultural expression of the source language fades away and its cultural meaning is not adopted by the targeted culture, which is the cultural block or block model. Some cultural words are blocked from the target language culture because of the limitation of language function. The most obvious example is some expressions that express self-effacement in Chinese, such as “鄙人”, “拙文” and “贵姓”. Even in the title of an article, people will often find expressions such as “浅谈”, “初探” and “刍议” to indicate one’s immature views. In addition, there are also some honorific expressions, such as “令堂”, “大作”, and “光临”, etc. When translating into English, the cultural connotations of such expressions can be appropriately reflected in the context of China, but it is not necessary to translate every word, i.e., the cultural connotations of the Chinese language can be blocked.--[[User:Mo Nan|Mo Nan]] ([[User talk:Mo Nan|talk]]) 13:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====5.3 Annotation Model====

Annotation model refers that the target language provides information about the cultural context of the source language cultural expression, that is, the method of interpretation of the target language provides a little but important context or situational information for foreign cultural concepts in the target language. For example, cynicism, as a foreign word, is one of the four major philosophical schools of ancient Greece, represented by the figure of Diogenes of Sinop. There is no existing equivalent in Chinese. At that time, the philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism seemed to behave, speak, act and even live in a way that was uninhibited, unscrupulous and shameless, but they were loyal, reliable, sensitive and clear-cut, which were very similar to some characteristics of dogs. So people call these philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism as “犬儒”.--[[User:Mo Nan|Mo Nan]] ([[User talk:Mo Nan|talk]]) 13:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====5.4 Integration Model====

The integration model refers to the fusion of cultural expressions in the source language and the target language, which enters the target language in a novel linguistic form. Obviously, the integration model is closely related to the openness of different cultures and the frequency of interaction. The terms “X-ray”, “typeB ultrasonic”, “T-shirt” and “Coca Cola” imported from the Western seem to be named directly in Chinese. This kind of translation method that integrates transliteration and free translation is undoubtedly an effective way for foreign culture to integrate into the target language culture.--[[User:Mo Nan|Mo Nan]] ([[User talk:Mo Nan|talk]]) 13:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====5.5 Adaption Model====

When the cultural expression of the source language is omitted and replaced by a translated one, the cultural meaning of the source language disappears, which is the process of adaption model. The domestication translation method aims to minimize the exoticism in the translation and provide a natural and smooth translation for the target language readers, according to Venuti (1995). The cultural domestication model is usually used together with the annotation model when it is used to translate cultural words. For example, the English expression for “拳击练习” is “shadow boxing”. If it is borrowed to express “太极拳” in Chinese, the word “Chinese” must be added before the expression to become “Chinese shadow boxing”.--[[User:Mo Nan|Mo Nan]] ([[User talk:Mo Nan|talk]]) 13:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===6 Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words===

====6.1 Literal Translation: to Convey Cultural Connotations====
As the name implies, "literal translation" is the direct conversion of the meaning and structure of the source language words into the target language words, including literal translation and literal translation with annotations. Human beings live on the same earth, and although there are huge differences between Chinese and English national cultures, there are also certain similarities. For some Chinese-English culture-loaded words, the literal translation method can not only retain the cultural connotation of the source language words, but also transmit them to the target language culture, thus achieving the cross-cultural communication purpose of cultural exchange.
There are many examples of literal translation in both Chinese and English languages, and almost no trace of translation can be seen, reflecting the successful fusion of Chinese and Western cultures.--[[User:Mo Nan|Mo Nan]] ([[User talk:Mo Nan|talk]]) 13:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

For example, “fast food” in English is directly translated as “快餐”, and “all roads lead to Rome” is translated as “条条大路通罗马”. In English, there are also vocabulary expressions directly translated from Chinese, such as “paper tiger (纸老虎)”, “one country, two systems (一国两制)”, and “keep pace with the times (与时俱进)” and so on. The above examples vividly illustrate that appropriate literal translation of culture-loaded words can not only maintain the unique national flavor of the source language vocabulary, but also enrich the vocabulary of the target language to a certain extent, provided that the literal translation does not cause misunderstanding among the target language readers.
The Chinese traditional culture is broad and profound, and the Chinese language is full of words with strong cultural connotations. In order to better retain the connotation and flavor of these culture-loaded words, and to make the traditional culture of the Chinese nation acceptable to the whole world, the translators very often adopt the literal translation method for such words. For example, “四书” is translated as “Four Books”, “五经” as “Five Classics”, “文房四宝” as “Scholar’s Four Jewels”, “龙舟” as “Dragon Boat” and “剪纸” as “paper-cut”, and so on. This kind of literal translation can preserve the profound connotation and infinite charm of traditional Chinese culture in the process of cross-cultural communication between East and West.

====6.2 Free Translation: to Seek Functional Equivalence====
Due to different cultural backgrounds and ways of thinking, there are many culture-loaded words with specific connotations in both Chinese and English languages, and if a literal translation is used, it is likely to cause misunderstanding among the target language readers and even cultural conflicts. Therefore, the translation of these words can be used to seek functional equivalence of the free translation method, without pursuing the language form of the source language, only to convey the meaning of the source language. As the name implies, free translation means translating according to the meaning of the words.--[[User:Mo Nan|Mo Nan]] ([[User talk:Mo Nan|talk]]) 13:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The advantage of the free translation method is that the translator is not limited by the construction pattern of the words, and translators can translate by inferring the deeper meaning and cultural connotation of the words in the source language. Take the typical Chinese dishes with strong Chinese culture as an example, if the expressions such as “四喜丸子”, “醉蟹” and “红烧狮子头” directly translated into English in literal translation, they will definitely make foreign guests who do not understand Chinese culture feel more confused. Therefore, when translating the names of such Chinese dishes into English, the principle of free translation should be followed, indicating the ingredients and the method of preparation, so that foreigners can easily understand and accept them. For example, “红烧狮子头” could be translated as “braised pork ball in brown sauce”, “四喜丸子” as “braised pork balls in gravy” and “蚂蚁上树” as “vermicelli with spicy minced pork”, and so on.

In addition, there are many idioms containing historical allusions in Chinese. Such culturally loaded words cannot find the corresponding cultural connotations in English. If they are literally translated, they will often find it difficult for target language readers who know little about Chinese history and culture. In this case, it is a wise choice for translators to adopt free translation. For example, “悬梁刺股” can be translated as “to be extremely hard-working in one’s study”, “东施效颦” as “crude imitation with ludicrous effect”, and “塞翁失马，焉知非福” as “a loss may turn out to be a gain”, and so on.

By the same token, there are some words in English that are closely related to the characteristics of their national culture, but these words in Chinese do not have similar cultural connotations. In ancient England, the land was mainly ploughed by horses, so there are many slang expressions related to “horse” in English. However, the image of “horse” has no similar associative meaning in Chinese, so when translating from English to Chinese, one should only need to explain its meaning. For example, “horse doctor” can be translated as “蹩脚医生”, “horse sense” as “基本常识” and “work for a dead horse” as “徒劳无益”, and so on.

====6.3 Transliteration: to Preserve Cultural Identity====

Transliteration is a translation method that is parallel to literal translation and free translation, and it has an irreplaceable function in certain situations. According to Jin Huikang (2003), translators should not use words with different concepts because of vocabulary vacancies, and he points out that “the most prominent role of transliteration is that it can overcome the expression barriers brought about by linguistic and cultural gaps, bridge the two languages, spread foreign cultures, reduce the loss of information in translation, and thus promote language and cultural communication.”--[[User:Mo Nan|Mo Nan]] ([[User talk:Mo Nan|talk]]) 13:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The two languages of Chinese and English have absorbed a large number of foreign words from each other, and these foreign words retain the unique cultural personality of the source language vocabulary. Foreign words are the inevitable product of cultural exchange and integration, and to a certain extent, they are the result of translators’ transliteration strategies in translation activities. The purpose of translation is to break through the language barrier between the source language and the target language and promote effective cross-cultural communication.

Therefore, for some words carrying the cultural characteristics of the native language, the translator uses the translation strategy of transliteration or transliteration with annotation, which is effective in preserving the cultural characteristics of the source language words and integrating them into the cultural system of the target language, so that the target language readers can understand the foreign culture to the maximum extent and promote cultural intercommunication and integration.

There are many words in Chinese that are directly transliterated from English culture-loaded words, such as “沙发” (sofa), “汉堡” (hamburger), “吉他” (guitar), “爵士” (jazz) and “麦克风” (microphone). Accordingly, there are a large number of culture-loaded words in Chinese that have been transliterated into English. Most of them are everyday words with Chinese cultural characteristics, cultural specific items and some words related to Chinese politics. For example, “tofu” (豆腐), “chowmein” (炒面), “litchi”(荔枝), “fengshui” (风水), “wushu” (武术) and “erhu” (二胡) in English are all directly transliterated from Chinese culture-loaded words.

When some vocabularies are first introduced into the English context, the target language readers are not familiar with their cultural connotations, so it is difficult for them to be understood only by transliteration. Therefore, the method of transliteration with annotation is adopted, which not only preserves the cultural characteristics of Chinese words through transliteration, but also enables the target language readers to clearly understand their meanings through annotation. With the in-depth development of cross-cultural communication between East and West and the increase of Western understanding of Chinese culture, the annotation of these culture-loaded words can be omitted and only transliteration can be used. For example, for the Chinese term “阴阳”, translators initially adopted the strategy of transliteration with annotation to translate it, that is, “yin and yang, the two opposing principles in nature, the former feminine or negative, the latter masculine or positive”. Nowadays, most western readers have already understood the cultural connotation of “阴阳”, so many translators directly transliterate it as “yin and yang”.

===7 Conclusion===
Culture is national, special and complex. As a special linguistic phenomenon, “culture-loaded words” are rich in cultural connotations and record the influence and penetration of a nation on language in various aspects. This poses a challenge to translators, who are required to be flexible in dealing with culture-loaded words. American scholar Venuti (1992) advocates the use of resistant translation to reveal the gap between the original culture and the target culture, in contrast to the previous reader-centered domestication or transparent translation methods. When translating culture-loaded vocabularies,the original culture should be taken as the core, and the national characteristics of the original culture should be preserved in the translation process, which is respectful of the original culture on the one hand, and meets the requirements of translation standards on the other hand.--[[User:Mo Nan|Mo Nan]] ([[User talk:Mo Nan|talk]]) 13:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In a word, the go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models for culture-loaded words; literal translation, free translation and transliteration are effective translation strategies for overcoming culture-loaded word translation barriers. As to which translation model and translation strategy to choose, the translator should make a decision at the right time according to different situations. Every model and strategy has its advantages and limitations, but the translator should be flexible in choosing the right one to make the translation as meaningful and effective as possible.

===References===

*Chunyan XIANG. On Translation Strategies of Chinese Culture-Loaded Words[J]. Canadian Social Science, 2016, 12(6).
*Hua S. An Interpreting Study of Chinese Culture-loaded Words from the Perspective of Relevance-Adaptation Model[J]. Language and Translation, 2012, 1.
*Lin Yuewu,Yang Qin. An Investigation into the Culture-Loaded Words Learning by English Majors in a Vocational College in China[J]. English Language Teaching, 2015, 8(8).
*Juan Bai. A Brief Analysis of Culture-Loaded Words C-E Interpretation Based on the Interpretive Theory--Taking the COVID-19 Chinese-English Glossary as an Example[J]. Frontiers in Educational Research, 2020, 3(8).
*Steiner, G. After Babel: Aspects of Language and Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2001: 259.
*Venuti, L. (ed.). Rethinking Translation[M]. London & New York: Routledge, 1992: 12-13.
*Venuti. The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation[M]. Routledge, 1995: 19-20.
*陈喜荣. 从功能语法语境理论看文化负载词的翻译[J]. 外国语文, 1998 (1): 96-100.
*胡文仲. 跨文化交际学概论[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社, 1999: 1-7.
*景芳, 段成. 从语域理论视角浅谈文化负载词的翻译[J]. 中华文化论坛, 2017(03): 110-116.
*金惠康. 跨文化交际翻译[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司, 2003.
*李雪君. 以汉、英“水”语义对比研究为例看跨文化交际背景汉语文化负载词的教学[D]. 兰州: 西北师范大学, 2015.
*廖七一. 当代西方翻译理论探索[M]. 南京: 译林出版社, 2000: 232, 236.
*宋洁. 英汉文化负载词图式对比及翻译[J]. 广西民族大学学报(哲学社会科学版), 2016, 38(06): 172-176.
*汪榕培. 英语词汇学高级教程[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 2002: 67-69.
*郑德虎. 中国文化走出去与文化负载词的翻译[J]. 上海翻译, 2016 (02): 53-56.

*Chen Xirong陈喜荣.(1998).从功能语法语境理论看文化负载词的翻译[Translation of Culturally Loaded Words from Functional Grammar Context Theory]. 外国语文[Foreign Languages],96-100.
*Hu Zhongwen胡文仲.(1999). 跨文化交际学概论[Introduction to Intercultural Communication Studies].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press],1-7.
*Jing Fang,Duan Cheng景芳, 段成(2017). 从语域理论视角浅谈文化负载词的翻译[Translation of Culturally Loaded Words from the Perspective of Language Domain Theory]. 中华文化论坛[Chinese Culture Forum],110-116.
*Jin Hui Kang金惠康(2003). 跨文化交际翻译[Intercultural Communication Translation].中国对外翻译出版公司[China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation].
*LI Xuejun李雪君(2015). 以汉、英“水”语义对比研究为例看跨文化交际背景汉语文化负载词的教学[A comparative study of the semantic meaning of "water" in Chinese and English as an example of teaching Chinese culturally loaded words in the context of cross-cultural communication].西北师范大学[Northwest Normal University].
*Liao Qiyi廖七一(2000).当代西方翻译理论探索[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory].译林出版社[Translin Publishing House],232, 236.
*Song Jie宋洁(2016).英汉文化负载词图式对比及翻译[Comparison of English and Chinese cultural load word schema and translation].广西民族大学学报[Journal of Guangxi University for Nationalities], 172-176.
*Wang Rongrong汪榕培(2002).英语词汇学高级教程[Advanced Course in English Vocabulary].上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House],67-69.
*Zheng Dehu郑德虎(2016).中国文化走出去与文化负载词的翻译[Chinese Culture Going Global and Translation of Cultural Load Words].上海翻译[Shanghai Translation],53-56.--[[User:Mo Nan|Mo Nan]] ([[User talk:Mo Nan|talk]]) 13:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

History of Translation Studies 11

2020-12-30T11:25:25Z

Zhang Yu: /* Free Translation and Hard Translation */

==Reflections of Translation Theory Books 李丽琴 Li Liqin, Student No.202070080595 MTI 英语笔译==

===Abstract===

Rooted in translation practice, Chinese and Western translation theories share many similarities. Since they are bred in different cultural soil, they also have their own characteristics. On the basis of reviewing some books and papers on translation theories, this paper gives a detailed overview of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, and then makes a comparison between them to reveal similarities and differences. In addition, this paper makes a comparative study of translation methods in the Chinese and Western translation circle, aiming to provide readers with a new perspective to have a better understanding of the framework and characteristics of the development of translation theories. In this context, the translation practice and study will be advanced.

===Key Words===

Chinese translation theories; Western translation theories; Translation methods; Similarity; Difference;

===题目===

读翻译理论书籍有感

===摘要===

中西译论根植于翻译实践活动，具有诸多得相似性，但它们孕育在不同的文化土壤之中，故又各具特色。本文在阅读有关翻译理论书籍及论文的基础上，对中西翻译理论的发展历程进行了较为详尽的梳理概述，并在此基础上对中西译论进行对比，揭示其相似性与相异性。此外，本文对中西译界的翻译方法进行对比研究，旨在为读者提供一个全新的视角，认识中西翻译理论发展的框架及各自的特点，有针对性地更好地推动翻译实践以及翻译研究的发展。

===关键词===

中国翻译理论；西方翻译理论；翻译方法；相似性；相异性；

===Introduction===

When it comes to translation, this paper argues that the concepts of translation and translation studies must be distinguished at the first place. On this basis, the relationship between translation theory and translation practice must be explored in depth, so as to better promote the development of translation studies and translation practice.

====Translation and Translation Study====

In 1987, the first National Seminar on Translation Theory was held in Qingdao province, China, which focused on the subject construction and development of translation studies. The issue "since translation studies is a science of translation, whether it should be regarded as an independent disciplinary" was raised and widely discussed at the conference. Tan Zaixi called for the establishment of translation studies after Dong Qiusi, which had a great impact on the translation circle and greatly promoted the development of translation. (Liu Junping 2018, 56)

Tan Zaixi believes that translation is a process of expressing the meaning of the source language into the target language. It is mainly a technology or art, but it is not a science. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 7-10) Translation studies is the study of translation. Its task is to reveal the objective laws of translation process and provide guidance for practical translation work. Translation studies is a comprehensive but independent science closely related to semiotics, literature and art, sociology, psychology, information theory, and linguistics. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 12)

A complete translation theory should include the following five parts. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30-39) First of all, it need to clarify the essence of translation, including what is translation, what is the purpose of translation, what is the function of translation, what are the types of translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30)

Secondly, a complete translation theory should describe the process of translation. In translation circle, the most influential one is the four-step model put forward by Nida: analysis-transliteration-recombination-test. Specifically, it means to analyse a text from the perspectives of semantics, grammar and style firstly. Then, transform the materials into the target language, and reorganize these converted materials to make them meet the requirements of the target language. Finally, translators should compare the translated text with the original one, thus making the translation as close as possible to the original information and maintaining the fluency and style of the original. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 32)

Thirdly, it need to define the principles and standards of translation, which is the key task of a translation theory. Translation is an activity with certain rules to follow. People summarize translation practice and then conclude principles of universal significance in ways that guide the practical translation process and measure the translation. In order to produce a good translation, the translator must have a clear aim or direction in the process of translation and a clear standard or measurement method to measure the translation. However, since the fact that translation is a complex activity with multiple purposes and functions, it should never be studied from a single perspective. Any attempt to hold a specific standard as the highest standard in the absolute sense or to adhere to dogma is not in line with the translation principles and is unreasonable. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 34)

Fourthly, it should describe the methods of translation. It refers to the methods and techniques adopted in the translation process, which directly influence the choice of words and sentence of the translator and the structure of the translation. There are various translation methods commonly used in translation practice, such as augmentation, ellipsis, repetition, conversion, displacement, segmenting long sentences, and free translation. The translation theory must give a comprehensive and systematic summary of these translation methods to help the translator to better leverage translation methods in translation practice. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 37)

Fifthly, it must present a comprehensive explanation of possible contradictions in translation, including the contradiction between content and form, the contradiction between purpose and method, the contradiction between the author and the translator. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 38)

====Translation Theory and Translation Practice====

Corresponding theories will inevitably emerge when social practice of humanity develops to a certain stage. Translation, as a long-term practice activity, is no exception. Therefore, translation theories must come from translation practice. (Zhou Lingshun 2019, 15) Translation theories will never be generated without the in-depth observation and understanding of translation practice and its influences. There is an interactive relationship between translation theory and translation practice. (Xu Jun, Mu Lei 2009, 104)

In the long-term social practice, people will inevitably encounter problems that need to be solved and generate doubts that need to be explained. Theory is the ideological system explaining social practice, and its purpose is to answer questions and eliminate doubts. In this sense, the fact is that practice calls for theory. (Sun Yifeng 2002, 4-5)

Taking China's current translation situation as an example. As the Belt and Road Initiative proposed by China gains increasing popularity in countries along the route, the desire of other countries to know more about China is getting stronger. In this context, the volume of translating Chinese into foreign languages exceeds that of translating foreign languages into Chinese for the first time in translation history, meanwhile, related problems are also arising. (Yang Mingxing 2014, 103) Specifically, if the translation stays faithful to the original text, it external communication function will not be fully leveraged. Therefore, translators is confused about whether the translation should be faithful to the original text.

Although translation practice does not depend on translation theory for its existence, translation theory inevitably comes from translation practice. Once it comes into being, it will guide translation practice in turn.

===Comparison of Translation Theories between China and the West===

Both Chinese and western translation activities enjoy a long history. In the long course of translation practice, translation theory came into being. Chinese translation theories gradually develops towards the direction of systematic and comprehensive since the start of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Meanwhile, western translation theories have witnessed improvement as the advancement of translation practice and translation study. Both the Chinese translation theory and the western translation theory are based on translation practice, and they are gradually developed into systematic theories while guiding translation practice. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)

This chapter first combs the development of Chinese and western translation theories in detail, on this basis, it further reveals the similarities and otherness between the two theories.

====The Development of Western Translation Theory====

The development of Western translation theory can be divided into five stages. (Tan Zaixi 2009, 46-70)

1. Literature and Bible translation theories in ancient Rome

At the end of the 4th century BC, the once flourishing Greek began to decline and Rome grew stronger. However, at that time, the Greek culture was superior to the Roman culture, so it was attractive for Rome. Many of epics of Homer and dramatic works of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides were translated into Latin by many writers. This was the first translation activity with a large scale in Europe and even in the whole western history, which initiated the translation activity and gave birth to the Roman literature. (Liang Dan 2016, 103)

From the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, religious forces in western countries were strong and stubborn, and the Christian church remained hostile to secular literature and tried its best to develop a religious culture for the interests of themselves. As the source of Christian thought and a spiritual weapon, the Bible became the classic in the religious circles. On this basis, the Bible was translated widely. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91)

The earliest translation theorist in the West was Cicero in the Roman Empire. For the first time, he distinguished translations "as a translator" and "as a speaker". (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Cicero viewed translation from the perspectives of a rhetorician and speaker. A translation "as a translator" refers to a translation that is not creative, while a translation "as a speaker" refers to one that is creative and comparable to the original work. After that, the history of western translation theories has been focusing on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-for-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93)

2. Translation theories from the Middle Ages to Renaissance

Boethius contributed to the introduction of Greek philosophical thoughts by translation, and also had unique views on translation theory. According to Boethius, it is impossible to maintain both content and style in translation. Translators should put aside subjective judgment, especially for some religious translations, which only require accurate content rather than elegant style. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) What’s more, Dante put forward the theory of "literary untranslatability", in which he contended that the characteristics of the original text can hardly be reflected in the translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Therefore, he believed that literary translation is impossible.

At the end of the Middle Ages, people's demand for national language became urgent. In this context, a large-scale translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the upsurge of nationalism. Bruni, the representative of this period, believed that a translator should act according to his ability. Specifically, a translator should never do anything beyond his capacity for fear that it will waste energy and come to nothing. In addition, he believed that translators should have a wide range of knowledge; the best translation method is to keep the style of the original work as much as possible; translators should figure out the attitude and standpoint of the original author and try to imitate the rhetoric devices and idioms used by the original author. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)

3. Theories of literary translation in the Renaissance

The Renaissance refers to the revival of literature, art and science in ancient Greece and Rome. It began in Italy at the end of the 14th century and spread to Europe, especially western European countries, in the 15th and 16th centuries. During this period, many translators compared their achievements in translation to "trophies" of literary knowledge. Besides, they translated many works relating to building a prosperous country into national languages, including political, philosophical, social systems, literature, art and other classic works. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91) There are also many representatives in this period.

Erasmus did not submit to the authority of theology, and believed that the translation of the Bible depended on the language knowledge of the translator; while Luther put forward that translation must adopt and absorb the humanist thought of popular language. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55) In terms of Amyot, he held the opinion that the translator must fully understand the original text and concentrate efforts to the translation of the content; the writing style of translation must be simple and natural. He emphasized the unity of literal translation and free translation as well as the combination of content and form. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)

''On How to Translate Excellently'' was published in 1540. In this article, Dolet proposed five basic principles to be followed in the process of translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163) That is, the translator must understand the original content; the translator must be bilingual; the translator must avoid word-for-word translation, for the reason that word-for-word translation damages the communication and linguistic beauty of the original text; the translator must adopt colloquial forms of language; the translator must pay attention to the diction and adjust word order properly, so as to reproduce the equivalent effects as the original one. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 165)

4.Theories of literary translation in Modern times

Influenced by the impetus of the Renaissance, translation in western countries continued to march forward in modern times. The 18th century was an important period in the course of Western translation. In the 19th century, translation began to shift its focus from ancient works to modern or contemporary works. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)

According to Bartow, the original author is the master while the translator is the servant in translation activities. The translator can only follow the original work closely and faithfully reproduce the idea and style of it, instead of creating, modifying and subtracting. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)

Tytler put forward three basic translation principles in his book ''Essay on the Principles of Translation'': a translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; a translation should have all the ease of the original composition. In addition, he also proposed the standards of an excellent translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163)

Schlermacher, one of the leading figures in German romanticism, had extensive knowledge and made great contributions in hermeneutics and translation studies. He proposed two translation methods in ''On the Different Methods of Translating''. One is to do not disturb the author and let the reader get closer to the author, while the other is to make the author approach readers and do not disturb the reader, among which the former is regarded as the source of foreignizing translation by later generations. At the same time, he took the lead in making a clear distinction between interpretation and translation and to elaborate on it. Although his views on interpretation were wrong, they were still of great significance. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)

Humboldt believed that language determines the world view and put forward the theory that language is both translatable and untranslatable. This had a great impact in the 20th century, making the translatability and untranslatability of language once again become one of the hot topics discussed by translation theorists. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)

5.Contemporary translation theories since the World War II

Since the end of the World War II, the world has been in a state of relative peace. After the baptism of the war, western countries began to restore and develop production and economy in full swing. In this context, translation has also entered a new stage of development in which the dimensions, forms, scales and achievements of translation are unparalleled in any other period in history. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 100)

During this period, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological and other professional translations witness unprecedented development; translation teaching is widely carried out; many organizations of translators are established and the publications on translation-related studies are increasing; machine translation is emerging; works on translation theory emerge in an endless stream. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)

Jakobson, an outstanding Russian linguist, divided translation into three categories from the perspective of semiotics: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to the use of language signs to explain other language signs in the same language, which is also called "the change of expression"; interlingual translation is the interpretation between two languages, that is, to explain certain language signs with the signs of another language; intersemiotic translation is to interpret linguistic signs through the non-linguistic sign system, or to interpret non-linguistic signs with linguistic signs. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 157)

Nida is an American linguist, translator and translation theorist. On the basis of previous research results, he constantly improved his theory from the practical point of view. The core concept of Nida's theory is "functional equivalence", which means that the translation should achieve functional equivalence between two languages instead of the rigid correspondence of words. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 139)

Levy is a Czech literary theorist and translation theorist. He believed that the process of translation is the process in which the translator makes decisions constantly, and discussed the translator's decision strategies in detail. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)

====The Development of Chinese Translation Theory====

The development of Chinese translation theory can be divided into four stages.(Tan Zaixi 2005, 188)

1. Translation theory of Buddhist in the Late Han, Sui and Tang Dynasties

The first stage mainly focused on classical translation theory, which began in the East Han period and ended in the Opium War. The translation theory of this period mainly discusses the translation of Buddhist scriptures, generating a positive enlightenment to the later translation theory. Zhi Qian, Dao An, Kumarajiva and Xuanzang are the representative figures of this period. (Liang Dan 2016, 103)

Zhi Qian broke the shackles of literal translation and pursued the elegance of the text. Different from Zhi Qian, Dao An advocated literal translation for fear of distortion when he was responsible for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. What’s more, he put forward the famous translation principle of "Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation", believing that in translating Buddhist scriptures, there are five circumstances in which the translation will lose its original features and three dimensions that are difficult to achieve in translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188-189)

Kumarajiva was in charge of over four hundred volumes of Buddhist scriptures translation, which played an important role in the formation and development of Buddhism in China during the Six Dynasties period. His views on translation methods was profound and unique, but unfortunately there are few written records. Xuanzang is regarded as one of the influential figures in the ancient Chinese translation field. He put forward the translation standard of "a good translation should be both faithful to the original and intelligible to the public", believing that the translation must be faithful and smooth. (Li Yuntao 2007, 107)

2. Translation theory of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties

The second stage began with the Opium War and ended with the May 4th Movement. Against the background of domestic turmoil and foreign aggression, translators engaged in scientific and technological translation by adhering to the philosophy of "beat foreigners by learning from their advantages". (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Therefore, the translation theory in this period is practical.

The main representatives were Ma Jianzhong, Yan Fu, Reform Scholars, members of the Westernization School and so on. Ma Jianzhong put forward "good translation" and tried to eliminate the disadvantages of the translation of the Westernization School. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189) In addition, Yan Fu called for "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", which not only had a great impact at that time, but also generated an unprecedented influence on the entire translation circle for years to come. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 190)

3. Modern translation theory from 1919 to 1949

The third stage began with the May 4th Movement and ended with the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188) During this period, there were a great number of foreign literature being introduced in the translation field, resulting in flourishing literary translation.

Qu Qiubai put forward the concept of "equivalence", that is, translation should deliver the meaning of the original text to Chinese readers in a complete and correct manner, so that the Chinese readers can receive the meaning as the readers of the original text. (Liang Dan 2016, 103)

Chen Xiying drew a conclusion of the three realms of translation--resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit--from the experience of artistic creation and copying. He combined translation theories with the aesthetics of literature and art, directly inspiring the translation theories of Fu Lei and others. (Liang Dan 2016, 103)

Fu Lei emphasized the resemblance of spirit but not of form. Besides, Mao Dun believed that the reproduction of artistic conception is the most important task of literary translation, so that the target readers can receive the same feelings as if reading the original text. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189)

4. Contemporary translation theory since the 1950s

During this period, translation is considered as a discipline by translators. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) In 1951, Dong Qiusi published On the Construction of Translation Theory, which marked the beginning of the transformation of Chinese translation theory towards a systematic development. In 1990, Liu Miqing published Modern Translation Theories, marking the establishment of a modern translation system in China. (Liang Dan 2016, 103)

====Similarities and Differences====

By sorting out the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be found that due to the differences in economic, political, cultural and social backgrounds between China and the West, there are some differences between Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222)

First of all, the purposes of establishing translation theory are different for both sides. Chinese theorists stress the practicality of theories and and emphasize the function of theories to better guide the translation practice. However, theorists in western countries pay more attention to the abstractedness, systematicness and organization of translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222-224)

Secondly, there are different thinking patterns. The Chinese people attach great importance to understanding ability and sensitivity, while the West is rationality-oriented. Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism require people’s understanding ability and sensitivity; the western philosophy, which originated from Plato and Aristotle, emphasizes rational thinking of humanity. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 226)

Thirdly, they have different ways of expressing translation theories. In China, translation theorists tend to refine their words and condense their meanings, thus giving people more space for understanding. So Chinese theorists explain translation theories in a vague and implicit way. For example, after putting forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” in the first half of his great work Evolution and Ethics, Yan Fu did not make any further supplement or explanation for this translation standard. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)

Fourthly, China maintains relatively conservative in translation studies while the West pursues innovation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 233) Traditionally, the Chinese people have a strong tendency to worship the ancient and authority, and their thinking pattern is influenced by the philosophy of "universal application". For instance, the “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” proposed by Yan Fu is regarded as an insuperable existence by some people.

The difference is inevitable. Although Chinese and Western translation theorists have their own terminology and experience in translation, there are strikingly similarities in terms of principles, methods, standards and categories of translation. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163) It reveals the inherent commonness in the thinking mode of translation, and indicates that translation has rules to follow, which are objective and break the shackles of different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi, 2005, 213)

First of all, there are similarities in basic translation methods between Chinese and Western translation history. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 216) Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theorists have considered similar issues, including the principle of translation, the purpose of translation, the process of translation, the relationship between the author, the translator and the reader, and so on. In terms of translation methods, it can be found that literal translation and free translation are distinguished by both Chinese and Western theorists in the study of translation methods, and that the commonly used methods are amplification, abridgement, adaptation, interpretation, transliteration and so on. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)

Secondly, issues relating to "faithfulness" have always been the core topic of translation theories in both China and the West since ancient times. (Liang Dan 2016, 104) When expressing the concept of "the translation must be faithful to the original", various terms are used both in China and in the West, mainly including fidelity, loyalty, accuracy, equivalence, correspondence, etc. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 218-219)

Thirdly, the principles and methods of translation have been systematically summarized by both Chinese and Western translation theorists. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 220) For example, Dolet summarized the "five elements of translation"; Tytler put forward "three principles of translation"; Dao An proposed ""Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation"; Xuanzang proposed a concrete principle of "Five Categories of Untranslated Terms”. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)

After a detailed analysis of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be concluded that the difference in philosophical thoughts, value systems, and languages and cultures has always posing an important impact on the development of Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193-194) Although Chinese and Western translation theories have different development backgrounds and show some differences, the similarity between them should be observed. Similarity is the main characteristic of the development of translation thoughts, which is not restricted by different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193)

It can be reflected in the striking similarity between Chinese and Western translation principles, methods and standards. For example, Yan Fu's translation standard presents similarity with that of Tytler. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) The development of translation theories of the two sides is independent from each other, but they share some commonality. This exactly reveals that translation is objective and transcends the barriers of different languages and cultures.

===Reflections on Translations Methods===

====Domestication and Doreignization====

Domestication and foreignization are proposed by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, in the Translator's Invisibility in 1995. (Zhang Mei, Wang Rongyuan 2019, 19) As two translation methods, domestication and foreignization are contrary, united and mutually reinforcing.

Domestication is to localize the source language. (Venuti 1995, 19-21) It adopts the expressions that the target reader is accustomed to to convey the content of the source language. In addition, it helps readers to understand the source text better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. Foreignization is to adapt to the language features of foreign cultures, absorb foreign language expressions. (Venuti 1995, 29)

Since this method fully takes the difference and diversity of national cultures into consideration and reflects the characteristics of foreign language styles, its purpose is to preserve and reflect the exoticism. In other words, domestication is oriented toward the target language culture, while foreignization is source language culture oriented. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 13) For example, the sentence”something is springing up like mushrooms”, if handled in foreignizing translation, its Chinese version will be”犹如蘑菇一般”; but if in domestication, it will be “如雨后春笋一般’。

Some scholars believe that translators should only use one translation strategy in entire translation process, and that domestication or foreignization should be separated. However, it is difficult for translators to adhere to it in translation practice. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the ideas and styles of the original authors, which are of strong exotic atmosphere, so it is inevitable to adopt the foreignizing method. Meanwhile, the translation should also take the reader's response and the smoothness of the original text into consideration. In this context, the domestication method is essential. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17)

This paper holds the opinion that translation is more likely to be dominated by domestication. The essential purpose of translation is to facilitate communication and help the target readers to understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, in most cases, translation should conform to the norms of the target language, so as to make it possible for readers to understand the foreign cultures and achieve the purpose of translation. However, although the paper contends that domestication is in a dominant role, it doesn’t mean the foreignization method should be abandoned. Actually, foreignization and domestication are not two antagonistic concepts, instead, they are complementary and mutually reinforcing. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17-18)

====The Three Principles of Tytler and Yan Fu’s Theory====

In the long course of translation development in both China and the West, various schools of translators have put forward important translation standards. Among them, Yan Fu proposed "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" and Tytler put forward the “three principles of translation”. These two standards are of great importance and far-reaching influence in the translation circle. More importantly, the similarity between them has drawn wider attention among translators. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)

In 1989, Yan Fu mentioned in the preface of the Evolution and Ethics, "three things are hard to achieve in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance". (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220) However, Yan Fu did not present detailed definition of it, instead, he further stated that "it is difficult to stay faithful to the original text; if the translation is faithful without expressiveness, it is equal to untranslated ones; therefore, expressiveness should be put at priority”. It is the statement that generates controversy of its definition in the academic circle. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)

In 1790, Tytler proposed the three principles of translation in his great work Essay on the Principles of Translation, that is, a translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; a translation should have all the ease of the original composition. (Tytler 1790, 9) It caused extensive repercussions in the translation circle and is considered as a milestone in the history of Western translation. (Ren Qingliang 2016, 201)

The three principles of Tytler pose put requirements on the translator from three aspects: meaning, style and spirit. (Reng Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) In addition, according to Tytler, the three principles are ranked in order of importance. When the three principles are in conflict, the third principle should be abandoned first, the next is the second principle. Tytler contended that at no time should the content of the original be abandoned for the sake of the fluency of the translation. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220)

Yan Fu believed that translation should pursue faithfulness, but if it is inexpressive, it would be equivalent to untranslated ones. Thus it can be seen that Yan Fu emphasized the relationship and coordination among faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, and elevated importance of “expressiveness” to the same position as "faithfulness". (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)

====Free Translation and Literal Translation====

The central problem of translation has always been whether to translate literally or freely. The argument has been going on since at least the first century BC. (Newmark, Peter 1988, 45) In China, as early as the late Eastern Han Dynasty, a famous translator of Buddhist scriptures Zhi Chen put forward his opinion of literal translation that pays more attention to the preservation of the original intention than wording. He advocated that since scriptures are abstruse and hard to understand, the translation should focus on the content and meaning of the original text rather than the flowery language. However, his disciple Zhi Qian objected to the method of literal translation from the perspective of literary form and called for free translation. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99)

Literal translation refers to an adequate representation of the original. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) It reproduces both the style and the ideological content of the original, and retains as much as possible the figures of speech or sentence structures. Free translation does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original while only maintains the content of the original work. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) For instance, the Chinese sentence “你不要班门弄斧”, if handled in free translation, it English version will be “don’t teach fish to swim”; but if in literal translation, it will be “don’t display your axe at Lu Ban’s door”.

In the process of translation, only by having a thorough understanding of the thoughts and emotions in the original text and using the two strategies flexibly, can the original text be translated into a fluent and expressive target language. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99) Both literal translation and free translation should be accurate and reproduce the original meaning both in form and in spirit. There should be no judgement of good or bad between the two strategies. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 100)

Nevertheless, the differences between the two can not be ignored. Literal translation requires higher degree of faithfulness to the original. It is generally used in the science, technology and law-related translations for the reason that such article types require precise words and avoid ambiguity. Free translation, on the other hand, is relatively abstract. It is often used in translating poetry, prose and other literary works, to express the main connotation of the original text with divergent thinking, thus increasing the aesthetic feeling and artistry of translation.(Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 100)

===Conclusion===

Translation is the process of replacing the source language with the target language. (Catford 1965, 20) In the final analysis, translation is an activity closely related to language, while language cannot be separated from thinking ability. It is the overlap of human thought patterns that makes translation possible. However, the difference between Chinese and Western way of thinking is universal, which will be manifested in all fields, including the translation circle. Traditionally, the Chinese people were good at synthesizing, while people in the West were adept in analyzing. Therefore, traditional Chinese translation theories are mostly a summary of experience, which largely depends on the subjective feelings of the translator. However, western translation theories are based on rational analysis and scientific research, instead of relying on subjective feelings.

Translation has its own rules of development, which is proved by the similarity between Chinese and Western translation theories. Since translation theories in China and the West have their own advantages, this paper proposes that more tolerance should be given to the diversity and the essence should be absorbed so as to promote the development of translation theories in the world.

Both Chinese and Western translation theories are important parts of the translation systems, and they provide strong theoretical support for translation practice. There is no superiority or inferiority of translation theories. Translation theories in China and the West are rooted in translation practice but nurtured in different linguistic environments and cultural backgrounds. It must be realized that the similarities are greater than differences, and that the significance of differences more important than similarities. It is because of the differences that China and the West need to draw on strengths and learn from each other.

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==A Brief Introduction to Lu Xun's Translation Theory - 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 202070080625, MTI英语笔译==
<center>张瑜 Zhang Yu 202070080625 </center>

===Abstract===
Lu Xun, as China's renowned writer, thinker and one of founders of Chinese modern literature, has left a great amount of precious spiritual wealth. His representative works include ''Outcry'', ''A Madman's Diary'', ''Dawn Blossoms Plucked at Dusk'', ''Wild Grass'' and so on, which are the bright pearls of Chinese literature. We have a general understanding of his identity as a writer. In fact, as a translator, Lu Xun has also left profound translation works for next generations, including translations of literature and theory works. Even from the time line, the records of his translation activities are far prior to his literary creation. His earliest novel, ''Nostalgia'', was finished in 1911, while his earliest translation, ''Mournful World'', was finished in 1903. In the process of translating different works, Lu Xun gradually formed his own translation theory. Therefore, learning more about his translation theory is conducive to comprehensively recognizing him. This paper mainly introduces Lu Xun's translation theory as well as its formation and development. The purpose is to lead everyone to have a more profound understanding to Lu Xun's theory.

===Key Words===
Lu Xun, Translation Theory, Literal Translation, Hard Translation, Rather to be Faithful than Fluent

===题目===
浅谈鲁迅的翻译思想

===摘要===
鲁迅作为我国著名的文学家、思想家、中国现代文学的奠基人之一，给我们留下了一大批宝贵的精神财富，如他的代表作品《呐喊》、《狂人日记》、《朝花夕拾》、《野草》等，都是我国文学宝库中璀璨的明珠。而我们对他的了解可能始于他的作家身份，但事实上，作为翻译家的鲁迅也给后人留下了内容丰富的翻译作品，其中包括文学作品翻译和理论著作翻译。甚至从时间上来看，他从事翻译活动要远远早于文学创作活动，鲁迅最早的小说《怀旧》创作于1911年，而他最早的译文《哀尘》则完成于1903年。鲁迅在从事翻译活动的过程中，逐渐形成了自己的翻译思想，所以了解鲁迅的翻译思想有助于我们更加全面地了解鲁迅。本章回将主要介绍鲁迅的翻译思想及其形成与发展,以此让大家对鲁迅的翻译思想有一个更深刻的了解。

===关键词===
鲁迅，翻译思想，直译，硬译，宁信不顺

===Introduction===
It is estimated that Lu Xun has translated 144 pieces of works of 110 writers from 15 countries and regions in his whole lifetime. Meanwhile, Lu Xun was engaged in translating foreign literary works from 1903 to 1936, starting from the translation ''Yue Jie Lv Xing'' and ending with the ''Death Souls'', which last a long period. Therefore, his identity as a translator cannot be neglected. In fact, in the process of undertaking translation, Lu Xun has made great contributions to the Chinese translation history, such as coming up with a series of translation theory. This paper intends to introduce Lu Xun's translation theory, including his purpose of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent", retranslation and translation criticism. Then it discusses the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theories from the perspective of "intermediate". At last, it analyzes the social reasons for the formation and development.(Xu Lan 2017,447)

===Lu Xun's Translation Theories===
About the translation theory, Lu Xun had not written a book to expound it. His translation theory is embodied in his numerous translation works, and concluded by late scholars. In this part, it intends to introduce five aspects of his translation theory, namely purposes of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent", retranslation as well as translation criticism.

====Purpose of Translation====
From 1903 to 1936, the works and articles translated by Lu Xun can be divided into two categories. One includes scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works; another includes other articles and works such as children's literature. However, the translations of these two categories have different purposes.（Chen 2000, 289）

For the first category, he hoped that these translation works are able to serve for the revolution and serve as the "guide of future revolutions". In the ''Hard translation and Hierarchy of Literature'' published in 1930, Lu Xun responded that "it works for me, for some who claim proletarian literary critics, and for some readers who are willing to learn more about the theory in spite of having difficulties" (Chen 2000,289). From the remarks of Lu Xun, it can be seen that his translations aimed at not only improving and introspecting himself, but also helping those literature workers who stand with him. In his essays, he usually compared the importance of translation to the Greek mythology that the hero Prometheus stole fire from the gods and gave it to earthly mortals. In his views, he believed that these scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works were able to bring "fire and light" for people. For example, the purpose of translating the Russian work, ''Destruction'', was to introduce steel-willed characters and struggles without fear of sacrifice, encourage Chinese people to engage themselves in revolutionizing the old society, and provide references for Chinese revolutionary writers to create more inspiring works. (Chen 2000,289-290)

For the second category, Lu Xun hoped that these translation works were able to provide reference materials for people. In the preface of his translation work, ''Ideology, Landscape, Figure'', he mentioned that "my translation and introduction aim at making partial readers learn the existence of those things, persons, ideology and remarks…Therefore, if I believe that it’s useful and beneficial, I would attempt to translate it (Chen 2000,290)." It’s obvious that as long as Chinese people could learn something from these works translated by him, the value of translations has been achieved. (Chen 2000,290-291)

There are two aspects to explain Lu Xun's translation of children's literature. On the one hand, there was no fairy tales in Chinese literature at that time. Thus, he wanted to make up for the blank. Meanwhile, children, as the future of nation, were deemed to the white paper, which had the boundless possibility to develop and shape. On the other hand, the feudal thoughts of old China had some detrimental effects on cultivating children (Wu 2009,183). Therefore, Lu Xun translated foreign works about children's literature to introduce new educational views and patterns and attract people's attention to dissolve constraints. (Wu 2009, 183-184)

====Literal Translation and Hard Translation====
The concept of "literal translation" was proposed by Lu Xun and his brother Zhou Zuoren in the 1920s. In the ''Outside Novels'', they definitely put forward the concept literal translation, which played an important role in the modern history of translation and triggered heated discussion. Their purposes mainly focused on the problem of prevailing translation methods including mistranslation and random correction and deletion at that time. They hoped that the introduction of literal translation could give a definite direction to the chaotic situation. They mentioned that "it is better to choose the word-for-word translation, and if not, it should be translated as a sentence rather than be translated in the middle" (Chen 2000,176) in order to keep the style of the original text. Besides, they also distinguished the differences between literal translation and irresponsible translation. In the preface of his collected translation ''Peg-top'', Zhou Zuoren proposed that "the precondition of literal translation was that it should convey the meaning of the original and preserve its style as much as possible. In other words, it should be "faithful" and "expressiveness". Some people were seemed to misunderstand the meaning of the literal translation and they regarded literal translation as rigid translation word for word. For example, they translated 'lying on his back' into '卧着在他的背上' instead of '仰卧着'. Here, the former was irresponsible translation and the latter was literal translation (Chen 2000,177)." Lu Xun also supported his statement. In the following translation practice, Lu Xun has been sticking to literal translation. (Chen 2000, 176-177)

In 1929, Lu Xun formally proposed the concept of hard translation in ''The Supplement to the Translators of Literature and Criticism''. "Because of the inadequate ability of translators and the shortcomings of the Chinese text, the translation is obscure, making it difficult for readers to comprehend many parts of the translation. If the text was translated word for word, the refined original tone will be lost. However, there is no other methods other than hard translation. The only remaining hope is that the readers are still willing to read it in spite of difficulties (Lu 1958,286)." On September 10, 1929, Liang Shiqiu published ''Discussion on Lu Xun's Hard Translation'' and he believed that "hard translation" was just "rigid translation". In the reply to Liang Shiqiu, Lu Xun expounded his opinions on "hard translation" from the perspective of academy. Firstly, the works used with hard translation including scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works aimed at specific readers. Here, it closely related to the purpose of his translation. Lu Xun hoped that these translation works could awaken insensitive Chinese people and make them learn more about the reality of western countries to change the current situation of old China. Therefore, he chose hard translation and present readers the authentic pictures as much as possible. Secondly, in fact, Lu Xun also confessed that his translation was not satisfactory, but he had not found more appropriate methods to translate these books. And he believed that there were excellent translators who were able to translate faithful articles without using of hard translation or distortions in translation. When the better translation appeared, the version of his translation would be discarded naturally. However, in the period from nothing to good versions, his translation was willing to serve as the intermediate to make up for the blank.(Chen 2000,294-295)

====Rather to be Faithful than Fluent====
In the ''Message About Translation'', Lu Xun definitely proposed the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent" in the process of translating. In Lu Xun's views, he believed that the translation should not only keep the "exoticness" and "foreignness" of the original text in its contents and culture, but also imitate the word order and sentence structures of foreign language, which naturally led to be non-fluent. In the ''Title of Essays are Not Fixed'', Lu Xun pointed out that "every translation must take care of both sides, the first side is that it should be easy to understand, and the other is to preserve the richness of the original. But the second one often contradicts the first one. That means readers can't understand it. The original text is foreign to the target reader. For the sake of the readability, the translator has to change the original structure, but he should not shorten the original expression" (Huang 2018,24). At that time, Zhao Jingshen proposed his own view "rather to be fluent than faithful". His view was criticized by Lu Xun. As for the idea of "rather to be faithful than fluent", readers were able to understand the contents; if not, they could understand when connecting it with practice. While "rather to be fluent than faithful" emphasized the fluency instead of faithfulness, it resulted that readers were unable to understand the original text or even misunderstood based on subjective speculation. It obviously made no sense. For example, due to supporting the idea of "rather to be fluent than faithful", Zhao Jingshen translated the "Milky Way" into "牛奶路" instead of "银河". This kind of translation was ridiculous and easy to misdirect and confuse targeted readers. (Chen 2000, 296)

There were two purposes for Lu Xun to put forward the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent". Firstly, one was to resist ethnocentrism and introduce foreign culture to reform and rebuild the profound impression on Chinese culture. Therefore, he introduced the new vocabulary, new grammas and new expressions from the foreign languages, and then involve the readers into the new foreign context. He pointed out that being non-fluent was temporary. It resulted from unfamiliarity and intolerance of Chinese readers to the foreign language. And then it would change into fluency when native language absorbed the foreign language and people began to be accustomed to it (Li 2019,204). Secondly, another purpose was to change Chinese people's thinking model and language expression. The language controlled people's thinking pattern. It was necessary to reform Chinese language in order to change the national spirit. In the ''Message About Translation'', he said that "in addition to introducing the original contents to Chinese readers, translation had another important function, that is, to help us create new and modern Chinese language (Lu 2005,380)." Lu Xun also mentioned that Chinese had many disadvantages such as a lack of explicitness and accuracy. In the introduction of ''Little Jones'', he said that "European language is explicit, but my ability is limited (Lu 1981,256)." Besides, at that time the development of vernacular was immature. Then Lu Xun also said that "the biggest reason that the Europeanized grammar intruded into the Chinese vernacular was for the necessity rather than curiosity (Lu 1981,520)" Therefore, based on the deep understanding to flaws of Chinese, it was necessary to introduce useful expression and vocabulary to reform Chinese.(Li 2019, 201-209)

In conclusion, although the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent" was attacked by other scholars after its introduction, in fact, this concept showed Lu Xun's progressive thoughts and his tolerance to foreign cultures.

====Retranslation====
Retranslation refers to two kinds of translation, that is, one is using the third language to indirectly translate the original works, and another is having different translation versions for the same work. Although the first type of retranslation is not an ideal method, it's quite common in the history of translation. For example, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was from foreign languages to Chinese instead of being translated directly from Sanskrit. As for Lu Xun's attitude towards retranslation, he believed that the ideal translation should be translated by those who mastered the original-text language. However, in the first quarter of 20th century, no one understood or had a good command of eastern European languages. Therefore, under the circumstance retranslation was the best choice to introduce other nations' literature. In the foreword of the ''Russian Fairy Tales'', Lu Xun even candidly confessed that "I was not satisfied with my version of retranslation, but there are no other translation versions because of objective limitations. My version existed just for the period of vacancy. Once someone directly translated it, and its version must be much better. Then my version was willing to be replaced (Chen 2000,302-303)." In his point of view, he agreed that retranslation was much easier than direct translation. It included two reasons: firstly, the translator who directly translated the original text spent a large amount of time to research and digest the unintelligible and complex contents, and then he was able to express the meaning of the original text as much as possible. Secondly, as for those excellent but indigestible contents, the translator who was faithful to the original text would provide annotations to explain them. (Gu 2009, 26)

The second type of retranslation was having different translation versions for the same work. At the beginning, Lu Xun's attitude towards it was firmly against it. He believed that bookstores and readers at that time were unable to accept two translation versions for the same book. However, later Lu Xun actually put forward the necessity of retranslating the same work. In 1935, he wrote a piece of monograph and explained the reasons (Chen 2000,305). On the one hand, retranslation was the only choice to repel irresponsible translation. If there was only one version for the original text, it was unavoidable for the irresponsible translator to randomly tamper the original meaning or add subjective opinions. On the other hand, retranslation was conducive to improving the levels of new literature. When different versions appeared, comparison and critical analysis appeaered. Consequently, people were willing to choose the better one to read. Besides, Lu Xun also mentioned that the later translators could learn from the previous translation and add their own new ideas in order to make the new translation version closer to the original text. (Gu 2009, 27)

====Translation Criticism====
As for the translation criticism, Lu Xun came up with two questions, that is, the methods of making translation criticism and the importance of translation criticism. Firstly, about the methods of translation criticism, in the ''Defended for Translation Criticism'', Lu Xun proposed that "the major responsibility of translation criticism depended on translator, and circles of readers and publishing should take a part of responsibility. The correct methods of translation criticism were to point out the bad one and reward the best one; if not, the better one could also be considered (Chen 2000,306)." Besides, in order to explain the methods of translation criticism, Lu Xun used a vivid comparison. He compared the translation problems to apples with scars. As for the previous methods, once there were scars in the apples, people would discard them completely, which led to a high price. Later as long as the apples with scars were edible, they were worthwhile to criticize. Then the latter one led to less losses. In other words, previously, if the translation had obvious problems, people would forsake it without hesitation. But people also found that it was likely to waste a great amount of time and energy. The later methods further improved the disadvantage of the first one. If translation problems were found, people were able to exploit the useful part and learn something from the problems to create a better translation. This method not only helped people distinguish the quality of translation, but also saved time and reduced losses. (Chen 2000, 306-307)

Secondly, Lu Xun also expounded the importance of translation criticism. In the ''Rediscussion on translation'', he mentioned that translation criticism "undertook the responsibility of cultivation or deletion, and avoided numerous and miscellaneous translations swarming into the translation field" (Chen 2000,308). In the face of a multitude of translation works, translation criticism was conducive to distinguishing high quality works and dispelling translation of poor quality. Besides, the difficulty of translation criticism also provided great challenges for translation critics. The previous part had mentioned that Lu Xun was in favor of retranslation. Therefore, one foreign work was likely to have several different translation versions, which required translation critics to read all the translation versions, compared their advantages and disadvantages, and then made conclusions. It took a great amount of time and energy to do this work. Meanwhile, the standards of translation criticism were difficult to master. As for the same version, different people had different opinions. The qualification of translation critics should also take into consideration. (Chen 2000, 308)

===The Formation and Development of Lu Xun's Translation Theories===
Lu Xun's translation theory did not take shape in a short time. It took a long time for it to form and develop through long-lasting translation practice and improvement. In this part, it intends to introduce the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory from the perspective of "intermediate", and then analyze the social reasons for the changes.

====Philosophy of "Intermediate"====
In the ''Postscript of Tomb'' published in 1926, the philosophy of "intermediate" was firstly proposed. It intended to expound that everything was in the process of change, and it should go through the middle process to eventually reach a higher level. The philosophy originated from the "survival of the fittest" advocated by Darwin, the "gold mean" in traditional Chinese philosophical culture as well as the ideas of Nietzsche's superman (Liu and Luo 2019,34). The philosophy of "intermediate" was embodied in the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory and had played a significant role in the process. It intends to analyze his philosophy of "intermediate" from the following two aspects. (Liu and Luo 2019, 34)

=====From the Perspective of Language=====
In the aspect of language, it experienced three phrases, that is, the writings in classical style, vernacular Chinese and modern language (Wu 2009,74). At the beginning, Lu Xun regarded language as the instrument and use native language and style to change original text. Thus, he mixed the writings in classical style and vernacular Chinese to translate foreign literary works such as ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre''. In the two scientific novels, he even used the traditional pattern of chapters and delete some psychological descriptions as well as narrations of scientific knowledge in order to cater readers' taste. However, he still founded that the translation was obscure to understand for Chinese people. Later he realized that the flaws of writings in classical style were the primary cause and gradually adopted vernacular Chinese to translate and further improved it. In the ''Classical Books and Vernacular'', Lu Xun said that "the classical language has died; the vernacular Chinese was the bridge in the process of reform (Lu 2005,228)." It obviously showed that vernacular Chinese was just the intermediate or middle process with the development of new culture and literature. (Wu 2009, 74-75)

=====From the Perspective of Translation Strategy=====
In his earlier translation of late Qing Dynasty, Lu Xun mostly adopted free translation or adaptation to translate foreign literary works. For example, when translating two works written by Jules Verne, ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre'', there were obvious indications of free translation. In his translation, "''Yue Jie Lv Xing'', a total of 28 chapters of the novel were cut into only 14 chapters, and the article was deleted. The wording and writing style are suitable for Chinese readers (Lu 1981,152)." Then starting from the ''Outside Novels'', Lu Xun changed his translation style and began to use literal translation. Then from his late translation works such as ''Dead Souls'', it can be seen that he still adopted the method of literal translation. The change was that his style of literal translation became more proficient and mature in this period. In conclusion, Lu Xun's translation style changed from free translation into literal translation, and later he even used hard translation and the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent". In the process of exploring the most appropriate translation strategy, Lu Xun began to recognize his own limitations. He mentioned that his translation versions could serve as the "intermediate" to make up for the vacancy. When the better version appeared, his translation version would be discarded naturally. He also confessed that his translations were not satisfied in terms of hard translation and one reason was that his ability was limited and unable to find better translation methods. However, he was willing to provide the "intermediate" for readers and late translators for reference. (Xu 2017, 448)

Another statement was that Lu Xun's translation strategy changed from domestication into foreignization. In the history of Chinese translation, under the trend of "domestication", Lu Xun was the first one to express new and different opinions and advocated the translation strategy of "foreignization". Changing from the domestication into foreignization, his real purpose was to optimize the Chinese language. In fact, the translation strategy of "domestication" included free translation, adaptation and translation in classical style, while the strategy of "foreignization" just referred to the literal translation. Therefore, the first statement and the second one achieved the same effect through different description.(Wu 2009, 82-85)

====Social Reasons for the Formation and Development====
Lu Xun's translation activities lasted about 33 years. His translation theory can be found among his numerous translation works. The following intends to explore the reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. It intends to mainly expound the social reasons.

In the first stage of his translation activity (1903-1908), affected by Liang Qichao and Lin Shu, Lu Xun adopted the free translation to translate scientific novels. On the one hand, the translation notion advocated by Liang Qichao had a deep influence on selection of translation materials. Liang Qichao believed that translation has played an important role in reforming thinking and pushing Chinese people to make advance. From his early translation works, it can be concluded that the category of these works mainly focused on the scientific novels, which closely related to the ideology that used science to renovate people's ideas. On the other hand, in the late Qing Dynasty, the free translation adopted by Lin Shu was popular and widely accepted. Lu Xun praised that Lin Shu's translation works can convey a kind of fun. Therefore, under the influence of Lin Shu, Lu Xun began to imitate Lin Shu and used free translation to translate foreign scientific works. (Chen 2000, 170-175)

In the second stage (1909-1926), Lu Xun changed his translation method from the free translation into literal translation. At the same time, the materials he selected had also changed into literary works of weakest and oppressed nations. In the ''Youth of Lu Xun'', Zhou Zuoren mentioned that "''Gulliver's Travels'' written by Swift and ''The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon'' written by Irving were valuable books, but the translation versions of them were terrible. ''Don Quijote de la Mancha'' written by Cervantes was renamed as the ''Tale of the Daredevil'' (''Mo Xia Zhuan''), and in the translation, there were lots of mistranslation and irresponsible translation (Wu 2009,104)." It can be seen that Lu Xun criticized the novels translated by Lin Shu as well as the free translation he used. Besides, the translation works translated by Lin Shu mainly focused on the literature of developed countries including Europe and America. In order to change the situation and make up for the blank at that time, Lu Xun put forward the literal translation and translated literary works of weakest and oppressed nations to encourage Chinese people to revolution and change the current situations of old China. Therefore, the Outside Novels, born in this background, symbolized the transformation of Lu Xun's translation style. (Wu 2009, 104-105)

In the third stage (1927-1936), Lu Xun definitely and firmly stuck to literal translation. And the materials he selected mainly focused on the works of Soviet-Russian literary theory. This stage was also the most productive period with the appearance of large number of translation works. In this period, he had a deeper understanding of literal translation and wanted to introduce the new ideas and expressions to reform the shortcomings of early vernacular. In 1930, the league of left-wing was established. Lu Xun, as the leader of the league, took actions to practice his translation theory. At the same time, many opponents opposed his theory, leading to heated debate between different schools. Therefore, the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent" were proposed in the following. He still believed that literal translation and hard translation were the most appropriate methods to present foreign literary works. (Wu 2009, 109-111)

===Conclusion===
Lu Xun made great contributions to modern Chinese literature. One of his contributions was his translation theory. In the first part, this paper mainly introduces five aspects of Lu Xun's translation theory, that is, his translation purposes, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent", retranslation as well as translation criticism. At that time, when the free translation was prevailing, he put forward the concept of "literal translation" to break the convention and adopted new translation strategy. In the process of practicing his translation theory, he further proposed the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent". Although his ideas were opposed by other scholars, his purpose that enlightened Chinese people and save the old China by learning from foreign literary works promoted him to stick his translation theory all the time. Besides, his ideas about retranslation provided possibility for the appearance of more and more translation versions. And the translation criticism was the critical step to prevent miscellaneous and poor translations from circulating among people. Then in the second part, it mainly introduces the formation and development of his translation theory. It put forward the concept of "intermediate" to expound its formation and dynamic development from two perspectives including change of preferential language as well as translation strategy. Finally, it also mentions the social reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. In conclusion, this paper strives for exploring Lu Xun's translation theory and having a deep understanding of his translation activity.

===References===
*鲁迅 Lu Xun.《鲁迅全集》 [''The Complete Works of Lu Xun'' ]. 北京：人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House]. 1981年.
*鲁迅 Lu Xun.《鲁迅全集补遗》 [''Supplement to the Complete Works of Lu Xun'' ]. 天津：天津人民出版社[Tianjin People's Publishing House]. 2018年.
*陈福康 Chen Fukang.《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》 [''Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory (Revised)'' ]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House ]. 2000年.
*顾钧 Gu Jun.《鲁迅翻译研究》 [''Study of Lu Xun's Translation'' ].福建：福建教育出版社[Fujian Education Publishing House]. 2009年.
*吴钧 Wu Jun.《鲁迅翻译文学研究》 [''Study of Lu Xun's Literature in Translation'' ]. 齐鲁书社[Shandong Book Club]. 2009年.
*李文革 Li Wenge.“重释鲁迅的‘宁信而不顺’——西方解构主义的视角” [Reinterpreting Lu Xun's "Rather to be Faithful Than Fluent: a Western Deconstructionist Perspective]. 跨语言文化研究[Cross Linguistic and Cultural Studies]. 2019年.
*刘孔喜，骆贤凤 Liu Kongxi and Luo Xianfeng.“鲁迅翻译思想的‘中间物’哲学理据” [The Philosophical Justification of 'Intermediates' in Lu Xun's Thought on Translation]. 绍兴文理学院学报[Journal of Shaoxing College of Arts and Sciences]. 2019年.
*黄琼英 Huang Qiongying. “鲁迅语言观与翻译策略关系初探” [A Preliminary Study on the Relationship between Lu Xun's View of Language and Translation Strategy]. 曲靖师范学院学报 [Journal of Qujing Normal College]. 2008年.
*Huang Xiaojun 黄晓军. "The Difference Between Lawrence Venuti's Foreignization and Lu Xun's Foreignization" [劳伦斯·韦努蒂的异化与鲁迅的异化的差别]. Proceedings of 2018 7th International Conference on Applied Social Science (ICASS 2018)[2018年第七届国际应用社会科学大会论文集]. Ed. 2018.
*Zhu Xiaodong 朱晓东 and Ding Ting 丁婷. "The Influence of Lu Xun's 'Hard Translation' Concept on the Transformation of Modern Chinese Culture" [鲁迅的 "硬译 "理念对中国现代文化转型的影响]. Proceedings of 7th International Workshop on Arts, Culture, Literature, and Education (IWACLE 2018) [2018年第七届国际艺术、文化、文学和教育研讨会论文集]. 2018.
*Xu Lan 徐兰. "On Lu Xun's Translation Activities in the 1930s Viewed Through Bourdieu's Sociological Theory" [论从布迪厄的社会学理论看20世纪30年代鲁迅的翻译活动]. Sino-US English Teaching 14[中美英语教学14期]. 2017.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 12:45, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology Theory 刘怡瑜 Liu Yiyu, 202070080598, MTI==
===Abstract===
Translation is not just an activity that refers to the practice of translation. In translation, theories form an integral part. With translation practice comes translation theory, and advances in theory will better guide practice. Perhaps the translation theories that translators are most familiar with are Skopos theory, domestication and foreignization, dynamic equivalence and the like, but these are all translation theories developed by celebrated foreign scholars.

The foreign translation theories have been introduced to China and have developed in China, perhaps tinged with Chinese characteristics in order to adapt to Chinese translation, but we have always lacked translation theories that originate from China. Eco-translatology is a theory from the local. This thesis is aimed to give a brief introduction to ecological translation theory, embracing the inspiration for ecological translation theory, the three-dimensional transformation as a main strategy and the emphasis on the subjectivity of translators.

In this paper, the translation of the subtitles of the American drama Prison Break will be taken as an application of the ecological translation theory strategy, so as to deepen the readers' understanding of the theory and possibly provide references for other translators on the application of ecological translation theory.

===Keywords is missing===

--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 10:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===题目 is missing===

--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 10:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===摘要===
翻译不仅仅是指翻译实践这样一种活动。在翻译的世界里，翻译理论占了不可或缺的一部分，有了翻译实践就会产生翻译理论，而理论的进步也会更好地指导翻译实践。或许译者最为熟悉的有翻译目的论、异化和归化、动态对等等一些翻译理论，但是这些都是国外著名学者所提出的翻译理论。

国外的翻译理论传到中国，在中国变化发展，也许有了中国特色，从而适应中国翻译，但我们始终缺乏从本土出发的翻译理论。生态翻译理论，就是从本土出发的翻译理论。本篇论文旨在对生态翻译理论进行一个简要地介绍，其中包括生态翻译理论的灵感来源、生态翻译的主要策略三维转换以及该理论对译者主体性的强调与诠释。

理论要应用就少不了实践，本文将会以美剧《越狱》的字幕翻译作为生态翻译理论策略的应用对象，从而深化读者对该理论的理解，也尽可能给其他研究者提供生态翻译理论应用的参考。
===关键词===
Eco-translatology; Subtitle Translation; Three-dimentional transformation
===1 Introduction===
In the study of translation theory, Eco-translatology, as an important methodological tool, a way of interpreting translation activities and a method of exploring translation theories, has increasingly shown its unique function and great charm. It is in the process of dynamic development and continuous improvement.

The theory of Eco-translatology and the proposal of Eco-translatology have undoubtedly achieved breakthroughs and its methods reached a new stage. Therefore, the study and exploration of the ideological basis of Eco-translatology and the three-dimensional transformation of the core methodology of Eco-translatology will help us fully understand the significance of Eco-translatology in contemporary translation studies and theoretical analysis of translation.

In this study, the author will introduce the inspiration of Eco-translatology and its practical translation strategy as multi-dimensional transformations then analyze the subjectivity of translators in the second chapter,. Finally, the author will integrate the theory of Eco-translatology with American TV show Prison Break.
===2 Eco-translatology===
===2.1 Inspiration of Eco-translatology===
Professor Hu Gengshen, driven by Darwin's adaptive selection theory, put forward and further developed the theory of ecological translation. The adaptation theory of translation choice is the core concept of this theory, which defines translation as "the translator's selection activities adapted to the translation ecological environment".(Hu Gengshen, 2010) The ecological environment of translation refers to “the world presented by the source language, the source language and the target language, that is, language, communication, culture, society, authors, readers and clients.”

For instance, Friends as a celebrated sitcom, only its translation must take these specific group of people into consideration can it achieve its purpose. In this process, the translator is the only subject with subjective initiative.(Hu Gengshen, 2010) As the strategy of translation, multi-dimensional adaptation and adaptive selection appear to be crucially significant. The three-dimensional transformation of language, culture and communication dimensions are included in translation methods.

What can be considered as the best translation is that the translation with the highest degree of integration adaptation and selection. The definition of translation ecological environment is the sum of all external conditions that affect the survival and development of translation theme. It includes the author, translator, reader, initiator, sponsor, publisher, and other characters of the original text.

The external environment related to the natural and economic environment, language and culture environment, social and political environment which concerns translation activities. The ecological environment of translation is interwoven by various elements, which is the sum of natural and humanistic factors in the occurrence, existence and development of translation activities. Cultural dimension and communicative dimension into practice by putting the transformation of linguistic dimension.

Three-dimensional transformation reveals its sweeping influence in translation. Language dimension transformation amounts to the translator's adaptation and selection of language forms in the process of translation. This transformation can occur at different stages, levels and aspects of the translation process. To transmit information accurately and faithfully, the translator should choose and transform the language form in an adaptive way.

Cultural dimension transformation adds up to the translator's methods to the transmission and interpretation of bilingual cultural connotations in the process of translation. More crucially, profound comprehension for the cultural discrepancy is the key to communicate accurate information. In this study, it demands translators must take the characteristics of historical and cultural documentary into account, and to use accurate language to transform the expression of cultural characteristics.

Communication dimension transformation emphasizes the adaptation and selection of translators' attention to bilingual communicative intentions in the process of translation. Only through multi-dimensional adaptation and at least three-dimensional selection and transformation can proper translation be carried out. (Hu Gengshen, 2004)

===2.2 Three Dimentional Transformation of Eco-tranlatology===
In order to make sure the precise and correctness of translation, the translator must consider the translation from multiple perspectives, levels and integrate various factors. Only in this way can the translation be closer to the original context. However, it is nearly impossible to achieve this goal in reality. After all, translation concerns a variety of contexts, cultures and other intricate factors. The environment is complex and changeable, which is difficult for translators to grasp those comprehensively.

As long as the translator find the key links and points, appropriate translation can be achieved to a certain extent. According to the theory of Eco-translation, three key dimensions must be transformed during translating the information, which is considered as three-dimensional transformation.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)

What language dimension transformation stresses is that the translator's adaptation and selection of language forms in the process of translation. Since adaptation requires to be achieved, the original text must be understood and analyzed, and the translator must have a full insight of the meaning of the translated text.

What cultural dimension transformation indicates is that the translation process in which the translator pays attention to the transmission and interpretation of bilingual cultural connotations. America and China both has totally different historical background, thus formed very distinguished cultural features. It needs translators to mind the cultural discrepancy between these two countries.

What communicative dimension transformation serves is that it requires translators to focus on the level of communication and whether the communicative intentions of the original text can be reflected in the translation, in addition to the transformation of linguistic information and the transmission of cultural connotations. Communication is unavoidable. If we want to communicate properly, then we should have a proper tone. When translating, the translator must grasp the emotion expressed by the author of the original text and accurately express the message the speaker wants to convey. (Hu Gengshen, 2008)

===2.3 The subjectivity of Translators===
Katherine Reiss proposed the text type theory, which summarized various types of text into informative, expressive and operative types. She believes that almost all texts can find their own classification based on these three types, but there are also mixed text types, such as the autobiography of statesmen, which may have the function of operative as well as informative. Reiss believes that the specific translation method is determined by the text type.

However, as translation theories continue to develop, and more and more translators find that text type theory may be too restrictive, ecological translation theories also propose translator subjectivity, aiming at transforming the translator from an invisible role to an explicit one.

The previously popular textual determinism or other factor determinism may ignore the creativity of the translator to a certain extent, treating the translator as a mere "servant" of the two languages, and the translator's subjectivity is not given full play and many translations lose their vitality.

From the point of view of ecological translation theory, we can re-understand the relationship between the translator and the translation ecological environment in the translation process, so as to highlight the influence of the translator and emphasise that the translator is no longer invisible.

Eco-translatology believes that in the translation process, the translator's subjectivity is primary and the object, the original text, is secondary. This is a significant reversal of the previous theory of focusing on the original text, and is in fact more in line with the reality that the translator plays an active and creative role in actual translation activities. Nowadays, machine translation is developing rapidly, and common economic and trade texts can be edited and modified after translation, greatly improving the efficiency of translation.

However, in literary translations, especially on subjects such as poetry, the subjectivity of the translator cannot be ignored, both in terms of understanding the content and the creativity of the output. In addition, the translation ecosystem boasts some characteristics: The translation as a whole is greater than the sum of its parts. The parts include the various elements of the translation process, such as the original work, the translation ecosystem, the translator and the reader.

Moreover, through the adaptation and choice of the translator, the nature and function of each translation element interacts with each other, which ultimately affects the translation system as a whole and manifests itself in the translator's work.

As we can see from these points, the translator-centred theory does not mean that the translator is completely free to create regardless of the original text. Eco-translation theory emphasises that translators adapt and make choices in an ecological translation environment, and that they should focus on their own creativity as well as the original text in order to produce dynamic translations.(Dong Jie, Yi Yongzhong, 2020)
===3 Application of the Theory in Subtitle Text Analysis of Prison Break===
===3.1 The Characteristics of America Television Show===
After the reform and opening up, people's living standards and quality of life have improved dramatically. People no longer just pursue food and clothing satisfaction, but have started to enrich their spiritual world. With the opening up of the country's policies, not only economic exchanges have been brought in, but also the spread of American films and TV shows has had a deeper impact on the country. It is said that art comes from life, so to a certain extent, American TV shows also reflects its style of life, attitudes and humanistic values.

Subtitle translation of movies and TV plays proves to be a relatively new field of translation. A film with vivid subtitle translation can better convey the complete information to be expressed. As global economy and cultural exchanges advance, a large number of foreign films and TV programs have been introduced into China. As a medium, film and television works have made important contributions to the cultural exchange between China and the West.
Seriousness and colloquialism go hand in hand.

Films and TV dramas are not just for the entertainment. Therefore, translators should take a serious attitude towards the subtitling of American dramas in order to avoid any inadvertent misunderstanding of different cultures. This gives the dialogue of American dramas a certain seriousness. However, seriousness does not mean that the subtitling of American dramas needs to be written throughout, as most of the plots take place in everyday life and the characters' dialogue is as commonplace as when we go out to eat, which requires the translators to avoid written language as much as possible, giving the audience a sense of being close to life and in reality.

Flexibility.
Film and television translation is a special literary form. While choosing accurate and vivid language to reproduce the ideological and artistic features of the original film to ensure the accuracy and vividness of the translated language, the translator should also make it consistent with the expressions and accents of the characters in the play. The most fundamental principle is the flexible handling of retention and innovation in subtitle translation.

First of all, there is a huge difference between Chinese and English languages, so the translator should pay special attention to the language difference when translating, and change the word class flexibly to avoid the situation where the words are not clear and the meaning is difficult to understand. Secondly, intonation is also very important as part of the dialogue.

The seriousness or liveliness, formality or casualness of the dialogue has a direct impact on the character, so the translator should ensure the accuracy of the translation and choose suitable language styles according to the different types of films in order to make the audience feel the same as the original language audience.

In the process of translation, the translator should fully understand the connotation of the film, and flexibly handle the retention and innovation in subtitle translation according to the language characteristics and cultural background of both parties, making the subtitle translation more suitable for the cultural context through vocabulary and word class conversion, to show the charm of the film and retain the artistic value of the film to the greatest extent.（Qian Shaochang, 2000）
===3.2 A Introduction of Prison Break===
Prison Break is a crime-thriller, with an exciting, interlocking plot, adored by national and international audiences,. In this show, Mike (Wentworth Miller) and his brother Lincoln (Dominic Purcell) are interdependent. Lincoln borrows $90,000 from a loan shark to cover the tuition of his brother, and Mike uses the money to become a successful building and structural engineer.

Lincoln, however, reluctantly agrees to shoot a man in order to repay the loan shark, and is then set up as a scapegoat by a senior government official. Mike takes advantage of his career and learns about the prison structural system. After deliberately robbing a bank, he insists that he wants to be put in the same prison as his brother, and then tries his best to save him from being sentenced to death. quotation is missing--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 08:40, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

===3.3 Adaptive Selections in Linguistic Dimension===
After discussed the basis of Eco-translatology, the characteristics of American TV shows, we should put it into practice so as to deepen our understanding.
Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese emphasizes meaning, while English appears to be in strict accordance with the structure of sentences. Nida said that from a linguistic light, the biggest difference between Chinese and English is hypotaxis and parataxis.(Nida, 2001) In the process of translation, subtitle translators should learn by heart that the specific language characteristics so as to make the information transmission smoothly and authentically.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)

Original and Translation:
-You don't have a violent bone in your body,
我知道你天性善良，
-I said,are you being a smartass?
我问你是不是喜欢讽刺人？
-Just trying to fly low,avoid the radar,boss.
只不过想保持低调，不想引起注意，长官
-Do my time... and get out.
服完刑...就走人
Analysis: Reverse translations can also be considered to be a linguistic translation strategy, which can sometimes have a much more different effect than literal translations. This conversation occurs when Mike chats with a prison guard on arrival at the prison. “Don't have a violent bone in your body” is translated into “天性善良”. The reverse translation here show Mike's desire to impress the guard in order to facilitate a quiet environment in which to carry out his plans. In addition, “do my time” originally meant to pass the time, but the translator has chosen to adapt the translation to make it easier to understand and fit the context.

Original and Translation:
-He just sort of rolled over. He didn't put up a fight.
他就当睡觉翻个身似的，没任何反抗
Analysis: In a particular context, the meaning of a word often transcends its original meaning, and a context-dependent meaning appears, which is regarded as semantic addition. Therefore, the translator should jump out of the original meaning of the word and rely on the context in which the word is located to translate its meaning outside the context. The original meaning of “roll over” was to make a rolling motion or turn, but the phrase was translated to fit the context, adding the meaning of sleep over, which shows Mike's attitude to letting it run its course after being sentenced, and also provides an ambush for the plot to save his brother.

Original and Translation:
-Kellerman: There's a lawyer poking around.
有个律师在多管闲事
-Caroline: Anyone that's a threat is expendable.
对这种人不要心慈手软
Analysis: It is difficult to understand this sentence just by looking at the meaning of the word expendable. But according to the meaning of the whole sentence it is clear that what is meant here is that anyone who is a threat should be dealt with without considering the cost. Sometimes, the meaning of an adjective is far from restricted to its original, which embodies that the context matters.

===3.4 Adaptive Selections in Cultural Dimension===
China and America share dramatically different historical background and culture, thus there are some idioms, jargon, or any other adages that the two countries may has their own definition and explanation. In the process of translation, subtitle translators should bear in mind that the specific cultural characteristics between two countries so as to cause no misunderstanding.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)

Original and Translation:
-Someone wants him dead,Veronica.
有人要置他于死地，Veronica
-Something more is going on here.
这背后有阴谋
-This is desperation,Michael.
你是在孤注一掷，Michael
-You're grabbing at straws.
是想抓救命稻草
Analysis: The above sentences relatively use“want him dead”“desperation”“grab at straws”and the translator relatively selects typical Chinese sayings which are “置于死地”“孤注一掷”“救命稻草”. These Chinese idioms all have specific meanings and historical origins. “置于死地” means to put the opponent in a position to perish. This Chinese idiom is from Sun Wu's The Art of War: A person who falls into the water suddenly finds a straw and is saved by breathing underwater through a hollow straw.

It is now often used in a metaphorical sense to refer to a person's only hope in a difficult situation. The context of this conversation is Mike and his brother's friend discussing the situation in which his brother has been set up and imprisoned, and these idioms are appropriate for the feeling of being set up and yet having no choice.

Original and Translation:
-Look where it got me.I'm not asking you to love me. I already screwed up that chance long ago. I'm asking you to love yourself. You can still put the brakes on this thing.
可看看我现在身处的地方，我不是在恳求你再爱我，很久以前我就失去了这个机会。我是让你要自爱，亡羊补牢，为时不晚。
Analysis: “亡羊补牢，为时不晚” is a Chinese proverb. Once upon a time there was a child called Zhang San whose family had many sheep, but he was sloppy in his work. One day, there came a hole in the railing of the sheep pen. When Zhang San's neighbours saw the hole, they reminded him to repair the sheep pen. He shook his head and said, "It's only a small hole, it doesn't matter, you can fix it in a few days. When Zhang San was about to mend the fence of the sheep pen to see how the baby lambs were growing, he noticed that many of the sheep had run away and there were not many left.

An old man heard Zhang San's cries and asked him with concern. “It is not too late to fix it now, and you can save the remaining sheep.” Zhang San came to his senses. Zhang San thanked the old man, picked up a hammer and repaired the fence on the sheep pen firmly.

Since then, Zhang San has completely changed his bad habit of dragging his feet. Although Zhang San lost a lot of sheep, he learned a great lesson from the incident, and from then on developed a good habit of correcting mistakes as soon as they were made. This proverb is very appropriate in the translation of this paragraph.

When the Mike's brother ends up in prison and his child come to visit and see his father's decadence in prison, he wants to drop out of school, and the father says this to the child to make up for the bad influence he has had on him. The English word literally means you should step on the brakes, but the Chinese idiom is more apt.

Original and Translation:
-Westmoreland: Three days inside,and he's already thinking about turning rabbit.
才在牢里呆了三天，他就想着要大闹天官。
Analysis: In this dialogue, the translator translates turning rabbit as “大闹天宫”. For Chinese audiences, the Great Tribulation is a very familiar episode of Journey to the West. In the original story, Sun Wukong, was sued by the Dragon King for forcibly borrowing the East Sea Needle of the Goddess of Certainty, a treasure of the sea and also a powerful weapon.

After being humiliated and disgraced at the Peach Party, he fought his way to heaven. The Jade Emperor's Heavenly Hall was turned upside down and the immortals were helpless. This Chinese story is more graphic to the Chinese audience than the image of a turning rabbit.

Original and Translation:
-Michael: Van Gogh over there is my new cellmate.
那边的“梵高”是我的新牢友
-Fernando: But you're going to do something about it, right?You're gonna get rid of him.
但我知道你不会坐以待毙的对吗?你会想办法摆脱他的。
Analysis: This dialogue contains an idiom that is “坐以待毙”, which describes a person in extreme difficulty who is not actively trying to find a way out. The idiom is from the book ZhuKo Kungming's Second Memorial to the Throne on his Expedition. In the context of the whole episode, Mike wants to dig a hole to escape, but there is a new cellmate in the prison, who is unable to sleep at night due to mental problems, which makes the job of digging extremely difficult, as night is the only period to be free. So Fernando was worried that the plan could not be carried out, and if it was, most of the condemned prisoners in the prison would indeed be sitting around waiting to die.

Original and Translation:
-Told you not to go around me to the Pop. But you just keep making waves, don't you?
跟你说了别去找狱长，但你还在惹是生非。
Analysis: In this dialogue, “make waves” is translated as to “惹是生非”. This idiom means to stir up trouble, to cause trouble, and is taken from Feng Menglong's Instruction Stories to Enlighten the World. All of the escape partners just want to escape in peace and quiet, but the main character, Mike, has his own agenda, so he keeps the prison warden on his toes to achieve his goal. However, the other inmates think that Mike is just trying to disturb the warden, and “惹是生非” is a very accurate translation here.
===3.5 Adaptive Selections in Communicative Dimension===
Communication proves to be a crucial intention of words. Audience needs to get the idea of what movies or documentaries want to express thus communicative purpose can be achieved.(Yangli, 2013)

Original and Translation:
-Top of your class at Loyola. Magna cum laude, in fact. I can't help wondering what someone with your credentials is doing in a place like this.
Loyola的尖子生，优等成绩，我就纳闷了象你这么优秀的人才，跑到这种鬼地方干什么？
-Michael:Took a wrong turn a few months back,I guess.
也许是几个月前拐错弯了。
-You make it sound like a traffic infraction.
你说的好像是交通违规似的。
-Michael: Like all you did was turn the wrong way up a one-way street. Everyone turns up one sooner or later.
就像在单行道上开错方向，人人迟早都会发生点意外。
Analysis: In the process of translation, it is very important to choose the right words. And proper words refer not only to the correspondence of meaning, but also to the tone in a certain context. This translation method includes mood reproduction. Mood refers to the speaker's attitude towards what he says. It is a grammatical feature in the form of intonation and mood words. In the way of mood expression, there is only exclamation in English, such as oh my god, gosh, oh dear lord, and the like, which tries to show the audience the tone of surprise, praise, pain, but there is a lack of mood words with the same emotional meaning as in Chinese, such as“哦”“呢”“呀”.

Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese translation, the translator should have a keen sense and a deep understanding of the mood in the original English text, managing to transplant the original characters' tone to the translation by appreciating the diverse moods in the ordinary English text. In this dialogue, it is nearly impossible to tell the tone of the speaker by the literal meaning of the words alone.

But the translator has made his own adaptations in the context. The protagonist, a talented student, devises his own plan to rob a bank and get arrested in order to save his wrongly accused brother from prison. The prison governor, after reading the Mike's CV, expresses his own incomprehension. Phrases such as “纳了闷” and “鬼地方” convey the tone of the speaker very well.

Original and Translation:
-Michael:we only got a few minutes. We're gonna spend them spitting on each other, or are we gonna talk some business?
我们只有几分钟，我们是要用这几分钟来互相扯皮，还是我们来谈点儿正经事儿？
Analysis: The dialogue includes the words “互相扯皮” and “谈点儿正经事”, which fits Mike's irritation at the lack of cooperation from his "teammates" at the time. The colloquialisation is also very much in line with the Chinese.

Original and Translation:
-Caroline: Move on the younger brother. Do it preemptively before anything rises up,bites any of us in the ass.
把他弟弟弄走，早做打算。
Analysis: The use of the word “弄” in this dialogue shows Caroline's disregard for human life and the coldness of her character. The officials became a little worried when they found out that Mike was in his brother's prison. A literal translation of “move on” would not have had this effect. In addition, the second sentence does not translate the meaning of every single word, but rather uses only “早做打算”, which is very much in keeping with the leadership style of the person behind the plan.

Original and Translation:
-Michael: I think I've got enough grout out to bust through. I'm going to need you to make some noise.
我想我已经挖得够多了，你得帮我制造点噪音。
-Is that the best you can do?
你就这么点能耐？
-all: Shut up!
闭嘴!
-Berwick: Not one more word!
谁也别出声！
Analysis: This conversation took place when Mike was organising a tunnel excavation for people in the prison. While the digging was going on, Mike was worried that the noise would attract the guards, so he asked his cellmates to make other noises to attract attention. However, when the inmates saw that Mike was digging just a little bit of a tunnel, they shouted at him. The translator has chosen to translate this as “这点能耐”, which is a good way of conveying the impatience and arrogance of the cellmate, both in terms of content and tone. For communicative purposes, it serves as a warning.
===4 Conclusion===
From the perspective of Eco-translatology, this paper analyses the subtitle translation strategies of Prison Break. Under the guidance of this theory, its subtitle translation language can be described as quite refined, from which we can see the translator's cultural connotation and translation ability, and the application of Eco-translatology theory in subtitle translation of the show is in place.

However, this study is still very limited in the use of analytical Eco-translatology theory. The first is that translation studies are scattered but not specialized. Second, this study is still at the stage of quoting relevant terms or general concepts of ecology, and it has not yet given a systematic, in-depth and detailed description and interpretation of translation activities according to the basic connotation of ecology.

Third, the thesis is narrow-minded, lacking multi-dimensional interpretation and generalization of more problems. In addition, some studies are only on the matter, not on the background of global ecological trend and academic trend of thought. Therefore, Eco-translation theory needs to be enriched and developed in subtitle research.

===References===
[1]Nida, Eugene A. 2001. Language and culture: Context in translating[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,114.

[2]胡庚申.生态翻译学:产生的背景与发展的基础[J].外语研究,2010(4).

[3]胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社，2004.

[4]胡庚申.从术语看译论——翻译适应选择论改观[J].上海翻译, 2008 (2).

[5]胡庚申.例示“适应选择论”的翻译选择和翻译方法[D].外语与外语教学，2006 (3).

[6]钱邵昌.字幕翻译——翻译园地中愈来愈重要的领域[J].中国翻译, 2000(1).

[7]杨丽.文学作品翻译中的语气翻译策略研究[J].语文学刊,2013(9).

[8]董捷,易永忠.生态翻译学视角下译者主体性在字幕翻译中的体现[J].校园英语,2020(19):243-244.

参考文献需要中英双语--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 10:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==A Study of English Translation of HUAWEI’s Advertising Videos from the Eco-translatology Perspective 张宇星 Zhang Yuxing 202070080650 英语口译==

===摘要===

随着经济全球化的发展，越来越多的中国公司步入国际化行列，竞相抢占国际市场。广告片是宣传产品、公司项目，提升企业形象的重要手段之一，对广告片翻译进行研究对企业的国际化发展具有重大意义，因此国际化企业对此十分重视。华为技术有限公司成立于1987年，历经30余年的发展，已成为有国际影响力的大公司。为对产品进行有效的宣传，华为摄制较多高质量的双语宣传片，这些宣传片激发了较多潜在顾客。然而，由于东西方文化差异的存在，宣传片字幕翻译对译者提出了较高的要求。

本文以生态翻译学为理论框架对华为三个宣传片的英译进行了研究。作者根据生态翻译学的三维转换理论，考虑到中英文在语言习惯、文化背景和文本交际意图的差异，分别对华为的三个宣传片，即关于华为Mate20登月的故事，华为海洋，科技普济天下，进行评析。最后通过分析总结发现：译者在进行商务字幕翻译实践时，需要充分了解源语与目的语在语言、文化等方面的差异，充分适应具体的翻译环境，传递文本的交际意图，只有达到了语言维、文化维和交际维三者的统一，才是真正成功的译文。

===关键词===

生态翻译学；三维转换；华为；宣传片；广告语翻译

===Abstract===

With the development of globalization, more and more Chinese enterprises are stepping into the competition of global market. As advertising video contributes a lot to promoting products projects as well as the image of enterprises, its translation is critical to enterprises to go global and has caught businessmen’s attention greatly. Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, founded in 1987, has evolved into an international corporate with profound influence over the last 30 years. In order to advertise products, HUAWEI has shot many high-quality bilingual advertising videos which have attracted many potential customers. However, the subtitle translation of advertising videos requires high professional skills for translators as many cultural differences lie between the West and the East.

This paper aims to study the English translation of advertising videos Eco-translatology theory perspective. Based on three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory, the author gives full consideration to differences in linguistic tradition, cultural background and communicative intention of the text between Chinese and English, and comments the subtitle translation of three HUAWEI’s advertising videos, A Story about the Moonfall of HUAWEI Mate 20, Huawei Marine and TECH4ALL. In the end, the conclusion comes that translators should fully understand the linguistic and cultural differences between the source text and target text and adapt themselves in specific translation environment so as to transmit the whole communicative intention when they translate commercial subtitles. And successful translation texts should be those realizing the unification of linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension.

===Key Words===

Eco-translatology, three dimensional transformations, HUAWEI, advertising video; subtitle translation

===1 Introduction===

As early as 2001, Hu Gengshen has put forth the notion of “approach to translation as adaptation and selection” and “translation is adaption and selection” in the FIT Third Asian Translators’ Forum (Hu Gengshen, 2001, 5), which marked the birth to Eco-translatology. In Eco-translatology, Hu combined the translation process with Darwinism, “survival of fitness”, and proposed that translators, when they translate a text, should fully adapt themselves to source languages’ environment to understand its specific meaning and find out targeted readers at first, and then, on the basis of good command of the source language and its culture, write down appropriate words so that readers using target language can get the same and correct information about the whole text. As the theory gives an inspiration for many translators, there are an increasing number of translators conducting translation, translation criticism and other activities in accordance with Eco-translatology.

In addition, the background of this paper is that the advent of Internet and convenient transports arouses most enterprises’ awareness of the importance and necessity of advertising videos in products or business promotion. Especially in the era of scientific technology, Internet and advanced transportation are breaking the geographical boundaries to a large extent, therefore, enterprises can expand their operation worldwide, enjoying a larger business scope than ever before (Chen K., Yang F. F, 2019, 21). However, there still exit language and cultural limits when enterprises promote a product, so proper translation is quite important for companies to extend their business scope.

Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, the tech giant enjoying satisfactory reputation coming from both customers and competitors, has shown its presence in many countries and regions with advertising videos presented in various languages. For HUAWEI’s advertising video, there is a common sense that people feel passionate about learning more about the product or the company and even want to buy it after they watch those videos, so undoubtedly, HAEWEI does a good job in advertising videos. Meanwhile, HUAWEI, on behalf of domestic Communications Service Provider, has wide influence over international market. Considering all those facts, the author tends to comment the subtitle translation of HUAWEI’s advertising videos from the perspective of Eco-translatology and hope for some possible enlightenment for subtitle translation.

The thesis applies qualitative analysis, case study and contrastive analysis to study both the Chinese versions and English versions of three videos about HUAWEI. For each video, the author comments them respectively from linguistic dimensional transformation, cultural dimensional transformation and communicative dimensional transformation, the processes of translation in Eco-translatology theory.

===2 Literature Review===

Eco-translatology, put forward by Hu Gengshen, is a systematic translation theory to explain the translation process. It studies and guides the translation practice(practices)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) from the perspective of ecology, which provides a new way for translators to conduct translation, so since its birth, the theory has widely broadened the theoretical researches in both China and abroad (Hu Gengshen, 2001).

===2.1 Eco-translatology===

At the beginning of the 21st century, Hu Gengshen put emphasis on translators’ adaptation and selection when they translate a text, which is the origin of Eco-translatology theory. In Eco-translatology theory, translation process is similar to Darwinism’s “natural selection”. Translators, like all creatures in evolutionary history, also experience the selection and adaptation in translating so as to create masterpieces to satisfy variable purposes and people using different languages (Hu Gengshen, 2001, 17). As well, their works tend to confront the “natural selection”, the market, and finally the best works will be preserved as time goes by. So, in order to create high-quality and ever-lasting translated texts, translators have to bury themselves in different eco-environments so as to get the pure and true understanding of the source text, and translate it into the target language with appropriate words which will meet different needs. During the process, the “natural selection” is the market, or readers’ feedback.

Since Hu proposed the notion of “approach to translation as adaptation and selection” and “translation is adaption and selection” in 2001 (Hu Gengshen, 2001, 103), studies on Eco-translatology began to grow vigorously. In 2004, Hu published a book, An Approach to Translation as Adaptation and Selection. This book focuses on translators’ adaptation and selection, including their relations, mechanisms, basic characteristics and principles, so as to describe or interpret translation process, standards and methods in a new perspective (Hu Gengshen, 2004). After that, Hu continued to study “adaption and selection” and briefly summarized translation principle as multidimensional adaptions and adaptive selection, and translation methods as “three dimensional transformations” (Hu Gengshen, 2006).

As Eco-translatology developed in a positive way, Hu reviewed the development of the theory, including basic connotation, background, current situation and existed limits, and pointed out directions for future research (Hu Gengshen, 2008, 23 ). And then, Hu expounded on nine focuses on research and theoretical tenets from the perspective of Eco-translatology (Hu Gengshen, 2011, 3). As Eco-translatology has widely been accepted by most translators and employed in many fields, Hu, in Eco-translatology: Construction & Interpretation, was commitment to give a general overview and description of the translation ecology and translation theory viewing from ecology (Hu Gengshen, 2013, 11).

In order to provide some inspiration in translation practices, Hu, based on the present research concerning Eco-translatology, put forward different research focus in the future from several angles and aspects in light of Eco-translatology so that scholars could get certain enlightenments and directions for their future studies (Hu Gengshen, 2017, 34).

Apart from Hu’s studies on Eco-translatology, many scholars have conducted a lot of researches in previous years. Tang applied Eco-translatology in advertisement translation and proposed that translators, from linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions, should have focus according to advertisement’s contents, targeted audiences, source language and cultural background of the target text (Tang Yixin, 2015, 52).

The theory has also been employed to analyze the Chinese-English translation of corporate profiles (Xing Yanchao and Dong Hailin, 2017, 142). Just in the same year, in order to assist Chinese films to go global, Zhu researched films’ subtitle translation with the exemplification of “Mr. Six” from three dimensional transformation in Eco-translatology, that is, linguistic dimensions, cultural dimensions and communicative dimensions (Zhu Jingyan, 2017, 78).

Over the past ten years with countless scholars and translators’ efforts, Eco-translatology has developed to cover many points, such as translator-centeredness, eco-paradigm, sequence chain, adaptive selection and selective adaption, eco-environment and post-event penalty (Hu Gengshen, 2011, 5). Viewing from translation process, Eco-translatology theory requires translators to select different translation environments and adapt themselves in it for many times; from translation principles, Eco-translatology theory is multi-dimensional selective adaption and adaptive selection; from translation skill, Eco-translatology promotes the translation from three dimensional transformation, linguistic dimensional transformation, cultural dimensional transformation and communicative dimensional transformation (Hu Gengshen, 2003, 283).

===2.2 Subtitle Translation===

Subtitle translation of advertising videos, an essential part of translation of commercial texts, generally refers to inter-lingual translation. Since the flourishment of domestic films in 21st century, more and more high-quality films with interesting plots compete to go global to boast Chinese traditional culture and tell Chinese stories, which is part of Chinese dream of great rejuvenation. Therefore, in order to promote Chinese culture, provide Chinese solution and tell Chinese story well, quite a few scholars and translators are commitment to subtitle translation and relative studies.

According to Wang (2007, 13), subtitle translation, a special language transformation, should be focused on condensing the oral language in videos into written language. Then, Wu studied language features of subtitle translation, which are instantaneity and popularization, and proposed that translators should pay more attention to logicality, artistry and affection of the words (Wu Wei, 2013, 154). Yu studied the features and technical constraints of dubbing and subtitling English into Chinese, and found that standardization and simplification were two major techniques for subtitling while lip synchronization, gestures and pauses were major constraints for dubbing (Yu Haikuo, 2015, 493).

2019 witnessed the prosperity of not only films but also studies related to subtitle translation. In the same year, several scholars studied the machine translated subtitles, all of which were selected from MOOCs, and found that “participants who were offered full PEMT subtitles scored better overall on our reception metrics than those who were offered raw MT subtitles” (Hu et al., 2019, 13), and Zheng discussed the features and limitations of subtitle translation (Zheng Jie, 2019, 247).

After that, Zheng furthered the study about subtitle translation and proposed that different comments about subtitle translation, be it satisfactory or not, came out when audiences viewed it in different situation and prospects (Zheng Xiqing, 2020), and Wang briefly discussed subtitle translation of Chinese films in ''Western Leather'' by commenting several cases (Wang An, 2020). Just in the same year, Wang analyzed and prospected the subtitling abroad through empirical research, suggesting that the subtitle translation in the future should be focused on the translation in dynamic images (Wang Juan, 2020, 89).

All in all, subtitle translation, as a special part of translation, should be emphasized on not only the basic information of the text but also the emotional awareness, the contextual effects, which are the focus of translators. Moreover, few studies concerning subtitle translation were conducted from the perspective of Eco-translatology theory, so the author comments subtitle translation of advertising videos through three dimensional transformations promoted by Eco-translatology theory.

===3 A Case Study of HUAWEI’s Advertising Videos: Three Dimensional Transformations===

Since the reform and opening-up in China, Chinese enterprises have boosted their business operation all over the world and won worldwide recognition and reputation in over three decades. Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd is a tech giant with commitment to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world (https://www.huawei.com/en/fully-connected-intelligent-world/ ). As HUAWEI has been expanding business presence in every corner of the world, many advertising videos have been created to promote the products, enhance corporate image and advertise projects. However, according to the author’s research, few studies on subtitle translation of advertising videos are conducted from the perspective of Eco-translatology theory.

According to Eco-translatology theory, translators should conduct translation practices based on the principle of multi-dimensional selective adaption and adaptive selection, while the translation approach is three dimensional transformations, which are linguistic transformation, cultural transformation and communicative transformation (qtd. in Zhu Jingyan, 2017, 80). In the translation process, the translator has to select different eco-environment and adapt himself based on different dimensions. For example, if the translator translates from linguistic dimension, the top priority for translator is to keep syntax and grammar correction and among others; if the translator does translation from cultural dimension, he has to consider the cultural background, local customs etc.; if the translator translates text from communicative dimension, he should pay more attention to the communicative function of the text.

In order to elaborate on subtitle translation of advertising videos from the perspective of Eco-translatology, the author selects three advertising videos of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, and analyzes them from linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension respectively.

Three videos are related to mobile phone’s promotion: Mate 20, corporate promotion, Huawei Marine, and projects promotion, TECH4ALL (https://www.huawei.com/minisite/tech4all/cn/ ). The first video, focusing on the release of HUAWEI Mate 20, a smartphone designed by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd in 2018, marked the expansion of Huawei’s commercial landscape in telecommunication all over the world.

In 2018, both domestic and abroad customers have been completely amazed by the performance of Mate 20, and even in 2020 when many new series of masterpieces of mobile-phones were releases, there still exist many customers keeping using HUAWEI Mate 20. In fact, apart from great performance and customers’ excellent experience, what attracts and retains customers includes the contribution of the eye-catching advertising video, A Story about the Moonfall of HUAWEI Mate 20. The video is about the communication between an astronaut and the ground, so the whole eco-environment in linguistic dimension is the daily communication, and every word and sentence should conform to characteristics of daily interactions.

The second advertising video is about Huawei Marine (http://www.huaweimarine.com/cn/Company/CorporateVideo ). Huawei Marine has combined competitive edges of both parent companies with strong commitment to the establishment of submarine cable network globally. And the vision of Huawei Marine, being “Connecting the World, One Ocean at a Time”, has also fully reflected the vision of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, “Building a Fully Connected, Intelligent World”. This video is selected from the official website of Huawei Marine, aiming to give a brief introduction of the company as well as what they have done over the past decade. As it is an official video concerning Huawei Marine’s corporate image, the words employed in subtitle are very formal, and the same is true to subtitle translation.

The last advertising video introduces HUAWEI’s non-profit project, TECH4ALL (https://www.huawei.com/minisite/tech4all/cn/). It is a non-profit project launched by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd with strong commitment to bring technology to everyone and everywhere, both rich and poor, in the world. It is certain that the wealth people are more likely to get advanced technology and information to catch more wealth while poor people would face the embarrassing situation of getting poorer, which is the application of the Matthew Effect in information era.

In the following analysis, specific comments about the subtitle translation of those advertising videos are offered from linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions, key points of Eco-translatology theory.

===3.1 Linguistic Dimensional Transformations===

The adaptive selection transformation in linguistic dimension means that translators have to focus on the transformation of linguistic form. The basic requirements for translators in linguistic dimensional transformations are grammatically correction, clearness, accuracy and others. The author gave some specific comments about the subtitle translation of selected videos from linguistic dimensional transformation, part of three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory (Tang, 2015, 143). In the following analysis, examples are given with their translations, and the source text is marked as ST and translated target text, TT, and specific comments about those examples, from linguistic dimensional transformation, are provided in the following text.

Eg.1 ST: 在这广阔的海域下，正是这一条条蓝色的信息脉络，传递你我的声音，想法传递着每一份情感，让想象呈现于现实，连接五洲四洋，承载沟通梦想，让世界无界。

TT: Deep under our vast seas, there is a blue highway of information, spreading our voices, ideas, and feelings, allowing our imaginations become reality, carrying our dreams across the oceans, and making a world without boundaries.

It is the last part of the advertising video about Huawei Marine focusing on its vision. This video ends with “连接五洲四洋，承载沟通梦想，让世界无界”, which includes broad words of “洲” and “洋”. In Chinese, “五洲四洋” is a word developed from a Chinese four-character idiom, “五洲四海” which refers to “世界各地”, every corner in the world, and it originates from the essay, 《魔鬼的笛音》 written by Sima Da. Meanwhile, the literal meaning of “五洲四洋” is continents and oceans, while the translator put it into “oceans” solely. The reason behind is that the translator tried to satisfy the requirements of(in)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) corporate promotion.

Just as the advertising video presented before, Huawei Marine aims to promote the image of International enterprises, Huawei Marine, and it gives some basic information about Huawei Marine, such as the business landscape. Most tasks Huawei Marin has conducted are on the ocean, rather than continents, by establishing as much as optical fibers across the ocean to connect the whole world, and the mission of Huawei Marine is “Connecting the World, One Ocean at a Time”. Based on the mission of Huawei Marine and its business landscape, the translator chose the image, ocean, and threw away another image, continent. Just in this way, the action translator conducted echoes to the purpose of this advertising video.

Eg.2

ST: 这里是位于印度洋深处的海洋秘境，仅5万人口，但他们的存在却无法让世界忽视或遗忘

TT: And on one secluded island in the Indian Ocean, that only has a population of 50,000, people have made their existence unforgettable and un-ignorable.

In this example, the translator applies “secluded island” to translate “海洋秘境” in describing the tough situation in Mauritius. “秘境”, in Chinese, is a phrase with many far-reaching meanings. Meanwhile, the conception, “海洋秘境”, conforms to Chinese perceptual knowledge since ancient times. In addition, according to Oxford dictionary, “secluded” also has diverse meanings, such as “(of a place) quiet and private, not used or disturbed by other people” and “without much contact with other people” (Oxford Dictionary, 2018, 297), which are correspondence to secret places of “秘境”. Although “secluded island” is lack of some meaning and the artistic conception of “秘境”, it has fully transmitted the key points in this passage, so the translator performed excellently.

From above examples, it is easy to conclude that translators should fully understand the translation eco-environment, the context or the background, adapt themselves in it, and aim to satisfy the requirements of linguistic style, accuracy, readability, customs and clearness on the basis of local translation eco-environments, when they understand the source text or conduct the translation practices. Otherwise, tedious, boring and untie in with reality may be the likely result of translation.

===3.2 Cultural Dimensional Transformations===

The adaptive selection transformation in cultural dimension requires that translators should pay pay special attention to convey and interpret the cultural connotations in both languages (Hu Gengshen, 2006, 49). As different countries have different history, people in this country have been cultivated with different culture, so it is naturally that people in China and other English-speaking countries own many differences, including opinions, values, cultural backgrounds, attitudes, customs and so many others.

As the existence of cultural differences, the top priority for translators, to broadcast a product or a company, is to eliminate differences or narrow the gap in cognition of people in two different cultural environments. So in order to make customers learn more about and accept the product or an enterprise, translators should exhaust their knowledge and skills to eliminate those cognitive differences towards some specific things, which carry completely different meanings in different cultures. The author has employed the subtitle translation of advertisement video to make specific comments from cultural dimensional transformations. The followings are some examples and comments about the subtitle translation from cultural transformation dimension.

Eg.3

ST: 70%的表面被海洋覆盖，这里孕育着神奇的物种，埋藏着丰富的资源，也成为人类沟通的天堑。

TT: 70% of our world is covered by oceans, which are home to amazing species and rich resources. Now, they will bring a new era of communication.

“天堑” is a literary word referring to natural chasms unable to be conquered easily, most of which are big rivers. In Southern Dynasty, people viewed “天堑” as the Changjiang River. Mr. Fan, a famous writer of the Northern Dynasty, once said that “长江天堑，古来限隔，虏军岂能飞度?”, which means that enemy troops of Sui Dynasty could not pass the Changjiang River, because it separated the north and south. Although the Sui Dynasty succeed in this battle because of militaries of that the Northern Dynasty led a befuddled life while militants in the Sui Dynast, we could still get a glimpse of difficulties of the natural chasm.

After that, people employed “天堑” to describe many natural chasms, especially the Changjiang River. For example, in 1957 when Wuhan Yangtze River Bridge was completed, Mao Zedong wrote a poem 《水调歌头•游泳》 to celebrate the great events. In 《水调歌头•游泳》, there exists a saying of “天堑变通途”, which means that the Changjiang River, the natural chasms are conquered to be clear roads.

In English, there is no specific words corresponding to “天堑”, so the translator turned to the specific meaning of the sentence and rendered it into that the ocean “will bring a new era of communication”. It is also the mission of Huawei Marine. Both Chinese version and English version transform the vision of Huawei Marine differently based on different cultural background.

Meanwhile, as “天堑” has such a few profound meanings, it not only illustrates how hard those places are and how extraordinary achievements Huawei Marine has made, but also creates an artistic conception that there are a lot of challenges lying in Huawei Marine’s projects. The artistic conception refers to the situation which is created by the integration of emotion and scene, void-solid combination and poetic space with profound meanings and the rhythms of vibrant life. For most people, they cannot get the specific points when they read such words, but after watching the whole video and relating those words to specific situation in this video, they would catch a glimpse of the corporate image.

Apart from that, the translator translated “天堑” as “they will bring a new era of communication” in English. These words echo to the beginning words which have shown the rich resources and coverage of the vast ocean, because people may not view the ocean as a way leading to communication era as it is generally accepted that continents are divided by ocean so that ideas are unable to communicate freely. Therefore, “bring a new era of communication” in the video introduces Huawei Marine’s business landscape, showing its presence in creating a new era of communication in the vast ocean. The English version has less twists in the whole passage and targets at the theme, introducing Huawei Marine, directly, which satisfies Westerners’ customs and advocates the corporate image in a more appropriate way.

Eg.4

ST: 科技普济天下。

TT: Tech for all. Pass it on.

This comes from the advertising video about the non-profit project, TECH4ALL. “科技普济天下” can be easily related to a Chinese old saying, “穷则独善其身，达则兼济天下” with the English meaning being “In hard time, try to seek self-development; in success, try to let others be benefited”, which is the highest mission of scholars in ancient China. It tends to arouse Chinese people’s admiration to HUAWEI. The English version, “Tech for all. Pass it on”, is a fixed expression that passes on something from generation to generation or from one man to another. To some extent, the last sentence, being the finishing touch, promotes HUAWEI’s corporate image greatly. And both versions have transferred the theme to the audiences successfully.

From the above analysis, the conclusion emerges. Viewing from cultural dimensions, translators should consider not only the cultural differences between source language and target language, but also the theme of the advertising videos, describing the performance of a company. And as cultural tradition, Chinese version prefers to employ broader words to create an atmosphere while the English version tends to use more specific and direct ones. Only in this way, customers with different cultural background would know the company or product in a correct and positive way.

===3.3 Communicative Dimensional Transformations===

The adaptive selection transformation in communicative dimension focuses on the communicative ability of the text (Hu Gengshen, 2006, 97). In other words, the purpose of an advertising video is to introduce and promote a product, projects or enterprise, so the video would contain the basic information of the product, project or enterprise, so as to enable potential customers to know more about them or engage in the project or join in the company.

In this dimension, it will focus on the translation of the communicative ability. For example, if an advertising video of Chinese version focuses on a mobile phone and introduces its basic information, and most of the domestic customers itch to buy one after watching that video, the translator has to translate not only all of the basic information but also the emotion–appealing. If the translator fails to arouse customers’ impulse to buy the phone, the translation practice is a failure (Hu Gengshen, 2008, 13). However, in this aspect, HUAWEI’s advertising videos are excellent examples, and the followings are some specific analysis of subtitle translation of those advertising videos from communicative dimensional transformation.

Eg.5

ST: 偏远的尼日利亚村民第一次连接外部世界，一根科技木杆，立起数字信号覆盖村落。无法离家的孟加拉农村女性，第一次掌握数字工具，六部培训巴士，带着数字技能穿梭百万公里。特殊的聋哑孩子，第一次享受到阅读的乐趣，一款移动应用，让手机通晓数十种语言。

TT: In remote areas of Nigeria, connectivity brings new life to local communities, opening doors to trade, banking, better education and healthcare. In Bangladesh, digital training has given more than 240,000 women new opportunities in life. With AI, deaf children everywhere can translate written words into sign language, so no child misses out on the joy of story time.

This example is selected from TECH4ALL (https://www.huawei.com/minisite/tech4all/cn/index.html#stories ), a non-profit project. As a non-profit project, the most important point is to elaborate on the purpose of the project and reflect on the corporate’s social responsibility. According to the advertising video, both Chinese and English version, the project focuses on bringing the general access to people with some troubles, such as people in remote areas in Nigeria and Bangladesh, and vulnerable children.

For those villagers in remote Nigeria, the translator translated “第一次连接外部世界” as “connectivity brings new life to local communities”. That is overstatement in the first sight of “new life”, but it conveys that how dramatically that power of Internet is and how great the project, conducted by HUAWEI, is in the information era. Again, women in poor Bangladesh can visit places, break the limit of ignorant and backward idea and “have new opportunities in life” with the power of digital technology. As for those children with self-inability, they miss many joys in the word. However, they “cannot miss out on the joy of story time”, and is able to write a completely new chapter with AI, the digital technology, compared with that when they lack of AI before.

From those three examples, three vulnerable groups with characteristic can meet a brighter world and enjoy the colorful life with the access to technology, Internet and AI. Although they fail to connect and communicate with the world because of geographical limits, financial limits and self-inability, their life can also be changed with the advanced technologies, just as HUAWEI did in this project. From this communicative dimension, the subtitle translation of this advertising video has been conveyed completely and successfully----Technology, to great extent, has changed their life completely.

Eg. 6

ST: 世界并非天生完美，数字包容改变世界。

TT: Our planet may not be perfect, but digital technology can help make it better.

In this example, “世界并非完美，数字包容改变世界” has two implications. The first is that the world has many imperfections, which echoes to those vulnerable group. The second implication is the theme of this advertising video. Meanwhile, the English version is also a fixed expression. The words, “help make it better”, means that something can promote another thing in a more positive way. Apparently, both source text and target text reemphasizes the importance of digital technology and underlines the vision of this project---making a better world.

From the comments above, it seems clear that translators should exhaust their efforts to transform the communicative intention of the text so that customers in both languages would arouse the same or similar emotion and get the same or similar information of the project, product or enterprise, when conducting translation practice. Only in this way, the translation can be deemed as successful translation.

===4 Conclusion===

In the first chapter, this thesis gives a basic overview of the development of Eco-translatology theory and mentions the current fruits of the theory. Then the author gives an overview of studies related to subtitle translation in recent years, and introduces the focus of this paper. With the help of theoretical support listed above, the author researches the subtitle translation of advertising video from three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory.

With the development of technology and Internet, more and more domestic enterprises are going global. Considering HUAWEI is a tech giant with far-reaching influence in both China and the world, the author selects three advertising videos about product, enterprise and project concerning HUAWEI to comment in three dimensions respectively. The product’s advertising video is about HUAWEI Mate 20, a mobile phone catching world’s eye since its release.

The enterprise’s advertising video is that of Huawei Marine, a joint venture established by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd and Global Marine System Limited. And the project’s advertising video concerns a non-profit project launched by HUAWEI, TECH4ALL. The author analyzes those three videos from linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension respectively, and finds that translators should consider the linguistic customs, cultural background and communicative ability of both cultures so as to enable more people to know more about what advertising videos have advertised and to buy the product, join in the enterprises and engage in the project.

Eco-translatology, an emerging theory put forward by Hu Gengshen, offers an insight to subtitle translation of advertising videos. Although commercial translation is booming in recent years, it seems that not enough attention is given to translation practices from the perspective of Eco-tranlatology. Thus, this paper, with analysis of advertising video from the perspective of Eco-translatology, provides people who are involved in subtitle translation of advertising video and bilingual video makers with new inspiration.

From the perspective of linguistic dimensional transformation, translators should adapt themselves in specific translation ecology so as to ensure the linguistic style, accuracy, readability, and clearness of the translated text; from the perspective of cultural dimensional transformation, translators, in order to make sure target audiences grasp what the advertising video promote in a correct and positive way, should consider the cultural differences between source language and target language more; from the perspective of communicative dimensional transformation, translators need to transmit the communicative intention of the text so that customers in both languages would arouse similar emotion which helps build similar image of the project, product or enterprise.

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--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 13:01, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

='''Translation Theories'''=

==A study on a History of Translation Theory 李梦 Li Meng 202020080613 亚非语言文学==
<center>李梦 Li Meng </center>
===Abstract===
Translation theory guides translation practice, and the technical aspects demonstrated in translation practice are also based on translation theory. Therefore, translation theory is of great importance to both translation teaching and translation practice. To understand a subject, one must first understand its history.By studying the history of Chinese and Western translation theories, this paper analyzes the similarities and characteristics of Chinese and Western translation theories, and expounds the importance of the history of translation theories to translation studies.

===Key words===
Translation Theory, History of Translation, History of Translation Theory, History of Chinese Translation Theory , History of Western Translation Theory

===摘要===
翻译理论指导翻译实践，在翻译实践中所展示的技术层面也是以翻译理论为基础。因此翻译理论对翻译教学和翻译实践都至关重要。而要了解一门学科，必须先读懂它的历史。本文将通过研究中西方翻译理论史，分析中西翻译理论史的共性与特性，阐述翻译理论史对翻译研究重要性。

===关键词===
翻译理论，翻译史，翻译理论史，中国翻译理论史，西方翻译理论史

===1. Introduction===
Translation, as a cross-cultural communication activity, has a history as long as the origin and development of mankind. With the acceleration of human civilization and globalization, translation has gradually shouldered the heavy responsibility of promoting communication and exchange among people of all nationalities in the world and promoting common development and progress. However, as an important part of translation studies, the history of translation theory has received far less attention than the study of translation theories and techniques. (Luo Hui 2017,198)

The study of translation history, translation theory and translation technique is considered to be the three main components of translation research, but from the books on translation research published over the years, we can see that the research achievements and academic theories of translation theory and translation skills far outweigh the research of translation history, which shows that translation history has not attracted enough attention. (Luo Hui 2017,198)

Translation, however, has historical characteristics, and when we study translation, we must examine the translation activities in the long river of human history, so that we can find out more clearly that the form and connotation of translation activities are constantly enriched, and that it plays different roles in different historical stages. Therefore, if you want to do a good translation study, you have to understand the history of translation theory.(Luo Hui 2017,198)

===2. The History of Chinese Translation Theory===
Chinese translation theory was born out of contact with vassal states during the Zhou Dynasty. It developed through translations of Buddhist scripture into Chinese. It is a response to the universals of the experience of translation and to the specifics of the experience of translatingfrom specific source languages into Chinese. It also developed in the context of Chinese literary and intellectual tradition. There have been three high tide of translation in the history of Chinese translation: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Song Dynasty, the translation of Western studies from the late Ming to the early Qing Dynasty and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement. (Liang Dan 2016,104)

====2.1 The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Song Dynasty====
From the Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song dynasties, Buddhism was introduced into China and blended with traditional Chinese Confucianism and Taoism.Indian philosophy, literature and art, medicine, astronomy, arithmetic and even language have some influence in our country with the translation of Buddhist scriptures, but the translation activities of this period mainly focus on spreading religion.(Cai jie 2018,1)

Important Translators in this period and their translation theories：

Zhi Qian(3rd c.AD)
Zhi Qian (支谦) 's preface (序)is the first work whose purpose is to express an opinion about translation practice. The preface was included in a work of the Liang Dynasty. It recounts an historical anecdote of 224AD, at the beginning of the Three Kingdoms period. A party of Buddhist monks came to Wuchang. One of them, Zhu Jiangyan by name, was asked to translate some passage from scripture. He did so, in rough Chinese. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)

When Zhi Qian questioned the lack of elegance, another monk, named Wei Qi (维祇), responded that the meaning of Buddha should be translated simply, without loss, in an easy-to-understand manner: literary adornment unnecessary. All present concurred and quoted two traditional maxims: Laozi's "beautiful words are untrue, true words are not beautiful " and Confucius s "speech cannot be fully recorded by writing, and speech cannot fully capture meaning". Zhi Qians own translations of Buddhist texts are elegant and literary, so the "direct translation" advocated in the anecdote is likely Wei Qi's position, not Zhi Qians. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)

Dao An(314-385AD)
Dao An focused on loss in translation. His theory is the Five Forms of Loss (五失本).
① Changing the word order. Sanskrit word order is free with a tendency to SOV. Chinese is SO.
② Adding literary embellishment where the original is in plain style.
③ Eliminating repetitiveness in argumentation and panegyric (颂文).
④ Cutting the concluding summary section (义说).
⑤ Cutting the recapitulative material in introductory section.(Chen Fukang 1996,320)

Dao An criticized other translators for loss in translation, asking: how they would feel if a translator cut the boring bits out of classics like the Shi Jing or the Classic of History?
He also expanded upon the difficulty of translation, with his theory of the Three Difficulties (三不易).
① Communicating the Dharma to a different audience from the one the Buddha addressed.
② Translating the words of a saint.
③ Translating texts which have been painstakingly composed by generations of disciples. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)

Kumarajiva(344 - 413AD)
Kumarajiva's translation practice was to translate for meaning. The story goes that one day Kumarajiva criticized his disciple Sengrui for translating "heaven sees man, and man sees heaven"(天见人，人见天). Kumarajiva felt that " man and heaven connect, the two able to see each other"(人天交接，两得相见) would be more idiomatic, though heaven sees man, man sees heaven is perfectly idiomatic. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)

In another tale, Kumarajiva discusses the problem of translating incantations at the end of sutras. In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people (嚼饭于人).(Chen Fukang 1996,320)

Huiyuan(334-416AD)
Huiyuan' s theory of translation is middling, in a positive sense. It is a synthesis that avoids extremes of elegant (文雅) and plain (质朴). With elegant translation, " the language goes beyond the meaning"(文过其意)of the original. With plain translation, "the thought surpasses the wording" (理胜其辞). For Huiyuan, "the words should not harm the meaning"(文不害意). A good translator should "strive to preserve the original"(务存其本). (Chen Fukang 1996,321)

Sengrui(371-438AD)
Sengrui investigated problems in translating the names of things. This is of course an important traditional concern whose locus classicus is the Confucian exhortation to "rectify names" (正名). This is not merely of academic concern to Sengrui, for poor translation imperils Buddhism. Sengrui was critical of his teacher Kumarajiva's casual approach to translating names, attributing it to Kumarajiva's lack of familiarity with the Chinese tradition of linking names to essences. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)

Sengyou(445-518AD)
Much of the early material of earlier translators was gathered by Sengyou and would have been lost but for him. Sengyou's approach to translation resembles Huiyuan's, in that both saw good translation as the middle way between elegance and plainness. However, unlike Huiyuan Sengyou expressed admiration for Kumarajiva's elegant translation. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)

Xuanzang(600-664AD)
Xuanzang's theory is the Five Untranslatables (五不翻). or five instances where one should transliterate:
① Secrets: Dharani (陀罗尼), Sanskrit ritual speech or incantations, which includes mantras.
②Polysemy: bhaga (as in the Bhagavad Gita) (薄伽), which means comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed.
③ None in China: jambu tree (门浮树)，which does not grow in China.
④ Deference to the past: the translation for anuttara-samyak-sambodhi is already established as Anouputi (阿耨菩提).
⑤ To inspire respect and righteousness: Prana (般若) instead of "wisdom"(智慧) (Chen Fukang 1996,325)

====2.2 The Translation of Western Studies from the Late Ming to the Early Qing Dynasty====
In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, due to the need for external transportation, Sanyi Hall was established to train translators.At the end of the Ming Dynasty, Western studies gradually began to advance eastward, and translation became more active.But by this time the translation has completely changed, and it is no longer the Buddhist scriptures of India, but rather the classics of astronomy, geometry and medicine in Europe, and the history of Chinese translation has reached a new stage.(Cai jie2018,2)

====2.3 The Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement ====
After the Opium War, Chinese intellectuals felt the need to learn from the West in pain, and the translation activities began to rise again, forming a new stage in the history of Chinese translation. After the May 4th Movement, Chinese history entered modern times, and the importance of translation went back to ancient times.The rise of China's new literature is inseparable from translation. (Fang Wenhua 2005,108)

Important Translators in this period and their translation theories：

Yan Fu(1854-1921)
Yan Fu is famous for his theory of fidelity, clarity and elegance (信达雅), which some believe originated with Tytler. Yan Fu wrote that fidelity is difficult to begin with. Only once the translator has achieved fidelity ane clarity should be attend to elegance. The obvious criticism of this theory is that it implies that inelegant originals should be translated elegantly. Clearly, if the style of the original is not elegant or refined, the style of the translation should not be elegant either. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)

Liang Qichao(1873-1929)
Liang Qichao put these three qualities of a translation in the same order, fidelity first, then clarity, and only then elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)

Lin Yutang(1895-1976)
Lin Yutang stressed the responsibility of the translator to the original, to the reader, and to art. To fulfill responsibility, the translator needs to meet standards of fidelity (忠实), smoothness (通顺) and beauty. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)

Lu Xun(1881-1936)
Lu Xun' s most famous dictim relating to translation is "I'd rather be faithful than smooth"(宁信而不顺). (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)

Ai Siqi(1910-1966)
Ai Siqi described the relationship between fidelity, clarity and elegance in terms of Western ontology, where clarify and elegance are to fidelity as qualities are to being. (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)

Zhou Zuoren(1885-1967)
Zhou Zuoren assigned weightings, 50% of translation is fidelity, 30% is clarity, and 20% elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)

Zhu Guangqian(1897-1986)
Zhu Guangqian wrote that fidelity in translation is the root which you can strive to approach but never reach. This formulation perhaps invokes the traditional idea of returning to the root in Daoist philosophy. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)

Fu Lei(1908-1966)
Fu Lei held that translation is like painting: what is essential is not formal resemblance but rather spiritual resemblance (神似). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)

Qian Zhongshu(1910-1998)
Qian Zhongshu wrote that the highest standard of translation is transformation (化, the power of transformat in nature): bodies are sloughed off, but the spirit (精神), appearance and manner (姿致) are the same as before (故我, the old me or the old self). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)

===3. The History of Western Translation Theory===

====3.1 Translation Studies of the Romans====
Studies on translation go back to the Romans. Eric Jacobson claims that translating is a Roman invention. Cicero and Horace (1st century B.C.) were the first theorists who made an important distinction between word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Their views on translation influenced successive generations of translators up to the twentieth century.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)

Important Roman Translator and his Translation Theory：

Marcus Tulluis Cicero(106-43B.C.)
①A Translator must, like an oratore, use idiomatic Roman language in expressing what is conveyed by a foreign language.
②A translator must avoid word-for-word translation and try to retain genus omne vimque (meaning).
③One who translates Demosthenes must be Demosthenes as translation means literary production.
④Different rhetorical devices in different languages share smilarities, which enables a translator to achieve correspondence in style.
⑤ The translation should surpass the original and the translator is superior to the original author.(Liu Danna 2016,1)

====3.2 Bible Translation in the Middle Ages ====
In the Middle Ages，from the end of the Roman Empireto the Renaissance, the Bible translation holds a very important positionin the Western translation history. With the spread of Christianity, translation came to acquire another role, that of dissemination the word of God. Translation of the New Testment was marked by St Jerome (fourth century CE). His approach to translating the Greek Septuagint Bible into Latin would affect later translations of the scriptures. In the sixteenth century the history of Bible translation acquired new dimensions with the advent of printing. (Fan Ningyu 2017,123)

The sixteenth century saw the translation of the Bible into a large number of European languages, in both Protestant and Roman Catholic versions, and revised version of existing translations continued to appear in English, Dutch, German and French.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)

Important Bible Translators and their Translation Theories :

(1)St Jerome(331-420 A.D.)
①Fexibility is a very important principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible.
②It is necessary to distinguish between literary translation and religious translation.
③Correct translation must depend upon correct understanding of the source text.
④While doing translation, the translator must be as flexible as he can, as flexibility is a very mportant principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible Languages differ from each other in diction, style, idiomatic usage, syntax and meaning and content. Therefore word-for-word rendition is not workable.
⑤The translator must differentiate between - literary translation and - religious translati. In the former, the translator must adopt what is easier to understand to convey the original thought. However, in the Bible translation, the translator can not always use sense for sense method, but literal rendition. Cicero preferred sense for sense to word for word, but Jerome considered them to be complementary to each other. He applied this to his translation practice.
⑥Correct translation must depend on correct understanding of the source text. He did not believe the inspiration of God.
⑦Jerome's principles and methods of translation greatly influenced the later translation especially the Bible translation in other western countrie.
(Zhang Yan 2011,117)

(2)St. Augustine(345-430A.D.)
①A translator must meet the following requirements:(a)a good command of the two languages,(b)knowledge of the subject matter selected for translation,(c)capability of proofreading.
②Pay full attention to three kinds of style: plain, refined and sublime.
③Pay due attention to the triangle relationship between signified, signifier and the translators judgment.
④The basic level in translation is word.
⑤Translating the Bible must be done under the inspiration of God.(Zhang Yan 2011,118)

====3.3 Translation Theory during the Renaissance====
Translation in Renaissance Europe came to play a role of central importance. And translation was by no means a secondary activity, but a primary one, exerting a shaping force on the intellectual life of the age, and at times the figure of the translator appears almost as revolutionary activist rather than the servant of an original author or text. Renaissance is the period in Europe between the 14th and 17 centuries, when the art, literature, and ideas of ancient Greece were discovered again and widely studied, causing a rebirth ofactivity in all these things. The role translation plays in Renaissance: means of transplanting new ideas and thoughts, compared to war trophies in literature and art. (Fan Ningyu 2017,123)

Renaissance in turn influenced translation greatly in terms of attitudes toward translation and translation methods or approaches. The Renaissance period witnessed a considerable increase in the number of translations, due to the stimulating influence of the Renaissance and the introduction of printing technology and perception of translation as a means of disseminating knowledge to a wider audience. In addition, new views on translation appearedand translation activities centered not only on the Bible and classical literary texts, but also on other kinds of texts such as scientific ones and helped develop the national languages.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)

Important Renaissance Translators and their Translation Theories :

(1)Martin Luther(1483-1546)
①Translation must adopt the language accepted by the people.
②Translation must pay much attention to the relation of grammar to sense.
③Translation must follow seven principles:(a) the translator can change the original word order,( b) the translator can chose proper helping words,(c) the translator can supply necessary words,(d) the translator can omit the words which can not find exact counterparts in TL,(e) the translator can render a word a phrase,(f) the translator can translate metaphorical expressions into nonmetaphorical expressions and vice versa,(g) the translator must pay due attention to the deviation of language and the accuracy of interpretation
④Translation must draw on collective wisdom and absorb all useful ideas. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)

(2)Etienne Dolet(1509-1546)
①The translator must understand what he wants to translate.
②The translator must know SL and TL.
③The translator must avoid word for word rendition, which harms the conveyance of the origina message and the beauty of the language.
④The translator must use the common speech.
⑤The translator must make the version appropriate in effect through diction and adjustment of syntactical components.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)

====3.4 Translation Theory in the Early Modern Times====
17th century - 19th century is a very important period of translation and translation studies in the west. Translation became prosperous because of boosting of production, prosperous economy, more and more people receiving education and being eager to read and write. In this period each period differs from the other and each country differs from the other in translation. Translation is characterized by inaccurate representation of the original message in the TL in many cases in some countries. Translation theories began to develop systematically interms of their framework in the 18th century and foundits center in the 19th century Germany. (Fan Ningyu 2017,123)

The focus of translation practice began to be shifted from classics to modern works. Jesus Christ school: inaccurate translation, making classics religious in translation version. Port-Royal school: stressing the present, often addingsomething to the original content or omitting something of the ST in the translation. The 19th century French translators such as Francoise-Rene de Chateaubriand (1768- 1848), Gerard Nerval(1808-1855) and Charles Baudelaire(1821-1867) focused their attention on translating modern work such as those of Shakespeare and Allen Poe. By the mid-seventeenth century the widening of the gap between traditional Christian Humanism and science had all led to radical changes in the theory ofliterature and hence to the role of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)

Important Translators in the Early Modern Times and their Translation Theories：

(1)John Dryden (1631-1700), formulated the trichotomy oftranslation:
① Metaphrase (直译), or turning an author word by word, and line by line, from one language into another.
② Paraphrase (意译), or translation with latitude (flexibility), the Ciceronian "sense-for-sense" view of translation.
③ Imitation (仿译), where the translator can abandon the text of the original as he sees fit.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)

Of these types Dryden chooses the second (paraphrase) as the more balanced path, provided the translator fulfils certain criteria: To translate poetry, he argues, the translator mustbe a poet, must be a master of both languages, and must understand both the characteristics and spirit ofthe original author, besides conforming to the aesthetic canons of his own age. He uses the metaphor of the translator/portrait painter, that was to reappear so frequently in the eighteenth century, maintaining that the painter has theduty of making his portrait resemble the original.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)

Dryden's views on translation were followed fairly closely by Alexander Pope (1688 - 1744),who advocates the same middle ground as Dryden, with stress on close reading of the original to note the details of style and manner whilst endeavoring to keep alive the "fire" of the poem. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)

In the Eighteenth Century, underlying Dryden's and Pope's concept of translation is another element, beyond the problem ofthe debate between overfaithfulness and looseness: the whole question of the moral duty of the translatorto his contemporary readers. The impulse to clarify and make plain the essential spirit of a text led to large scale rewritings of earlier texts to fit them to contemporary standards of language and taste. Hence the famous re-structuring of Shakespearian texts, and the translations of Racine. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)

(2)Alexander Fraser Tytler(1747-1813)published a volume entitled The principles of translation, the first systematic study in English of the translation processes.
Tytler set up three basic principles:
①The translation should give a complete transcript ofthe idea of the original work
②The style and manner of writing should be of thesame character with that of the original.
③The translation should have all the ease of theoriginal composition.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)

In the Romantic Period, so many texts were translated at this time that were tohave a seminal effect on the TL. Stress on the impact of the translation in the target culture in fact resulted in a shift of interest away from theactual processes of translation. Moreover, two conflicting tendencies can be determined in the early nineteenth century: one exalts translation as a category of thought, with the translator seen as a creative genius in his own right, in touch with the geniusof his original and enriching the literature and language into which he is translating; the other sees translation interms of the more mechanical function of "making known" a text or author.(Liu Danna 2016,3)

====3.5 Translation Theory in the Twentieth Century====
In the second half of the twentieth century, studies on translation became an important course in language teaching and learning at schools. The grammar-translation model studies the grammatical rules and structures of foreign languages. The cultural model is also a witness for the development of translation studies in the period. It required in translation not only a word-for-word substitution, but also a cultural understanding of the way people in different societies think. With this model, we can distinguish between the ethnographical-semantic method and the dynamic equivalent method.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)

Another model that appears in the period is text-based translation model, which focuses on texts rather than words or sentences in translation process. This model includes avariety of sub-models: the interpretative model, the text linguistic model and models of translation quality assessments that in turnprovide us with many models such as those of Riess,Wilss, Koller, House, North. The period is also characterized by pragmatic andsystematic approach to the study of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)

Important Translators in the Twentieth Century and their Translation Theories：

(1)Arne Jacobson(1896-1982)
①Jakobson points out that "there is ordinarily no full equivance between code-units".
②From a lingusitic and semiotic angle, Jakobson approaches the problem of equivance with the following definition: "Equivalence in difference is the cadinal problem of language and the pivotalconcern of linguistics."
③In Jakobson's discussion, the problem of meaning and equivalence thus focuses on differences in the structure and terminology of languages rather than on any inability of one language to render a message that has been written in another verbal language. Thus Russian can still express the full semantic meaning of cheese even if it breaks it down into two seperate concepts.
④For Jakobson, cross-linguistic differences center around obligatory grammatical and lexical forms: "Languages differ essentially in what they must convey and not in what they may convey".
⑤On the basis of semiotic theory, Jacobson divides translation into Intralingual translation, Interlingual translation and Intersemiotic translation.(Zhao Shanshan 2020,143）

(2)Eugene A. Nida(1914-2011)
Eugene A. Nida's most notable contribution to translation theory is functional equivalence theory. According to Nida's theory, the best translation should never sound like a translation. To studiously avoid." translationese", certain fundamental sets of precedence in translating should be established, such as the precedence of contextual consistency over verbal consistency, the precedence of dynamie equivalence over formal consistency and the precedence of forms that are acceptable to the audience for which a translation is intended over the forms that may be traditionally more practicable. (Jia Xiuhai 2008,25)

Aocording to functional equivalence theory, testing the quality of translation does not consist in a comparison of corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical classes, and rhetorical devices to see the extent of verbal consistency, but in how well the receptors understand and appreciate the translated text. Funetional equivalence focuses on reader's response, which calls for the response of the receptors to translated text is the same as the response of the original receptors to original text.(Jia Xiuhai 2008,25)

(3)Peter Newmark(1916-?)
Newmark divided the translation into four main categories: semantic translation, communicative translation, literal translation and dead translation. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Semantic translation focuses primarily on the semantic content of the source text. Communicative translation focuses essentially upon the comprehension and response of receptors. (Liang Dan 2016,105）

Newmark argues that translation is both a science and an art, and that translation is a science because something in the language has been standardized, allowing only two types of translation, and that when the two languages are translated into one another, the translation is basically fixed.(Liang Dan 2016,105）

Translation is art because some things in language allow for various options, various translations, and not standardization.resort to other theories to perfect its theoretical foundation and exist as a whole as a whole in terms of artistic appeal and rhetoric. Newmark thought that translation had rules to follow.To make the content of the original the same as the translation, metaphors, proverbs, idioms, slang terms, terms, judicial structures, and orders should be the same as the original in terms of frequency of use of the language.(Liang Dan 2016,105）

===4. The Commonality and Characteristics of Chinese and Western Translation Theory History===
The commonality of the history of Chinese and Western translation theory can be summed up from three aspects: content, process and influence.In terms of content, the West attaches great importance to the translation of the Bible, while China is keen to translate the Buddhist scriptures, both of which belong to the translation of religious documents, and this stage is considered one of the high tide of translation in Chinese and Western history.(Luo Hui 2017,199)

In terms of process and influence, the field of translation of Chinese and Western translation has changed from single to pluralism, from the original translation of religious literature to the translation of historical, political, and literary fields, and has become more and more important, and the people of different regions have become more and more closely intercommunicated, the social culture has spread more rapidly, and the influence on human history has been deepened. (Luo Hui 2017,199)

Although the translation of religious documents has sparked a high tide in the history of Chinese and Western translation, because religion's position and influence in the two societies are very different, China is far less concerned about translation of Buddhist scriptures than in the West. The effect of translating the Bible cannot be compared with that of translating the Bible. In addition, Ma Zuyi scholars have shown that during the long period of the Zhou and Qing dynasties, there have been three high tides of translation in the history of Chinese translation.Since the third century AD, Western translations have had six high tides in history, and although their translation activities are later than in China, they have developed at a relatively rapid rate.Especially in modern times, Western translation theory and school of thought are increasingly scientific and systematic, and are in the lead position. (Luo Hui 2017,199)

===5. Conclusion===
As a cross-cultural communication activity with a long history, translation has reduced the communication barriers between people of different regions and languages and accelerated the development of human civilization. The history of translation theory is the historical record and witness of the origin and development of translation activities. It is an indispensable part in the process of translation studies and should be paid enough attention to. With the research results of translation theory history, this paper provides a clear and definite guidance for translation studies, thus promoting the vigorous development of translation activities.

===6. References===

Fang Wenhua方文华.(2005). "二十世纪中国翻译史" [History of Chinese Translation in the 20th Century]. "西北大学出版社" [Northwestern University Press].(02):200-203.

Chen Fukang陈福康.(1996). "中国译学理论史稿" [Historical Drafts of Chinese Translation Theory]. "上海外语教育出版社" [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].(03):320-321.

Cai Jie蔡杰.(2018). "概述中国翻译理论与实践的发展" [Summarize the Development of Chinese Translation Theory and Practice]. "课程研究" [Curriculum Research and Education].(G64):1-2.

Liu Danna刘丹娜.(2016). "西方翻译理论通史述评" [Commentary on the General History of Translation Theory in the West]. "语言研究" [Language Study].(18):1-3.

Zhang Yan张艳. (2011). "从范式理论评介中西翻译理论的发展" [A Study on the Development of Chinese and Western Translation Theory from the Paradigm Theory]. "大学英语" [College English]. (08):117-119.

Zou Yujuan邹雨娟. (2019). "中西翻译简史述评" [Commentary on the Brief History of Chinese and Western Translation]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (23):239-240

Fan Ningyu樊宁瑜.(2017). "西方翻译简史之浅析" [A Brief Analysis of the History of Western Translators]. "文史纵横" [Literature and History].(18):123.

Liang Dan梁旦.(2016). "中西翻译理论对比" [Comparison between Chinese and Western translation Theory]. "海外英语" [Overseas English]. (04):104-108.

Luo Hui罗辉.(2017). "浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义" [The Meaning of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History in Translation Research]. "语言文化" [Language and Culture]. (H059):198-199.

Zhao Shanshan赵珊珊.(2020). "翻译理论研究现状与趋势研究" [A Study on the Present Situation and Trend of Translation Theory Research]. "语言艺术研究" [The Study of Language Arts].(059):141-145.

==A Comparative Study of Translation Theory between Bell and Liu Zhongde 林鑫 Lin Xin 202020080617 英美文学==

<center>林鑫 Lin Xin </center>
===Abstract===
Roger T. Bell is recognized as a famous sociolinguist. As a linguist, Bell has framed his translation theories in terms of diagrams and models, and developed unique insights into translation issues. His main work on translation is "Translation and Translating:Theory and Practice". He objects seeing translating as evaluation of the product of translation, but stressing the importance of translation process.

Liu Zhongde is one of the most influential translation theory researchers and translators, and he has made great contribution to translation circle of theory as well as practice. Liu's research on translation theory is comprehensive and profound, and he not only pays attention to traditional Chinese translation theories, but also focuses on introducing and studying new western translation theories.

A comparison of Bell's and Liu's translation theories is useful for comparing the similarities and differences in their translation theories and providing references for the practice of translation theories.

===Key words===
Roger T. Bell; Liu Zhongde; Translation Theory; Comparative Study

===题目===
贝尔与刘重德翻译理论的比较研究

===摘要===
罗杰·贝尔是著名社会语言学家。作为一名语言学家，贝尔用图表和模型来构建他的翻译理论,并对翻译问题形成了独特的见解。他在翻译方面的主要著作是《翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践》。他反对把翻译看作是对翻译结果的评价，而是更加强调翻译过程的重要性。

刘重德是最具影响力的翻译理论研究者和翻译家之一，他对翻译界的理论以及实践都做出了巨大的贡献。刘重德对翻译理论的研究全面而深刻，他不仅重视中国传统的翻译理论,而且注重引进和研究西方新的翻译理论。

对贝尔和刘重德的翻译理论进行对比，有利于对比二者翻译理论中的异同，为翻译理论的实践提供借鉴和参考。

===关键词===
罗杰·贝尔；刘重德；翻译理论；比较研究

===1. Introduction===

====1.1 Introduction to Roger T. Bell's Translation Theory====
As a sociolinguist, Bell is characterized by applying linguistic method in translating. He is trying to set a model to explain and study the translating process, thus put the translator at the center instead of the product. The shift from emphasizing of the translated text to the call of paying attention to the process is significant. When the focus is on the process of translation, Bell inevitably put the translator at the centre of his translation study. From a functional linguistic perspective, Bell describes the translator's working process by using linguistics and psychology. He advocates an investigation of the psycholinguistic mechanisms of decoding and encoding in the context of bilingual rather than monolingual information exchange. He places the translator at the center, because the meaning and memory he discusses in his translation theory must be based on the translator, and it is on this basis that he builds his translation model.(Wu Yicheng Li Yingyuan 1998, 55)

Bell tries to be objective and modest. He gives examples of translation only to conduct the working mode of translating. He is a translation theorists, in my opinion, he studies the study of translation. Because he denies the importance of setting rules and maxims for translation and regards it as superficial. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged. He is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that this is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.(Bell 1987, 10-12)

====1.2 Introduction to Liu Zhongde's Translation Theory====

Critically inherited the translation principles proposed by Yan Fu, Liu Zhongde put forward the translation concept of "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "closeness". This means faithfulness in content, expressiveness in language, and closeness to the style of the original work. Yan Fu's translation concept is "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu thinks that if the original text is not elegant, then the translation couldn't be elegant. The two schools: school of science and school of art is influential in translation history. Liu Zhongde's thoughts about translation's essence: translation is of double nature-both a kind of science and an art. Moreover, this is proved and commonly greed by scholars in academic circle. Now many researchers are attempting to probe into translation more scientifically; translators are striving to translate literature works more artistically. (Mao Liyin 2011, 5)

However, we feel regretful that Mr. Liu passed away. Otherwise, he could have been keeping on with this meaningful work arduously. Fortunately, scholars are coming to some agreements on the double nature of translation activity. No matter which one of these two characteristics of translation outweighs the other, we at least confess that on one hand, translation can be discussed from the perspective of natural science, like psychology and physiology; on the other hand, translation can be probed from the perspective of social science, such as linguistics and sociology. Therefore, it can be concluded that Mr. Liu's qualitative research on translation was credible and useful; his opinion on the nature of translation was convincing: translation is both a science and an art.(Guo Meng 2010, 25)

===2. Comparative Study on Bell and Liu Zhongde's Translation Theory===

To do a comparative study on Bell and Liu Zhongde's translation thoery, firstly, it is necessary to take the background of their translation theory into consideration. Understanding the social background of their theory helps better understand what their translation theory is and focuses on. Though very different in study perspective, their thoughts towards translation and practice bear much similarities.This article compares the two people's translation theory in the nature of translation, principles of translation,literal or free translation and literary translation practices in poems.

====2.1 Comparison on Background of Translation Theory====
In the west, since the twentieth century, the phenomenon of translation has been increasingly examined and discussed from a scientific and especially linguistic perspective. Although there are still many misunderstandings and differences between traditional translation studies and linguistic translation studies (but the latter tend to prevail). The former often accuses the latter of being fanciful and out of touch with reality, while the latter considers the former as subjective, arbitrary and unscientific. According to Bell, the essential orientation of translation theory, in the English-speaking world in particular, is still towards the evaluation of translation as product.The situation at that time, however, is one in which translation theory has, for the most part, concentrated on the product to the exclusion of the process and has adopted a normative attitude to it by making inferences back to it through the description and evaluation of the product.(Bell 1987, 3)

The attempt to describe and explain the process and that the process itself is, essentially, mental rather than physical, according to Bell's explanation. Mental aspect here refers to the investigation within the discipline of psychology, or to be more specifically, studies of perception, information processing and memory within the cognitive science and psychological framework. There is no doubt that translation process crucially involves language. Bell draws on the resources of linguistics and, more precisely, those branches of linguistics which are concerned with the psychological and social aspects of language use: psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics. The first of these examines the process in the mind of the translator, the second places the source language text and target language text in their cultural contexts. Although Bell puts forward the importance of putting translation process in cultural contexts, in his "Translation and Translating: Process and Practice", he doesn't stress it in his models. He tells us the importance of cultural importance, but for how to practice it, he doesn't have a deep explanation. (Bell 1991, F30)

In China, There has also been a long debate between three basic principles are the of Yan Fu's "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu points out that elegance is actually only one of the styles, and translation cannot be uniformly elegant in their style. "Closeness" is a neutral word and it is applicable to various styles. Indeed, the original text is not elegant, so why translate it with elegance? The original poem is not elegant, so how can it be translated with elegance? The fundamental of translation is faithfulness. The content should be remained if the style is hard to copy.(Liu Zhongde 1991, 27-29)

Both Bell and Liu Zhongde critically and creatively tackle problems in translation and they try hard to make perfection, but they are different in their study perspectives, which is due to the difference of their times and social background. Bell is doing linguistic translation studies. In Bell's view, translation theorists almost invariably make little systematic use of contemporary linguistic techniques and perspectives, while linguists either despise translation theory or remain silent about translation studies. His translation mode is an effort and practice to conduct linguistic and psychological ideas in translation process. However, his translation theory does not give enough consideration to the cultural factor in translation activities, which is a hot topic that has gradually become more and more valued by translators. Liu Zhongde is not the first one who doubted about Yan Fu's translation principle, but he develops it and makes it objective and applicable, which is really thoughtful in this aspect.(Weng Tao 2008, 99-100)

====2.2 Comparison on Nature of Translation====
Bell conforms in the definition of regarding translation as "the expression in another language (or target language) of what has been expressed in another, source language, preserving semantic and stylistic equivalences".(Bell,1991:5）So translation can be regarded as the replacement of a representation of a text in one language by a representation of an equivalent text in a second language. Bell holds the view that "Essentially, a theory is judged on the extent to which it is externally and internally adequate. It must correspond with the data (which is external to itself) and also conform to particular (internal) design feature." (Bell 1991, 4-5)

As for the nature of translation, Bell makes comparisons between three different kinds of view. First, the view of translation as product, which means merely translated texts. This would require a study of texts not merely by means of the traditional levels of linguistic analysis syntax and semantics but also making use of stylistics and recent advances in discourse analysis. Second, the view of translation as both process and product, which means a theory of translating and translation. This would require the integrated study of both and such a general theory is, presumably, the long-term goal for translation studies. Third, the view of translation as process. He calls for a shift from only the product to paying attention to translation process. In translation, topics as perception, memory and the encoding and decoding of messages, happens at the same time. It is an information processing and would draw heavily on psychology and on psycholinguistics. (Bell 1991, 14)

His translation mode is based on linguistic and psychological analysis. Clearly, Bell knows that a theory of translation, to be comprehensive and useful, must attempt to describe and explain both the process and the product. But he regards it as a long-term goal for translation studies, which cannot be achieved at present. Bell thinks that overall schema is involved even at the beginning of the translation of a text. Translators shall be very cautious indeed and, on this occasion, try to be as “faithful” as possible to the conception of the original, and moreover to reproduce its forms and meanings, its style and temporal characteristics in a text. By "faithfulness", Bell here means the translation neither adds nor deletes content. (Bell 1991, 11)

As proposed in at the very beginning of “Ten Lectures on Literary Translation”, Liu Zhongde also proposed “translation” means “translating”, which refers to the process of translation, in which something is translated instead of the work translated. Liu Zhongde lists six definition of translation and he thinks they are all true in a specific angle, that is Translation is a science; Translation is an art; Translation is a craft; Translation is a skill; Translation is an operation; Translation is a language activity; Translation is communicating. The view that translation is a science represents the school of science. It holds the view that translating should reproduce the message of the original by means of the transformation of linguistic equivalence. The view that translation is an art represents the school of art. The school advocates recreating a literary work by using expressions of another language. It emphasizes the effect of translation.（Liu Zhongde 1991, 1)

Bell and Liu Zhongde agrees in that their translation all means translating, which means the focus on the process of translation rather than merely the product of translation. Their consensus in this aspect makes their translation theory is comparable in some aspects. Bell objects creating a set of normative maxims for the production of the ideal translation by means of such evaluation. What is proposed by him here is a shift of focus away from the translation as an artifact or a product towards translating as process. His translation is not putting prescriptive rules but offer descriptive linguistic options for translators to choose ad select. Bell thinks that translation should achieve equivalence. The equivalence is similar to Liu’s faithfulness in content. Both of them think that translation should neither deletes nor adds content, because translation is a process of representing the original text rather than creating the original text. Translation is not for showing off the translator’s artistic talent, so the mark of the translator should be reduced to the least necessity. For the lonely debated discussion of whether translation is science or art, obviously, Bell thinks translation is science and discusses it from linguistic perspective. However, Liu thinks translation is both science and art.(Mao Liyin 2011, 6)

====2.3 Comparison on Principles of Translation====
According to Bell, there are three principles in translation. Firstly, the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. And thirdly the Translation should have all the ease of original composition. However, it doesn't mean that he thinks that translation theory should be prescriptive. Actually, he thinks translation is essentially arbitrary norms of behavior. Nonnative prescriptions deriving directly from the subjective and evaluative description of the “good” translation. These prescriptive translating rules are like the rules of etiquette. Translators are told what they ought and ought not to do in particular translation circumstances. But very rarely, why they are to conform to these dictates, they have not been told the reason. The rules discussed in linguistics seek to be descriptive, a constitutive type. Bell's principles of translation is his effort of seeking descriptive rules in translation from a linguist view. (Bell 1991, 37)

The frequent assumption that the purpose of a theory of translation is to devise and impose prescriptive rules as a means of both regulating the process and evaluating the product. For Bell, his position is (when playing the role of a descriptive linguist), necessarily, the converse; he is in search of descriptive rules which help us to understand the process, not normative rules which we use to monitor and judge the work of others. The notion of the good translator is inherent in any discussion of translation. That, however, is only part of the specification we need. While we would reaffirm our desire not to subscribe to the notion of the good translation, which has dominated translation theory for two centuries, we would not allow our rejection of that position to lead us also to preclude the study of the good translator as one element of an integrated, interdisciplinary, multi-method and multilevel approach to the description of the process.(Bell 1991, 10)

According to Mr. Liu, faithfulness refers to the translation must express the profound meaning of the original. In terms of meaning, the translation must conform to the original text. Besides, the transmission of ideas is the most significant one in the principles of translation. There is no any controversy on this, which is determined by the function and characteristic of translation. Translation is the transformation between two languages, while it is the fact that meaning convection lies in the middle level, and culture transmission is in the depth of translation activity. Correct meaning convection is the basic assurance to the fulfillment of translation function. Therefore, the faithfulness at the content of the original texts by Mr. Liu should be actually “loyalty to the meaning of the original texts”. (Jiang Hongxin 2005, 65)

The faithfulness at the content lies in the correct convection of the meaning. Here is an example of Mr. Liu’s translation practice in two editions for the translation of Emma.

Me! I should be quite in the way. Miss Wood house looks as if she did not want me.”(2009:174)

“我！我会是十分不受欢迎的。但是也许——我在这里也同样不受欢迎。伍德豪斯小姐的神气，好像并不要我。”(Liu Zhongde,1982: 303)

“我！我会是十分不受欢迎的。但是也许——我在这里也同样不受欢迎。伍德豪斯小姐的神气，好像并不欢迎我。”（Liu Zhongde,1993:223）

The translation of “want” as “to be” in the 82nd edition is a direct translation that superficially fits the meaning of the original. The translation of "want" in the 82nd edition is a literal translation, which superficially conforms to the meaning of the original text and expresses the meaning of the English and Chinese languages very aptly. But in fact, it did not fit the context of the time and did not have the effect of expression. The translation of "want" as “welcome", on the other hand, reflects the meaning of the context in which the original text was spoken. The translation of "welcome" is apt, smooth and natural. (Mao Liyin 2011, 7)

Mr. Liu has discussed this translation principle to be as expressive as the original many times in different places. But this is a tough demand. One of the reasons is that there are too many differences between two languages, particularly in the structure of them. Just taking Chinese and English as an example, we will find that Chinese is a typical language depending on its structure. This bamboo-like structure makes Chinese language connect meaning by assembling one word after another in linear form. Conversely, English is grape-like-structure language, which transmits meaning by logical connection. Therefore, we must transform the structure of these two languages so as to translate them well. Otherwise, the translation we do will be unreadable: either loosing meaning or being difficult to be understood.This three-character principle proposed by Mr. Liu is the reflection of his staidness towards academic researches. He held his opinion on how researchers should look on the relationship between inheriting and developing in translation theory research circle. The proper attitude, according to Mr. Liu, should be “making best use of the old theories for reference; taking advantage of foreign thoughts to create”.(Jiang Jiansong 2003, 210)

====2.4 Comparison on Views of Literal Translation and Free Translation====

According to Bell's theory, the choice is between translating word-for-word (literal translation) or meaning-for-meaning (free translation). Pick the first and the translator is criticized for the "ugliness" of a faithful translation; pick the second and there is criticism of the inaccuracy of a "beautiful" translation. Bell doesn't show his personal preference between this two translation method. Actually, he thinks both literal translation and free translation is acceptable. Here Bell stresses the achievement of semantic and stylistic equivalence. The semantic and stylistic equivalence actually is hard to achieve since the source language and target language are much different in their forms. (Bell 1991, 7)

According to functional linguistic perspective, forms contain meaning. Languages are different from each other because they are different in form, thus having distinct codes and rules regulating the construction of grammatical stretches of language. These forms have different meanings. To shift from one language to another is, by definition, to alter the forms. There is even no absolute synonymy between words in the same language, let alone finding synonymy between languages. Furthermore, the contrasting forms convey meanings in two languages cannot but fail to coincide totally. The process of translating from one language to another language actually impair the source language. It is a loss or inappropriate gain for the source language. Something is always lost or gained in the process of translating and translators can find themselves being accused of reproducing only part of the original and so betraying the author's intentions. (Wu Yicheng Li Yingyuan 1998, 56)

Although it is a fallacy to achieve complete equivalence, texts in different languages can be equivalent in different degrees, either highly or partially equivalent.Here Bell bring in the definition of the term: the nature of equivalence for the conducting of semantic and stylistic equivalence. So the equivalence can be fulfilled in respect of different levels of presentation such as equivalent in respect of context, of semantics, of grammar, of lexis, etc. Moreover, it can also be equivalent at different ranks: word-for-word, phrase-for-phrase and sentence-for-sentence. If equivalence is to be preserved at a particular level at all costs, which level is it to be? What are the alternatives? The answer, it turns out, hinges on the dual nature of language itself. Language is a formal structure and also a code, which consists of elements which can combine to signal semantic sense and, at the same time, a communication system which uses the forms of the code to refer to entities (in the world of the senses and the world of the mind) and create signals which possess communicative value. The translator has the option, then, of focusing on finding formal equivalents which preserve the context-free semantic sense of the text at the expense of its context-sensitive communicative value or finding functional equivalents which preserve the context-sensitive communicative value of the text at the expense of its context-free semantic sense. (Bell 1997, 6-10)

The controversy over direct translation and paraphrase has always been a matter of great concern to Mr. Liu, who has put forward his own unique opinion on this issue: the two phenomena and methods of translation, direct translation and paraphrase, have been objectively proven by a large number of historical facts and cannot be denied. Both literal translation and paraphrase must basically be based on the unit of sentence translation and on the premise of successfully realizing the three principles of translation. Here are three versions of translation to a poem in "A Dream of Red Mansions".

《红楼梦》卷头诗

满纸荒唐言，

一把辛酸泪。

都云作者痴，

谁解其中味？

1.Liu Zhongde

The Prologue to A Dream of Red Mansions

Papers here are full of such words as sound queer,

Mixed with a handful of drops of bitter tear,

People, one and all, call the author insane ,

But who understands how his words one should explain?

2. David Hawkes:

Pages full of idle words

Penned with hot and bitter tears

All men call the author fool

None his secret message hears.

3. 杨宪益：

Pages full of fantastic talk

Penned with bitter tears

All men call the author mad

None his message hears.

Xu Yuanchong divided them into three schools: classical school, who translate poems in the form of classical poetry, represented by Giles; free school , who translate poems in the form of free verse, represented by Waley; and creative school, who creatively adapt the original into English, represented by Ezra Pound. According to my opinion, a translated poem should convey the content of the original poem and take the form of the original poem. Only a poem in translation that meets these two requirements can be considered the ideal translated poem. Liu is well aware of the difficulties, so in his technical treatment, he adds, "In most cases, free and literal translations should be used flexibly or in combination." It is obvious that Liu opposes the extreme of scientific translation which falls into dull and unintelligible, as well as the artistic translation which is detached from the original text and pursues the translator's self-expression. In his view, free translation and literal translation are two complementary methods of translation, and of course, literal translation is the main one, while free translation is the supplement, which can be used alternately if necessary.(Jiang Hongxin 2005, 64)

====2.5 Comparison on Literary Translation Practices in Poems====
Bell divided translation of poetry into three steps:
Firstly, the analysis of the source language text;
Secondly, the organization of the semantic representations of the individual clauses of the poem into an integrated schema which contains the whole of the information the reader has been able to accumulate in the course of reading the text;
Thirdly, the synthesis of the new target language text. There are plenty of alternatives and the strategic options available to the literary translator. (Bell 1991, 61)

They can be presented as the extremes of five continua:
(1)to reproduce either the forms (syntax and lexis) or the ideas (the semantic content) of the original;
(2)to retain the style of the original or adopt a different style; retain or abandon the source language form; for example, to translate a poem as a poem or as prose;
(3)to retain the historical stylistic dimension of the original or to render it in contemporary form; to translate Dante into Middle English or into modem English
(4)to produce a text which reads like an original or one which reads like a translation;
(5)to add or omit words, phrases, clauses. . . or to attempt to transfer everything from source to target text.(Bell 1991, 68)

Bell admits the importance of retaining style in translation, but Bell tries to be as objective as possible. He clarifies that the procedure is in no sense being suggested as the best or only way of tackling the text nor are the translations themselves offered as models. He intend to make no judgement, merely to work through the process, indicating, as we do so, what kinds of decision need to be made and what means we have at our disposal for making and realizing our decisions. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged, in a book which is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that This is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.(Bell 1991, 70)

Liu defines the characteristics of translated poetry in a macro way. He concisely summarizes the basic characteristics of poetry translation as poetry translation is not one's own creation, not the translator's own writing of poetry, and not borrowing ideas from the original poem to write poetry. The translation of poetry is obviously different from the creation of poetry. The translation of poetry is only a kind of reworked copy of the poem created by the translator after fully understanding the poet and expressing it again in another language. It goes without saying that in this process of reproduction, the translator inevitably has to exert creative labor in order to effectively and equivalently convey the content and style of the original poem, that is, the translator cannot be completely free from creation in the process of mental activity of translation, but, nevertheless, it is difficult to identify this mental activity as creation in the true sense of the word. (Guo Meng 2011, 9-13)

In the process and practice of poetry translation, Liu also stresses the importance of retaining the style. To show how style influence poetry, he cites a comparison between Li Bai and Du Fu, the style of the former is elegant and forceful and the later is profound and thoughtful. Liu pays much attention to the style of translation, and he compares an excellent translator to a good actor, who should reach the state of forgetfulness in the process of translation and be fully absorbed into the work.(Liu Zhongde 1991, 128)

He firmly holds that it is possible to translate poems though it is difficult to translate poems satisfactorily and successfully. As to the reason why poems are translatable, firstly, Liu said : “There exist many things in common among men. For instance, they all have the thinking powers to reason logically and the feelings to express joy or sorrow, love or hatred , and possess the same nature, world and universe no matter what races they may be. In other words, all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has the same function so that they can commune with one another. Poetry is a literary form by which poets express their thought and emotions. As a consequence, poetry, a product of the mind, is understandable, enjoyable and translatable.” Not only is poetry-translating possible, it is also necessary. Through poetry translating between Chinese and English, English and Chinese poetry have exerted mutual influence and as a result promoted the development of both. For example, Chinese classical poetry deeply influenced the school of imagism in the West, while Chinese new poetry was greatly inspired by West poetry. (Liu Zhongde 1988, 4-9)

Due to differences in language, social customs and cultural background, a translator of poetry, who should represent in another language the beauty of the original in meaning, sound and form, is confronted with many difficulties which may cause obstacles in understanding and expression. The difficulties will be discussed from three aspects. First, there exist linguistic differences in the two languages. From a grammatical perspective, English is a language which is in the main connected in grammar by hypotaxis whereas Chinese by parataxis. Secondly, difference in culture also adds to the difficulty of poetry translating. As English poetry and Chinese poetry take in different cultural backgrounds, some poems with particular cultural factors are extremely hard to handle in translating. For example, poets' selection of images in poems may vary. Concrete images are often used in Chinese poetry while some abstract images are often used in English poetry. Another example is the use of allusion in poetry. Poets sometimes expound their views and express emotions through historical incidents, fairy tales, legends and folk stories. Liu also adopts his new three-character principles to rendering poetry.(Liu Wenbin 1996, 295-298)

Liu Zhongde is an advocator of "rendering poetry as poetry". He puts forward views on three specific situations of poetry translating: translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, translation of English regular into Chinese and translation of English free verse into Chinese. As for the translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, Liu holds that the original meaning and artistic conception is most important and on the prerequisite that they are fully conveyed, we may try to reproduce the neatness of the original form and adopt the same or similar rhyme scheme as the original. If necessary, when it is difficult to translate a poem in rhyme, it can also be translated in a loose form, so as not to harm the meaning by rhyme. If the translation looks like a poem but has no poetic meaning, it is better to be in harmony with the appearance. It is much better to make people feel the interest of the original poem than to make it look like a poem. Finally, he believed that the ideal translation of poetry should be a translation of metrical poetry with metrical poetry.However, Liu also pointed out dialectically that one should not be absolute, and when necessary, when the meaning and artistic conception of the original poem must be preserved.(Liu Zhongde 1996, 31-33)

===3.Conclusion===
Bell's and Liu Zhongde's translation theory have many similarities. For the nature of translation, they both agree in translating, namely process, instead of products.Bell puts the focus on generalizing descriptive rules in process. In that way, Bell is trying to study the study of transtion. To understand the equivalence all his theory Bell thinks tranlation shouldn't delete or add content, which is similar to Liu's principle of "faithfulness" in translation. On the question whether translation is science or art, Bell agrees in the former while Liu combines school of science and school of art. The method of literal translation is weighed more by them when compared with free translation. However, Liu adds that when literal translation is difficult to achieve, it is also acceptable to apply free translation into practice. Liu thinks that the shift between literal translation and free tranlation can be flexible under different kinds of texts and styles.

Bell and Liu put their theory into practice in poetry's translation. However, the purpose for Bell's three steps and five schema is to prove the feasibility of his model theory. Though he uses it as an example, which is quite specific. He thinks that poetry translation should be like a poem. That is to say the translated poem should also be made to have a certain poetic form and a certain rhyme scheme and rhythm. He vividly represents the whole translating process and suggests translators should choose from many versions to figure out the closest translation. Bell is tryinng to be objective, so he doesn't give advice on how to achieve "good" translation. He firmly believe that the judgement should be made by translators, tranlator-trainers and readers. Liu's view is not so general but more specific.He thinks poetry translation sometimes can be difficult, but not untranslatable. He gives his preference to poetey which is faithful to the original text.

By comparising Bell's translation theory with Liu Zhongde's, it is found that Bell's translation theory seems to be more objective but less applicable. With a systematic linguistic model, Bell attempts to describe the translation process and the knowledge and skills that translators should acquire. He also apply psychological and information-theoretic models to describe the workings of the translator's brain during the translation process. The effort he makes is based on his hope that these models he created will eventually become a theoretical and practical model for translation research in the broad field of applied linguistics.

If we generalize Liu's translation theory as a summary of translation problems and methods to tackle with it. Then obviously, Bell's research is undoubtedly more difficult than the summary of translation experience or the analysis of translated works. Though whether the model he tries to create really reflects the mental activity of translators in the translation process remains to be further studied. We cannot expect one theoretical model to solve all translation phenomena and all the problems encountered by translators, but Bell's innovative attempt to break through the traditional translation theoretical model and establish a scientific research model is worthy of recognition. His views and model can at least provide useful references for translator's in-depth study of translation phenomena.

===Reference===
Bell, Roger T. Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman.(1991)

Bell, Roger T. Translation Theory: Where Are We Going?. Meta (1987).

Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "文学翻译十讲"[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation].1991.

Jiang Hongxin.蒋洪新. "刘重德翻译理论与实践研究"[A Study of Liu Chongde's Translation Theory and Practice]. 外国语第四期[The fouth edition on Jounal of Foreign Language]. 2005:62-67.

Wu Yicheng.Li Yingyuan.吴义诚,李英垣. "贝尔的《翻译与翻译过程:理论与实践》评介"[Review of Bell's Translation and the Translation Process:Theory and Practice].中国翻译(第五期)[The fifth edition on Chinese Translation]. 1998:55-56.

Mao Liyin.毛利尹. "刘重德翻译观研究"[J].[A Study of Liu Chongde's View of Translation]. 传奇:传记文学选刊(第五期)[Legend: Selected Biographical Literature]. 2011:5-7.

Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "论译诗(上)——《中国古诗汉英比译五十三首》序"[J][On the translation of poems (above)--Preface to "Fifty-three Chinese ancient poems in Chinese and English"]. 现代外语(第二期)[Modern Foreign Languages]. 1996:26-30.

Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "论译诗(下)——《中国古诗汉英比译五十三首》序"[J][On the translation of poems (below)--Preface to "Fifty-three Chinese ancient poems in Chinese and English"]. 现代外语(第三期)[Modern Foreign Languages]. 1996:31-33.

Liu Wenbin.刘文彬. "刘重德教授的译诗观"[Professor Liu Zhongde's View on Translating Poetry].中国英汉语比较研究会第二次全国学术研讨会论文集[Proceedings of the Second National Symposium of the Chinese Society for Comparative English and Chinese Studies]. 1996;293-299.

Weng Tao.翁涛. "罗杰·贝尔的翻译理论在汉译英中的应用"[Application of Roger Bell's Translation Theory in Chinese to English Translation]. 大学英语(学术版) [University English] (Academic Edition). 2008:99-101.

Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "翻译原则刍议"[Rumination on Translation Principles]. 中国翻译(第四期）[The fourth period on Chinese Translation]. (1983):9-13.

Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "文学风格翻译问题商榷"[The Question of Literary Style Translation]. 中国翻译（第二期）[Chinese Translation]. (1988):4-9.

Guo Meng.郭猛. "刘重德翻译思想研究"[D][A Probe into Liu Zhongde's Translation Thoughts]. 天津理工大学[Tianjin University of Technology]. 2011.

Jane Austen.简·奥斯汀. 《爱玛》[M][Emma]. 上海:上海世界图书出版公司[Shanghai: Shanghai World Book Publishing Company]. 2009.

Jane Austen. Translated by Liu Zhongde.奥斯汀.爱玛[M][Emma].刘重德译. 桂林:漓江出版社[Guilin: Lijiang Publishing House]. 1982.

Jane Austen. Translated by Liu Zhongde.奥斯汀.爱玛[M][Emma].刘重德译. 广州:广州花城出版社[Guangzhou: Guangzhou Huacheng Publishing House]. 1993.

Jiang Jiansong.Peng Liyuan.蒋坚松,彭利元. 刘重德翻译思想及其他[Liu Chongde's Translation Thought and Others]. 湖南：湖南师范大学出版社[Hunan: Hunan Normal University Press]. 2003.

==A Comparative Study of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect 罗维嘉 Luo Weijia 202070080600 MTI==

<center>罗维嘉 Luo Weijia</center>

===Abstract===

Since the introduction of Nida’s translation theory into China in the 1980s, Jin Di, a Chinese translation scholar, has explored the applicability of “dynamic equivalence” to literary translation between English and Chinese. And on the basis of Nida’s theory he formulated his own theory of “equivalent effect”. When Jin was translating James Joyce’s ''Ulysses'', he put his theory into practice. Jin’s translation practice as well as his exploration of “dynamic equivalence” provides us a good chance to further scrutinize some aspects of Nida’s theory and its application to English-Chinese literary translation. By studying Jin’s theory and his Chinese translation of ''Ulysses'', we will examine the applicability of Nida’s theory to literary translation between Chinese and English. A comparative study on Nida’s theory and Jin’s theory is also made to reveal the differences and similarities between the two theories.

===Key words===

dynamic equivalence; equivalent effect; Eugene Nida; Jin Di

===题目===
A Comparative Study of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect

===摘要===

自20世纪80年代奈达的翻译理论传入中国以来，中国翻译学者金堤开始探索“动态对等”在英汉文学翻译中的适用性。在奈达理论的基础上，他形成了自己的“等效理论”。金堤的《尤利西斯》翻译实践以及他对“动态对等”翻译理论的探索为我们进一步审视奈达理论及其在英汉文学翻译中的应用提供了良好机会。通过对金堤理论及其汉译《尤利西斯》的研究，我们将分析奈达动态对等理论对中英文学翻译的适用性。通过对奈达与金堤理论的比较研究，揭示两者的异同。

===关键词===

动态对等；等效理论；尤金·奈达；金堤

===Introduction===

Prior to his reception of Nida’s theory, Jin had already been an experienced translator and formed his own views about translation. Jin spelled out how he looked at the nature of translation and the gist of his argument was that “translating must meet requirements of accuracy and smoothness” (Jin Di 1998, 119). Evidently, Jin regarded the combination of accuracy and smoothness as a translation criterion and smoothness played a very important role in accomplishing the goal of accuracy in translating. We can see that before Jin’s reception of Nida’s theory, his focus was still on the old debate over faithfulness and smoothness, which began in the 1930s and continued to the late 1970s.

Before Jin knew Nida’s theory, he had already noticed the important role of target readers in translating in his years of translation experience. When discussing how to achieve the objective of accuracy and smoothness at the same time, he mentioned more than once the close relationship between accuracy and target readers. He wrote:

"A translation should be smooth and natural so that target readers do not feel big gaps between the two languages concerned. Accuracy and smoothness as a translation standard are like two sides of a coin, and one cannot be separated from the other. If the reader cannot understand the so-called “accurate” translation and do not know what it means, there is of little significance for such “accuracy”. If the translator only pays attention to smoothness in his work, but ignores the consistency between the original text and the translated text, his translation is not legitimate (Jin Di 1998, 119). "

Evidently, Jin shared similar views with Nida about the role of target readers in translating. This paved the way for his ready reception of “dynamic equivalence” as soon as he got in touch with it in the late 1970s.

===Introduction of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect===

====Nida's Translation Theory of Dynamic Equivalence====

“Dynamic equivalence” is a key concept in Nida’s translation theory. The essential idea of “dynamic equivalence” is first mentioned by Nida in his article “Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating” (Nida, Eugene A. 1959, 326). In his attempt to define translating, Nida writes:

"A definition of translating... could be stated as follows: "Translating consists in producing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent to the message of the source language, first in meaning and secondly in style." (Nida, Eugene A. 1975, 33)

In Toward a Science of Translating (1964) Nida distinguishes two types of equivalence and first postulates his concept of “dynamic equivalent” translation as follows:

"In such a translation (dynamic equivalent translation) one is not so concerned with matching the receptor-language message with the source-language message, but with the dynamic relationship, that the relationship between receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and the message (Nida, E. A. 1964, 159)."

In this book, Nida also proves the legitimacy of dynamic equivalent translation from the viewpoint of information theory and communication theory. However, he does not give a clear definition of " dynamic equivalence" until 1969. In his 1969 textbook The Theory and Practice of Translation, “dynamic equivalence" is defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language" (Nida, E. A. 1969, 24)

In From One Language to Another (De Waard, Jan and E. A. Nida 1986), the expression “dynamic equivalence is superseded by "functional equivalence". But essentially there is not much difference between the two concepts. The substitution of " functional equivalence is just to stress the concept of function and to avoid misunderstandings of the term dynamic", which is mistaken by some persons for something in the sense of impact. In Language, Culture and Translating (1993), “functional equivalence " is further divided into categories on two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level. The minimal level of “functional equivalence" is defined as " The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it". The maximal level is stated as "The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did" (Nida, E. A. 1993, 118; 1995, 224). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level is ideal. For Nida, good translations always lie somewhere between the two levels (Nida, E. A. 1995, 224). Clearly, “functional equivalence" is a flexible concept with different degrees of adequacy.

In Nida's theory, " dynamic equivalence" is defined with “receptors' response" as its nature. Unlike traditional translation theories, which focus on verbal comparison between the original text and its translation, Nida's concept of translating shifts from "the form of the message" to " the response of the receptor. Thus, the importance of receptors' role in translating is emphasized. In Nida's view, when determining whether a translation is faithful to the original text or not, the critic should not compare the formal structures between the source text and its translation but compare "receptors' response". If he finds that the reader in the receptor language understands and appreciates the translated text in essentially the same manner and to the same degree as the reader in the source language did, such a translation can be evaluated as a dynamic equivalent translation. That is to say, the critic should judge a translation not by verbal correspondence between the two texts in question, but by seeing how the receptor, for whom the translated text is intended, reacts to it. Nida likens his theory of “readers' response to market research. When judging a product, one should test how consumers react to the product, for “regardless of how theoretically good a product might be or how seemingly well it is displayed, if people do not respond favorably to it, then it is not going to be accepted” (Nida and Taber 1969, 162). Similarly, in evaluating a translation, when a high percentage of people misunderstand a rendering, or find it difficult to understand, the critic cannot regard it as a legitimate translation (Nida and Taber 1969, 2). Nida's theory of “readers' response” emphasizes the importance of the acceptance of a translated text by the intended reader in the receptor language and avoids the subjective evaluation of the critic.

"Dynamic equivalence" has been widely adopted by Bible translators since the 1950s and has been successful. Its value, however, is not merely restricted to Bible translation. Some scholars agree that “dynamic equivalence” can be used to guide general translation practice. Jin Di claims that the principle of " equivalent effect", a modified dynamic equivalence, is applicable to all translation practice (Jin Di 1995). Newmark considers the principle of “equivalent effect” an important concept in translating with reservation. He states that “equivalent effect is the desirable result, rather than the aim of any translation...it is an important concept which has a degree of application to any type of text, but not the same degree of importance... in the communicative translation of vocative texts, equivalent effect is not only desirable, it is essential” ( Jin Di 1988, 48). But some scholars express their doubts about the application of “dynamic equivalence” to translation practice, especially literary translation. I suggest that Nida’s theory has practical significance for literary translation in some aspects, but it is a fact that it fails to address the issue of transferring aesthetic values of literary work in literary translation.

====Jin Di's Translation Theory of Equivalent Effect====

Jin Di is renowned for his translation theory of “equivalent effect” and his Chinese version of ''Ulysses''. His theoretical study on translation and translation activity contribute a lot to the development of contemporary translation studies. In this section Jin’s theory of “equivalent effect”will be concentrated, for a survey of Jin’s theory may give us insight into some aspects of Nida’s theory and its application to literary translation.

When Nida’s theory was introduced into China, Jin studied intensively Nida’s works on translation and endeavored to apply “dynamic equivalence” to his Chinese-English translation practice. In ''On Translation'': with special reference to Chinese and English (Jin Di 1984, with Nida), Jin basically adopted Nida's “dynamic equivalence”, which was defined in terms of a dynamic relationship, namely, “the relation of target language receptors to the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptors and the original text” (Jin Di 1984, 85, with Nida). As the first author, Jin furnished many convincing examples from his experience as a translator and proved that “dynamic equivalence” could provide practical help for translators in dealing with many difficulties in translating from English into Chinese and from Chinese to English. In fact, this book was acclaimed as “a masterpiece of combination of Nida’s translation theory with Chinese translation practice”. (Lao Long 1987, 56)

When Jin made a further study on Nida's theory, he discerned some biblical elements in it which were not applicable to general translation practice. As a result, a discrepancy appeared between Jin and Nida. According to Jin, when Nida talked about the relationship between message and receptors, he did not make any distinction between “impact” and “response”. For instance, Nida sometimes said“the impact of the message upon the receptors” and sometimes claimed “the receptors’ response to the message”. In Jin's view, Nida further highlighted the term “response” both in his definition of “dynamic equivalence” and his explanation of it. Jin argued that this was because Nida's theory was intended to guide Bible translating for evangelism, and the ultimate purpose of Bible translating was to make receptors “respond to the translated message in action” (Jin Di 1998, 17-18). Thus, according to Jin, the concept of “response” in Nida's theory was not suitable for a theory of general translation. Jin explained:

"In terms of the nature of language behavior, the impact of a translation upon receptors and receptors' response or reaction to the translation belong to opposite directions. Although receptors' response could be used as an important feedback to evaluate how the receptors understand and appreciate the translation to some extent, and the translator could test the quality of his translation according to receptors' response, such activity occurs only after the translation is completed. Since each receptor's response and reaction involve a number of subjective and objective personal factors, it is unnecessary for us to explore these factors in our study of translation process. Hence, in our discussion the term “effect refers to the impact of the translated message upon the receptors.” instead of the receptors’ response. (Jin Di 1998, 18)"

This was the reason why Jin modified Nida's “dynamic equivalence” and put forward his own theory of “equivalent effect”. Jin also gave specific definition of his principle of “equivalent effect”. He wrote:

"The objective of an equivalent effect translation is that although the form of a translated text may be different from that of the original text, the receptor-language reader can obtain a message as substantially the same as the source-language reader does from the original, including main spirit, concrete facts and artistic imagery. This is what I mean by an equivalent effect translation or similar effect translation (Jin Di 1998, 40)."

In Jin's view, only when the three essential factors (“main spirit", “concrete facts" and “artistic imagery”) of the original were successfully reproduced in the receptor language could a translation be termed as a translation of equivalent effect. He admitted that it was not always possible for the translator to produce" main spirit", " concrete facts" and "artistic imagery" at the same time, and necessary semantic adjustments should be made on condition that the main spirit of the original was better represented in the translation (Jin Di 1998, 20).

In short, the delimitation of the concept of “effect” as “impact” instead of “response”, and the emphasis on the reproduction of the three factors constitute Jin's theory of “equivalent effect”. We can see that Jin has attempted to improve Nida's “dynamic equivalence” in order to make it more applicable to general translation practice, especially literary translation.

In the 1990s, Jin further developed his theory of " equivalent effect" with insights gained from his translation experience of ''Ulysses''. In his article, “Translating Spirit” (1996), he borrowed two characters from Yan Fu's three-character translation principle (“faithfulness , expressiveness and elegance”) and advanced his theory of “faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit” (信、达、神韵). The term “spirit” in Jin's theory was used in a broad sense, indicating various artistic styles of literary works (Jin Di 1998, 162).

Jin's redefinition of the three-character principle was another way to describe his theory of “equivalent effect”. He elaborated:

"The three-character principle of “faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit” indicates faithful representation of the fundamental facts, transference of effect and reproduction of artistic style respectively. I think the goal of making the translated text similar to the original text in the above mentioned three aspects is what I strive for in the art kingdom of translation (Jin Di 1998, 162)."

In recent years Jin began to put more emphasis on the " reproduction of artistic style" , and tried to develop his theory of “equivalent effect” by making use of Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism. It seemed that Jin's theory deviated away from Nida's theory. One may ask, what accounts for such a change? According to Jin, this was because Nida, having changed his theory from “dynamic equivalence” to “functional equivalence”, no longer took the principle of “equivalent effect” as a translation objective (Wang Zhenping 2000, 56). The real reason is that Nida's theory fails to adequately address the problem of transference of aesthetic values in literary translation; while Jin, having attempted to solve it, has to absorb Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism, where discussions about stylistic or aesthetic effects and their transference are abundant. The evolution of Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” reveals his continuous effort to make Nida's theory applicable to literary translation as well as the inadequacy of Nida's theory in guiding literary translation.

===Similarities and Differences===
====Similarities between the Two Theories====
There are several similarities between the two theories. “The relation of target language receptors to the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptors and the original text”(Jin Di and Nida 1984,85). Such relationship indicates that translating is not completed unless the translated message is received by the reader in the receptor language in substantially the same manner as the original message is received by the original reader. As we can see, they both emphasized three important concepts of "receptor", "effect" and "equivalence". Jin Di's equivalent effect theory is close to Nida's dynamic equivalence theory, and their views on translation methods are basically consistent with their understanding of equivalent translation.

==== Differences between the Two Theories and the Reasons====

What are the differences between Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” and Nida’s “dynamic equivalence” except that the concept of effect in Jin's theory refers to “impact” rather than“ response”? Jin held that he basically adapted Nida's translation principles, and only made some adjustments in respect of some biblical elements which he found to have originated from religious and particularly missionary demands, and removed a certain residue of the old “free translation” tendency in Nida's theory (Nida, 1998). But this is only part of the problem. ln this section we will concentrate on the differences between the two theories from three aspects.

=====Reader-Oriented vs. Text-Oriented=====

“Dynamic equivalence” pays more attention to the target readers, while Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” attaches more importance to the original text. This distinction can be revealed by the definitions of the two translation principles. “Dynamic equivalence” is defined in terms of readers' response. For Nida, to measure “dynamic equivalence”, one should “only rightly compare the equivalence of response”(Nida 1969, 23). Jin's equivalent effect translation, however, requires reproduction of the “main spirit”, “concrete facts” and “artistic imagery” of the original text. Nida's focus on readers' response allows necessary linguistic adjustments. For example, if the expression “white as snow” was rendered into a language that had no corresponding word for “snow”, Nida suggested that the translator could replace it with comparable idioms, such as “white as egret feathers” in the receptor language. In Nida's view, such rendering was a dynamic equivalent translation, for it was functionally equivalent to “white as snow”(Nida 1964, 171-172). According to Jin's theory of “equivalent effect”, however, this rendering of “white as egret feathers” for “white as snow” was not a translation of equivalent effect, for the concrete fact “snow” was not reproduced in the receptor language.

Another example to illustrate Jin's adherence to the concrete fact of the original text is about the rendering of “butter for fish” in his Chinese version of ''Ulysses'':
(1)-And so say all of us, says Jack.
-Thousand a year, Lambert, says Crofton or Crawford.
-Right, says Ned, taking up his John Jameson. And butter for fish. （U12）

-我们大家也都这样说，杰克说。
-一年一千，兰伯特，克罗夫顿或是克罗福德说。
-对，内德拿起自己的约翰.詹姆森威士忌说。吃鱼有黄油。(金译第12章)

The original describes a scene of toast in a drinking party among common Irishmen. In “REVIEWS: ULYSSES, by James Joyce, translated by Jin Di”(Jin Di 1995), Dr. Kun-liang Chuang expressed his views about Jin's translation of the phrase“Butter for fish”:

“Butter for fish,”according to Don Gifford and Robert J. Seidman, is a lower class Dublin toast, also meaning “wealth and good fortune.” Jin's literal, word-for-word translation, “吃鱼有黄油”(pronounced chi yu you huang you) which is definitely not a common Chinese expression, creates more bewilderment than understanding for his Chinese readers. In fact, the Irish toast, “fish for butter”(sic) has a Chinese equivalent, “干杯” (pronounced gan bei). I believe that, in some cases, an appropriate annotation that explains cultural life is needed in terms of slang translation. In Jin's case here, the playfulness of the "toast" is lost in his loyalty to simple verbal equivalence (Chuang, Kun-liang 1995, 765).

Judging by the concept of “dynamic equivalence” , I think Chuang' s suggestion “干杯” for “butter for fish” is adequate. However, Jin did not think so. In his opinion, Chuang disregarded the transference of the concrete fact in the original text, and such translation could not achieve a translational equivalence, though it might attain a pragmatic equivalence (Jin Di 1998, 22). We can see that Jin is unwilling to sacrifice the content for the intelligibility of the translated text to the average target reader, who has not enough background knowledge to understand the implied meanings of the translated message.

Some people held a similar view with Jin. For example, Wang Zhenping said that Jin's rendering “吃鱼有黄油”was justified, because the Chinese reader learn Irish culture when reading this version. Wang argued that if the translator put the three toasts in the dialogue above into “干杯” , the original language variation would be spoiled and the reader be deprived of a chance of learning typical Irish culture and of understanding Joyce (Wang, Zhenping 2000, 35). In my opinion, Wang has pushed his argument to the extreme. If a toast, such as “Thousand a year”, is not a hindrance for the average readers to understanding, there is no reason to render it into “干杯”. This could be verified with Chuang's another suggestion of putting the English saying "[y]ou cannot eat your cake and have it as “鱼与熊掌，不可兼得”(Chuang, Kun-liang 1995, 764) instead of Jin's rendering “一块蛋糕，你不能又吃又拿”(Jin Di 1994, 311). In terms of naturalness and forcefulness, Chuang's suggestion is acceptable. Just as Lin Yuzhen commented, Jin's literal rendering was not so direct and forceful as Chuang's version (Jin Di 1996, 166). Besides, for average Chinese readers, who have little knowledge of Irish culture, it is difficult to understand the specific cultural meaning of “吃鱼有黄油”without the help of any annotation. Yuen Ren Chao, the noted Chinese linguist, expressed his views about a similar case in translating:

“A very important dimension of fidelity which translators often neglect is comparability in frequency of occurrence, or the relatively familiarity of the expressions in the original text and the translation. Too great a discrepancy in this respect will affect fidelity, even though the translation is accurate in other respects. As it is well-known in information theory, the less often a thing is talked about, the more it means to talk about it. Sometimes the very things one talks about may be a familiar thing in one culture and strange and exotic in another. In such a case, if the thing is the main topic of the discourse, it cannot be helped. . . However, in cases where a familiar expression is used casually as a figure of speech, then sometimes a translation by a different figure of speech of the same import but with a comparable degree of familiarity will result in a higher degree of overall fidelity than an apparently faithful translation which is very unfamiliar. For example, to speak of reaching the third base might be rendered, in Chinese, as reaching the “listening stage” in a game of mahjong, where the apparently “free” translation has greater fidelity, because it is a better match in the frequency of occurrence.”

Chao's view about fidelity is dialectical and comprehensive. In fact, it is in accord with Nida's “dynamic equivalence”. To Chao, whether or not naturalizing translation was adopted should depend on the context. If a figure of speech was the main topic of a discourse, the translator should faithfully reproduce it into the receptor language. If it was used in a casual way, it could be replaced with an idiomatic equivalent in the receptor language (such as Nida's suggestion of “white as snow” into “white as egret feathers”, or Liu Zhongde's “as lean as a rake” into “骨瘦如柴”). Jin's disapproval shows that he tends to be text-oriented both in theory and practice.

===== Flexible vs. Inflexible=====
Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is more flexible than Jin's theory of“equivalent effect”. A dynamic equivalent translation tends to be a type of free translation, while Jin's equivalent effect translation tends to be a literal translation, though such a classification is made in a quite loose manner. Jin's literal tendency is clearly reflected in the reviews about his Chinese version of ''Ulysses'' by some critics. Liu Junping stated that in translating ''Ulysses'' , “Jin insisted on literal translation and paid more attention to the transference of the form of the original text. As a result, his version was stiff to a certain degree in respect of language expression” (Liu Junping 1997, 35). Wang Yougui expressed a similar view in stating that Jin's translation was “like a leech, adhering closely to the original text” (Wang Yougui 1998, 69). In an interview Jin himself admitted that his translation was not so flexible as Nida's dynamic equivalent translation:

“Wang: ... Briefly speaking, the discrepancy between your theory and Nida's theory is that you put more emphasis on loyalty to the original text and the writer, and Nida is more flexible in translating. Do you agree with me?

Jin: Yes. The scope of flexibility in Nida's theory is much greater. That is to say, according to Nida, the translator is not required to adhere closely to the original text. This is because his theory is to guide Bible translation, and his translation purpose is to make people believe in Christianity. So Nida holds that the most important thing in translating is not words or content, but “receptors' response”, namely, their belief in Christianity. In my opinion, such a view is not suitable for literary translation. What I strive for is “effect”,i.e. the impact of the translation upon its readers is similar to the impact of the original text upon its readers (Wang Zhenping 2000, 56).”

In Jin's view, a literary translation must adhere closely to the original text. As long as the three factors of the original text, namely, the “main spirit”, “concrete facts” and “artistic imagery”, are faithfully reproduced, an equivalent effect can be achieved. Evidently, Jin's theory of “equivalent effect is less flexible than Nida's “dynamic equivalence”. To illustrate this point, we may look at some examples from Jin's Chinese version of ''Ulysses'':

(2) Steak, kidney, liver, mashed at meat fit for princes sat princes Bloom and Goulding. Princes at meat they raised and drank Power and cider. (U11)

V1牛排、腰子、肝、马铃薯泥，可供王侯享用的菜肴，坐着享用的王侯是布卢姆和古尔丁。两位用餐的王候，他们举杯喝酒，帕尔威士忌和苹果酒。(金译第11章）

V2布卢姆和古尔丁俨然像王候一般坐下来，牛排、腰子、肝、土豆泥，吃那顿适宜给王侯吃的饭。他们像进餐中的王侯似的举杯而饮鲍尔威士忌和苹果酒。（萧、文译第11章）

Comparing the two versions with the original text, we can find that Jin's version sticks closely to the English syntax, while the Xiao's version reconstructs the original sentences according to normal Chinese syntactical structure. In Jin's version, the objects“牛排、腰子、肝、马铃薯泥” is placed before the verb“坐着”, and the subjects“布卢姆和古尔丁”are placed at the end of sentence; while in the Xiao's version the normal Chinese syntactical structure “Subject + Verb” is adopted.

(3) By the sandwichbell in screening shadow, Lydia her bronze and rose, a lady's grace, gave and withheld: as in cool glaucous eau de Nil Mina to tankards two her pinnacles of gold.

V1 网状阴影中的三明治罩旁站着莉迪亚，古铜衬玫瑰，贵妇风度，欲授又止:同时在清凉的淡湖色的eau de Nil中，米娜的金色高髻向着啤酒缸子两只。（金译第11章）

V2在帘子的遮荫下，钟形三明治容器旁边，莉迪亚胸前插了朵玫瑰。一头褐发淑女的娴雅派头，忽隐忽现; 而头发挽成高髻、沉浸在冰凉而银光闪闪的一片淡绿蓝色中的米娜，在两位举着大酒杯的顾客面前也是这样。（萧、文译第11章）

In this example, Jin's version adheres so closely to the original text that it is difficult for the average Chinese reader to understand such expressions as “古铜衬玫瑰” and“欲授又止”. Moreover, one can recognize at first sight that“向着啤酒缸子两只”is a word-for-word translation even if he does not read the original text. Owing to Jin's inflexibility, some renderings of his Chinese version ''Ulysses'' appear unnatural and awkward.

=====Ideal Objective vs. Realistic Goal=====

Some scholars have assumed that Nida's “dynamic equivalence”and Jin's principle of “equivalent effect”are ideal goals, which could not be realized in translating. However, such assertion is too simplistic. In fact, Jin's translation objective is ideal while Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is far more than an ideal goal. Jin emphasized more than once that an equivalent effect translation was an ideal aim, for which the translator must strive in his work. In “Where Is the Spirit of Ulysses?” (Jin Di 1996), Jin stated that an equivalent effect translation was “an ideal objective”. Though there was no perfect translation, it was desirable for a serious translator to work at it (Jin Di 1998, 214). In “What is a Perfet Translation” (Jin Di 1997), he even summarized that “the theory of equivalent effect” was an attempt to define the ideal of the non-existent perfect translation and to explore the approach to approximating it in practice, i.e. t producing a rendition as close to the ideal as possible” (Jin Di 1998, 229). Jin's theory, like Chinese traditional translation theories, is really an ideal translation standard.

However, Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is not an ideal criterion. As we all know that Nida's attitudes toward “dynamic equivalence” / “ functional equivalence” were different from phase to phase. In phase one (1959-1964), Nida simply described the features of two basic translation equivalences: “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence”, and did not point out which equivalence was better. Dynamic equivalent translations were not always good, while formal equivalent translations were not always bad. Rather, some formal equivalent translations were“often perfectly valid translations of certain types of messages for certain types of audiences” , and some dynamic equivalent translations were likely to obscure “the intent of the original” (Nida 1964, 166, 191-192). Both dynamic equivalent translations and formal equivalent translations could be achieved in actual translating. Furthermore, between strict formal equivalence and complete dynamic equivalence, there were“a number of intervening grades, representing various acceptable standards of literary translating” ( Nida 1964: 160). There were also “varying degrees” of dynamic equivalent translations. For example, according to Nida, both J. E. Philips' rendering “a hearty handshake” and “brotherly kiss” in the Today's English Version were dynamic equivalent translations. The difference between the two renderings was only a matter of degree.

A dynamic equivalent translation did not mean that the more a translation approached the original text, the better it was. In fact, there was no such thing as the best dynamic equivalence. If a dynamic equivalent translation went to extremes, the very freedom of form tended to distort the original message as well (Nida 1964, 191-192). For Nida "dynamic equivalence" was not an ideal objective, but just one of the basic types of equivalence, which had varying degrees.

In phase two (1969-1984), Nida discussed "dynamic equivalence" in opposition to "formal correspondence". During this period, he suggested that "dynamic equivalence" was a good translation, in which the form was restructured to preserve the same meaning, whereas "formal correspondence" and "paraphrase" were bad translations, for the former preserved the form but distorted the meaning of the original text, and the latter had addition, deletion, or skewing of the message in the translated text (Nida and Taber 1969, 173). Though Nida in this phase considered dynamic equivalent translations good, he did not take it as an ideal goal for which the translator must strive in his work. This could be verified with his attitudes towards the following three renderings of a verse in the Hebrew text of the Bible:

KJV:
I returned, and saw under the sun, that the race is not to the swift, nor the battle to the strong, neither yet bread to the wise, nor yet riches to men of understanding, nor yet favour to men of skill; but time and chance happeneth to them all. (Ecclesiastes9, 11)

TEV:
I realized another thing, that in this world fast runners do not always win the races, and the brave do not always win the battles. Wise men do not always earn a living, intelligent men do not always get rich, and capable men do not always rise to high positions. Bad luck happens to everyone. (Ecclesiastes 9, 11)

NEB (The New English Bible):
One more thing I have observed here under the sun; speed does not win the race nor strength the battle. Bread does not belong to the wise, nor wealth to the intelligent, nor success to the skillful; time and chance govern all. (Ecclesiastes9, 11)

Both renderings of the NEB and of the TEV were considered by Nida as "dynamic equivalent" translations, though they were at two quite distinct rhetorical levels. The NEB "preserved more the aphoristic style of the passage "while the TEV" adopted a style more characteristic of modern-day practical philosophy". The NEB was "semantically more condensed", while the TEV was expanded with "sufficient redundancy". This was because the former was intended to be read by readers themselves, and the latter was for people who heard the scriptures. "It is essentially for this reason that one can justify two different types of dynamic equivalent translations designed primarily for two rather different purposes" (Jin Di and Nida 1984, 87-89). It is safe for us to say that dynamic equivalent translations are not those that are closest to the original text in lexicon and grammar. Rather, depending on the readers for whom the translation is made, there are more than one dynamic equivalent translations.

At phase three (1984-), " functional equivalence" was divided into two levels of equivalence: the maximal level and the minimal level. The maximal level was an ideal, but Nida did not suggest that the translator must take it as an aim to work at. On the contrary, he claimed that this maximal level of equivalence was "rarely, if ever, achieved, except for text having little or no aesthetic value and involving only routine information" (Nida 1993, 118). In Nida's view, such an ideal goal could only be achieved in certain limited types of texts, and it was impossible to attain such an objective in literary translation. In brief, a functional equivalent translation was not an ideal goal that the translator must pursue in their work. Rather, it had "different degrees of adequacy" from minimal to maximal level and a good translation always lay somewhere in between the two levels (Nida 1993, 1995).

=====Reasons for the Differences between the Two Theories =====

There are mainly two reasons for the differences between Jin's theory and Nida's theory:(1) Jin's theory is, to some extent, very much influenced by traditional Chinese translation theories, and (2) Nida's theory fails to address the issue of transference of aesthetic elements.

Before Jin accepted Nida's theory in the late 1970s, he had formed his own views about translation, and taken the combination of "accuracy and smoothness" as the standard of a good translation. In his view, "accuracy is the ultimate objective of a translation while smoothness is the necessary means to attain it. The translator's objective is to accurately reproduce the content and feeling of the original text in an idiomatic language" (Jin Di 1998, 119- 120). Theoretically, it is desirable to achieve this objective, but in actual translating it is hard to accomplish it. Just as a saying goes: "Translation is like a mistress. If she is beautiful, she is not faithful. If she is faithful, she is not beautiful". Certainly, Jin had to face this dilemma of keeping "accuracy and smoothness" at the same time in his translation practice. After he had contact with Nida's theory, he tried to find the way out of it from the standpoint of readers and communication theory. He wrote:

"Accuracy and smoothness in translating are inseparable from target readers. Translating is communicating across two languages. An accurate translation indicates that the message the target reader obtains from the translated text should be substantially the same as the message the original reader has acquired from the original text. A smooth translation indicates that the target reader can understand the translation and receive the translated message e without any difficulty. (Jin Di 1998, 114)."

The fact is that even after Jin advanced his own theory of " equivalent effect" in the 1980s, he was not totally free from the bondage of his former translation standard of " accuracy and smoothness". For instance, he held that an equivalent effect translation was to preserve "accuracy and smoothness" at the same time (Jin Di 1998, 39). This explained why he emphasized the importance of transference of "concrete facts" in his definition of equivalent effect translation, and why he was strongly opposed to the alteration of "concrete facts" in his arguments against Phillip's rendering of " a hearty handshake" and Chuang's suggestion of "干杯" .

In the 1990s, Jin's dependence upon Chinese traditional translation theory was more conspicuous. In his article "Translating Spirit" (1996), Jin borrowed "faithfulness and expressiveness" from Yan Fu's three-character translation principle and put forward his translation principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit". He held that to accomplish an equivalent effcet translation, the translator should “make the translated text similar to the original text in terms of faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit" (Jin Di 1998, 162). Clearly, during this period, Jin's theory of "equivalent effect mainly depended on faithful representation of the original text, and the target reader was no longer involved ass the decisive role in translating. It is safe for r us to say that when Jin absorbed the useful elements from traditional Chinese translation theory, Chinese classic literary criticism and aesthetics to discuss his translation objective, his theory went further away from Nida’s "dynamic equivalence", though he claimed that his translation criteria " faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit" were similar to his translation principle of " equivalent effect” (Wang Zhenping 200, 56).

Another reason for the discrepancy ' between the two theories is the limitations of Nida's theory. "Dynamic equivalence" is not restricted to Bible translation, but it has some limitations in guiding literary translation. This is simply because Nida's immediate concern is not about literary translation, hence it fails to address the transference of formal structures possessing stylistic values and aesthetic effects.

As we all know, the general background against which Nida formulated his translation theory in the early 1960 was that the English Revised Version of the Bible and the American Standard Version of the Bible (1901) were very literal to the extent that "they simply did not communicate effectively, owing to their 16th century forms and the literal, awkward syntax" (Nida 1964, 20). Due to this fact, Nida in his theory objected to word-for-word translation of "formal correspondence", and advocated a free approach to translation, i.e. a meaning-oriented dynamic equivalence. This translation approach has great significance for translators, providing them with theoretical support to break the chains of literalism. However, as far as literary translation is concerned, merely translating sense is not enough. Just as Lin Yutang says, there are two types of literary works. One originates from the writer's experience and thoughts, and the other lies in the language itself, i.e. the specific means to express the writer's experience and thoughts. The first type does not rely on the native language of the writer to a certain degree, while the second is inseparable from the spirit of his mother tongue (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 430-431). Jin Yuelin also states: "Translating sense, which only requires expressiveness and faithfulness, is not an easy thing, and in some cases it is very difficult. Nevertheless, the difficulty is only a technical problem. Translating flavor, however, is quite another matter, for it requires recreation in translating" (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 464). When meaning and flavor in the original text cannot be kept at the same time in literary translation, in some cases the translator retains flavor and sacrifices sense. But in Nida's theory translating means translating meaning, and his exploration of style or spirit is very inadequate for literary translation. When Jin translated Joyce's ''Ulysses'', he had to face the problem of spirit transference. This is the reason why Jin eventually turns to Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism to seek for support for his theory of "equivalent effect".

===Conclusion===

There are some similarities between Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect. They both have profound research and insight into the theory of equivalent translation, and have a lot of common points in their understanding of the theory. There are also some differences between the two theories. Jin Di is deeply influenced by traditional Chinese translation theories and lacks a scientific basis for translation analysis. However, Nida's theory does not mention aesthetics, which has its limitations in guiding literary translation. Therefore, Nida's theory is not applicable to general translation, but only to biblical translation and informative or vocative translation. How to learn from the two translations to better guide translation practice is a task that translation researchers need to do in the future.

===References===

Chuang, Kun-liang 庄坤良. (1995). "Ulysses, by James Joyce, translated by Jin Di." [金堤译《尤利西斯》]James Joyce Quarterly 32.

De Waard, Jan and E. A. Nida 得·瓦得和尤金·奈达. (1986). From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating [从一种语言到另一种语言]. New York: Nelson.

Jin Di 金堤.(1998). In Search of the Principle of Equivalent Effect [等效反应原则]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.

Jin Di and Eugene A. Nida 金堤和尤金·奈达. (1996). On Translation: with special reference to Chinese and English [论翻译]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.

Jin Di 金堤. (1995). Equivalence Effect in Translation [翻译中的等效反应]. Chinese University Press.

Jin Di 金堤. (1994-1996). trans. Ulysses(You Li Xi Si). By James Joyce[尤利西斯]. Beijing: People's Literature Press.

Liu, Junping 刘军平.(1997). "Comments on Two Chinese Versions of Ulysses." [《尤利西斯》两种译文的比较研究]. Chinese Translators Journal 3.

Lao Long. (1988). "Book Review: On Translation by Jin Di and Eugene A. Nida" [书评: 论翻译]. Chinese Translators Journal 2: 56-57.

Luo, Xinzhang 罗新璋. (1984). An Anthology of Writings on Translation [翻译论集]. Beijing: Commercial Press.

Nida, E. A. 尤金·奈达 (1975). Language Structure and Translation: Essays by Eugene A. Nida [语言结构与翻译]. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

Nida, E. A. 尤金·奈达 (1959). Principles of translation as exemplified by bible translating [从圣经翻译看翻译原则]. Bible Translator, 72(4), 323-342.

Nida, Eugene A. 尤金·奈达. (1993).Language, Culture and Translating [语言、文化与翻译]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Nida, Eugene A. 尤金·奈达. (1964). Towards a Science of Translating: with Special Reference to Principles and Procedures Involved in Bible Translating [翻译的科学探索]. Leiden: Brill.

Nida, Eugene A. and C. R. Taber. 尤金·奈达和查尔斯·泰伯. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation [翻译理论与实践]. Leiden: Brill.

Wang, Zhenping 王振平. (2000). "An Interview with Prof. Jin Di." [金堤教授访谈录] Chinese Translators Journal.

Wang, Yougui 王友贵. (1998). "On Two Chinese Versions of Ulysses"[《尤利西斯的两个中译本研究》]. Chinese Comparative Literature 4.

==Translation , Translating and Interpreting 漆凯 Qi Kai, 202020080636 亚非语言文学==

<center>漆凯 Qi Kai </center>
===Abstract===
First of all, this paper briefly introduces the Chinese and western studies of translation theory and translation principles, and then introduces the definitions of translating and interpreting centering on translation and interpretation.then it discusses what they have in common from four aspects: basic principles, requirements for translators, operational procedures and quality assessment standards. Then it discusses the differences between interpretation and translation in terms of criteria, translation process and requirements for the quality of translators. Mastering the similarities and differences between the two can help us to better deal with different types of translation, which is the only way to become an excellent translator.

===Key words===
Translation; Translation Theory; Translation Principles; Translating; Interpreting

===题目===
翻译，笔译与口译

===摘要===
本文首先以翻译理论和翻译原则为出发点，简要介绍了两者的中西方研究状况，其次以笔译和口译为中心，对两者的定义进行了介绍，然后从基本原则、对译者的要求、操作流程、质量评定标准四个方面论述了两者的共同点，紧接着论述口译和笔译在衡量标准、翻译过程以及对译员的素质要求方面的差异。掌握两者的同于不同，能够帮助我们更好地处理不同类型的翻译，是成为一个优秀翻译工作者的必经之路。

===关键词===
翻译、翻译理论、翻译原则、笔译、口译

===Introduction===
With the enhancement of China's national strength and the increasing complexity of international exchanges, the market needs more and more high-quality translators. The establishment of MTI and BTI majors in colleges and universities in China also meets this demand. Translation includes two different forms: translation and interpretation. many people will be shocked by the real-time translation of the interpreter around the prime minister and admire the ability of the interpreter. Translation plays an important role in Mo Yan's winning the Nobel Prize for Literature. The comparison between interpretation and translation can give us a correct understanding of the relationship between them, so as to better guide the study of translation and improve the ability of translation.(Liu Heping 2009,35)

This paper first defines translation and holds that translation refers to the expression of the meaning of one language in another language, or the expression of symbols or numbers that represent language and literature, and translation is a conversion between two symbols. But this kind of transformation is not only the language transformation at the literal level, but also the transfer of ideas and the transplantation of culture.(Liu Heping 2009,35)

Secondly, it discusses the similarities and differences between translation and interpretation, focusing on the differences between them. Specifically, firstly, the common points of the two are discussed from four aspects: the basic principles, the requirements for the translator, the operation process and the quality evaluation standard. As for the difference between the two, the criteria for evaluating the advantages and disadvantages of translation and interpretation are discussed. Interpretation needs an interpreter to make a quick response because of its immediacy. Then it analyzes the process of the two translation methods and points out their differences.(Liu Heping 2009,35)

Finally, it discusses the different requirements for the quality of interpreters. In view of the particularity of interpretation, it focuses on the requirements for interpreters, including psychological quality, listening, memory and shorthand ability. It is hoped that through the analysis and discussion of this paper, we can once again realize the importance of translation and let readers have a further understanding of the similarities and differences between interpretation and translation.(Liu Heping 2009,35)

===Definition of Translation===
Translation is an activity with a long history. Both Chinese and Western translators have experienced several thousand years of development. During such a long period of time, people have benefited from translation activities; at the same time, people have actively thought about issues related to translation.(Huang Yongchang 2003,36)

First, people need to give a precise definition of translation. As a matter of fact, most of the first translation activities performed by human beings were oral translations. The communication of language and ideas between two primitive tribes was dependent on translation. Later, with the need for narration and communication, translation activities also emerged, and the initial translations were all related to the translation of religious texts.(Huang Yongchang 2003,36)

In modern society, with the development of science and technology, translation activities have covered more colorful forms: human translation and machine translation; literary translation and non-literary translation; excerpt translation, compilation, translation evaluation, etc.; there are also research institutions and training institutions for translation and its works. It can be said that after a long historical development, translation activities have become very diverse in form.Therefore, it is very difficult to give a precise definition of translation. Many experts and scholars have made attempts to define translation from various perspectives, such as culture, sociology, semiotics and psychology.(Huang Yongchang 2003,36)

Secondly, according to the Modern Chinese Dictionary, translation refers to expressing the meaning of one - language and literature in another language and literature, or expressing the symbols or digits representing language and literature in language and literature. (Huang Yongchang 2003,36)

Translation is a conversion activity between two symbols. Therefore, in the activity of conversion of two linguistic symbols, that is, in the activity of translation, one's primary task is to work on the regeneration of symbolic meaning. And translation is fundamentally about translating meaning. Then, what is the meaning becomes an important and crucial question.(Huang Yongchang 2003,36)

For example, Ogden and Richards, the British scholars of semantics, published in 1923, put forward a theory of meaning, which represents the typical view of traditional semantics. The theory refers to a mutually constraining and interactive relationship between symbols, meanings and objective things. And this theory has also influenced translation activities. Language philosophers often think about this issue and give an essential requirement to translation, which should not be a literal level of language conversion, but a transfer of ideas and a cultural transplantation.(Liu Heping 2009,37)

Thirdly, the activity of translation, which has undergone thousands of years of development, has played an important role in the evolution of human society, and it is always going on, and the various functions it can achieve are constantly evolving. Jacobson, one of the founders of the Prague School, divided translation into three types: intra-linguistic translation, interlinguistic translation and inter-rational translation.(Liu Heping 2009,37)

By understanding these three types, it helps us to recognize the functions and roles of translation. There is no doubt that translation facilitates communication between people and enables ideas to be spread. For the ideas and culture of a country to be expanded geographically, it is inevitable to resort to translation. Moreover, translation also plays the function of creation, and through translation activities, the original ideas are developed and extended.(Ma Chao 2010,18)

In the process of translating Buddhist scriptures, our country has made a bold creation, creating. The creation of new vocabulary and new ideas not only expands the substance of the language, but also introduces new ideas and new thoughts. And in the West, especially in the process of translating the Bible, the role of translation for linguistic transformation has been more profoundly highlighted.Therefore, in order to study translation, it is necessary to understand the definition of translation, the content of translation and the function of translation.(Ma Chao 2010,18)

===Research status of Translation principles in China and the West===
From ancient times to the present, Chinese and Western scholars have never stopped exploring the principles of translation. There are also differences between Chinese and Western translation principles in terms of development history, research direction and system integrity.

====Research status of Translation Principles in China====
Yan Fu once spoke in the Theory of Heaven. In the translation example, it has been pointed out that there are three difficulties in translating things: faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance. It is very difficult to ask him to believe himself.(Ma Chao 2010,19)

Although the translation is still not done, "faithfulness" means that the content of the translation does not violate the original and expresses the meaning of the original. "expressiveness" requires that the translation is smooth and easy to understand. "elegance" refers to the literary style, suitability and readability of the choice of words, as well as the proper use of language style. "elegance" refers to the choice of words, suitability and readability, as well as the proper use of language style. In fact, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" is not completely pioneered by Yan Fu, but is systematically summarized, refined and summarized.(Ma Chao 2010,19)

Before Yan Fu, there were Zhiqian's "follow this purpose without literary decoration", the "struggle for cultural quality" in the Sui and Tang dynasties, the "five losses and three difficult" by Dao'an, "rather be simple and reasonable, not skillfully but from the source" by Yan Yi. Xuan Zang's "five do not turn", Zanning's "six examples", Ma Jianzhong's "good translation" and so on. (Huang Yongchang 2003,37)After Yan Fu, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" also has a new development.(Ma Chao 2010,19)

For example, Lu Xun said that "it would rather be faithful than smooth" and "all translators must take into account two sides: one is to strive for ease of understanding, and the other is to preserve the grace of the original work." Lin Yutang put forward the standard of "faithfulness, smoothness and beauty". Fu Lei's "attaching importance to spirit but not form", "harmony between spirit resemblance and form resemblance", Qian Zhongshu's "transformation environment", Jin Shi's "equivalence" translation principle, Liu Zhongde's "faith, reach, cut" regiment, Zhang Jin's "truth, goodness, beauty", and Xu Yuanchong summed up the "beauty of meaning, sound, form" and so on. (Ma Chao 2010,19)

Although various translation standards emerge one after another, the translation standard of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" has always been the "golden rule" in the field of translation. The translation standard of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" is Yan Fu's summary and sublimation of a great deal of practice, raising the translation theory from the dual standard of "literal translation and free translation" to the ternary standard, which is also the development and inheritance of the previous translation theory. At the same time, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" is also a discussion on the traditional Chinese philosophy of "the unity of man and nature", "the subject is integrated into the object", and it is a "incidental discussion" of translation. (Yang Zijian 1994,52)

Although many other translation standards have appeared after the translation standard of faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance, the scope of influence of faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance. It's always been widespread. This is because the subsequent translation standards are based on the translation criteria of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance", and the contents of the framework are updated and inherited critically with the development of the times. Although it has some historical limitations, as a translation concept and basic proposition, as Guo Hongan said: as long as we keep pace with the times and constantly update the interpretation of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", we will continue to give it new vitality.(Yang Zijian 1994,55)

====Research status of Translation Principles in the West====
According to different periods, there are many representative translation principles in the West. Such as "translation as a commentator" put forward by Cicero Cicero of the traditional empirical period, Alexander FraserTytler's "completely interpreting the advantages of the source text into another language", the "functional equivalence theory" and the thought circle of "response" and "domestication" advocated by Eugene A. Nida in the period of modern linguistics, CatFord's "equivalent translation", PeterNewmark's semantic translation and communicative translation theory. And the hermeneutics theory "understanding is translation" advocated by GeorgeSteiner in the contemporary pluralistic theory period, Andre Lefevere's "translation is rewriting" Hermans's "the text is manipulated by the translator" and so on.(Yang Zijian 1994,53)

In the process of development, western translation theories pay more attention to the intuitive way of thinking and the integrity of the system. In the process of using and developing translation theory, we can take it as a reference, absorb its essence, and combine it with domestic translation principles and translation practice to form a domestic characteristic translation theory. For example, when using the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", we should comprehensively consider other translation theories at home and abroad, fully consider the style and content of the text, apply the idea of "domestication", and choose suitable translation methods. so that the content and style of the text can be restored to the maximum extent.(Xu Jun 2009,36)

===Definitions of Translating and Interpreting===
Translating is a written process. It converts the written text in the source language into another written language. Translators must have a deep understanding of the source text and accurately translate it into the target language in terms of meaning, structure and style. The translator has enough time, tools and ways to ponder over and over the language sentences so as to complete the translation. In "language and Culture: context in Translation", Eugene A. Nida (2006 105)holds that the first step is for the translator to analyze the source text by reading many times, consulting references or dictionaries and consulting experts in relevant fields in order to deepen their understanding.(Marianne Lederer 2011,12)

After the conversion from the source language to the target language, translators also need to transform and improve the target language in order to obtain the satisfaction of the readers or the target audience. Before that, translators can ask people in the target audience to read the translation on behalf of the target audience, so as to get feedback on the translation, and have time to correct and polish it again. In terms of the connotation of translation, translation requires higher satisfaction with accurate grasp of language, creativity, artistic level of language and aesthetic style.(Marianne Lederer 2011,12)

Interpreting can be divided into impromptu translation and simultaneous interpretation. Impromptu translation, also known as consecutive Interpreting or continuous translation, is mainly in the form of segmented expression of what the speaker is going to express, and the translator translates during each pause. The time of each speech varies from a few seconds to a few minutes according to the specific situation. Consecutive Interpreting is widely used, such as tourism translation, banquet speeches and so on.(Sun Sucha 2008, 44)

Simultaneous interpretation, also known as simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter provides instant translation through special interpretation equipment without interrupting the speaker's speech,constantly interpreting the contents of his speech to the audience. Simultaneous interpretation is suitable for large-scale seminars and international conferences, usually conducted by two interpreters in rotation.(Sun Sucha 2008, 44)

===Similarities and Differences between Translating and Interpreting===
As two practical forms of translation, the relationship between interpreting and translating is self-evident. If interpreting is the superstructure. Then the written review is the lower building. To put it simply, interpretation is based on written reviews. Before oral training or practice, the written details should be passed (at least step by step): the two not only go hand in hand. And the quality of the former often determines to a large extent the level of interpretation or the potential for development in the future.Although interpretation and translation have different forms of translation, they share many common basic principles. In some basic translation strategies and techniques.And it is also consistent or similar.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,147)

Fundamentally speaking, these two kinds of translation practices are guided or dominated by general translation theories and principles, which are always accepted and digested first in the training process of written reviews. If the cultivation of oral and detailed talents is not only based on translation training, but also not far away from the training of translation, the cultivation of oral talents is not far away from the basis of translation training. If you ignore the importance of translation. Or the amount of translation training is not enough. In that case, it is bound to be top-heavy and light, and it is difficult to make further progress in interpretation.(Li Jun 2007,54)

====Similarities between Translating and Interpreting====
First of all, the basic principles of translation are the same. In an introduction to Translation, Xu Jun (2009) pointed out that translation is the fundamental meaning of translation; Li Jun (2007) also believes that the basic task of translation is to understand and retell the meaning that the source language is trying to express. It can be seen that as far as its basic principles are concerned, translation should faithfully express the meaning and ideas that the source language wants to express in accordance with the language habits of the target language.(Marianne Lederer 2011,108)

Whether interpreting or translating, it is not the formal translation of words or sentence-by-sentence translation, but the translation of the source language information and the transmission of the original meaning, which is the first basic principle that we should make clear when learning interpreting and translating. The explanation of interpretive translation by French interpretive theory further clarifies this principle: the purpose of translation is to "understand"-"discourse", and then "re-express", the "discourse" (Marianne Lederer 2011,108)

Secondly, the requirements for translators and translators have something in common. From the perspective of software, both translators and translators must have a solid bilingual foundation, profound encyclopedic knowledge accumulation and strong autonomous learning ability; from the perspective of hardware, both must have great enthusiasm for translation. and have good physical fitness.Since translation is simply a process of understanding and expressing the meaning of the source language in the target language, and understanding requires the reserve of knowledge of the source language and knowledge outside the language, and expression requires both the level of the target language and the level of expression, then the importance of software construction is self-evident.(Sun Sucha 2008,45)

Moreover, in order to do any work well, we need to be enthusiastic about it and put it into practice. Translation is a time-consuming and energy-consuming work that requires the attention of translators and translators. The improvement of hardware is particularly important. To sum up, only when we have both hardware and software, can we do a good job in translation. (Sun Sucha 2008,45)

Thirdly, the translation process is similar. The process of completing the translation work is like the process of producing a certain product, which must be put in place step by step. If you relax a little bit, the final product may be defective. Generally speaking, whether you are an interpreter or a translator, you need to make full preparations before translation, including reading a large number of parallel texts, mastering knowledge in related fields, communicating with experts or scholars, and understanding the key points: to establish your own corpus and corpus so as to be easy to extract and use at any time. And lost-translation feedback and summary are needed after translation, and translation is also subject to one or more post-translation revision.In addition, in many cases, the same complicated translation work is often done by the cooperation of two or more translators and translators.(Chen Kaisha 2012,134)

Finally, although there is no final conclusion on the evaluation criteria of translation quality, in professional translation, from the results of translation, the evaluation criteria of translation quality are the same between interpretation and translation. (Chen Kaisha 2012,134)These similarities can be simply summarized as "three looks": to see whether the result of the translation accurately conveys the message of the source language; to see whether the result of the translation has produced the desired effect on the audience; finally, in professional translation, we also need to see whether the result of the translation work is satisfactory to the customer.(Chen Kaisha 2012,134)

====Differences between Translating and Interpreting====
(1) Differences in measurement criteria
As two different forms of translation, the criteria for evaluating translation and interpretation are also different. Although translation theorists have not formed a unified opinion on the issue of translation standards, especially after the "cultural turn", a hundred schools of thought contend among translation theorists, the main criteria for evaluating translation quality in China are still faithfulness and fluency, which is in line with the "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" standard put forward by Yan Fu, which requires the translation to be consistent with the source text in terms of content, form, style and style as far as possible. And make it smooth.

Based on the characteristics of interpretation, some interpretation experts and scholars have put forward corresponding theories to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of interpretation.(Yang Zijian 1994,62) According to the Dayism theory of French interpretation expert Celeskovic, interpretation is a kind of interpretive translation, its purpose is to achieve meaning, and the standard is to achieve meaning and fluency.(Li Jinze 2010,23)

The interpretation standard put forward by interpretation expert Li Yueran is accurate, smooth and fast. Accuracy is the soul of English interpretation, which requires the interpreter to accurately convey the information of one party to the other in English or Chinese, so as to achieve the purpose of communication between the two parties. Fluency, that is, the interpreter should fluently convey the information obtained, it is easy for people to understand; fast, because the interpretation is immediate, its own time limit requires the interpreter to be able to respond quickly.(Li Jinze 2010,23)

Zhong Weihe, an interpreter, argues that interpretation should be faithful and timely. Faithfulness means that the target language must be faithful to the content of the source language and the emotional color of the language under specific circumstances, while timely communication means timely communication. As a relatively new discipline, the development of interpretation theory is not as complete as translation theory, and the evaluation criteria are not the same.(Yang Zijian 1994,64)

However, the basic requirements for interpretation are as follows: the translation results should be accurate, rather than speculating on the content of the source text according to the interpreter's own understanding; aiming at the recipient of the translation result,the expression form of the translation result must conform to the recipient's language habits to facilitate their understanding; in addition, the translator needs to adjust the tone, speed and intonation according to the actual situation.(Yang Zijian 1994,64)

(2) The difference of translation process
The process of translation is the process of correctly understanding the original text and creatively reproducing it in another language. Translation and interpretation have their own characteristics, and the translation process also differs greatly. There are also great differences in the translation process. One of the differences between the two stems from the difference between written and spoken language, with written language being more rigorous and spoken language being more casual and loose.(Zhao Shuo 1999,100)

Interpreting is an activity with strong immediacy. It emphasizes the effectiveness, independence, field, and one-time nature, and belongs to a kind of individual labor (Zhao Shuo 1999,99). The immediacy of interpretation requires the interpreter to analyze, understand and express the speaker's words continuously within a limited time, so that the speaker's meaning can be correctly conveyed to the audience and both parties can communicate with each other. Due to this fundamental characteristic of immediacy, interpreters tend to "use frequently used words and small words with monosyllables or few syllables, as well as words and abbreviations with strong generality" (Zhao Shuo 1999,100)

Due to the time constraint, the interpreter cannot refer to any documents or materials, nor can he or she discuss with others or ask experts for advice. Interpreting in ordinary situations should be as colloquial as possible, and the sentence structure used is relatively simple and in line with the spoken habits. In addition, interpreters generally cannot make a lot of corrections and additions to what has been translated, unless there are major errors or omissions.The translator, on the other hand, communicates with the reader in the form of text, which is generally not limited by time. The interpreter expresses the original text in written form through a thorough understanding of the text, and then uses the help of the materials, and then repeats the translation until he or she is satisfied.(Liu Heping 2009,37)

In terms of sentence structure, translation requires sentence components to be in place and sentence structure to be complete.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,148) Translators can use parallel sentences, compound sentences and rhetorical methods such as metaphor and prose in order to beautify the translation; translators can also have time to discuss with others and ask for their help before writing the translation.(Liu Heping 2009,37)

Fang Fanquan, an interpreter scholar, proposed the process of translation and interpretation. The basic process of translation is reading - thinking and analyzing - converting and reorganizing - writing and expressing; while the basic process of interpretation is recording - coding - expressing. Recording, or temporary storage, means storing the perceived coded information temporarily; encoding means decoding the information in the source language and assigning it to the expression form of the target language; expression means the interpreter translates the encoded information in the target language through oral expression.(Liu Heping 2009,37)

(3) Different requirements for interpreters
Translators and interpreters have some common basic requirements, for example, they should have good bilingual understanding and expression, and be able to convert between Chinese and English skillfully and accurately; they should have a broad knowledge, especially familiar with Chinese and foreign cultural background; they should go through systematic professional knowledge and skills learning and practical training, and so on. However, in view of the immediacy of interpretation, the requirements for interpreters are different from those for translators, and the special requirements for interpreters are mainly reflected in the following points:(Ma Chao 2010,19)

①Psychological quality
Interpreting is a hard and intense mental work, a complex thinking process. Interpreters are often unprepared to understand the information they hear instantly and then convert it into another language and express it orally, which often puts them under greater pressure (Guo Jirong, 2008: 232). Therefore, interpreters must have good psychological quality. "the psychological factor of the interpreter, although invisible and intangible, plays a role in the translation process." The interpreter will undergo psychological changes due to the occasion of interpretation, the level of knowledge, the degree of understanding of the subject matter, etc.(Li Jinze 2010,102)

Interpreters who are still shallow are prone to be in a nervous mood before interpreting, unable to start, and even unable to get into the state immediately after the meeting starts. This psychological state will affect the level of play, and even cause serious adverse consequences. The specific method is to practice more, try to contact with the conference organizers and speakers before the meeting, learn more about the background knowledge of the meeting, and also read some relevant information in advance, so as to have the bottom in mind and prevent the translation quality from being affected by emotional tension. The interpreter can also judge whether he/she understands according to the expression of the audience, and can change the expression or add some explanation, which cannot be done in the translation.(Chen Kaisha 2012,134)

②Listening
Interpreting is built on the basis of "listening" and relies on "listening". To receive information, keen listening is a prerequisite for becoming an excellent interpreter. If you encounter obstacles in receiving information, it will be difficult to carry out the following steps of interpretation.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,148)

Interpreters should have the basic conditions of bilingual communication, good bilingual comprehension and expression ability, be able to use the previously acquired knowledge to understand the new discourse, know how to analyze and synthesize the content while listening, and understand the content of language expression with the help of cognitive knowledge and encyclopedic knowledge, instead of the conditioned reflex or accumulation of language words.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,148)

In order to express better when interpreting, interpreters must pay attention to listen to more English accents, dialects and variants, pay attention to summarize their characteristics and rules, and learn to reason logically and judge the causes and consequences of speech, and correctly judge the message and intention of the speaker. There are many dialects of Chinese, and there are many dialects and variants of English. British English and American English differ in speech, expression and even the meaning of the same word; even people from the same English-speaking country speak different English due to their social class, educational background and geographical differences.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,149)

For example, there is a big difference in the language used by the aristocracy and the lower class in Britain. For example, the language used by the aristocracy and the lower class in Britain is very different. When foreigners whose mother tongue is not English speak English, it is inevitable that they have their own accent. Therefore, as an interpreter, you must first understand the dialect and accent of the translation target in order to carry out the translation smoothly. In addition, the interpreter must have a pure accent, be fluent in English and Mandarin Chinese, and be familiar with various expressions of foreign languages and Chinese.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,149)

③Memory and shorthand ability
Due to the constraints brought by the immediacy of interpreter communication and the potential influence of the "absence factor" of the context, interpretation work shows its great challenge (Xie Zhaolin 2012,149).As an interpreter, it is necessary to have an excellent memory, because it is impossible for the interpreter to consult information during the interpretation process, so he or she must remember a large number of words, abbreviations and idioms.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,149)

===Conclusion===
This paper focuses on the differences between translation and interpretation in terms of measurement standards, translation process and the quality requirements for translators. Mastering the differences between the two can help us to better deal with different types of translation. Want to be a good translator, whether interpreter or interpreter. Both workers and translators must have solid bilingual language skills and rich cultural background knowledge.

In cultivating and improving translation skills, there are more requirements for the accuracy of language expression. Therefore, translators need to read literary classics widely, improve their literary appreciation and their ability to master English and Chinese bilingualism. It can not only be faithful to the original text but also be accurately conveyed in beautiful and fluent words in translation. The original message. When developing interpreting skills, it is necessary to strengthen the training of English-Chinese bilingual pronunciation, intonation and articulation, strengthen psychological quality, improve adaptability, enhance memory, and train shorthand ability in order to attain a yet higher goal.

===References===

*Chen Kaisha. 程凯莎. (2012). 浅析英语口笔译之异同.[A brief Analysis of the similarities and differences between English interpreting and Translating].科教文汇[Cultural exchange of science and education]133-134.

*Huang Yongchang. 黄勇昌. (2003).对翻译忠实性原则的解构分析[A Deconstructive Analysis of the Translation Fidelity Principle].番禺职业技术学院学报[Journal of Panyu Vocational and Technical College]35-37.

*Liu Heping. 刘和平. (2009). 论本科翻译教学的原则与方法[On the Principles and Methods of Undergraduate Translation Teaching].中国翻译[Translation in China]34-39.

*Li Jinze. 李金泽. (2010). 国内口译研究的历史与现状[The History and Current Situation of Domestic Interpreting Research].边疆经济与文化[Frontier Economy and Culture]101-102.

*Li Jun. 李军. (2007). 英汉汉英翻译训练与解析[Training and Analysis of English-Chinese Chinese-English Translation].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].

*Li Yun. 李云. (2001). 翻译的忠实性[Fidelity of Translation].山东电力高等专科学校学报[Journal of Shandong Electric Power Higher Specialized School]56-57.

*Ma Chao. 马超. (2010). 浅谈中国翻译史中的翻译原则[A Brief Introduction to the Translation Principles in the History of Chinese Translation].科技风[Science and Technology Wind]18-19.

*Marianne Lederer. 玛丽安·莱德尔. (2011). 释意学派口笔译理论[The Theory of Interpretation and Translation in the School of Interpretation and Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[Chinese Foreign Translation and Publication].

*Sun Sucha. 孙素茶. (2008). 口译与笔译之区别[The Difference between Interpreting and Translating].商情[Business Information]44-45.

*Xu Jun. 许钧. (2009). 翻译概论[Introduction to Translation].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].

*Xie Zhaolin. 谢昭霖. (2012). 论口笔译学习的异同[On the Similarities and Differences between Interpreting and Translating Studies].海外英语[English Abroad]147-149.

*Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1994). 翻译新论[New Theory of Translation].湖北教育出版社出版[Hubei Education Press].

*Zhao Shuo. 赵硕. (1999). 探讨翻译过程中的忠实性问题[Exploring the Problem of Fidelity in Translation].西北工业大学学报[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnic University]99-100.

--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 11:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==A Brief Introduction to Chinese Translation Theories in the Late 19th Century 郭露 Guo Lu 202070080588 英语笔译==

<center>郭露 Guo Lu 202070080588</center>

===Abstract===

As China suffered from wars in the late 19th century, western culture was introduced into China inevitably. Chinese intellectuals at that time knew little about western works and were prejudiced against them.

During this period, translation acted as a bridge between China and the rest of the world. There were several translators and scholars who had translated numerous western works and came up with their translation theories, which promoted the development of translation studies and helped people to know more about the western countries.

This paper mainly discusses the translation theories of Yan Fu and Lin Shu who were of great significance at that time, and it also introduces Yan Fu’s and Lin Shu’s translation theories through case analysis, so as to deepen our understanding towards translation theories in this period.

===Key Words===

Translation theory, Chinese translation theory, Yan Fu, Lin Shu

===题目===

19世纪晚期中国翻译理论简介

===摘要===

19世纪晚期，中国遭受战争磨难的同时，外国文化随之涌入中国。当时中国各界人士对于西方作品的了解极少，并对其作品抱有较大的偏见。在这一时期，翻译充当了中外交流的桥梁，中国涌现出了许多伟大的译者，他们的作品为中国的翻译发展做出极大贡献。本文旨在讨论当时的翻译发展以及严复和林纾两位在当时具有突出贡献的译者，并通过案例分析对严复和林纾的翻译理论进行了简要概括和介绍，以加深我们对于该时期翻译理论的了解。

=== 关键字===

翻译理论；中国翻译理论；严复；“信达雅”；林纾

===Introduction===

The failure in the First Sino-Japanese War at the end of the Qing Dynasty put China and the Chinese nation as well in great danger. In order to educate people and save the nation, scholars including Yan Fu and Lin Shu realized that they need to learn from Western countries and bring in their culture and advanced thought. (Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 2002, 1-3) Therefore, those scholars started to translate western works. For example, during the translation of Thomas H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'', Yan Fu quoted the survival of the fittest and called for people to save the nation from subjugation and ensure its survival. (Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 2002, 1-3)

In addition, with the growing demand for culture and entertainment, coupled with the improvement of printing technology, the market for books and magazines also underwent rapid development, which also provided room for the development of novels. While scholars favoured classical books, common people preferred novels, providing an opportunity for the development of novel translation.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 34-35)

As many scholars began to translate foreign books, they too formed a variety of translation theories in the process of translation, which made a lot of contributions to the development of translation.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 34-35)

===Yan Fu===

1. Introduction

Yan Fu(1854-1921), courtesy name Ji Dao, is a scholar and translator in modern China. He is famous for introducing Western thoughts, including Darwin’s idea of “natural selection” into China and was singled out among a few who contributed most to China’s knowledge of the West at that period. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)

Yan Fu is especially famous for ''Tianyanlun'', the rendering of Thomas H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics''. The survival of the fittest in this book took wing in time in the fermenting air of nationwide struggle for survival. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)

Besides that, Yan stated in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics'' that "there are three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance". Although he did not set them as general standards for translation, since the publication of that work, the phrases "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" have been attributed to Yan Fu as standards for any good translation, giving rise to numerous debates. Therefore, it has been the catchword among Chinese translation theories. (Wang Shi 1986, 1321-1322)

Yan Fu was also one of the most influential scholars of his generation as he worked to introduce Western social, economic and political ideas to China. During his lifetime, Yan Fu translated the following major works of Western liberal thought: ''Evolution and Ethics'' by Thomas Henry Huxley as ''Tianyan lun'', ''The Wealth of Nations'' by Adam Smith as ''Yuan fu'', and ''The Study of Sociology'' by Herbert Spencer as ''Qunxue yiyan'', most of them inspired later scholars to better learn about Western culture. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91-99)

2. Translation Theory

Yan Fu’s theories, which include faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness(''da'') and elegance(''ya''), plays a vital important role among Chinese translation theories. Another English version is fidelity, fluency, and elegance. Still, another is fidelity, fluency and flair rendered by Brian Holton, using the alliterative "f" for the sake of memory. They are cited as follows:

(1)Translation involves three difficult requirements to fulfil: faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness (''da'') and elegance(''ya''). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance.(Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 44-47)

(2)In addition to faithfulness and expressiveness, we should strive for elegance in translation. This is not just for extending the effects far. In using the syntax and style of the pre-Han period one actually facilitates the expressiveness of the profound principles and subtle thoughts whereas in using the modern vernacular one finds it difficult to make things comprehensible. (Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 44-47)

Here, faithfulness means to be faithful to the content of the original, the translation should be accurate, and translators are not allowed to change the meaning in the original text. “Meanwhile, translators should translate words correctly and concisely, and omission and amplification are not recommended.”(Wang Rui, Wei Shengxin 2020, 1-4)

Furthermore, expressiveness means to be expressive as the original, and the translation should be in accordance with the expression of Chinese habits and be fluent and readable. And as for elegance, which is ''ya'', it originally means the authentic and correct use of the Chinese language. However, with the development of the times, the meaning of ''ya'' has also undergone much development. It doesn’t require translators to keep the syntax and style of the pre-Han period, instead, they should translate the original text depending on its language style. (Wang Shi 1986, 48)

3. Case Analysis

Example1: He was an old man who fished alone in a skiff in the Gulf Stream and he had gone eighty-forty days now without taking a fish. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)

Translation 1: 他是一个老头子，一个人划着一只小船，在墨西哥湾大海流打鱼，而他已经有84天没有捕到一条鱼了。 (Zhang Ailing 2015, 5)

Translation 2: 那老人独驾轻舟，在墨西哥湾流里捕鱼，如今出海已有84天仍是一鱼不获。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 1)

Translation 3: 他是个独自驾一只小帆船在湾流上捕鱼的老人。到今天为止，老头儿已经接连下海84天，一条鱼也没捕到。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 2)

Translation analysis: In this example, the skiff was translated into “小船”, “轻舟” and “小帆船”, and according to the context, we can easily draw a conclusion that the third one is the best, as “小船” didn’t tell the reader what the skiff looks like, so it has a much broader definition. Besides that, “轻舟” in China is a poetic word, which does not conform to the style of the original text. And “小帆船” seems more vivid and specific. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 1)

Example 2: The old man was thin and gaunt with deep wrinkles in the back of his neck. The brown blotches of the benevolent skin cancer the sun brings from its reflection on the sides of his face and his hands had the deep-creased scars from handling heavy fish on the cords. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)

Translation 1: 老人瘦而憔悴，颈后有深的皱纹。面颊上生着棕色的肿起一块块，那是热带的海上反射的阳光晒出的一种无害的瘤。顺着脸的两边，全长满了那肿起的一块块。他的手因为拉绳子，拖曳沉重的鱼，有纹路很深的创痕。 (Zhang Ailing 2015, 5)

Translation 2: 老人瘦削而憔悴，颈背皱纹很深。热带海上阳光的反射引起善性的皮癌，那种褐色的疮痍便长满两颊，两手时常用索拉扯大鱼，也留下深折的瘢痕。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 1)

Translation 3: 老头儿身形单薄，脖颈子上皱纹很深。从他的腮帮子上一溜顺着颊边往下，长着些褐色的疙瘩，那是太阳在热带海面上的反光晒出来的良性皮肤瘤。他那双手则因为同大鱼较量，被钓索勒出了深深的伤痕。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 3)

Translation analysis: Among all the translation versions, the last is the most understandable one for it is in accordance with the logical order and more natural. For example, “较量” in the third version seems very different from the original meaning of “handling”, but considering the context, “较量” is more authentic than “拖曳” or “拉扯” which are just translated literally. This also reflects the importance of expressiveness and elegance. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 2)

Example 3: He did not remember when he had first started to talk aloud when he was by himself. He had sung when he was by himself in the old days and he had sung at night sometimes when he was alone steering on his match in the smacks or in the turtle boats. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)

Translation 1: 他记不起自己从什么时候开始，便爱一个人大声自言自语。往日，在孤独的时候，他曾爱唱歌自娱；有时夜间独自在渔船上或龟船上轮班掌舵，他也会唱起歌来。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 27)

Translation 2: 他记不得一个人独处的时候是何时开始大声说话的。以前他独个儿时曾唱过歌。在小帆船或者捕龟船里，独自值班掌舵时曾在夜里唱过。 (Huang Yuanshe 2011,16)

Translation 3: 他不记得自己从什么时候起，在独自一人的情形下会大声说话。从前独自一人时，他会唱歌；当年在渔船或捕龟船上轮夜掌舵的时候，他有时也会唱歌。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 22)

Translation Analysis: Though these translations are all faithful to the original text, the first one is uncomparable among all the versions. By reading the first one, we can have a deep understanding of the loneliness of the old man who was fishing on the sea and we can also feel his optimism, especially in “自言自语” and “唱歌自娱”. This translation can undoubtedly arouse the sympathy of the readers. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 1-3)

4. The Criticism of Yan Fu’s Theory

Though Yan Fu’s translation theory was widely recognized by Chinese scholars, it also provoked heated debates, and elegance, which is ya, was criticized mostly by other scholars. Some of them even believed that it is useless. And the reason why Yan put elegance into his translation theory is that he preferred the writing style of Tong Cheng School. Since this pompous style is obsolete, the standard of ya may also out of fashion. (Gao Xiaopeng 2017, 1-2)

Nevertheless, “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are still one of the most important translation theories in China. Faithfulness means being faithful to the author and conveys the core values and meanings of the work to the readers. Expressiveness means the translation should be plain and fluent. And elegance requires the translation to obey the aesthetic concepts of the target language. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 28-30) This theory has inspired later scholars in translation practice and theoretical exploration. Due to the limit of time and history, the translation study should be conducted in a historical context, so we also need to evaluate Yan Fu’s translation thought and translation works historically.

===Lin Shu===

1. Introduction

Lin Shu(1852-1924) is a traditional Chinese literatus and translator, most famous for introducing the Western literary works into China in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Though being ignorant of foreign languages, Lin Shu collaborated with different interpreters and translated more than 180 western literary works, mostly novels, from England, the United States, France, Russian, Switzerland, Belgium, Spain and Norway, etc. into classical Chinese in his lifetime. (Zhu Yu 2008, 3-7)

Because of his ignorance of foreign languages, Lin seldom concerned himself with the original or with the equivalence of any sort. What he cared about most was the functions of his translation works. In Lin’s opinion, to translate books is to enlighten the mind of our people in a contest against foreigners. In his foreword to ''Yilin Monthly'', he stated:

“The inferiority of Asia to Europe can be attributed to the fact that the Europeans are daily intent on learning whereas the Asian peoples moon away in a stupor or, jealous of the European learnings and slandering them as eccentric extremity, throw themselves into blind combats, fancying of victory. That is the so-called landlubber swimming against the good swimmer. As for me, to enlighten the mind of our people, we must begin with the establishment of schools. But the schools work steadily and slowly, so timely speeches in academic associations are preferable. Considering the inconveniences in preparing speeches, translating books becomes the ultimate choice.” (Chen Fukang 1992, 133)

2. Translation Methods

Lin Shu knew no foreign languages, so he had to cooperate with a collaborator who was familiar with foreign languages and worked as an interpreter for him. Though he was an efficient translator, he didn’t come up with any significant translation theories. Having said that, during his translation process, there were four translation methods that he mainly used, which include omission, addition, alteration and adaption. (Chen Jianyong 2013, 20)

(1) Omission

In his translation process, Lin deleted some words or sentences for some reasons. Omission is a very common practice in his translation. He deleted some contents for the sake of Chinese literary norms and so as to arose the Chinese reader’s interests. In the late 19th century, Western literature was novel to the Chinese people. As Chinese readers prefer the tradition of story-telling in traditional Chinese fiction like ''The Water Margin'', Lin had to delete the psychological description in the western novel as it has nothing to do with the development of the story.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)

(2) Addition

During his translation, Lin Shu made some additions to polish and improve the original text so as to help the readers to have a better understanding of the original. Being a writer and a good story-teller, Lin excelled in making the translation more interesting and appealing through addition. Even Qian Zhongshu, another Chinese translator and writer, mentioned Lin's addition in his translations: “When Lin Shu found a perceived void in the source text, he would add here and polish there so that the wording in the version was more concrete, the scene more vivid, and the description more substantial.” (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)

For example: The married couple were enjoying their honeymoon... (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 20)

彼夫妇在蜜月期内，两情忻合无间（蜜月者，西人娶妇时，即挟其妇游历，经月而归） (Lin Shu 1981, 3)

Here, Lin translated “honeymoon” literally into Chinese, but to help his readers better understand the Western tradition, Lin made a specific explanation of this word. Addition is quite a common phenomenon in Lin's translations. He took the readers into consideration, which makes his translation popular in China. In the meantime, he broadened the horizon of his readers and narrowed the gaps between Chinese and Western cultures.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)

(3) Alteration

Due to the social and cultural differences between the source and target languages, alterations are inevitable. Hence Lin Shu made some compensation or replacement in his translation. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)

For example: The slanting light of the setting sun quivers on the sea-like expanse of the river; the shivery canes, and the tall, dark cypress, hung with wreaths of dark, funeral moss, glow in the golden ray. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 23)

日脚斜穿云罅而出，直射江上芦港。芦叶倒影，万绿荡漾于风漪之内，景物奇丽，江光如拭。 (Lin Shu 1981, 4)

Lin Shu made the alteration considering the Chinese readers' aesthetic tendencies. Although Lin Shu changed the word order of the original, the style and literary effects of the original are reproduced.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)

(4) Adaptation

Considering the Chinese culture and the readers' acceptability, Lin Shu had to retranslate or rewrite the original text, which is similar to domestication. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)

For example: On which Mr. Micawber delivered a eulogium on Mrs. Micawber's character and said she had ever been his guide, philosopher, and friend and that he would recommend me, when I came to marrying time of life, to marry such another woman, if such another woman could be found. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 18)

密考泊遂历称其妻嘉言懿行，为世贤女，能相夫教子，共处患难，且谓余曰：“汝论娶者，所娶亦当如吾妻。惟不审闺秀中更有贤类吾妻否?” (Lin Shu 1981, 3)

In Lin's time, the wife had a very low status. For her, the most important responsibility was to take care of the husband and rear the children. So here in Lin's version, it was rewritten according to Chinese feudal ethics. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)

3. Case Analysis

Example 1: In that pleasant district of merry England which is watered by the river Don, there extended in ancient times a large forest, covering the greater part of the beautiful hills and valleys which lie between Sheffield and the pleasant town of Doncaster. The remains of this extensive wood are still to be seen at the noble seats of Wentworth, of Warncliffe Park, and around Rotherham. Here haunted of yore the fabulous Dragon of Wantley; here were fought many of the most desperate battles during the Civil Wars of the Roses; and here also flourished in ancient times those bands of gallant outlaws, whose deeds have been rendered so popular in English song. (Ivanhoe 2009, 25)

Translation 1: 英国东河流域之内，前此有大树林，踞歇非儿、东加斯德二城之间，楼橹雉堞，均为树荫所被。至今老树凋残，尚有一二根株在焉。相传古来有神龙窟蟠其地。当时玫瑰之战，兄弟争立，即以此地为战场。而绿林豪客，仗侠尚义，亦据为寨。至今诗人歌曲恒举其事，播为美谈。 (Lin Shu 1981, 5)

Translation Analysis: In this translation, Lin translated the original text in classical style, which was more acceptable to his readers at that time. Instead of translating the word literally, he even translated the “Dragon of Wantley” and “gallant outlaws” into “神龙窟蟠” and “绿林豪客” respectively, which are two positive phrases. （Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 49）

Example2: Here the door opened, and a small quadroon boy, between four and five years of age, entered the room. There was something in his appearance remarkably beautiful and engaging. His black hair, fine as floss silk, hung in glossy curls about his round, dimpled face, while a pair of large dark eyes, full of fire and softness, looked out from beneath the rich, long lashes, as he peered curiously into the apartment. A gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid, carefully made and neatly fitted, set off to advantage the dark and rich style of his beauty; and a certain comic air of assurance, blended with bashfulness, showed that he had been not unused to being petted and noticed by his master. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 5)

Translation 2: 门辟，陡入一稚子，约四五岁，貌绝慧黯，雏发未燥，笑处辄动微涡，两目精光耿然。见海留，意殊骇。海留见其服饰之善，心知此奴必为主。 (Lin Shu 1981, 1)

Translation Analysis: There are many descriptive words in this example like “a gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid”, “the dark and rich style of his beauty”, and etc., which makes the sentences more appealing and attractive. However, considering the Chinese literary norm, Lin Shu translated all these phrases into “服饰之善”, which is much more concise compared with the original one. (Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 49）

4. The Criticism of Lin Shu’s theory

During the 1917-1919 New Culture and May Fourth movements, Lin Shu was severely criticized and his popularity suffered badly. Many scholars deemed Lin as an unfaithful translator and there exists non-correspondence between his translations and their sources as they thought he deleted and edited the source texts at will, which violates the principle of “faithfulness”. “In Lin Shu’s opinion, however, retelling the story is more important than acting as a faithful intermediary between the writer and his Chinese readers.” (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 38-39)

In the meantime, his translation changed Chinese people’s disregard of foreign literature. During the late 19th century, the intellectuals in China lacked interest to learn from the West.They even thought that they had nothing to learn from there in the areas of art and literature. And Lin was the first translator who introduced such famous writers as Shakespeare and Charles Dickens to Chinese readers. With the help of Lin’s translation, those intellects and the younger generation began to eliminate their prejudice against the Western literature and realized its value. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 39-41)

===Similarities and Differences Between Yan Fu and Lin Shu===

Being two famous translators in the late Qing Dynasty, Yan Fu and Lin Shu achieved remarkable success in translation theories and practice, both of whom played critical roles in China. And there are several similarities and differences between them. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)

After the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War, Yan Fu started to translate western works so as to introduce western advanced culture to Chinese people. Yan once stated that he wants to serve the nation through translation. Lin Shu, however, started his translation out of interest. But as time went by, he also translated western books to enlighten Chinese people. Therefore, we can say that both of them tried to save the nation through translation. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)

Besides that, Yan Fu had a higher contribution than Lin Shu in terms of translation thoughts. He is known for “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which is one of the most outstanding translation theories in China while Lin Shu didn’t come up with a systematic translation theory during his lifetime. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)

Furthermore, as Yan Fu had an opportunity to study abroad while Lin Shu learnt Chinese traditional Confucianism, Yan had a better understanding of western culture. Meanwhile, most of the western works Yan Fu translated were about social science, he was the first person who introduced western social science in the 19th century to all Chinese people. As for Lin Shu, who was especially famous for novel translation, translated ''La Dame aux Camélias'' and was well-received by Chinese readers. They are quite different in terms of translation works. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1-2)

And as for translation theories, Yan Fu once put forward faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. He attached great importance to faithfulness and believed that being faithful to the original text is of great importance during translation. And this translation theory helped people to know more about western society and culture. Meanwhile, Lin Shu preferred faithfulness, too, but during the translation, he tended to delete those unnecessary words and sentences so as to help readers have a better understanding of the text. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1-2)

To sum up, while Yan Fu and Lin Shu are similar to each other, they are quite different in some aspects. However, both of them made great contributions to Chinese translation and left a profound impact on later translation theories. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 2)

===Conclusion===

During the 19th century, Chinese people’s lives were filled with untold suffering. Being the two great translators, Yan Fu and Lin Shu had made great contributions to not only the nation but also the whole world. The principle of Yan Fu stands as one of the most significant translation theories in China, which guided numerous translators and scholars as well of later generations. Meanwhile, Lin Shu’s translation works broadened people’s horizon at that time, enriching their lives as well as eliminating their prejudice against Western literature. Although there are several shortcomings in their translation thoughts and translation works, they had a far-reaching influence on future generations. Until now, there are still many scholars that analyze and learn from their translation theories.

===References===

* Charles Dickens. (2008). David Copperfield. Oxford University Press.

* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (1992). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [Draft of Chinese translation theory]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.

* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). ''中国译学史'' [A History of Chinese Translation]. Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House 上海人民出版社.

* Chen Jianyong 陈建永. (2013). 从《黑奴吁天录》看林纾的翻译策略 [A Study of Lin Shu’s Translating Strategies: Taking Uncle Tom’s Cabin as an Example]. 山东大学 Shandong University 20-36.

* Ernest Hemingway. (2016). The Old Man and the Sea. Beijing: Affairs Press知识出版社.

* Gao Xiaopeng 高晓鹏. (2017). 严复翻译标准——“信达雅”再思考 [Yan Fu’s Translation Standard: A Rethinking of “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”]. 四川外国语大学 Sichuan International Studies University 1-2.

* Harriet Beecher Stowe. (2008). Uncle Tom's Cabin. Oxford University Press.

* Huang Yuanshen. (2011). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Nanjing: Yilin Press 译林出版社.

* Li Changbao, Shao Bin 黎昌抱, 邵斌. (2013). ''中外翻译理论教程'' [Translation Theory: A Coursebook]. Hangzhou: Zhejiang University Press 浙江大学出版社.

* Lin Shu 林纾. (1981). ''撒克逊劫后英雄略'' [Ivanhoe]. Shanghai: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.

* Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 欧阳利锋, 尚敏锐. (2002). 以西方观点解读二十世纪中国翻译理论 [Twentieth--century Chinese Translation Theory Against the Background of Western Views]. 语言与翻译 Language and Translation (01) 1-3.

* Sun Yanyu 孙演玉. (2019). 经典儿童小说的复译与信、达、雅——以《老人与海》为例 [Retranslation of Classical Children’s Fiction and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance: Taking The Old Man and the Sea as an Example]. 英语广场 English Square (04) 2-3.

* Walter Scott. (2009). Ivanhoe. Signet Classics.

* Wang Rui, Wei Shengxin 王蕊, 韦生鑫. (2020). “信、达、雅”翻译原则在文学翻译中的应用.[Analysis of the Application of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in Literary Translation]. 吉林化工学院学报 ''Journal of Jilin Institute of Chemical Technology'' (10) 1-4.

* Wang Shi 王栻. (1986). ''严复集'' [Yan Fu Ji]. Shanghai: Zhonghua Book Company 中华书局.

* Wang Tao 王涛. (2016). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Qunyan Press 群言出版社.

* Wu Yingli, Li Yan 吴萤丽, 李艳. (2018). 严复与林纾: 中国近代两大翻译家的对比 [Yan Fu and Lin Shu: A Comparison Between Two Chinese Modern Translators]. 开封教育学院学报 ''Journal of Kaifeng Institute of Education'' (09) 1-2.

* Yu Guangzhong 余光中. (2010). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Nanjing: Yilin Press 译林出版社.

* Zhang Ailing 张爱玲. (2015). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Beijing October Arts and Literature Publishing House 北京十月文艺出版社.

* Zhang Chiheng 张炽恒. (2015). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Beijing Institute of Technology Press 北京理工大学出版社.

* Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 张政, 彭发胜. (2007). ''中西翻译理论简明教程'' [A Coursebook of Chinese and Western Translation Theories]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.

* Zhu Yu 朱瑜. (2008). 林纾的翻译和时代 [Lin Shu’s Translation and His Time]. Beijing: 中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Studies (05) 3-7.

--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 07:00, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

='''Comparison of Translation Theories'''=

==Comparison Of Translation Theory Between Yan Fu And Tytler 陈涵 Chen Han 202070080580 MTI 英语笔译==
<center> Chen Han 陈涵 202070080580 </center>

===Abstract===

Yan Fu and Tytler are outstanding translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. Tytler's “Three Principles of Translation” and Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are representatives of the most important translation theories. It is believed that the two theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. Although they lived in different times, their theories were quite similar which aroused much controversy. This paper will expound “Three Principles of Translation” and “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and focus on the similarities and differences between these two theories in terms of content, theoretical basis and culture. It aims to figure out the relationship between the two theories, better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a dialectical perspective, thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.

===Key Words===

Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Three Principles of Translation; Yan Fu; Tytler

===题目===

严复与泰特勒的翻译理论比较

===摘要===

严复与泰特勒分别是中西方翻译史上的杰出翻译家。严复的“信达雅” 与泰特勒的“翻译三原则”分别是中西翻译史上最重要的翻译理论之一，对翻译理论与实践方面有着广泛深刻的影响。严复与泰特勒二人虽处于不同的时代，但他们的翻译理论却十分相似，从而引起许多争议。本文将系统阐述二人的翻译理论，从这两种理论的内涵、文化背景和理论基础等方面比较二者的相似点和不同点。这种做法有助于理清两个理论之间的关系，更好的将翻译理论应用于翻译实践，并主张我们辩证看待中西方翻译理论，从而使翻译研究更具有系统性与科学性。

===关键词===

信达雅；翻译三原则；严复；泰特勒

===1. Introduction===

In the history of translation, many outstanding scholars and translators have emerged both in China and in the West. They have never stopped discussing translation, and most of them have systematically summarized translation standards (Xu Baoqiang & Yuan Wei 2001, 162). In ancient China, many translation thoughts and translation theories emerged, including Shi Daoan’s “Five Instances of Losing the Source and Three Instances of Difficulties” and Xuan Zang’s “Five Guidelines for Not-Translation a Term” (Martha P.Y. Cheung, 2006). Later, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” appeared successively. Prominent representatives of Western translation theory include five elements of translation put forward by a French linguist Etienne Dolet in the 16th century, seven rules of translation put forward by a German translation theorist Martin Luther, three principles of translation by a British translation theorist Tytler in the 18th century, semantic translation and communicative translation of Newmark in the 20th century, and the dynamic equivalence of Nida (Tan Zaixi 2004, 213).

In this process, Chinese and Western translation theories developed independently in a relatively isolated state. It was not until about the beginning of the 20th century that initial exchanges and dialogues have begun. Translation standards are the core issue of translation theory and practice. At the beginning of the exchange, the translators were concerned about it (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 201). At the end of the 18th century, Tytler proposed three basic principles for translation and evaluation of translation, which had a great impact on later translation theorists. More than 100 years later, Yan Fu’s translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” was put forward (Di Dongrui 2012, 132). This chapter will discuss two representative translation theories from China and the West — Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation", and analyze the two theories from the historical and cultural background and their theoretical basis. Through comparison, we can grasp the similarities and differences between the two theories, so as to contribute to translation studies and guide future translation practices.

===2. An Overview of the Two Theories===

Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation" have had a profound impact on the history of translation at home and abroad. If we compare and analyze the two theories, we must first correctly understand the connotation of each theory.

====2.1 Yan Fu’s "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance"====

Yan Fu was a Chinese scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas. His three translation principles—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance first made its appearance in Yan’s preface to his own translation of T. H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'' (Liu Miqing 2012, 1).

“Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (''xin''), expressiveness (''da'') and elegance (''ya''). Faithfulness is difficult to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by Shipping, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so.” (Luo Xinzhang & Chen Yingnian 2009, 202)

In his words, the three principles indicate that the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression in the target language and elegant in style. Faithfulness emphasizes the fidelity to the original. Yan believes that the translator cannot begin his work until he has mastered the connotation of the original text. Expressiveness stresses the fluency and acceptability of the translation. As for elegance, Yan holds that dictation without elegance cannot reach far. So far, elegance has led some discussions in the study of translation. (Fan Yun 2007, 97)

Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and his own translation practices, Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” which has become the fundamental tenets of 20th Chinese translation theory. (Liu Miqing 2012, 1)

====2.2 Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation"====

Alexander Fraser Tytler is an eminent British translation theorist. In 1790, he proposed three principles of good translation in his book, ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. When it comes to a good translation, he described that the merit of the original work is so completely transfused into another language, as to be as distinctly apprehended, and as strongly felt by a native of the country to which that language belongs, as it is by those who speak the language of the original work (Tytler 2007, 8-9).

According to his description of good translation, it can be easily seen that Tytler has attached great importance to mastery of ideas in the original texts. Therefore, he put forward three principles on the basis of good translation: (1) That the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; (2) That the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original; (3) That the Translation should have all the ease of original (Tytler 2007, 9).

The first principle is that the translation should be faithful to the content and ideas of the original. The second principle is that the translation should be faithful to the form and style of the original. The faithfulness to the style is not limited to the equivalence of the original style or subject, but consistent with the original author’s personal writing style and the background of the corresponding period. The third principle is to emphasize that the translation should be as natural and smooth as the original writing do. From Tytler’s point of view, the order of these three principles is appropriate and natural, and it is arranged by importance. If translating a text, one cannot pursue the smoothness and elegance at the cost of ignoring the ideas in the source language. (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)

The appearance of Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation" laid a good foundation for Western translation studies. And it is not only a very important milestone in the history of British translation theory, but also the entire history of Western translation theory. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 132)

===3. The Social and Theoretical Background of the Two Theories===

Due to the rapid development of social production, the increasing prosperity of the economy and the increasing number of educated people, more and more people have demands for reading, writing and translation (Tan Zaixi 2004, 84).

====3.1 The Social Background====

The emergence of new theories is often related to the prevailing translation practice at that time. Tytler lived in the 18th century. The rise of the industrial revolution and the further development of modern technology have highlighted the importance of translation, especially the demand for scientific and technological translation, which has increased dramatically during this period. In addition, Renaissance and classicism occupy the main position in the literary field, which also played a role in promoting the development of translation activities. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)

Yan Fu had a solid foundation in Chinese when he was young and then he learned from Wu Rulun, a master of the Tongcheng School, acquiring a rich knowledge of ancient Chinese. In 1877, Yan Fu studied in the United Kingdom to delve deeply into the Western society, and began to come into contact with some important Western classics (Chen Fukang 2010, 91). As a result, profound research on Chinese and Western culture and language has laid a good foundation for Yan Fu’s translation career.

At the end of the 19th century, China suffered from internal and external troubles. The Sino-Japanese War of 1894 to 1895 was an important turning point to Yan Fu. He realized that the backwardness of China included political, economic, social and ideological factors, so that he believed that learning from the West could help the country get rid of the predicament. The political purpose of Yan Fu’s translation was quite clear. He wanted to arm the minds of scholar-officials. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)

In addition, A large number of people with lofty ideals realized that the only way to save the country was to learn advanced political ideas, economic systems and democratic ideas from the West. Under this circumstance, translation may be the best way to bring those to China, which also promoted the second translation climax in the history of our country. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)

====3.2 The Theoretical Background====

Both “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and "Three Principles of Translation" were proposed on the basis of other translation theories or thoughts (Di Dongrui 2012, 132). In other words, Yan Fu and Tytler learned from their predecessors and put forward their ideas.

Like many translation theories in the 18th century, Tytler’ s "Three Principles of Translation" was influenced by some ideas from outstanding translation theorists. Etienne Dolet, a French linguist and translation theorist, proposed translation principles in ''La manière de bien traduired d’une langue en autre'' in 1540: The translator must fully understand the content of the original text; the translator must be proficient in both the source language and the target language; the translator must avoid translating word by word, because word-by-word translation is detrimental to convey the original meaning and aesthetic value; the translator must use popular language form; the translator must make the translation produce the appropriate effect by choosing proper words and adjusting the order of them. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 70-71)

John Dryden was a prominent translator in the 17th century and he put forward a number of translation principles and views. From his perspective, translation is an art; translators should master the characteristics of the original; target readers should be taken into consideration; translators need to absolutely follow the original meaning; translation can be divided into three types—metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation (Tan Zaixi 2004, 120-122). It is easy to find that Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation can be partially derived from his theories.

“Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is also not new. The basis of it can date back to the Three Kingdom Period. During the Qing Dynasty, there was another translation theorist, Ma Jianzhong, who was ignored by the public. Before Yan Fu’s translation principles made its first appearance, Ma Jianzhong put forward three requirements for good translations in ''On the Establishment of Translation Academy'': The translator is proficient in foreign languages and Chinese, and knows the similarities and differences between the two languages; the translator should fully understand the meaning, spirit and style of the original text and express these accurately in the translation; there should be no difference between the translation and the original text. That is, the translation and the original are the same. (Chen Fukang 2010, 77-78)

It is shown that Ma Jianzhong sets a high demand for translators which can be summarized by “faithfulness” (''xin''). This word includes not only the faithfulness to the original text and the translation, but also the consistency in style and spirit. Therefore, compared with Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Ma Jianzhong’s requirements are more comprehensive. However, his translation theory is not as influential as Yan Fu’ principles. Generally, speaking, there are two reasons. One is that Ma is a grammarian, not a translator. The other is that he did not do any translation practice. (Fan Yun 2007, 98)

From the analysis and comparison of Tyler's and Yan Fu’s social and theoretical background, it can be seen that both of them are affected by political, economic, cultural and other factors. And both of them were influenced by the previous translation theories and put forward their theories similar to the previous ones. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)

===4. Similarities and Differences Between the Two Theories===

====4.1 Similarities====

Although Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation" were not put forward during the same era, the two theories could be found some common ground (Di Dongrui 2012, 132).

By comparing the content of the two theories, three similarities can be found. Firstly, both Yan Fu and Tytler emphasize the importance of faithfulness, namely the fidelity to the original. From their perspectives, it is necessary to convey the meaning or ideas of the original text. They both agree that a translator should put faithfulness first. Secondly, both Yan Fu and Tytler stress the importance of fluency and acceptability of translation. Yan believes that a translation which is faithful but not expressive is no translation at all. And in the third principle of Tytler’s theory, all the ease of the original text is highlighted which refers to the translation should be natural, fluent and readable. In other words, translators need to regard their translating process as a re-creating one. It requires that they not only convey the ideas of the original but also make their words smooth and readable. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)

====4.2 Differences====

Both Chinese and Western translation theories have a long history. At the very beginning, they almost developed independently. It was not until the early 20th century that the two theories began to communicate. As the focus of translation theory research, translation standards have attracted many scholars at the beginning of their exchanges. Some scholars believe that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is extracted from Ttyler’s “Three Principles of Translation”, which is a copy of Ttyler’s translation theory (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 681-687). In fact, there are indeed similarities between the two theories literally. But a deeper look will present the difference between the two.

=====4.2.1 Differences in Content=====

In the previous chapter, we have discussed the similarities literally in terms of the content. However, the two theories are not quite similar. First of all, the most prominent characteristic of Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is the semantic vagueness (Liu Junbiao 2009, 221). He did not clearly define the three. If “faithfulness” includes the style of the work, the word ''xin'' can cover all the content of Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation". In Yan Fu’s opinion, “faithfulness” is the core, and achieving the principles of “expressiveness” and “elegance” is on the basis of the core. As for Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation", although they are arranged by importance, the principles are not presented to tell which one is the most important (Di Dongrui 2012, 132).

Yan Fu’s “faithfulness” and Tytler’s first principle focus on different scopes. According to Yan Fu’s point of view, the translator should accurately reproduce the ideas of the original work, and he also emphasizes the important role of understanding. But Tytler’s “that the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work” (Tytler 2007, 9) discusses the fidelity from three aspects: meaning, form and language. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133)

In addition, the main difference between their translation principles is the translation technique and style (Fan Yun 2007, 97). Tytler’s second principle and Yan Fu’s “elegance” both discuss this issue. In Yan Fu’s opinion, “elegance” refers to use elegant words, especially the words before the Han Dynasty. This is a special method used by Yan Fu in a specific historical period to attract specific target readers and achieve specific translation purposes. The “elegance” explained by later generations is equivalent to “consistency in technique and style”, which has actually deviated from Yan Fu’s original intention. But Tytler’s “style and manner of writing” refers to a broad sense. He believes that an outstanding translator should be able to quickly identify the characteristics of the original author’s writing style and apply this style to his translation. In other words, the translation should correspond to what kind of writing style the original work is. (Tytler 2007, 9)

=====4.2.2 Differences in Cultural Origin=====

Yan Fu and Tytler are in different cultural backgrounds, and the formation of their theories have their own cultural characteristics.

It is believed that Yan Fu’s theory of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is deeply rooted in traditional Chinese cultural origin. As we all know, Chinese translation has a long history, and the discussion of translation standards has been recorded in Zhi Qian’s ''Preface to the Translation of he Dharmapada''(''Faju jing xu''). He emphasized that although Jiangyan (将炎) was good at the language of India, he was not necessarily versed in Chinese. Thus, in his translations there were either Sanskrit expressions literally rendered or simply literal transliterations. (Martha P.Y. Cheung 2006, 57)

Zhi Qian used to dislike Jiangyan’s work for lack of elegance. Weidinan (维祗难) argued that the translation of Buddha’s words should be adherent to the meaning, disregarding rhetoric, and we should retain its Dharma, free of rigidity. Those who translate should stress on transparency without losing the original meaning, hence good translations. Laozi said that beautiful words are not faithful and faithful words are not beautiful. And Confucius believed that words fail a book and senses fail a form. What a saint said is the profound of the profoundest. Therefore, Zhi Qian argued that when translating sutras, we should follow the original import without using ornate words. (Martha P.Y. Cheung 2006, 59-60)

It can be seen from the above that traditional Chinese translation theories often appear in the form of prefaces, which are relatively fragmented and conforms to the characteristics of Chinese people’s emphasis on perceptual thinking rather than rational analysis, and personal perception rather than logical reasoning (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 202). In addition, it can prove that Yan Fu’s translation principles are not new but put forward on the basis of some thoughts from the ancients. We can see that theories similar to “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” have appeared in the past.

Chinese translation theory is closely related to the words of sages and classic literary theory so that translation theorists often use the words of the ancients to make arguments or the aesthetic standards in literary theory to evaluate good translations. On the one hand, it embodies the inheritance of classical translation theory which advocated the ancients, and on the other hand it reflects the profound literary tradition of classical translation theory. It can be seen that the principles were put forward by Yan Fu in the preface to his own translation of T. H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'', which is consistent with the traditional Chinese tendency to place important points in the preface. In the era when Yan Fu lived, people greatly respected the words of the ancients. The language of Yan Fu’s translation theory is as concise as the traditional literary theory, and the connotation is profound. It often brings endless speculation for future generations with uncertain meaning. (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 202)

Different from the Chinese cultural accumulation carried by Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, western translation theories pay much attention to the inherent continuity (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 202). In western culture, people emphasize rigorousness in language so that they treat translation as rigorously as science. Scholars have studied on translation standards for a long time and their generalization of standards is much more systematic (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203).

Eticnne Dolet was the relatively early one who summarized the translation standards systematically. He put forward four principles of a successful translation. Then came Martin Luther’s “Seven Principles for Translation”. An in the 18th century, Charles Batteux, a French translation theorist, put forward twelve rules in ''Principes de littérature'' for dealing with issues such as word order in translation. Compared with the 17th century, although some achievements have been made in the study of translation theory in the 18th century, substantial progress has not been made and some research just focused on the theory of Dryden in the 17th century. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 127)

However, at the end of the 18th century, there was a breakthrough in the history of translation theory. Theoretical research was no longer limited to scattered viewpoints and methods, and monographs on translation issues have begun to appear comprehensively, scientifically and systematically. The first to bring this breakthrough was the translation theorist George Campbell (Tan Zaixi 2004, 127). Before Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation" appeared, he had put forward the three principles of translation for the first time: translation should accurately reproduce the meaning of the original work; on the premise of conforming to the characteristics of the target language, translation should try to transplant the spirit and style of the original author as much as possible; the translator should make the translation as natural and smooth as the original. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 128)

From the discussion of translation standards by many translation theorists above, we can see that Western translation theories are rigorous in thinking and clear in expression as a whole. They represent a unique academic spirit and character, which deeply reflects the inherent continuity of their thinking and methodology of Western translation theories (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203). According to the previous discussion, it can be found that there is an obvious relationship between Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation and Dryden’s translation theories. The two theories from Yan Fu and Tytler are from different cultures, featuring Chinese and Western signs respectively.

=====4.2.3 Differences in Thinking Patterns=====

Translation itself is a complex practical activity, and it has a close relation with the way of thinking. The huge differences between Chinese and Western historical and cultural traditions and thinking habits are reflected in language that has such characteristics: Chinese people pay attention to understanding in the way of expression, focusing on grasping things through intuitive understanding of the whole. Chinese are not as good at logical reasoning and experimental argumentation as Westerners. (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 202)

The consciousness of subject and object has always been prominent in western thought (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203). Tytler’s framework of his principles tends to be rational and aims to seek the truth, while Yan Fu’s framework tends to be perceptual and aims to be practical. In the historical context of the Enlightenment, Tytler inherited rationalism of the European continent, thus his three principles of translation all reflected the speculative, logical and systematic nature of philosophy. When he discussed the three principles of translation, they were clear, progressive, and well-organized, but they were too fragmented, ignoring the internal connection. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133)

When it comes to Yan Fu’s proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, although it refers to three simple words in Chinese, it condenses the traditional Chinese doctrine of the golden mean and profoundly embodies the influence of traditional culture on the research of translation theory (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203). Compared with Western translation theories, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” includes more humanistic spirit and pays more attention to humanistic care. Although Yan Fu’s translation theory lacks logic, organization and system, its refined and implicit artistic conception bring endless imagination for future generations. If people want to understand “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” comprehensively, it is necessary to have an understanding of the thoughts from our ancestors. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 221)

=====4.2.4 Differences in Motivations=====

When it comes to their motivation, the times where Yan Fu and Tytler lived have a huge impact on their translation studies. Tytler was in a relatively comfortable environment, and the society at that time was relatively relaxed and free, making it possible for him to learn for the sake of academics. Tytler put forward the three principles of translation only for theoretical research, not for practical purposes. (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 203)

However, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” came from the enthusiasm of waking up the world and saving the country. The old China where Yan Fu lived suffered from internal and external troubles. The social and historical environment enabled him to spread Western learning through translation. The works translated by Yan Fu were all Western classics. They either promoted natural selection, survival of the fittest, or explained human rights, democracy and freedom. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)

Undoubtedly, reading Yan Fu’s translations became a major way for Chinese intellectuals and even the whole society to learn the development of the world. The target readers of these translations were the increasingly decadent feudal ruling class and intellectuals. Feudal thoughts were deeply ingrained in their minds, and they could not immediately accept the advanced thoughts of the West. As a translator, Yan Fu put forward the standards of Faithfulness Expressiveness and Elegance on the basis of summarizing traditional Chinese translation theories. He used the language of Han and Tang dynasties to promote the Western democracy, so as to make the feudal scholar-officials easy to accept. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) It can be seen that “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” reflects Yan Fu’s desire to save the country and his awareness of difficulties and risks.

In addition, a misunderstanding should be mentioned. After Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” made its first appearance, many scholars gave it various titles such as translation principles, translation standards and translation norms. As a matter of fact, Yan Fu did not describe it as standards or norms. He only realized that there were three requirements difficult to fulfill from his own translation practice. In his opinion, the difficulties of translating were also the ''dao'' (道) of problem-solving (Liu Miqing 2012, 1). Therefore，Yan’s ''dao'' of translation was expressed by “translation principles” in the West. To a certain extent, people tended to regard Yan Fu’s propositions as translation standards, thus deviating from Yan Fu’s motivation.

In short, by comparing the content, cultural origins, thinking and motivation of the two theories, we can see that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation" are quite different. In other words, although the two theories are very similar in terms of forms, they are quite different in essence.

===5. Significance of the Comparison===

Generally speaking, different translation principles are essentially the same for they are all determined by the nature of translation (Fan Yun 2007, 98). In a broad sense, translation is a bridge for international communication. It involves the source language and the target language or the original text and the translated text. No one can deny the extraordinary contribution of translation in exchanging ideas, spreading knowledge, and enhancing intercultural communication. As an ancient activity, translation has a history of more than 3,000 years in China and has been popular in the West for more than 2,000 years (Tan Zaixi 2004, 2). Although the translation principles put forward by translators and translation theorists seem to be different, they are essentially the same and cannot be mentioned without translation itself. (Fan Yun 2007, 98)

Through comparison, we can realize the characteristics and development of their translation principles respectively. The Chinese and Western translation principles are the same on the macro level, but different on the micro level. The differences are mainly determined by the characteristics of the Chinese and Western languages and do not reflect the subjective wishes of people. Both the traditional Chinese and Western translation theories focus on faithfulness or truth. They are based on the original texts, and at the same time do not neglect the reception of the readers and the artistic and aesthetic value of the translated texts. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133)

Through the analysis between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s theories and their development, we can know that Chinese and Western translation principles present a diversified pattern of development, but the West seems to be more open in terms of research ideas and academic view. Western theorists place translation in the multi-dimensional space between the original text and the target text, and they are good at analyzing from different perspectives. What’s more, Western theorists have comparatively strong awareness in theory. Any research is carried out under the guidance of a certain theory, making full use of the achievements of related subjects to make translation principles and research methods become truly diversified. (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 203) Therefore, the achievements of translation research in the West are more fruitful.

However, we must learn from each other. In fact, there is no gap between Chinese and Western translation theories. Although the study of translation theory in the West is earlier than that in China (Tan Zaixi 2004, 1), we should not belittle ourselves. The development environment of Chinese and Western theories is different so that the theories put forward are definitely different. Through comparison, we can grasp advanced Western theories, and with Western theories as a reference, we can avoid detours and make progress in Chinese translation theories.

===Conclusion===

This chapter compares the similarities and differences between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s theories by reviewing the theories of them and pointing out social and theoretical backgrounds of their theories. The translation theory is often closely related to cultural background, theoretical background and way of thinking. From the above analysis, it can be seen that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation are different in specific content, cultural origin, theoretical basis, way of thinking and motivation. If these differences are not analyzed and pointed out, it is easy to think that the two theories are roughly the same.

The comparison between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s translation principles gives us the following enlightenment: When studying Chinese and Western translation theories, we must correctly understand the advantages and limitations of traditional Chinese translation theories, and we cannot ignore the achievements of other countries. We should actively absorb the achievements of western translation theories on the basis of developing the traditional Chinese translation theories to make contributions to the translation studies.

===References===

* Alexander Fraser Tytler. (2007). ''Essays on Principles of Translation''. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.
* Martha P.Y. Cheung. (2006). ''An Anthology of Chinese Discourse on Translation''. London/New York: Routledge.
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). ''中国译学史'' [History of Chinese Translation] Shanghai: Shanghai People's Publishing House 上海人民出版社.
* Di Dongrui 狄东睿. (2012). 论“翻译三原则”与“信达雅” [On the Three Principles of Translation and "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance"] ''海外英语'' Overseas English (06) 132-133.
* Fan Yun 樊云. (2007). 泰特勒和严复翻译原则的比较 [A comparison of the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu] ''宿州教育学院学报'' Journal of Suzhou Education Institute (02) 97-98.
* Liu Junbiao 刘俊标. (2009). 辨析严复“信达雅”说与泰特勒翻译三原则 [Discussing Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and Tytler's Three Principles of Translation] ''经济研究导刊'' Economic Research (09) 220-221.
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2012). ''中西翻译思想比较研究'' [Translation Thinking: In China and in the West] Beijing: China Translation&Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版有限公司.
* Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋. (1984). ''翻译论集'' [On Translation] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.
* Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 罗新璋, 陈应年. (2009). ''翻译论集'' [On Translation] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.
* Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 任庆亮, 邓晶晶. (2016). 严复“信达雅”与泰特勒翻译三原则的比较 [A comparison of Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and Tytler's Three Principles of Translation] ''太原城市职业技术学院学报'' Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College (05) 201-203.
* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short History of Translation in the West] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.
* Xu Baoqiang, Yuan Wei 许宝强, 袁伟. (2001). ''语言与翻译的政治'' [The Politics of Language and Translation] Beijing: Central Compilation&Translation Press 中央编译出版社.
* Zhao Meiguo 赵美国. (2011). 从思维方式看严复与泰特勒翻译原则比较 [A comparison of Yan Fu and Tytler's translation principles from a mindset perspective] ''海外英语'' Overseas English (02) 203-204.

--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 11:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

== Comparison between Nida and Newmark 李丽丽 Li Lili NO.202070080594 MTI 英语笔译==

===Abstract===

Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark are famous representatives of the Western linguists. Their translation theories are based on linguistics. Nida puts forward the famous "dynamic equivalence" theory and "functional equivalence" theory, which has made outstanding contributions to the translation of the Bible. Newmark devotes himself to teaching and puts forward some famous theories such as semantic translation, communicative translation and relevance translation. Their translation theories have many similarities and differences. This paper will make a systematic comparison from the same and different points and represent my own views on their advantages and disadvantages.

===Key words===

Nida; Newmark; similarities; differences

===摘要===

尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是著名的语言学家。他们的翻译理论建立在语言学的基础上，奈达提出了著名了“动态对等”理论和“功能对等”理论，为翻译《圣经》做出了杰出贡献。纽马克一声致力于教学工作，由此提出了著名的“语义翻译”，“交际翻译”，“关联翻译”等理论。他们的翻译理论有诸多相同之处和不同之处。本论文将从相同以及不同之处来进行系统综合的比较，并就其优缺点提出自己的看法。

===关键词===

奈达；纽马克；相同；不同

===Introduction===

====Eugene Nida====

Eugene Nida is a famous American linguist, a biblical research and a translation expert, as well as one of the outstanding representatives of the western contemporary translation theory research center. Nida's academic activities and achievements are multifaceted, but Nida's main theoretical contribution is that he helps to create a new attitude towards different languages and cultures, so as to improve the language communication and understanding among human beings. （Liao Qiyi 2000，85）

He thinks that what can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another. Different languages and cultures can communicate with each other by searching for translation equivalents and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of information in an appropriate way. With the help of linguistic achievements, Nida has made a descriptive rather than a normative study of various subjects in translation studies, and made a serious discussion on the problems that may be encountered in the theoretical research and practice of translation. His thoughts can be roughly divided into three stages: first， descriptive linguistics; second, communicative theory; third, social semiotics.（Liao Qiyi 2000，85）

=====The Stage of Descriptive Linguistics=====

At this stage, Nida publishes a series of works and articles on the study of English syntax and gramma. Besides, he tries to clarify the structural nature of language through the description of syntax, morphology and language translation. He is greatly influenced by the American structuralist school. In language research, he attaches much importance to the collection and analysis of language materials and collects many examples of differences between different languages. However, he does not regard these differences as insurmountable barriers between languages, but as different phenomena of their same nature. （Liao Qiyi 2000，86）

=====The Stage of Communication Theory =====

Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill, but also a science. Its so-called science refers to the scientific way to deal with language structure, semantic analysis and information when there are problems in translation. Nida applies information theory to translation studies and believes that translation is communication and judgment. Whether a translation activity is successful or not depends on whether it is understood by the receiver or whether it can play the role of communicating thoughts, information and feelings. Nida points out all languages in the world have the same ability of expression and that the first task of translation is to make the readers understand the translation clearly. （Liao Qiyi 2000，87）

That is to say, the translation should be fluent and natural, so that readers can easily understand it even if they do not have the cultural background knowledge of the original language. This requires that in the process of translation, we should use as few rigid words in the source language as possible and use as many expressions as possible coming from the target language. For example, in the language without snow, “白如雪” may be confusing, so we had better change it into something as white as frost or as white as egret hair. （Liao Qiyi 2000，87）

According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language message” (Tan Zaixi 1984,10). Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translators cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, they should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. （Liao Qiyi 2000，88）

And in response to questions like how and what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers have the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. （Liao Qiyi 2000，88）

For example, “black tea” can be literally translated into “黑茶”，but it should be translated into“红茶”to achieve equivalence. Another example: “The old man was the worst form of unluck.” because “worst form” is used to modify “unluck”, it can be translated into “这个老人倒霉到了极点。” instead of “这个老人是倒霉的最高形式。” Such examples achieve lexical equivalence.

=====The Stage of Social Semiotics=====

At this stage, he describes his theory as follows: first, based on the translation theory of social semiotics, he emphasizes that everything in the text has meaning, including language form, which means form cannot be easily overlooked; second, rhetorical features of language play an important role in language communication and should not be underestimated; third, it is to replace the dynamic equivalence theory with the functional equivalence theory in order to make the meaning of the terms clearer and easier to be understood.（Liu Junping 2009,143）

====Newmark====

Peter Newmark is a famous translation theorist and educator in Britain. He has devoted his whole life to the teaching of translation between English and German or English and French. He has made a lot of research on translation theory, applied the research results of cross-cultural communication theory and modern linguistics to translation practice, and made a brilliant exposition on translation theory, teaching translation, linguistics and translation skills. As a result, he puts forward the famous communicative translation and semantic translation method, and then puts forward the correlative translation method, which indicates that his translation theory is becoming more and more systematic and perfect. （Liao Qiyi 2000，123）

Most of his views are reflected in the papers published in the past 20 years. Communicative translation and semantic translation theories, which have a great influence in the field of translation, were introduced into China as early as the 1980s and have aroused great repercussions in the fields of Chinese translation. He focuses on the past and present of western translation studies, states the views of various schools, and then puts forward his own opinions. He is a typical practical theorist. The purpose of his research on translation theory is to solve the practical problems in translation, and he always discusses translation from the details. （Liao Qiyi 2000，123-124）

The classic Romance of the Three Kingdoms writes: “谋事在人，成事在天”. There are two versions for this sentence, which are "man proposals, heaven disposes." and "man proposals, God disposes." Although the translated versions are short, they fully reflect the different translation strategies of translators. In Chinese traditional culture, "heaven" dominates the nature, while in the western world, what controls nature is not heaven, but God. Therefore, different cultural concepts are deeply rooted in the hearts of people in the East and the West. (Hu Aiping 2014,81)

In the first version, the translator translates "天" into "heaven", which faithfully retains the Taoist concept of the original language culture and conveys the meaning of the original text; while the later translation transforms the Taoist concept into Christian culture familiar to westerners on the basis of "communicative translation" strategy, so that the translated version is more acceptable to western readers. (Hu Aiping 2014,81)

For another example ”grandmother”, when it is translated into Chinese, we can put it into”奶奶” or “外婆” according to real situation. That is because people in western culture do not pay much attention to relationship between family members. And they view father’s mother and mother’s mother as the same. By contrast, Chinese have long held the view that families are quite important, especially those sharing the same surname. We often suppose we come from the same family with “奶奶” rather than “外婆”. As a result, we tend to believe that we have a more intimate relationship with father’s mother than mother’s mother. So we need to distinguish “奶奶” from “外婆”.

===Similarities and Differences===

====The Similarities Between the Theories by Nida and the Theories by Newmark====

=====Both Are Translatable=====

Nida believes that "translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style. " (Nida 1969,1）Newmark thinks that: "translation is to take the meaning of a text into another language according to its original author." (Newmark 1988,21) Nida's and Newmark's translation theories have similar theoretical basis, and they both think that there are similarities between different languages. Nida's translation theory is "Anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another Language. " (Nida 1969,4）He believes that although different nationalities have different languages and cultures, yet the commonness is more than the individuality. Because language of any nation can be used to describe the objective world. No matter what the language form is, the object can be basically reflected. (Lin Minyu 2008,61)

In his "About Translation" , Newmark also points out clearly that “the every layer of meaning can be interpreted in the original text, so everything is translatable. “(Newmark 1991,28）Therefore, both Nida and Newmark recognize translatability in different languages. At the same time, they both realize that translatability is limited because it is impossible to achieve absolute equivalence. In the process of translation, a certain degree of meaning will be missing, so one of the most important tasks of the translators is to minimize the loss after language conversion. (Lin Minyu 2008,61)

=====Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status=====

Newmark's text category theory divides the text into three categories. Among them, the appealing text thinks readers are the most important, putting readers in the first place, and taking full account of readers' needs, knowledge level and background. Newmark also divides readers into experts, ordinary educators and illiterates. Nida, on the other hand, believes that the success of a translation activity depends on whether it can be accepted by the target readers. The target readers are object of translation services. Nida also divides readers into children readers, primary readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)

For example, for the phrase“鱼米之乡，丝绸之府”, when translated into “the land of rice and fish, and the home of silk”, it may cause confusion among western readers who have no idea what is the meaning of “the land of rice and milk”. Therefore, in order to arouse the similar reaction between the target readers and the original readers, it is better for the translators to change it as follows: "a land of honey and milk", which is in line with British and American culture. In this way, western readers and Chinese readers will be able to respond to the phrase in the same way, so as to achieve the purpose of conversion. (Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 2010(1),41-)

Another example: “济公劫富济贫，深受穷苦人民爱戴。” It is translated into" Ji Gong, Robin Hood in China, robbed the rich and helped the poor and was deeply loved by the poor people". In this case, the translator compares Ji Gong to the hero Robin Hood in western countries. When western readers see Robin Hood, they would have roughly the same reaction as Chinese readers. (Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 2010(1),41-42)

=====Both Constantly Develop Their Theories=====

Nida and Newmark are real theorists. In their own translation practice, they constantly improve and perfect their own theories. In his initial interpretation of dynamic equivalence, Nida highlights the idea of "content first, form second". This has caused people's misunderstanding so that they think translation is only the content of translation, without considering the form of language expression. Therefore, all kinds of free translation are characterized by dynamic equivalence. Later, in his book From One Language to Another, he changes "dynamic equivalence" into "functional equivalence". In functional equivalence, Nida further defines "information", stating that information includes not only ideological content but also linguistic form. The translation of functional equivalence is not only the equivalence of information content, but also the equivalence of form as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),108)

What’s more, Nida makes a further elaboration on "functional equivalence" and hence "the highest level of equivalence" and "the lowest level of equivalence" are proposed. In short, the highest level of equivalence refers to a high degree of equivalence in the translation, which makes the response of the target language readers and that of the source language readers basically the same when they appreciate and understand a text. But this is almost impossible. Equivalence at the lowest level refers to the full equivalence of the translated text, so that the target language readers can appreciate the source language readers' understanding for the original text. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),108)

Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are prone to bringing misunderstanding and criticism. Therefore, Newmark later puts forward "correlative translation". In the past, he believed that language, linguistics and text typology were the main themes of text study. It does not need to always consider the text, discourse, author, reader, source language and target language. （Fang Mengzhi 2011, 534）

But by summarizing the translation activities, he finds that translation is mainly reflected in the details of the text processing, that is, when the text is adjusted and changed, there will be under translation. If the metaphor is converted or not translated, there will be over translation. So the method of translation should not only depend on the whole text. The definition of "correlative translation" is that the more important the language of the original text or the target text is, the more closely it should be translated.（Fang Mengzhi 2011, 534）

====The Differences Between the Theories by Nida and the Theories by Newmark====

=====Different Definition of Translation=====

Translation, as an independent discipline, should first answer the question of what is translation? Nida points out: "the so-called translation refers to the reproduction of the source language information in the receiving language with the most appropriate and natural equivalence from semantics to style" (Nida, 1969:1). Newmark's interpretation of translation is: "translation is to translate the meaning of a text into another language in the way the original author intends. " (Newmark, 1988:21) After comparing the two definitions, it can be seen that Nida emphasizes "equivalence", "information", "meaning" and "style", while Newmark focuses on "meaning" and "text". （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）

Nida's definition seems to be more comprehensive and specific than Newmark's, but throughout their theoretical systems, we realize that the actual starting point of the two definitions is different. On the basis of semantics and information theory, the former emphasizes the communicative function of translation. Although "information" includes "meaning" and "style", it only exists at the level of communication. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）

On the contrary, the latter emphasizes "textual meaning", which is complex, multi-level and rich. Therefore, it can be said that "text-oriented theory" is the pillar of Newmark's translation theory framework, while Nida's theory is "functional equivalence" at its root. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）

=====Different Nature of Translation=====

The nature of translation has been long discussed. Both Nida and Newmark have changed in their understanding of whether translation is a science or an art. Nida's understanding of translation has gone through a process from regarding translation as a science to viewing it as an art. In the second stage of Nida's translation theory- communicative theory stage, translation is a science, which is a scientific description of translation. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88)

At the same time, he also admits that the description of translation can be carried out at three functional levels: science, skill and art. In the third stage of Nida's translation, that is, the stage of social semiotics, he tends to see translation as an art. He believes that translation is an art at its root, and excellent translators are born with it. Meanwhile, he changes the original "translation is science" into "translation research is science". In the 1990s, he proposed that translation is basically a skill. He believes that translation is not only an art, but also a science and a skill. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88)

Newmark's understanding of translation has also undergone some kinds of changes. At first, he believes that translation is not only a science but also an art and a skill. Later, he thinks that translation is partly a science, a skill, an art. He divides language into standard language and non-standard language. He says that translation is a science, because there is usually only one correct translation method for standard language, and there are rules to follow, which shows that translation is scientific. This is really true in technical terms.（Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88)

By contrast, there are many correct translation methods in non-standard language. How to choose the appropriate translation method depends on the translator's own vision and ability, which reflects the nature of translation as an art. But the translation must also be scientifically tested to avoid obvious mistakes in content and wording, and the style should be natural. As a result, although Newmark believes that translation is a science, he thinks with a lack of unified and all-round systems in current translation theories, there are no scientific translation. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）

=====Different Translation Theories=====

The core of Nida's translation theory is equivalence theory, including formal equivalence and functional equivalence. Formal equivalence, with the source language as its center, requires to reproduce the form and content of the original text. The equivalence theory pays more attention to readers' reflection and requires the closest and most natural response in order to make the target readers and the original readers get the same information as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)

The center of Newmark's translation theory is semantic translation and communicative translation. In his opinion, translators should adopt different translation strategies according to different types of texts. Semantic translation is mainly used to translate expressive texts (such as literary works, essays, autobiographies and personal letters). Communicative translation is mainly put into translating informative texts (such as academic papers and teaching subjects, books, newspapers, etc.) and appealing texts (such as advertisements and notices). (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)

Semantic translation, from the perspective of the original texts, demands the author pays attention to the meaning and form, and keeps the style and features of the original text as far as possible. Communicative translation takes the target readers as the starting point and focuses on the effect of the translation on the readers. As a result, appropriate rewriting or adaptation is allowed in the translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)

=====Application for Different Kinds of Text=====

Nida puts forward "formal equivalence" and "dynamic equivalence" in guiding the practice of Bible translation, but he really advocates the latter one and believes that dynamic equivalence is applicable to all text types. Nida's translation theory focuses too much on the intelligibility and communicability of the translation, which limits its application. It is reasonable to emphasize the intelligibility of the translated version in the translation of the Bible and similar original works aimed at expressing information. However, if it is used in literary translation, it will inevitably lead to the simplification of language and the loss of literary charm. So it has only been applied to some specific texts. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)

Newmark points out that the translation method should depend on different text types. He divides the text into expression function, information function and calling function. On the one hand, in the texts with expressive function, such as literary works and private letters, the priority is to express the meaning, and the form and content of language are equally important, so semantic translation should be mainly adopted. On the other hand, texts with information function, such as textbooks and academic papers, whose core is the real world outside the language, should adopt communicative approach; For texts with calling function, such as notices and advertisements, its core is to call on readers to act and think, so communicative approach should be put into use. Therefore, we can see that Newmark's translation theory is more applicable than Nida’s. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)

=====Different Attitudes towards Translators=====

When seeing translation as an art, Newmark puts forward the following three requirements that an brilliant translator should be equipped with: first, one should be able to master rich vocabulary and various sentence patterns, and be excellent in writing elegant, lively and concise articles in the aspect of native language; second, be proficient in foreign languages, and have abilities to distinguish common sayings from original ideas and innovations; third, be able to express the meaning obtained from the original works with accurate wording. Thus, Newmark believes that good translators can be developed through hard work. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 89）

However, Nida doesn’t agree with him. He thinks that most translators with outstanding achievements and creative spirit seldom use translation theory. In fact, he thinks that only those who can't do translation well do translation theory. Outstanding translators are born, not made. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 89）

=====Different Level of Emphasis on Readers' Response=====

Although Newmark thinks that readers' acceptance should be taken into account in the process of translating informative texts and appealing texts, but the reader is only a part of the translation criteria. During translating expressive texts, it is necessary to ensure the "sacred status of the original author", and different readers may have different understandings and reactions to a text because of their different educational level, mode of thinking and cultural background. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)

On the contrary, Nida believes that the reader's response is the only criterion to judge whether the translated version is good or not. This is because, from the perspective of information theory, he believes that "translation is communication". If the original information cannot be fully transmitted to the target text in the process of translation, the translation activity will not be successful. It can be seen that Nida pays more attention to reader response than Newmark. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)

===My Views on Their Theories===

Before the new translation principles were put forward, translation was mainly divided into literal translation and free translation. Functional equivalence theory by Nida and semantic translation and communicative translation strategies by Newmark have exerted great influence on the western translation circles. Their theories end the endless debate between literal translation and free translation in the west, and provide a new perspective for the guiding translation practice. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131 )

The principle of "dynamic equivalence" plays an important role in guiding the translation of the Bible. It can also be applied to the translation of some texts that mainly convey information. However, it overemphasizes the communicative nature of the translation, so it has certainly limitations. If applied to literary translation, it may lead to the loss of literariness. One of the defects of Nida's functional equivalence is that the translator not only changes the original information according to his own understanding, but also covers up the cultural differences between different languages. He equates translation with simple language conversion and blurs the cultural characteristics of language. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131)

For example, due to the different geographical locations between China and Britain, their monsoon and wind direction are not the same, and hence there are also differences between their translations. Chinese poems mainly praise east wind while English poems focus on west wind. For example, for “东风破早梅，向暖一枝开” and “小楼昨夜又东风，故国不堪回首月明中”, “东风” should be converted into “west wind” in order to achieve equivalence. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131)

Besides, the absence of culture-loaded words is another defect of functional equivalence. As we all know, the concepts expressed by culture-loaded words in the source language may not correspond to those in the target language because many English words are derived from religious allusions. In the sentence "John can be relieved on. He eats no fish and plays the game", “eat no fish “comes from the following allusion: in the era of Queen Elizabeth in England, in order to show their loyalty to the government, the Jesuits refused to abide by the anti-government Rome Catholics’ habit of eating fish on every Friday, so “eat no fish” means loyalty. " (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 132)

There are a lot of allusions from the Bible in English. But if you don't understand its symbolic meaning, you may be confused. For example: “thirty pieces of silver” means getting money from betraying others and “apple” means temptation. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 132)

Newmark's greatest theoretical contribution is communicative translation and semantic translation, and he believes that all translation is both semantic translation and communicative translation to a certain extent, which makes up for the defects of Eugene Nida's theory. Newmark advocates that communicative translation and semantic translation should not be viewed in the same way, but should be combined together. Actually, during translating an article, the two are often used together. At the same time, determining the type of text before translation is helpful to select appropriate translation methods. (Newmark 2001, 40)

However, there are following limitations for his communicative translation: first, the translator has an imaginary reader in his mind. If he wants to conform to the readers’ expression habits, his expression will get out of the original form or meaning; second, it is difficult to determine to what extent basic information is simplified and emphasized, because the knowledge and emotion of readers are difficult to define; third, it is not objective to examine a text only through the readers’ reaction. (Newmark 2001, 40)

===Conclusion===

There is no universally applicable theory in the world. Nida and Newmark have been developing their own theories. We should treat them dialectically. It is undeniable that Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are very rich in content and have practical value for the majority of later translators. But we should also see the shortcomings of these theories. We should extract their essence and then we will further study and learn more valuable things in practice of translation and further improve our translation theory. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)

===References===

*Tam Jae-hee 谭载喜.(1984).''奈达论翻译'' [Nida on Translation] 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing: [China Foreign Translation and Publishing Company]
*Liao Qiyi 廖七一.（2000). ''当代西方翻译理论探索''[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory] 译林出版社[Translating Forest Press]
*Liu Junping 刘军平.（2009). ''西方翻译理论通史''[Translation and translation] 武汉：武汉大学出版社Wuhan: [Wuhan University Press]
**Fang Mengzhi 方梦之.（2011). ''中国译学大辞典'' [Dictionary of Chinese Translation] 上海：上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai: [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 534
*Lin Min-yu 林敏煜.（2008). 浅议纽马克与奈达翻译理论之异同 [The similarities and differences between Newmark and Nadar translation theories] ''文教资料''[Journal of Translation and Education] 61-62
*Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 崔建周，卢静.（2006). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较 [ A Comparison of the Translation Thought of Eugene Nadar and Peter Newmark ] ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Higher Commercial College] 106-108
**Xu Xianghui 徐向晖.（2010). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想之对比探讨[A Comparative Discussion of the Translation Thought of Eugene Nadar and Peter Newmark] ''漯河职业技术学院学报''[Journal of Luohe Institute of Vocational Technology] 88-89
*Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 杨山青，饶家林.（2010). 奈达与纽马克的翻译理论在旅游资料翻译中的运用[The Application of Neda and Newmark's Translation Theory in the Translation of Tourism Materials] ''黔西南民族师范高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Qianxi Southwest China's National Teachers College] 41-42
*Hu Aiping 胡爱萍.（2014). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译理论对比研究[A comparative study of Eugene Neda and Peter Newmark's translation theory ] ''铜陵学院学报'' [Journal of Tongling College] 81
*Wang Xiaodan 王小丹.（2009). 奈达的功能对等论及其评价[Naida's functional equivalence theory and its evaluation] ''陕西师范大学学报''[Journal of Shaanxi Normal University ] 131-132
*纽马克 Newmark.（2001).翻译问题探讨[Exploring Translation Issues] 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]
*Eugene A. Nida. (1986). ''From One Language to Another'' Thomas Nelson Incorporated
*Eugene A. Nida. (1964). ''Towards a Science of Translating'' Leiden: E. J. Brill
*Eugene A. Nida, (1969). Charles Taber. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill
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*Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Text Book of Translation'' London: Prentice Hall International (UK)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:44, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==A Study On The Division Of Western Translation Theories - 刘柳 Liu Liu, 202070080596 MTI==

<center>刘柳 Liu Liu </center>

===Abstract===

Western transaltion theories have been paid more and more attention in modern times and will be of graet help and value to our translation practice and further development of transaltion.Western translation theories have a strict methodology, precise theoretical description, delicate and qualitative and quantitative analysis. Western translation studies have flourished with a variety of translation schools and outstanding translators after the World War Ⅱ, as well as a great many of translation thoughts, translation methods, and views of research.Based on this background, this paper discusses and analyzes a great number of schools of western translation theories, its representative translators and their representative works, and expresses opinions on the significance and value of western translation theories from a historical perspective.

===Keywords===

Western translation theories; translation schools; translation theorists

===题目===

西方翻译理论划分之研究

===摘要===

西方翻译理论在现代受到越来越多的关注，其对我们的翻译实践和翻译的进一步发展有很大的帮助和价值。西方翻译理论具有严谨的方法论、精确的理论描述、细腻的定性和定量分析。西方翻译研究在二战后蓬勃发展，出现了各种翻译流派和优秀的翻译家，也出现了大量的翻译思想、翻译方法和研究观点。本文基于此背景，讨论并分析了西方翻译理论诸多流派及其代表人物和代表译作，并从历史的角度对西方翻译理论的意义和价值陈述相关意见。

===关键词===

西方翻译理论; 翻译流派; 翻译理论家

===Ⅰ.Introduction===

Throughout the development of Western translation studies in the past 30 years, there are many transaltion schools and excellent translators. Western translation theorists had different points of view towards the division of western translation theories. Peter Newmark divided the development of translation theories by major translation activities. According to the development of translation thoughts, Nida divided western translation into philological translation, linguistic translation, communicative translation and socio-semantic translation.(Nida 1984, 9-15)

According to George Steiner, the study of Western translation theories has gone through four periods: 1) from classical translation theory to the publication of the "three principles of translation" by Tytler and Campbell at the end of the eighteenth century, 2) from Schleiermacher to the middle of the twentieth century, 3) from the post-war period to the 1970s, marked by the rise of the translation linguistics school, represented by Nida, Mounin and Catford, 4) from the 1970s to the present, marked by the emergence of new schools of thoughts and the flourishing of interdisciplinary research.

Liu Miqing basically adopts this classification method. Tan Zaixi divided western translation into six periods: 1) the beginning of the fourth century B.C., 2) from the late period of Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, 3) the Middle Ages, 4) the Renaissance, 5) the modern translation period, i.e., from the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, 6) from the period after World War II to the present. E. Gentzler divided modern translation theories into five schools based on translation thoughts, which is The American Translation Workshop, The Science of Translation, Early Translation Studies, Polysystem Theory and Deconstruction.

Western translation theories research realizes the transition from linguistics to literary, and to culture and science of international politics. Accordingly, the trend of translation research has changed from the source language text to target language text, from the prescriptive to the descriptive, and the status of target language text has changed from inferior to the source language text to be equal to it,and in the end, more important than the source language text, and the status of translator has changed from less important than the author of source language to play a decisive part in translation activities and so on.(Pan Wenguo, 2002)

Li Wenge analyzed and studied eight schools of translation, including the literary theory of translation, the linguistic school, the translation studies school, the Hermeneutics, the deconstruction, the American Translation Workshop, the French interpretive theory, etc. The literary theory of western translation includes: the literary theory of western translation before the 20th century, such as the literary theory of Russian translation, the literary theory of translation in the former Soviet Union, and the literary theory of western translation in the 20th century.

The linguistic school of translation includes the Prague School of Jakobson, the London School of Catford and Newmark, the American Structuralists of Quine, the Communicative Theory of Nida and Wilss, the German Functionalists translation theory of Nord, and the Soviet Linguistic School of Federov and Barkhudarov. The Translation Studies school includes the Early translation Studies school of Holmes, the Polysystem Theory of Even-Zohar, the Descriptive Translation Studies of Toury, the Cultural School of Lefevere and Bassenett, the Integrated School of Snell-Hornby, Feminism, "Cannibalism", and post-colonial translation studies.

The Hermeneutics includes two ways of translation of Schleiermacher, the hermeneutic model of translation of Steiner, and the hermeneutic view of understanding of Heidegger and Gadamer. The deconstruction of translation includes the idea of "différance" deconstruction translation of Derrida, the idea of "pure language" deconstruction translation of Benjamin, and the deconstruction translation strategy of Venuti. The American Translation Workshop includes the theoretical foundation of Translation Workshop of Richards, detailed translation theory of Pound, contradictory view of translation of Will.

The French interpretative theory includes the basic problems of interpretative theory, translation procedure, translation evaluation criteria, interpretative theory and translation teaching. From the ancient Roman Empire to the European Union, from the establishment of nation-states to the foundation of the United Nations, cultural (including philosophy, literature, art, science, technology, etc.) exchanges between countries and political and economic exchanges and communication have been increasingly expanded and strengthened through the participation of translators.(Tan Zaixi 2004,15)

===Ⅱ.The division of western translation theories===

====2.1 Translation in Ancient Times====

The history of Western translation started in the third century B.C. The translation activities in ancient Rome was the first great upsurge in the history of Western translation, with a distinctive literary character. In the late Roman Empire, religious translation gradually became the mainstream of the western translation. In a broad sense, the earliest western translation was the translation of ''Old Testament'', i.e. ''Septuagint'', which was translated by 72 Jewish scholars in Alexandria, Egypt, between the third and second century B.C.. Strictly speaking, the first western translation work was the Homer's Epic ''Odyssey'' translated in Latin by Andronicos in Rome around the middle of the third century B.C..(Tan Zaixi 1991, 4)

=====2.1.1 Marcuss Tullirs Cicero=====

The earliest theorist of translation in the West was Marcuss Tullirs Cicero in the Roman Empire. He first made a distinction between translation as interpreter and translation as orator. He wrote in Volume 5, Chapter 14 in ''De Optimo Genere Oratorum'', "...And I did not translate them as an interpreter, but as an orator, keeping the same ideas and the forms, or as one might say, the 'figures’of thought, but in language which conforms to our usage.And in so doing , I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language. For I did not think I ought to count them out to the reader like coins, but to pay for them by weight, as it were.(Robinson 1997, 9)

Cicero viewed translation from the perspective of a rhetorician and an orator. Translation as interpreter is a translation without creativity, while a translation as orator is a translation that is creative and comparable to the source language text. In this way, Cicero set the seal on the two basic methods of translation, thus pioneered in the field of theory and methodology of translation studies. Subsequently, the history of western translation theories has developed centred on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-by-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy.

=====2.1.2 Quintus Heratius Flaccus=====

Quintus Heratius Flaccus was deeply influenced by Marcuss Tullirs Cicero in the aspect of literary criticism and translation theory, he insisted that translation should be flexible, and opposed word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation. He also believed that translation should be "sense for sense". At the same time, Heratius advocated to create new words or introduce foreign words in creation and translation when necessary in order to enrich the national language and enhance the expressive power of the work. He advocated that "a translator who is faithful to the original text is not fit to translate word for word". This sentence is often quoted to criticize those of literal translation by those of free translation."(Tan Zaixi 1991, 26).

=====2.1.3 St. Jerome=====

St. Jerome is considered one of the four leading theologians in the West, who was proficient in Hebrew and Latin, and was fond of Latin literature.He translated ''The Vulgate'' in the late Roman Empire and proposed that literary translation and religious translation should be treated differently, arguing that when translating ''The Bible'', literal translation should not be used in the whole text, but mainly in literal translation.But in literary translation, translators could and should convey the meaning of the original text in an understandable style, so as to use one's own style and language to make the translation as beautiful as the original text. It is a good idea to use a combination of literal transaltion and free translation.

=====2.1.4 St. Augustine=====

St. Augustine did not translate many works, only revised some parts of ''The Vulgate'', but his translation theories are extremely valuable, which can be mainly found in ''On Christian Education'', as well as several interpretations of the ''Psalms'' and two letters, one of which is to his son Adeodatus.He believed that a good translator must be proficient in two languages, familiar with the material to be translated and have the ability to revise. He suggested that people should use "simple", "elegant", or "sacred" style according to different readers.

He related the style of target language text to targeted readers, holding that people should use "simple" style when translating enlightment texts, use "elegant" style when it comes to texts praising the God, and use "sacred" style to translate texts with the characteristic of exhortation and guidance. He quoted the "semiotics theory" of Aristotle and emphasized the triangular relationship of the "significatio", "sonus" and "judgment" in translation. He is regarded as the originator of the linguistic school in the history of western translation, whose theories have exerted profound influence on linguistics and translation studies.

====2.2 Translation in the Middle Ages====

Between the eleventh and twelfth centuries A.D., Western translators gathered in Toledo, Spain, to translate a large number of works from Arabic into Latin. As a result, Toledo became the center of European academic world (similar to the "Translation Institute" in Baghdad), its translation and academic activities has continued for more than a hundred years with far-reaching effects.

=====2.2.1 Manlius Boethius=====

Manlius Boethius contributed not only to translating and introducing Greek philosophical thoughts, but also to translation theories. His views can be mainly found in the preface to the translation of Porphyrius's work (Kelly 1979, 71, 134-135, 204, 222-224), which can be summarized as follows: 1) Content and style are contrary, either style or content can be preserved. 2) Translation is centralized on objective things, and the translator should abandon subjective judgment. In the translation of some works, what the translator seek is accurate content rather than elegant style. Therefore, in order to express "truth without error", the translator should use word-for-word translation.

=====2.2.2 Dante=====

Dante held a pessimistic view on translation in his work ''The Banquet'', holding the view that poetry is untranslatable. The significance of this viewpoint strated the long debate on translatability and untranslatability of literary translation in the history of western translation, and at the same time, it drew people's attention to the organic connection between poetry and language in poetry translation, which was very helpful for future generations to establish the correct principles of poetry translation. Don Quixote, the protagonist in the Spanish writer Cervantes's novel ''Don Quixote'', held the similar point of view.

====2.3 Translation in Renaissance====

The Renaissance Movement that took place in Europe from the fourteenth to the sixteenth centuries was a major movement of intellectual and literary innovation, it was also a major development in the history of Western translation. Especially in the sixteenth century and the period afterwards, when the Renaissance Movement was widespread in Western European countries, translation activities reached an unprecedented peak, involving various fields such as thought, politics, philosophy, literature and religion, covering major works of ancient times and contemporary times, and a large number of outstanding translators and a series of excellent translation works emerged at that time.

=====2.3.1 Martin Luther=====

Martin Luther was a German translator and the leader of Religious Reform. His translations of ''The New Testament'', which was written in Greek and ''The Old Testament'' written in Hebrew were published in 1522 and 1534 respectively, and his translation of ''The Bible'' in German became the model of German, exerting an unprecedented influence on the development of the national language in German. In addition, his translation of ''Aesop's Fables'' is also of high literary value. His outstanding contributions to translation theories can be summarized as follows: First, he held the view that people should translate in a language that is straightaway and easy to understand, and is acceptable to the public.

He insisted on the humanistic view of language, believing that different languages cannot be equated absolutely in terms of structure and vocabulary. Since the target readers of The Bible is the public, "we must use authentic German instead of Latinized German." (Tan Zaixi 1991, 81), and get rid of the traditional principles that ''The Bible'' can only be translated in Latin, "let the prophets of ''The Old Testament'' use natural German." (Nida 1984, 10) Secondly, Luther believed that the form, style, and spiritual essence of the original text can only be reproduced in free translation to some extent. Thirdly, translators should respect the original text, understand its spiritual essence in depth, and should not be credulous about the traditional explanations of priests.

In order to reproduce the spiritual essence of the original text, the translator can add some meanings which are implicit between the lines but not literally Fourth, translators ought to put heads together. Finally, he proposed seven principles that translators should follow: they can change the word order of the original text; they can use modal particles; they can add conjunctions; they can omit words; they can substitute words with phrases; they can replace metaphor with non-metaphor and vice versa; and they should pay attention to the variation of words and the accuracy of translation. (Tan Zaixi 1991, 83)

=====2.3.2 Etienne Dolet=====

Etienne Dolet was the first person who put forward translation theory in a systematic way in the history of modern western translation. Apart from several translations and monographs on Greek and Latin, his contributions to translation can mainly be reflected in his famous paper ''La manière de bien traduire d'une langue en autre'', which was published in 1540. The paper was short but innovative, and the issues involved have already been connected to the matters of principle which were raised by later translation theorists.

The basic principles of translation he listed in his paper were as follows: 1) The translator must fully understand the content of the texts to be translated. 2) The translator must have a good knowledge of source language and target lanuage. 3) The translator should avoid word-for-word translation, which can not express the original meaning of the text accurately and the sense of beauty of the language. 4) The translator must translate in an understandable way. 5) The translator must make the target language text an appropriate one through diction and adjustment of word order.

====2.4 Translation in the Early Modern Times====

After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, Western translation kept on moving forward. Although in terms of scale and influence, translation in this period was not as good as that of the Renaissance, a large number of excellent translation works emerged. Its most important character was that translators not only continued to translate classical works, but also developed a great interest in modern and contemporary works. The works of great writers such as Cervantes, Shakespeare, Balzac, and Goethe were repeatedly translated into various languages, and translations of Oriental literature came out one after another.

=====2.4.1 John Dryden=====

John Dryden was a famous poet, translator and translation theorist, whose contributions to translation exceeded that of his predecessors and other contemporaries, with a large number of translation works and systematic theories. His most well-known translation work is Virgil's ''Aeneid'', which was published in 1697. In his numerous papers and prefaces, he clearly put forward comprehensive and systematic views of translation.

First of all, translation is an art, translators must have the temperament of an artist, a keen appreciation of art and a rich expressive power, only in this way can they grasp and reproduce the artistic features of the original text. Secondly, translators must consider target readers. When translating dialects, translators should focus on the fact that whether target readers can accept and understand it or not, and can appropriately borrow some foreign words, but these words should be carefully considered. Thirdly, translators are slaves of the original author, "only working in other's manor, fertilizing and pruning the grapes, but the wine is for the master's". (Tan Zaixi 1991, 153)

Finally, he roughly divided translation into three categories: metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation,arguring that imitation was close to creation, which broke away from the original text. Therefore, he advocated paraphrase that emphasizes the meaning while neglects the linguistic form. His division of translation broke through the limitations of traditional classificationof translation, i.e. free translation and literal translation, which was a major development in the history of western translation and was of great significance.

=====2.4.2 Alexander Fraser Tytler=====

Alexander Fraser Tytler's translation theories and thoughts can be mainly found in the book ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. In this book, which was the first monograph of western translation theory, Tytler put forward the famous three principles of translation. The translator should be proficient in the language and subject matter of the original work, and completely reproduce the thoughts of the original work. In translation, the translator can limitedly add essential contents to the original work and reduce unnecessary contents that are bad for the original work.

The translator should have the ability to accurately judge and appreciate the style and writing technique of the original work, and imagine how the original author would express himself if he composed in target language to make the style and writing technique of the translation be equal to that of the original work. The translation should be as fluent as the original work. Although the translator is engaged in imitation as well as the painter, the translator can't copy the original's brushwork and use the same colors, instead, he must use his own techniques and another language to express the soul of the original work.

In addition, Tytler believed that poetry can only be translated in the form of poem, idioms can be transformed into meaning and translated in an understandable language, and good translations must make the readers appreciate the merits of the original work and get "the same strong feeling" (Tan Zaixi 1991, 164). The three principles of translation, which are "the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work", "the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original" and "the translation should have all the ease of original composition" became the tenet followed by numerous translators later, and had a positive influence on translation theories in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.

=====2.4.3 Matthew Arnold=====

In modern English translation theories, the debate between Arnold and Newman on the translation of ''Homer's Epic'' is of positive significance. Matthew Arnold put forward his insights in the following six aspects: 1) Translating ''Homer's Epic'' must first clarify the characteristics of Homer. 2) The essential features of ''Homer's Epic'' must be preserved. 3)Translating poem must have the insight of a poet. 4)The translation must resemble a poem. 5)The translation must have the same appeal as the original text. 6)It is the scholars, not the general readers, who test the fidelity of the translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 134-135)

=====2.4.4 Francis W. Newman=====

Newman evaluated Arnold's translation based on his points of view, his viewpoints are as follows: 1) Homer is a poet, and the translation must reproduce him as a poet. 2) The criterion for measuring the translation is mainly the reaction of general readers rather than scholars. 3) The translation is a kind of compromise, and the more outstanding the original work is, the less the translation work can be compared with it. Their differences lie in their respective translation principles, techniques and viewing perspectives, so it is difficult for us to to say which is right and which is better. Their arguments have played an active role in enlivening the academic atmosphere and promoting the study of translation theory from multiple perspectives and multiple aspects.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 135-136)

=====2.4.5 Friedrich Schleiermacher=====

Friedrich Schleiermacher published his paper ''On the Methods of Translation'', which discussed the close relationship between translation and understanding from a hermeneutical point of view, theoretically discussed the principles and approaches of translation.He put forward the hermeneutic proposition of examining semantics, including grammatical interpretation and psychological interpretation, and believed that the translator cannot accept the original work passively, but must create it actively, "and must grasp a 'pre-structure' beyond the text according to the original author's mental process and thought track" (Liu Miqing 1989, 3).

He proposed the differences between interpreting and translation for the first time, believing that interpreting is similar to a mechanical activity, while translation is a creative activity. Similarly, translation can be divided into literary translation and mechanical translation. The former is the translation of works of literature, art and natural science, which requires independent thinking and creativity of the translator, and strong comprehension and expression skills. While the latter involves only commercial and business interpreting, which "can be done with a general command of two languages" (Wells 1988, 24), and is not of high quality because it involves something tangible and clearly defined.

In addition, Schleiermacher divided translation into two approaches: obedience to the original work and obedience to the translation work. The former is to let the readers approach the original author, and the translator only "fills in the blanks where the readers don't understand the language of the original work" (Tan Zaixi 1991, 135), i.e., using literal translation to let the readers understand the meaning of the original work. The translator usually adopts flexible translation and free translation, so that the readers can easily understand the original work.

His thoughts has inspired the classification of prospective and retrospective of Postgate in the twentieth century.Friedrich Schleiermacher's translation theories had a great impact in the 19th century and is still significant even today. Although he was the first theorist to distinguish between interpreting and translation, his views on interpreting were wrong. From the perspective of modern translation theories, interpreting is not a mechanical activity, but also a skill that requires a high level of language expression ability and the ability to recreate, and because interpreting is a kind of simultaneous interpretation, there is no room for careful thinking, and it is even more difficult than translation in many aspects.

=====2.4.6 Wilhelm von Humboldt=====

Wilhelm von Humboldt's translation theory was based on his unique philosophy of language. He believed that language is only the "external manifestation of the spirit of each nation", and that the language of each nation is their spirit, and the spirit of each nation is also their language. Due to the differences of each language, translators are in a dilemma of either following the original tex too closely and losing the charm of their own language, or sticking to their own language and sacrificing the elegance of the original work (Wells 1988, 27-28).

However, Humboldt also suggested that "there is nothing that language cannot express" and that "language is the nature of human, and all languages hold the key to understanding any other languages" (Wells 1988, 29). This dialectical thinking on the issues of translatability and untranslatability, language as system and language as speech act has greatly influenced linguists such as Saussure and Chomsky in the twenties century.

====2.5 Translation in Contemporary Times====

After the World War II, the West entered a relatively stable period, production got developed, the economy gradually recovered, and science and technology were changing day by day. This was the material basis of the prosperity of translation. Due to the evolution of the times, the characteristics of translation have also changed a lot. The translation in the new period differs from that of any period in the past in scope, scale, function and form and has made great progress.

The first change is the expansion of translation scope. While the traditional translation mainly focused on the translation of literary and religious works, the translation in the new period expands to other fields, especially in science, technology and commerce fields.

Secondly, the scale of translation greatly exceeds that of the past. In the past, only a few literary giants worked on translation, but now translation has become a specialized profession, with not only litterateur, philosophers and theologians engaging in translation, but also a specially trained professional team undertaking various translation tasks. Moreover, the function of translation is unparalleled in the past.

Especially after the foundation of the United Nations and the European Common Market, exchanges among Western countries in various fields, such as literature, art, science, technology, politics and economics, have become increasingly frequent and close, and all these communications are carried out through translation, because translation plays an increasingly practical role in the process. Finally, the form of translation has also changed and progressed greatly. The three changes are in fact an important sign of the development of the new period.

=====2.5.1 Roman Jakobson=====

Roman Jakobson was originally from Russia, then moved to the Czech Republic, and then moved to the United States during World War II and became an American citizen. As one of the founders of the linguistic school, his contributions to translation theory is mainly reflected in his article ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation''. From the perspective of linguistics, the article provided a detailed analysis and discussion of the relationship between language and translation, the importance of translation, and the problems in translation. Since its publication in 1959, this article has been regarded as one of the classics of translation studies in western theoretical field.

There are five main points of Jakobson's discussion. Translation is divided into three categories: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The so-called intersemiotic translation refers to the interpretation of some linguistic symbols by other linguistic symbols in the same language, that is rewording. Interlingual translation refers to the interpretation of the symbols of one language into the symbols of another language between two languages, i.e., translation in the strict sense. Intersemiotic translation refers to the interpretation of linguistic symbols by non-linguistic symbol systems, or the interpretation of non-linguistic symbols by linguistic symbols, such as the transformation from semaphore or gesture into verbal expressions.

The understanding of the meaning of words depends on translation. He believed that translation plays a decisive role in the process of language learning and language comprehension. Accurate translation depends on information symmetry. What translation involves is the reciprocal information in two different speech symbols. All languages have equal expressive power. If there is a lack of vocabulary in a language, the language can be processed by borrowing words, creating words or paraphrasing them. The grammatical category is the most complex issue in translation.

=====2.5.2 John Catford=====

John Catford, a linguist and translation theorist of University of Edinburgh, published ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' in 1965, in which he interpreted the previous problems of translation from a novel modern linguistic perspective and created the new approach to the study of translation theory in the West, thus exerting a great influence in Western linguistic and translation theory circles. John Catford used the "Scale and Category Grammar" of the descriptive linguist Han Lide to describe translation.

He focused on the central question of "what is translation" in terms of the nature, categories, equivalence, shifts, and limits of translation. The nature of translation. According to Catford's definition, translation is "the substitution of textual material from one language (source language) for its equivalent in another language (target language)". (Catford 1965, 20-21) The categories of translation. In terms of its extent, it can be divided into "full translation" and "partial translation". In terms of language level, it can be divided into "total translation" and "restricted translation". In terms of the level of linguistic structure, it can be divided into "level restricted" translation and "level unlimited" translation.

The equivalence of translation. It is the center of translation practice and translation theoretical research, and must be explained in two ways. On the one hand, translation equivalence is an empirically based phenomenon that is found on the basis of a comparison between two languages. On the other hand, translation equivalence must make sure that whether the target text and the source text have the same or at least partially the same substantive features. The shifts of translation. It refers to the deviation from formal correspondence when turning the source text into the target text. There are two main types of shifts,which are level shifts and category shifts.

The limits of translation. It refers to untranslatability. There are two types of untranslatability in translation. The first one is linguistic untranslatability, which includes puns and ambiguous grammatical structures. The other is cultural untranslatability which is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs and different backgrounds of the times.

John Catford's translation theory has injected fresh blood into translation studies in Britain and even the West as a whole, and it has advanced the modern linguistic consciousness in the field of contemporary Western translation studies. In a sense, all kinds of contemporary Western translation theories that have emerged so far have benefited from this increased linguistic consciousness. No matter whether, or to what extent and within what limits, his proposition of using the linguistic theory of "Scale and Category" to explain translation problems is effective or not, the proposition itself has made a contribution to the development of contemporary Western translation theories.

=====2.5.3 Eugene A. Nida=====

Eugene A. Nida was one of the most important representatives of the linguistic school who published two famous translation theoretical works ''Toward A Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1964 and 1965 respectively and proposed the concept of "the science of translation", whose theory has made great contributions to contemporary translation studies in the West. He proposed "dynamic equivalence" theory, and then proposed "functional equivalence" theory from the viewpoint of sociolinguistics and communicative function of language.

He proposed the four-step model of "analysis", "transformation", "reorganization" and "examination" of the translation process. His main academic activities in his life were centered on the translation of ''The Bible''. In the process of translating ''The Bible'', Nida developed his own translation theory from a practical point of view, which eventually became one of the classics of translation studies. Nida's most important theory is "functional equivalence" theory,which means that the translation should not seek for a rigid correspondence between words on the surface, but to achieve functional equivalence between two languages.

In this theory, he pointed out that "translation is the reproduction of the information of source language from semantics to style in the most appropriate, natural and reciprocal language" (Guo Jianzhong 2000, 65). The "dynamic equivalence" theory includes four aspects, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, chapter equivalence and stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believed that "meaning is the most important, and form is the second" (Guo Jianzhong 2000, 67).

Form is likely to conceal the cultural meaning of the source language and hinder cultural communication. Therefore, in literary translation, according to Nida's theory, the translator should take the four aspects of "dynamic equivalence" theory as the principle of translation to accurately reproduce the cultural connotation of source language in target language.

=====2.5.4 James Holmes=====

James Holmes is the founder of Translation Studies, and his book, ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies'' (1972), is the founding manifesto of Translation Studies. He first argued that translation theory should arise from the scientific description of the translation process, and then apply the theory to translation practice and translation teaching. The translation of poetry can be regarded as a kind of meta-literature, which is both an evaluation and interpretation of the original work, and at the same time a new and independent literary work itself. Translation studies should focus on the relationships between the translated text and the original work and between the translated text and the target language culture, rather than the traditional equivalence or fidelity.

=====2.5.5 Peter Newmark=====

Peter Newmark is a professor of modern linguistics at the University of Surrey, who is mainly engaged in teaching translation theory and practice. After the publication of his masterpieces ''Approaches to Translation'' (1981) and ''A Textbook of Translation'' (1988), semantic and communicative translation theory has been highly regarded by the translation circles. In 1991, his another famous work ''About Translation'' was published, which collected Newmark's most important translation theoretical findings in recent years. ''Paragraphs on Translation'', which was published in 1991, is a collection of detailed discussions of translation theory, translation teaching, translation linguistics, and translation techniques that were published in the journal ''The Linguist'' from 1989 to 1992.

===Ⅲ.Discussion===

The Western translation theory system consists of two main theories. One is the literature and art translation theory. It is the oldest theory, extending from ancient dramatic translators such as Terrence to modern translation theorists (e.g. Levy in the Czech Republic, Gachechiladze in the former Soviet Union, Steiner in the UK, etc.), and it focused on how to translate literary texts in order to realize literary and cultural exchanges in the ideal sense. In this theory, translation was considered as literarature and art, and the focus of translation was on recreation. The theorists not only discussed the pros and cons of literal translation and free translation, word-for-word translation and flexible translation, but analyzed the purposes and effects of translation.

They also emphasized respecting target language culture, paid attention to the style and literariness of target texts, and required the translators to have a natural literary talent. The other is the linguistic translation theory. It extended from Augustine in ancient times to the structural linguistics school in the 20th century, which closely combined translation theories with the analysis of semantics and grammar, discussed translation in terms of language usage techniques, believing that translation aims to produce a text that is semantically equivalent to the original, and seeked to explain how to produce such semantic equivalence in terms of vocabulary and grammatical structure.

It was more concerned with how to realize the transformation of the words of the two languages in order to convey the information in source language. Looking back at the history of Western translation theories over the past two thousand years, especially the above two main theories constituting the Western translation theory system, we can easily find that, from ancient times to contemporary times, although each period has its own peak of development, on the whole, the contemporary times since the end of World War II in the middle of the 20th century can be regarded as the highest peak of the development of Western translation theories so far.

===Ⅳ.Conclusion===

We should study the outline, changes and development of Western translation theories, and state our opinions on the significance and value of the study of Western translation theories from a historical perspective. On the one hand, we should absorb the relevant contemporary research results at home and abroad, make comments on the representative figures and their representative works, schools of thought and important historical events in Western translation of various historical periods, especially in the 20th century.On the other hand, we should make an in-depth analysis and discussion on the mutual promotion, evolution and the development process of translation practice and translation theory, and elaborate our basic understanding on the nature and direction of the development of translation thoughts and theories.

===References===

Guo Jianzhong.郭建中.(2000).''当代美国翻译理论''. [Contemporary Translation Studies In USA].湖北教育出版社[Hubei Education Press].

Liao Qiyi. 廖七一.(2002).''当代西方翻译理论探索''. 译林出版社[Yilin Press].

Liu Miqing.刘宓庆.(1989).''文体与翻译（第二版）''.[English Varieties and Translation(2nd Edition)].中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation and Publishing Corporation].

Pan Wenguo.潘文国.(2002).''字本位与汉语研究''.华东师范大学出版社[East China Normal University Press].

Tan Zaixi.谭载喜.(1991).''西方翻译简史''.[A Short History Of Translation in the West].商务印书馆[The Commercial Press].

Tan Zaixi.谭载喜.(2004).''西方翻译简史(增订版)''.[A Short History Of Translation in the West(Revised Edition)].商务印书馆[The Commercial Press].

Catford,J.C.约翰·坎尼森·卡特福德.(1965).''翻译的语言学理论''.[A Linguistic Theory of Translation].牛津大学出版社[Oxford University Press].

Nida, Eugene A.尤金·A·奈达.(1984).''论翻译''.[On Translation].中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation and Publishing Corporation].--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 13:19, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

== A Comparison of the Translation Theory of Eugene. A. Nida and J. C. Catford – 陈莎 Chen Sha, 202020080596==
<center>陈莎 Chen Sha </center>
<center>Foreign Linguistics and Applied Linguistics </center>

===Abstract===
This paper made a comparison between Eugene. A. Nida's translation theories and J. C. Catford's translation theories from three perspectives, that is, their linguistic foundations, their perspectives regarding some important concepts such as meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability, and the impact of their translation theories in the realm of translation. Although both of them are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theory, Nida and Catford elaborate their respective translation theories from different perspectives and even the same term has been endowed with different meanings in the two translation theories, thus having different influences on the academic world. A clear grasp of the differences between the two theories will be conducive to the further understanding of translation theory.

===Key words===
Eugene. A. Nida; J. C. Catford; Translation Theory; Comparison

===题目===
尤金•奈达和约翰•卡特福德翻译理论之比较

===摘要===
本文比较了尤金•奈达和约翰•卡特福德各自的翻译理论中所涉及的语言学基础、对意义、形式、对等以及不可译性等概念的观点以及他们的翻译理论对学界产生的影响。尽管同属于西方翻译理论语言学派的代表人物，奈达和卡特福德却分别从不同的角度论述各自的翻译理论，甚至同一个术语在两种译论中具有不同含义的现象也常有见之，因此不免对学界产生了不同的影响。清晰地把握这两种译论中的不同之处，将有利于我们对翻译理论的进一步认识。

===关键词===
尤金•奈达；约翰•卡特福德；翻译理论；比较

===1. Introduction===
Nowadays, it has become an irreversible trend to integrate the translation theory researches into the field of linguistics, which broke through the traditional translation theories and created a new approach to explore them. Nida and Catford are two prominent representatives in this field. As to Nida, he is a famous contemporary American translation theorist, known as the father of modern Western translation theory, with ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''as his major works. As to Catford, he is a famous English linguist and translation theorist, with ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' as his masterpiece.

From what I have mentioned above, it can be seen clearly that both Nida and Catford are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theories. However, in spite of this fact, their respective translation theories are actually based on different linguistic schools. As a result, it is no wonder that they have different understandings and interpretations in terms of the same concept and the acceptability of their respective translation theories are largely varied in the academic world. Therefore, this paper will elaborate the differences of the translation theories between Eugene. A. Nida and J. C. Catford from these three perspectives, namely, their linguistic foundations, their perspectives regarding some concepts such as meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability, and the impact of their translation theories in the realm of translation.

===2. Linguistic Foundation===
Both Nida's and Catford's translation theories are systematic and scientific due to the fact that both of them are rooted in linguistics. However, what deserves noticing is that they are actually based on different linguistic schools.

Specifically speaking, Nida's translation theories are mainly based on Noam Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar, in which grammatical structure is divided into deep structure and surface structure, kernel sentences and a series of transformational rules are put forward and a whole set of grammatical system is established.(Jiang Li 2010, 44)

Based on transformational-generative grammar, especially the principle of kernel sentences, a new model of translation is put forward by Nida, that is, to translate on the level of deep structure. Therefore, a complete inter-lingual conversion process is created, which can be generally divided into three steps. The first step is to convert the surface structure of the source language to the deep structure of the source language; the second step is to identify a deep structure that is equivalent to the deep structure of the source language in the target language; the final step is to convert the deep structure of the target language to the surface structure of the target language. Generally speaking, this process can be viewed as such a transformational mode:(Jiang Li 2010, 44)

[[File:chenshachenshachensha111.jpg]]

In addition, through the analysis of the semantic relations of vocabularies in the context, Nida broke through the limitations of the traditional translation view holding that the parts of speech should be correspondent between source language and target language. He puts forward four semantic categories, namely objects that correspond roughly to nouns, events that correspond roughly to verbs, abstracts that correspond roughly to the modifiers of objects and events and relations that correspond roughly to the prepositions and connectives in Indo-European languages. (Lin Shuwu 1981, 5) And then based on his semantic categories, Nida comes up with seven kernel sentences that are used to discuss the inner relationship of sentences. (Jiang Li 2010, 44)

In summary, Nida broke through the limitations of the traditional translation views that pursues the correspondence of words or sentence patterns on the level of surface structure. He believes that there are great similarities among the kernel structure of different languages, and these similarities are much more pronounced in terms of their deep structure than their surface structure. What’s more, he holds the opinion that the transformation between languages on the level of deep structure can guarantee the faithfulness of the translated text to the original text to the greatest extent. In addition, since the surface structure of the target language is the free expression transformed from the deep structure of the target language, the smoothness of the translated text can also be guaranteed to some extent. (Shi Xishu & Du Ping 2004, 70) In this way, Nida's translation theories broke through the formal constraints in translation and retained the content of the original text, which plays a great guiding role in the specific translation practices.

In contrast, Catford's translation theories are mainly based on Michael A.K. Halliday's systematic linguistics, which consists of two basic points. Firstly, it emphasizes the systematicness of language and holds that languages are systems containing many subsystems. Secondly, systematic linguistics emphasizes the close relationship between language and society, so it holds the opinion that the study of language should start from the society. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)

However, Catford does not adopt the two points completely. Based on the first point that different languages are actually different systems, Catford concludes that translation cannot convey one hundred percent of the meaning of the original text. Nevertheless, when it comes to the second point, it seems that Catford does not delve into the relationship between language and society, and some people even think that his theoretical research is purely static language comparison and serves only for computers. What’s more, Catford focuses on analyzing the relationship among such substances as phonic substance, graphic substance and situation substance from such four levels as phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary, based on which, Catford stresses that under no circumstances can complete translation be achieved, that is, translation cannot be carried out on the four levels of phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary simultaneously. He also holds that even if the translation is carried out at only one level, the complete translation is impossible. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)

In summary, Catford's translation theories are based on Halliday’s systematic linguistics, but he does not confine himself within the scope of systematic linguistics. Instead, he applies systematic linguistics to his translation theories in a selective way, which makes his translation theories innovative and in turn has a positive effect on Halliday's systematic linguistics.

===3. Different Perspectives Regarding Some Important Concepts===

====3. 1 Different Perspectives Regarding Meaning====
Nida's translation theories mainly serve the translation of ''The Bible'', with the ultimate aim of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of ''the Bible'', the transmission of information is the most important goal. In order to spread the doctrine, Nida not only regards meaning as translatable, but even as sacrosanct because he wants to convey the will of God. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)

In Nida's opinion, “translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style.” (Nida 1969, 13) Nida's definition regarding translation clearly pointed out the relationship between meaning and form, claiming that meaning comes first while form comes second. In the analysis of meaning, Nida refined it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning and connotative meaning, which is the basis for the four modes of analysis, transformation, reorganization and verification in the process of translation. As a faithful supporter of language universality, Nida always maintains that the information contained in one language can be conveyed into another language, that is to say, the meaning is fixed. (Jiang Li 2010, 46) In the communication between different languages and cultures, equivalent words and expressions can be found. There is no such thing as an unbridgeable gap between languages. (Xiong Demi 2001, 88)

Compared with Nida's translation theories, Catford's translation theories does not discuss the specific problems encountered in the process of translation, but focuses on the essence of translation, that is, what the translation is. Catford emphasizes the individuality of different languages and that each language has its own unique semantic system formed under the influence of its unique culture and the lexical and grammatical systems which embody the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship among languages, and analyzes the root causes of their differences.(Jiang Li 2010, 46)

According to Catford, meaning is a property of language, so the source language and the target language have their respective meanings. The opinion that the source language has the same meaning as the target language or that there is transfer of meaning in the process of translation is untenable. Obviously, this argument is a kind of deconstruction and subversion of people’s perspectives regarding meaning in traditional translation theory, which is why his translation theories arouse suspicion of other scholars. Actually, readers who do not carefully read his original work tend to come to their lopsided conclusions according to its literal meaning, so there is no wonder why they will misunderstand Catford and his translation theories. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)

====3. 2 Different Perspectives Regarding Form ====
Both Nida and Catford have involved form in their translation theories. However, the term has different meanings in the two theories.

In Nida's translation theories, form mainly refers to the concept corresponding to content, including prosody, word selection, duality, parallelism and other grammatical structures with distinct features. For biblical translation, meaning must be prioritized in order to convey content and information,so its translation can sometimes be greatly altered in form. In other words, if form and content cannot be retained at the same time, then the content should be retained while the form be discarded. (Jiang Li 2010, 46) Of course, this does not mean that Nida thinks that form is not important at all in the process of translation. On the contrary, Nida believes that when it comes to some cases in which form is very important to the original text, like poetry, the original form should be retained as far as possible.

As for Catford, he regards language as forms, a concept corresponding to entities. In his opinion, forms include phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary, which are all linguistic aspects while entities refer to such raw materials as phonic substance, graphic substance and situation substance, which are all non-linguistic aspects. He also holds the opinion that a form always corresponds to an objective entity in the real world. In Carford translation theories, forms can actually be understood as systems, that is, each language is composed of different systems, which in turn include numerous subsystems.(Jiang Li 2010, 46)

Thus, to translate between two languages belonging to different systems is to look for entity features that are identical (at least partially identical) in both the source language and the target language. Since there can never be a completely identical system among different languages and even the most closely related languages have their own unique forms, the forms and meanings of different languages can never be completely the same. Therefore, in the process of translation, meaning cannot be fully conveyed from one language to another, which is also an important point that makes Catford's translation theories different from others’. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)

====3. 3 Different Perspectives Regarding Equivalence====
Nida believes that the reason why there is equivalence in the process of translation is that different languages can perform exactly the same function. Based on this belief, Nida put forward the concept of dynamic equivalence, which is “defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptor in the source language.” (Nida 1969, 25) What’s more, in elaborating functional equivalence, which is the modified version of dynamic equivalence, considering the differences in terms of languages and cultures in bilingual communication, Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels, namely, the maximum level of equivalence which refers to the one in which the readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it essentially the same as the original readers did and the minimal level of equivalence which refers to the one in which the readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it. (Xiong Demi 2001, 88)

In addition, Nida pointed out that the translation should not excessively pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should shift the attention to accurately convey the meaning of the original text. Therefore, translators can be allowed to change the form of the original text when readers are prone to misunderstand the original text. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)

In summary, Nida's dynamic equivalence theory broke the previous static model of focusing solely on text comparison and held that only by getting the receptors of the target language to completely understand the translated text, can they respond in much the same way as the receptors of the source language. That is to say, dynamic equivalence emphasizes readers' response.

As for Catford, he believes that "translation is the replacement of textual materials in one language by equivalent textual materials in another language." (Catford 1965, 13) In his definition, Catford did not use the word "text", but "textual materials", because he believes that the meaning of a text could not be completely translated into another text, at least when it comes to the meaning at two or more levels, the equivalence could not be found, but only a substitute is available. Catford regards translation equivalence in traditional translation theory as an empirical phenomenon and puts forward the conditions for translation equivalence,that is, in order to get the text or words of the source language and the target language to be equivalent, there must be some consistency between the entities they refer to.(Jiang Li 2010, 45)

Apparently, according to Catford's theory, equivalence can only exist if the entities involved in the two languages share some common characteristics. Moreover, such equivalence can only exist on the same level, that is, phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary. Equivalence on the four levels cannot be achieved simultaneously, because there are different entities on different levels, and it is impossible for two equivalent words to have the exactly identical entity characteristics. In other words, perfect equivalence does not exist. This also explains why there is no complete translation in Catford's point of view. At this point, Catford's translation theories seem to go deeper into the nature of language. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)

In short, Nida's perspective regarding equivalence is not the same as Catford's. By emphasizing equivalence, Nida means emphasizing the effect of translation. In order to achieve the desired effect of translation, the form sometimes can be abandoned; while Catford’s translation theories focus on the fact that there is no such a thing called perfect translation. Despite their different emphasis, both of them are of guiding significance to the translation practices.

====3. 4 Different Perspectives Regarding Untranslatability====
No discussion of untranslatability can avoid the subject of the essence of translation, which also applies to the translation theories of Nida and Catford.

In the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida pointed out that translation refers to the reproduction of source language information with the closest and most natural equivalent in the target language from the semantic to the stylistic. (Nida 1969, 13) In his opinion, the maximum equivalence that can be achieved in translation is only the so-called "closest" and no real equivalence can be achieved. In other words, Nida holds that untranslatability is ubiquitous and the complete equivalence both on the level of meaning and style can only be impossible. Translation is like a seesaw, and the two ends of the board are the meaning and the style of source language, which in most cases cannot be completely retained at the same time.(Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)

Therefore, translators should make a choice and decide whether to care more about the meaning of the source language or the style of the source language. In Nida’s opinion, meaning should come first while style should come later. In short, as far as Nida’s translation theories are concerned, the equivalence refers to the one hundred percent transmission of the information of the source language in the target language, while the correspondence means that both the information and the style of the source language are one hundred percent transmitted into the target language, which is of course impossible. Hence, Nida chooses to use equivalence to describe the translatability rather than correspondence. (Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)

Catford, on the other hand, is more pessimistic about translatability. In his book ''A linguistic Theory of Translation'', he defines translation as the process of replacement of the textual materials of source language with the equivalent textual materials of the target language,(Catford 1965, 13) Catford uses "replacement" to correspond to Nida's "reproduction", just because he realizes that different languages are actually different systems that can never be coincided with each other. As a result, there will never be the so-called transformation and reproduction between two languages. Whether the equivalence can be achieved depends on the degree of coincidence of the described entities in the two languages.(Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)

Catford also further elaborates in this book that the idea that the source language and the target language have the same meaning or there exists such a thing called transmission in the process of translation is untenable. In order to better prove his point of view, Catford introduced a new viewpoint, that is, different languages are actually different systems and each system has its own unique linguistic forms, syntactic relations and grammatical relations. In general, there are basically two kinds of untranslatability in the broad sense. One is the untranslatability on the level of language and the other is the untranslatability on the level of culture. (Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)

All in all, we can draw a conclusion regarding Nida’s and Catfort’s views of untranslatability. On the one hand, Catford’s idea that linguistic forms refer to the formal characteristics of the original text is very close to what Nida calls style. However, on the other hand, what Catford calls the untranslatability on the level of culture is totally different from what Nida calls information. Therefore, we can see that Catfort has a much more strict standard towards translation equivalence.

===4. Significance===

====4.1 Contributions to Translation Studies ====
Nida views the communication and integration between different languages and cultures with a new perspective. He jumped out of the bondage of language and instead paid attention to the pragmatic function of language and the external linguistic equivalence. As a faithful supporter of language universality, he insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can also be expressed in another and that communication can be achieved by looking for translation equivalence among different languages and cultures and reorganizing the form of the original text and semantic structure in an appropriate way, which is also the basis for his establishment of equivalence translation theory. In short, Nida's dynamic equivalence theory breaks the previous static mode of solely emphasizing text comparison and creates a new mode of fully respecting the response of the receptors of the target language to translated text. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)

Catford believes that the main concern of translation practice is to find equivalent components and the central task of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of these equivalent components. His equivalence theory mainly focuses on the study of language, which relates the analysis of translation theory closely to the analysis of the functions of semantics and grammar, aiming at explaining how such a semantic equivalence on the level of vocabulary and grammatical structure is achieved. In his opinion, translators’ main task is to seek content equivalence rather than form correspondence, which is exactly what Catford calls translation conversion. In summary, as a means to realize the equivalence in terms of text, Catford’s translation theory has its positive significance in specific historical periods. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)

=====4.2 Influences in China=====
In the early 1980s, Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories were introduced into China almost at the same time, but their occasions in China were quite different.

As soon as Nida’s translation theories were introduced, the research and citation of them achieved a climax. From 1980 to 2000, 147 papers citing Nida's translation theories were published on ''China Translation'', the core journal of Chinese translation circle. According to the statistics of Wanfang database, 25 papers on Nida’s translation theories were published on such core journals as ''Chinese Science and Technology Translation'' from 2000 to 2012. In 2012 alone, there were 80 journal papers, doctoral papers and master's papers on Nida translation theory. (Li Zhidan 2014, 95)

Compared with Nida's translation theories, Catford's translation theories have not attracted enough attention in domestic academic circles. According to the statistics of Wanfang database, only 3 papers on the Catford’s translation theories were published on ''Chinese Science and Technology Translation'' from 2000 to 2012 and there were only 8 journal papers, doctoral papers, master's papers and bachelor's papers on Catford's translation theories. (Li Zhidan 2014, 95) What’s more, from the number of Chinese papers published on CNKI regarding Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, the domestic influence of the two theories are also evident.

[[File:Chenshachenshachensha222.jpg]]

[[File:Chenshachenshachensha333.jpg]]

In summary, compared with Catford's translation theories, which are abstract and difficult to understand due to its professionalism, Nida's translation theories are more easily accepted and play a greater guiding role in Chinese-English translation.(Li Zhidan 2014, 95)

====4.3 Limitations====
Nida's research is mainly carried out from a macro perspective and is about the universal principle, which will inevitably ignore the research and discussion of specific skills at the micro level. As a result, the theories obtained will also inevitably be out of touch with practice. Nida's equivalence theory is mainly applicable to the translation of ''The Bible'', and the specific purpose of ''The Bible'' to educate and influence people makes it reasonable to sacrifice the form equivalence and strengthen the functional equivalence in a moderate way.(Li Zhidan 2014, 94)

However, if this theory is used to guide the translation of those texts whose forms cannot be ignored, such as the translation of poems, the limitations show up. What’s more, equivalence theory is based on the assumption that readers will have a consistent response, but the problem is that the reader's response is not uniform in any case. It is difficult or almost impossible for readers with different cultural levels, ideologies and positions to produce the same or similar response to the same translation in real life. Therefore, it is difficult to measure the translation effect with this standard. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)

As for Catford, as soon as his theory of equivalence translation was put forward, severe criticism in academic circles was brought about, with most of which focusing on the abstraction and idealization of Catford's examples used to prove his theory. In addition, Newmark pointed out that the interpretation of comparative linguistics conducted by Catford was conducive to translators' judgment and selection in translation practices, but had little contribution to translation theory. Venuti pointed out that the words, sentences and instances used by Cadford were created by himself rather than real. Hornby pointed out that the examples used by Catford were simple and decontextualized, while in fact, the process of translation cannot be simply viewed as language practices, actually, it wiould also be influenced by such factors as text, culture and environment. At the same time, she did not agree with Catford's view that linguistics is the only support of translation research. In addition, Mu Lei believes that the examples Catford used to support his theory are mainly the translation within Germanic languages or Slavic languages, or between Germanic and Slavic languages, so his theory does not have universally guiding significance. In other words, whether Catford’s theory is applicable to the translation between different language families, especially the translation between Chinese and English or not still needs to be discussed. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)

===5. Conclusion===
In summary, although both Nida and Catford are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theory, their translation theories are actually different in many aspects. Firstly, their translation theories are based on different linguistic schools, with Nida’s based on Noam Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar and Catford’s on Halliday’s systematic linguistics. Secondly, their perspectives in terms of some important concepts are different, such as their perspectives regarding meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability. Last but not least, their translation theories have caused different impact on the field of translation and this difference is especially prominent in China.

Of course, due to their different linguistic foundations, the two translation theories also have different limitations. It seems that Nida’s translation theories are more widely accepted than Catford’s in China because it is a theoretical system that is more compatible to the traditional Chinese translation theories. However, what we should keep in mind is that when we introduce foreign translation theories, in order to broaden our horizon, translation theories that seem to be incompatible to our traditional opinions are as important as those that are similar to our traditional translation views. Only in this way, can the translation theories be improved and developed further.

===References===
Cui Yangtong. 崔洋通. (2018). 不可译性:奈达与卡特福德之对比研究. [Untranslatability: A Comparative Study of Nida and Catford]. ''“校园英语” [Campus English]'' 241.

Jiang Li. 姜丽. (2010). 奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较. [A Comparison of Several Concepts in Nida's and Catford's Translation Theories]. ''“文教资料” [Cultural and Educational Materials]'' 44-46.

Lin Shuwu. 林书武. (1981). 奈达的翻译理论简介. [An Introduction to Nida's Translation Theory]. ''“国外语言学” [Foreign Linguistics]'' 1-7.

Li Zhidan. 李志丹. (2014). 卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨. [A Speculation on Catford’s and Nida's "Equivalence" Translation Theory]. ''“哈尔滨学院学报” [Journal of Harbin Institute]'' 93-95.

Shi Xishu & Du Ping. 石锡书 & 杜平. (2004). 辩证地看待奈达的“功能对等”理论. [A Critical Look at Nida's "Functional Equivalence" Theory]. ''“翻译科学初探” [A Preliminary Study on Translation Science]'' 69-71.

Xiong Demi. 熊德米. (2001). 奈达翻译理论评述. [A Review of Nida's Translation Theory]. ''“重庆大学学报” [Journal of Chongqing University]'' 85-89.

Catford, J. C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: E.J. Brill.

==Comparison of Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's Poetry Translation Principles 徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie 202020080657 英美文学==

<center> 徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie </center>

===Abstract===
Ezra Pound is a representative poet and literary critic at the beginning of 20th Century in western literary world. Together with important literary figures such as T.S. Eliot, he started a new trend in poetry creation and study, and at the same period, China was also undergoing an essential transition from old style poetry to free verse written in vernacular language. Inevitably, associations were made between them. Wen Yiduo's poetic theory is thought to be deeply influenced by Pound's, but growing out of specific cultural and social background, Wen's theory still has his own features which should be distinguished from Pound's. Therefore, it's necessary for us to distinguish their principles in poetry translation so as to better comprehend their contributions.

This paper aims to analyze the differences and similarities between Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's principles in poetry translation from comparisons of their translation principles in rhyme, image, and structure.

===Key words===
Poetry translation; Wen Yiduo; Ezra Pound

===题目===
埃兹拉·庞德和闻一多诗歌翻译原则的对比研究

===摘要===
20世纪初,埃兹拉·庞德是西方文坛一位具有代表性的诗人和文学批评家。他和艾略特等其他重要的文坛人物一起开创了诗歌创作和研究的新潮流。在同一时期的中国，一场重要的文化运动也正在进行，即从旧诗向白话新诗的转变。这两场运动之间也难以避免地有所联系。人们认为闻一多的诗歌理论深受庞德的影响，但是考虑到闻一多诗歌理论诞生的文化和社会背景，他的一些诗歌翻译原则和庞德的有不同之处。因此，为了更好地理解两者，我们有必要进行对比研究。

本文通过对比分析闻一多和庞德在诗歌韵律，意象，结构三方面的翻译原则，来看两者观点的异同。

===关键词===
诗歌翻译理论；闻一多；埃兹拉·庞德

===I.Introduction===

1. Research Background

With the fast development, China began to play a much more important role on world stage, naturally giving rise to the need of recommending Chinese culture to the world. From traditional Chinese literary creation to today's modern culture, it's vernacular literary movement that deserves our attention. At the beginning of 20th century, China was in an urgent need of opening up and learning from the western world. Some extreme ideas even caused the split between classical Chinese literary compositions and modern compositions， but at the same time， traditional Chinese culture was revived by western scholars like Ezra Pound， Amy Lowell, etc. Ezra Pound published ''Cathy''in 1915, setting off Imagist Movement (1909-1917). Wen Yiduo is a representative of the vernacular writing movement, and his first new poetic compositions might be ''A Rainy Night'' (雨夜) and ''Moon and Men'' (月亮和人)(Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993(1), 172-173).

Wen distinguished himself from the other representatives of vernacular writing movement by his relative complete frame both in literary composition as well as in literary criticism. Besides, Wen Yiduo's personal painting learning experience and his contact with western poets at that time are materials also worthy of discussion (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（12），432-433).

The reasons why these two figures are chosen to be compared in this paper are because, first, they two lived in the same time period ,and participated in two important literary movements of the time; second, both of them interpreted and applied Chinese traditional poems into modern composition but in different ways. Therefore, comparison on their understanding of poetic translation is a way to learn the role of Chinese traditional culture in modern times and to know these two poets and translators better.

2. Research Method

Close reading: this paper has collected relative works of Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound and papers on them. Through close reading, we come to know their ways of poem composing and their principles of poetry translation. Works covered in this chapter are, ''Complete Collections of Wen Yiduo'', ''Biography of Wen Yiduo'', ''Cathy'' of Ezra Pound, etc.

Comparative study: since there are some common points between these two poets and translators, comparisons are made between them to better distinguish their roles in relatively vernacular writing movement and imagist movement, in inheriting the old and making the new, and lastly in their poem translation principles(Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），37).

===II.Literature Review===

Wen Yiduo has been widely studied as a composer of new poetry, a painter, a researcher of classical poetry, as well as a revolutionist. Papers on Wen Yiduo focused more on his identity as a poetry composer than as a translator, so this chapter mainly studies his identity as a translator, complemented by his identity as a poet.

[[File:A.png]]

Papers on Wen Yiduo cover almost all aspects including his multiple identities as well as his further studies of traditional Chinese mythologies, classical poetry, etc. From the 1970s to present, this chapter chose recent papers on Wen Yiduo's translation. We can see from the picture below that studies of Wen Yiduo are still favored by scholars and in recent years even more papers on his translation principles were published. In 2005, a paper by Lv Jing is a watershed, for he announced the dawn of a new age of modern metrical poetry. Wen Yiduo is a pioneer of metrical poetry at the beginning of 20th century but he is inevitably constrained by his time. With the development of culture , now we are gradually entering a new era of modern metrical poetry(Lv Jing 2005，133-134).

[[File:8.png]]

Major works often cited by scholars are these two biggest black dots in the picture, works of Qian Liqun's (1998) ''Chinese Literature in Recent 30 Years'' (中国现代文学30年) and ''Collection on Translation Theories''(1984).

As for papers about comparison between Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound,there are 18 papers published in recent years in China.

Among the 18 papers, the most mentioned phrases are "Chinese new poetry", "poetry in translation", "the beauty of painting" in these papers. Most of these papers study on Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound from a general comparison between two movements (vernacular writing movement and imagist movement) with only one paper directly comparing the two figures in a comprehensive manner. It was written by Fu Jianan and Zhang Li in 2019. In this paper, the authors pointed out that Wen Yiduo was heavily influenced by Ezra Pound, which can be seen from his three principles of beauty: the beauty of music, the beauty of painting, and the beauty of architecture. Besides, they also believed that Wen Yiduo was influenced by the national and creative features of Ezra Pound's literary creation and criticism (Fu Jianan, Zhang Li 2019, 101-102).

====III.Discussion====

Wen Yiduo is a representative poet and translator in China at the beginning of 20th Century. At that time, China was experiencing a social and cultural upheaval with collapse of the old and emerging of the new. Since Wen Yiduo was born in a family with avant-garde thoughts, he came to get revolutionary idea at an early age. Although Wen Yiduo didn't participate directly in the May 4th movement, he demonstrated his firm support of students through a passionate patriotic poem. Clearly, Wen Yiduo's literary creation is indispensable from his social ideas. This could be revealed in subjects of his poems, for instance, ''Songs of Seven Sons'' (七子之歌), ''Song of the Sun''（太阳吟）, ''Silent Night'' (静夜), etc. As for his ideas in translation which are also closely associated with his understanding of poem composing, based on his personal learning and experiences (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（1）, 92).

Wen Yiduo experienced several transitions in his poetic writing throughout his life. He was at first a poet of classical poems (1916-1925) with works like, ''Ode on Horse'' (马赋), ''Ode on Pine'' （松赋), ''Spring Willow'' （春柳), etc. Later influenced by Hu Shi and vernacular writing movement, he devoted himself to new poem writing and criticized that classical poem shouldn't be composed and it should be totally abandoned (评本学年《周刊》里的新诗). After several tries in composing new poems, Wen Yiduo later went to America to continue his study on painting and literature. Here he came into contact with the Chicago poets and the American Imagists, which made his another transition. He then again criticized Hu Shi's absolute abandonment of rhyme and rhythm and advocated retrospectively drawing on classical Chinese culture, partly enlightened by his painting and classical poem study experiences in Chicago. After he was back to China, he pioneered in creating metrical poems, which associated western new poems' features together with image and structure of classical Chinese verses. He asked for beauty in music, beauty in image, and beauty in Architecture. His best work which realized his principles is ''Dead Water'' (死水) (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（1），275-277).

Ezra Pound had a same starting point of translation, which was to find an answer for his epoch and to solve problems existing in society. He even leveled the importance of Confucianism to that of Christianism, which is of immense importance in Western culture. He believed that the "order" and "benevolence" mentioned by Confucius were exactly what was needed, to conquer the social plight brought by industrialism, periodic economic crisis, isolation between human beings, etc (Jiang Hongxin 2001,78-79). Ezra Pound denied that poem translation should be word-to-word but maintain connotations behind it. He decided the name "imagism" for the writing movement in 1912 and later published ''Cathy''in 1915. He was delighted when he discovered that Chinese characters were full of beauty of images and classical poems like ''The Books of Songs''all could be a good source for imagist movement.

In ''A Pact'', Pound likened Whitman as his father in literature and himself as his son. Although he held some disagreements with his father, they two had to share the same root and sap. Whitman is like Hu Shi in China, who highlighted the importance of free expression, direct use of vernacular language, and relatively neglected the significance of structure, rhyme, and rhythm. Wen Yiduo had also mentioned that, he disagreed with Hu Shi's composition of absolute free verses in his ''Experiment'' (尝试集). In Wen Yiduo's view, sound and music are what contained within words, and only a concise expression like poem can produce powerful emotions with its natural, artistic syllables (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），62).

====1. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in image translation====

Wen Yiduo started painting when he was young and continued his study of painting in Chicago Academy of Fine Arts. All these experience provided him a chance to paint poems and he had a unique understanding of images based on his study on both classical Chinese poems and new poems. At the beginning of his composing of new poems, poems on nature took a great part of them. Yet he later found that his direct use of a lot of common images in classical poems made his poem too direct and superficial. He therefore decided to use more uncommon images. When he came to America and knew Chicago poets like Carl Sandburg as well as imagists like Amy Lowell, he was affected by their ideas in poem composing. The Chicago poets use direct language and free verse to paint out the world in a vivid way. Images are important to Chicago poets but they put rhythm and rhyme in a non-essential position (Jiao Jianping 2001, 134-135). Wen Yiduo therefore, at the earlier period of his poem composing, he paid great attention to image use and also disregarded rhythm and rhyme. Here we have one short excerpt of his earlier composition:

太阳辛苦了一天，
赚得一个平安的黄昏，
喜得满面通红，
一气直往山洼里狂奔。

This excerpt was from one of his earlier vernacular poem and it's very direct and daily, yet lacking beauty in music, image, and depth, and he soon gave up this style. He agreed with Hu Shi's idea in liberating human mind by literature revolution, but he still enhanced the importance of literary form (Bei Ta 2011,105-106). Wen Yiduo therefore, criticize Hu Shi's writing for lacking beauty in music and in image. As a translator, his principles of poem translation are heavily impacted by his identity as a poet. He believed that translator of poem should be a poet himself and the process of translation could be viewed as a process of recreation. Wen Yiduo compared poem composing as traditional Chinese painting; the blending of colors creates a new harmonious image and words should be like colors (Sun Dandbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），202).

Take Wen Yiduo's poem ''Red Candler''as an example, he used the image of red candler to praise the selfless spirit of sacrifice and affirmed his belief in brightness. In Wen Yiduo's own writing, we could see the transition in his using of color image, which shifted from bright ones to dim ones as we can discover from ''Red Candler'' (红烛), ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Color'' (色彩) to ''Dead Water'' (死水). Images of colors in his poems are often studied by scholars. And it is taken as a clear combination of his idea on both painting and poetry composing. And as we've mentioned above, Wen Yiduo's poetry contained his patriotic idea which is not only shown in subjects but also in his insistence on the form of poetry. As we can see in both ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Dead Water'' (死水), Wen Yiduo pursued a visual presentation of descriptive pictures. Although Wen Yiduo had studied painting in America, he had shown more freehand sketch in his poem rather then western fine brush work (Xin Chunsheng 2011, 28-29). All his principles in poem composition were applied to his translation later. Wen Yiduo asked for concrete image rather than mystery one which also coincides with Pound's idea.

''"这种空空疏疏模模糊糊的描写法使读者丝毫得不着一点具体的印象，当然是弱于幻想力底结果。" （Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），62).

"Don’t use such an expression as "dim lands of peace." It dulls the image. It mixes an abstraction with the concrete. It comes from the writer’s not realizing that the natural object is always the adequate symbol." (A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste)''

Ezra Pound can be taken as an orientalist for his love and study on eastern cultures. Before he came to know Chinese, he was captured by the conciseness but rich connotation contained in Chinese traditional culture. His interests in traditional Chinese poems was started by ''A History of Chinese Literature ''(Herbert Giles) and later became addicted to it for Fenollosa's introduction of oriental art (Guo Wei 1988,110). In the process of translating Chinese traditional poem, he formed his poem composing principles. He believed that poem should not be written in superfluous words; abstraction should not be mixed with concrete natural symbols; and expressions should be polished with good ornaments (Ezra Pound, A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste). Pound had many practices of image-using and he was known for his superimposition of images.

“落叶依于重扃。（''落叶哀蝉曲'' 刘彻）”"A wet leaf that clings to the threshold."

This sentence has shown Pound's superimposition of images well. Here "wet leaf" and "threshold" are two different images but the verb "cling" is used well to paint a picture of deep autumn and to arouse the feeling of departure. Even the leaf is hesitating of leaving, how about humans? Both "fallen leaf" and "threshold" are classical images used in Chinese poems. Pound chose concrete images to convey the abstract melancholy just as Chinese classical poem did. In ''Cathy'', ''The Beauiful Toilet'' has shown that Ezra Pound also had his own understanding of color image. "Blue, blue is the grass about the river", "White, white of face, hesitates, passing the door." There are 6 duplicated words in original poem but Pound only kept the duplicated forms of the color words "青青" and "皎皎", which reflects his high attention to color image although he didn't mentioned that in his essay (''Cathy'').

Both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound drew nourishment from classical Chinese poems and attached great importance to image using. Yet, since Wen Yiduo had experiences as a painter, he was more sensitive to color images than Pound, though Pound also had his own preference to images. Therefore, we may assume that Wen Yiduo was affected by imagism and Ezra Pound, but Wen Yiduo also had his personally preference and choice of image application based on his understanding of classical Chinese poems and painting just as what was shown in ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（1），94).

====2. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in rhyme translation====

Wen Yiduo composed poems in classical Chinese with traditional style at first, when he was at school. Later deeply affected by ideas of vernacular poem composing as highlighted by Hu Shi, he accepted that we should liberate citizen's mind from constraints of classical writing and shifted his composing from classical style to vernacular free verse. When Wen Yiduo started to compose his new poem, he realized too direct an expression was would lose the hazy beauty. Different from Hu Shi, Wen Yiguo attached great importance to rhyme and rhythm of poems. This might have some association with his experience of Tang poem studies. He appreciated the beauty of classical poem and even believed that it's almost impossible for us to translate these poems into English, otherwise it woud be a waste of classical poems. To translate Yuefu folksongs, free verse is thought to be the best choice to him, for their similarity in form. And translator is given more space to think about rhyme (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），54).

In his comment on Shigeyoshi Obata's translation on Li Po's poems, Wen blamed the translator for using free verse to translate Li Po's metrical poems. Because Wen himself is a big fan of Li Po, he denied that Li Po's grander style and imposing manner could be kept in free verses (Huang Yanjie 2014, 611). He then practiced his translation believes into his own writings. In the next year(1927), he translated a poem of John Masefield.

Sea Fever (1902)
by： John Masefield

I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky,

And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by,

And the wheel's kick and the wind's song and the white sail's shaking,

And a gray mist on the sea's face, and a gray dawn breaking.

I must go down to the seas again, for the call of the running tide

Is a wild call and a clear call that may not be denied;

And all I ask is a windy day with the white clouds flying,

And the flung spray and the blown spume, and the sea-gulls crying.

I must go down to the seas again, to the vagrant gypsy life,

To the gull's way and the whale's way, where the wind's like a whetted knife;

And all I ask is a merry yarn from a laughing fellow-rover,

And quiet sleep and a sweet dream when the long trick's over.

我要回海上去

我要回海上去，再回到荒凉的天涯海角，

我要求的是一只楼船，一颗星儿做她的向导，

还有龙骨破着浪，风声唱着歌，白帆在风里摇，

海面上一阵灰色的雾，一个灰色的破晓。

我要回海上去，因为那一阵潮水的呼声

是狂暴的呼声，嘹亮的呼声，你没有法子否认

我要求的是一个刮风的天儿，还飞着些白云，

再加上海水翻着浪花儿，海鸥也在叫你。

我要回海上去，再过那漂泊的生涯才好！

走上海鸥的道，鲸鱼的道，那里的风像把快刀；

我要的是做完了的活，大伙儿谈着天儿说着笑，

临了，来一场甜蜜的梦，一宿安稳的觉。（''时事新报·学灯'' 1927）

John Masefield's Sea Fever is a rhymed poetry and Wen chose end rhyme to echo the original version, in order to achieve the musical beauty in poem. Besides a lot alliterations "a star to steer/ a clear call, etc." are used in the original poem to form the enormous power and repetition is another figure of speech in this poem, "I must go down to the seas again", which could emphasize the poet's emotion.

To maintain the original features, Wen Yiduo preserved the original repetition and parallels in his translation. Wen Yidou thought that art is an artificial decoration together with natural beauty. In his translation, to achieve the parallel structure and concise expression, he had chopped off unnecessary conjunctions and shift the order of words. For example, "I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky, And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by," "again" this world was shifted into the latter part of the translation and "lonely sea and the sky " was translated into a Chinese four-character idiom "天涯海角". The infinitive "To steer" was translated into a verb-object structure-"做她的向导" to ensure the balance of translation (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），54).

Compared with the original version, we can discover the translated version is even more concise and has clear beats to form music. To form a parallel structure and the clear rhythm, Wen Yiduo added some decorative elements or deleted some unimportant ones to achieve his ideal music. “龙骨”，“风声”，“白帆”are words chosen by translator based on original expression, in order to match both requirements of images and readability. “还”，“临了”，“天儿”， these are words added by the translator which are rich in Chinese culture and are tainted by vernacular feature. This can help to achieve an effect of a balance between the looseness and the tense within poem. Wen Yiduo believes that poems should have multiple rhythms serving for one theme, which can catch reader's attention and arouse emotions. It's more natural (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），54). In this poem, Wen wanted to present the poem in the rhythm of waves.

Different from Wen Yiduo's insistence on the rhyme and rhythm of poems, Ezra Pound believed that "It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music, but if it does rely on its music that music must be such as will delight the expert" (Ezra Pound, ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste'', 1913). Take ''The River-Merchant's Wife: a Letter'' as an example, Pound translated Chinese poem into a prose than a rhymed poem, and to this extent his emphasis is more on the other side as himself said that he agreed that music was important but he didn't take it as a priority. He believed that poems could be divided into three kinds, and poems of sounds is one of them. Poems of sounds could be appreciated without being translated, for its musicality to some extent is untranslatable. But he regarded images as conveyable and was devoted to convey images in Chinese poems to English translations.

Thus we can see, the rhyme and rhythm are as important as images to Wen Yiduo, for he thought these were indispensable ways to convey emotion and arouse feeling. Wen Yiduo asked for not only beauty in image but also beauty in music, and he showed no preference between the two, yet, to Pound, as said in ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste'', "It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music". Wen Yiduo attached so much importance to music, so that he once said, some five-character quatrains of Li Po could not be translated into another language for he believed that Li Po's five-character quatrains were ancient soul in modern cover with decorations added. The beats and syllables form the imposing manner of his poem and once these verses were transplanted into another container, the favor might be lost (Wen Yiduo 1926，1).

====3. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in translation of architecture====

Pound studied both Chinese and Japanese poems. Therefore, the structure of his translations can often be traced back to parallelism of Chinese poem as well as the Japanese Haiku.

In a Station of the Metro
The Apparition of these faces in the crowd;
Petals on a wet, black bough.

This is one of Pound's most famous poems and Pound regarded it as his masterpiece of imitation of Japanese Haiku. However, some scholars hold a different view, such as Wu Di, who believed that this poem is closer to an imitation of Chinese parallelism. He listed the reasons as follows: First, the poem has parallel compositions of time and space and contrasts of colors of flower petals and branches. Second, Wu thought that metrical unit of this poem is "word", which is distinct from "syllable" in English poems and Japanese Haiku. Haiku highlighted more on artistic conception than metrical harmony. Besides, this poem paid more attention to the conceptual words than functional words (Wu Di 2007，55-56).

Pound's translation of poems are influenced by forms of folk songs, sonnets, Greek-style lyric poems, and elegy, etc. and it can be traced back to Provence love song, Japanese Haiku and Chinese traditional poetry (Wang Guiming, Liujia 2006，85).

Wen Yiduo is the pioneer of new metrical poems in China and he asked poets to learn from western metrics and combined them with Chinese traditional poems. He advocated that the highest form of art should be "pure form". That is why he called for "beauty of architecture". In Chinese architecture, balance is taken as beauty in tidy form, which is also asked for in poem composed by himself (Cheng Liming 2016，72-73). Wen Yiduo once said that balance was very essential in Chinese aesthetic appreciation, and we could see it in both Chinese architectures and poems. Pattern, syntax, diction and coordination are elements required in a well composed poem.

Thursday
——Edna St. Vincent Millay

And if I loved you Wednesday,

Well, what is that to you?

I do not love you Thursday—

So much is true.

And why you come complaining

Is more than I can see.

I loved you Wednesday,

—yes—but what Is that to me?

礼拜四

即使我礼拜三爱你，

你管它做什么？

礼拜四我并不爱你，

却一点也不错。

我真不懂，你何为还

找着我来纠缠。

礼拜三我爱你—对—

可是那与我又何干？（　——原载1927年11月5日上海《时事新报文艺周刊》第9期）

This is a poem translated by Wen Yiduo which reflects his ideas in poem translation, especially in achieving beauty in architecture. First, this poem consists of two stanzas and in each stanza, the second and the fourth lines are shorter than the first and the third lines. We can see that the translator transferred the original form of the poem into the translation but did a little alternation to achieve a better presentation. In this sentence, "—yes—but what/Is that to me?", to balance the length of sentences, the translator shift the word "—yes—" to the verse before the last one, "礼拜三我爱你—对—" to match the number of words. Another instance in this poem is this sentence -"And why you come complaining/Is more than I can see". To ensure the balance of two stanzas, the translator broke the sentence, "你何为还找着我来纠缠" into two verses, "你何为还/找着我来纠缠"(Fan Shouyi 2004，101-102).

Besides, there is a semantic symmetry designed by the translator. There is no obvious transitional word before the last line of the first stanza but a dash to indicate it. Therefore the author added "却" to echo "可是" in the last line of the last stanza and replaced the dash to achieve the balance in form as well as in meaning. All these efforts of the translator are devoted to achieve the aesthetic sense in architecture(Fan Shouyi 2004，101-102).

In a word, both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound ask for beauty in form but they draw their nourishment from different places with different focus, for example, Ezra Pound studied and composed Provence love poems and Japanese Haiku. In ''Cathy'', we can see that many classical Chinese poems were translated into prose which are more loose in form, but in Wen Yiduo's translation, he highlighted the structural balance and was stick to Chinese traditional sense of beauty in architecture (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），3).

====4.Conclusion====
To sum up, Ezra Pound as a imagist had absorbed elements in Chinese traditional culture and reinterpreted Chinese images in his translation. What should be emphasized is that his understanding of Chinese poems and images comes from Fenollosa, and ''Cathy'' is rewriting of Fenollosa's writing. In his translation, Ezra Pound calls for artistic conception through the image superimposition. And as for his form of translation, it's more loose than that of Wen Yiduo's, for Ezra Pound though required order in literary works, he didn't take "order" as "balance". His order may exist in his position of images but it does not have to be balance in number of words or pattern of expressions. Being a fan of Li Po, Wen Yiduo even though influenced by vernacular writing movements, Chicago poets, and imagist movements, he advocated the importance of form and highlighted artistic feature of poems, the metric, which was a combination of the old and the new.

Basing on comparisons of Ezra Pound and Wen Yiduo in these three aspects, we come to know that Wen Yiduo was influenced by the imagist movement and he did pay high attention to image-using later in his works, but Wen Yiduo's literary understanding should also be attributed to his family background, China's social environment at that time, and his life experiences. Before he becomes a poet, he is a patriotic citizen. Wen Yiduo's literary works have a solid patriotic foundation and that's why he always tried to maintain Chinese traditional culture and to spread it through literary creations. This explains the elements of traditional Chinese painting and Chinese aesthetic sense of architecture in his poems, as well as the specific Chinese images contained in his poems like chrysanthemum, candler, red bean, etc. It's better to say that Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound are two poets and translators born in a similar social environment than to say that one is an exact imitator of the other. Since they two have their unique cultural background and are both passionate lover of Chinese poems, they naturally share some common features in literary presentations, but there are also distinctions reflecting their own cultural identity like what we discovered in both their own writings and translations.

===V.Reference===

*Ezra Pound. Cathy. ''London: Elkin Mathews, Cork Street Mcmxv.伦敦:埃尔金·马修斯，科克街 Mcmxv''

*Ezra Pound (1913).A Few Don’ts by an Imagiste.[意象派不该做的几件事]. ''Poetry 诗歌''.

*Bei Ta 北塔.(2011).略论闻一多诗歌之英文翻译[On the English Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Researches Series''(12):97-108.

*Cheng Liming 陈历明.(2016).闻一多的诗歌翻译与格律诗学的生成[On Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poetry and the Generation of Metrical Poetics].''文艺理论研究 Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art'' 36(01):64-75.

*Fan Shouyi 范守义.(2004).论诗歌的句法结构美──汉英诗歌比较研究[On the Syntactic Structure of Poetry -- A Comparative Study of Chinese and English Poetry].''外交学院学报 Journal of China *Foreign Affairs University''(04):98-107.

Fu Jianan Zhangli 傅建安,张立.(2019). 论艾兹拉·庞德对闻一多的诗学影响[On Ezra Pound's influence on Wen Yiduo's poetics].''城市学刊 Urban Journal'' 40(05):99-102.

*Guo Wei 郭为.(1988).埃兹拉·庞德的中国汤[The Chinese Soup of Ezra Pound].''读书 Reading''(10):104-110.

*Jiang Hongxin 蒋洪新.(2001).庞德的翻译理论研究[Study on Pound's Translation Theory ].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University)''(04):77-80.

*Bei Ta 北塔.(2011).略论闻一多诗歌之英文翻译[On the English Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Researches Series''(12):97-108.

*Cheng Liming 陈历明.(2016).闻一多的诗歌翻译与格律诗学的生成[On Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poetry and the Generation of Metrical Poetics].''文艺理论研究 Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art'' 36(01):64-75.

*Jiao Jianping 焦建平.(2001).卡尔·桑德堡与“意象主义”[Carl Sandburg and Imagism].''西北大学学报(哲学社会科学版) Journal of Northwestern University (Philosophy and Social Sciences)''(04):134-137.

*Huang Lina黄丽娜.(2013) 闻一多诗歌翻译研究[Research on the Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''湖南师范大学 Hunan Normal University''.

*Huang Yanjie黄焰结.(2014) 英译李太白——闻一多与小畑薰良译诗对话的文化考量[English Translation of Li Po's Poems-- Cultural Study on Wen Yiduo and Shigeyoshi Obata's Talk on Poetic Translation ].''外语教学与研究 Foreign Language Teaching and Research'' 46(04):605-615+641.

*Lv Jing 吕进.(2005)三大重建:新诗,二次革命与再次复兴[Three Major Reconstructions: New Poetry, the Second Revolution and Rejuvenation ].''西南师范大学学报(人文社会科学版)Journal of Southwest Normal University (Humanities and Social Sciences edition)''(01):130-135.

*Sun Dangbo, Yuan Zhengchun 孙党伯袁春正.(1993).闻一多全集. [Complete Works of Wen Yiduo] ''武汉：湖北人民出版社 Wuhan: Hubei People's Publishing House.''12

*Wu Di吴笛.(2007)论庞德“在地铁车站”中的汉诗特性[On Characteristics of Chinese Poetry in Pound's ''In a Station of the Metro''].''外国文学研究 FOREIGN LITERATURE STUDIES''(05):53-57.

*Wen Yiduo.(1926)英译李太白诗[English translation of Li Po's poems]''《北平晨报》副刊 Supplement to Peiping Morning Post''.

*Wang Guiming, Liu Jia王贵明,刘佳.(2006)今韵古风——论埃兹拉·庞德诗歌翻译和创作中的仿古倾向[Archaic Style in Modern Form-- On the Archaic Tendency in Ezra Pound's Poetry Translation and Creation].''北京理工大学学报(社会科学版)Journal of Beijing University of Science and Engineering (Social Sciences Edition)''(06):79-85.

*Xin Chunsheng辛春生.(2011) 闻一多《忆菊》诗的绘画美新探[A new Exploration on the Beauty of Painting of Wen Yiduo's Poem "Reminicence of Chrysanthemum"].''名作欣赏 Master Pieces
Review''(35):28-29.

==A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Versions of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory 彭丹 Peng Dan==
<center> 彭丹 Peng Dan 202020080631 日语语言文学</center>

===Abstract===
With the development of cultural exchanges among all countries, more and more famous works, novels and films have been translated into many versions for people to enjoy. It has become a headache for many translators to realize the original style. In 1969, Eugene Nida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward the theory of functional equivalence, which focuses on the realization of communication between different cultures and languages. This thesis, from the perspective of functional equivalence, through comparing Fu Weici's and Li Jihong's two Chinese versions of ''The Moon and Sixpence'', which written by Maugham, sums up the way to realize the equivalence of words, sentences and semantics during the translation and the way to present the readers' response. Some scholars think that the functional equivalence theory ignores the equivalence of form and the style of the original work. However, the theory of functional equivalence is derived from practice, so its achievements are obvious and it makes great contribution to translation. In this paper, the author will propose that the form equivalence does not affect the reader's understanding of the original work. This paper focuses on the application of functional equivalence theory in the two versions and describes how translators realize the equivalence of meaning, form and cultural equivalence. In the end, the author will give opinions on the theory of functional equivalence and have a commentation on which version is more suitable for readers

===KEY WORDS:===
Functional Equivalence; Formal Equivalence; Reader's Response

===题目===
功能对等理论视角下《月亮与六便士》的两个汉译本对比研究

===摘要===
随着各国文化交流的发展，越来越多的名著、小说或影视作品被译成多种版本供人们欣赏。如何完美地展现原著的风采是让众多译者感到头疼的事情。1969年，美国著名翻译理论学家尤金.奈达提出的功能对等理论，强调实现不同文化、语言之间的沟通对等，侧重读者的反映。本文从功能对等理论的视角，通过对比研究傅惟慈和李继宏关于《月亮与六便士》的两个中文译本，总结出译者在小说翻译的过程中是如何实现单词、句子、语义和文化的对等以及实现读者的反映。有学者认为功能对等理论忽略了形式的对等和原著的文体，但功能对等理论源于实践，它的成果有目共睹并为翻译界做出了巨大贡献。本文会提及译者在翻译过程中所忽略的形式对等并不影响读者对原著的理解，侧重描写功能对等理论在这两本译文中的应用，并详细描写它是如何实现意思、形式以及文化的对等。最后我会提出自己对于功能对等理论的见解，并评判出我认为更加适合读者的译本。
===关键词===

功能对等；沟通对等；读者反映

===1. Introduction===

====1.1 Research Background====

Coincident with the development of cultural globalization, more and more foreign literary works are translated into Chinese for domestic people to read and appreciate. Whereas after reading the original works which have been translated frequently, we may still feel that there are many regrets in most works. On the one hand, if the translators only quest corresponding words, it may limit the reader's thought in a large aspect so that the readers couldn't deeply understand the emotion that the author wants to express. On the other hand, if the translators only pursue semantics and thought, it probably can not reflect the profound meaning of a word which the author wants to express. Furthermore, there are many differences between eastern and western cultures and everyone has their own style of expression. If a translator has polarity style for the original author to translate his works, the difference between the two may be obvious. In order to show the original works better and reduce the difference between source language and target language, Eugene Nida, according to the nature of translation, puts forward the famous Functional Equivalence Theory. It states that translation is not only the equivalence of words, but also the equivalence of style, semantic and type of writing. The information conveyed by translation not only includes the surface information but also the deepe culture information.(Nida 1984,21）

====1.2 Literature Review====

In 1969, Eugene Nida put forward the functional equivalence theory. In 1986, he published a book which called From One Language to Another. This work is a representative in his theoretical pursuit of translation. He also made numerous amendments and supplements according with his previous translation theories. He used the "functional equivalence" to replace the "dynamic equivalence".

From nearly five years of development at home and abroad, we can see that the functional equivalence theory not only involves the translation of novels but also the news, politics, traditional Chinese medical name, the loaded culture words, the road science and technology, drama and other related aspects of text translation and film translation etc.. After searching the published papers, we could find some papers which use the perspective of functional equivalence theory. Such as Zhou Xiaohui's "Translating Strategies of Movie and TV Scripts from English to Chinese from the Perspective of Functionalist Equivalence: as Shown in the Translation of the Script of Crash", published in Beijing Foreign Studies University. And Chen Anqi's "Applying Nida's Functional Equivalence to the Translation of the Non-Technical Part of Sci-tech Texts", published in Beijing Foreign Studies University and etc.

In 1919, Maugham's ''The Moon and Sixpence'' was published which described a British painter went to south Pacific Tahiti and had the primitive life with the Indigenous people here. And ultimately he became the successful painter. In China, there are numerous translation versions about ''The Moon and Sixpence''. In this thesis, I want to introduce Fu Weici's translation version and Li Jihong's tra versions in particular and compare these two Chinese versions.

====1.3 Research Methodology====

1. Literature study: in order to get the first-hand information of the functional equivalence theory, it is necessary for us to read many literature such as taking the thesis and journals in the CNKI or VIP. Through these materials, we can learn a lot unknown and complete the thesis more comprehensive.

2. Example-analysis: in this thesis, I will list a majority of examples. These examples are classified on words, sentences and semantics etc.. At the same time, this thesis will also illustrate some examples which do not seem to achieve the functional equivalence. Through these examples we can get a better understanding of the functional equivalence theory and its characteristic in application.

3. Comparative study: in this thesis, I will choose Fu Weici's and Li Jihong's Chinese versions to make comparison in words, style, culture and semantics. By comparing the differences of the two Chinese versions, we can have a deeper understanding on the functional equivalence theory in application.

4. Summarize experience: This thesis will take the summarize experience of two Chinese versions to show their relation with functional equivalence and the difference between them. This thesis will also list some summarize experience which maybe not be suitable for translation.

===2. The Functional Equivalence Theory===

====2.1 Introduction of Eugene Nida====

Eugene Nida is an outstanding theorist in translation in American. And his translation theory largely influence on the translation works in both foreign countries and domestic land. His theory on the translation is a landmark of studies in modern translation. Moreover, in contrast to contemporary theorists, he is evaluated as the most noted theorist.

Eugene Nida was born in a city of Oklahoma on the November 11, 1914. He went to university in Los Angeles where he elected the Greek as the major degree and he found that he liked the Bible. Then he created outstanding academic records during the university. Afterwards, he got master's degree in Greek new translation at Southern California. In 1943, he got his doctor degree after graduation. Then he was employed by American Bible Society and his duty was to check and estimate the publications of the Bible. He needed to provide the services for the missionary translators and given the advices to them about how to translate better. To help the translator to solve the questions about translation and different culture, he went to 85 countries and experienced various aspects of culture and language. In 1970, Eugene Nida was elected as the coordinator for the translations research in United Bible Society. His responsibility is to write the translators handbooks and prepare the materials for teaching the translators and test them. After long, there were many new versions about the bible were sold well all around the world. These new versions about the bible all translated by guidance of the Nida's dynamic equivalence. Eugene Nida has devoted decades to bible translation and he has contributed to the flourishing of the bible translation in twentieth century.

====2.2 Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory====

In the early period of Nida's essays, he emphasized that there were not complete equivalence between two languages so that there were no absolute translation. Subsequently, he devoted to finding the closest equivalence about the nature, on the basis of that, he developed three translation theories which were the formal equivalence theory, the dynamic equivalence theory and the functional equivalence theory.

The formal equivalence that mainly emphasizes the equivalence of language's formal and content. Therefore, in the translation process, the translators often due to excessively focus the grammatical structure of the source language, word's coherence and interior literal meaning so that neglect the target language reader's response, the different culture is the ascribed leads to the target language readers couldn't understand the original meaning. But it also has its own strength like Kelly said it could indicate how the meaning was expressed in original works, preserving un-translated idiom and rhetorical.

The dynamic equivalence theory has no essential difference with functional equivalence theory and it develops from formal equivalence. For avoiding it is often misunderstood that Nida uses the expression of functional equivalence to describe the accuracy of the translation. The former emphasizes the importance of formal and content, the latter more emphasizes on the communication with language and culture.

The functional equivalence is defined as "a term referring to the type of equivalence reflected in a target text which seeks to adapt the functional of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced" in the dictionary. From this definition it indicated functional equivalence not only emphasizes the linguistics and form but also emphasizes the communication of different background. Such as we could translate the "white as frost" to replace the "white as snow" if there isn't snow this word. If both of them are impracticable we could translate into "very very white". Form this example we could deeply understand the definition of the functional equivalence about communication. This theory pays attention to the target language reads' response under the different cultural and language. So he used "the functional equivalence" to replace "the dynamic equivalence" in the year of 1969.(Zhang Dongdong 2015,5)

The functional equivalence had made a great contribution for translation field. But there are also some critics about it by some translation scholars with different perspectives. First some scholars think it pays too attention about readers' repose that neglects the authority of text. They point out that sometimes the reader's response is subjective so it impossible to realize the equivalence of target language according to the readers' response. Secondly some scholars it is the superior to the form equivalence. Therefore it has litter emphasis on the form. As we all known that different countries have the different cultures and there are also great difference on the people's abilities about learning. So it means that it is not necessary to reduce much original difficulty to realize the communicative purpose.(Zhang 2015,7)

Although there are many critics about it, his theories come from the practice and these theories had strong guiding for our translation. What's more, the functional equivalence had solved the long-standing argument between the "literal translation" and the "liberal translation".

====2.3 Research of Functional Equivalence at Home and Abroad====

Presently at home and abroad, the functional equivalence theory's research is mainly focused on the study of translation's guidance of literary works. As opposed to business letters and legal materials, the functional equivalence theory is more inclined to convey the original works' content and connotation rather than grammatical forms. Currently there are majority researches on the versions about ''The Moon and Sixpence'' at home and aboard. However most of them are analyzing the protagonist's characteristic or the author's background and living condition. There are few researches that are about the compassion-studying and analyzing ''The Moon and sixpence'' from the perspective of the functional equivalence theory of Nida.(Liu Qiong 2016,14)

=== 3. Introduction of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' and Its Two Chinese versions===

====3.1 Brief Introduction of ''The Moon and sixpence''====

The moon and sixpence is one of the great works of William Somerset Maugham, a British novelist, written in 1919. The book is sold subject to the condition that is shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, resold, hired out, or otherwise circulated without the publisher's prior consent in any form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published and without a similar condition. First it published in Great Britain by William Heinemann in 1919. In this novel, Maugham tells the whole story in the first person narrative. This book is based on the French impressionist painter Gauguin's life who originally is a securities broker at the middle-aged. However he gave up everything to the South Pacific island of Tahiti and lived with the indigenous people. Finally he got inspiration and created many masterpieces of art. This novel became popular in the twentieth Century and it revealed the theme of escaping the reality. (Fu Weici 1994,12)

The work relates the content by the first person perspective. The protagonist is a writer who knows about Charles Strickland's family. The family looked happiness and perfectly satisfactory, however, Charles Strickland was always lacking in energy. After long, he left home to Paris that to decide look for his own art.

The protagonist goes to aboard and founds the Charles Strickland who denotes to struggle out of this life which he couldn't drawing absolutely obey his own heart. He firmly left his wife and children with nothing left. Fortunately, his wife found the skills to live well with the children. After five years, the protagonist met Charles Strickland in Paris that he lived in poverty and no friends with him but he still immersed his dream and never felt regret. His talent increasingly got the recognition during the progress of quest the art. (Fu 1994,136)

Latterly he decided to abandon the civilized life to the original islands in the South Pacific island of Tahiti where the protagonist met by chance. Charles Strickland married a native girl and had three children, spending three years short of happiness.

Finally the children died and he also had leprosy. Eventually, he finished a piece of work on the wall when he was blind. The native wife buried him, according to his wishes, destroyed his work on the wall which makes the protagonist feel regret. However the protagonist understood his pursuit in his paintings. (Fu 1994,198)

After the publishing of ''The Moon and Sixpence'', it attracts the readers by the plots and profound words and it makes a noise in the world.

====3.2 The Characteristics of the language====

Maugham is recognized the British with deeply influence of French literary. The largest characteristic of his work is that the language is humorous and interesting for readers. This mainly comes down to the fact that he is good at conceiving and telling stories. What's more it also in addition to what he often shows in his novels. Maugham's text is not tense and there are always cold tone of a British style detached from outside the novels and readers.

His works inevitably have some acrimonious words which could accurately describe the social reality by he own sees and hears. For in ''The Moon and Sixpence'' when he describes the success of the Charles Strickland that he write "I do not speak of that greatness which is achieved by the fortunate politician or the successful soldier; that is a quality which belongs to the place he occupies rather than to the man; and a change of circumstance reduces it to very discreet proportions. The prime Minister out of office is seen, too often, to have been but a pompous rhetorician, and the General without an army is but the tame hero of a market town. The greatness of Charles Strickland was authentic. It may be that you do not like his art, but at all events you can hardly refuse it the tribute of your interest. He disturbs and arrests." By these sentences we can know about the success clearly of the Charles Strickland by comparison. It may be that these languages are too direct to attack politicians and generals, but we can't deny the fact. Maugham's writing style is short and humorous and we can see the reality of society quickly by his text. (Guo Xiaoling 2014,4)

The novel describes Charles Strickland's feeling with three different women's. These three women basically represent the characteristics of the world most women. The first woman is most common who quest the materialistic, selfish, good face, and with a direct survival instinct. The second women considers the love is supremacy and she is weak and locking the ability to survive. The most pure is his third women. Maybe we couldn't define her feeling to Charles Strickland. Their marriage is like a merger of similar items, she lived just for him and she has been with him together. In my opinion, these three women are sympathy-worthy and pitiful. Since if eventually Charles Strickland said “Women are strange little beasts. You can treat them like dogs, you can beat them till your arm aches, and still they love you." These sentences are very simple neither too many gorgeous words nor long winded repetition words. However it is always able to impress deeply you from the heart and it can let you know what the emotion the author wants to express. (Guo 2014,4)

Likely these instances, Charles Strickland took keen to pursuit his own dream and he does not care these things around him so that he can't understand why women will follow him without any condition. He thinks they are sympathy-worthy and stupid. In order to vividly embody this feeling, the woman is compared to a dog. Even though you treat them as the dog, they still do not abandon you and love you as before. Through these words I believe that although you haven't read this book you could also understand the meaning which the author wants to express. Charles Strickland hates the limit of loving and family and he also couldn't feel the women's feeling. (Cao Jing 2013,2)

Charles Strickland shrugged his shoulders and said "Of course, it is one of the most absurd illusions of Christianity that they have souls." This sentence through the description of that they have the soul reflected that the pure in his heart. And he pitied them only because he thinks people have more important things to pursue and the people should follow their own heart to do what they want to do. He thinks women have souls, but they don't realize what they really want to do. Maugham's character and the inner world of the characters reflected in the simple humorous sentences have to admit that a simple sentence has a huge amount of information.

====3.3 Introduction of Fu Weici's and Li Jihong's Chinese Versions====

Fu Weici was born in Harbin in 1923. He is the remarkable translator of modern literary. Fu Weici worked in western language and literature respectively in the Fu Jen Catholic University, Zhejiang University and Peking University. He graduated from Peking University in 1950 and worked in Tsinghua University and Peking University for the job of Chinese teaching. Eventually he died in March 16, 2014 at the age of 91. As far as I am concerned and researching from computer, Fu Weici' version is more simple and there are a lot of language are very straightforward and particularly close to the social situation at that time. There are even a lot of vernacular and dialect. But this version is more close to the original so that the story does not seem boring.

Li Jihong was born in 1980 and his native is Guangdong, now resides in Shanghai. He is also remarkable translator but younger than Fu Weici. His publication has millions of best-selling translation of Kite Runne, conversations with God, the great Gatsby, the little prince and so on. His contributions are covering novels, prose, translations of sociology, economics, philosophy and religion etc. Comparing Fu Weici's version, Li Jihong's version is more close to people's voice habits and there are many languages are very smooth and complete, giving people a sense of comfort and in the language it has also increased a lot of modern elements. The specific differences of the two translations will be put forward in the following article.

===4. A Comparative Study of ''The Moon and Sixpence'''s Two Chinese versions===

====4.1 A Comparative Study on the Meaning====

=====4.1.1 A Comparative Study on the Designative Meaning=====

The designative meaning refers to referents in the realistic world. It is mainly based on observation of world's objects and experience and it is objective and easy to understand. The translators are easy to achievement equivalence of expression in another language to translate the word's designative meaning.

There are some instances of the two versions of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' following.

Example 1: "All we know is that the blackguard gone to Paris."

Fu Weici's version: "我们只知道那个流氓跑到巴黎去了。"

Li Jihong's version: "我们只知道那混蛋去了巴黎。"

In this word, we can see that either 流氓 Or 混蛋 are all to describe Charles Strickland and expresses the people's resentful to him. In the original work the author uses blackguard to describe Charles Strickland. The most meaning of this word is 流氓 and there is rarely 混蛋 this meaning on the Internet. If we translate it into 流氓 that we could understand that this people are homeless and are derelict in duty and run irrelevant business. And this people show low-down means or break the law and so on. Another if we translate into 混蛋 that expresses this person are unreasonable and are impervious to reason. In the original work the Charles Strickland abandon his wife and children without leaving anything and there are not any wrongs with his wife. We can learn from the post that he just to pursuit his dream and he considers the loving is the obstacle for him. The people around his wife all mostly think that he had mistress and he is heartless. From this we can see that he did not do the heinous thing or violate the law, merely because what he has done attracted people's discontent. Therefore I consist it is more appropriated to translate the blackguard into 混蛋. The 流氓 just release the equivalence of meaning. However the 混蛋 release the equivalence of functuionsal. (Cao Jing 2013,23)

Example 2: "It was about five years after this."

Fu Weici's version: "这件事过去大约五年之后。"

Li JIhong's version: "大概过了五年。"

The after five years it has happened a important thing and it points the Charles Strickland abandon his wife and children with nothing to left. The author mostly emphasize the protagonist had underwent this thing and it had influenced him. Moreover the main plot of this article is to express Charles Strickland's experience and his life of persuading his dream.

In first version Fu Weici points this thing but it doesn't be referred in Li Jihong's. So I think when the translators translating this sentence they need translate this thing.

Example 3: "The satyr in him suddenly took possession, and he was powerless in the grip of an instinct which had all the strength of the primitive forces of nature."

Fu Weici's version: "他内心深处的那个半人半兽的东西把他捉到手里,在这种具有大自然的原始力量的天性的掌心里他完全无能威力。"

Li Jihong's version: "他内心的兽欲猝然发难，而他根本无力摆脱那种本能的操控。"

The satyr of this sentence points to thought that he does not want love and he hasn't time for it but he is a man and sometimes he wants a woman. He hates this state but he couldn't control himself. By comparing the two versions, I think Li Jihong's translation is better than Fu Weici's. In the dictionary the satyr points a man who has strong sexual desire and is amorist. And in the Myths of Greece and Rome it points the God of half man and half beast. The first version reflects the equivalence of words' meaning. And later he used the power of nature to indicate this power. We can see that he mostly translates by word to word and it closes to the original's language characteristic. The second translators pay more attention to cultural equivalence and the influence of modern elements. Li Jihong translates the satyr into sexual desire and he describes this power is the instinct of the people. As far as I am concerned, the satyr points the sexual desire and it is the instinct which people couldn't control. (Cao Jing 2013,2)

=====4.1.2 A Comparative Study on the Associative Meaning=====

The associative meaning is an expression of the speakers by individual mental understandings. Sometimes the correct and faithful translation needs correct translating of designative Meaning and it is basis of language. However the associative meaning also is very important. There are different associative meanings though the terms have the same images. Because with the different culture and language that the readers have the different understanding. A closest equivalence of natural translation requires the target readers to fully and positively appreciate corresponding message of source text. For translating the source language's associative meaning, the translators need figure out correct associative meaning's expression. And they need do proper responses to original readers that can get from source text. Eventually the translators make the equivalence between the source text readers and target text readers.(Sun Zhili 1997,2）

Example 1: "Yes, she hadn't a drop of white blood in her."

Fu Weici's version: "是的,一滴白人的血液也没有。"

Li Jihong's version: "是的,她的身上没有半滴白人的血。"

It's about the last journey of Strickland's life, he met his wife who was indigent and without a drop of white. This sentence emphasizes she is born at here and she doesn't touch the white at all. In the Fu Weici's version, he translates a drop of white into 一滴白人的血,however in Li Jihong's, it is translated 半滴白人的血. Comparing to the original description of a drop of a blood, the later more reflects the equivalence of associative meaning and more vividly describing that she was native. 半滴 always is translated into half a drop in English. Although the translation here uses a half drop instead of a drop, I still don't think there is any not equivalence. There is not much difference between a drop and a half drop in the number, but in the degree of modification the half a drop more deeply to embody the noting. And the half drop is more strengthening the tone. From without a drop or a half drop of white to describe she is native, which indicates the equivalence of associative meaning. As far as I concerned, in this sentence, Li Jihong's version is better than Fu Weici's version.(Sun 1997,2）

Example 2: "Strickland had burst the bonds that hitherto had held him."

Fu Weici's version: "思特里克兰德已经把那一直束缚着的桎梏打碎了。"

Li Jihong's version: "思特里克兰已经打破了禁锢他的桎梏。"

"桎梏" is instruments of torture in ancient China and it is called "桎" when is worn on hand, on the contrast, it is called "梏" when is worn on foot. This thing usually used to punish the people who had committed a crime. In this part, the original work used the bonds to describe "桎梏". In the dictionary the bonds point to imprison or confine somebody to do something and make people not free. Foreigners who don't understand the Chinese culture maybe can't understand what the shackles are. However in China, almost every reader knows it and the meaning what it wants to express if they know the shackles is instruments of torture. In original work, the author wants to express Strickland had burst the bonds of thought that hitherto had held him. In the version of Fu Weici and Li Jihong, they both translate the Strickland broke the shackles which always constrained him on the thought. As we all know, thought is a thing which we could not see and grasp, and it is impossible for us to restrain a thing which is not exist with instruments of torture. Yet the translators translate that the shackles that constrain the thought. From using a real thing to show a thing which is not existing, we could deeply feel the thing that does not exist as if it were real. Although the shackles are different with bonds in the surface meaning, they both express the confine of thought and they are equivalence in associative meaning.（Wang Jia 2014,31）

====4.2 A Comparative Study on the Level of Style====

=====4.2.1 A Comparative Study on the Metaphor or Simile=====

Example 1: "He reminded you of a frightened sheep running aimlessly hither and thither."

Fu Weici's version: "像一只受了惊的小羊，没有目的地东跑西窜，张皇失措，晕头转向。"

Li Jihong's version: "他像慌不择路、到处乱跑的绵羊。"

The "小羊" refers to the sheep which small and relating thin, it does not specifically what kind of sheep. By comparing it the "绵羊" is more specific. When it comes to "绵羊", the first impression is timid and easily bullied. In the original work, the author described him like a frightened sheep. He did not point which kind of sheep but we could feel the sheep's fear and weak. Even more we could fell the sheep is timid and fearsome. Fu weici describes the sheep is little sheep. From little sheep we also could feel the meaning what the author wants to express. In Li jiong's version, he translates the sheep into Bujumbura. From Bujumbura we could know the sheep's character. Nowadays, when we express one person is timid and obedient. Usually we could use the Bujumbura. From sheep to little sheep or Bujumbura, we all were able to realize the Strickland's friend respects him and cherishes his talent. When he met Strickland’s work he felt that he was a clown. He wanted to destroy it but he is afraid. He loved his work and talent from the heart. From this sentence we know that the author and translators all use the way of metaphor. They compared Strickland friend to frightened sheep running aimlessly hither and thither. In my opinion, I more like the Li Jihong’s version because the jumbuck is more closed to our modern life. Although the original work doesn't show the kind of sheep however through metaphor we could realize the degree of the people's fear.（Wang 2014,31）

Example 2: "She was desire."

Fu Weici's version: "成了欲念的化身。"

Li Jihong's version: "她变成了欲望的化身。"

The author uses the rhetorical devices of simile in the sentence. He is desire that the two translators both compared him to the embodiment of desire. There aren't essential difference between the "欲念" and "欲望". They both express the desire for getting something. The former most points the desire of getting something in thought. The latter more inclined to express the desire for a specific thing. In original work, the author describes Strickland just pursuit the satisfaction of physiology. He only uses women to satisfy his desire and not really love them. He hated the woman just pursuit the love in life especially when he met the second woman. He didn't give her any more birthright and he didn't get married with her. He just wanted her to satisfy his desire of physiology. So when he was asked why he was with her he said that he just wanted her. The two translators both realize the equivalence of simile through compare him to the embodiment of desire.（Wang 2014,32）

Example 3: "I don't disapprove of the boa-constrictor; on the contrary, I'm interested in his mental processes."

Fu Weici's version: "我对蟒蛇的习性并不反对，相反我对它的心理活动倒很感兴趣。"

Li Jihong's version: "我并不鄙视毒蛇，恰恰相反，我对他的思维过程很有兴趣。"

The main features of "蟒蛇" is thick and long and it is the largest snakes compared to more primitive snakes in the world. "毒蛇" refers to the snakes which could secrete special venom. They are found of using stratagem to attract the vicious. They are beautiful animals, but also the embodiment of evil. In the original work, the author wants to express the protagonist’s dissatisfaction with his action. He abandoned his wife and two lovely children with leaving nothing. Even more he didn't feel this mistake and he had no need to take responsibility for them. In the eyes of ordinary people this is totally inconsistent with common sense. The true husband should love his wife and take care of the family. So many people think he is cold-bloode and the protagonist is no exception. The author uses the boa to describe. The Strickland's action calls the opposition from the people. Fu Weici translates the boa into the "蟒蛇". According to the introduction of the python, we can see that the boa is larger and they are carnivores. But these maybe the result of natural selection and these are not their nature is bad. On the contrary, the "毒蛇" are different and they are the real bad guys and they are devil incarnate. Through the description of the original text, we can know that the hero complained that he abandoned his family and he was not human. So I think compare him to "毒蛇" is more appropriate. It reflects his cold-bloodedness and unfeeling.（Wang 2014,33）

=====4.2.2 A Comparative Study on the Repetition=====

Example 2: "I will never have him in my house-never."

Fu Weici's version: "我永远也不让他进咱们的家门-永远也不让。"

Li Jihong's version: "我绝不让他踏进我的家-绝不。"

Never and absolutely not both describe the no. However the latter tone is more serious. Repetition is to emphasize a certain meaning and it is to highlight a certain emotion. Especially when using some certain repetition of words, sentences or paragraphs. Through this chapter, we can see that Strickland is ill, however, Mrs. Stroeve against him to move to her home. She says "I will never have him in my house-never". Two repetition of "never" shows the Mrs. Stroeve's firm attitude. After reading, we can know the reason why she firmly opposed because she did not want to admit that she was falling in love with a penniless pauper, and he does not have what advantage. She was afraid to see him because she was afraid that it would come true. So we can know that she is very reluctant Strickland to come to her house for recuperating. The repetition of never and absolutely not both could reflect this feeling.（Zhao Dandan 2011,54）

====4.3 A Comparative Study on the Cultural Transmission====

The culture is very complicated and it refers to the entire way of life in the society. It involves many aspects that knowledge, art, law, translation and other habits in the society. Eugene Nida depicts the relationship between the culture and language in the translating practice like that in whole translating and interpreting, the source language and the target language should be implicitly or explicitly compared, but all such interlinguas communication extend far beyond the mechanizes of linguistic similarities and difference. The main reason is that the meaning of verbal symbols on every level depends on the communication of culture and language. The language also is a part of culture, and it is the most complicated part of the habits comparing the other culture factors. Language provides access to the culture, reflects culture and in the some aspects it constitutes a model of culture. Eugene Nida also indicates that if there were not so many misunderstandings about the language and the function within a society relation between the culture and the language couldn't constitute such difficulties for intersecting culture understanding.（Zhao 2011,55）

From Eugene Nida's perspective, the language and the culture are closely related. He thinks the words should denote to show the corresponding culture. The language is loaded by culture and the culture is expressed, transmitted, preserved and promoted by language. Thus the translator should take considerable account of the culture factors in their translation. That means the translators should try to find the closed equivalence in the translation of the culture connotation. The translation couldn't beyond the target language readers' acceptance or give them a distorted understanding. On the contrast, the translators need make sure their translations can enable the target language readers to accurately and adequately understand the source texts. "Eugene Nida considers culture as the totality of the beliefs and practices of a society, and classifies culture into five categories: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture." (Nida 1964,91)

===5. Conclusion===

====5.1 Evaluation of the Two Chinese Versions====

Through the comparison of the two papers, I prefer to Li Jihong's version. It is more closed to modern reading habits. In this version, functional equivalence is used in many place, which not only the pursuit of literal meaning but the pursuit of the original expression of emotion. By comparing Li Jihong's version, the Fu Weici's version is more reflecting the equivalence of the meaning and sometimes pursuit the equivalence of words. On the other hand, the two versions differ 19 years. With the change of time, cultural background and the reader's preferences also changed. By comparing, the latter's translation is more closed to modern readers' reading habit. More accurately, the latter is more in line with my reading habits.

To summarize, the author hopes that this study may contribute a little to the research field of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' and its translation. What is done in this thesis is just an elementary study concerning translation strategy. There are much more needed to be explored in this field.

====5.2 The Limitation of Present Study====

As all above, this thesis has studied the translation of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' on the aspects on meaning, study and culture. Some examples are analyzed under each type of device to evaluate the two versions of translation based on the functional equivalence theory. However there are too much pages of these two translations, and just some parts of them are taken as examples to discuss in the study in the chapter three of this paper. Therefore, this study may not be comprehensive and it has to be confined due to the author's personal perspective and the limitation of research material and time.

===References===

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*Halliday, M.A.K. Language Structure and Language Function[M].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2008.

*Nida, Eugene. On Translation[M]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Cooperation, 1984.

*Nida, Eugene. Toward a Science of Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.

*Halliday, M.A.K. An Introduction to Function Grammar [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2008.

*Nida, Eugene.A. & Jan De Ward. From One Language to Another[M]. Nashville: Thomas Nelson Inc, 1986.

*Nida, Eugene.A. Language, Culture and Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993.

*Ma Huijuan. A Study on Nida’s Translation Thery[M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2003.

*傅惟慈.月亮与六便士[M].上海：上海译文出版社，1994.

*李继宏.月亮与六便士[M].天津：天津人民出版社，2015.

*张东东，姜立维.功能翻译理论与应用笔译研究[M].黑龙江：哈尔滨工程大学出版社，2015-5.

*刘琼.“功能对等理论”指导下文化负载词的翻译--以《金翅雀》为例[D].北京：北京外国语大学，2016.

*孙致礼.关于我国翻译理论建设的几点思考[J]. 中国翻译, 2(1997).

*刘宓庆.当代翻译理论[M].北京: 中国对外翻译出版社， 2005.

*顾维勇.实用文体翻译[M].北京: 国防工业出版社, 2005.

*陈安琪.用奈达功能对等理论指导当代科技文本非技术部分的翻译[D].北京：北京外国语学院，2014.

*王佳.从功能对等理论看《爱玛》的翻译[J]. 2014（10）：31-33.

*赵丹丹.浅论奈达的功能对等理论[J]. 2011（03）：54-55.

*王德春.语言学概论[M].上海: 上海外语教育出版, 1997.

*马会娟.奈达翻译理论研究[M].北京: 中国对外翻译出版社，2003.--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 14:51, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Differences in style and language expression in Japanese-English narrative translation 谢子熠 Xie Ziyi==

--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 14:01, 9 December 2020 (UTC)

'''Abstract:''' When Japanese narrative texts translated into English, the translated versions often have different forms and syntax from the original texts. From the perspective of cognitive linguistics, it is thought that the difference in form and structure is due to the difference in cognitive practices of the actors who recognize and conceptualize the situation in the narrative as a linguistic expression. In the present paper, mainly based on Langacker 's theory, I argue that there are two opposing modes of situation recognition, one in which the conceptualize　perceives the situation objectively from outside and the other in which the conceptualize perceives it subjectively from inside the situation, and that before and after translation, the former is dominant in the English narrative and the latter in the Japanese This study confirms the fact that the trend appears in the trend. The paper concludes with the following points: (1) the present tense in the past-tense story, (2) the clarification of the person who experienced the situation (mainly the subject), and (3) the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words as useful objects for future contrastive analysis in Japanese and English.

'''Key words:''' Conceptualization, conceptualization, subject (gender), perspective, Japanese-English translation

'''1. Introduction'''

In one study, I contrasted Soseki Natsume's "I am a Cat" with its Chinese translation, focusing on the use of poses, and found that there were far more examples of translating the original passive sentence into the active voice than the reverse. This means that it is essentially a misuse (or non-use) of Chinese to express its context passively. It can be said that I consciously changed the form of expression to the Chinese form from the perspective that it would be a good fit. Even if the Japanese conception is natural for the passive, it may be an unnatural idea that does not fit in with the Chinese language. The same can be said for the translation of narrative text in Japanese and English. Japanese to English and vice versa. In both cases, the forms and syntax used in the translated language are often different from those in the original.

In one study, I contrasted Soseki Natsume's "I am a Cat" with its Chinese translation, focusing on the use of poses, and found that there were far more examples of translating the original passive sentence into the active voice than the reverse. This means that it is essentially a misuse (or non-use) of Chinese to express its context passively. It can be said that I consciously changed the form of expression to the Chinese form from the perspective that it would be a good fit. Even if the Japanese conception is natural for the passive, it may be an unnatural idea that does not fit in with the Chinese language. The same can be said for the translation of narrative text in Japanese and English. Japanese to English and vice versa. In both cases, the forms and syntax used in the translated language are often different from those in the original.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

This paper considers the above-mentioned problems in the translation of Japanese and English narrative texts within the framework of cognitive linguistics. In cognitive linguistics, every linguistic expression reflects the subject's interpretation of the situation it represents; in other words, the subject conceptualizes the situation it perceives on its own initiative, and the product of that interpretation is the linguistic expression. In other words, subjects conceptualize the situation they perceive on their own, and the product is their linguistic expression. If different forms of expression and syntax used to express the same situation before and after Japanese/English translation, the degree of subjectivity of the cognitive subject's interpretation is different.

This paper considers the above-mentioned problems in the translation of Japanese and English narrative texts within the framework of cognitive linguistics. In cognitive linguistics, every linguistic expression reflects the subject's interpretation of the situation it represents; in other words, the subject conceptualizes the situation it perceives on its own initiative, and the product of that interpretation is the linguistic expression. In other words, subjects conceptualize the situation they perceive on their own, and the product is their linguistic expression. If different forms of expression and syntax used to express the same situation before and after Japanese/English translation, the degree of subjectivity of the cognitive subject's interpretation is different.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Based on this concept, the present paper structured as follows. First, we mainly support previous studies and this "subjectivity" and "conceptualization" and their closely related "perspectives" and "perspectives". The concepts of cognitive linguistics that form the basis of the analysis are presented, and at the same time, these concepts are used as the basis for the analysis of Japanese and English. I will describe the differences in the style of situation recognition in the language. Next, we will describe them in the narrative sentences of Japanese and English. In the following section, we present the framework of "cognitive narrative" contrastive research, which is applied to the contrastive analysis of The following are some examples of the use of the present tense in past tense stories in Japanese and English narratives via translation use, the clarification of the cognoscenti, and the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. We have shown that differences found in English and that it is the style of situational awareness in Japanese and English differences. In addition, in Section 4, we will show a concrete example of this in the actual Japanese English Briefly presented with examples of analysis of the translation of narrative sentences, and in the final section as the cornerstone of the subsequent specific linguistic analysis. We shall describe the prospects. In other words, this thesis is the first of many Japanese English narrative texts and their adaptations in the future. Contrast analysis with the translated version and consider the stylistic and syntactic differences between the Japanese and English versions. In doing so, we will focus on the above perspectives from the framework of cognitive linguistics, and thus we will be able to translate the narrative text into Japanese and English The purpose is to describe the basis for trying to explore contributions to language typology in terms of it is.

Based on this concept, the present paper structured as follows. First, we mainly support previous studies and this "subjectivity" and "conceptualization" and their closely related "perspectives" and "perspectives". The concepts of cognitive linguistics that form the basis of the analysis are presented, and at the same time, these concepts are used as the basis for the analysis of Japanese and English. I will describe the differences in the style of situation recognition in the language. Next, we will describe them in the narrative sentences of Japanese and English. In the following section, we present the framework of "cognitive narrative" contrastive research, which is applied to the contrastive analysis.

The following are some examples of the use of the present tense in past tense stories in Japanese and English narratives via translation use, the clarification of the cognoscenti, and the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. We have shown that differences found in English and that it is the style of situational awareness in Japanese and English differences. In addition, in Section 4, we will show a concrete example of this in the actual Japanese English Briefly presented with examples of analysis of the translation of narrative sentences, and in the final section as the cornerstone of the subsequent specific linguistic analysis. We shall describe the prospects. In other words, this thesis is the first of many Japanese English narrative texts and their adaptations in the future. Contrast analysis with the translated version and consider the stylistic and syntactic differences between the Japanese and English versions. In doing so, we will focus on the above perspectives from the framework of cognitive linguistics, and thus we will be able to translate the narrative text into Japanese and English The purpose is to describe the basis for trying to explore contributions to language typology in terms of it is.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

'''2. Definitions of cognitive linguistic concepts'''

Since language is a product of human activities, it is not in itself independent of the language user. Rather, all linguistic expressions reflect the subjective and subjective interpretation of the language user subject. The "subject" is, specifically, the language in which a situation verbalized. It is the subject of conceptualization, and at the same time, it is the conceptualizer that interprets the situation that the linguistic expression represents. In other words, as a conceptualizer, the language user is the subject that first recognizes the situation around him or her, conceptualizes it subjectively, and then expresses it in language. Behind every linguistic expression, there is always a conceptualizer who interprets the situation it represents. Perspective" is a concept that focuses on the role of this conceptualizer. It includes (i) orientation, (ii) vantage point, (iii) directonality, (iv) how subjectively or objectively one interprets an entity (i.e., how subjectively or objectively It contains four elements: (anentity is construed). To recognize a situation, the conceptualizer stands on a standpoint and perceives the situation from there. The concept that encompasses the conceptualizer's standpoint and the direction of his or her gaze is the "viewpoint" (viewpoint). In other words, "viewpoint" is a concept that encompasses not only the position from which one looks at an object, but also the extent to which one interprets an object as subject-object. The subject interprets the situation by focusing on the subjectively selected perspective, and reflects it in words. And then individual language expressions are produced on that basis.

Since language is a product of human activities, it is not in itself independent of the language user. Rather, all linguistic expressions reflect the subjective and subjective interpretation of the language user subject. The "subject" is, specifically, the language in which a situation verbalized. It is the subject of conceptualization, and at the same time, it is the conceptualizer that interprets the situation that the linguistic expression represents. In other words, as a conceptualizer, the language user is the subject that first recognizes the situation around him or her, conceptualizes it subjectively, and then expresses it in language.

Behind every linguistic expression, there is always a conceptualizer who interprets the situation it represents. Perspective" is a concept that focuses on the role of this conceptualizer. It includes (i) orientation, (ii) vantage point, (iii) directonality, (iv) how subjectively or objectively one interprets an entity (i.e., how subjectively or objectively It contains four elements: (anentity is construed). To recognize a situation, the conceptualizer stands on a standpoint and perceives the situation from there. The concept that encompasses the conceptualizer's standpoint and the direction of his or her gaze is the "viewpoint" (viewpoint). In other words, "viewpoint" is a concept that encompasses not only the position from which one looks at an object, but also the extent to which one interprets an object as subject-object. The subject interprets the situation by focusing on the subjectively selected perspective, and reflects it in words. And then individual language expressions are produced on that basis.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In cognitive linguistics, these concepts considered to produce linguistic expressions, and it is known that the subject that produces the linguistic expressions perceives the situation in various cognitive modes when it conceptualizes the situation. There are cases in which the subject grasps the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, and there are cases in which the subject grasps the situation as a part of the situation. There are also cases in which the situation is grasped as neither subject nor object, but rather as an existence that forms the situation. In other words, depending on the perspective of the subject, the same situation can be interpreted in several ways.

In cognitive linguistics, these concepts considered to produce linguistic expressions, and it is known that the subject that produces the linguistic expressions perceives the situation in various cognitive modes when it conceptualizes the situation. There are cases in which the subject grasps the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, and there are cases in which the subject grasps the situation as a part of the situation. There are also cases in which the situation is grasped as neither subject nor object, but rather as an existence that forms the situation. In other words, depending on the perspective of the subject, the same situation can be interpreted in several ways.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Based on the above conceptualization and discussion, I will confirm the facts that have been pointed out in the previous Japanese/English contrastive studies. It has been said that English is a language that prefers objective expressions, while Japanese is a language that prefers subjective expressions. While English native speakers tend to grasp the situation objectively, Japanese native speakers tend to grasp the situation subjectively. Unlike English native speakers, Japanese native speakers tend to place themselves in a situation and directly grasp the situation as a whole by feeling it with their own bodies. In Japanese, there are many linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings that reflect this kind of cognition of a situation. In other words, in English, linguistic expressions that reflect a point of view taken outside of a situation are prototypical, and linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings established through the special process of manifesting conceptual operations. On the other hand, at least in Japanese, it is more prototypical to take a point of view into a situation and express a subjective and subjective understanding of the situation through it.

Based on the above conceptualization and discussion, I will confirm the facts that have been pointed out in the previous Japanese/English contrastive studies. It has been said that English is a language that prefers objective expressions, while Japanese is a language that prefers subjective expressions. While English native speakers tend to grasp the situation objectively, Japanese native speakers tend to grasp the situation subjectively. Unlike English native speakers, Japanese native speakers tend to place themselves in a situation and directly grasp the situation as a whole by feeling it with their own bodies.

In Japanese, there are many linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings that reflect this kind of cognition of a situation. In other words, in English, linguistic expressions that reflect a point of view taken outside of a situation are prototypical, and linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings established through the special process of manifesting conceptual operations. On the other hand, at least in Japanese, it is more prototypical to take a point of view into a situation and express a subjective and subjective understanding of the situation through it.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Furthermore, the following facts have been identified as characteristic characteristics of the linguistic representation of Japanese stories. There are two attitudes to narrative expression in Japanese writing: one is to explain the development of the situation from the standpoint of an observer, and the other is to describe it as such from the author's point of view. In addition, there is a proactive narrative attitude of accepting events from the point of view of the characters in the story. Moreover, one is allowed to use them all at will, sometimes even shifting to a different level of narrative attitude. For example, in addition to the author, there may be another person in the story, and the story described from that person's point of view. In other words, there is a shift in perspective in the relationship between the two parties in the story. In other words, there is a shift in point of view from a bystander to a character in the story. In other cases, when explaining a topical scene, the author does not look down on the overall geographical situation with the eyes of a bystander, but rather passively perceives the scene from his own point of view within the realm of the story. Here, too, we can see the peculiarity of the Japanese language way of thinking. In any case, what is prototypical in the Japanese language is a mode of situational awareness that conceptualizes and expresses a situation from a point of view within the context of a situation.

Furthermore, the following facts have been identified as characteristic characteristics of the linguistic representation of Japanese stories. There are two attitudes to narrative expression in Japanese writing: one is to explain the development of the situation from the standpoint of an observer, and the other is to describe it as such from the author's point of view. In addition, there is a proactive narrative attitude of accepting events from the point of view of the characters in the story. Moreover, one is allowed to use them all at will, sometimes even shifting to a different level of narrative attitude. For example, in addition to the author, there may be another person in the story, and the story described from that person's point of view.

In other words, there is a shift in perspective in the relationship between the two parties in the story. In other words, there is a shift in point of view from a bystander to a character in the story. In other cases, when explaining a topical scene, the author does not look down on the overall geographical situation with the eyes of a bystander, but rather passively perceives the scene from his own point of view within the realm of the story. Here, too, we can see the peculiarity of the Japanese language way of thinking. In any case, what is prototypical in the Japanese language is a mode of situational awareness that conceptualizes and expresses a situation from a point of view within the context of a situation.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

'''3. Cognitive Narrative Theory'''

Before going into a specific translation analysis of Japanese and English narrative sentences, it is necessary to describe here the basic idea of cognitive narrative theory as its foundation.

If we define narrative as a formal text in which a speaker, who is a cognitive subject, manipulates the narrator to convey the situation he or she grasps (constructs) to the receiver, the problematic aspect of cognitive narrative theory is how the cognitive subject perceives and expresses the event or event. From this perspective, it can be said that the perspective of how we perceive a situation plays an important role in narrative structure. Even when describing the same object, the way of describing it differs depending on the viewpoint from which the object viewed. The narrative world reflects the dynamic cognitive process of the subject presenting that world. This kind of cognitive process is created by the subject's mode of interpretation, such as viewpoint projection, gaze movement/transformation, etc. The subject's cognitive processes constrain various aspects of narrative representation, including form and structure.

Before going into a specific translation analysis of Japanese and English narrative sentences, it is necessary to describe here the basic idea of cognitive narrative theory as its foundation.

If we define narrative as a formal text in which a speaker, who is a cognitive subject, manipulates the narrator to convey the situation he or she grasps (constructs) to the receiver, the problematic aspect of cognitive narrative theory is how the cognitive subject perceives and expresses the event or event. From this perspective, it can be said that the perspective of how we perceive a situation plays an important role in narrative structure. Even when describing the same object, the way of describing it differs depending on the viewpoint from which the object viewed. The narrative world reflects the dynamic cognitive process of the subject presenting that world. This kind of cognitive process is created by the subject's mode of interpretation, such as viewpoint projection, gaze movement/transformation, etc. The subject's cognitive processes constrain various aspects of narrative representation, including form and structure.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

If we apply Nishitaya's cognitive narrative theory, a study of Japanese and English narrative texts in terms of translation and contrast will ultimately depend on the differences in cognitive styles between languages, how the subject and conceptualizer of a situation perceives and expresses the situation in language, as well as the form of expression and syntax before and after translation. It can be considered to make a difference above. Hence, in the following, we will first describe typical human cognitive styles and then identify which cognitive style predominantly adopted by Japanese and English as the dominant language. If differences in the predominant tendency of the cognitive style of the situation reflected in both languages clarified, it can be a basis for differences in the forms and syntax produced before and after translation of the same situation.

If we apply Nishitaya's cognitive narrative theory, a study of Japanese and English narrative texts in terms of translation and contrast will ultimately depend on the differences in cognitive styles between languages, how the subject and conceptualizer of a situation perceives and expresses the situation in language, as well as the form of expression and syntax before and after translation. It can be considered to make a difference above. Hence, in the following, we will first describe typical human cognitive styles and then identify which cognitive style predominantly adopted by Japanese and English as the dominant language. If differences in the predominant tendency of the cognitive style of the situation reflected in both languages clarified, it can be a basis for differences in the forms and syntax produced before and after translation of the same situation.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

'''4. Findings from translation studies'''

As mentioned above, the subjective interpretation of the translator enters into the translation. It is impossible in principle for a source text to be objectively interpreted, objectively represented in its meaning, and objectively textualized in the target language on the basis of these objective representations. The act of translation is (1) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the individual translator, which is subject to the indeterminacy of meaning, and (2) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the translator. That is to say, there is an inherent indeterminacy of interpretation of the original text itself, as well as of the linguistic structure of its expression in the target language. Second, at the micro level, the habitus acquired by the individual translator in the professional field of translation plays a role as a control factor and influences the translator's disposition to act in a greater or lesser degree. There are also translation instructions and power dynamics from publishers and clients, as well as political, social, and cultural macro-contextual factors (the main ones being "norms" and "purpose," which will be discussed below) that are behind the translator's disposition to translate. At the same time, the indeterminacy and subjective bias of the translator inherent in the act of translation will inevitably lead to different results in the translation. Therefore, when we make a translation into a counter-language study, we need to pay attention to the (1) linguistic and social actions of the translation act, and (2) the interpretive tendencies of the individual translator.

As mentioned above, the subjective interpretation of the translator enters into the translation. It is impossible in principle for a source text to be objectively interpreted, objectively represented in its meaning, and objectively textualized in the target language on the basis of these objective representations. The act of translation is (1) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the individual translator, which is subject to the indeterminacy of meaning, and (2) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the translator. That is to say, there is an inherent indeterminacy of interpretation of the original text itself, as well as of the linguistic structure of its expression in the target language.

Second, at the micro level, the habitus acquired by the individual translator in the professional field of translation plays a role as a control factor and influences the translator's disposition to act in a greater or lesser degree. There are also translation instructions and power dynamics from publishers and clients, as well as political, social, and cultural macro-contextual factors (the main ones being "norms" and "purpose," which will be discussed below) that are behind the translator's disposition to translate. At the same time, the indeterminacy and subjective bias of the translator inherent in the act of translation will inevitably lead to different results in the translation. Therefore, when we make a translation into a counter-language study, we need to pay attention to the (1) linguistic and social actions of the translation act, and (2) the interpretive tendencies of the individual translator.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The following is a summary of the changing trends in translation studies. There are two aspects of translation: linguistic action and social action, and theories have been shifting their analysis from the former to the latter. Theories that focus on the linguistic action of translation are the linguistic stages of translation studies: equivalence, translation shift, translation strategies, and text-type theory. When socio-actionality was added to these theories, Scopos theory, register analysis, systems theory, and normative theory were developed, which became the next generation of the linguistic stage. However, as translation studies experienced a "cultural and ideological turn" from its textual analysis-centered era, it began to focus on "translation as rewriting," "translation of gender," "postcolonial translation theory," "(non)visibility of translation," and "power networks of translation," among others. This covers not only translation but also the social, cultural, and historical significance and role of the social practice of representation. In recent years, research has also focused on "people," with a focus on the translator's life history and life story, and an analysis of how the individual translator's habitus affects the translation. To summarize this trend, we can see a shift from (1) focusing on the linguistic action of translation to (2) social action, and (3) research that takes into account the interpretive tendencies of individual translators.

The following is a summary of the changing trends in translation studies. There are two aspects of translation: linguistic action and social action, and theories have been shifting their analysis from the former to the latter. Theories that focus on the linguistic action of translation are the linguistic stages of translation studies: equivalence, translation shift, translation strategies, and text-type theory. When socio-actionality was added to these theories, Scopos theory, register analysis, systems theory, and normative theory were developed, which became the next generation of the linguistic stage.

However, as translation studies experienced a "cultural and ideological turn" from its textual analysis-centered era, it began to focus on "translation as rewriting," "translation of gender," "postcolonial translation theory," "(non)visibility of translation," and "power networks of translation," among others. This covers not only translation but also the social, cultural, and historical significance and role of the social practice of representation. In recent years, research has also focused on "people," with a focus on the translator's life history and life story, and an analysis of how the individual translator's habitus affects the translation. To summarize this trend, we can see a shift from (1) focusing on the linguistic action of translation to (2) social action, and (3) research that takes into account the interpretive tendencies of individual translators.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

On the basis of the above, let's first discuss the aforementioned case of Ikegami (2007) in the context of translation studies. For now, the case of Snow Country can be reduced to the issue of equivalence and shift. The concept of equivalence itself is disputed and has been defined and characterized in numerous ways (see Pym 2010, pp. 7-42), but I will operationally define it as the same linguistic and cultural value between the source and target texts. Five levels can be assumed for this equivalence: word level, phrase level, grammatical level, textual level (thematic progression and cohesion), and pragmatic level (Baker 1992), and this paper will mainly focus on the grammatical level. The "shift" is a linguistic shift between the source and target texts due to structural differences between the source and target languages (Catford 1965). In this connection, "conversion operations" refer to various operations to achieve a translation shift, either obligatory because of linguistic structure, or selective in order to achieve target language identity or certain stylistic effects.

On the basis of the above, let's first discuss the aforementioned case of Ikegami (2007) in the context of translation studies. For now, the case of Snow Country can be reduced to the issue of equivalence and shift. The concept of equivalence itself is disputed and has been defined and characterized in numerous ways (see Pym 2010, pp. 7-42), but I will operationally define it as the same linguistic and cultural value between the source and target texts. Five levels can be assumed for this equivalence: word level, phrase level, grammatical level, textual level (thematic progression and cohesion), and pragmatic level (Baker 1992), and this paper will mainly focus on the grammatical level. The "shift" is a linguistic shift between the source and target texts due to structural differences between the source and target languages (Catford 1965). In this connection, "conversion operations" refer to various operations to achieve a translation shift, either obligatory because of linguistic structure, or selective in order to achieve target language identity or certain stylistic effects.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Let's apply this to the case of Ikegami (2007). If we assume that there is a certain situation objectively portrayed in the original text, then if we can faithfully reproduce that situation in the target text, we have achieved an "equivalent" translation. However, because of the difference in linguistic structure between Japanese and English, and the different grammatical categories that must be expressed as linguistic expressions, obligatory conversion operations must be performed to conform to the linguistic norms of the target language (for example, the subject is zeroed in Japanese, but in English it is basically, because the subject is obligatory, do the operation of making the subject stand up).

Let's apply this to the case of Ikegami (2007). If we assume that there is a certain situation objectively portrayed in the original text, then if we can faithfully reproduce that situation in the target text, we have achieved an "equivalent" translation. However, because of the difference in linguistic structure between Japanese and English, and the different grammatical categories that must be expressed as linguistic expressions, obligatory conversion operations must be performed to conform to the linguistic norms of the target language (for example, the subject is zeroed in Japanese, but in English it is basically, because the subject is obligatory, do the operation of making the subject stand up).

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In practice, however, there is a process of chronological translation involved, which means that there are more than just static differences in linguistic structure. (1) The translator first interprets the source text (interpretation; a situation from the words). Then, (2) based on this interpretation, he or she contextualizes it in the target language (construal).

In practice, however, there is a process of chronological translation involved, which means that there are more than just static differences in linguistic structure. (1) The translator first interprets the source text (interpretation; a situation from the words). Then, (2) based on this interpretation, he or she contextualizes it in the target language (construal).

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

'''5. Subject's Perspective and Style of Situational Awareness in Japanese and English'''

In general, there are two kinds of opposing modes of conceptualizer subject's perception of a situation.

''Form A. Subject (C) grasps a situation (O) in which it is not a participant from outside the situation, corresponding to Langacker's optimal viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "objective grasping," and Nakamura's "D mode.

''Form B. The subject (C) enters a situation and grasps its situation (O), corresponding to Langacker's egocentric viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "subjective grasping" and Nakamura's "I-mode".

In general, there are two kinds of opposing modes of conceptualizer subject's perception of a situation.

''Form A. Subject (C) grasps a situation (O) in which it is not a participant from outside the situation, corresponding to Langacker's optimal viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "objective grasping," and Nakamura's "D mode.

''Form B. The subject (C) enters a situation and grasps its situation (O), corresponding to Langacker's egocentric viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "subjective grasping" and Nakamura's "I-mode".

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In terms of these viewpoint arrays, English tends to prefer the optimal viewpoint array and Japanese tends to prefer the egocentric viewpoint array.
When the subject takes a perspective, as in Form B, where the language subject enters a situation that is the object of conceptualization and interprets it subjectively and subjectively, the degree of subjectivity is very high in the language expression reflecting that subjectivity, e.g., in (1) a. below. On the other hand, when the subject interprets the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, as in Form A, the linguistic expressions reflecting the subjectivity of the subjectivity are less subjective (or in other words, more objective), such as b. and c. below. In b., the existence of the subject as a reference point is explicitly stated, but here the subject "conceptually splits" itself up and objectively perceives another real self in the situation from outside the situation. In other words, the speaker plays the role of both the subject of conceptualization and the object of conceptualization. In contrast, in c., the subject, as the subject of the conceptualization, perceives it objectively from the outside without entering the object of the conceptualization. Therefore, c. has a lower degree of subjectivity than b. It is the linguistic expression that expresses the most object-oriented meaning among the three linguistic expressions. The degree of subjectivity reflected in each linguistic expression depends on the degree to which the linguistic expression reflects the subjective and subjective interpretation of the subject. In other words, differences in the degree of subjectivity based on each cognitive style embodied in differences in the form and syntax of the resulting language expressions.

In terms of these viewpoint arrays, English tends to prefer the optimal viewpoint array and Japanese tends to prefer the egocentric viewpoint array.
When the subject takes a perspective, as in Form B, where the language subject enters a situation that is the object of conceptualization and interprets it subjectively and subjectively, the degree of subjectivity is very high in the language expression reflecting that subjectivity, e.g., in (1) a. below. On the other hand, when the subject interprets the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, as in Form A, the linguistic expressions reflecting the subjectivity of the subjectivity are less subjective (or in other words, more objective), such as b. and c. below. In b., the existence of the subject as a reference point is explicitly stated, but here the subject "conceptually splits" itself up and objectively perceives another real self in the situation from outside the situation.

In other words, the speaker plays the role of both the subject of conceptualization and the object of conceptualization. In contrast, in c., the subject, as the subject of the conceptualization, perceives it objectively from the outside without entering the object of the conceptualization. Therefore, c. has a lower degree of subjectivity than b. It is the linguistic expression that expresses the most object-oriented meaning among the three linguistic expressions. The degree of subjectivity reflected in each linguistic expression depends on the degree to which the linguistic expression reflects the subjective and subjective interpretation of the subject. In other words, differences in the degree of subjectivity based on each cognitive style embodied in differences in the form and syntax of the resulting language expressions.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

⑴ a. Vanessa is sitting across the table.
b. Vanessa is sitting across the table from me.
c. Vanessa is sitting across the table from Veronica.
（深田・仲本2008：171-172）

As seen in the present example, multiple linguistic expressions based on cognitive styles with different degrees of subjectivity are possible in English as well, but as mentioned earlier, style A tends to be used relatively more often than style B.
I will now mention what Langacker calls the "stage model". The "stage model" is a cognitive model that idealizes the meaning of linguistic expressions and the typical positioning of "speakers". According to this model, the speaker typically observes what is on the stage from the outside and encodes the conceptualization of it into a linguistic representation. In this case, the speaker is the "subject" of the concept and the object of expression is the "object" of the conceptualization, and their roles completely separated. In other words, we can say that the speaker's perspective is "off-stage". From this point of view, subjectivization is a phenomenon in which the speaker that not directly depicted, but rather the speaker that is non-explicitly incorporated into part of the semantic structure of the object of description (the object). In other words, in subjectivized, highly subjective linguistic expressions, the speaker's perspective is "on-stage". A relative comparison between English and Japanese shows that the "off-stage" type is more prevalent in English forms and syntax, while the "on-stage" type is more prevalent in Japanese.

As seen in the present example, multiple linguistic expressions based on cognitive styles with different degrees of subjectivity are possible in English as well, but as mentioned earlier, style A tends to be used relatively more often than style B.

I will now mention what Langacker calls the "stage model". The "stage model" is a cognitive model that idealizes the meaning of linguistic expressions and the typical positioning of "speakers". According to this model, the speaker typically observes what is on the stage from the outside and encodes the conceptualization of it into a linguistic representation. In this case, the speaker is the "subject" of the concept and the object of expression is the "object" of the conceptualization, and their roles completely separated.

In other words, we can say that the speaker's perspective is "off-stage". From this point of view, subjectivization is a phenomenon in which the speaker that not directly depicted, but rather the speaker that is non-explicitly incorporated into part of the semantic structure of the object of description (the object). In other words, in subjectivized, highly subjective linguistic expressions, the speaker's perspective is "on-stage". A relative comparison between English and Japanese shows that the "off-stage" type is more prevalent in English forms and syntax, while the "on-stage" type is more prevalent in Japanese.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Next, let us look at the two cognitive modes presented by Nakamura. This is also true for Japanese and English. Tendentious differences which is found according to Nakamura, from the aspect of subjectivity, there are two types of human perception of the situation, two modes of cognition, and each syntax (linguistic representation) is thought to reflect one of these two modes more strongly. The first is called "I-mode" (situationally attuned cognitive mode), which is the predominant mode in Japanese for situational perspective; in relation to Langacker, it is "on-stage" and is often viewed as "situation-centered" and the speaker is the participant in the situation (S-perspective). Also, because the perspective is within the situation, it is "direct experience" and its expression is "non-reporting" in that it is experiential and not reportive in tone. These are exactly the features that have been revealed to predominant in the linguistic expressions of Japanese narrative sentences. In contrast, the "D-mode" (cognitive mode from outside the situation) is the predominant mode in English that places the perspective outside the situation; in relation to Langacker, it is an "off-stage" and "out-of-situation" mode, so the perspective is literally "extrinsic" and "external" to each participant in the situation, which will be the focus of attention (the "person-centered" view, O-Perspective). Thus, the expression is "reportive". These are, if anything, the predominant features of linguistic representation in English narrative writing.

Next, let us look at the two cognitive modes presented by Nakamura. This is also true for Japanese and English. Tendentious differences which is found according to Nakamura, from the aspect of subjectivity, there are two types of human perception of the situation, two modes of cognition, and each syntax (linguistic representation) is thought to reflect one of these two modes more strongly. The first is called "I-mode" (situationally attuned cognitive mode), which is the predominant mode in Japanese for situational perspective; in relation to Langacker, it is "on-stage" and is often viewed as "situation-centered" and the speaker is the participant in the situation (S-perspective).

Also, because the perspective is within the situation, it is "direct experience" and its expression is "non-reporting" in that it is experiential and not reportive in tone. These are exactly the features that have been revealed to predominant in the linguistic expressions of Japanese narrative sentences. In contrast, the "D-mode" (cognitive mode from outside the situation) is the predominant mode in English that places the perspective outside the situation; in relation to Langacker, it is an "off-stage" and "out-of-situation" mode, so the perspective is literally "extrinsic" and "external" to each participant in the situation, which will be the focus of attention (the "person-centered" view, O-Perspective). Thus, the expression is "reportive". These are, if anything, the predominant features of linguistic representation in English narrative writing.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The predominant cognition in Japanese, where the speaker interacts with the situation/object, is the situation-based cognition, or "I-mode," which is a subjective cognition in which the speaker and the experiencer assimilate (and thus the speaker himself becomes the cognitive subject). In other words, it is a state in which the cognitive subject and the object of cognition fused together, which called "subject-object unity. On the other hand, the cognitive mode of objective recognition of a situation/object, which is dominant in English, is the extrinsic cognitive mode, or the "D-mode", which does not presuppose the interaction between the subject and the situation/object. This is characterized by the point that the cognitive subject goes outside the interactive cognitive field and takes a viewpoint as if it were viewed objectively from the outside. In that sense, this one is a "separation of subject and guest," so to speak, against the former.

The predominant cognition in Japanese, where the speaker interacts with the situation/object, is the situation-based cognition, or "I-mode," which is a subjective cognition in which the speaker and the experiencer assimilate (and thus the speaker himself becomes the cognitive subject). In other words, it is a state in which the cognitive subject and the object of cognition fused together, which called "subject-object unity. On the other hand, the cognitive mode of objective recognition of a situation/object, which is dominant in English, is the extrinsic cognitive mode, or the "D-mode", which does not presuppose the interaction between the subject and the situation/object. This is characterized by the point that the cognitive subject goes outside the interactive cognitive field and takes a viewpoint as if it were viewed objectively from the outside. In that sense, this one is a "separation of subject and guest," so to speak, against the former.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The Japanese language has a self-centered viewpoint arrangement and Mode I dominance, while the English language has an optimal viewpoint arrangement and Mode D dominance, and for this reason, the following differences in linguistic expressions expected to appear in the narrative as a tendency. This difference in cognitive mode is thought to be the basis of the different structures and forms of expression in translation, which may lead to the selection of linguistic expressions, and thus to the differences in expression between the source and target texts.

The Japanese language has a self-centered viewpoint arrangement and Mode I dominance, while the English language has an optimal viewpoint arrangement and Mode D dominance, and for this reason, the following differences in linguistic expressions expected to appear in the narrative as a tendency. This difference in cognitive mode is thought to be the basis of the different structures and forms of expression in translation, which may lead to the selection of linguistic expressions, and thus to the differences in expression between the source and target texts.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The reason for (1) and (2) in the Japanese language, where the I-mode is predominant, is that the narrator describes the situation in a way that puts him or her in it. The following argument about the frequent use of the present tense in Japanese narrative writing will also reinforce this point. The underlined part of the sentence is only possible when the narrator puts himself in the situation.

The reason for (1) and (2) in the Japanese language, where the I-mode is predominant, is that the narrator describes the situation in a way that puts him or her in it. The following argument about the frequent use of the present tense in Japanese narrative writing will also reinforce this point. The underlined part of the sentence is only possible when the narrator puts himself in the situation.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The use of the non-present present tense effectively moves past events to the present moment, so the reader or listener can re-experience the story.
The use of the present tense in Japanese narratives has the effect of giving immediacy, making the reader feel the suspense and assimilate into the author's inner world in the time in which the story is going on.

The use of the non-present present tense effectively moves past events to the present moment, so the reader or listener can re-experience the story.
The use of the present tense in Japanese narratives has the effect of giving immediacy, making the reader feel the suspense and assimilate into the author's inner world in the time in which the story is going on.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The reason for (3) is that onomatopoeia and mimetic words are situationally relevant forms of expression. In general, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently in Japanese than in English and other languages. In Japanese, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently than in English and other languages, such as "pochan" and "shito", respectively. A linguistic expression that expresses the phenomenon in its entirety, without the need for the subject to enter into the situation and adhere to it. If we consider that a situation cannot be grasped as a whole unless the subject enters into the situation and follows it closely, we can say that Japanese onomatopoeia and mimetic words are linguistic expressions expressing subjective meanings that manifest the existence of the subject who recognizes and interprets the situation subjectively. Therefore, they can be considered to be forms reflecting the I-mode. In Japanese narratives, which are much richer in onomatopoeia and mimetic words than in English, the I-mode is dominant.

The reason for (3) is that onomatopoeia and mimetic words are situationally relevant forms of expression. In general, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently in Japanese than in English and other languages. In Japanese, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently than in English and other languages, such as "pochan" and "shito", respectively. A linguistic expression that expresses the phenomenon in its entirety, without the need for the subject to enter into the situation and adhere to it. If we consider that a situation cannot be grasped as a whole unless the subject enters into the situation and follows it closely, we can say that Japanese onomatopoeia and mimetic words are linguistic expressions expressing subjective meanings that manifest the existence of the subject who recognizes and interprets the situation subjectively. Therefore, they can be considered to be forms reflecting the I-mode. In Japanese narratives, which are much richer in onomatopoeia and mimetic words than in English, the I-mode is dominant.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

'''6. Japanese and English Narrative Sentence Contrastive Analysis'''

In order to confirm the previous discussion, I will look at and analyze the actual narrative text in Japanese and English through translation. The purpose of this paper is to examine how the cognitive style of the situation in the narrative texts of Japanese and English before and after translation reflected in the linguistic expressions and how it leads to the differences in the linguistic expressions in Japanese and English, especially in the three points mentioned in the previous section. The quantitative and quantitative data analysis itself will be done another time due to space constraints. Therefore, in this section, we will limit ourselves to a fact-finding exercise.

In order to confirm the previous discussion, I will look at and analyze the actual narrative text in Japanese and English through translation. The purpose of this paper is to examine how the cognitive style of the situation in the narrative texts of Japanese and English before and after translation reflected in the linguistic expressions and how it leads to the differences in the linguistic expressions in Japanese and English, especially in the three points mentioned in the previous section. The quantitative and quantitative data analysis itself will be done another time due to space constraints. Therefore, in this section, we will limit ourselves to a fact-finding exercise.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

First, let's see how explicit and non-explicit tenses and situation recognizers in past-tense narratives differ between Japanese and English, depending on the conceptualizer's perspective. These perspectives correspond to those of (1) and (2) in the previous section. I will use Kawabata Yasunari's novel Yukiguni (Snow Country) and its English translation as the subject matter. From the previous discussion, it can be seen that the degree of subjectivity increases as we go from 1. to 4. below. In other words, 1. is the typical D-mode, which is dominant in English, and 4. is the typical I-mode, which is dominant in Japanese.

First, let's see how explicit and non-explicit tenses and situation recognizers in past-tense narratives differ between Japanese and English, depending on the conceptualizer's perspective. These perspectives correspond to those of (1) and (2) in the previous section. I will use Kawabata Yasunari's novel Yukiguni (Snow Country) and its English translation as the subject matter. From the previous discussion, it can be seen that the degree of subjectivity increases as we go from 1. to 4. below. In other words, 1. is the typical D-mode, which is dominant in English, and 4. is the typical I-mode, which is dominant in Japanese.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

1.Past tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "Off Stage”
2.Past tense, experienced non-explicit, perspective. "Off Stage”
3.Present tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "On Stage”
4.Present tense, experienced person non-explicit, point of view. "On Stage”

1.Past tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "Off Stage”
2.Past tense, experienced non-explicit, perspective. "Off Stage”
3.Present tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "On Stage”
4.Present tense, experienced person non-explicit, point of view. "On Stage”

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

⑵ a. …女はぷいと窓へ立っていって国境の山々を眺めたが、そのうちに頰を染めて、…
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)
b. She stood up abruptly and went over to the window, her face reddening as she looked out at the mountains.
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)

⑶ a. …島村が内湯から上がって来ると、もう全く寝静まっていた。古びた廊下は彼の踏む度にガラス戸を微かに鳴らした。その長いはずれの帳場の曲り角に、裾を冷え冷えと黒光りの板の上へ拡げて、女が高く立っていた。
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)
b. ...and by the time Shimamura had come up from the bath the place seemed to be asleep. The glass doors rattled slightly each time he took a step down the sagging corridor. At the end, where it turned past the office, he saw the tall figure of the woman, her skirts trailing coldly off across the dark floor.
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)

⑷ a. …島村はなぜかそれが心のどこかで見えるような気持ちもする。
(Present tense; empiricist explicit: the conceptualizer's Perspective is "On Stage”.)
b. Somewhere in his heart Shimamura saw a question, as clearly as if it were standing there before him.
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)

⑸ a. 島村はその方を見て、ひょっと首を縮めた。鏡の奥が真白に光っているのは雪である。その雪のなかに女の真赤な頰が浮んでいる。
(Present tense; empiricist non-explicit: the conceptualizer's perspective is "On stage”.)
b. Shimamura glanced up at her, and immediately lowered his head. The white in the depths of the mirror was the snow, and floating in the middle of it were the womanʼs bright red cheeks.
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)

⑵ a. …女はぷいと窓へ立っていって国境の山々を眺めたが、そのうちに頰を染めて、…
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)
b. She stood up abruptly and went over to the window, her face reddening as she looked out at the mountains.
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)

⑶ a. …島村が内湯から上がって来ると、もう全く寝静まっていた。古びた廊下は彼の踏む度にガラス戸を微かに鳴らした。その長いはずれの帳場の曲り角に、裾を冷え冷えと黒光りの板の上へ拡げて、女が高く立っていた。
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)
b. ...and by the time Shimamura had come up from the bath the place seemed to be asleep. The glass doors rattled slightly each time he took a step down the sagging corridor. At the end, where it turned past the office, he saw the tall figure of the woman, her skirts trailing coldly off across the dark floor.
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)

⑷ a. …島村はなぜかそれが心のどこかで見えるような気持ちもする。
(Present tense; empiricist explicit: the conceptualizer's Perspective is "On Stage”.)
b. Somewhere in his heart Shimamura saw a question, as clearly as if it were standing there before him.
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)

⑸ a. 島村はその方を見て、ひょっと首を縮めた。鏡の奥が真白に光っているのは雪である。その雪のなかに女の真赤な頰が浮んでいる。
(Present tense; empiricist non-explicit: the conceptualizer's perspective is "On stage”.)
b. Shimamura glanced up at her, and immediately lowered his head. The white in the depths of the mirror was the snow, and floating in the middle of it were the womanʼs bright red cheeks.
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

From the above example, it can be seen that the English translation has a reduced degree of subjectivity in its form compared to the original Japanese.
Now let's look at the perspective in the previous section (3), i.e., examples of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. The following is the original English text of Hemingway's "The Old Man and the Sea" and its translation into Japanese, in which the situation is expressed subjectively in Japanese as onomatopoeia and mimetic words, respectively. In the Japanese translation, the subject's point of view penetrates into the situation and which is closely connected to it to understand the situation as a whole. In this respect, it can be said that the degree of subjectivity of the cognizant subject is relatively greater than in English.

From the above example, it can be seen that the English translation has a reduced degree of subjectivity in its form compared to the original Japanese.
Now let's look at the perspective in the previous section (3), i.e., examples of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. The following is the original English text of Hemingway's "The Old Man and the Sea" and its translation into Japanese, in which the situation is expressed subjectively in Japanese as onomatopoeia and mimetic words, respectively. In the Japanese translation, the subject's point of view penetrates into the situation and which is closely connected to it to understand the situation as a whole. In this respect, it can be said that the degree of subjectivity of the cognizant subject is relatively greater than in English.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

⑹ a. ...and he loved to walk on them on the beach after a storm and hear them pop when he stepped on them with the horny soles of his feet.
b. また彼は嵐のあとなど、海岸に打ちあげられた浮袋を、角のように硬くなった踵で踏みつけては、それがプスッ、プスッと音をたてるのをききながら歩くのが好きだった。

⑺ a. In the dark, the old man could feel the morning coming and as he rowed he heard the trembling sound as flying fish left the water and the hissing that their stiff set wings made as they soared away in the darkness.
b. 老人は暗黒のうちに朝の近寄る気配を感じとっていた。飛魚が水を離れるときに生じるブルンという音、その硬い翼が暗い空をよぎるヒューという音、オールを操りながら老人はそれらの物音をはっきりききとっていた。

⑻ a. It floated cheerfully as a bubble with its long deadly purple filaments trailing a yard behind it in the water.
b. 黒ずんだ紫色の細い糸が水中に一ヤードも尾を引いていたが、それはまるで水泡のように、のんきにふわふわと漂っていた。

⑼ a. The bird went higher in the air and circled again, his wings motionless.
b. 鳥はさらに上空めがけて舞いあがり、ふたたびぐるぐる輪を描きはじめた。

'''7. Conclusion'''

In this paper, the framework and considerations of the contrastive study of Japanese and English narrative texts through translation are presented from the perspective of cognitive linguistics, with a particular focus on the concepts of "perspective" and "subjectivation," and some of the possibilities, methods, and examples of the analysis of linguistic representations of situation recognition in Japanese and English narrative texts have been seen. In particular, the contrastive analysis of Japanese and English The analysis from the standpoint of the opposition between the self-centered viewpoint arrangement and the optimal viewpoint arrangement proposed by Langacker, the I-mode and the D-mode proposed by Nakamura, and the subjective and objective grasping that Ikegami advocates seems to be effective, but it is necessary to collect data and attempt a quantitative analysis of more works in the future. In particular, with regard to item (1) of section 3, the position of the conceptualizer's point of view differs between the past and present tenses, with the former in the off-stage and the latter in the on-stage. Also, the item (2) in section 3, i.e., whether or not the perceiver of the situation is explicitly stated in the linguistic representation, may be explained by whether or not it is profiled in the direct scope. Further data analysis is needed to verify these as well. It should be noted that this Japanese-English controlled study may contribute to the further advancement of Nakamura's "cognitive typology".

In this paper, the framework and considerations of the contrastive study of Japanese and English narrative texts through translation are presented from the perspective of cognitive linguistics, with a particular focus on the concepts of "perspective" and "subjectivation," and some of the possibilities, methods, and examples of the analysis of linguistic representations of situation recognition in Japanese and English narrative texts have been seen. In particular, the contrastive analysis of Japanese and English The analysis from the standpoint of the opposition between the self-centered viewpoint arrangement and the optimal viewpoint arrangement proposed by Langacker, the I-mode and the D-mode proposed by Nakamura, and the subjective and objective grasping that Ikegami advocates seems to be effective, but it is necessary to collect data and attempt a quantitative analysis of more works in the future. In particular, with regard to item (1) of section 3, the position of the conceptualizer's point of view differs between the past and present tenses, with the former in the off-stage and the latter in the on-stage. Also, the item (2) in section 3, i.e., whether or not the perceiver of the situation is explicitly stated in the linguistic representation, may be explained by whether or not it is profiled in the direct scope. Further data analysis is needed to verify these as well. It should be noted that this Japanese-English controlled study may contribute to the further advancement of Nakamura's "cognitive typology".

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

'''Bibliography:'''

[1] 川端康成『雪国』、岩波書店、1952年.

[2] Kawabata Yasunari Snow Country. translated by Edward G. Seidensticker, Charles E. Tuttle Company, 1957.

[3] Hemingway Ernest The Old Man and the Sea. Kodansha International, 1991.

[4] アーネスト，ヘミングウェイ『老人と海』（福田恒在訳）、新潮社、1966.

[5] 森田良行『話者の視点がつくる日本語』ひつじ書房、2006年

[6] 籾山洋介・深田智「意味の拡張」松本曜編著『認知意味論』大修館書店

[7] 深田智・仲本康一郎『概念化と意味の世界』研究社、2008年

[8] 本多啓『アフォーダンスの認知意味論』、東京大学出版会、2005年

[9] 西口純代「物語文の現在時制における視点と文脈の変化」河上誓作・谷口一美共編『ことばと視点』、英宝社、2007年

[10] ベルク，オギュスタン『空間の日本文化』（宮原信訳、ちくま学芸文庫）、筑摩書房、1994年

==The Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Communication 莫南 Mo Nan,202020080627,比较文学==
'''文化负载词在中英交流中的翻译'''

===摘要===
文化负载词是民族文化智慧的结晶，蕴含着深厚的民族文化遗产。文化负载词的准确翻译不仅可以促进跨文化交际的顺利进行，而且有助于传播民族文化，保持民族特色，促进各民族之间的友好交流。尽管文化负载词的翻译存在困难，但它仍然是可译的。前进模型、块模型、标注模型、集成模型和自适应模型是有效的转换模型;直译、意译和音译都是有效的翻译策略。译者应根据不同情况选择合适的翻译模式和翻译策略。

===关键词===
文化负载词，翻译，交际--[[User:Mo Nan|Mo Nan]] ([[User talk:Mo Nan|talk]]) 13:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Abstract===
Culture-loaded words are the crystallization of national cultural wisdom and contain deep national cultural heritage. Accurate translation of culture-loaded words can not only promote smooth cross-cultural communication, but also help spread national culture, maintain national characteristics and promote friendly exchanges among ethnic groups. Although there are difficulties in translation of culture-loaded words, it is still translatable. The go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models; literal translation, liberal translation and transliteration are all effective translation strategies. Translators should choose the appropriate translation models and strategies in different situations.

===Key words===
Culture-loaded words; translation, communication--[[User:Mo Nan|Mo Nan]] ([[User talk:Mo Nan|talk]]) 13:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===1 Introduction===
Culture-loaded words are words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations. Culture-load words have strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, and in the language system they can best reflect the cultural information carried and inherited by language and the social life of human beings. Culture-loaded words are important carriers to reflect national culture, and they are a special kind of information text, which has both textual meaning and rich cultural connotation.
Nowadays, economic and cultural exchanges among various ethnic groups are becoming more and more frequent. In order to better promote friendly exchanges between Chinese and Western nations, eliminate cultural barriers and conflicts caused by cultural differences, and smoothly carry out cross-cultural communication, it is especially important to understand national cultures and characteristics, especially to study the translation of culture-loaded vocabularies.

===2 Definition, Classification and Translatability of Culture-loaded Words===

====2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words====
Since Professor Xu Guozhang (1980) published “Culture Loaded Words and English Language Teaching” in Modern Foreign Languages, the study of culture-loaded words has attracted great attention from the academic circles. However, scholars in China have different opinions on the definition of culture-loaded words. In his book Contemporary Western Translation Theory, Liao Qiyi (2000) argues that it “refers to the words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations.”--[[User:Mo Nan|Mo Nan]] ([[User talk:Mo Nan|talk]]) 13:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)
This kind of vocabulary carries a lot of cultural information and is very regional and national, i.e. “culture-loaded words”. Some scholars inherited and developed Mr. Liao’s definition, for example, Hu Wenzhong (1999) pointed out that “culture-loaded words are vocabularies of a specific cultural category, which are directly or indirectly reflected in the vocabulary level of national culture”. Since then, some scholars have argued that culture-loaded words are the phenomenon of lexical vacancies, that is, cultural information in the source language cannot find a corresponding word in the target language.
Culture-loaded words signify the changes of a country and a nation. In both domestic and foreign social life, culture-loaded words are a kind of words that cannot be ignored, which are conducive to the export of local culture and the introduction of foreign culture, so as to achieve the purpose of communication and integration between different cultures. The connotation of culture-loaded words determines that they have many distinctive features. The first characteristic is that it is very rich in meaning. In different contexts, it can express ever-changing and rich meanings. The second characteristic is that its usage is very flexible. It can not only play a significant role in longer and more complex sentences, but also play a similar role as a metaphor in short and sharp sentences. The third characteristic is that it is short and flexible. A few words can express a customary thing, so it can be applied separately to news and notifications, while ensuring that it does not deviate from the subject of news or notifications.

====2.2 Classification of Culture-loaded Words====

The classification of culture-loaded words is as diverse as the definition of it, but most scholars classify culture-loaded words on the basis of cultural categorization. Wang Rongpei (2002) classifies culture-loaded words into eight categories based on various aspects of human life: political words, social words, color words, legendary allusion words, human body words, animal and plant words, food words, and other words. Based on the classification of cultural factors in language by the famous American translation theorist Eugene A. Naida, Li Xuejun (2015) classifies culture-loaded words into material culture words, ecological culture words, linguistic culture words, social cultural words and religious culture words. The words themselves are characterized by generality, ambiguity and ethnicity in their meanings, an they are constantly changing with the development of society. The vocabulary is rich and the classification standards are difficult to unify, which hinders the classification of culturally loaded words.--[[User:Mo Nan|Mo Nan]] ([[User talk:Mo Nan|talk]]) 13:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.3 Translatability of Culture-loaded Words====

On the question of whether culture is translatable, Steiner, a well-known translation theorist, argues that “Human commonalities make translation possible” (2001: 259). Translatability and untranslatability is a crucial issue for translation studies to establish its principles and make it an independent discipline. Firstly, to deny the translatability of translation is essentially to deny the ability of language to express and describe the unknown. Secondly, untranslatability originates from the limited knowledge and ability of the translator, which is actually unknowable. Thirdly, translation cannot be classified as untranslatable just because it is difficult. The so-called untranslatable actually means that when the source language is translated into the target language, the loss of the source language is great. --[[User:Mo Nan|Mo Nan]] ([[User talk:Mo Nan|talk]]) 13:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)
In addition, it is believed that only by understanding the differences between national cultures and acknowledging the translatability of culture-loaded words, can we effectively communicate with each other and achieve the goal of communication. Translatability is the mark of human language, and the development of human language and culture is built on the basis of translatability, without which there is no way to talk about human cultural exchange.
Due to the great linguistic and cultural differences between the source culture and the translated culture, the translator can only translate on the basis of making the translation as close to the original as possible. The translation of culture-loaded words should follow the following principles (Liao Qiyi, 2000): a. the reproduction of the meaning of the original words is better than the reproduction of the form; b. the context in which the original words are used must be taken into account in the choice of words; c. the key implied meaning of the original words should be converted into non-implied meaning in the translation. All these principles require us to: a. translate the connotation of the original language; b. pay attention to the cultural context of the original language; c. transform the more difficult cultural vocabulary in the original text into easily acceptable vocabulary in the target language. In view of this, when dealing with culture-loaded words, it is important for the content of the translation to be faithful to the original, but the cultural connotation should be paid more attention to. A translation without cultural connotation will make the readers of a different language get a wrong understanding.

===3 Difficulties in the translation of culture-loaded words==

====3.1 Differences in Worldview and Ideology====

Worldview refers to how people perceive the universe, nature, and how they perceive the relationship between humans and nature. As such, it affects all aspects of human perception, such as beliefs, ideas and behaviors. Chinese and Western cultures with different worldviews may contain different values and perceptions of the same objective thing. Generally speaking, China emphasizes unity, while the West emphasizes independence, which is the biggest difference between China and the West in terms of worldview. For example, the Chinese preach “harmony is precious” and advocate and glorify “collectivism”. However, Western culture focuses on individual independence, individual freedom and individual rights. It encourages people to realize and express themselves, believing that “everyone is unique”.--[[User:Mo Nan|Mo Nan]] ([[User talk:Mo Nan|talk]]) 13:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.2 Differences in the Natural and Geographical Environment====

Language is a reflection of the objective world in real life, and the environment in which people live produces the languages they speak. In the process of producing and developing a language, any nation is influenced to varying degrees by the geographical environment and climatic conditions in which it lives. Therefore, differences in the natural and geographical environment are also important factors in the formation of different culture-loaded words. For example, the true meaning of the phrase “east wind” and “west wind” in Chinese is very different from that in English.--[[User:Mo Nan|Mo Nan]] ([[User talk:Mo Nan|talk]]) 13:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)
The “east wind” in the minds of the Chinese is warm and can make the grass and trees grow, similar to the spring wind. Because China’s topography is high in the west and low in the east, facing the sea in the east. In China, the east wind is given the cultural connotation of “vitality”, “spring”, “new life” and so on. In the Chinese winter, however, the northwest wind from Siberia is bitterly cold and harsh. In the West, for example, in the United Kingdom, the east wind comes from the northern part of the European continent and is extremely cold, while the west wind from the Atlantic Ocean is warm, humid and pleasant. This is why the famous English poet Shelley’s lyrical poem Ode to the West Wind appeared.

====3.3 Differences in Historical Culture====

There are significant differences in the historical culture backgrounds of China and the West. China’s feudal ruling system lasted for more than 3,000 years, and before 1840, China’s traditional philosophical thinking was mainly based on Confucianism, with the addition of Taoism. In the West, for example, the United Kingdom has been developing in the transition to capitalism since 1640. Due to the different historical development backgrounds of the two cultures, their cultural differences are also reflected in the use of words. For example, the English idiom “is it necessary to use a steam hammer to crack nuts?” means “no need to make a fuss”, which is equivalent to the Chinese saying “why use a cow's knife when killing a chicken? (杀鸡焉用牛刀)”. This idiom shows that Britain had entered the industrial age, while China was still in a backward production based on agriculture.--[[User:Mo Nan|Mo Nan]] ([[User talk:Mo Nan|talk]]) 13:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.4 Differences in Religious Beliefs====

China is a country that mainly believes in Buddhism, and Buddhism has a very wide influence in people’s social life. For example, the Chinese idioms “菩萨心肠”, “跑得了和尚跑不了庙”, “临时抱佛脚” and “借花献佛” are accompanied by connotations of Chinese culture, which are difficult for Westerners to understand. In the West, religion occupies an extremely important position in social life, thought and culture, and is one of the main characteristics of Western culture. For example, for the Chinese, the “End of World” can easily be understood as a terrifying moment when a catastrophe is imminent and mankind is about to be destroyed. However, for Westerners, it does not mean terror, but it means that one day the world will finally end, and everyone will accept God’s final judgment, which means that the time for justice is coming.--[[User:Mo Nan|Mo Nan]] ([[User talk:Mo Nan|talk]]) 13:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===4 Approaches to Translate Culture-loaded Words===

====4.1 Translation on the Macro Basis of the Values of the Source Language Region====

The word “worldview” encompasses a large category that reflects people’s understanding of the universe, the world, nature and the relationship between human beings and nature. At the same time, the influence of worldview is also very broad and significant. It affects people’s recognition of the value of things, and influences the way people perceive and think about things. Therefore, if someone want the translation of culture-loaded words to make the target readers feel the same as the readers in the source language, he or she should translate them on the premise of understanding the worldview and values of the source language.--[[User:Mo Nan|Mo Nan]] ([[User talk:Mo Nan|talk]]) 13:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====4.2 Explanation of the Social and Historical Background and Religious Culture====

The English-speaking countries of the West believe in the spirit and values transmitted by the ancient Greek and Roman cultures, while China mainly believes in the spirit transmitted by the Confucian culture, which also includes the spirit of Taoist culture. China has a history and culture of 5,000 years, more than half of which has been ruled by the feudal monarchy, while the feudal system in Western countries was established later and developed mainly towards capitalism after the Industrial Revolution. Such differences will be shown in the English vocabulary, so in the translation of culture-loaded words, explanation of the different social and historical backgrounds and religious and cultural beliefs is very necessary.--[[User:Mo Nan|Mo Nan]] ([[User talk:Mo Nan|talk]]) 13:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====4.3 Understanding of the Natural and Humanistic Environment====

The differences in the natural environment between the East and the West have a very important impact on the differences in English and Chinese culture-loaded words. For example, “east wind” in China means a good implied meaning, whereas “east wind” in the western population means desperate. It is mainly caused by geographical environment factors and climate factors in the east and west. The humanistic environment here refers mainly to customs and habits, and more specifically in the appellation of relatives and the use of honorific expressions. Easterners pay more attention to respect and courtesy, while Westerners emphasize equality.--[[User:Mo Nan|Mo Nan]] ([[User talk:Mo Nan|talk]]) 13:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====4.4 Guided by the Semantic Basis of the English-Chinese Culture-loaded Words====

Through various comparative studies between English and Chinese, linguists have found that there are four main types of culture-loaded words: vacancy words, conflict words, reciprocity words and iterative words. Among them, iterative words are divided into two types, one is words with the same meaning but different shapes, and the other is words with the same shape but different meanings. For example, in English, “red” (红) is not only used as “red”, but also as “black” (black tea 红茶) and “brown” (brown sugar 红糖) in some fixed words. It is a common phenomenon that people associate the same word with different meanings. For example, in the West, the English word “dog” is used in a sentence describing a person to express praise. While from the Chinese people’s perspective, the word “dog” is often used in a derogatory way, such as “走狗” (flunky/lackey).--[[User:Mo Nan|Mo Nan]] ([[User talk:Mo Nan|talk]]) 13:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===5 Translation Models of Culture-loaded Words===

Each language has many words that are used to express its own specific cultural concepts, and their signified is the clearest only in a particular cultural context. The problem of translation may arise once one moves out of a specific cultural context into one that is quite different from one’s own. The principle of translating culture-loaded mainly depends on the cultural background of the source language, the social background, the translator’s cultural concept and the cultural acceptance mentality of the targeted readers, and other factors, which are closely related and mutually reinforcing. In dealing with the translation of culture-loaded words, translators can take the following models.--[[User:Mo Nan|Mo Nan]] ([[User talk:Mo Nan|talk]]) 13:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====5.1 Go-ahead Model====

The go-ahead model refers to the direct entry of cultural expressions from the source language into the translation. Many cultural words are translated with the go-ahead model, which means that transliteration or literal translation is used in translation. There are transliterated words such as microphone, yin and yang, sofa, fans and the literal translation of words such as hot dog and three representations.--[[User:Mo Nan|Mo Nan]] ([[User talk:Mo Nan|talk]]) 13:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====5.2 Block Model====

The cultural expression of the source language fades away and its cultural meaning is not adopted by the targeted culture, which is the cultural block or block model. Some cultural words are blocked from the target language culture because of the limitation of language function. The most obvious example is some expressions that express self-effacement in Chinese, such as “鄙人”, “拙文” and “贵姓”. Even in the title of an article, people will often find expressions such as “浅谈”, “初探” and “刍议” to indicate one’s immature views. In addition, there are also some honorific expressions, such as “令堂”, “大作”, and “光临”, etc. When translating into English, the cultural connotations of such expressions can be appropriately reflected in the context of China, but it is not necessary to translate every word, i.e., the cultural connotations of the Chinese language can be blocked.--[[User:Mo Nan|Mo Nan]] ([[User talk:Mo Nan|talk]]) 13:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====5.3 Annotation Model====

Annotation model refers that the target language provides information about the cultural context of the source language cultural expression, that is, the method of interpretation of the target language provides a little but important context or situational information for foreign cultural concepts in the target language. For example, cynicism, as a foreign word, is one of the four major philosophical schools of ancient Greece, represented by the figure of Diogenes of Sinop. There is no existing equivalent in Chinese. At that time, the philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism seemed to behave, speak, act and even live in a way that was uninhibited, unscrupulous and shameless, but they were loyal, reliable, sensitive and clear-cut, which were very similar to some characteristics of dogs. So people call these philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism as “犬儒”.--[[User:Mo Nan|Mo Nan]] ([[User talk:Mo Nan|talk]]) 13:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====5.4 Integration Model====

The integration model refers to the fusion of cultural expressions in the source language and the target language, which enters the target language in a novel linguistic form. Obviously, the integration model is closely related to the openness of different cultures and the frequency of interaction. The terms “X-ray”, “typeB ultrasonic”, “T-shirt” and “Coca Cola” imported from the Western seem to be named directly in Chinese. This kind of translation method that integrates transliteration and free translation is undoubtedly an effective way for foreign culture to integrate into the target language culture.--[[User:Mo Nan|Mo Nan]] ([[User talk:Mo Nan|talk]]) 13:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====5.5 Adaption Model====

When the cultural expression of the source language is omitted and replaced by a translated one, the cultural meaning of the source language disappears, which is the process of adaption model. The domestication translation method aims to minimize the exoticism in the translation and provide a natural and smooth translation for the target language readers, according to Venuti (1995). The cultural domestication model is usually used together with the annotation model when it is used to translate cultural words. For example, the English expression for “拳击练习” is “shadow boxing”. If it is borrowed to express “太极拳” in Chinese, the word “Chinese” must be added before the expression to become “Chinese shadow boxing”.--[[User:Mo Nan|Mo Nan]] ([[User talk:Mo Nan|talk]]) 13:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===6 Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words===

====6.1 Literal Translation: to Convey Cultural Connotations====
As the name implies, "literal translation" is the direct conversion of the meaning and structure of the source language words into the target language words, including literal translation and literal translation with annotations. Human beings live on the same earth, and although there are huge differences between Chinese and English national cultures, there are also certain similarities. For some Chinese-English culture-loaded words, the literal translation method can not only retain the cultural connotation of the source language words, but also transmit them to the target language culture, thus achieving the cross-cultural communication purpose of cultural exchange.
There are many examples of literal translation in both Chinese and English languages, and almost no trace of translation can be seen, reflecting the successful fusion of Chinese and Western cultures.--[[User:Mo Nan|Mo Nan]] ([[User talk:Mo Nan|talk]]) 13:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

For example, “fast food” in English is directly translated as “快餐”, and “all roads lead to Rome” is translated as “条条大路通罗马”. In English, there are also vocabulary expressions directly translated from Chinese, such as “paper tiger (纸老虎)”, “one country, two systems (一国两制)”, and “keep pace with the times (与时俱进)” and so on. The above examples vividly illustrate that appropriate literal translation of culture-loaded words can not only maintain the unique national flavor of the source language vocabulary, but also enrich the vocabulary of the target language to a certain extent, provided that the literal translation does not cause misunderstanding among the target language readers.
The Chinese traditional culture is broad and profound, and the Chinese language is full of words with strong cultural connotations. In order to better retain the connotation and flavor of these culture-loaded words, and to make the traditional culture of the Chinese nation acceptable to the whole world, the translators very often adopt the literal translation method for such words. For example, “四书” is translated as “Four Books”, “五经” as “Five Classics”, “文房四宝” as “Scholar’s Four Jewels”, “龙舟” as “Dragon Boat” and “剪纸” as “paper-cut”, and so on. This kind of literal translation can preserve the profound connotation and infinite charm of traditional Chinese culture in the process of cross-cultural communication between East and West.

====6.2 Free Translation: to Seek Functional Equivalence====
Due to different cultural backgrounds and ways of thinking, there are many culture-loaded words with specific connotations in both Chinese and English languages, and if a literal translation is used, it is likely to cause misunderstanding among the target language readers and even cultural conflicts. Therefore, the translation of these words can be used to seek functional equivalence of the free translation method, without pursuing the language form of the source language, only to convey the meaning of the source language. As the name implies, free translation means translating according to the meaning of the words.--[[User:Mo Nan|Mo Nan]] ([[User talk:Mo Nan|talk]]) 13:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The advantage of the free translation method is that the translator is not limited by the construction pattern of the words, and translators can translate by inferring the deeper meaning and cultural connotation of the words in the source language. Take the typical Chinese dishes with strong Chinese culture as an example, if the expressions such as “四喜丸子”, “醉蟹” and “红烧狮子头” directly translated into English in literal translation, they will definitely make foreign guests who do not understand Chinese culture feel more confused. Therefore, when translating the names of such Chinese dishes into English, the principle of free translation should be followed, indicating the ingredients and the method of preparation, so that foreigners can easily understand and accept them. For example, “红烧狮子头” could be translated as “braised pork ball in brown sauce”, “四喜丸子” as “braised pork balls in gravy” and “蚂蚁上树” as “vermicelli with spicy minced pork”, and so on.

In addition, there are many idioms containing historical allusions in Chinese. Such culturally loaded words cannot find the corresponding cultural connotations in English. If they are literally translated, they will often find it difficult for target language readers who know little about Chinese history and culture. In this case, it is a wise choice for translators to adopt free translation. For example, “悬梁刺股” can be translated as “to be extremely hard-working in one’s study”, “东施效颦” as “crude imitation with ludicrous effect”, and “塞翁失马，焉知非福” as “a loss may turn out to be a gain”, and so on.

By the same token, there are some words in English that are closely related to the characteristics of their national culture, but these words in Chinese do not have similar cultural connotations. In ancient England, the land was mainly ploughed by horses, so there are many slang expressions related to “horse” in English. However, the image of “horse” has no similar associative meaning in Chinese, so when translating from English to Chinese, one should only need to explain its meaning. For example, “horse doctor” can be translated as “蹩脚医生”, “horse sense” as “基本常识” and “work for a dead horse” as “徒劳无益”, and so on.

====6.3 Transliteration: to Preserve Cultural Identity====

Transliteration is a translation method that is parallel to literal translation and free translation, and it has an irreplaceable function in certain situations. According to Jin Huikang (2003), translators should not use words with different concepts because of vocabulary vacancies, and he points out that “the most prominent role of transliteration is that it can overcome the expression barriers brought about by linguistic and cultural gaps, bridge the two languages, spread foreign cultures, reduce the loss of information in translation, and thus promote language and cultural communication.”--[[User:Mo Nan|Mo Nan]] ([[User talk:Mo Nan|talk]]) 13:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The two languages of Chinese and English have absorbed a large number of foreign words from each other, and these foreign words retain the unique cultural personality of the source language vocabulary. Foreign words are the inevitable product of cultural exchange and integration, and to a certain extent, they are the result of translators’ transliteration strategies in translation activities. The purpose of translation is to break through the language barrier between the source language and the target language and promote effective cross-cultural communication.

Therefore, for some words carrying the cultural characteristics of the native language, the translator uses the translation strategy of transliteration or transliteration with annotation, which is effective in preserving the cultural characteristics of the source language words and integrating them into the cultural system of the target language, so that the target language readers can understand the foreign culture to the maximum extent and promote cultural intercommunication and integration.

There are many words in Chinese that are directly transliterated from English culture-loaded words, such as “沙发” (sofa), “汉堡” (hamburger), “吉他” (guitar), “爵士” (jazz) and “麦克风” (microphone). Accordingly, there are a large number of culture-loaded words in Chinese that have been transliterated into English. Most of them are everyday words with Chinese cultural characteristics, cultural specific items and some words related to Chinese politics. For example, “tofu” (豆腐), “chowmein” (炒面), “litchi”(荔枝), “fengshui” (风水), “wushu” (武术) and “erhu” (二胡) in English are all directly transliterated from Chinese culture-loaded words.

When some vocabularies are first introduced into the English context, the target language readers are not familiar with their cultural connotations, so it is difficult for them to be understood only by transliteration. Therefore, the method of transliteration with annotation is adopted, which not only preserves the cultural characteristics of Chinese words through transliteration, but also enables the target language readers to clearly understand their meanings through annotation. With the in-depth development of cross-cultural communication between East and West and the increase of Western understanding of Chinese culture, the annotation of these culture-loaded words can be omitted and only transliteration can be used. For example, for the Chinese term “阴阳”, translators initially adopted the strategy of transliteration with annotation to translate it, that is, “yin and yang, the two opposing principles in nature, the former feminine or negative, the latter masculine or positive”. Nowadays, most western readers have already understood the cultural connotation of “阴阳”, so many translators directly transliterate it as “yin and yang”.

===7 Conclusion===
Culture is national, special and complex. As a special linguistic phenomenon, “culture-loaded words” are rich in cultural connotations and record the influence and penetration of a nation on language in various aspects. This poses a challenge to translators, who are required to be flexible in dealing with culture-loaded words. American scholar Venuti (1992) advocates the use of resistant translation to reveal the gap between the original culture and the target culture, in contrast to the previous reader-centered domestication or transparent translation methods. When translating culture-loaded vocabularies,the original culture should be taken as the core, and the national characteristics of the original culture should be preserved in the translation process, which is respectful of the original culture on the one hand, and meets the requirements of translation standards on the other hand.--[[User:Mo Nan|Mo Nan]] ([[User talk:Mo Nan|talk]]) 13:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In a word, the go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models for culture-loaded words; literal translation, free translation and transliteration are effective translation strategies for overcoming culture-loaded word translation barriers. As to which translation model and translation strategy to choose, the translator should make a decision at the right time according to different situations. Every model and strategy has its advantages and limitations, but the translator should be flexible in choosing the right one to make the translation as meaningful and effective as possible.

===References===

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*李雪君. 以汉、英“水”语义对比研究为例看跨文化交际背景汉语文化负载词的教学[D]. 兰州: 西北师范大学, 2015.
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*宋洁. 英汉文化负载词图式对比及翻译[J]. 广西民族大学学报(哲学社会科学版), 2016, 38(06): 172-176.
*汪榕培. 英语词汇学高级教程[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 2002: 67-69.
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*Chen Xirong陈喜荣.(1998).从功能语法语境理论看文化负载词的翻译[Translation of Culturally Loaded Words from Functional Grammar Context Theory]. 外国语文[Foreign Languages],96-100.
*Hu Zhongwen胡文仲.(1999). 跨文化交际学概论[Introduction to Intercultural Communication Studies].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press],1-7.
*Jing Fang,Duan Cheng景芳, 段成(2017). 从语域理论视角浅谈文化负载词的翻译[Translation of Culturally Loaded Words from the Perspective of Language Domain Theory]. 中华文化论坛[Chinese Culture Forum],110-116.
*Jin Hui Kang金惠康(2003). 跨文化交际翻译[Intercultural Communication Translation].中国对外翻译出版公司[China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation].
*LI Xuejun李雪君(2015). 以汉、英“水”语义对比研究为例看跨文化交际背景汉语文化负载词的教学[A comparative study of the semantic meaning of "water" in Chinese and English as an example of teaching Chinese culturally loaded words in the context of cross-cultural communication].西北师范大学[Northwest Normal University].
*Liao Qiyi廖七一(2000).当代西方翻译理论探索[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory].译林出版社[Translin Publishing House],232, 236.
*Song Jie宋洁(2016).英汉文化负载词图式对比及翻译[Comparison of English and Chinese cultural load word schema and translation].广西民族大学学报[Journal of Guangxi University for Nationalities], 172-176.
*Wang Rongrong汪榕培(2002).英语词汇学高级教程[Advanced Course in English Vocabulary].上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House],67-69.
*Zheng Dehu郑德虎(2016).中国文化走出去与文化负载词的翻译[Chinese Culture Going Global and Translation of Cultural Load Words].上海翻译[Shanghai Translation],53-56.--[[User:Mo Nan|Mo Nan]] ([[User talk:Mo Nan|talk]]) 13:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

20201228 trans

2020-12-27T11:27:42Z

Zhang Yu: /* Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲 */

==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==
'''Zhu Ziqing'''

A third example, where an author shows another face in his essays is Zhu Ziqing. He is known as the author of the most often reprinted story-like Chinese essay "''Back View''" (Beiying), a standard school text. The success of this essay lies in the fact, that it applies to filial pity. From the reported fare-well scene with his father at the train station, he learned that his father loved him and that he had grown-up too now.
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==
This self-reflective essay helped Zhu to find himself through the observation of the other (here his father). The 2nd often printed essay is also from Zhu. Parallelistic and repetitive structures are the driving factor in the atmospherical nebulous lyrical landscape desription "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.

Zhu Ziqing supposedly opposed all political engagement and, wrote about unspectacular things. In Taiwan he became a type of substitute for the categorically refused state writer of the People’s Republic, Lu Xun, mainly because of Zhu’s supposed political independence.
==Chen Han 陈涵==
I would like to show with three examples that Zhu had absolutely clear political ideas: He had taken part in the demonstration March 18, 1926, which ended in a massacre. Zhu described this in ''"Report On the Massacre of the Government''"[ (Zhizhengfu da tusha ji).].

''Shots were still being fired, and the entrance of the east gate was packed with people. [...] Pushing and shoving, we climbed over them with great effort. We must have lost our senses then, not seeing, to our shame, the grotesqueness of our action. ''

我想用三个例子说明，朱自清有绝对明确的政治思想。1926年3月18日，他参加了示威游行，这场游行最终以屠杀告终。朱自清在《执政府大屠杀记》中对此进行了描述。

''这时枪声未歇，东门口拥塞得几乎水泄不通。[...] 我们便推推搡搡，拥挤着，挣扎着，从他们身上踏上去。那时理性真失了作用，竟恬然不以为怪似的。'' --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Hui 陈惠==
''[...]I was still walking on top of the people. No one dared to miss a single step, filing through the gate that divided safety from danger, one that would give us life or take our lives away. [...] My efforts finally brought me down to the ground, sealing my fate as I rolled down from the human pile. [...] I learned later that some of the people by the gate were dead, killed by the pistol squad firing from the other side of the gate. When I recall stepping over dead bodies, I cannot help but tremble with fear. [...]''
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==
From this experience, Zhu addresses directly the repsonsible political leaders:

''Duan Qirui, you must think about it! [...] How could we explain this to the world? [...] Granted, Duan Qirui and others could commit such atrocities without a thought; but how could we, the people of China, face the world with such a shameless government? [...] We, [...], must ask, „So many were killed—what should we do?“''
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==
In contrast, Lu Xun has portrayed the same massacre with sighing undertone and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his "''Ways to die''"[ (Si fa).] - in which he finds "to be shot" the best method to die. The supposedly less politically engaged Zhu shows here more engagement.

The essay "''Facing the New China''"[ (Xin Zhongguo zai wang zhong).] is Zhu's political manifest: He asks for democracy, enlightenment and an increase of the education level.
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==
''China has to be born again through democratization. [...] The people should express their own will, concentrate on their own strength. Every level of administration should build up on the expressed will and strength of the people and struggle for the majority and its greatest happiness. This means that the people govern, the people own, the people enjoy.''

A few weeks before his death, he demanded in the speech ''"Today's duty of the Intellectuals''"[ (Zhishifenzi jintian de renwu).] the participation of the intellectual in the struggle for a better society.
==Chen Sha 陈莎==
With only a handful of essays I have demonstrated, that the picture of these three authors changes substantially, if we read carefully also their less known essayistic work. Imagine now how the picture of 20th century Chinese literature might change, if the literary histories and anthologies would not only tell the history of drama, fiction and poetry, but would also grant the essay its proper place. The following part of my paper are results of my monograph on the 20th century Chinese essay.
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==
'''The essay boom as a mirror reflecting growing individuality, participation in the public sphere, and the giddy-paced character of modern Chinese society'''

Acquiring an overview of the essay and assessing its essence has required extensive research in bookstores and libraries, in the People's Republic of China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and the United States for available resources in the form of essay book collections as well as secondary literature dealing with the essay.
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==
I built a database for a statistical analysis to rank more than 5000 essays and 1400 essayists. It turned out that out of the top 60 most famous Chinese essays only 14 had been translated into English so far. The forthcoming collection of Tam King-fai adds 4 and my own one the remaining 42.

Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report[ (baogao wenxue) (Klaschka 1998).].

我建立了一个用于统计分析的数据库，对5000余篇散文和1400名散文家进行排名。事实证明，迄今为止，在中国最著名的60篇论文中，只有14篇被翻译成英文。谭景辉即将出版的散文选集另有新翻译的4篇，我自己则翻译余下的42篇。

分析表明，自1979年以来，总体上来说，散文发表有所增加，在“文化大革命”之后还出现了两次热潮，在1990年达到了新的高度。首次增加出现在20世纪20年代和30年代，此后便被报告文学所取代（Klaschka 1998）。--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:41, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Cheng Yusi 成于思==
The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous essay bookseries[ sanwen congshu 散文叢書.].

The reason for the increase in essay production, which we can date right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in the sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for the survey. There are three reasons for the increase in Chinese essay production and popularity in the mid-1990s:
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==
1, The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts, as Hall has put it: “[...] we live in an age of exposition”[ (Hall 1984:xiii).].

2, The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands.

3, A revival of interest in discussing socio-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==
If we look carefully at essay collections not only published in the United States, but also in Hong Kong, Taiwan and the People’s Republic, we find the following three reasons for the under- and overestimation of single essayists or essays which correspond to regional differences:

1, EXOTIC In the United States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.

如果我们仔细观察在美国出版的，以及在香港、台湾和中华人民共和国出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们低估和高估了回应地域差异的单个散文家或散文:

1、异国情调在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，完全不知名的作者和老牌作家拥有一样多的空间。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

如果我们细细研读在美国出版的，以及在中国香港、台湾和大陆出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们因地域差异而低估或高估了某些散文家或散文:

1、异国情调在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，名不见经传的作者和著名的作家拥有同样多的市场。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==
2, SOCIO-POLITICAL In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, as the mentioned survey proofs, he ranks 12th among modern authors there. Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

3, PERSONAL Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by his disciple Huang Weiliang in favor for Yu.[ (see Lin Yaode 1989:50).]

Having named reasons for the essay boom and for the support for and the suppression of different actors in the cultural field of the essay, I would like to finish my paper by naming a few trends of the essay as they appear at the eve of the century.
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==
The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consumer-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".
==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("''On dreams''"[ "Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928.]) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 ("''My own garden''"[ 9.1923.], "''The Fly''"[ 1924.], "''Reading on the Toilet''"[ 1936.]), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the newly encountered world of mass consumerism.
==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==
In the end of this century not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. Among the upper list places of the political essay after 1949 there are critical essays. For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==
A sign for the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation for customers (former: "readers"). Following the emotional essays of Zhu Ziqing who rank 1st and 2nd, ''nostalgia'' is the element of emotional identification in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Zhou Zuoren, which ranks 3rd[ In Jia Pingwa's "Moon traces", which ranks 11, and in Ba Jin's "''Paradise for Birds''", which ranks 19]. Therefore one can state, that moving essays form the top.
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==
In 1927, Chinese literature took the form of 'engaged literature'. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics in daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. In the later half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of individuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife.
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==
In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only remiscent element left is the patriotism.[ ''Trends like the use of ordinary language'', which one finds in novels since 1993 (''Jia Pingwa'', Feidu; ''Gu Cheng'', Yingger) and New Borderlessness since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable ''object d'art''.]

上个世纪90年代，80年代的政论文随笔文化逐渐隐没了，唯一剩下留有想象空间的元素就是爱国主义。[“比如使用普通语言的趋势”，这是从1993年以来在小说中发现的（“贾平凹”）费杜，古格，英格）以及自1995年以来，《新无边际》都无法在论文写作中得到证明，我们之所以没有找到后现代小说意义上的后现代散文，是因为文章的直接性：随笔作为一种体裁，是作者和读者之间的对话，而不是想要引起不同解释的原因或可能依赖于特殊形式或内容甚至是按顺序引用前现代特征的艺术品，这使它成为一个与众不同的“艺术品”。]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 13:06, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

'''References''' [partly mentioned with German translation] （不用翻）

Vera Schwarcz 1996, Vera Schwarcz, "The pain of sorrow: public uses of personal grief in modern China", in Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Winter 1996)

Ba Jin 1982, Ba Jin: "Yi feng huixin 一封回信" (Ein Antwortbrief (26.10.1982)), in: Bing zhong ji 病中集 (Auf dem Krankenlager), Hongkong 香港 1984(?) (Series Suixiang lu 隨想錄 (Thoughts) Bd 4), 147 pp.

Ba Jin 1982a, Ba Jin: "Yi pian xuwen 一篇序文" (Ein Vorwort) [dated 1982.9/10], in: Ba Jin: Auf dem Krankenlager 1984

Ba Jin 1956, Ba Jin 巴金: "Duli sikao 獨立思考" (Unabhängig denken), in: Li Jisheng 李濟生, Li Xiaolin 李小林 (Hgg.): Ba Jin liushi nian wenxuan (1927 - 1986), Suixiang lu, zagan, sanwen, xuba, yanjiang, shuxin 巴金六十年文選（１９２７－１９８６）隨想錄·雜感·散文·序跋· 演講·書信 (Ba Jin. Werkauswahl aus 60 Jahren (1927 - 1986), Gedanken, vermischte Gefühle, Essays, Vor- und Nachworte, Reden, Briefe), Shanghai 上海: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe 上海文藝出版社 (Literatur- und Kunstverlag Shanghai), 1986.12, S. 461 - 462 [Datiert auf 1956.]

Ba Jin 1962, "Zuojia de yongqi yu zerenxin 作家的勇氣與責任心" (Mut und Verantwortungsbewußtsein der Schrifsteller) 1962; der Essay von Zhou Zuoren 周作人: "Wenxue tan 文學談" (Über Literatur), in: Tan long ji 談龍集 (Über Drachen. Sammlung), Shanghai 上海: Kaiming shudian 開明書店 (Kaiming Buchladen) 1927.12, Nachdruck: Hongkong 香港: Shiyong shuju 使用書局 (Praxisverlag) 1972.1, 310 S., S. 165 - 167

Zhou Zuoren 1919, Zhou Zuoren, "Zuxian chongbai 1919 (Ancestor Worship)," in Early Essays, op.cit., pp. 78

Zhou Zuoren 1920: Zhou Zuoren 周作人, Xin wenxue de yaoqiu 新文學的要求" (The demand of the New Literature) [lecture], in Beiping shaonian xuehui 北平少年學會 (Beiping youth conference) 1920.1.6, in: Zhang Ruoying 長若英: Xin wenxue yundong shi ziliao 新文學運動史資料 (Material on the history of the New Literature movement), Shanghai 上海: Guangming shuju 光明書局 (Guangming bookstore) (1934.9) ²1936.9, 291-296

Zhou Zuoren 1923, Zhou Zuoren: Yanzhicao ba (Preface to Yu Pingbo's Yanzhicao), in: Yongri ji (Book of Eternal Day), Shanghai: Beixin shuju 1929, 180-181

Zhou Zuoren 1929, Zhou Zuoren: Ertong de shu (The books of children), in: Chenbao fukan (1923.8.17)

Zhou Zuoren yuanliu, Zhou Zuoren: Zhongguo xin wenxue de yuanliu (Sources of New Chinese Literature), p 71

Zhou Zuoren 1932, Zhou Zuoren: Lun baguwen 1932, in: Kanyun ji p. 148

Source: NEAAS annual meeting 10/09/1999 New Haven (Yale University)

==Guo Lu 郭露==
'''Modern Chinese Literature and the Essay Genre: A New Perspective'''

''Martin Woesler''

In this paper, I will not recount the contents and propose interpretations of any essays, nor will I outline the main topics or styles of essaywriting in China, but I would like to take the opportunity to reflect a little bit on the phenomenon of the genre itself and discuss some conclusions and hypotheses with the attentive and critical audience which can be found at only a few places on earth, EALC at Harvard definitely being one of them.

《中国现代文学与散文体裁：以新视角》

''吴漠汀''

在本文中,我将不再赘述任何文章的内容和提出的观点,我也不会列出其主要主题或风格,但是我想借此机会,反映一些现象本身的类型，并与包括哈佛大学学生在内的观众对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

《中国现代文学与散文体裁：新视角》

吴漠汀

本文将不再赘述或解释任何文章的内容，也不会列出中国散文的主要主题或风格。我想借此机会，反思体裁现象，同乐于助人、至关重要且世间少有的读者，包括哈佛大学东亚语言和文化学院的学生，对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:28, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==
'''1. The unknown genre'''

The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. In my paper I will ask, if the picture of literature can remain unchanged, if we take into consideration also the essay. The genre has been neglected for a long time as a genre of merit (Margouliès 1949, Schmidt-Glintzer 1990) or overlooked (McNaughton 1974, Leiden 1988-90, McDougall 1998);

'''1.未知体裁'''

二十世纪文选和选集里的文学史的叙述对于整个中国文学来说是不完整的：散文题材是缺失的。在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

'''1.未知体裁'''

20世纪选集所讲述的文学历史叙事，描绘了一幅不完整的中国文学图景:：散文题材是缺失的。在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:30, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==
whereas its elder brother, fiction, has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularisation of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement. Modern anthologies would have the reader believe that a triumvirate of poetry, fiction and drama forms the backbone of modern Chinese literary output.
==He Changqi 何长琦==
'''Excursion: Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''

Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with xiaoshuo (fiction), sanwen (non-fictional prose)), lyrics (shige) and drama (xiqu). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term "wu yunwen" which corresponds to the term "epic" in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground.
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==
In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet. The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.
在抒情诗中，读者被鼓励去感受当下的感觉，并且常常是诗人的忏悔式的感觉。戏剧直接在独白或对话中回忆起一个自足的动作，以这种方式释放了读者/观众重新创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是一种超脱的、非虚构的、自由形式的主观表现。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 02:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

在抒情诗中，鼓励读者感受诗人当下的感觉，且这种感觉常常是诗人的忏悔。戏剧直接以独白或对话的方式回忆一个自足的动作，并通过这种方式释放了读者/观众再创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是以自由的形式进行的一种分离的非虚构的主观表现。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:11, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==
"Essay", Chinese mostly ''sanwen'', is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Freedom in form and content is essential for the essay.
==Hu Jin 胡瑾==
Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, a subcategorization in numerous small entities, like Zheng Mingli does with the essay, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==
Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems. All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.
==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==

In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay.

在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。今天我们在刊物上看到的中国散文，已经具备了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文类别的第二个暗示。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 07:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

在21世纪，世界上的国家趋向于走到一起，而文化则主要取决于现代化水平。正如我们从现今报纸里面看到的那样，中国散文采用了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文开始趋同于国际散文体裁的第二个标志。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:27, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

21世纪，世界在共同成长，文化主要由现代化程度决定。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，在形式和内容上都与西方散文相似，其目标群体也与之相似。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文的第二个暗示。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，已经呈现出西方散文的形式与内容，并且其目标群体也与西方散文不相上下。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文体裁的第二个迹象。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:17, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Hao 姜好==
Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 1992 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay).

尽管人们普遍接受用短小故事来翻译短篇小说，但两者的关系不如西方的散文和中国的同类文章密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中发展出来的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹1992年13:269-272论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:01, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==
Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it "Chinese"? In the occidental essay the form seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework.

除了首先由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文有独特本土的特征。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？和中文散文相比，西方散文的文章形式似乎是更重要的分类标准。在中国，甚至有些文章内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 02:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

除了最初由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？与中文散文相比，西方散文的形式分类标准似乎更重要。在中国，有些文章甚至是内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:18, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

除了周作人提倡采用英语散文风格所体现的全球化社会趋势外，中文散文还具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何在文化上定义，其中国性又是什么？在西方文章中，形式似乎是比中国文章更重要的区分标准。在中国，甚至包括那些只有类似内容，却跨越了形式上的属相框架的文本。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==
This can be shown with Zheng Mingli, who subcategorises the "unfinished diary" or the "unfinished letter". Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Zheng Mingli: "essay in diary form" and "essay in letter form"), they are accepted as essays.
==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==
'''The Chinese understanding of the genre is tendencially broader'''

This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén'' "non-rhythmic prose", which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning "short literary essay pieces".

Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.
==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==
'''The Chinese essay is booming again in the 1980s and 1990s'''

Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report (''baogao wenxue'').[ Klaschka 1998.] The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous ''sanwen congshu'' 散文叢書 (essay bookseries).
==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==
The increase in essay production right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in a sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for a survey.

Thanks to the work of some major Chinese editors, the whole essay culture was compiled from magazines and newspapers and was published in a flood of anthologies since the 1970s. This boom is comparable to the cultural fever of undigging xiangtu literature, which rose in Taiwan in front of the background of the movement of self-identification and independance.
==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==
'''2. Why is the essay as abundant as fiction?'''

Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:

- The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history (the reform ideas from the end of the Qing dynasty through the May Fourth period with the literary theorethical pieces and the daily political zawen of Lu Xun, until today are mostly presented in essay form). The impact on literary reflection and theory is shown in the collection "Modern Chinese Literary Thought" 1996. The effect of the essay genre with its direct language, its connection to life (e.g. its role in the coming to terms with the cultural revolution), and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers. This impact is larger than the indirect one of fiction or poetry. The poem is the genre of retreat from social life, from political issues and time references.
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==
Hu Shi argues, that ''poetry'' is most important in the process of modernity, since poetry rises emotions. But it relies also on images and on linguistic rhythm. Liang Qichao stresses the role of novel and opera in the changing society. But ''sanwen'' is able to name things, it reflects life, caleidoscopic. Modern subjectivity is constructed with the tool of ''sanwen''.

- The essay also reflects trends in the society better than poetry and fiction: Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem with its limitation in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.

胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌依赖于形象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。

-散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。个人主义在随笔中表现得比在诗歌中更直接，但在内容和形式上都有局限性。短文的短暂性体现在短文的形式上，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 13:48, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi

胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗歌升华情感。但诗歌也依赖于意象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“散文”却能给事物命名，反映千变万化的生活。现代主体性就是以“散文”为工具建构的。

- 随笔也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的发展趋势。个人主义在随笔中的表现比在诗歌中更直接，因为诗歌在内容和形式上对此有所限制。随笔的短暂性体现在随笔的形式上，人们可以在上班路上的地铁里阅读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就没有那么随性的享受。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Haiquan 李海泉==
- The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, the amount of time spended on reading novels goes back, too. The essay itself a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.

- The essay tells us more about an author and his time than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions. We look trough authentic eyes on his contemporary society. Many authors turned to essay writing in the later periods of their lifes, like Lu Xun, Ba Jin, and Wang Meng.
[[Media:Example.ogg]]==Li Lili 李丽丽==
- The volume of ''essay'' production exceeds the volume of ''xiaoshuo'' production: Chinese newspapers since the 1870s on[ Shenbao, Shibao etc. Liang Qichao sees the role of the newspaper both as liberal and authoritative: He understands the press as an institution to control the government, on the other hand he favors censorship.] and as a mass media from the early 20th century presented only one or two fictional stories in a serialized form, but invented essay columns like ''zagan'' (from which Lu Xun developed his ''zawen''), ''suibi'' or ''suixiang'' (from which famous collections like Ba Jin's ''Suixiang lu'' derived).

“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:54, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报社是控制政府的机构；另一方面，他主张审查制度，报纸作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:19, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Lingyue 李凌月==
'''3. Let us assign the essay its proper place'''
The consequence which must be driven from the above presented contrast between value and valuing of the essay is: Let us assign the essay its proper place! I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.
Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay.
==Li Liqin 李丽琴==

In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).

20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这首先集中在鲁迅等单个作家的散文作品上。另外90年代的两次会议也没有趋于国际学术研究的动向。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（比如1995年Kubin的《关于梁漱溟》；Woesler的《关于王蒙》；Mansberg的《关于刘再复》[未发表]）或探讨某个群体的散文（1996年瓦格纳的《关于新月派》）。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 12:54, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Luyi 李璐伊==
Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998) and for the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996).

Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.

在不早于上个世纪90年代下半叶之时，出现了使用西方语言学方法撰写的中国散文史（Woesler 1998），并且散文首次作为与小说和诗歌同等的体裁被纳入西方文学选集。（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》 1995，《现代中国文学思想读本》 1996）。

关于中国大陆，台湾地区和西方的散文评价，存在地区差异：在美国，人们通常根据西方人的喜好来选择散文，给予完全不知名的作家与知名作家同等的篇幅。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Meng 李梦==
In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th. If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode 1989:50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation.
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==
Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai, Woesler) or already published (Pollard 1999). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. This year, scholars will meet on a first international conference on the essay (Achern, Germany August 25-26). In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays.
==Li Yu 李玉==
'''4. Taking into consideration the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature'''

I will give a few hints, what the essay can contribute to the picture of Chinese Literature, which so far is overshadowed by fiction through the narrative of C.T. Hsia, Prusek and Anderson.

We are used to established narratives, like the emergence and success of the May-Fourth literature. But this view neglects the role, that for example the ''yuanyang hudie pai'' played in the choir of different voices in the awoken intellectual debate in the beginning of this century.
==Lin Min 林敏==
The May-Fourth group at that time was one voice among many and only succeeded because of its agitation and polemic in the public sphere, so we have to use new means to assign the Chinese essay its proper place. We learn from simplifiying narratives, that it is absolutely necessary to differentiate, and to reconstruct the complex time background. Having understood Chinese literature as determined by the development of fiction and poetry only, a broader understanding will change the whole appearance of Chinese literature. A scholarly endeavour is the use of modern literary theories in the approach to this genre.
==Lin Xin 林鑫==
In the following, I will name three aspects (chronologically sorted by past, modern and contemporary time) to hold the argument, that the taking into consideration of the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature and change our current understanding of it.

'''5. The classical and premodern essay documents Chinese philosophy, early subjectivity and still, a native Chinese tradition is questioned'''

How is the Chinese essay to be positioned historically, how did it emerge, what is its generic background? Generically, the ancestors of the essay are both in China and the West notes written on the margins of books, they are letters and travel notes.

下面，我将从三个方面(在时间顺序上按过去、现代、当代排序)来论述对散文的考量将改写中国文学史，改变我们目前对它的认识这一论点。

5. 古典和前现代散文记录了中国哲学，其早期的主体性，仍然是对中国本土传统的质疑。
中国散文在历史上要如何定位，它是如何产生的，它的共有背景是什么？一般来说，中国和西方的散文都是起源于写在书本空白处的笔记，是书信和游记。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==
These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality und subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''.

From the very beginning, the essay was valued lower than poetry: the oldest reference this far for the term ''sanwen'' that I found is Luo Dajing's 羅大經 (? - after 1248) statement from 1240: “Shī sāomiào tiānxià, ér sǎnwén pōjué suǒsuì júcù.
==Liu Bo 刘博==
詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。” (Poetry is moving mankind in a wonderful way, prose inquires into incoherent bagatels, is limited.) (''Helin yulu''). Another reproach Luo Dajing mentions, is a formal one: In comparison to the highly artistic and century-long tradition of poetic writing, the direct and often vernacular langage of the essay in his eyes had less value.

In the West, a real 'art of the essaywriting' came up in the late 16th century as a medium for the newly reorganized knowledge.

“詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。”罗大京提到的另一个骂名，是形式上的：与具有高度艺术性和长达一个世纪传统的诗歌写作相比，散文中直接的、白话文式的语言在他看来并不那么有价值。
在西方，16世纪晚期出现了一种真正的“散文写作艺术”，作为一种传播重组知识的媒介。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

“诗騷妙天下，而散文颇觉瑣碎局促。”罗大经提出的另一个责难，是形式上的。在他看来，与高度艺术化的百年诗词写作传统相比，散文直接的、白话文式的语言没有什么价值。
在西方，真正的 “散文写作艺术 ”是在16世纪末作为重组知识的一种媒介出现的。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==
The reorganization originated from the observations of Kopernikus, which destroyed the whole conception of the world of the Middle Age.

In China, particularly the debates on Buddhism in the 4th and 5th century A.D. saw the origination of a tradition of letters. The Chinese tradition of the ''sanwen'' 散文 (essay) however, in the understanding of sǎn 散 as (to dispel, leisure, loose, relaxed, irregular, independant style, free prose, can be seen not before the detachment from the dialogue - or aphorism, which is still visible in the philosophical ''Lunyu''.
==Liu Liu 刘柳==
Xunzi delivered the prototype of the later essay with his philosophical treatises. They are an early form of philosophical didactical essays, in which general theorems are derived not only from quotations of the canonized classical works, but for the first time also from his own individual experience. The individuality is still a main characteristic of the essay today.

During the dynasties the essay manifested itself further in certain subcategories: From reading-notes written at the paper margins originated the ''biji'' µ§°O (occasional notes), flourishing in the Ming Dynasty.

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形，它们是哲学教学论文的早期形式。其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。

历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 02:25, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，这些散文中传授的普遍定理不仅有引用经典著作，还首次借鉴其个人经历。这种个体性在当代的散文中仍有保留。

历朝历代，散文通过一些子类别得以呈现，如明朝盛行的在书页边上写的读书注释，它就是源于笔记。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Ou 刘欧==
The marginalism is a link between Western and Chinese tradition of early essays. Occasional notes could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as a genre of its own originated in China not before the Qing ²M dynastie, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.

Taking into consideration the social-historical background draws a different picture of the old society than short stories and novels: Essays are much closer to real life, since they express individual problems and experiences.

边缘主义是中西早期散文的一个纽带。散见的笔记包含了私人的历史记录，轶事，交谈和个人沉思。然而，尽管当时的散文选集众多，但将视散文作为一种文体的意识，清朝之前并没有出现。

考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们在旧社会时，对短篇故事和小说的看法不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的困惑和经历。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 04:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

边缘主义是中西早期散文传统的一个纽带。偶尔的笔记可以包含私人的历史笔记，轶事，交流和沉思。然而，尽管当时中国散文选集有很多，一直到清朝之后我们才将散文视作一种文体意识。
考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们对旧社会的看法与短篇小说和小说不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的问题和经历。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 07:43, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==
Until now, the Chinese pre-''Hongloumeng'' individual literature spoke only through the indirect language of poems to us. Rediscovering the essays, we have a splendid source of opinions, social-historical pictures etc.

Premodern essay literature consists of much more than its most well-known example, the formally restrictive ''baguwen''. Lu Xun himself wrote some of his essays in ''baguwen'' style, but on the other hand took it as a synonym for the ancient society. Zhou Zuoren saw the rhythm of the language of the "Eight legged essay" as as appealing and intoxicating as the "pleasure of doing opium.'' (Zhou 1932:148).

目前为止，中国红楼梦前的个体文学还只是通过诗中的间接语言与我们对话。通过重拾散文，我们可以知晓不同观点和社会历史状况等文学创作的丰富源泉。
现代散文之前的文学并不限于形式上受限制的八股文，一方面鲁迅本人也有一些散文是用八股文写成的，但另一方面他又把八股文当作古代社会的代名词。周作人把 "八股文 "的语言节奏看作是 "做鸦片的快感 "一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 08:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

直到现在，中国前“红楼梦”的个体文学只能通过诗歌的间接语言与我们对话。重新发掘这些散文，我们可以拥有丰富的观点来源，社会历史图片等。

前现代散文文学不仅仅包括它最为人所知的例子，正式的、有限制性的“八卦文”。鲁迅自己的一些文章就是用“八卦文”写的，但是在另一方面又把它当作古代社会的同义词。周作人认为《八股文》的语言节奏就像“吸鸦片的快感”一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 09:07, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yi 刘艺==
But he considered it also as a prevalent genre implicit in the modern writings as ''yang bagu'' (westernized bagu) and ''dang bagu'' (party-line bagu) (borrowing from Wu Zhihui, Zhou Yuanliu:71).

Neo-Confucianism stressed ''wen'' (prose) as the most important tool to transmit the ''dao'' (way): ''Wenyi zai dao'' (Literature as the carrier of the way). If we reinterprete this diction in the perspective of genre, we can say, that the essay then has been regarded as an important tool to express truth, subjectivity and Self.

但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。

新儒家强调''文''（散文）是传播''道''的最重要工具：''文以载道''（文以载道）。如果我们从文体的角度来重新解读这句话，我们可以说，当时的散文已经被视为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。

理学强调“文”（散文）是传播“道”的最重要工具：“文以载道”。（以文学为载体的方式）。如果我们从体裁的角度来重新解读这一措辞，可以说，散文已成为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:53, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==
Liang Qichao developed a ''xīn wéntǐ'' 新文體 (new prose style), which was influenced by Western languages, but the essay became popular not before the newspapers became mass media, and the language changed into ''baihua''.

'''6. The essay as the medium of modernity, the questioning of the genuiness of the Chinese essay'''

To solve first of all the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, one finds both traditions relevant: The occidental essay was introduced to the writers of the literature reform movement from 1907 on by translations in Chinese (Lin Shu: ''Irving'' 1907, ''Addison'' 1911).
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==
The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations. First developed a Chinese essay tradition, which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology, its own proponents succumbed soon to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history only. A seemingly unbroken Chinese tradition of the native Chinese ''wenyan sanwen'' is presented in Chinese textbooks (Yu Zaichun 1978-82, Li Xishang 1985).

This is older than the ones referred to in the ''Large Chinese Dictionary'' of Morohashi (Morohashi undated) and in the ''Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Chinese Language'' 1966.

==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==
Still, the value of the native tradition of essay writing and the role of the Western influence upon it is discussed controversially among the scholars. Some admit that Western impact played a key role in what we understand as Chinese essays nowadays: Wang Bin 1992, Fan Peisong 1993; for Western impact in general see Průšek 1964, Gálik 1966, McDougall 1971. Other scholars think that Western influence is overestimated - Denton 1996 showed that the theoretical background was missing for understanding Western theories of literature in China, - and recommended that we understand the essay first by its national tradition.

然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:57, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 15:07, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==
How far personal opinion may influence the narrative of historical facts can be seen by the example of the legendary authors of the May Fourth movement. All of them considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay: Zhou Zuoren 1921, Lu Xun 1933, the anarchist and later member of the Guomindang Wu Zhihui [1934]. Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition:
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==
for example, Lu Xun with his theory "'Zhǎnkāi' shuō yǔ 'méngyá' lùn “展開”說與“萌芽”論"" (Theory of "Starting" and "Blossoming") came to see the fighting and critical character of the essay of the Jin dynasty (265 - 420) as the 'father' of the Chinese essay, and Zhou Zuoren first the English essay (1921) and later the ''biji'' (occasional notes) of the Ming, although he still tried to integrate the English essay in his "Gonganpài yu Yīngguo xiaopin 'hecheng' lun 公安派與英國小品“合成”論" (Theory of the Synthesis of the Gongan School and the English Essay).
==Ma Juan 马娟==
Wang Zengqi regrets that the national Chinese tradition of the essay at the time of the 'May Fourth Movement' has not been taken up again and has not continued in contemporary essays (Wang Zengqi 1993). The Chinese essay is an accommodating object of study, because one may look to it to prove any theory of the essay. One can find examples for each topic in almost every period, simply because the essay has a wide range of subjects.
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==
When Zhou Zuoren showed that only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge it was again possible to write about a candy seller (1924), he was critizised as "paralyzing" (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943). When he wrote a piece on the "Fly", he was reproached with dealing with subjects of minor importance. Reproaches like this lie in the very nature of the genre, since ''marginalism'' is substantial to the essay. The mentioned formal reproach of Luo Dajing can be found again in the 1990s, Hong Kong students critisized the literary style as it appears in Ba Jins "Thoughts" (Suixiang lu) as too direct and too less artful. But this perspective does not recognize the very nature of the essay, which is a very individual expression of an author's thoughts and not bound to tradition, and therefore much more free also in content.
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==
The essay - from its very nature free and independant - almost disappeared in the time of the Cultural Revolution and - except for the ideologically influenced essays - had a hard struggle between Yan'an and the loss of moral legitimacy by the leadership in 1989.

The essay was ''the'' genre of the modernizing society of the early 20th century. Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to war and warlordism and later in the modernizing society, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming "needs" of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products.
==Meng Ying 孟莹==
But from its very nature, the essay set new boundaries in form and content, and therefore not only survived the ideological restrictions, but also established its own critical subculture within. The essay was not only a medium of discussion and a documentation of the social-political background for us today, but also a documentation of the personal struggle of the writers finding a position in a changing environment, since the essay is "a genre of self-reflection". Some essays even deconstructed master narratives like the one of leftist ideology, often simply by confronting it with subjective experience, reality or art.

I want to mention another position on literature, which stresses the impact of literature on life, especially on the eve of revolutions - following this view, all literature is political (Jameson).
==Mo Ling 莫玲==
Not only the understanding of literature as a whole changes if we take into consideration the essay, also the view of single authors shifts, if we see not only their novels or poems, but also their essays. I mention only Zhou Zuoren. His ideas connected him spiritually to his contemporary collegues in Europe, Japan and America, but these where ideas for which China turned out to be not yet ready. At that time, China had taken a road which led away from progress, wealth, freedom and spiritual enlightenment. The consequences have yet to be overcome.

除开关注作家的小说和诗歌之外，如果我们对他们的散文有所涉猎，就会发现他们不仅对文学整体的理解发生了变化，单个作者的观点也发生了变化。仅就周作人来说，他的思想在精神上把他和他在欧洲、日本和美国的同伴们联系在一起，但是这些设想在中国行不通。当时的中国走的是一条远离进步、财富、自由和精神启蒙的道路，这一现状还并没有得到改变。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

==Mo Nan 莫南==
In 1927, Chinese literature has taken the form of 'engaged literature'. The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology.
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==
Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (My own garden 9.1923, "The Fly" 1924, "Reading on the Toilet" 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==
I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda. This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character.
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==
In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.

Taking into account of a genre shifts the whole perspective on literature, taking into account the essayistic works of an author shifts also the view of the author. I will name only one author as an example for a modern essayist: Zhou Zuoren.

20世纪90年代，20、30年代民国时期的文本和当代的文本一样也经常被重印。显然，我们可得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的那些政治宣传文只能留存在特殊的政治文章选集当中，到了21世纪初，就不再有作者去写这类文章，也不会有中国读者去看这类文章了。

考虑到整个体裁对整个文学角度的转变，以及散文作品反映出的作者观点的变化，我只举一位现代散文家的例子：周作人。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

20世纪90年代，20-30年代民国时期的文章仍然和当代的同类文章一样经常被重印。显然，我们可以得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的政治宣传类散文只保存在专门的政治散文集中，到21世纪初，不再有人去写，也不再有人读这类文章了。

一种文学体裁会转变整个文学的视角，一位作家的散文作品，同样也会转变对这个作家的看法。我只以一位现代散文家为例：周作人。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Dan 彭丹==
'''Zhou Zuoren'''

I mentioned already his theoretical contribution to the Chinese essayism, but still, his essays have been neglected until the 1980s. The reason does not lie in literary quality, but in political valuing. The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that the theoretical May Fourth genius "degenerated" and later became a "traitor". Publishing in the Japanese sponsored magazines ''Reminiscences'',* and ''Chinese Literature'', he was blamed together with Zhu Pu and Yuan Xi of collaboration. An unanswered question is, why another author, who published there, Zhang Ailing, was never reproached with collaboratorship. The difference between all of them is that Zhang Ailing tried to avoid political committments, whereas Zhou felt guilty, Zhu justified it and Yuan simply accepted it.
==Peng Juan 彭娟==
''The 'mainstream' writers took an affirmative approach in their writing, whereas the other writers formed a minority. The individual authors did not necessarily belong to either one of these groups throughout their life, but may have moved between them. Since the essay is a medium which enables the individual to express thoughts directly, the writers chosen for this paper can be classified according to their position.''

''Yu Guangzhong's essay'' "The wolves are coming" ''shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting.''
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==
In his small literary pieces, Zhou tried to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday life out of the subjective experience of his private space. The major contribution of Zhou Zuoren is, that he set the turning point in Chinese essay writing with his call for writing short literary pieces (''Meiwen'' 1921).

In foreign literature there is the so-called ''lunwen'' 論文 (treatise), which is roughly divided into two groups: the reflecting ones, piping 批評 (critical), are scientific articles. The others are ''jishu'' 記述 (descriptive) and ''yishuxing'' 藝術性 (artistic), they are also called ''meiwen'' 美文 (aesthetic essay). Within these texts, one can distinguish between ''xushi'' 敘事 (narrative) and ''shuqing'' 抒情 (lyric). But there are also mixed texts. [...] I hope that the aesthetical essay is encouraged to come back, and will open up a new field for the New Literature. Wouldn’t that be wonderful?
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==
With these words from the essay "''The aesthetic essay''" this new vernacular form was defined. This starting point founded a whole new tradition of essay writing in China. Contemporary writers called this piece the "king of essays".

In order to bring this new form to his compatriots, he tried to find similiarities with the ''xiaopinwen'' of the Ming dynasty. He further discussed these thoughts in his essay theory. In his own essays, he profited a lot from ancient ''suibi''. Later he further developed his literary theory towards an up and down of two trends. In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to "treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives" and to "make children the essence of children's literature" (Zhou 1923). He promoted the ''baguwen'' and the independance of literature from politics and effected the literary scene and the development towards a modern Chinese society especially between 1917 and 1938.

“美学散文”中的这些词语定义了这种新的白话形式。这个起点在中国建立了一种新的散文写作传统。当代作家称此作品为“散文之王”。

为了将这种新形式带给他的同胞，他试图找到其与明朝“小品文”的相似之处。他在散文理论中进一步讨论了这些思想。他自己的散文也从古代的“随笔”中受益匪浅。后来，他将文学理论朝着上下两种趋势进一步发展。在现代化社会中，他呼吁解放妇女、“将儿童看作具有外在和内在生命的完整主体”以及“让儿童成为儿童文学的本质”（Zhou 1923）。他提倡“八股文”和文学脱离政治的独立性，这对文学界产生了影响，并推动了中国向近代社会尤其是1917年至1938年的发展。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 09:48, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==
With this theoretical foundation and his own vo'luÉminous essayistic work, Zhou Zuoren through the example of his own form of short literary pieces within this genre, fought at that stage of the development of his literary theory like Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque 130 years ago in France for the idea "l'art pour l'art" , for individuality and independance of the writer, for disinterested literature. The jugdment, that Zhou was an apolitical author cannot be proved with his essays. Instead, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance (Zhou 1929:180-181).
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==
In fact he saw himself as ‘patriotic underground fighter’ and looked at the collaboration with the Japanese puppet regime as a forced one, following his attempted assasination, through which his driver had lost his life. His own concept of essay writing served less the needs of the building of a nation-state and comes closer to the ideal of the individual.

"I don't really know why, but I am feeling as if I am born into a dark age. I admit, that our forests are not inhabited by dragons, tigers and wolves, but shapeless "monsters" and "goblins" are still creeping around and try to swallow our souls. [...] What alarms me most, is the absence of freedom in this prison, into which we writers have been thrown."
==Qi Kai 漆凯==
Confronting tradition and progress in the essay "''Ancestor Worship''", he is in favor of the latter, since past could only become present through changes (Zhou 1919:7-8).

Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque (1767 - 1830) war französischer Romanschriftsteller und liberaler Politiker, der neben der Freiheit der Kunst nach der Französischen Revolution die Einführung der konstitutionellen Monarchie nach englischem Vorbild forderte.

==Qu Miao 瞿淼==
Siehe ''Journal'' (10.2.1804). Die "Kunst um der Kunst willen" propagierte die Zweckfreiheit der Kunst. Im Gegensatz dazu versteht sich die engagierte Literatur. Die Parallele zwischen Zhou Zuorens Literaturverständnis und dem Konzept "Kunst um der Kunst willen" zieht auch Wolff: ''Chou Tso-jen'' 1971, S. 84.

Siehe Zhou Zuoren: ''Der Ursprung der neuen chinesischen Literatur'' 1934, S. 95 - 98; vgl. auch Chen Zizhan: ''Vorträge zur chinesischen Literaturgeschichte'' 1937, Bd 3, pp. 416 - 422, besonders S. 422. Hinweis in: H. Martin: "''Liang Qichao on Poetry Reform''" 1996, Bd 1, S. 213.
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==
Regarding Zhou Zuoren, I want to correct the official assessment of the People’s Republic, that his work would have experienced a caesura in 1938. In order to explain his opposition of the propaganda to build up national heroes about 1937 and his collaboration from 1939, it has been said officially, that his thoughts had "duoluo 墮落" (degenerated) at that time (Zhu Jinshun 1990:59). In fact, this caesura, namely the change in the style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xianshi'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment) is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest through the Guomindang (1945).
==Sagara Seydou ==
Therefore not the Japanese suppressors are responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots'.

On the basis of the stigma of the 'traitor', he has been undervalued until now. That his work in the 1990s is almost as often published as Lu Xun's and Zhu Ziqing's shows that his texts finally experience a more positive literaric evaluation through the audience, which now must be registered also by scholars.

==Shi Diwen 石迪文==
Another example of a misread Zhou Zuoren is his short essay on "''The Fly''", where he describes his changing attitude towards flies, which he had played with as child but later disgusted when he learned about their danger of passing on diseases. ”''The fly''” shows Zhou Zuoren’s strength to describe details and make them a real topic by recalling memories on them or describing a change of perspective on them. Zhou summarized the philosophical wisdom he learnt from this, that people did not judge on things objectively, but were likely to praise or damn things.
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==
The official reading re¬proaches Zhou that he "saw only the fly and not the cosmos" , a quotation of the young Zhou about a position he himself clearly opposed.

His ability to chat about the more pleasent things in life is displayed in his essay ”Birds’ twitter”. In ”''Peking cakes and sweet-meat''” and in ”''Wild vegetable of my home region''”, Zhou Zuoren shows his ability to make the reader feel at home at a region, where he feels at home himself, by describing the customs and special regional food.

Siehe Zhou Zuoren: "Cangying 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: ''Chenbao fujuan'' 晨报副镌 (Beilage zur Morgenpost) (1924.7.13). Eine Zu¬sammenfassung des Inhalts findet sich in: Yu Daxiang (Hg.): ''Auswahllexikon chinesischer Essays mit Inhaltsangaben und Analysen'' 1993.

''Siehe Vollständige chinesische Anthologie der Wissenschaften - Bd Chinesische Literatur'' 1988, Bd 2, S. 1300. Dies spielt auf den Essay "''Cangying'' 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: Zhou Zuoren: ''Zhi Tang. Sammlung'' 1933 an.（文献无需翻译）

==Si Yu 司妤==
His piece ”''Bitter rain''” shows the atmosphere, for what his essays had been labelled ”bitter tea”: There remains a taste in one’s mouth after reading. If you compare Lu Xun’s ”''On tea drinking''” (Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326) with Zhou Zuoren’s essay with the same title, you see the difference of ”short and to the point” and ”eloquent and well-read”. ”''First love''” is more hilarious. The essay ”''Three different ways to die''” shows that Zhou Zuoren can compete with his elder brother in sarcasm. Lu Xun's essay on the same subject, the massacre on March 18, 1926, was a sight.
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==
Zhou asks for the ”best” way to die and favors the short and painless one. In ”''On alcohol''” and ”''The awning bunk boat''” Zhou Zuoren continues the tradition of late Ming ''biji''.

'''7. The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''

''What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.''

==Su Lin 苏琳==
The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a consciously “corrected” truth.
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==
The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (Wang Meng: "''Anxiang'' 安详" (Serene) 1992, "''Zuohao ni ziji de shi'' 做好你自己的事" (First make your own things in a good way) 1994).
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==
These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.

Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive ("''Shanxi opera''", Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world ("''The nightmare''", Si Yu 1995).

From the essay, we can see contemporary trends of literature, which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:

==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==
- The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall 1984:xiii);

- The increasing consciousness of indivi¬duality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjecti¬ve expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands;

- A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.

- The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.

- 当下中国社会的浮躁节奏，对转折性和短文的要求。"[...]我们生活在一个论述的时代"(Hall 1984:xiii)。

- 越发增加的独立意识，对其而言，文章是最直接的主体表达形式，甚至比诗的格律和形式要求更直接。

- 通过散文这一媒介讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复苏，就像20世纪20/30年代的情况一样。

- 日常生活的平庸性通过成为文学话题而变得自觉，最常见的是日常生活的文体--散文。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

-当前中国社会节奏轻快，要求有趣味的短文：“[…]我们生活在一个博览会时代”（大厅1984:xiii）；

-对于个人二元性意识的增强，散文是主体性表达的最直接形式，甚至比诗歌的韵律和形式要求更直接；

-通过这篇文章讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复复苏，如同20世纪20年代或30年代的情况一样。

-日常生活的平庸通过成为一个文学主题而变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活的体裁——散文。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:59, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tang Bei 汤蓓==
- The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays.

- Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.
==Tang Ming 唐铭==
This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publis¬hing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: "readers").

- The criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China are the following: In the most often printed essay "''The Back View''", filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", both written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==
Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Wang Zengqi. Therefore one can state, that moving es¬says form the top.

- ''In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in¬dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.''

==Tao Ye 陶冶==
''In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph'' China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war (''No''! 1996).

- ''The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art.''
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==
''Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Jia Pingwa, Feidu; Gu Cheng, Yingger) and'' New Borderlessness ''since'' 1995, ''cannot be pro-ven in the essaywriting. ''

- Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being "''The Small Dog Baodi''", written by Ba Jin 1981, in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before ("''In memoriam of Xiao Shan II''", Ba Jin 1984).
==Wang Xuan 王轩==
Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Der-Wei Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of Wang Zengqi's "''Rain in Kunming''" as well as for Jia Pingwa's "''Shanxi opera''".
类似的还有想象怀旧的概念，正如王功权所说的沈从文作品中虚构的真实（王大卫·德维王1992），有助于解读汪曾祺的《昆明雨》，也有助于贾平凹的《山西剧》。

- The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing fictional truth through the metaphor of his dog Baodi.
施瓦茨在“隐喻话语”中所表达的“个人悲伤”概念，有助于我们理解巴金是如何克服他以“存在的真理”而闻名的，却通过他的狗“宝坻”的隐喻而获得更具说服力的虚构真相。

Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.（文献无需翻译）

''Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay "The nightmare", where Si Yu appears as a de-constructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.''（文献无需翻译）

And maybe for Xie Bingxins* reflections on her experience as one of the chosen voluntaries of the Wuhan military academy: She insisted to remain a lifelong "woman soldier" .（文献无需翻译）

==Wang Yu 王煜==
'''8. Discussion: Is the genre of the essay the form of literary expression in 21st century China?'''

Regarding the future of the Chinese literature, we can only speculate. But out the risk of being wild and provocative, I would like to suggest some questions for considering the place of the essay in the field of Chinese literature and literary studies.

- People have less time for actions like reading, and get used to reduced visualized information through the Internet. Will the brevity of the essay make it the ideal medium?

==Wang Yuan 王源==
- If the Chinese people are rediscovering their individuality, will the essay allow them to express individual thoughts more directly?

- Modern societies are characterized by TV culture, mass consumption, and the loss of consciousness of one's own tradition, often partly due to the American impact on national cultures. Is the essay less bound to the restrictions of tradition, especially compared to the poem and thus more adaptable to the modern phenomenon of mass consumption?

==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==
- The alienation and the anonymity of citylife worldwide, in China is combined with a loss of traditional values like ideology, family, solidarity etc. in favor of the concept of profit for oneself, - if this has produced a longing for new orientation, will it possibly be filled by morally guiding essays or nationalistic thinking?

《红楼梦》与其他世界文学作品的相似性——推荐《红楼梦》列入世界记忆遗产名录

'''Commonness between the Red Chamber Dreams and other World Literature Novels – Proposing the Red Chamber Dreams to the World Documentary Heritage List'''（修改）

吴漠汀，湖南师范大学 Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University

Source: Lecture at Harvard University, Cambridge, MA USA, 14.3.2000（文献无需翻译）
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==
'''Abstract'''

In every culture, readers associate the literature they know with new literature they read. So literature is always cumulative, it grows out of existing literature and can refer back to it. When Western readers read the Red Chamber Dreams, they foremost associate novels and other pieces of literature of their own cultural tradition with the Dreams. This has also influenced the first full translation into German.

Cao Xueqin and even more his protagonist Jia Baoyu both are early humanists, universalists and world citizens. ''The Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide.

摘要

在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中生长出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。

曹雪芹，尤其是他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。（修改）

在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中衍生出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。

曹雪芹，甚至于他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:09, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==
''The Dream'' is a complex showroom of diverse aspects of Chinese cultures and is the embodiment and essence of Chinese cultures, but it has also a global impact, therefore it should be honoured as “World Documentary Heritage”.

红楼梦》综合展示了中国的多元文化，是中国文化的集中体现和精华，同时在全球范围内产生影响，理应列入世界记忆遗产名录。（修改）

多元一体

'''Key words'''

Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage

“红楼梦”是一个多元的中国文化综合体，是中国文化的体现和精髓，但它也具有全球影响力，因此应该被授予“世界文献遗产”的荣誉。（修改<nowiki>Insert non-formatted text here</nowiki>）

多元一体

'''Key words'''

Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage
--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

《红楼梦》是一个中国文化综合体，展示着中国文化的精髓的同时也极具全球影响力，理应被列入世界记忆遗产名录。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==
'''1. Chinese Ethics'''

To help the poor and disadvantaged belongs to the traditional core values of Chinese culture.

When we sit in the Beijing Subway today, the loudspeaker announcement reminds us, that it is Chinese traditional ethics to give seats to the disadvantaged (老弱病残孕让座是中国传统道德). We know of Cao Xueqin, that he supported the poor and disadvantaged, and that he made kites for children.

However, when we look closer at these “Chinese Ethics”, we discover, that they are claimed also in Indian Buddhism “karuna” and in the Christian tradition of “caritas” and in almost every civilization. Therefore, we might call these values “human ethics”.

==Wu Kai 吴恺==
'''2. Compatibility
'''
Why do the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide and have achieved world literature status even in their translations?

First of all, the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are, like novels worldwide, a piece of entertainment literature. In comparison to the drama, in which every element is compulsory and plays its part in the overall structure, in the novel the line of action itself is simpler and not so important, most of the scenes or episodes are loosely put together and fit in the broader theme of the novel.
==Wu Qi 吴琪==
However, the lose arrangement of episodes of the ''Dreams'' comes from the tradition of almost unconnected episodes like in the ''Shuihuzhuan'' and is a step towards the greater coherence of the episodes, the aligning into a story line and the greater concentration on fewer protagonists. Therefore, the ''Dreams'' show clearly a step towards the Western tradition of novels, maybe because of growing Western influence in Qing dynasty.

'''3. Impact of translator’s native culture on the translation process'''

There are intercultural parallels between the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' and Western works of literature.
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==
These parallels are fundamental for the translation and were explicitly and implicitly fundamental for the German translator Martin Woesler during his translation and editorial work on the first full German translation. In the following, I will mention some of the Western novels and pieces of literature, which the Western reader of the ''Dreams'' will immediately think of.

'''4. The novel as embodiment of “Zeitgeist”'''

According to Georg Lukács’ ''Theory of the Novel'', while the Epos (like Homer’s ''Ilias'', which like the ''Dream'' reasons the stories in the divine realm) displayed a holistic world experience, a complete, self-contained culture, the novel displays, that the modern world has become infinitely large and has lost its homely quality.
==Wu Xiang 邬香==
The novel as a genre is no longer documenting just one culture, but represents, with the words of Walter Benjamin, the Organon of History. So the understanding of the novel changed with Lukacs to historical-philosophically. A novel is understood as typical for its historical era, the novel embodies the spirit of the epoch (Zeitgeist).

The ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are written in front of the background of the Manchu minority having taken over the power in formerly Han-shaped Ming-China (which was a multi-ethnic and crosscultural society) and families suffering the changing favor of changing emperors, with the Cao family being fostered by Kangxi and being persecuted by Yongzheng.
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==
While the author in his time could not criticize the system and power of emperors, in the novel he came to terms with this life by seeking the guilt for the persecution in the growing decadence of the family (engaging in Daoism, leisure, poetry-writing, arts and music instead of learning for being able to earn a living) and in himself not fulfilling the expectations as the family heir. This description of decadence of a declining family reminds us of the novels of Tschechov (and e.g. in the ''Buddenbrooks'' by Mann, including the turn to arts and music).
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==
Moreover, with the detailed description of life on all social levels in early Qing Dynasty, the Dream appears as a documentary historical novel very much like Günter Grass’ The Tin Drum 1959.

'''5. Coming-of-age and Alienation'''

Abandoning the paradise-like garden in the Red Chamber Dreams is a symbol for leaving the protected childhood and arriving in the complex world of adults. With George Lukács theory of the novel, the protagonist starts to problematize the sense of his life, in the novel, the protagonist’s self permanently struggles with his environment.
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==
However, Cao Xueqin’s message is not simply the one of “Paradise Lost”, instead he himself made the best out of his life. Although being less wealthy than when his family still enjoyed the favour of the emperor, there was a payroll system and a social net intact in Early Qing China, where he received enough income to be independent from his rich relatives, to be selective on accepting jobs, to live a relaxed life in a small house in the nature, spending time with his family and friends, follow his own interests, like reading, writing and drinking wine, making kites for the children and thinking of the disadvantaged.

然而，曹雪芹的信息不仅是“失乐园”的信息，而是他本人的一生。尽管不如他的家人仍然享有皇帝的宠爱时富裕，但清初中国有一个工资体系和一个完整的社会网络，在那里他获得了足够的收入以独立于自己的富裕亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作在大自然的小房子里过着轻松的生活，与家人和朋友共度时光，遵循自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和喝酒，为孩子们放风筝和思考处境不利的人。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

然而，曹雪芹所传达的信息并不是简单的“失乐园”，相反，他把自己的生活过得很好。虽然比起他的家族享受皇帝的宠爱，他过得没有那么富裕，但清初中国有一套薪俸制度和一张完整的社会网，他获得了足够的收入，可以独立于富贵亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作，可以在大自然的小房子里过着悠闲的生活，可以与家人和朋友共度时光，可以追随自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和饮酒，可以为孩子们做风筝，可以为弱势群体着想。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 11:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xiao Ting 肖婷==
Cao Xueqin was fully aware of his time and China’s cultural achievements, he was familiar with the different levels of society, he was a detailed observer and skilful narrator. He may have conceptualized the ending of the novel as a discussion about the different personalities of the characters in the novel and therefore displaying his reflection about life and his psychological understanding of the diversity of human nature. He was able to grasp the “spirit of time” (Zeitgeist) and with his autobiographical experience create an eternal coming-of-age novel not just for his family, for the Qing-Chinese, for Chinese people, but for mankind.

曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就有充分的认识，他熟悉社会的方方面面，他观察细致，叙事娴熟。他能把小说的结尾构思为对小说中人物不同性格的探讨，从而体现出他对人生的思考和对人性多样性的理解。他能够把握 "时间精神"(Zeitgeist)，并以他的亲身经历为材料创造了一部成熟的绝世之作，这不仅是为他的家庭、为清人、为中国人，更是为全人类。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

曹雪芹充分了解自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就，熟悉社会的不同层次，是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。他可能将小说的结局概念化为对小说中人物不同性格的讨论，从而表现出他对生活的反思和对人性多样性的心理理解。他能够把握“时代精神”(时代精神)，并以他的自传体经历，为他的家庭，为清朝人，为中国人，为人类创造了一部永恒的成长小说。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 12:01, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就了如指掌，他熟悉社会的不同层面，他是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。因此，他在小说中对人的不同个性的理解和对小说中人物性格的多样性进行了概念化的探讨。他能够把握“时代精神”，用他的自传体经历，不仅为他的家庭，为清朝的中国人，为中国人民，而且为人类，创作了一部永恒的成人小说。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:43, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

==Xiao Xi 肖茜==
This tradition of Coming-of-age novels is also a European one, like enlightenment philosopher Voltaire’s novel ''Candide or Optimism''《老实人》shows at the very same time (1759) in Europe. Also Voltaire’s Candide has to leave the luxurious paradise of his childhood and strives for true love, but his main learning is more pessimistic, since Voltaire wrote the novel in opposition to Leibniz, who optimistically looked to China as “the best of all worlds”. Recent research findings show that China had a much larger influence on European enlightenment philosophers and we can be sure, that also Cao Xueqin was aware of some European literary traditions.
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==
Also the German readership is familiar with the chronological following of the life of the protagonist and his development, the fate of a family over generations, the German readership knows this type of novel as the “Education novel” or “Coming-of-age-novel”. In Germany, the genre of the coming-of-age novel has a long tradition and it is shaped more by single characters, who appear as teachers (Goethe: ''Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802).
==Xie Fan 解帆==
Wilhelm Meister, parallely to Jia Baoyu, is struggling with the traditional education, in ''Wilhelm Meister'' this is represented with the classics revived in Shakespeare’s dramas. Tradition can give orientation, but the personality of the protagonist needs to develop through emancipation is a wisdom, we can learn from all mentioned novels including the ''Dreams''.

'''6. Pornography and True Love, female rivals'''

Sexuality is a basic human need and has developed into different shapes in all cultures. The German audience is familiar with erotic topics from the Middle Ages, in which sexuality was stylized. In the “Schwänke” of the 15th century (Wittenwielers Ring), erotic scenes are described sexually explicit.

与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，这通过莎士比亚的经典戏剧得以体现。传统可以作为方向标，但主人公的个性需要通过解放才能发展，这是一种智慧，我们可以以上提过包括《梦》的所有小说中学习。
“6.色情与真爱，女性对手"
性是人类的一种基本需求，在不同文化中展现出不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是有固定程式的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:37, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，在《威廉·迈斯特》中，莎士比亚戏剧中复兴的经典作品代表了这一点。传统可以给予导向，但主人公的个性需要通过解放来发展是一种智慧，我们可以从包括《梦》在内的所有小说中学习。
“6。色情与真爱，女性对手"
性是人类的一种基本需求，在各种文化中形成了不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是程式化的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==
In the barock literature of the 17th century even the physical act is described extensively.

According to „cumulativity“, every human being is a product of history and literature is based on previous literature, therefore the author of this pager thinks that this background has to be taken into account while translating.

The best study on ''qing'' passion in the Dreams is the one by Anthony Yu, who understood it as ''desire'' and as the central motif of the ''Dreams''. „The centrality of qing in shaping virtually every aspect of The Story of the Stone’s structure and meaning cannot be denied [...].“ (Anthony Yu 2001, 54).

==Xu Jia 徐佳==
In the framework story of the Dreams, the narrator consciously takes a stand against low-action and stereotypical pornographic literature as well as against the widespread romance novels (with the classic roles of the beautiful, talented woman and the poor scholar who finally achieves a respected position and prosperity by passing a civil service exam).

In chapter 1 he says: ”of the true feelings of young people [...] nobody has reported about so far.”

Erotic scenes are described in a decent and associative way (“Game of clouds and rain”), while displaying another quality in its openness e.g. towards bisexuality.

==Xu Jing 许晶==
The ''Dreams'' narrate the story of unfortunate lovers. Unfortunate lovers also in the West have a literary tradition, they constitute an archetype, such as Hero and Leander, Pyramus and Thisbe, Tristan and Isolde, Flore and Blanscheflur as well as Troilus and Cressida, the latter being considered the model for Arthur Brookes, who wrote Romeo and Juliet in 1562 and thus directly influenced Shakespeare.

While Marián Galik saw as the central topic of both, the ''Dream'' and ''Faust'', the eternal feminine, which draws us on high, Gu Cheng called it the “eternal virgine”.

==Xu Jing 许静==
In Goethe’s coming-of-age novel ''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre'', we find a similar motif of female rivals, in the Keller 凯勒 ''The Green Henry'' 《绿衣亨利》1855, the hero turns away from an emphatically sexually designed figure and turns to the 'real' woman. In Jane Austen’s ''Pride and Prejudice'' 1813 Elizabeth and Lin Daiyu are similar, e.g. they both strive for real love (Zhuang 2011).
==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==
'''7. Feudal society and slavery'''

A widespread interpretation is that Jia Baoyu’s equal treatment of family members and slaves would be a manifesto to free the slaves. I also do not share this interpretation, since Aristotle, when he demanded democracy, would exclude slaves from the right to vote. So we cannot use modern concepts to judge on the past. In my understanding, Jia Baoyu was not fighting inequality, but looked at the people as humans and individuals.

封建社会和奴隶
一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶一视同仁，这将成为奴隶解放的宣言。我并不同意这个解释，因为亚里士多德的民主就排除了奴隶的投票权。所以，我们并不能用现代观念去评判过去。在我看来，贾宝玉并不是和不平等作斗争，而是把人视作群体和个人。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 09:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德，当他要求民主的时候，会排除奴隶的投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人看成是群体和个人。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:31, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

许多人认为，贾宝玉对家庭成员和仆人的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种看法。因为当亚里士多德要求民主时，奴隶并没有投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去发生的事。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人分为是群体和个人。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==
Also the understanding of the servants as slaves does not match the description in the Dream, since some servants had servants themselves, the family took care after they left the Jia family to find a match for them and Jia Zheng refers to his daughter Yingchun as „yatou 丫头“, so it is inappropriate to translate this expression with slave. Therefore, the translator preferred “servant” over “slave” in the translation.

另外，把仆人理解为奴隶也与《红楼梦》中所描述的不符，因为有些仆人自己也有仆人，他们离开贾家后，家人会照顾他们，为他们婚配，并且贾正把女儿迎春称为“丫头”，所以用奴隶来翻译这个词是不合适的。因此，译者在翻译中更倾向于“仆人”而不是“奴隶”。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

而且把仆人理解为奴隶与《红楼梦》中的描写不符，因为有些仆人自己还有仆人，贾府会在她们离府的时候为她们寻一门亲事，作为贾府对她们的照料；贾政也把自己的女儿迎春喊作 “丫头”，所以把这些翻译成奴隶是不合适的。因此英文翻译中采用“servant”会比“slave”更为合适。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:08, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==
Mo Yan in his speech at the Frankfurt Bookfair in 2009, when China was the guest of honor, draws the (similarly) parallel between the ''Dream'' and Goethe’s ''Sorrows of the Young Werther'', that both expressed the wish to abandon feudal society. My own impression is that both do not express this wish, but that this is a later concept and interpretation and we should not apply this to judge the past.

2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，他在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的印象是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，而我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的感觉是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:43, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Hairong 杨海容==
'''8. Tragedy of all tragedies'''

Aristotle explained in ''On the Tragedy'' (Poetics VI), that tragedies move people more than comedies because they “imitate [mimēsis] an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude” (Aristotle 1971, 51), This high esteem of the tragedy in Europe is partly ascribed to the loss of Aristotle’s work ''On the Comedy''.

8.所有悲剧的悲剧成分

亚里士多德在《悲剧论》（诗学VI）中解释说，悲剧使人们比喜剧更能吸引人，因为他们“模仿（mimēsis）一种严肃、完整和有程度的行动”（Aristotle 1971，51）。欧洲的悲剧部分归因于亚里斯多德作品《喜剧》的丢失。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:16, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Hui 阳慧==
While Europe has the Hamlet as its tragedy of all tragedies, the lack of tragic literature in Chinese literary tradition has long been lamented. Wang Guowei sees the Dream as "tragedy of all tragedies". To Wang Guowei the suffering of Faust and Jia Baoyu is central in the novels. However, many scholars contest that Faustianism is central for Chinese culture.

In 18th century Europe, we saw a new development in the genre of the drama, to establish a “bourgeois tragedy”.

==Yang Yi 杨逸==
It developed as an emancipatory movement in the 18th century in London, Paris and Germany, and demonstrated that tragedy was not reserved to rulers, but was also imagineable for lower noblemen and ordinary citizens. The ''Dream'' at the same time as the bourgeois tragedy in Europe shows a tragic story of a mid-level noble family which loses its titles and privileges.

==Yang Yue 杨悦==

'''9. “Non-Binary” Novels'''

One of the things attracting Western readers is the adorable but mysterious protagonist Jia Baoyu. With his open bisexual orientation and his interest in his mates regardless of their social status, he appears “modern” or at least displaced in time. His struggle with traditional learning makes him appear sympathetic, his long states of rapture out of the world give him both the aura of a timeless character and of mystery.

9. “非二进制小说”

可爱而神秘的主角贾宝玉是吸引西方读者的其中一点。由于他开放的双性恋倾向以及对同伴的兴趣，无论他们的社会地位如何，他彰显“现代”气质或至少不属于那个时代。他与传统学习的斗争使他显得富有同情心，他与世隔绝的漫长状态使他既具有永恒的品格又具有神秘感。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:17, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==
With the bisexual orientation of the Dreams’ protagonist, the novel appears non-binary.
According to Karl-Heinz Pohl, binaries are just superficial, ultimately decisive is the ''Heart Sutra''. Today, the novel is listed among the genre of non-binary literature (see e.g. the bibliographical list on https://www.goodreads.com/list/tag/non-binary), in which contrasts are dissolved deconstructivistically.

==Yao Cheng 姚诚==
'''10. Foreign Cultures in the Red Chamber Dreams'''

Foreign Cultures frequently appear in the Dreams in all kinds of varieties, like exoticism with the many objects in the household and presented to the household as novelties, especially the blond girl of the same age as Baoyu referred to in person (combining different origins and cultures, including European, Japanese, Chinese) or several times on paintings, one time shown with wings as an angel.

==Yao Jia 姚佳==
The playful combination of different traditions we can see also when a religious dress is described, which carries characteristics of different religions. Similarly, the Daoist monk and the Confucian priest appear together. Cao Xueqin wanted to show the richness and diversity, also with the many topics and societal levels of the novel. Even a variety of Christian motifs can be found, like when Jia Baoyu is not recognized by his father in chapter 120 and when he disappears, all parallel to Jesus Christ.

==Yi Huan 易欢==
The variety of cultures is paralleled with the variety of elements of different dynasties, which makes it timeless and therefore even more a masterpiece of Chinese art and a masterpiece of human art. Therefore I would like to nominate the Red Chamber Dreams as “World Documentary Heritage”.

'''References'''（参考文献不用翻译）

Anthony, C. Yu. (2001). ''Rereading the Stone: Desire and the Making of Fiction in Dream of the Red Chamber''. Princeton University Press.

Aristotle. (1971). ''Poetics''. Trans. S. H. Butcher. Ed. Hazard Adams. Critical Theory since Plato. ew York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 48-66.

Woesler, Martin, ed., Cao Xueqin, Gao E et al. (2016). ''Der Traum der Roten Kammer oder Die Geschichte vom Stein'' [''Red Chamber Dreams or The Story of the Stone''], Peking: Foreign Languages Press, ISBN 9787119094120, 4813 pages, 6 vols., hardcover, transl. by Rainer Schwarz and Martin Woesler; Chinese-German bilingual edition

Woesler, Martin. (2011). “Being Explicit About the Implicit – John Minford’s Translation of the last Forty Chapters of The Story of the Stone with a Field Study on two Sexually Arousing Scenes”. ''Hong lou meng xue kan'' 6: 274-289

Woesler, Martin. (2010). “ ’To Amuse the Beaux and Belles’ The Early Western Reception of the Hongloumeng”. ''Journal of Sino-Western Communications'' 2 (2010.12) 2:81-107

Zhuang, Xiuhua. (2011). Self, Ideal and Salvation: A Comparative Study of Jane Austen’s Elizabeth and Cao Xueqin’s Lin Daiyu. ''Journal of Language Teaching and Research'', Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 420-423, March 2011. Fulltext: http://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/jltr/vol02/02/19.pdf.

==Yi Zichu 义子楚==
'''Virtual Communication Between Machines with the Human as Their Object
'''

A new stage of multimodal communication after oral, written, printed, electronic and machine-human communication

Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University

'''Abstract'''

Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role.

==You Yuting 游雨婷==
This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new media epoch of “virtual communication” (communication 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).

Algorithms do not only listen to oral or read written human communication (between humans or between humans and bots), but they analyze multimodal communication (including likes, behaviour, surfing habits, mobility profile, values, dreams, aims, beliefs etc.), compare them with Big Data (e.g. cloud data) and base decisions of manipulation on a prediction of behavior according to a personality profile and correlations.

本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。

算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管世界，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。

算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:47, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yu Ni 余妮==
These algorithms target not only the explicit communications, but the emotions and thoughts of humans too and predict future behavior, therefore allowing simulations of reality. Mightier algorithms have also taken over decision-making roles in societies where they: replace human court decisions, fine tune just-in-time and on-demand production, censor chatrooms etc. Sets of algorithms help to manage smart cities and a whole society.

这些算法不仅针对明确的交流，也针对人类的情绪和思想，并预测未来的行为，因此允许模拟现实。更强大的算法也在社会中占据了决策角色：取代人类法庭的判决，及时微调和按需制作，审查聊天室等。一套算法有助于管理智慧城市和整个社会。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

----

==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==
Although the human is still part of the communication, especially as the analyzed object and the target of the manipulation, the human is often unaware of the virtual communication and a passive receiver of the machine’s decisions, while the main actors in the virtual communication are machines.

虽然人仍然是通信的一部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人往往没有意识到虚拟通信和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟通信的主要参与者是机器。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

尽管人类仍然是交流活动的一个组成部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人类往往没有意识到，自己是虚拟沟通和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟沟通的主导者是机器。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

虽然人仍然是构成通信的一部分，尤其是作为分析对象和操纵目标，但人往往没有意识到人们在虚拟通信中扮演机器决策的被动接受者，而机器才是主要参与者。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==
Research describes these forms of virtual communication, finds evidence in social management systems and credit systems (in Germany, we have the “Schufa”, in the USA there are big players in credit history, which leads to credit-orientation and gamification of human life) or customized (fake) news filter bubbles and in customized consumption offers (Amazon, Facebook, Google, Netflix) and analyzes benefits, including security enhancements through such virtual communication.

研究对这些形式的虚拟沟通进行了描述，在社会管理系统、信用系统（定制的（虚假）新闻筛选泡沫）和定制的消费商（亚马逊、脸书、谷歌、网飞）里面找到了证据（德国有“Schufa”，美国则因为信用史有重大人物而使得社会信用至上并日趋游戏化），并对益处加以分析，这些益处包含通过这类虚拟沟通提升安全。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:20, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

研究描述了这些虚拟通信的形式，在社会管理系统和信用系统中找到证据（在德国，我们有 "Schufa"，在美国有信用记录的大玩家，这导致了信用导向和人类生活的游戏化）或定制化（假）新闻过滤气泡，以及在定制化的消费优惠中（亚马逊，Facebook，谷歌，Netflix），并分析了好处，包括通过这种虚拟通信增强安全性。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==
But research also has the duty to warn of abuse or harmful developments and to raise ethical questions. Exoskeletal ethics, imposed by gamifications like credit systems, especially need to be valued against intrinsic ethics.

'''Introduction'''

In this paper dealing with machine to machine communication, I skip the machines assisting humans to make their life more convenient (ranging from “The milk is out, please add the usual amount of milk to the delivery list,” to “The old lady has not left her bed this morning, I’ll better call the doctor”).

但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展发出警告，同时要对引起的伦理问题也要承担责任。特别是信用体系游戏化所造成的外骨骼伦理问题更需要得到重视，要反对内在的伦理问题。

引言

本论文在涉及机器与机器之间的交流时，我不考虑那些帮助人类让生活更便捷的机器（从“牛奶没了，请在送货单上加平常剂量的牛奶”到“老太太今早卧床不起，我最好叫医生吧”）。
--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:10, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展提出警告，并提出伦理问题。特别是信用体系等游戏化所强加的外骨骼伦理，更需要对照内在伦理加以重视。

引言

在本文中涉及机器与机器之间的交流，我跳过了机器协助人类提高生活便利的内容（从 "牛奶没了，请把平时的牛奶量加到送货单上"，到 "老太太今天早上还没下床，我还是叫医生吧"。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:40, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==
Instead, I deal with communication like: “Let’s create a user personality profile and compare it with Big Data to learn how I can best catch this user’s attention and make him/her vote for presidential candidate A or B.”; “Let’s check this users’ mouse movements and compare it with Big Data to get a correlation to estimate if (and if “yes” when) he will get Parkinson, to decide whether or not to deny him the loan or health insurance.”
实际上，本人研究涉及的方面如下：比如，“让我们创建一名用户的个性化主界面，并将其与大数据进行比对，学习如何最好的吸引该用户的注意，让他/她投票给总统候选人甲或乙。”“让我们检查这名用户鼠标的运动轨迹，通过与大数据进行比对，建立关联，来估计他是否会得帕金森。如果他患有帕金森疾病，我们会决定是否需要对他的贷款或医疗保险的申请予以拒绝。”--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:41, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Liang 曾良==
“Let’s check this users sexual orientation, religious beliefs, fears, secrets like adultery etc. to blackmail him to get ransom money for my programmer.”; or even “Let’s use this user’s location to aim the killer drone.”

The current neoliberal system with Amazon, Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, Google, Netflix etc. provides incentives to collect as much user data as possible and to abuse user data for manipulation, which creates huge profits.

“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、诸如通奸之类的秘密去勒索他为我的程序员去获取赎金”。或者甚至“使用用户的位置瞄准杀手无人机。”

当前具有亚马逊、脸谱网、瓦茨艾普、照片墙、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义系统激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:04, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

"让我们查一查这个用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、通奸等秘密，以勒索他为我的程序员获取赎金。"；甚至"利用这个用户的位置来瞄准杀手无人机。"
目前亚马逊、脸书、WhatsApp、Instagram、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义体系，为收集尽可能多的用户数据，并滥用用户数据，从而创造了巨大的利润。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、惧怕的事物、诸如通奸之类的秘密，从而勒索他让我的程序员获取赎金”。更有甚时，“让我们使用用户的位置让攻击机瞄准他。”

当前亚马逊、脸书、联络电话、Instagram、谷歌、网飞等的新自由主义的系统软件，激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==
Very much like the financial crisis, which was caused by the unregulated use of derivatives, this is a systemic development, which currently follows a path to enslave the human race under the control of algorithms for the benefit of tech companies. The enslavement has already begun, as we can see from the world wide addiction to social media, from the growing mass of conspiracy theorists and from the polarization of the USA over Trump or the polarization of Great Britain over the Brexit.

==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==
'''1 History of Media Epochs'''

Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role.

This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new stage of “virtual communication” (media epoch 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).

卢曼和贝克尔描述了从口头（媒体时代1.0）到文字（2.0）的通讯发展，再到印刷（3.0）数字通讯（4.0）
在所有这些阶段中，科技都只起到了协助作用。

本文认为，从根本上来说，“虚拟沟通”处于新阶段（媒体时代5.0），其中人工智能（由人类初始化）已被接管，人类已成为分析和操纵的对象（如顾客，选民等）--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 14:56, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hu 张虎==
While Luhmann would still summarize this under digital communication, I see a full new quality here, and have therefore coined the term “communication 5.0” or “virtual communication” for it. In Luhmann’s view, the computer consists out of the “surface” of the machine (the visible interfaces like screen, keyboard, mouse) and the “depth” of the machine (the invisible, often incomprehensive inside).

虽然卢曼仍然会在数字通信中总结这一点，但我在这里看到了一个全新的品质，因此创造了术语“通信5.0”或“虚拟通信”。在卢曼看来，计算机是由机器的“表面”(屏幕、键盘、鼠标等可见界面)和机器的“内里”(看不见的、内部不全面的部分)组成的。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:41, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hui 张慧==
However, we are almost constantly producing data, with our chats and geotracked movements, with our addiction to social media, our carrying of cell phones and more and more smart devices at all times, and we are therefore an object of analysis by algorithms.

The traditional setting of a communicative act blurs: The machine can directly communicate with the human (there the Turing test marks a threshold), and, after a certain complexity, it can hide its machine nature.

但是，我们几乎一直在通过聊天和地理位置追踪运动，不断沉迷于社交媒体，携带手机以及越来越多的智能设备来生成数据，因此，我们一直是通过算法进行分析的对象。

交流行为的传统设置变得模糊：机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标记了阈值），并且在经过一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏机器的本质。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:49, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

然而，我们几乎在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和地理追踪的动作，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们随时携带手机和越来越多的智能设备，因而成为算法分析的对象。

传统的交流行为的设定模糊了。机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标志着一个门槛），在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)
然而，我们几乎是在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和追踪移动，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们无时无刻都带着手机和越来越多的智能设备，因此我们是算法分析的对象。
传统的交流行为设定是模糊的:机器可以直接与人类交流(图灵测试在这里标记了一个阈值)，并且在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:49, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Ling 张玲==
The machine can also indirectly communicate with the human by simply analyzing humans’ verbal communication, non-verbal multimodal communication, behavior, personality etc. and interacting with the human with, or without, revealing its existence. A human, growing up in a filter bubble and believing in conspiracy theories is one such example: The human has been manipulated by social media and news which prefer lies over truth.

机器还可以通过简单地分析人类的语言交流、非语言的多模态交流、行为、个性等，并与人类进行交互，从而间接地与人类进行交流，从而揭示人类的存在。一个在过滤器泡沫中成长并相信阴谋论的人就是这样一个例子：人们被社会媒体和新闻操纵，而这些媒体和新闻更喜欢谎言而不是真相。 --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==
Without even noticing that there was an interaction taking place between the human and the machine, the human has lost his/her independence to the machine.

'''2 Types of communicative acts'''

1.Texts (oral and written comments/chat texts/blogs/emails)

2.Surf behavior (websites visited)

3.Consumer behavior (purchases)

4.Likes (see OCEAN, UEBA)

5.Duration/Attention (see UEBA)

6.habits/repetitiveness/occurrences (is an element of analysis in different AI apps/tools)
甚至没有注意到人与机器之间发生的互动，人已经失去了他/她对机器的独立性。

"两种类型的交际行为"

1.
文本(口头和书面评论/聊天文本/博客/电子邮件)

2.
上网行为(浏览网站)

3.
消费者行为(购买)

4.
喜欢(参见OCEAN, UEBA)

5.
持续时间/关注(见UEBA)

6.
习惯/重复/出现(是不同AI应用/工具的分析元素)--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Qi 张琪==
7.Unconscious, often unique data allowing identification (way of writing, mouse movements pattern, see Raj Kannan 2020)

8.social interaction incl. friendships, sexual relationships

9.mobility behavior/pattern (e.g. immediate environment – e.g. unconsciously recording the inside of houses while playing “Pokemon Go”), travel: Travel Behavior (Yu Cui et al. 2018)

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==
'''3 Types of analysis'''

1.General (User and Entity Behavior Analytics UEBA: AI-assisted cybersecurity tools like by Gartner, Inc.)

2.True identity (e.g.: mouse movements, face recognition, find real name) (Verschuere 2016)

3.Personality profile: Big Five Personality Inventory: Openness to Experience, Consciousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism “OCEAN” (Golbeck 2011), by only analyzing the users' likes, Facebook can generate personality profiles (AI-Demand 2020)

4.Mobility profile/pattern

==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==
5.Health situation (health apps, ai supported disease research, see Daley 2020)

6.Job situation/job market (Talent Search People 2020 analyzes the job market, and classifies 4 different AI systems: 1. systems that think like humans, 2. systems that act like humans, 3. systems that think rationally, and 4.) systems that act rationally.)

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==
7.Financial credit-worthiness: E.g. German Schufa company uses AI in addition to human expertise for evaluations, see Banken-Technologie 2020. Banken-Technologie 2020. Schufa’s attempt to gain access to customers’ bank account transfer information was discussed in the news.

8.Consumer Behavior: e.g. the "clickworker" company analyses and optimizes customers' searches in respect to a client company's goals/products with the help of AI (clickworker 2019)

9.Secrets (like adultery)

==Zhang Yu 张瑜==
'''4 Unique quality of media epoch 5.0'''[ I have coined the terms “media epoch 5.0” and “virtual communication” I have developed it from concepts like „Industry 4.0“ in Germany and the four media epochs Luhmann and Baecker developed (by Baecker called 1.0 … 4.0). There are several authors speculating about the media epoch 4.0, like Ray Kurzweil. The Age of Intelligent Machines. 1990.]

1.the human switches from active to passive

2.the human switches from subject to object

3.the human becomes addicted to social media, which enhances depression (Van Den Eijnden et al. 2016, Jasso-Medrano et al. 2018, Shensa et al. 2017)

4.the human switches from puppeteer, or entity with seemingly free will, to puppet

5.nature of the internet turns from freedom to surveillance

4.媒介5.0时代的独特品质 [我创造了 "媒介5.0时代"和 "虚拟通信 "这两个词，它们是从德国的“工业4.0”以及卢曼和贝克提出的媒介4.0时代（贝克称之为1.0...4.0）等概念发展而来的。一些作者揣测媒介4.0时代这个词的含义，比如1990年出版的雷-库兹韦尔的《灵魂机器时代》]

1.人从主动到被动的转换

2.人从主体到客体的转换

3.人沉迷于社交媒体，提高了患抑郁症的风险

4.人从木偶操纵者或看似拥有自由意志的实体到木偶人的转换

5.互联网的性质从自由到监测的转换--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 01:25, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==
6.direct communication turns into indirect communication (humans may not be aware of this communication/analysis)

7.explicit communication (voice, words) turns into implicit communication (preferences/thoughts/dreams/wishes/ values (first experiments with brain scanners in worker hats have started in Shanghai and Peking))

8.man-man communication turns to man-machine communication (phone bot) to machine-machine

9.4.0 was from centralization to decentralization, 5.0 is partial centralization and partial decentralization, but also concentration

6，直接交流变成间接交流（人们自己可能没有意识到这种交流/分析）。

7，明确的交流（声音，文字）变成隐性的交流（偏好/想法/梦想/愿望/价值观（上海和北京已开始在工人的帽子上使用脑扫描仪进行首次实验））。

8，人与人之间的通信变成了人与机器之间的通信（电话机器人）再到机器与机器之间的通信。

9.4.0是从集中到分散，5.0是部分集中和部分分散，也有集中。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 10:52, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==
So far, mass media has been considered one-way. The interaction and processing of data of millions of individual users seemed simply too much work. In the age of virtual communication, the media epoch 5.0, mass media is individualized and interactive and therefore even more influential.

'''5 Types of manipulation (consciously or unconsciously, sometimes half-consciously)
'''

1.Priming by unconscious advertisements: Influencing consumer decisions

2.Filter bubbles => supports conspiracy theories, influences judgments

到目前为止，大众媒体一直被认为是单一的。数百万个人用户数据的交互和处理似乎太费力。在虚拟传播时代，即媒体时代5.0，大众传媒是个性化和互动的，因此更具影响力。

'''5 种操纵类型（有意识或无意识，有时是半意识的）'''

1.无意识广告发布：影响消费者决策

2.过滤泡沫=>支持阴谋论，影响判断--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:08, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhao Xi 赵茜==
3.Nature of social media: lies spread 6 times faster than truth. (Vosoughi et al. 2018).

4.Change of political attitude: Case Cambridge Analytica: Helped minority to win election by manipulating young people of majority not to vote (Do so: Don’t vote campaign, Oddleifson 2020); Trump election and Brexit were won by manipulation

5.Use of private information/dependencies to obtain advantages (blackmailing for money or for conducting crimes etc.)

6.Identity theft

3.社交媒体的本质：谎言的传播速度比真理快 6 倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。

4.改变政治态度：案例剑桥分析：通过操纵多数年轻人不投票帮助少数民族赢得选举（这样做：不要投票竞选。奥德利夫森 2020年）；特朗普选举和英国脱欧通过操纵获胜

5.利用私人信息/依赖关系获取好处（勒索钱财或犯罪等）

6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.社交媒体的性质：谎言传播速度是真相的6倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。
4.政治态度的改变：剑桥分析案例：通过操纵大多数年轻人不投票帮助少数人赢得选举（Do Do Do:Do not vote campaign，Oddleifson 2020）；特朗普选举和脱欧是通过操纵赢得的
5.利用私人信息/依赖性获取利益（勒索钱财或犯罪等）
6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==
'''6 Consequences'''

1.Virtual Communication is mostly “hidden”, the human is mostly unaware of it, but may endure the consequences (policeman may detain suspect simply because the face recognition glass recognizes a pedestrian passing by and assesses him/her as “dangerous”; loan is declined; insurance company declines to accept new customer)

6.后果

1.虚拟通讯大多是 "隐蔽 "的，人多半不知道，但可能会承受后果（警察可能仅仅因为人脸识别玻璃识别出路过的行人，并评估其为 "危险 "而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新的客户）--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

6.后果

1.虚拟通信通常是“隐藏的”，人类大多数情况下是不知道的，但可能会承受后果（警察可能只是因为面部识别玻璃杯识别出行人经过并将他/她评估为“危险”而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

'''6.后果
'''

1.大多情况下，虚拟通信是“隐藏的”，人类也没有意识到这一点，但可能会承担由此带来的后果（警察可能会因为面部识别玻璃检测到行人通过，并将其评估为“危险人物”而将嫌疑犯拘留‘贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==
2.User becomes transparent (government can fight terrorism, any user can be blackmailed, jealous spouse can check on adultery)

3.Less will to communicate and discuss (since positions are too far apart)

4.Populists and populist views gain supporters

5.Polarization of Society

6.There is an incentive not to reveal how much one knows about the object, because the object then could question the legality, the system etc.

7.Last resort, the thinking, is tackled: Machine interprets “real” attitudes, not lip-service words

2.用户变得透明化（政府可以反恐，任何用户都可以被拉黑，嫉妒的配偶可以查奸情）

3.交流讨论意愿较弱（因为立场相差太远）

4.民粹主义者和民粹主义观点获得支持者

5.社会的两极分化

6.有动机不透露自己对对象了解多少，因为对象就可能质疑合法性、制度等。

7.最后的手段—思维，已经被破解：机器解释的是 "真实 "的态度，而不是口头禅--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==
8.The knowing ones (algorithms, hackers, controllers of algorithms) have power over the unknowing ones (victims)

9.Exoskeleton ethics (like points/awards for measurable performances) reduce incentives to build inner ethics
'''
7 Simulation of the imminent future'''

1.The imminent future behavior of a human can be predicted

2.With many analyzed humans, the imminent future of reality can be predicted => simulation

8.知道的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比不知道的人（受害者）更有力量
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机
'''
7模拟即将到来的未来
1.人类即将发生的未来行为是可以预测的
2.有了许多被分析的人类，现实的即将到来的未来可以被预测=>模拟--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:00, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

8.已知的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比未知im min的人（受害者）更有力量
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机
'''
7模拟迫近的未来
1.人类的迫近未来行为是可以预测的
2.在分析了许多人类后，我们便可预测现实的迫近未来=>模拟--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==
Is this an Orwellian dystopia or reality? Some cases of the above listed phenomena have been documented. However, we are still at the beginning of “little” AI development (optimizing existing processes) and on the brink of a much more powerful development, that of “big” AI (rethinking whole industries, being able to reproduce and enhance itself). (cf. Euchner 2019).

==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==
'''8 Conclusion and Outlook'''

Data has succeeded oil as the most valuable resource for today’s economy. Big Tech companies already use users’ data and make big profits with it while legislation is delayed and national boundaries (which do not exist for the Tech companies) are struggled over.
Although input-legitimized liberal democracies and market economies, like that of the European Union, still protect privacy and data security, US- and China-based technology companies are already penetrating the European market.

==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==
We need to raise awareness and guide the youth to be careful with screen time and what they share online. We need to avoid addiction to social media.

'''The algorithms do not just check which film to suggest viewing next, they have started to invade the innermost sanctum of personality, our thoughts, dreams, wishes, visions, hopes, fears and secrets.
'''
'''
The listed consequences document a fundamental change of paradigms:
'''
我们需要提高意识，引导青少年注意屏幕时间和他们在网上分享的东西。我们需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。

'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''

所列出的后果证明了范式的根本变化:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

我们需要提高意识，引导青少年留意屏幕时间和网上分享，需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。

'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''

所列出的后果证明了范式的基本变化:--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:11, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==
'''The cause-based decision-making by humans with established institutions like politicians, judges etc. is being replaced with correlation-based decision-making by algorithms which often serve the profit interests of tech companies or the political interests of election-manipulators.
'''

AI took the wrong development path, when it changed from serving humans to trying to manipulate humans for economic or political profit. When AI is used to educate citizens – like helping German customers to keep a clean credit history and a good credit score – then it changes the behavior of citizens to an exoskeletal ethic.

人类通过建立政治、法官等制度所形成的原因导向的决策方法正在被算法形成的关联导向的决策方法所取代，算法通常为科技公司的利润利益或选举操纵者的政治利益服务。

人工智能走上了错误的发展道路，它从为人类服务变成了试图为了经济或政治利益而操纵人类。当人工智能被用于教育公民——比如帮助德国客户保持干净的信用历史和良好的信用评分——它就会改变公民的行为，使其成为一种外骨骼伦理。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 08:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==
However, animals with an exoskeleton reduce their inside muscles and develop a soft inside, making them totally incapable of living without the exoskeleton. An exoskeletal ethic, giving reward points, for example, for behavior which is deemed positive and subtracting points for behavior which is deemed negative, deprives the human of the natural learning and developing process, in a social environment, of his responsibility and inner ethical judgment. If you were to meet a human with exoskeletal ethics and one who has inner ethics, whom would you trust more?

==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==
If we want to avoid the consequences listed in point 6, the public needs to become aware of this and nations and supranational organizations need to define legislation to a) protect privacy and data security, and b) give the user the control over his/her data including the commercial use of it where they earn a share from the profit made with the usage of his/her data.

==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==
'''9 Outlook'''

We need to accept, that the development is irreversible. Every new technology has created fears. Important is, that we become aware of the developments and adjust where the development heads into the wrong direction. We need set the right framework and incentives that the new technology stays on track to serve humanity.

==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==
New developments open new possibilities. We need to make sure that not only a few tech companies and terrorists use this powerful new technology to achieve their goals, but that the mass of smart device users emancipate themselves from addiction to and manipulation by technology and gain back their dignity, privacy and free will.

'''References
'''
（参考文献不用翻译）

AI-Demand. (2020). www.ai-demand.com/insights/data/big-data/big-data-and-facebook-the-heavenly-pair-that-isnt-quite-in-heaven/

Baecker, Dirk. (2007). ''Studien zur nächsten Gesellschaft''. Frankfurt 2007

Banken-Technologie. (2020). 26. Handelsblatt Jahrestagung. Banken-Technologie. „New Normal” in der Finanzwirtschaft: digital – intelligent – automatisiert – hybrid. 2. und 3.12.2020, Digital [Conference Announcement] https://veranstaltungen.handelsblatt.com/bankentechnologie/ki-machine-learning-finanzanalyse/

Booth, T. "Cambridge Analytica controversy must spur researchers to update data ethics." ''Nature'' 555.7698 (2018): 559-560.

Clickworker. (2019). www.clickworker.com/2019/04/30/ai-for-ecommerce/

Cui, Yu, Qing He, and Alireza Khani. (2018). Travel behavior classification: an approach with social network and deep learning. ''Transportation research record'', 2672(47), 68-80. https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10109453

Daley, Sam. (2020). 32 Examples of AI in Healthcare that Will Make you Feel better about the Future (July 4, 2019, updated July 29, 2020). builtin.com/artificial-intelligence/artificial-intelligence-healthcare

Euchner, Jim. (2019). Little ai, Big AI—Good AI, Bad AI. Terminology Management 62:3, 10-12. pdf:

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/08956308.2019.1587280?needAccess=true

Golbeck, Jennifer, Cristina Robles, and Karen Turner. (2011). "Predicting personality with social media." ''CHI'11 extended abstracts on human factors in computing systems''. 2011. 253-262.

Jasso-Medrano, José Luis, and Fuensanta Lopez-Rosales. (2018). "Measuring the relationship between social media use and addictive behavior and depression and suicide ideation among university students." Computers in Human Behavior 87: 183-191.

Luhmann, Niklas. (1997). ''Die Gesellschaft der Gesellschaft''. 1997

Oddleifson, Evan. 2020, The Effects of Modern Data Analytics in Electoral Politics: Cambridge Analytica’s Suppression of Voter Agency and the Implications for Global Politics, ''Political Sciences Undergraduate Review'' 5 (2020) 7, 1-7.

https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/psur/index.php/psur/article/view/130/90/130-Article%20Text-642-1-10-20200401.pdf

Raj Kannan, J., Sabitha, R., Karthik, S., & Shanthini, J. (2020). Mouse Movement Pattern Based Analysis of Customer Behavior (CBA-MMP) Using Cloud Data Analytics. ''Wireless Personal Communications'', OnlineFirst, 1-17.

Ruan, Lotus, et al. "One App, Two Systems: How WeChat uses one censorship policy in China and another internationally." (2016).
Shensa, Ariel, et al. (2017). "Problematic social media use and depressive symptoms among US young adults: A nationally-representative study." ''Social Science & Medicine ''182: 150-157.

Talent Search People. (2020). How Will Artificial Intelligence Affect the Job Market? www.talentsearchpeople.com/en/blog/494-how-will-artificial-intelligence-affect-the-job-market/.

Van Den Eijnden, Regina JJM, Jeroen S. Lemmens, and Patti M. Valkenburg. (2016). "The social media disorder scale." ''Computers in Human Behavior ''61: 478-487.

Verschuere, Bruno, and Bennett Kleinberg. "ID‐check: Online Concealed Information Test reveals true identity." ''Journal of forensic sciences'' 61 (2016): S237-S240.

Vosoughi, Soroush, Deb Roy, and Sinan Aral. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science 359.6380: 1146-1151.. science.sciencemag.org/content/359/6380/1146

==Zhu Xu 朱旭==
'''Bio'''

Martin Woesler, PhD, is Jean Monnet Chair in European Studies with Hunan Normal University since 2020. At its Foreign Studies College, he is Distinguished Professor of Chinese Studies, Translation Studies and Comparative Literature since 2019. Woesler was elected Academian of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts, Salzburg in 2019.
Woesler has co-edited the books "China's Digital Dream", "Ethics of Information Society" and Springer has scheduled to publish the book "Diverse Voices in Chinese Translation and Interpretation" including his book chapter "Modern Interpreting with Digital and Technical Aids" in February 2021.

个人简历

自2020年起，吴漠汀（Martin Woesler）博士是湖南师范大学欧洲研究的讲座教授。自2019年来，他在湖师大外国语学院担任中国文化研究、翻译研究和比较文学的特聘教授。2019年，吴教授当选萨尔茨堡欧洲科学与艺术学院院士。吴教授曾与人合编《中国的数字梦想》、《信息社会伦理学》等书。施普林格（Springer）已计划于2021年2月出版《中国笔译与口译中的多种声音》一书，其中包括他的《数字与技术辅助的现代口译》一章。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==
Woesler was a Senior Fellow of the German Science Foundation's (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) Research College "Media Cultures of Computer Simulations" 2019‐2020 and hosted a related workshop with Bertelsmann Foundation in 2020. Woesler is also a researcher with Witten/Herdecke University, Germany, investigating the impact of daily screen time of children and of young people on their health.

20201228 cult

2020-12-27T11:08:36Z

Zhang Yu: /* Phyo, Su Kyi */

==Alsied, Saffana==

==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==

==Chen Han 陈涵==

==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==

==Dashkin, Gennadii==

==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==
1. 道可道，非常道；名可名，非常名。

The Tao that can be trodden is not the enduring and unchanging Tao.

The name that can be named is not the enduring and unchanging name.

2. 子曰：“学而时习之，不亦悦乎？有朋自远方来，不亦乐乎？人不知而不愠，不亦君子乎？”

The Master said, To learn and at due times to repeat what one has learnt, is that not after all a pleasure? That friends should come to one from afar, is this not after all delightful? To remain unsound even though one's merits are unrecognized by others, is that not after all what is expected of a gentleman?

3. 菩提本无树，明镜亦非台。本来无一物，何处惹尘埃。

No such thing as the Budhi tree,

Nor a mirror stand that can be.

There is nothing in the first place,

Whereon can the dust and dirt creep?

4. 生之享受包括许多东西：我们本身的享受、家庭生活的享受，树木、花朵、云霞、溪流、瀑布，以及大自然的形形色色，都足以称为享受；此外又有诗歌、艺术、沉思、友情、谈天、读书等的享受，后者的这些都是心灵交流的不同表现。

The enjoyment of life covers many things: the enjoyment of ourselves, of home life, of trees, flowers, clouds, winding rivers and falling cataracts and the myriad things in Nature, and then the enjoyment of poetry, art, contemplation, friendship, conversation, and reading, which are all some form or other of the communion of spirits.
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==

1.老子曾做过周朝守藏史，后退隐，作《道德经》，其思想的核心是“道”。

Lao Zi once worked as an archivist in the imperial library of the Zhou Dynasty before he retired from public life. It is widely believed that he was the author of Tao Te Ching and the core of Lao Zi's thought is "Tao".--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:52, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

2.《论语》记录了孔子的言行。它涵盖了广泛的主题，从政治、哲学、文学和艺术到教育再到道德修养。

The Analects of Confucius records the words and deeds of Confucius. It covers a wide variety of subjects, ranging from politics, philosophy, literature and art to education to moral cultivation.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:52, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

3.惠能禅学思想的主要特点是“识心见性”和“顿悟成佛”。

The main features of Hui Neng's Zen thoughts are "knowing the heart and seeing the nature" and "becoming Buddha by epiphany".--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:52, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

4.《生活的艺术》是一本洗涤心灵的书籍，是一杯好茶，是一种良药。阅读此书能使我们被尘沙玷污的心灵洗涤，使我们能在嚣闹的城市中得到宁静。

The Importance of Living is a book for washing the soul, a good cup of tea and a good medicine. Reading this book can wash our hearts polluted by dust and sand, and make us get peace in the noisy city.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:52, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==
1.《道德经》是中国历史上最伟大的名著之一，对传统哲学、科学、政治、宗教等产生了深刻影响。

Tao Te Ching is one of the greatest masterpieces in Chinese history, which has a profound influence on traditional philosophy, science, politics and religion. --[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 15:13, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

As one of the greatest masterpieces in Chinese history, Tao Te Ching has a profound influence on traditional philosophy, science, politics and religion.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:59, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

2.《论语》较为集中地体现了孔子及儒家学派的政治主张、伦理思想、道德观念及教育原则等。

The Analects embodies the political ideas, ethical thought, moral concepts and educational principles of Confucius and Confucianism. --[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 15:13, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

The Analects embodies the political ideas, ethical thoughts, moral concepts and educational principles of Confucius and Confucianism.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:59, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

3.《慧能经》主张世上一切事物空幻不实，即对于现实世界不应执著或留恋。

The Sutra of Hui-neng holds that everything in the world is empty and unreal, that is, it should not be persistent or nostalgic for the real world.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 15:13, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

The Sutra of Hui-neng holds that everything in the world is illusory, that is, it should not be persistent or nostalgic for the real world.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:59, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

4.《生活的艺术》是林语堂旅美专事创作后的第一部书，该书于1937年在美国出版，次年便居美国畅销书排行榜榜首达52周。

The Importance of Living is Lin Yutang's first book, which was published in the United States in 1937 and topped the bestseller list for 52 weeks.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 15:13, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

The Importance of Living is Lin Yutang's first book after his study in the United States, which was published in the United States in 1937 and topped the bestseller list for 52 weeks.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:59, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==

==Grosheva, Anna==

==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==

==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==

==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==

==Guirou, Barthelemy==

==Guo Lu 郭露==

==Ha, Thi Thu Hang==

==He Changqi 何长琦==

==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==

1.陆上丝绸之路起源于西汉（前202年—8年）汉武帝派张骞出使西域开辟的以首都长安（今西安）为起点，经甘肃、新疆，到中亚、西亚，并连接地中海各国的陆上通道。

The land Silk Road originated from the Western Han Dynasty (202-8 BC) when Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty sent Zhang Qian to the western regions to open up a land passage from Chang'an (today's Xi'an), the capital, to Central Asia and West Asia via Gansu and Xinjiang, and to connect Mediterranean countries.

2.海上丝绸之路形成于汉武帝时期。南海航线从中国出发，向西航行，是海上丝绸之路的主线。

The maritime silk road was formed in the time of Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty. The South China Sea route, which starts from China and sails westward, is the mainstream of the maritime silk road.

3.苏曼殊浪漫主义不是西学东渐的直接产物，而是固有文化生态发生结构变动之结果。

The formation of Su Manshu's romantic style was not the direct result of the eastward spread of Western learning but was the natural outcome of structural change in China's innate cultural ecosystem.

4.洋务派是中国近代最早的全面系统地接触近代科学技术的一个政治派别。

Advocates of the westernization movement was the first political school that touched modern science and technology comprehensively and systematically in China.

==Hu Jin 胡瑾==
1. 《道德经》简称老子，是中国的经典文本。根据传统，它是由公元前6世纪的圣人老子所写，老子是周朝的一位记录者，在中国广为人知。尽管最早出土的文字可以追溯到公元前4世纪晚期，但文字的真正作者和撰写或编纂日期仍有争议。

1. The Tao Te Ching simply referred to as the Laozi，is a Chinese classic text. According to tradition, it was written around 6th century BC by the sage Laozi, a record-keeper at the Zhou dynasty court, by whose name the text is known in China. The text's true authorship and date of composition or compilation are still debated, although the oldest excavated text dates back to the late 4th century BC.

2. 《论语》是儒家学派的经典著作之一，由孔子的弟子及其再传弟子编撰而成。它以语录体和对话文体为主，记录了孔子及其弟子言行，集中体现了孔子的政治主张、论理思想、道德观念及教育原则等。

2. The Analects is one of the classical works of Confucianism, compiled by the disciples of Confucius and his disciples. It is mainly in the style of discourses and dialogues, recording the words and deeds of Confucius and his disciples, concentrating on Confucius' political ideas, theoretical thoughts, moral concepts and educational principles.

3. 《慧能经》附有慧能对《金刚经》的逐条注释——这是它有史以来第一次出版的英文译本。他的谈话集也被称为《六祖坛经》，是唯一的禅宗记录，一般被尊称为经，或经文。

3. The Sutra of Hui-neng is here accompanied by Hui-neng's verse-by-verse commentary on the Diamond Sutra—in its very first published English translation ever.This collection of his talks, also known as the Platform or Altar Sutra, is the only Zen record of its kind to be generally honored with the appellation sutra, or scripture.

4. 《生活的艺术》是林语堂旅美专事创作后的第一部书，也是继之后再获成功的又一英文作品。该书于1937年在美国出版，次年便居美国畅销书排行榜榜首达52周，且接连再版四十余次，并为十余种文字所翻译。

4. “The Art of Living” was Lin Yutang's first book after he had traveled to the U.S. and was another successful work in English. It was published in the United States in 1937 and topped the American bestseller list for 52 weeks the following year, and was reprinted more than forty times and translated into more than a dozen languages.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 07:31, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4. 《生活的艺术》是林语堂旅美专事创作后的第一部书，也是继《吾国与吾民》之后再获成功的又一英文作品。该书于1937年在美国出版，次年便居美国畅销书排行榜榜首达52周，且接连再版四十余次，并为十余种文字所翻译。

''The Art of Living'' was Lin Yutang's first book after he had traveled to the U.S. and was another successful English work after ''My Country and My People''. It was published in the United States in 1937 and topped the American bestseller list for 52 weeks at the following year. Besides, it was reprinted more than forty times and translated into more than a dozen languages.--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:20, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==

==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==

==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==

==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==

==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==
1、丝绸之路被认为是连结亚欧大陆的古代东西方文明的交汇之路，而丝绸则是最具代表性的货物。数千年来，游牧民族或部落、商人、教徒、外交家、士兵和学术考察者沿着丝绸之路四处活动。

The Silk Road is considered to be the ancient crossroads of eastern and western civilizations linking Asia and Europe, with Silk being the most iconic cargo. For thousands of years, nomadic peoples or tribes, merchants, religious, diplomats, soldiers and academic researchers moved around along the Silk Road.

2、郑和七次奉旨率船队远航西洋，航线从西太平洋穿越印度洋，直达西亚和非洲东岸，途经30多个国家和地区。他的航行比哥伦布发现美洲大陆早87年，比达·伽马早92年，比麦哲伦早114年。在世界航海史上，他开辟了贯通太平洋西部与印度洋等大洋的直达航线。

Zheng He was ordered to lead seven voyages to the Atlantic Ocean, with routes from the western Pacific Ocean across the Indian Ocean to West Asia and the east coast of Africa, passing through more than 30 countries and regions. His voyage was 87 years before Columbus discovered the American continent, 92 years before Da Gama, and 114 years before Magellan. In the history of world navigation, he opened up a direct route through the western Pacific Ocean and the Indian Ocean and other great oceans.

3、西学书籍的翻译和著述，是西学东渐相当重要的媒介，在当时出现了大量的由教士及士大夫合著合译的书籍，但这些书籍未能受到当时一般社会的重视，也未能打入晚明已十分发达的商业出版界，因此虽西学书籍有刻印出版，但主要仍仅流通于少数有兴趣的士大夫阶层。

The translation and writing of books on Western studies was an important medium for the gradual expansion of Western studies to the east. A large number of books co-authored and translated by clergy and scholars emerged at that time, but these books were not taken seriously by the general society at that time, nor did they penetrate into the commercial publishing world, which was already well developed in the late Ming Dynasty.

4、随着军事工业的创办，洋务派认识到，强大的国防基础在于整个国家经济的发展，要求能源、钢铁等工业与之配套。同时，为了维护民族利益，也必须发展民族经济，与洋人"商战"、"争利"。于是，他们提出了求富的口号，民用工业和新式交通运输业也发展起来了。

With the founding of the military industry, the School of Westernization realized that the basis of a strong national defense lay in the development of the entire national economy, requiring energy, steel and other industries to go along with it. At the same time, in order to safeguard national interests, it was also necessary to develop the national economy and to "negotiate" and "compete for profits" with the foreigners. Thus, they put forward the slogan of seeking wealth, and the civil industry and new transportation industry were developed.--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 14:10, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi

==Li Lili 李丽丽==
1.1417年，永乐皇帝下令郑和将使节送回国内。郑和和他的舰队再次回到海上启航，进行他的第五次远征（1417-1419）。他在许多相同的地方停留，包括爪哇岛、苏门答腊岛，还为他遇到的不同的统治者带来了信件和财富。

By 1417, the Yongle Emperor ordered Zheng He to return the envoys home. Once more back on the seas, Zheng He and his large fleet set sail for his fifth expedition (1417-1419). He stopped in many of the same places, including Java, Sumatra, and also brought letters and riches to the different rulers Zheng He met.

In 1417, Emperor Yongle ordered Zheng He to send the envoys back home. Zheng He and his fleet returned to sea again to set sail on his fifth expedition (1417-1419). He stopped at many of the same places, including Java and Sumatra, and also brought letters and wealth to the different rulers he met. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.海上丝绸之路从福建泉州开始, 是秦汉时期形成、三国时期发展到隋朝、盛唐宋朝、明清衰落的最早航程航线。

Starting from Quanzhou Fujian Province, the maritime Silk Road was the earliest voyage route that was formed in the Qin and Han dynasties, developed from the Three Kingdoms Period to the Sui Dynasty, flourished in the Tang and Song dynasties, and fell into decline in the Ming and Qing dynasties.

The Maritime Silk Road began in Quanzhou, Fujian Province, and was the earliest voyage route formed during the Qin and Han dynasties, developed during the Three Kingdoms Period to the Sui dynasty, flourished in the Tang and Song dynasties, and fell into decline in the Ming and Qing dynasties. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3.西学东渐不仅客观上促成了马克思主义哲学在中国的广泛传播, 构成了马克思主义哲学中国化的一个重要历史前提, 而且引发了中国哲学历史发展过程中的重大变革, 推动了中国哲学从古代传统向近代传统的转变。

The spread of Western learning to the East objectively promoted the dissemination of Marxist philosophy, forming an important historical precondition for its Sinicization. Moreover, it triggered a great transformation in the historical development of Chinese philosophy and facilitated its transition from an ancient to an early modern tradition.

The eastward spread of Western learning has not only objectively contributed to the widespread dissemination of Marxist philosophy in China, constituting an important historical premise for the Chineseization of Marxist philosophy, but also triggered a major change in the historical development of Chinese philosophy, promoting the transformation of Chinese philosophy from the ancient to the modern tradition. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.鸦片战争、不平等条约和19世纪中叶的大规模起义的残酷现实，使清朝朝臣和官员认识到壮大中国的必要性。自19世纪40年代以来，中国学者和官员一直在研究和翻译“西学”。

The rude realities of the Opium War, the unequal treaties, and the mid- 19th century mass uprisings caused Qing courtiers and officials to recognize the need to strengthen China. Chinese scholars and officials had been examining and translating "Western Learning" since the 1840s.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

The harsh realities of the Opium War, the unequal treaties, and the mass uprisings of the mid-19th century made courtiers and officials of the Qing Dynasty realize the need to strengthen China. Since the 1840s, Chinese scholars and officials had been studying and translating "Western Learning". --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Liqin 李丽琴==

==Liu Liu 刘柳==

1.《道德经》是中国历史上最伟大的名著之一，对传统哲学、科学、政治、宗教等产生了深刻影响。

As one of the greatest masterpieces in Chinese history, ''Tao Te Ching'' has a profound impact on traditional philosophy, science, politics, and religion.

Tao Te Ching, as one of the greatest masterpieces in Chinese history, has a profound impact on traditional philosophy, science, politics and religion.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.孔子因材施教，对于不同的对象，考虑其不同的素质、优点和缺点、进德修业的具体情况，给予不同的教诲，表现了诲人不倦的可贵精神。

Confucius taught students in accordance with their aptitude. He gave different instructions to different students, taking into account their different qualities, strengths and weaknesses, and the specific circumstances of their advancement and cultivation, showing the valuable spirit of tireless teaching.

Confucius taught students in accordance with their aptitude. For different objects, he considered their different qualities, advantages and disadvantages, and the specific situation of moral education, and gave different instructions, which showed the valuable spirit of tireless teaching.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3.近年来，中国大多数学者都认为《坛经》的基本内容代表了慧能思想，同时其中也有后人增益的成分。

In recent years, most Chinese scholars believe that the basic content of the ''The Sutra of Huineng'' represents the thought of Huineng, while there are also some elements of later additions to it.

In recent years, most Chinese scholars believe that the basic content of Tanjing represents Huineng's thought, and it also contains the later additions.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.《生活的艺术》是林语堂旅美专事创作后的第一部书，也是继《吾国与吾民》之后再获成功的又一英文作品。该书于1937年在美国出版，次年便居美国畅销书排行榜榜首达52周，且接连再版四十余次，被翻译为十余种文字全球发行。

''The Importance of Living'' was the first book after Lin Yutang had traveled to the United States and was another successful work in English after ''My Country and My People''. It was published in the United States in 1937 and topped the American bestseller list for 52 weeks the following year, and was republished more than forty times and translated into more than a dozen languages for global distribution.--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 07:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

''The Art of Life'' is the first book written by Lin Yutang after his trip to the United States. It is also another successful English work after ''My Country and My People''. The book was published in the United States in 1937. The following year, it ranked the top of the best seller list in the United States for 52 weeks. It has been reprinted for more than 40 times and has been translated into more than 10 languages for global distribution.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Ou 刘欧==

==Liu Yi 刘艺==
1、传统的丝绸之路，起自中国古代都城长安，经中亚国家、阿富汗、伊朗、伊拉克、叙利亚等而达地中海，以罗马为终点，全长6440公里。这条路被认为是连结亚欧大陆的古代东西方文明的交汇之路，而丝绸则是最具代表性的货物。

The traditional Silk Road, which started from Chang'an, the ancient capital of China, and reached the Mediterranean Sea via Central Asian countries, Afghanistan, Iran, and Syria, and ended in Rome, was 6,440 kilometers long. This road is considered to be the intersection of ancient eastern and western civilizations linking Asia and Europe, and silk is the most representative cargo. The road reached the Mediterranean Sea from Iraq, Syria, etc. and ended in Rome, with a total length of 6,440 kilometers. This road is considered to be the crossroads of ancient civilizations between East and West, linking Asia and Europe, and silk is the most representative cargo.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 12:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2、东海航线，也叫“东方海上丝路”。春秋战国时期，齐国在胶东半岛开辟了“循海岸水行”直通辽东半岛、朝鲜半岛、日本列岛直至东南亚的黄金通道。唐代，山东半岛和江浙沿海的中韩日海上贸易逐渐兴起。宋代，宁波成为中韩日海上贸易的主要港口。

The East Sea Route, also known as the "Eastern Sea Silk Road". During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, the State of Qi opened up a golden route on the Jiaodong Peninsula, which led to the Liaodong Peninsula, the Korean Peninsula, the Japanese islands and Southeast Asia. During the Tang Dynasty, the maritime trade between China, Korea and Japan on the Shandong Peninsula and the coast of Jiangsu and Zhejiang gradually emerged. During the Song Dynasty, Ningbo became the main port for maritime trade between China, Korea and Japan.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 12:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3、东学西渐指的是一个和西学东渐互相补充的东西方文化交流过程。东学西渐有一千多年的历史，对世界文化的发展有十分深远的影响。

Eastern learning and Western learning refers to a process of cultural exchange between East and West that complements Western learning and Eastern learning. With a history of over a thousand years, East to West has had a profound impact on the development of world culture.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 12:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4、洋务运动虽然在客观上刺激中国资本主义发展、并且在一定程度上抵制了外国资本主义的经济输入，但并没有使中国走上富强之路。

Although the foreign affairs movement objectively stimulated the development of Chinese capitalism and to a certain extent resisted the economic import of foreign capitalism, it did not put China on the road to wealth and power.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 12:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

Although the Westernization Movement objectively stimulated the development of Chinese capitalism and resisted the economic input of foreign capitalism to a certain extent, it did not make China prosperous and strong.--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 07:52, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==

==Lo, Minh Thao==

==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==

==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==

==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==

==Mo Ling 莫玲==

1.“道”作为《道德经》中最抽象的概念范畴，是天地万物生成的动力源。

The way, as the most abstract concept in Tao Te Ching, is the power source for the creation of all things.

As the most abstract conceptual category in Tao Te Ching, "Tao" is the source of power for the creation of heaven and earth.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 13:21, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

2.《论语》主要以语录和对话文体的形式记录了孔子及其弟子的言行，集中体现了孔子的政治、审美、道德伦理和功利等价值思想。

The Analects of Confucius mainly records the words and deeds of Confucius and his disciples in the form of quotations and dialogues, which embodies Confucius' political, aesthetic, moral and utilitarian values.

3.若欲修行，在家亦得，不由在寺。

If people are sincerely keen on the practice,it is no need for them to practise in the temple and they can be successful even at home.

4.林语堂的翻译特点是通畅易懂，少用“行语”，中等文化的读者都能看懂。

The translation works of Lin Yutang are characterized by fluency and transparency since he hardly adopt jargons,so that his works can be understood by less-educated readers.--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:11, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

==Ngo, Thi Minh Huong==

==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==

==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==

==Phyo, Su Kyi==

1-道德经，也被称为老子或老子，是中国传统文字，传统上被认为是公元前6世纪的圣人老子。文章的作者，撰写日期和编辑日期受到争议。

The Tao Te Ching, also known as Lao Tzu or Laozi, is a Chinese classic text traditionally credited to the 6th-century BC sage Laozi. The text's authorship, date of composition and date of compilation are debated.

The ''Tao Te Ching'', also known as Laozi, is a Chinese classic text traditionally credited to the 6th-century BC sage Laozi. The text's authorship, date of composition and date of compilation are debated.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 11:08, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2-《论语》约写于公元前500年，传统上归功于孔子。这段文字是由他的学生们在他去世后三十到五十年的时间内写的。

The Analects, were written about 500 BC and are traditionally attributed to Confucius. The text was written by his students over a time period spanning the thirty to fifty years following his death.

''The Analects'', was written about 500 BC and was traditionally attributed to Confucius. The text was written by his disciples over a time period spanning the thirty to fifty years following his death.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 11:08, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3-大建会能，又称禅宗第六祖或禅宗第六祖，是中国禅宗早期历史中的半传奇人物，但却是中心人物。根据传统，他是一个没有受过教育的外行，在听到《金刚经》后突然醒悟。

Dajian Huineng, also commonly known as the Sixth Patriarch or Sixth Ancestor of Chan, is a semi-legendary but central figure in the early history of Chinese Chan Buddhism. According to tradition he was an uneducated layman who suddenly attained awakening upon hearing the Diamond Sutra.

Dajian Huineng, also commonly known as the Sixth Patriarch or Sixth Ancestor of Zen, is a semi-legendary but central figure in the early history of Chinese Zen Buddhism. According to the tradition, he was an uneducated layman who suddenly awakened upon hearing the contents of ''Diamond Sutra''.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 11:08, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4-林语堂是中国发明家，语言学家，小说家，哲学家和翻译家。他的中英文不拘一格但又优美的风格使他成为这一代人中最有影响力的作家之一，他将经典的中国文字汇编和翻译成英文在西方是畅销书。

Lin Yutang was a Chinese inventor, linguist, novelist, philosopher, and translator. His informal but polished style in both Chinese and English made him one of the most influential writers of his generation, and his compilations and translations of classic Chinese texts into English were bestsellers in the West.--[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 07:07, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Phyo Su Kyi

==Pingki, Tanchangya==

==Qu Miao 瞿淼==

==Rajabov, Anushervon==

==Seydou, Sagara==

==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==

==Si Yu 司妤==

==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==

1.汉武帝刘彻即位时，张骞已在朝廷担任名为“郎”的侍从官。据史书记载，他“为人强力，宽大信人”。即具有坚韧不拔、心胸开阔，并能以信义待人的优良品质。建元三年，即公元前138年，张骞“以郎应募，使月氏”。“郎”，是皇帝的侍从官，没有固定职务，又随时可能被选授重任。

When Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty Liu Che assumed the throne, Zhang Qian was already working at the court as a retainer named "Lang". According to historical records, he was "a strong, generous and trustworthy". In other words, he was tough, open-minded, and could treat people with faith and justice. In the third year of Jian Yuan, that is, 138 B.C., Zhang Qian was recruited to make a mission to the Moon Dynasty. The "Lang", the emperor's retainer, has no fixed position, and may be chosen at any time to reappoint.

2.有观点认为，明初时海外威胁受到重视，故有郑和下西洋之事。然而，或许郑和过于成功了，“他的海军满载荣誉胜利归来，并确认帝国没有来自海上的威胁”，因此“郑和与他的随从也可以说失去了继续远航的意义。”

It has been argued that the overseas threat was taken seriously at the beginning of the Ming Dynasty, hence Zheng He's voyage to the West. However, perhaps Zheng He was too successful, "his navy returned triumphantly laden with glory and confirmed that there was no threat to the empire from the sea", so "Zheng He and his entourage could be said to have lost the point of continuing their voyage".

3.甲午战争以后，由于中国当时面临着国破家亡的命运，许多有识之士开始更积极全面地向西方学习，出现了梁启超、康有为、谭嗣同等一批思想家。他们向西方学习大量的自然科学和社会科学的知识，政治上也要求改革。这一时期大量的西方知识传入中国，影响非常广泛。许多人以转译日本人所著的西学书籍来接受西学。进入民国时期，由于对政治的不满又进一步导致知识分子们提出全盘西化的主张，在五四时期这种思想造成了很大的影响。这一波的西学东渐，一直持续到当代而未止。

After the First Sino-Japanese War, as China was facing the fate of national ruin, many learned people began to learn more actively and comprehensively from the West, and a group of thinkers emerged, such as Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei and Tan Sitong. They learned a lot of natural and social science knowledge from the West, and also demanded reforms in politics. A great deal of Western knowledge was introduced into China during this period, and its influence was very widespread. Many people embraced Western learning by translating Western books written by the Japanese. In the Republican period, dissatisfaction with politics further led intellectuals to advocate wholesale Westernization, which had a great impact in the May Fourth period. This wave of Western learning continued into contemporary times.

4.洋务派前期创办的军事工业，经费由清政府调拨，产品分配给军队使用，管理方式是封建衙门式的。虽然这些企业采用机器生产，但本质上属于带有资本主义因素的封建官办企业。

The military industries founded by the foreign affairs faction in the early period were financed by the Qing government, and the products were allocated to the army for use, and managed in a feudal government office style. Although these enterprises adopted machine production, they were essentially feudal government-run enterprises with capitalist elements.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:23, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tang Bei 汤蓓==

==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==

==Wang Meiling 王美玲==

==Wang Xuan 王轩==

==Wu Qiong 吴琼==

==Wu Yilu 吴一露==

==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==

==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==
1.老子认为世界上的任何事物都是相比较而存在的。美丑、善恶、有无、难易、长短都是相互依存的，有此才有彼，有是才有非，有善才有恶。表面看来，正相反对的两个方面是相互对立的，而实际上又是相互包含、相互渗透的。

1.Laozi believes that everything in the world exists by comparison. Beauty and ugliness, good and evil, existence and existence, difficulty and difficulty, length and length are interdependent. There is one and there is another, there is yes and there is no, there is good and there is evil. On the surface, the two opposite aspects are opposite, but in fact they are mutually contained and permeated.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 13:16, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

2.《论语》既是语录体又是若干断片的篇章集合体。这些篇章的排列不一定有什么道理；就是前后两章间，也不一定有什么关联。而且这些断片的篇章绝不是一个人的手笔。

2.The Analects of Confucius is a collection of quotations and fragments. The arrangement of these chapters does not necessarily make sense; Even between the two chapters, there is not necessarily a connection. And these fragmentary passages are not the work of one man.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 13:16, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

3.毛泽东还谈到过惠能的思想在佛教史上的地位。他说，惠能主张佛性人人皆有，创顿悟成佛之学，一方面使繁琐的佛教简易化，一方面也使从印度传入的佛教中国化。因此，他被视为禅宗的真正创始人。

3.Mao Zedong also talked about the position of Huineng's thought in the history of Buddhism. He said that Huineng advocates that everyone has the Buddha nature and creates the theory of enlightenment to become a Buddha, which, on the one hand, simplifies the tedious Buddhism and, on the other hand, makes the Buddhism introduced from India Chinese. Therefore, he is regarded as the real founder of Zen.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 13:16, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

4.林语堂早年已立志发明“中文打字机”。当时科学严谨的汉字检索系统仍未建立起来；又由于汉字本身是符号文字而非字母文字，长期以来人们对制成中文打字机的可能性多持怀疑态度。

4.In his early years, Lin yutang aspired to invent the "Chinese typewriter". At that time, the scientific and rigorous Chinese character retrieval system had not yet been established. Because Chinese characters are symbolic characters rather than alphabetic characters, people have long been skeptical of the possibility of making Chinese typewriters.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 13:14, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

==Xiao Ting 肖婷==

==Xie Fan 解帆==

==Xu Jia 徐佳==

1.《道德经》主要论述“道”与“德”：“道”不仅是宇宙之道、自然之道，也是个体修行即修道的方法；“德”不是通常以为的道德或德行，而是修道者所应必备的特殊的世界观、方法论以及为人处世之方法。

Tao Te Ching mainly discusses "Dao" and "De" : "Dao" is not only the way of universe and nature, but also the method of individual cultivation; "De" is not the morality or virtue as commonly thought, but the special world view, methodology and way of dealing with people that a monastic should have.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

2.《论语》是儒家经典之一，是一部以记言为主的语录体散文集，主要以语录和对话文体的形式记录了孔子及其弟子的言行，集中体现了孔子的政治、审美、道德伦理和功利等价值思想。

The Analects, one of the Confucian classics，is a collection of quotations and essays, which records the words and deeds of Confucius and his students. It embodies Confucius' thoughts in politics, aesthetics, moral ethics and utilitarianism.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

3.《坛经》的思想对禅宗发展起到了重要作用。中国佛教著作被尊称为“经”的，仅此一部。

The Sutra of Huineng, the only one Buddist work that has been honored as "sutra", contributes a lot to the development of Zen.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

4.林语堂在书中谈论了庄子的淡泊，赞扬了陶渊明的闲适，诵读了《归去来辞》，还讲解了《圣经》故事，谈及中国人如何品茗，如何行酒令，如何观山，如何玩水，如何看云，如何鉴石，如何养花、蓄鸟、赏雪、听雨、吟风、弄月，等等。

In his book, Lin talked about the unworldliness of Chuang Tzu, praised the leusure of Tao Yuanming，and read one of Tao's prose named On Returning Home. He also explained the stories of the Bible, talked about how the Chinese people taste tea,play drinking games, watch mountains and waters, observe clouds and rocks, raise flowers and birds, enjoy the snow, listen to rain, and enjoy the air and the moon.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

==Xu Jing 许静==

==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==

==Yang Hairong 杨海容==

==Yang Hui 阳慧==

==Yang Yue 杨悦==

==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==

==Yi Zichu 义子楚==

==You Yuting 游雨婷==

==Yu Ni 余妮==

==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==

==Zeng Liang 曾良==
1.公元前123年，张骞随大将军卫青出使匈奴，在他的引导下，平息了多年来北方匈奴对汉王朝的骚扰，张骞因此被封为博望侯。

In 123 B. C. , Zhang Qian followed General Wei Qing in a major military raid against the Xiongnu. His guidance led to a number of victories, which succeeded in ending the harassment by the Xiongnu of the Han Dynasty. Zhang Qian was therefore conferred the title of Marquis of Bowang.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

In 123 B.C., Zhang Qian accompanied the great general Wei Qing on a mission to the Xiongnu. Under his guidance, the Xiongnu harassment of the Han dynasty in the north for many years was quelled, and Zhang Qian was thus made the Marquis of Bowang.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:00, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.郑和的船队由三百艘大船及三万多名水兵组成，船队中最大的一艘船被称为“宝船”，其船身长达133米，船桅多达九根，可搭载一千人。郑和和汉人与穆斯林船员一起打开了中国在非洲、印度及东南亚的贸易航线。

Zheng He’s fleet had more than 300 ships and 30,000 sailors. The largest vessels, 133-meter-long “treasure ships”, had up to nine masts and could carry a thousand people. Along with a Han and Muslim crew, Zheng opened up trade routes in Africa, India, and Southeast Asia.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

Zheng He's fleet consisted of 300 ships and more than 30,000 sailors, the largest ship in the fleet was called the "treasure ship", with a hull length of 133 meters and as many as nine masts, which could carry 1,000 people. Zheng He and the Chinese and Muslim crews together opened up Chinese trade routes in Africa, India and Southeast Asia.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:00, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

Zheng He’s fleet had more than 300 ships and 30,000 sailors. The largest vessels(also called “treasure ships”),133-meter-long ,had up to nine masts and could carry a thousand people. Along with a Han and Muslim crew, Zheng opened up trade routes in Africa, India, and Southeast Asia.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:26, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3.清末时，在“西学东渐”浪潮的冲击下，传统儿童教育踏入近代的门槛。

In late Qing dynasty, impacted by the wave of “ The Eastward Spread of Western Learning”, traditional children education stepped into the threshold of modern education. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

At the end of the Qing Dynasty, under the impact of the wave of "Western learning", traditional children's education entered the threshold of modern times.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:00, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.西进运动促进了农业、工业、交通业的飞速发展，也促进了美国城市化的进程。

The Westernization Movement promoted the rapid devepment of agrilucture, industry, transportation and the urbanization process of the United States as well. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

The westward movement contributed to the rapid development of agriculture, industry, and transportation, as well as to the urbanization of the United States.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:00, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==

==Zhang Hui 张慧==

1.张骞出使西域,接触到西域各国的风土人情，是汉朝开始对西域各国有所了解，使汉朝与西域建立了友好关系，为后来西汉政府设置西域都护府，使西域正式归西汉政府管辖打下了基础。

Zhang Qian’s mission to the Western Regions brought in contact with the customs of the Western Regions. It was the Han dynasty that began to understand the Western Regions countries, which enabled the Han dynasty to establish friendly relations with the Western Regions. Later, the Western Han government set up the Western Regions Protectorate and made the Western Regions officially returned to the Western Han government. Jurisdiction laid the foundation.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

Zhang Qian's mission to the Western Regions brought him into contact with the customs and traditions of the countries in the Western Regions, and enabled the Han Dynasty to establish friendly relations with the Western Regions, which later laid the foundation for the Western Han government to set up the Western Regions Capital Protection Office, making the Western Regions officially under the jurisdiction of the Western Han government.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.海上丝绸之路自秦汉时期开通以来，一直是沟通东西方经济文化交流的重要桥梁，而东南亚地区自古就是海上丝绸之路的重要枢纽和组成部分。

Since the opening of the Maritime Silk Road during the Qin and Han Dynasties, it has always been an important bridge for the economic and cultural exchanges between the East and the West. Southeast Asia has been an important hub and part of the Maritime Silk Road since ancient times.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

Since the opening of the Maritime Silk Road during the Qin and Han dynasties, it has been an important bridge to bridge the economic and cultural exchanges between the East and the West, and the Southeast Asian region has been an important hub and part of the Maritime Silk Road since ancient times.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3.西学东渐将西方近代各种学术上的新成果带入了中国，深深影响到各种学术的发展，而许多在传统中国不被重视甚至不存在的学科也在此影响下得到发展。

Western learning has brought various new academic achievements in modern Western modern times into China, deeply affecting the development of various academics, and many disciplines that are not valued or even existed in traditional China have also been developed under this influence.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

The gradual expansion of Western learning brought various new achievements in modern Western scholarship into China, which deeply influenced the development of various academic disciplines, and many disciplines that were not valued or even did not exist in traditional China also developed under this influence.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.洋务运动虽然在客观上刺激中国资本主义发展、并且在一定程度上抵制了外国资本主义的经济输入，但并没有使中国走上富强之路。

Although the Westernization Movement objectively stimulated the development of Chinese capitalism, and to a certain extent resisted the economic import of foreign capitalism, it did not make China embark on a path of prosperity.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

Although the foreign affairs movement objectively stimulated the development of Chinese capitalism and to a certain extent resisted the economic import of foreign capitalism, it did not put China on the road to wealth and power.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Ling 张玲==

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==

==Zhang Yu 张瑜==
1.除了朴素的唯物主义观点，《道德经》一书中还包括大量朴素辩证法观点，如一切事物均具有正反两面。

In addition to the simple materialistic view, ''Tao Te Ching'' also includes a large number of simple dialectical views, such as all things have positive and negative sides.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

Apart from the simple materialistic views, ''Tao Te Ching'' also includes a large number of simple dialectical views, for example, every coin has two sides.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:50, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

2.《论语》较为集中地体现了孔子及儒家学派的政治主张、伦理思想、道德观念及教育原则等。

''The Analects'' embodies the political ideas, ethical thoughts, moral concepts and educational principles of Confucius and the Confucianism in a more concentrated manner.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

''The Analects'' embodies the political views, ethical thoughts, moral ideas and educational principles of Confucius and the Confucianism in a relatively concentrated manner.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:50, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

3.经文主要记载慧能的生平事迹和言教。《坛经》的思想对禅宗发展起到了重要作用。

The Sutra mainly records the life story and teachings of Hui-neng. ''The Sutra of Hui-neng'' played an important role in the development of Zen Buddhism.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

The Sutra mainly recorded the life story and teachings of Hui-neng. The thought in ''The Sutra of Hui-neng'' played an important role in the development of Zen Buddhism.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:50, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

4.林语堂先生在《生活的艺术》中将中国人旷怀达观、陶情遣兴的生活方式和浪漫高雅的东方情调充分传达出来。

In ''The Importance of Living'', Lin Yutang fully conveys the Chinese way of life of being open-minded and broad-minded, and the romantic and elegant oriental sentiment.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

In ''The Importance of Living'', Lin Yutang fully conveys the Chinese lifestyle of open-mindedness and broad-mindedness, and the oriental sentiment of romance and elegance.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:50, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==

==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==

==Zhao Xi 赵茜==

==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==

1.先秦时期，连接中国东西方交流的通道已经存在，丝绸正式西传始于西汉通西域，丝绸之路真正形成始于西汉张骞凿空。

The pre-Qin period, connecting China's East and West exchange channel has existed, the official western transmission of silk began in the Western Han Dynasty through the Western Regions, the Silk Road really formed from the Western Han Dynasty Zhang Qian chiseling.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:53, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

In the pre-Qin period, a channel connecting China's east and west already existed. The official spread of silk to the west began in the Western Han Dynasty, and the real formation of the Silk Road began when Zhang Qian's hollowed out in the Western Han Dynasty.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.海上丝绸之路，是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，也称"海上陶瓷之路"和“海上香料之路”，1913年由法国的东方学家沙畹首次提及。

The Maritime Silk Road, also known as the "Maritime Route of Ceramics" and the "Maritime Route of Spices", was first mentioned by the French orientalist Chavannes in 1913, and is a maritime route for traffic, trade and cultural exchanges between ancient China and foreign countries.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:53, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

The Maritime Silk Road was an ancient maritime channel for communication and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. It was also called the "Sea Ceramic Road" and "Sea Spice Road". It was first mentioned in 1913 by the French orientalist Shawan.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3.明代万历年间，以利玛窦为代表的西书七千部传教士来华传教，同时带来西方科技、文化等。这对中国传统思想文化有所触动。

During the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty, the seven thousand missionaries of the Western Book, represented by Matteo Ricci, came to China to preach, and at the same time brought Western technology and culture. This has touched the traditional Chinese thought and culture.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:53, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

During the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty, 7,000 missionaries represented by Matteo Ricci came to China to preach, and at the same time brought Western technology and culture. This has touched traditional Chinese thought and culture.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.洋务运动，又称自强运动，是19世纪60年代到90年代晚清洋务派所进行的一场引进西方军事装备、机器生产和科学技术以挽救清朝统治的自救运动。

The Foreign Affairs Movement, also known as the Self-Strengthening Movement, was a self-help movement conducted by the Foreign Affairs faction of the late Qing Dynasty from the 1860s to the 1990s to introduce Western military equipment, machinery production and science and technology to save the Qing Dynasty.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:53, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

The Westernization Movement, also known as the Self-Strengthening Movement, was a self-rescue movement carried out by the Westernization Movement from the 1860s to the late Qing Dynasty that introduced Western military equipment, machine production, and science and technology to save the Qing rule.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==

==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==

==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==

==Zhu Xu 朱旭==
1.《道德经》不仅在中国影响深远而广泛，而且漂洋过海，传遍了世界五大洲，深受外围人的青眯，引起浓厚的学习兴趣和研究热情。他们赞誉《道德经》为“东方智慧的结晶”。当代西方流行广泛的一句话，就是老子是国际性的，目前研究老子思想已成为一种国际性的文化现象。

''The Tao Te Ching'' not only has a far-reaching influence in China, but also has spread all over the five continents of the world. They praised''the Tao te ching'' for the “crystallization of Eastern Wisdom. A popular saying in the west today is that Laozi is international, and the study of Oigo’s thought has become an international cultural phenomenon.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.作为儒家最经典和最受欢迎的著作，《论语》不仅是中国传统最核心的作品之一，而且是中国人伦理道德标准和行为准则的核心。《论语》中蕴含的儒家思想是中华民族的宝贵财富。自从16世纪末以来，《论语》被中西方学者源源不断地翻译，并且传播到世界各地。

As the most classical and popular works of Confucianism, ''the Analects'' is not only one of the core works of Chinese tradition, but also the core of Chinese ethical standards and codes of conduct. The Confucian thought contained in ''the Analects'' is the precious wealth of the Chinese nation. Since the end of the 16th century, ''the Analects'' has been continuously translated by Chinese and Western scholars and spread all over the world.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.《慧能经》不仅是研究惠能思想的重要资料,而且是具有中国特色的佛教禅宗一派的重要经典,在中国佛教思想史、哲学史上具有深远的影响。

''The Sutra of Huineng'' is not only an important material to study Huineng’s thought, but also an important classic of Zen Buddhism with Chinese characteristics. It has a far-reaching influence on the history of Chinese Buddhist thought and philosophy.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.《生活的艺术》是一本与你畅谈如何听风赏月的家常闲聊，又是一本关乎生活态度甚至生活智慧的严肃论文。林语堂从生活、家庭、文化、旅行、思想、宗教等方面探讨人必须学会享受生命。

''The Importance of Living'' is a book about how to feel the wind, enjoy the moon. It is also a serious essay about life attitude and even life wisdom. Lin Yutang analyzed from the aspects of life, family, culture, travel, thought, religion and so on. Then he drew a conclusion that people must learn to enjoy life.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==

==Zubareva, Ekaterina==

20201221 cult

2020-12-27T10:52:23Z

Zhang Yu: /* Alsied, Saffana */

==Alsied, Saffana==
1. Their king was killed and his skull turned into a drinking vessel. As a result, the Rouzhi fled and bore a constant grudge against the Xiongnu. At this time, the Han became increasingly strong, and Emperor Wu was determined to defeat the Xiongnu.--[[User:SAFFANA ALSIED 2|SAFFANA ALSIED 2]] ([[User talk:SAFFANA ALSIED 2|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

他们的国王被杀，他的头骨变成了饮酒器。结果，柔脂逃走了，对熊怒不断地怀恨在心。这时，汉人变得越来越强大，吴皇帝决心打败匈奴。

他们的国王被杀，他的头骨变成了饮酒器。结果，大月氏逃走了，却仍然对匈奴怀恨在心。这时，汉朝变得越来越强大，汉武帝决定攻打匈奴。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 10:52, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.They even carried on their ships many foreign heads of state and envoys to China. On the voyage of 1423 alone, they brought 1,200 envoys from 16 countries to China, some of whom even preferred not to go back. --[[User:SAFFANA ALSIED 2|SAFFANA ALSIED 2]] ([[User talk:SAFFANA ALSIED 2|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

他们甚至还搭载了许多外国国家元首和特使前往中国。仅在1423年的航行中，他们就将来自16个国家的1200名使节带到了中国，其中一些人甚至不愿回国。

3.In the second half of the 16th century, foreign missionaries from the Society of Jesus came to China. They spread religious doctrines on the one hand and introduced on the other hand works on astronomy, mathematics, physics, geography, paintings, and music to China. Meanwhile, they brought to the West Chinese Confucian and Daoist doctrines, and made contributions to cultural exchanges between China and the West.

16世纪下半叶，耶稣会的外国传教士来到中国。他们一方面传播宗教学说，另一方面向中国介绍天文学，数学，物理学，地理，绘画和音乐方面的著作。同时，他们把西方的儒道思想带到了西方，为中西文化交流做出了贡献。

16世纪下半叶，耶稣会的外国传教士来到中国。他们一方面传播宗教学说，另一方面把天文学，数学，物理学，地理，绘画和音乐方面的著作引入中国。同时，他们把中国的儒家和道家思想带到了西方，为中西文化交流做出了贡献。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 10:52, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.After the Second Opium War (1856-1860), Yi Xin (Prince Gong) and local officials realized that China had lagged far behind the West in weaponry and military technology, and advocated learning advanced production technology and troop training methods from the West so as to build a modern national defense. Known as the School of Westernization, these people launched a movement to learn from Western powers.

第二次鸦片战争（1856-1860）之后，巩义王子和当地官员意识到中国在武器装备和军事技术方面远远落后于西方，并主张从西方学习先进的生产技术和部队训练方法，以便建立现代国防。这些人被称为洋务派，他们发起了向西方列强学习的运动。

第二次鸦片战争（1856-1860）之后，奕䜣（恭亲王）和国内官员意识到中国在武器装备和军事技术方面远远落后于西方，因而他们主张从西方学习先进的生产技术和部队训练方法，旨在建立一支现代化的国防军队。这些人被称为洋务派，他们发起了一场向西方列强学习的运动。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 11:40, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==

==Chen Han 陈涵==

1.汉政府在西域设置常驻官员，派士卒屯田，设校尉统领保护，使汉族同新疆少数民族交往更加密切。汉朝在西域设立西域都护府为标志，丝绸之路进入繁荣时代。

The government of the Han Dynasty set up permanent officials in the Western Regions, dispatched soldiers to garrison the fields, and assigned a captain to lead the protection, so that the Han people had closer exchanges with ethnic minorities in Xinjiang. Marked by the establishment of Protectorate of the Western Regions by the Han Dynasty, the Silk Road entered the era of prosperity. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.三国时代，魏、蜀、吴均有丝绸生产，而吴雄踞江东，汉末三国正处在海上丝绸之路从陆地转向海洋的承前启后与最终形成的关键时期。

During the Three Kingdoms Period, the states of Wei, Shu and Wu all produced silk. And Wu stood firmly on the east bank of the Yangtze River. In the late Han Dynasty, the three states were at a crucial period when the Maritime Silk Road shifted from the land to the sea and eventually took shape. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3.澳门由于在明嘉靖年间由朝廷让与葡萄牙人，因此在明末清初的西学东渐中，西方传教士常以澳门为中继站，而一些学术思想亦经由此逐渐传入中国内地，而许多与西人打交道的中国人亦在澳门及广州等地学习西方语言及文化。

Since Macau was ceded to the Portuguese by the imperial court during the years of Jaijing in the Ming Dynasty, Western missionaries often regarded it as a transition for eastward spreading of Western learning during the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, and some academic ideas were gradually introduced to the Chinese mainland, while many Chinese who had dealings with Westerners also learned Western languages and cultures in Macau and Guangzhou. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.洋务派后期创办的民用工业，投资大多采取官督商办和官商合办形式，产品主要作为商品投放市场，管理上采取劳动雇佣制，所以其本质上属于带有封建因素的资本主义性质的企业。

The civil industry founded by Westernization Group in the late period of the Movement was funded mostly by taking the government-supervised and merchant-managed form and the government-merchant cooperation. Its products were mainly put on the market as commodities and its management adopted the labor-employment system, so that it belongs to capitalist enterprises in essence featuring feudalism. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==

==Dashkin, Gennadii==

==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==

==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==

1.丝绸之路沿途的大批历史文物、引人入胜的自然风景以及富有情趣的地方文化，使这一长途远游成了世界上最精彩的旅游项目之一。

A wealth of historical relics, fascinating scenery and interesting local cultures along the Silk Road make this long trip one of the world’s most exciting tourist attractions.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 13:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

2.作为一个具有野心的拥有回族血统的穆斯林太监、一个典型的游离于儒家学者精英体制之外的人，郑和在1405到1433年间七下西洋，其中六次都在永乐帝的支持下进行。

An ambitious Muslim eunuch of Hui descent, a quintessential outsider in the establishment of Confucian scholar elites, Zheng He led seven expeditions from 1405 to 1433 with six of them under the auspices of Yongle.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 13:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

As an ambitious Muslim eunuch of Hui descent and a quintessential outsider in the establishment of Confucian scholar elites, Zheng He led seven expeditions from 1405 to 1433, with six expeditions under the auspices of Yongle.--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:26, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

3.从19世纪下半叶到20世纪初,伴随着“西学东渐”的进程,西方妇女生活现状、人权思想及女权理论渐次传入中国,引起了中国思想界的关注。

From the second half of 19th century to the beginning of 20th century, with the progress of the eastward spread of western learning, western women's living situations, thoughts of human rights and feminist theories were gradually introduced into China and attracted the attention of the Chinese ideological circle.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 13:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

4.在具有现代性思维的汉家学者的引导下，人们学习了西方的科学和语言，一些大城市开设了特殊的学校，军械库、工厂和船坞也参照西方的模型得到了建造。

Under the direction of modern-thinking Han officials, western science and languages were studied, special schools were opened in the larger cities, and arsenals, factories, and shipyards were established according to western models.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 13:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==
1.张骞被誉为伟大的外交家、探险家，是“第一个睁开眼睛看世界的中国人”、“丝绸之路的开拓者”、“东方的哥伦布”。

Zhang Qian, rated as a great diplomat and explorer, is "the first Chinese to open his eyes to see the world "," the pioneer of the Silk Road" and "Columbus of the East ". --[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 14:51, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

2.郑和下西洋，是15世纪初叶世界航海史上的空前壮举，对中外经济、文化交往起到了积极作用。

Zheng He's voyage to the West was an unprecedented feat in the history of world navigation in the early 15th century and played a positive role in economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 14:51, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

3.西学东渐，是指从明朝后期到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程。

The Eastward World Spread of Western Learning refers to the historical process of spreading western academic thought to China from the late Ming Dynasty to modern times. --[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 14:51, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

The Eastward World Spread of Western learning refers to the historical process from the late Ming Dynasty to modern times when western academic thoughts spread to China.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:08, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.洋务运动，又称自强运动。是19世纪60年代到90年代晚清洋务派所进行的一场引进西方军事装备、机器生产和科学技术以挽救清朝统治的自救运动。

Westernization Movement, also known as self-strengthening movement. It is a self-help movement that introduced western military equipment, machine production and science and technology to save the rule of Qing Dynasty from 1860s to 1990s by Westernization School. --[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 14:51, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==

==Grosheva, Anna==

==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==

==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==

==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==

==Guirou, Barthelemy==

==Guo Lu 郭露==

1. 丝绸之路是古代横贯亚欧的通道。其起点一般认为是长安（今西安），其实它随朝代更替政治中心转移而变化。长安（今西安）、洛阳、平城（今大同）、汴梁（今开封）、北京曾先后为丝路起点。

The Silk Road is an ancient across of asia-europe. Its starting point is usually ascribed to Changan (now xian), actually the starting point is changed according to the changed political center. Changan (now Xian), Luoyang, Pingcheng (now Datong), Bianliang (today Kaifeng), and Beijing has been the starting point of the Silk Road.

The Silk Road was an ancient crossing between Asia and Europe. Its starting point is generally considered to be Chang'an (present-day Xi'an). In fact, it changes with the change of the political center of dynasties. Chang'an (present-day Xi'an), Luoyang, Pingcheng (present-day Datong), Wei Liang (now Kaifeng), Beijing has been the starting point of silk road.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:09, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2. 海上丝绸之路较之陆上，有共性，也有特性；有优势和潜力，也有难度和挑战。要推进21世纪海上丝绸之路建设，要在对接合作上下功夫。

Compared with the Silk Road, the Maritime Silk Road shares similarities but also has its unique characters. It has its own set of advantages, potentials, as well as difficulties and challenges. Going forward, I believe the success of the Maritime Silk Road of the 21st Century would require effective efforts to coordinate our cooperation.

Compared with the Silk Road, the Maritime Silk Road shares similarities but also has its unique characteristics. It has its own set of advantages, potentials, as well as difficulties and challenges. Going forward, the success of the Maritime Silk Road of the 21st Century would require effective efforts to coordinate cooperation.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3. 在西学东渐大潮中兴起的近代报刊改变了传统的审美机制，使美学从内容到形式都发生了根本性的变化，从而促成了中国美学的现代转型。

The rising modern press during the period of the Eastward Spread of Western Learning deeply transformed the traditional aesthetic mechanism from the content to the form. Then the modern press has facilitated the modern reforms of Chinese esthetics.

4. 这场运动由士大夫们领导，比如李鸿章（1823——1901）和左宗棠（1812——1885），他们曾在太平起义中与政府军作战。1861到1894年间，现在成为大臣们的这些人负责建立了现代的机构，发展基础工业、通信和交通业并是军队现代化。

The movement was championed by scholar-generals like Li Hongzhang (1823—1901) and Zuo Zongtang (1812—1885), who had fought with the government forces in the Taiping Rebellion. From 1861 to 1894, leaders such as these, now turned scholar-administrators, were responsible for establishing modem institutions, developing basic industries, communications, and transportation, and modernizing the military.
--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:01, 24 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ha, Thi Thu Hang==

==He Changqi 何长琦==

==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==

==Hu Jin 胡瑾==

==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==

==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==
1.张骞（前164年-前114年），字子文，西汉外交家、探险家，是“丝绸之路的开拓者”“东方的哥伦布”。前139年，张骞奉汉武帝之命，出使西域，打通了汉朝通往西域的道路，即赫赫有名的丝绸之路，促进了东西方文明的交流。汉武帝以军功封其为博望侯。史学家司马迁高度称赞了其出使西域。

Zhang Qian( B.C. 164- B.C. 114), whose style name is Ziwen, was the diplomat and explorer in Western Han dynasty. He was called as the pioneer of the Silk Road and the Columbus of the East. In B.C. 139, at the command of Emperor Wu of Western Han dynasty, Zhang Qian visited Western Regions and carved out a way, advancing the communication between the Eastern and Western civilization. Therefore, Emperor Wu of the Han dynasty granted him the title of Marquis Bowang with military merit. And Historian Sima Qian highly praised his work.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.海上丝绸之路是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，分为东海航线和南海航线两条线路，主要以南海为中心。海上丝路萌芽于商周，发展于春秋战国，形成于秦汉，兴于唐宋，转变于明清，是已知最为古老的海上航线。海上丝绸之路途经100多个国家和地区，是中国与外国贸易往来和文化交流的海上大通道，推动了沿线各国的共同发展。

The Maritime Silk Road was a maritime route for traffic, trade and cultural exchanges between ancient China and foreign countries. It was divided into two routes, the East China Sea route and the South China Sea route, with the South China Sea as the center. The Maritime Silk Road originated in the Shang and Zhou dynasties, developed in the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, formed in the Qin and Han dynasties, flourished in the Tang and Song dynasties, and transformed in the Ming and Qing dynasties. And it is the oldest known maritime route. The Maritime Silk Road, passing through more than 100 countries and regions, is a major maritime corridor for trade and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries and has promoted the common development of countries along the route.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3.西学东渐是指近代西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程，通常而言是指在明末清初以及晚清民初两个时期之中，欧洲及美国等地学术思想的传入。

The Eastward Spread of Western Learning refers to the historical process of the spread of western academic ideas to China in modern times. Generally speaking, it is the introduction of academic ideas from Europe and America in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties and the early Ming and Early Ming Dynasties.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.洋务运动是19世纪60到90年代晚清洋务派进行的一场引进西方军事装备、机器生产和科学技术以挽救清朝统治的自救运动。前期，洋务派以“自强”为旗号，创办了一批近代军事工业。后期，以“求富”为旗号，兴办了一批民用工业。甲午中日战争中，北洋海军全军覆没，洋务运动宣告破产。洋务运动虽然没有使中国富强起来，但期间引进了西方先进的科学技术，客观上促进了民族资本主义的产生和发展。

The Westernization Movement was a self-help movement carried out by the Westernization Group of the Qing Dynasty from the 1960s to the late 1990s, which introduced western military equipment, machine production and science and technology to save the Qing dynasty. In the early stage, the Westernization Movement established a number of modern military industries under the banner of "self-improvement". In the later period, under the banner of "seeking wealth", lots of civil industries were set up. In the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, the entire Beiyang Navy was wiped out, and the Westernization Movement was bankrupt. Although Westernization Movement did not make China rich and powerful, it drew in advanced science and technology from the West, which objectively promoted the emergence and development of national capitalism.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==

==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==

==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==

==Li Lili 李丽丽==

==Li Liqin 李丽琴==

1. 汉通西域，虽然起初是出于军事目的，但西域开通以后，它的影响，远远超出了军事范围。这条通道，就是后世闻名的“丝绸之路”。丝绸之路则成为“一带一路”的重要历史符号，使得我们高举和平发展的旗帜，积极发展与沿线国家的经济合作伙伴关系。

Although the missions to the western Regions in the Han Dynasty were originally aimed for military purposes, their influence went far beyond the military scope. This passageway was later known as the Silk Road. The silk road has become an important historical symbol of "One Belt And One Road", which makes us hold high the banner of peaceful development and actively develop economic partnership with countries along the route.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:03, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

2. 郑和当时率领着世界上最强大的船队下西洋，带去的不是血与火、掠夺与殖民，而是瓷器、丝绸、茶叶。下西洋是世界航海史上的壮举，现在东南亚一带还有许多几年内郑和的建筑物，表达了人们对他的尊敬。

Leading the most powerful fleet in the world, Zheng He made seven voyages to the Western Seas, bringing there porcelain, silk and tea, rather than bloodshed, plundering or colonialism. Zheng He's voyages were a great feat in the world's navigation history. There are still many buildings in present Southeast Asia dedicated to his memory.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:03, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

3. 自十七世纪开始的西学东渐，对明清之际实学思潮的兴起起到了催生作用。

Since the 17th century, the west knowledge spread to the east gradually, which accelerated the rise of ideological trend during the period of Ming and Qing dynasty.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:03, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

Eastward Spread of Western Learning starting from the 17th century accelerated the rise of ideological trend during the period of Ming and Qing dynasties.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4. 洋务运动的历史作用不仅仅表现在经济上，其对中国近代思想启蒙的影响也是巨大的。洋务教育是洋务派为了满足洋务运动的需要，培养洋务人才进行的教育变革。

The effect of Westernization Movement in history is not only on economy but also greatly on contemporary ideological enllightenment in China. Westernization education was an education reformation launched by Westernization Faction intending to meet the needs of cultivating new-type talents.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:03, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

The historical role of the foreign affairs movement is not only in the economy, but also in the enlightenment of modern Chinese thought. Westernization education is the educational reform carried out by Westernization Faction in order to meet the needs of cultivating new-type talents.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Liu 刘柳==

1.张骞先后两次出使西域，打开了中国与中亚、西亚、南亚以至通往欧洲的陆路交通，从此中国人通过这条通道向西域和中亚等国出售丝绸、茶叶、漆器和其他产品，同时从欧洲、西亚和中亚引进宝石、玻璃器等产品。

Zhang Qian has made two missions to the Western Regions, opening up the land transportation between China and Central Asia, West Asia, South Asia and even Europe. Since then, the Chinese have sold silk, tea, lacquerware and other products to the Western Regions and Central Asia and other countries through this road, while importing gems, glassware and other products from Europe, West Asia and Central Asia.

2.“海上丝绸之路”是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，该路主要以南海为中心，所以又称南海丝绸之路。海上丝绸之路形成于秦汉时期，发展于三国至隋朝时期，繁荣于唐宋时期，转变于明清时期，是已知的最为古老的海上航线。

The Maritime Silk Road was a maritime route for traffic, trade and cultural exchanges between ancient China and foreign countries, which was mainly centered on the South China Sea, so it was also known as the South China Sea Silk Road. The Maritime Silk Road was formed during the Qin and Han Dynasties, developed during the Three Kingdoms to the Sui Dynasty, flourished during the Tang and Song Dynasties, and transformed during the Ming and Qing Dynasties, which is the oldest maritime route known to people.

3.西学东渐将西方近代各种学术上的新成果带入了中国，深深影响到各种学术活动的发展，而许多在传统中国不被重视甚至不存在的学科也在此影响下得到发展。

The Eastward Spread of Western Learning brought various new academic achievements in modern West into China, which deeply influenced the development of various academic activities, and many academic disciplines that were not valued or even did not exist in traditional China also developed under this influence.

4.洋务运动虽然在客观上刺激了中国资本主义发展，并且在一定程度上抵制了外国资本主义的经济输入，但并没有使中国走上富强之路。

Although the Westernization Movement objectively stimulated the development of Chinese capitalism and to a certain extent resisted the economic input of foreign capitalism, it did not make China become prosperous and strong.--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 06:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Ou 刘欧==

==Liu Yi 刘艺==

==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==

==Lo, Minh Thao==

==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==
1 陆上丝绸之路起源于西汉（前202年—8年）汉武帝派张骞出使西域开辟的以首都长安（今西安）为起点，经甘肃、新疆，到中亚、西亚，并连接地中海各国的陆上通道。东汉时期丝绸之路的起点在洛阳，它的最初作用是运输中国古代出产的丝绸。

The Overland Silk Road originated from the Western Han Dynasty (202-8 BC), when Emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty sent Zhang Qian on a mission to the western Regions. Starting from the capital Chang 'an (now Xi 'an), it passed through Gansu and Xinjiang, reached central Asia and West Asia, and connected the Mediterranean countries on land. In the Eastern Han Dynasty, the starting point of the Silk Road was Luoyang. Its primary function was to transport silk produced in ancient China.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

2 郑和具备军事才能，并且得到朱棣的信任。在朱棣决策下西洋时，郑和正当壮年。朱棣曾询问袁忠彻以郑和率军出使是否合适，袁忠彻认为合适。

Zheng He had military talents and Zhu Di trusted him. When Zhu Di was planning to the West, Zheng He was in his prime. Zhu Di had asked Yuan Zhongche whether Zheng was the right person on such massion. Yuan Zhongche thought he was appropriate.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

3 徐光启较早师从利玛窦学习西方的天文、历法、数学、测量和水利等科学技术，毕生致力于科学技术的研究，勤奋著述，是介绍和吸收欧洲科学技术的积极推动者，为17世纪中西文化交流作出了重要贡献。

Xu Guangqi studied western science and technology such as astronomy, calendar, mathematics, measurement and water conservancy under Matteo Ricci. He devoted his whole life to the research of science and technology and wrote assiduously. He was an active promoter in introducing and absorbing European science and technology and made important contributions to the cultural exchanges between China and the West in the 17th century.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

4 曾国藩的崛起，对清王朝的政治、军事、文化、经济等方面都产生了深远的影响。在曾国藩的倡议下，建造了中国第一艘轮船，建立了第一所兵工学堂，印刷翻译了第一批西方书籍，安排了第一批赴美留学生。

Zeng Guofan's rise had a profound influence on the politics, military affairs, culture and economy of the Qing Dynasty. At Zeng's initiative, He built China's first ship, established the first military academy, printed and translated the first batch of Western books, and arranged for the first batch of overseas students to go to the United States.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==

==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==

==Mo Ling 莫玲==

1.汉通西域，虽然起初是出于军事目的，但丝绸之路开通以后，它的影响，远远超出了军事范围。

Although the Han Dynasty connected with the Western Regions for military purposes at first, its influence was far beyond the military scope after the opening of the Silk Road.

Although the Han Dynasty connected with the Western Regions for military purposes at first, its influence was far-reaching, well beyond the military scope after the opening of the Silk Road.--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

2.明初工商业的恢复和发展，宋、元以来中国海外贸易的发达，对外移民的增加，所有这一切，都为郑和下“西洋”准备了坚实的经济基础和物质条件。

The recovery and development of industry and Commerce in the early Ming Dynasty, the development of China's overseas trade since the song and Yuan Dynasties, and the increase of foreign immigrants all prepared a solid economic foundation and material conditions for Zheng He's "western" voyage.

3.利玛窦向中国社会传播了西方的几何学、地理学知识以及人文主义的观点，开了晚明士大夫学习西学的风气。

Matteo Ricci spread the western knowledge of geometry, geography and humanism to the Chinese society, which initiated the practice for the literati to absorb western learnings in the late Ming Dynasty.

Ricci spread western knowledge of geometry and geography as well as humanist views to Chinese society, opening the way for scholars in the late Ming Dynasty to absorb western studies.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:07, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

4.江南制造局虽是清末洋务派创办的规模最大的兵工厂，但是技术上仍是由外国技师垄断．

Although Jiangnan Manufacturing Bureau was the largest arms factory founded by Westernization Group in the late Qing Dynasty, it was still monopolized by foreign technicians in the aspect of technique.--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 11:33, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

Although Jiangnan Manufacturing Bureau was the largest arsenal founded by the Westernization Group in the late Qing Dynasty, the technology was still monopolized by foreign technicians.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:07, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ngo, Thi Minh Huong==

==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==
1.建元二年（前139年），张骞率领100多名随行人员，由匈奴人堂邑父为向导从长安出发前往西域。西行进入河西走廊。这一地区自月氏人西迁后，已完全为匈奴人所控制。正当张骞一行匆匆穿过河西走廊时，不幸碰上匈奴的骑兵，他们全部被抓获。

In the second year of Jianyuan(139 B.C.), Zhang Qian set off to the Western Regions leading an entourage of more than 100 men from Chang'an under the guidance of Tang Yifu who is a Hun. They travelled westward into the Hexi Corridor which had been completely controlled by the Huns since they moved westward. When they tried to hurry through this region, unfortunately they met the Hun cavalry, and they were all captured.

2.郑和下西洋所到之处主要是开展贸易活动，以“朝贡贸易”为基本形式，同时推行“官方贸易”、带动“民间互市”等。

Zheng He's voyages are mainly to carry out trade activities, during which they took "tribute trade" as the basic activity, and at the same time promoted "official trade" and "non-governmental trade".

3.在明末清初的一波西学东渐中，传教士扮演著相当重要的角色，当时主要以天主教耶稣会为主的传教士们，在试图将天主教传入中国的同时，引介了西方的科技学术思想，译著了大量的西方学术相关书籍。

From the late Ming Dynasty to the early Qing Dynasty, missionaries played an important role in the Eastward Spread of Western Learning. While trying to introduce Catholicism into China, the missionaries mainly composed of the Catholic Jesuits introduced western scientific and technological thoughts and translated a large number of western academic books.

4.在洋务运动存续的35年里，文化出版事业的发展达到了一个前所未有的水平。译书经历了由单纯的西方科技著作和书籍，向自然科学和社会科学，人文科学等著作并重，甚至后者略占上风的过程。

During the 35 years of Westernization Movement, the development of cultural publishing reached an unprecedentedly high level. The translation of books experienced a process from the dominance of western scientific and technological works to the emphasis laid equally on works of natural and social sciences and humanities, and even the latter took the majority.--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 12:15, 24 December 2020 (UTC)

1. In the second year of Jian Yuan (139 BC), Zhang Qian led more than 100 serve men, with the Xiongnu man Tang Yi as the guide, to set off from Chang’ an to the West. This area has been completely controlled by the Xiongnu since the westward migration of the Ziyue people. Just as Zhang Qian passed through the Hexi Corridor, they unfortunately ran into the Xiongnu cavalry, who captured them all.

2. Zheng He mainly carried out trade activities in all the places he visited, taking “tribute trade” as the basic form. At the same time, he also promoted “official trade” and “private mutual market”.

3. In the wave of Western learning in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, missionaries played an important role, mainly the Jesuit missionaries, who tried to introduce Catholicism into China, introduced Western scientific and academic ideas, and translated a large number of Western academic books.

4. During the 35 years’ Westernization Movement, the development of publishing reached an unprecedented level. The translation of books went through a process from purely Western scientific and technological works and books to works on natural sciences and social sciences, humanities, etc., with the latter even slightly prevailing.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:54, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==

==Phyo, Su Kyi==
1-张谦出生于西汉（公元前206年至公元24年）的城固县（今陕西省城固县）。他是中国历史上杰出的使节和探险家，开辟了古老的丝绸之路，并带来了有关西部地区的可靠信息.

Zhang Qian was born in Chenggu (the present Chenggu County of Shaanxi Province) of Western Han Dynasty (206 BC-24 AD). He was an outstanding envoy and explorer in Chinese history, opening up the ancient Silk Road and bringing reliable information about the Western Regions.

Zhang Qian was born in Chenggu (the present Chenggu County of Shaanxi Province) of Western Han Dynasty (206 B.C.-24 A.D.). He was an outstanding envoy and explorer in Chinese history, opening up the ancient Silk Road and bringing reliable information about the Western Regions to China.--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 09:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2-郑和（1371-1433）是一位伟大的中国探险家和舰队司令。他进行了七次主要探险，以探索中国皇帝的世界并在新地区建立中国贸易。

Zheng He (1371 - 1433) was a great Chinese explorer and fleet commander. He went on seven major expeditions to explore the world for the Chinese emperor and to establish Chinese trade in new areas.

Zheng He, a great Chinese explorer and fleet captain, has carrried out 7 major explorations to broaden Chinese emperor's world and establish Chinese trade in new regions.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:02, 24 December 2020 (UTC)

3-西方的儒道教说，为中西文化交流做出了贡献。

The West Chinese Confucian and Daoist doctrines, and made contributions to cultural exchange between China and the West.

The Chinese Confucian and Daoist doctrines in the West, and made contributions to cultural exchange between China and the West.--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 09:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4-自强运动，又称为洋务运动（西洋运动或西洋运动）（约1861年至1895年），是鸦片战争的军事灾难后在清朝后期在中国发起的体制改革时期。

The Self-Strengthening Movement, also known as the Westernization or Western Affairs Movement ( c. 1861–1895), was a period of institutional reforms initiated in China during the late Qing dynasty following the military disasters of the Opium Wars.--[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 09:43, 24 December 2020 (UTC)Phyo Su Kyi

The Self-Strengthening Movement, also known as the Westernization Movenment or Western Affairs Movement ( c. 1861–1895), was a period of institutional reforms initiated in China during the late Qing Dynasty following the military disasters of the Opium Wars.--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 09:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Pingki, Tanchangya==

==Qu Miao 瞿淼==

==Rajabov, Anushervon==

==Seydou, Sagara==

==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==

==Si Yu 司妤==

==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==

==Tang Bei 汤蓓==

==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==

==Wang Meiling 王美玲==
1.陆上丝绸之路起源于西汉（前202年—8年）汉武帝派张骞出使西域开辟的以首都长安（今西安）为起点，经甘肃、新疆，到中亚、西亚，并连接地中海各国的陆上通道。

The land Silk Road originated from the Western Han Dynasty (BC 202-AD 8 ) when Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty dispatched Zhang Qian to the western regions to open up a land passage from Chang'an (today's Xi'an), the capital, to Central Asia and West Asia via Gansu and Xinjiang, with connection to Mediterranean countries.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 10:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

2.向西航行的郑和七下西洋：这是明朝政府组织的大规模航海活动，曾到达亚洲、非洲39个国家和地区，这对后来达·伽马开辟欧洲到印度的地方航线，以及对麦哲伦的环球航行，都具有先导作用。

Westward sailing of Zheng He's seven voyages was a large-scale sailing activity organized by the Ming government, which travelled 39 countries and regions in Asia and Africa, which had a pioneering effect on the Da Gamma’s opening up the local route from Europe to India, as well as on Magellan's worldwide voyage.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 10:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

3.西学东渐所造成中国思想文化的影响和变化之大，在中国历史上只有百家争鸣可以与之媲美。中国人经过西学的洗礼，对于世界、历史发展、政治、经济、社会、自然界万事的看法，都有了巨大的改变。

The impact and the changes in Chinese thought and culture caused by Western learning can be rivaled only by the Hundred Schools of Thought in the history of China. After the baptism of Western learning, tremendous changes have been made on Chinese people's views on the world, historical development, politics, economy, society, and the whole nature.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 10:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

4.清政府统治集团内的一些开明人士为了维护清政府的封建统治，而采取了一系列“自强”“求富”的措施，虽然其目的是为了维护封建统治，但这一运动是符合历史潮流的。

Some enlightened people in the Qing government adopted a series of measures for "self-improvement" and "seeking wealth" in order to maintain the feudal rule of the Qing government. Although they were aimed to maintain the feudal government, this movement was in line with the historical trend.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 10:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wang Xuan 王轩==
1. 张骞出使西域，既是一次极为艰险的外交旅行，同时也是一次卓有成效的科学考察。张骞对广阔的西域进行了实地的调查研究工作。
Zhang Qian's mission to the western regions was not only an extremely difficult diplomatic trip, but also an effective scientific investigation. Zhang Qian made a field investigation on the vast western regions.

Zhang Qian's mission to the Western Regions was not only an extremely difficult and dangerous diplomatic trip, but also a fruitful scientific investigation. Zhang Qian conducted field investigation and research work on the vast Western Regions.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:59, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

2. 十五世纪初期，郑和下西洋作为军事史上一项意义重大的事件，当前学术界从郑和下西洋的政治、经济及文化等角度对该事件的作用及影响进行了分析，鲜少从历史意义层面进行研究。郑和七次下西洋所到达的地区、实施的措施在人类航行史上占据至关重要的地位，了解郑和下西洋的历史意义非常必要。
At the beginning of the 15th century, Zheng He's voyages to the West was a significant event in the military history. At present, the academic circles have analyzed the role and influence of Zheng He's voyages from the political, economic and cultural perspectives, but rarely from the perspective of historical significance. The area Zheng He arrived at and the measures he took during his seven voyages to the West occupy an important position in the history of human navigation. It is necessary to understand the historical significance of Zheng He's voyages to the West.

At the beginning of the 15th century, Zheng He's voyages to the West was a significant event in the military history. At present, the academia have analyzed the role and influence of Zheng He's voyages from the political, economic and cultural perspectives, but rarely from the perspective of historical significance. The area Zheng He arrived at and the measures he took during his seven voyages to the West occupy an important position in the history of human navigation. It is necessary to understand the historical significance of Zheng He's voyages to the West.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:49, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

3. 明代万历年间，以利玛窦为代表的西方传教士来华传教，同时带来西方科技、文化等。这对中国传统思想文化有所触动。此时的西方科学技术开始迅速发展，而中国这时科学技术的发展较缓慢，相对落后于同时期的欧洲。
During the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty, Western missionaries represented by Matteo Ricci came to China to preach, bringing Western technology and culture. This has touched the traditional Chinese ideology and culture. At this time, Western science and technology began to develop rapidly, while the development of science and technology in China was relatively slow, lagging behind Europe in the same period.

During the Wanli period of Ming Dynasty, western missionaries represented by Matteo Ricci came to China to preach and bring western technology and culture. This has touched the traditional Chinese ideology and culture. At this time, western science and technology began to develop rapidly, while The development of Science and technology in China was relatively slow and lagged behind that in Europe at the same time.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:59, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

4. 随着经济全球化的发展，国与国之间的界限已经减少了。中国不断引进西方的文化，外国也不断引进中国的文化。在这个过程中，中国从最原始的封建社会，也逐步走向西化。
With the development of economic globalization, the boundaries between countries have been reduced. China is constantly introducing western culture, and foreign countries are also constantly introducing Chinese culture. In this process, China gradually moved from the most primitive feudal society to Westernization.
--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 10:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan

With the development of economic globalization, the boundaries between countries have been reduced. China continues to introduce Western culture, and foreign countries continue to introduce Chinese culture. In this process, China has gradually moved from the most primitive feudal society to Westernization.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:59, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

==Wu Qiong 吴琼==

==Wu Yilu 吴一露==

==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==

==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==
1.陆上丝绸之路起源于西汉（前202年—8年）汉武帝派张骞出使西域开辟的以首都长安（今西安）为起点，经甘肃、新疆，到中亚、西亚，并连接地中海各国的陆上通道。东汉时期丝绸之路的起点在洛阳。它的最初作用是运输中国古代出产的丝绸。

1.The land Silk Road originated from the Western Han Dynasty (202-8 BC) when Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty sent Zhang Qian to the western regions to open up a land passage from Chang'an (today's Xi'an), the capital, to Central Asia and West Asia via Gansu and Xinjiang, and to connect Mediterranean countries. The starting point of the Silk Road in the Eastern Han Dynasty was Luoyang. Its original function was to transport silk from ancient China.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

2.“海上丝绸之路”是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，该路主要以南海为中心，所以又称南海丝绸之路。海上丝绸之路形成于秦汉时期，发展于三国至隋朝时期，繁荣于唐宋时期，转变于明清时期，是已知的最为古老的海上航线。

2.The "maritime Silk Road" is a maritime channel for communication, trade and cultural exchanges between ancient China and foreign countries. The road is mainly centered on the South China Sea, so it is also called the South China Sea Silk Road. The maritime silk road was formed in the Qin and Han Dynasties, developed from the Three Kingdoms to the Sui Dynasty, flourished in the Tang and Song Dynasties, and transformed into the Ming and Qing Dynasties. It is the oldest known maritime route.

3.除了传教士之外，许多来华的官员、探险家等也成为传入西学的重要媒介，例如将领戈登对于中国洋务时期军事的影响。主持海关总税务司的赫德对于西方管理制度的引入，以及译介书籍、最早西方军乐队的引入都有影响。

3.Besides missionaries, many officials and explorers who came to China also became important media for the introduction of Western learning, such as general Gordon's influence on China's military during the Westernization period. Hurd, who presided over the General Revenue Department of customs, had an influence on the introduction of Western management system, the translation of books and the introduction of the earliest Western military band.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

4.洋务运动内容涉及军事、政治、经济、外交等，以“自强”为名，兴办军事工业并围绕军事工业开办其他企业，建立新式武器装备的陆海军。洋务派经营的这些近代企业，是在不改变封建统治为前提下所办企业，具有很强的对外依赖性、封建性和一定程度的垄断性。

4.The Westernization Movement involved military affairs, politics, economy, diplomacy and so on. In the name of "self-improvement", the Westernization Movement set up military industry and other enterprises around the military industry to establish the army and Navy with new weapons and equipment. These modern enterprises managed by the Westernization clique were established on the premise of not changing the feudal rule, and had strong external dependence, feudalism and a certain degree of monopoly.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

==Xiao Ting 肖婷==

==Xie Fan 解帆==
1.张骞第一次虽然没有完成出使目的，但是对西域诸国的山川地理、风土民情等重要信息，有了非常细致全面的掌握。

Although Zhang Qian did not reach the destination for the first time, he had a very detailed and comprehensive grasp of important information such as mountains, rivers, geography, people and local conditions of the western countries.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 16:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

Although Zhang Qian did not arrive at the destination for the first time, he had a very detailed and comprehensive grasp of important information such as mountains, rivers, geography, people and local conditions of many western countries.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 11:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

2.郑和下西洋，是15世纪初叶世界航海史上的空前壮举。郑和本人也在这一历史事件中展现出其外交才能、军事谋略以及精神品质，并赢得世人的尊重和纪念。

Zheng He's voyage was an unprecedented achievement in the world's maritime history in the early 15th century. Zheng He, showed his diplomatic skills, military strategies and spiritual qualities in this historical event, and won the respect and honor of the world.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 16:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

Zheng He's voyage was an unprecedented achievement in the world's maritime history in the early 15th century. Zheng He himself showed his diplomatic skills, military strategies and spiritual qualities in this historical event who has won the respect and honor of the world.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 11:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

3.甲午战争以后，由于中国当时面临着国破家亡的命运，许多有识之士开始更积极全面地向西方学习，出现了梁启超、康有为、谭嗣同等一批思想家。

After the War of 1894, as China was reduced to separation, many people of insight began to learn from the West more actively and comprehensively. At that time appeared Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei, Tan Si-tong and other thinkers.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 16:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

After the War of 1894, as China was reduced to separation, many people of insight began to learn from the Western countries more actively and comprehensively. At that time appeared Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei, Tan Si-tong and other thinkers.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 11:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

4.戊戌变法是一次具有爱国救亡意义的变法维新运动，是中国近代史上一次重要的政治改革，也是一次思想启蒙运动。

The Hundred Days' Reform is a movement with the significance of patriotic salvation, an important political reform in modern China's history, as well as an ideological enlightenment movement.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 16:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

The Hundred Days' Reform is a movement with the significance of patriotic salvation, a significant political reform in modern China's history, as well as an ideological enlightenment movement.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 11:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Jia 徐佳==

1.丝绸之路是古代中国联系中亚、西亚、非洲和欧洲的交通要道。19世纪，德国一个地理学家首次使用“丝绸之路”这一术语，一直沿用到今天。期初，它指从中国新疆到中亚的陆地通道。

The Silk Road was a general name for the ancient strategic transportation channel which started from China and passed through Central Asia, West Asia, Africa and Europe. In the 19th century, when the name of Silk Road was first used by a German geographer, it just included the land road from China’s Xinjiang to Central Asia.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:14, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

2.海上丝绸之路在时间和空间上经过了长期的发展，在东方各国共同的经营下，形成了东方历史上一道独特而壮丽的风景，至今仍然承载着东方文明的传统。

The Maritime Silk Road has gone through long-term development in time and space. Under the joint management of eastern countries, it has formed a unique and magnificent scenery in the history of the East and still carries the tradition of eastern civilization.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:14, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

3.中华文明是古代六大原生文明之一，由于所处的独特地理位置，中华文明的发展一直具有极强的独立性，较少受到其他文明的影响。但随着历史向前发展，中国与世界的联系也更为密切，直到明末清初“西学东渐”，中国人才第一次系统地接触到西方文明。

The Chinese civilization is one of the six ancient civilizations. Due to its unique geographical location, the development of the Chinese civilization has always been highly independent and less influenced by other civilizations. As history progressed, however, China became more connected with the rest of the world. It was not until the eastward spread of western learning in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasty that Chinese people formed systematic knowledge about western civilization.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:14, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

4.洋务运动创办了近代中国由国人自办的最早一批军用和民用近代企业，揭开了中国资本主义生产方式的序幕。

The Westernization Movement established the first modern military and civilian enterprises run by Chinese people in modern China, which provided an opening for capitalist production in China.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:14, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

==Xu Jing 许静==

==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==

1. 丝绸之路经济带，是在古丝绸之路概念基础上形成的一个新的经济发展区域。包括西北五省区陕西、甘肃、青海、宁夏、新疆。

1. Silk Road Economic Belt is a new economic development region formed on the basis of the ancient Silk Road. It includes the five northwestern provinces—Shaanxi, Gansu, Qinghai, Ningxia and Xinjiang.

The Silk Road Economic Belt is a new economic development region based on the ancient Silk Road. It includes the five northwestern provinces—Shaanxi, Gansu, Qinghai, Ningxia and Xinjiang. --[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:03, 24 December 2020 (UTC)

The Silk Road Economic Belt is a new economic development region based on the ancient one. It covers the five northwestern provinces—Shaanxi, Gansu, Qinghai, Ningxia and Xinjiang. --[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 16:08, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2. 海上丝绸之路，是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，也称"海上陶瓷之路"和“海上香料之路”，1913年由法国的东方学家沙畹首次提及。

2. Maritime Silk Road is a maritime route of trade and cultural exchanges between ancient China and foreign countries, also known as “Maritime Ceramic Road” and “Maritime Spice Road”, first mentioned by the French orientalist Chavan in 1913.

3. 西学东渐是指从明朝末年到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程，虽然也可以泛指自上古以来一直到到当代的各种西方事物传入中国，但通常而言是指明末清初以及晚清民初两个时期之中，欧洲及美国等地学术思传入。

3. The Eastward Spread of Western Learning is a historical process of spreading Western academic thought to China from the late Ming Dynasty to modern times. Although it can also refer to the introduction of various Western things into China from ancient times to contemporary times, but usually refers to the introduction of academic thought from Europe and the United States in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties.

4. 鸦片战争后，他们的基本思想就是了解夷情,“师夷长技以制夷”。这些卓识远见表明近代向西方学习的思潮的始初就和爱国精神交融在一起。

4. After the Opium War, their basic idea was to understand the situation of the barbarians and “learn from them in order to control them”. These insights show that the modern trend of learning from the West was intertwined with the spirit of patriotism from the very beginning.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 02:34, 24 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

==Yang Hairong 杨海容==

1.明代中期以后，政府采取了闭关锁国的政策，与此同时，造船技术和航海技术不断发展，海上交通代之而起，使丝绸之路贸易全面走向衰落。

After the mid-Ming Dynasty, the government adopted a policy of shutting down the country. At the same time, shipbuilding technology and navigation technology continued to develop, and maritime traffic took its place, causing the Silk Road trade to decline in an all-round way.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.郑和，这位航海史上的先驱，以智慧为舵，扬起和平的风帆，缔造了世界航海业发展的里程碑，厚植了“一带一路”的文化底色与民心基石，书写了中国同其他国家友好交往的千古佳话。

Zheng He, a pioneer in the history of navigation, took wisdom as the rudder and raised the sail of peace. He created a milestone in the development of the world’s navigation industry. An eternal story of friendly exchanges between countries.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.利玛窦向中国社会传播了西方的几何学、地理学知识以及人文主义的观点，开了晚明士大夫学习西学的风气。

Matteo Ricci spread Western geometry, geography knowledge, and humanistic views to Chinese society, and developed the ethos of scholar-officials in the late Ming Dynasty to learn Western studies.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Hui 阳慧==

==Yang Yue 杨悦==
1、丝绸之路经过亚洲、中东、北非和欧洲。几个世纪以来，丝绸之路是东西方交流的最重要的线路。尽管名字叫丝绸之路，人们进行贸易的商品却不仅仅是丝绸。玄奘和马可·波罗都留下了他们丝绸之路之旅的详尽记录。

The Silk Road went through Asia, the Middle East, North Africa and Europe. For centuries, the Silk Road was the most important line of communication connecting East and West. Although it's called the Silk Road, people traded much more than silk. Both Xuan Zang and Marco Polo left detailed records of their journeys along the Silk Road.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2、郑和（1317-1435）是中国最有名的探险家之一。1405至1433年间，郑和完成了七次著名的航行。他游览了亚洲和非洲的许多国家。郑和还从他游览的国家带回来很多礼物，像药品，珍珠和珍禽异兽。

Zheng He (1371-1435) was one of China's most famous explorers. Zheng He completed seven famous voyages between 1405 and 1433. He visited many countries in Asia and Africa. Zheng He also brought back many gifts from the countries he visited, such as medicines, pearls and strange animals.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3、在西学东渐大潮中兴起的近代报刊改变了传统的审美机制，使美学从内容到形式都发生了根本性的变化，从而促成了中国美学的现代转型。

The rising modern press deeply transformed the traditional aesthetic mechanism from the content to the form. Then the modern press has facilitated the modern reforms of Chinese esthetics.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4、洋务运动是部分先进的中国人探索中国近代化的过程。太平天国运动加速了中国近代历史的进程，推动了洋务运动的勃兴。洋务运动的历史作用不仅仅表现在经济上，其对中国近代思想启蒙的影响也是巨大的。

Westernization Movement is the process in which some Chinese with advanced knowledge explore how to modernize China. The Taiping movement accelerated the progress of China's modern history and promoted the Westernization movement. The effect of Westernization Movement in history is not only on economy but also greatly on contemporary ideological enlightenment in China.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==

==Yi Zichu 义子楚==

==You Yuting 游雨婷==

1.张骞出使西域本为贯彻汉武帝联合大月氏抗击匈奴之战略意图，但出使西域后汉夷文化交往频繁，中原文明通过"丝绸之路"迅速向四周传播。

Zhang Qian's mission to the Western regions was to implement the strategic intention of emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty to unite with the Yuezhi clan to fight against the Xiongnu. However, after his mission to the Western regions, there were frequent cultural exchanges between the Han and The Barbarians, and the civilization of the Central Plains rapidly spread around through the "Silk Road".

2.海上丝绸之路自秦汉时期开通以来，一直是沟通东西方经济文化交流的重要桥梁，而东南亚地区自古就是海上丝绸之路的重要枢纽和组成部分。

Since its opening in the Qin and Han Dynasties, the Maritime Silk Road has been a significant bridge for economic and cultural exchanges between the East and the West, and Southeast Asia has been an important hub and part of the Maritime Silk Road since ancient times.

3.西学东渐所造成中国思想文化的影响和变化之大，在中国历史上只有百家争鸣可以与之媲美。

The influence and change of Chinese ideology and culture brought by the eastward dissemination of Western learning can only be matched by the contention of a hundred schools of thought in Chinese history.

4.洋务运动推动了近代中国生产力的发展，促使了中国民族资本主义的产生。

Westernization movement advanced the development of productive forces in modern China and the emergence of Chinese national capitalism.--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:47, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

1.Zhang Qian's mission to the Western regions was originally to implement the strategic intention of emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty to unite with the Yuezhi clan to fight against the Xiongnu. However, after his mission to the Western regions, there were frequent cultural exchanges between the Han and the Barbarians, and the civilization of the Central Plains rapidly spread around through the "Silk Road".--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

2.Since the opening of the Maritime Silk Road in Qin and Han Dynasties, it has been a significant bridge for economic and cultural exchanges between the East and the West, and Southeast Asia has been an important hub and part of the Maritime Silk Road since ancient times.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

3.In Chinese history, only contention of a hundred schools of thought can match the great influence and change of Chinese ideology and culture caused by the the eastward spreading of western learning.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

4.The Westernization Movement promoted the development of productive forces in modern China and the emergence of Chinese national capitalism.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yu Ni 余妮==

==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==

唐代丝绸之路的畅通繁荣，也进一步促进了东西方思想文化交流，对以后相互的社会和民族意识形态发展，产生了很多积极、深远的影响。

The smooth and prosperous development of the Silk Road in the Tang Dynasty also further accelerated the ideological and cultural exchanges between the East and the West, causing a lot of positive and far-reaching influences on the development of mutual social and national ideologies in the future.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:00, 24 December 2020 (UTC)

宋代海上丝绸之路的持续发展，大大增加了朝廷和港市的财政深收入，一定程度上促进了经济发展和城市化生活，也为中外文化交流提供了便利条件。

The continuous development of the Maritime Silk Road in the Song Dynasty greatly increased the deep financial income of the imperial court and the port city, promoted the economic development and urban life to a certain extent, and also provided convenient conditions for the cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:00, 24 December 2020 (UTC)

西学东渐将西方近代各种学术上的新成果带入了中国，深深影响到各种学术的发展，而许多在传统中国不被重视甚至不存在的学科也在此影响下得到发展，

The eastward spread of Western learning brought various new academic achievements of modern Western learning into China, which deeply influenced the development of various academic disciplines. Under such an influence, many disciplines that were not valued or even did not exist in traditional China also developed.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:00, 24 December 2020 (UTC)

甲午中日战争中，北洋海军全军覆没，标志着清朝海军实力的完全丧失，也标志着35年的洋务运动宣告破产。

The total annihilation of the Beiyang Navy in the Sino-Japanese War marked the complete loss of naval power in the Qing Dynasty and the bankruptcy of the 35-year-old Westernization Movement.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:00, 24 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Liang 曾良==

==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==

==Zhang Hui 张慧==

==Zhang Ling 张玲==

1. 丝绸之路全长约7000公里，经由这条线路所进行的贸易中，中国的丝绸最具代表性，因此得名“丝绸之路”。

The total length of the silk road is about 7000 km. Among the trade carried out along this route, China's silk is the most representative, so it is named the "Silk Road". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2. 在中国，作为国家的政治任务，郑和下西洋对于中国的经济的刺激作用微乎其微。而在西方，东方的商品和航海贸易的利润直接加速了资本主义的原始积累。

In China, as a national political task, Zheng He's Voyages had little stimulating effect on China's economy. However, in the west, the profits from the eastern commodity and maritime trade directly accelerated the primitive accumulation of capitalism. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3. 甲午战争以后，许多有识之士开始更积极全面地向西方学习，出现了梁启超、康有为、谭嗣同等一批思想家。他们向西方学习大量的自然科学和社会科学的知识，政治上也要求改革。这一时期大量的西方知识传入中国，影响非常广泛。

After the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, many people with breadth of vision began to learn from the West more actively and comprehensively, and a group of thinkers such as Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei and Tan Sitong appeared. They learned a lot from the West about natural science and social science, and demanded political reform. During this period, a large amount of Western knowledge was introduced into China, and its influence was very extensive. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4. 洋务运动前期，洋务派以“自强”为旗号，采用西方先进生产技术，创办了一批近代军事工业。

In the early stage of Westernization Movement, the School of Westernization established a number of modern military industries under the banner of "self-improvement" and adopting advanced western production technology. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==

==Zhang Yu 张瑜==
1.通过张骞的外交实践，构建了汉朝与西方国家友好交往的桥梁，促进了东西方文化、经济的交流和发展，为中国汉代昌盛和后世的对外开放奠定了坚实的基础。

Through Zhang Qian's diplomatic practice, he built a bridge of friendly relations between the Han Dynasty and the West, promoting cultural and economic exchanges and development between the East and the West, and laying a solid foundation for the prosperity of the Han Dynasty and the opening up of China to the outside world in later generations.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:33, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.郑和下西洋折射出的中国先进航海科技光辉，表现了中国古代人的伟大智慧，从而创造了郑和下西洋的伟大航程。

Zheng He's voyage to the West reflected the glory of China's advanced navigation technology and demonstrated the great wisdom of ancient Chinese people, thus creating the great voyage of Zheng He to the West.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:33, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3.西学东渐，是指从明朝末年到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程。

The Eastward Spread of Western learning refers to the historical process of the spread of Western academic thoughts to China from the end of the Ming Dynasty to modern times.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:33, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.甲午中日战争中，北洋海军全军覆没，标志着清朝海军实力的完全丧失，也标志着35年的洋务运动宣告破产。

In the Sino-Japanese War of the First Sino-Japanese War, the Beiyang Navy was wiped out, marking the complete loss of the Qing Dynasty's naval power and the bankruptcy of the 35-year Westernization Movement.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:33, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==

==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==

1. 张骞出使西域本为贯彻汉武帝联合大月氏抗击匈奴之战略意图，但出使西域后汉夷文化交往频繁，中原文明通过“丝绸之路”迅速向四周传播。

Zhang Wei out of the Western Region to carry out the Han Wu Emperor United Moon's strategic intention to fight against the Hunnu, but out of the Western Region after the Hanyi cultural exchanges frequent, the Central Plains civilization through the "Silk Road" spread rapidly around.

2. 郑和下西洋是中国古代规模最大、船只和海员最多、时间最久的海上航行，也是15世纪末欧洲的地理大发现的航行以前世界历史上规模最大的一系列海上探险。

Zheng He's Voyage to the West Was the largest, largest and longest maritime voyage in ancient China, and the largest series of maritime expeditions in the history of the world before the great geographical discovery of Europe at the end of the 15th century.

3. 在明末清初的一波西学东渐中，传教士扮演著相当重要的角色，当时主要以天主教耶稣会为主的传教士们（较晚亦有方济各会、多明我会等的教士），在试图将天主教传入中国的同时，引介了西方的科技学术思想，译著了大量的西方学术相关书籍。

Missionaries played a very important role in a wave of Western studies in the late Ming and early Qing years, when the missionaries, mainly Catholic Jesuits (later franciscans, polyseigns, etc.), introduced Western scientific and technological academic ideas and translated a large number of Western academic books while trying to introduce Catholicism to China.

4. 甲午战争的结果给中华民族带来空前严重的民族危机，大大加深了中国社会半殖民地化的程度；另一方面则使日本国力更为强大，为其跻身列强奠定了重要基础。

The result of the Sino-Japanese War brought unprecedented serious national crisis to the Chinese nation, which greatly deepened the degree of semi-colonization of Chinese society, and on the other hand, made Japan stronger and laid an important foundation for its ranks among the great power.--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:22, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhao Xi 赵茜==
1.“丝绸之路”是指起始于古代中国，连接亚洲、非洲和欧洲的古代陆上商业贸易路线。

Silk Road refers to the ancient land trade route which started in the ancient China and connected Asia, Africa and Europe.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 04:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.“海上丝绸之路”是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，该路主要以南海为中心，所以又称南海丝绸之路。

Maritime Silk Road is the sea-lane by through which ancient China traded and did cultural exchanges with other countries. This Silk Road is mainly centered with the South China Sea, thus is called the South China Sea Silk Road as well. --[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 04:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.西学东渐，是指从明朝末年到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程。

Eastward Spread of Western Learning refers to the historic process of the spread of western academic thought to China from the end of Ming Dynasty and the modern times.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 04:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.洋务运动，又称自强运动。是19世纪60年代到90年代晚清洋务派所进行的一场引进西方军事装备、机器生产和科学技术以挽救清朝统治的自救运动。

Westernization Movement, also known as Self-strengthening Movement, is a self-helping movement carried out by the late Qing dynasty in the 1860s and 1990s to introduce Western military equipment, machine production and science and technology to save the Qing dynasty.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 04:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==

==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==

==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==

==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==

==Zhu Xu 朱旭==
1.唐代丝绸之路的畅通繁荣，也进一步促进了东西方思想文化交流，对以后相互的社会和民族意识形态发展，产生了很多积极、深远的影响。

The prosperous Silk Road in the Tang dynasty also further promoted the exchange of thoughts and cultures between the east and the west, and had a lot of positive and far-reaching effects on the later development of both side’s social and national ideologies.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.欧洲人相继进行全球性海上扩张活动，特别是地理大发现，开启了大航海时代，开辟了世界性海洋贸易新时代。西欧商人的海上扩张，改变了传统海上丝绸之路以和平贸易为基调的特性，商业活动常常伴随着战争硝烟和武装抢劫。

The European maritime expansion around the world, especially the discovery of the Age of Discovery, ushered in a new era of world trade in the oceans. The maritime expansion of western european merchants, often accompanied by war and armed robbery, changed the traditional sea route of Silk Road of peaceful trade.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.西学东渐将西方近代各种学术上的新成果带入了中国，深深影响到各种学术的发展，而许多在传统中国不被重视甚至不存在的学科也在此影响下得到发展,但许多传统的学术受到西学的冲击。

The Eastward Spread of Western Learning brought to China various new academic achievements in modern times, deeply affecting the development of various academic disciplines. Many subjects which were not valued or even did not exist in traditional China were also developed under this influence. On the contrary many traditional academies have been impacted by Western academies.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.洋务运动是近代教育的开端。要开始洋务运动，兴办洋务就必须要有精通洋务的人才，但是中国传统的科举制教育却远远无法满足洋务运动对人才的需要。因此兴办新式学堂，派遣留学生，就成了洋务运动进行下去的一项重要的举措。

Westernization Movement was the beginning of modern education. In order to start the Westernization Movement, it is necessary to have people who are proficient in Westernization, but the traditional imperial examination system in China can not meet the needs of the Westernization Movement. Therefore, the establishment of new schools and the dispatch of foreign students has become an important initiative of the Westernization Movement.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==

==Zubareva, Ekaterina==

20201228 trans

2020-12-26T01:25:43Z

Zhang Yu: /* Zhang Yu 张瑜 */

==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==
'''Zhu Ziqing'''

A third example, where an author shows another face in his essays is Zhu Ziqing. He is known as the author of the most often reprinted story-like Chinese essay "''Back View''" (Beiying), a standard school text. The success of this essay lies in the fact, that it applies to filial pity. From the reported fare-well scene with his father at the train station, he learned that his father loved him and that he had grown-up too now.
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==
This self-reflective essay helped Zhu to find himself through the observation of the other (here his father). The 2nd often printed essay is also from Zhu. Parallelistic and repetitive structures are the driving factor in the atmospherical nebulous lyrical landscape desription "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.

Zhu Ziqing supposedly opposed all political engagement and, wrote about unspectacular things. In Taiwan he became a type of substitute for the categorically refused state writer of the People’s Republic, Lu Xun, mainly because of Zhu’s supposed political independence.
==Chen Han 陈涵==
I would like to show with three examples that Zhu had absolutely clear political ideas: He had taken part in the demonstration March 18, 1926, which ended in a massacre. Zhu described this in ''"Report On the Massacre of the Government''"[ (Zhizhengfu da tusha ji).].

''Shots were still being fired, and the entrance of the east gate was packed with people. [...] Pushing and shoving, we climbed over them with great effort. We must have lost our senses then, not seeing, to our shame, the grotesqueness of our action. ''
==Chen Hui 陈惠==
''[...]I was still walking on top of the people. No one dared to miss a single step, filing through the gate that divided safety from danger, one that would give us life or take our lives away. [...] My efforts finally brought me down to the ground, sealing my fate as I rolled down from the human pile. [...] I learned later that some of the people by the gate were dead, killed by the pistol squad firing from the other side of the gate. When I recall stepping over dead bodies, I cannot help but tremble with fear. [...]''
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==
From this experience, Zhu addresses directly the repsonsible political leaders:

''Duan Qirui, you must think about it! [...] How could we explain this to the world? [...] Granted, Duan Qirui and others could commit such atrocities without a thought; but how could we, the people of China, face the world with such a shameless government? [...] We, [...], must ask, „So many were killed—what should we do?“''
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==
In contrast, Lu Xun has portrayed the same massacre with sighing undertone and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his "''Ways to die''"[ (Si fa).] - in which he finds "to be shot" the best method to die. The supposedly less politically engaged Zhu shows here more engagement.

The essay "''Facing the New China''"[ (Xin Zhongguo zai wang zhong).] is Zhu's political manifest: He asks for democracy, enlightenment and an increase of the education level.
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==
''China has to be born again through democratization. [...] The people should express their own will, concentrate on their own strength. Every level of administration should build up on the expressed will and strength of the people and struggle for the majority and its greatest happiness. This means that the people govern, the people own, the people enjoy.''

A few weeks before his death, he demanded in the speech ''"Today's duty of the Intellectuals''"[ (Zhishifenzi jintian de renwu).] the participation of the intellectual in the struggle for a better society.
==Chen Sha 陈莎==
With only a handful of essays I have demonstrated, that the picture of these three authors changes substantially, if we read carefully also their less known essayistic work. Imagine now how the picture of 20th century Chinese literature might change, if the literary histories and anthologies would not only tell the history of drama, fiction and poetry, but would also grant the essay its proper place. The following part of my paper are results of my monograph on the 20th century Chinese essay.
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==
'''The essay boom as a mirror reflecting growing individuality, participation in the public sphere, and the giddy-paced character of modern Chinese society'''

Acquiring an overview of the essay and assessing its essence has required extensive research in bookstores and libraries, in the People's Republic of China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and the United States for available resources in the form of essay book collections as well as secondary literature dealing with the essay.
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==
I built a database for a statistical analysis to rank more than 5000 essays and 1400 essayists. It turned out that out of the top 60 most famous Chinese essays only 14 had been translated into English so far. The forthcoming collection of Tam King-fai adds 4 and my own one the remaining 42.

Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report[ (baogao wenxue) (Klaschka 1998).].
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==
The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous essay bookseries[ sanwen congshu 散文叢書.].

The reason for the increase in essay production, which we can date right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in the sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for the survey. There are three reasons for the increase in Chinese essay production and popularity in the mid-1990s:
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==
1, The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts, as Hall has put it: “[...] we live in an age of exposition”[ (Hall 1984:xiii).].

2, The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands.

3, A revival of interest in discussing socio-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==
If we look carefully at essay collections not only published in the United States, but also in Hong Kong, Taiwan and the People’s Republic, we find the following three reasons for the under- and overestimation of single essayists or essays which correspond to regional differences:

1, EXOTIC In the United States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.
==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==
2, SOCIO-POLITICAL In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, as the mentioned survey proofs, he ranks 12th among modern authors there. Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

3, PERSONAL Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by his disciple Huang Weiliang in favor for Yu.[ (see Lin Yaode 1989:50).]

Having named reasons for the essay boom and for the support for and the suppression of different actors in the cultural field of the essay, I would like to finish my paper by naming a few trends of the essay as they appear at the eve of the century.
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==
The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consumer-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".
==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("''On dreams''"[ "Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928.]) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 ("''My own garden''"[ 9.1923.], "''The Fly''"[ 1924.], "''Reading on the Toilet''"[ 1936.]), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the newly encountered world of mass consumerism.
==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==
In the end of this century not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. Among the upper list places of the political essay after 1949 there are critical essays. For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==
A sign for the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation for customers (former: "readers"). Following the emotional essays of Zhu Ziqing who rank 1st and 2nd, ''nostalgia'' is the element of emotional identification in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Zhou Zuoren, which ranks 3rd[ In Jia Pingwa's "Moon traces", which ranks 11, and in Ba Jin's "''Paradise for Birds''", which ranks 19]. Therefore one can state, that moving essays form the top.
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==
In 1927, Chinese literature took the form of 'engaged literature'. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics in daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. In the later half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of individuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife.
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==
In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only remiscent element left is the patriotism.[ ''Trends like the use of ordinary language'', which one finds in novels since 1993 (''Jia Pingwa'', Feidu; ''Gu Cheng'', Yingger) and New Borderlessness since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable ''object d'art''.]

'''References''' [partly mentioned with German translation] （不用翻）

Vera Schwarcz 1996, Vera Schwarcz, "The pain of sorrow: public uses of personal grief in modern China", in Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Winter 1996)

Ba Jin 1982, Ba Jin: "Yi feng huixin 一封回信" (Ein Antwortbrief (26.10.1982)), in: Bing zhong ji 病中集 (Auf dem Krankenlager), Hongkong 香港 1984(?) (Series Suixiang lu 隨想錄 (Thoughts) Bd 4), 147 pp.

Ba Jin 1982a, Ba Jin: "Yi pian xuwen 一篇序文" (Ein Vorwort) [dated 1982.9/10], in: Ba Jin: Auf dem Krankenlager 1984

Ba Jin 1956, Ba Jin 巴金: "Duli sikao 獨立思考" (Unabhängig denken), in: Li Jisheng 李濟生, Li Xiaolin 李小林 (Hgg.): Ba Jin liushi nian wenxuan (1927 - 1986), Suixiang lu, zagan, sanwen, xuba, yanjiang, shuxin 巴金六十年文選（１９２７－１９８６）隨想錄·雜感·散文·序跋· 演講·書信 (Ba Jin. Werkauswahl aus 60 Jahren (1927 - 1986), Gedanken, vermischte Gefühle, Essays, Vor- und Nachworte, Reden, Briefe), Shanghai 上海: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe 上海文藝出版社 (Literatur- und Kunstverlag Shanghai), 1986.12, S. 461 - 462 [Datiert auf 1956.]

Ba Jin 1962, "Zuojia de yongqi yu zerenxin 作家的勇氣與責任心" (Mut und Verantwortungsbewußtsein der Schrifsteller) 1962; der Essay von Zhou Zuoren 周作人: "Wenxue tan 文學談" (Über Literatur), in: Tan long ji 談龍集 (Über Drachen. Sammlung), Shanghai 上海: Kaiming shudian 開明書店 (Kaiming Buchladen) 1927.12, Nachdruck: Hongkong 香港: Shiyong shuju 使用書局 (Praxisverlag) 1972.1, 310 S., S. 165 - 167

Zhou Zuoren 1919, Zhou Zuoren, "Zuxian chongbai 1919 (Ancestor Worship)," in Early Essays, op.cit., pp. 78

Zhou Zuoren 1920: Zhou Zuoren 周作人, Xin wenxue de yaoqiu 新文學的要求" (The demand of the New Literature) [lecture], in Beiping shaonian xuehui 北平少年學會 (Beiping youth conference) 1920.1.6, in: Zhang Ruoying 長若英: Xin wenxue yundong shi ziliao 新文學運動史資料 (Material on the history of the New Literature movement), Shanghai 上海: Guangming shuju 光明書局 (Guangming bookstore) (1934.9) ²1936.9, 291-296

Zhou Zuoren 1923, Zhou Zuoren: Yanzhicao ba (Preface to Yu Pingbo's Yanzhicao), in: Yongri ji (Book of Eternal Day), Shanghai: Beixin shuju 1929, 180-181

Zhou Zuoren 1929, Zhou Zuoren: Ertong de shu (The books of children), in: Chenbao fukan (1923.8.17)

Zhou Zuoren yuanliu, Zhou Zuoren: Zhongguo xin wenxue de yuanliu (Sources of New Chinese Literature), p 71

Zhou Zuoren 1932, Zhou Zuoren: Lun baguwen 1932, in: Kanyun ji p. 148

Source: NEAAS annual meeting 10/09/1999 New Haven (Yale University)
==Guo Lu 郭露==
'''Modern Chinese Literature and the Essay Genre: A New Perspective'''

''Martin Woesler''

In this paper, I will not recount the contents and propose interpretations of any essays, nor will I outline the main topics or styles of essaywriting in China, but I would like to take the opportunity to reflect a little bit on the phenomenon of the genre itself and discuss some conclusions and hypotheses with the attentive and critical audience which can be found at only a few places on earth, EALC at Harvard definitely being one of them.

《中国现代文学与散文体裁：以新视角》

''吴漠汀''

在本文中,我将不再赘述任何文章的内容和提出的观点,我也不会列出其主要主题或风格,但是我想借此机会,反映一些现象本身的类型，并与包括哈佛大学学生在内的观众对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

《中国现代文学与散文体裁：新视角》

吴漠汀

本文将不再赘述或解释任何文章的内容，也不会列出中国散文的主要主题或风格。我想借此机会，反思体裁现象，同乐于助人、至关重要且世间少有的读者，包括哈佛大学东亚语言和文化学院的学生，对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:28, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==
'''1. The unknown genre'''

The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. In my paper I will ask, if the picture of literature can remain unchanged, if we take into consideration also the essay. The genre has been neglected for a long time as a genre of merit (Margouliès 1949, Schmidt-Glintzer 1990) or overlooked (McNaughton 1974, Leiden 1988-90, McDougall 1998);
==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==
whereas its elder brother, fiction, has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularisation of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement. Modern anthologies would have the reader believe that a triumvirate of poetry, fiction and drama forms the backbone of modern Chinese literary output.
==He Changqi 何长琦==
'''Excursion: Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''

Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with xiaoshuo (fiction), sanwen (non-fictional prose)), lyrics (shige) and drama (xiqu). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term "wu yunwen" which corresponds to the term "epic" in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground.
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==
In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet. The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.
==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==
"Essay", Chinese mostly ''sanwen'', is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Freedom in form and content is essential for the essay.
==Hu Jin 胡瑾==
Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, a subcategorization in numerous small entities, like Zheng Mingli does with the essay, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==
Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems. All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.
==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==

In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay.

在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。今天我们在刊物上看到的中国散文，已经具备了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文类别的第二个暗示。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 07:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

在21世纪，世界上的国家趋向于走到一起，而文化则主要取决于现代化水平。正如我们从现今报纸里面看到的那样，中国散文采用了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文开始趋同于国际散文体裁的第二个标志。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:27, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Hao 姜好==
Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 1992 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay).
==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==
Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it "Chinese"? In the occidental essay the form seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework.

除了首先由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文有独特本土的特征。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？和中文散文相比，西方散文的文章形式似乎是更重要的分类标准。在中国，甚至有些文章内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 02:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

除了最初由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？与中文散文相比，西方散文的形式分类标准似乎更重要。在中国，有些文章甚至是内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:18, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==
This can be shown with Zheng Mingli, who subcategorises the "unfinished diary" or the "unfinished letter". Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Zheng Mingli: "essay in diary form" and "essay in letter form"), they are accepted as essays.
==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==
'''The Chinese understanding of the genre is tendencially broader'''

This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén'' "non-rhythmic prose", which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning "short literary essay pieces".

Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.
==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==
'''The Chinese essay is booming again in the 1980s and 1990s'''

Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report (''baogao wenxue'').[ Klaschka 1998.] The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous ''sanwen congshu'' 散文叢書 (essay bookseries).
==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==
The increase in essay production right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in a sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for a survey.

Thanks to the work of some major Chinese editors, the whole essay culture was compiled from magazines and newspapers and was published in a flood of anthologies since the 1970s. This boom is comparable to the cultural fever of undigging xiangtu literature, which rose in Taiwan in front of the background of the movement of self-identification and independance.
==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==
'''2. Why is the essay as abundant as fiction?'''

Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:

- The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history (the reform ideas from the end of the Qing dynasty through the May Fourth period with the literary theorethical pieces and the daily political zawen of Lu Xun, until today are mostly presented in essay form). The impact on literary reflection and theory is shown in the collection "Modern Chinese Literary Thought" 1996. The effect of the essay genre with its direct language, its connection to life (e.g. its role in the coming to terms with the cultural revolution), and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers. This impact is larger than the indirect one of fiction or poetry. The poem is the genre of retreat from social life, from political issues and time references.
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==
Hu Shi argues, that ''poetry'' is most important in the process of modernity, since poetry rises emotions. But it relies also on images and on linguistic rhythm. Liang Qichao stresses the role of novel and opera in the changing society. But ''sanwen'' is able to name things, it reflects life, caleidoscopic. Modern subjectivity is constructed with the tool of ''sanwen''.

- The essay also reflects trends in the society better than poetry and fiction: Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem with its limitation in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.
==Li Haiquan 李海泉==
- The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, the amount of time spended on reading novels goes back, too. The essay itself a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.

- The essay tells us more about an author and his time than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions. We look trough authentic eyes on his contemporary society. Many authors turned to essay writing in the later periods of their lifes, like Lu Xun, Ba Jin, and Wang Meng.
==Li Lili 李丽丽==
- The volume of ''essay'' production exceeds the volume of ''xiaoshuo'' production: Chinese newspapers since the 1870s on[ Shenbao, Shibao etc. Liang Qichao sees the role of the newspaper both as liberal and authoritative: He understands the press as an institution to control the government, on the other hand he favors censorship.] and as a mass media from the early 20th century presented only one or two fictional stories in a serialized form, but invented essay columns like ''zagan'' (from which Lu Xun developed his ''zawen''), ''suibi'' or ''suixiang'' (from which famous collections like Ba Jin's ''Suixiang lu'' derived).

“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:54, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Lingyue 李凌月==
'''3. Let us assign the essay its proper place'''
The consequence which must be driven from the above presented contrast between value and valuing of the essay is: Let us assign the essay its proper place! I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.
Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay.
==Li Liqin 李丽琴==
In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).
==Li Luyi 李璐伊==
Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998) and for the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996).

Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.
==Li Meng 李梦==
In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th. If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode 1989:50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation.
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==
Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai, Woesler) or already published (Pollard 1999). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. This year, scholars will meet on a first international conference on the essay (Achern, Germany August 25-26). In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays.
==Li Yu 李玉==
'''4. Taking into consideration the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature'''

I will give a few hints, what the essay can contribute to the picture of Chinese Literature, which so far is overshadowed by fiction through the narrative of C.T. Hsia, Prusek and Anderson.

We are used to established narratives, like the emergence and success of the May-Fourth literature. But this view neglects the role, that for example the ''yuanyang hudie pai'' played in the choir of different voices in the awoken intellectual debate in the beginning of this century.
==Lin Min 林敏==
The May-Fourth group at that time was one voice among many and only succeeded because of its agitation and polemic in the public sphere, so we have to use new means to assign the Chinese essay its proper place. We learn from simplifiying narratives, that it is absolutely necessary to differentiate, and to reconstruct the complex time background. Having understood Chinese literature as determined by the development of fiction and poetry only, a broader understanding will change the whole appearance of Chinese literature. A scholarly endeavour is the use of modern literary theories in the approach to this genre.
==Lin Xin 林鑫==
In the following, I will name three aspects (chronologically sorted by past, modern and contemporary time) to hold the argument, that the taking into consideration of the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature and change our current understanding of it.

'''5. The classical and premodern essay documents Chinese philosophy, early subjectivity and still, a native Chinese tradition is questioned'''

How is the Chinese essay to be positioned historically, how did it emerge, what is its generic background? Generically, the ancestors of the essay are both in China and the West notes written on the margins of books, they are letters and travel notes.

==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==
These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality und subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''.

From the very beginning, the essay was valued lower than poetry: the oldest reference this far for the term ''sanwen'' that I found is Luo Dajing's 羅大經 (? - after 1248) statement from 1240: “Shī sāomiào tiānxià, ér sǎnwén pōjué suǒsuì júcù.
==Liu Bo 刘博==
詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。” (Poetry is moving mankind in a wonderful way, prose inquires into incoherent bagatels, is limited.) (''Helin yulu''). Another reproach Luo Dajing mentions, is a formal one: In comparison to the highly artistic and century-long tradition of poetic writing, the direct and often vernacular langage of the essay in his eyes had less value.

In the West, a real 'art of the essaywriting' came up in the late 16th century as a medium for the newly reorganized knowledge.
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==
The reorganization originated from the observations of Kopernikus, which destroyed the whole conception of the world of the Middle Age.

In China, particularly the debates on Buddhism in the 4th and 5th century A.D. saw the origination of a tradition of letters. The Chinese tradition of the ''sanwen'' 散文 (essay) however, in the understanding of sǎn 散 as (to dispel, leisure, loose, relaxed, irregular, independant style, free prose, can be seen not before the detachment from the dialogue - or aphorism, which is still visible in the philosophical ''Lunyu''.
==Liu Liu 刘柳==
Xunzi delivered the prototype of the later essay with his philosophical treatises. They are an early form of philosophical didactical essays, in which general theorems are derived not only from quotations of the canonized classical works, but for the first time also from his own individual experience. The individuality is still a main characteristic of the essay today.

During the dynasties the essay manifested itself further in certain subcategories: From reading-notes written at the paper margins originated the ''biji'' µ§°O (occasional notes), flourishing in the Ming Dynasty.

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形，它们是哲学教学论文的早期形式。其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。

历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 02:25, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，这些散文中传授的普遍定理不仅有引用经典著作，还首次借鉴其个人经历。这种个体性在当代的散文中仍有保留。

历朝历代，散文通过一些子类别得以呈现，如明朝盛行的在书页边上写的读书注释，它就是源于笔记。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Ou 刘欧==
The marginalism is a link between Western and Chinese tradition of early essays. Occasional notes could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as a genre of its own originated in China not before the Qing ²M dynastie, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.

Taking into consideration the social-historical background draws a different picture of the old society than short stories and novels: Essays are much closer to real life, since they express individual problems and experiences.
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==
Until now, the Chinese pre-''Hongloumeng'' individual literature spoke only through the indirect language of poems to us. Rediscovering the essays, we have a splendid source of opinions, social-historical pictures etc.

Premodern essay literature consists of much more than its most well-known example, the formally restrictive ''baguwen''. Lu Xun himself wrote some of his essays in ''baguwen'' style, but on the other hand took it as a synonym for the ancient society. Zhou Zuoren saw the rhythm of the language of the "Eight legged essay" as as appealing and intoxicating as the "pleasure of doing opium.'' (Zhou 1932:148).

目前为止，中国红楼梦前的个体文学还只是通过诗中的间接语言与我们对话。通过重拾散文，我们可以知晓不同观点和社会历史状况等文学创作的丰富源泉。
现代散文之前的文学并不限于形式上受限制的八股文，一方面鲁迅本人也有一些散文是用八股文写成的，但另一方面他又把八股文当作古代社会的代名词。周作人把 "八股文 "的语言节奏看作是 "做鸦片的快感 "一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 08:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

直到现在，中国前“红楼梦”的个体文学只能通过诗歌的间接语言与我们对话。重新发掘这些散文，我们可以拥有丰富的观点来源，社会历史图片等。

前现代散文文学不仅仅包括它最为人所知的例子，正式的、有限制性的“八卦文”。鲁迅自己的一些文章就是用“八卦文”写的，但是在另一方面又把它当作古代社会的同义词。周作人认为《八股文》的语言节奏就像“吸鸦片的快感”一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 09:07, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yi 刘艺==
But he considered it also as a prevalent genre implicit in the modern writings as ''yang bagu'' (westernized bagu) and ''dang bagu'' (party-line bagu) (borrowing from Wu Zhihui, Zhou Yuanliu:71).

Neo-Confucianism stressed ''wen'' (prose) as the most important tool to transmit the ''dao'' (way): ''Wenyi zai dao'' (Literature as the carrier of the way). If we reinterprete this diction in the perspective of genre, we can say, that the essay then has been regarded as an important tool to express truth, subjectivity and Self.

但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。

新儒家强调''文''（散文）是传播''道''的最重要工具：''文以载道''（文以载道）。如果我们从文体的角度来重新解读这句话，我们可以说，当时的散文已经被视为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==
Liang Qichao developed a ''xīn wéntǐ'' 新文體 (new prose style), which was influenced by Western languages, but the essay became popular not before the newspapers became mass media, and the language changed into ''baihua''.

'''6. The essay as the medium of modernity, the questioning of the genuiness of the Chinese essay'''

To solve first of all the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, one finds both traditions relevant: The occidental essay was introduced to the writers of the literature reform movement from 1907 on by translations in Chinese (Lin Shu: ''Irving'' 1907, ''Addison'' 1911).
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==
The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations. First developed a Chinese essay tradition, which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology, its own proponents succumbed soon to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history only. A seemingly unbroken Chinese tradition of the native Chinese ''wenyan sanwen'' is presented in Chinese textbooks (Yu Zaichun 1978-82, Li Xishang 1985).

This is older than the ones referred to in the ''Large Chinese Dictionary'' of Morohashi (Morohashi undated) and in the ''Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Chinese Language'' 1966.

==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==
Still, the value of the native tradition of essay writing and the role of the Western influence upon it is discussed controversially among the scholars. Some admit that Western impact played a key role in what we understand as Chinese essays nowadays: Wang Bin 1992, Fan Peisong 1993; for Western impact in general see Průšek 1964, Gálik 1966, McDougall 1971. Other scholars think that Western influence is overestimated - Denton 1996 showed that the theoretical background was missing for understanding Western theories of literature in China, - and recommended that we understand the essay first by its national tradition.
==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==
How far personal opinion may influence the narrative of historical facts can be seen by the example of the legendary authors of the May Fourth movement. All of them considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay: Zhou Zuoren 1921, Lu Xun 1933, the anarchist and later member of the Guomindang Wu Zhihui [1934]. Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition:
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==
for example, Lu Xun with his theory "'Zhǎnkāi' shuō yǔ 'méngyá' lùn “展開”說與“萌芽”論"" (Theory of "Starting" and "Blossoming") came to see the fighting and critical character of the essay of the Jin dynasty (265 - 420) as the 'father' of the Chinese essay, and Zhou Zuoren first the English essay (1921) and later the ''biji'' (occasional notes) of the Ming, although he still tried to integrate the English essay in his "Gonganpài yu Yīngguo xiaopin 'hecheng' lun 公安派與英國小品“合成”論" (Theory of the Synthesis of the Gongan School and the English Essay).
==Ma Juan 马娟==
Wang Zengqi regrets that the national Chinese tradition of the essay at the time of the 'May Fourth Movement' has not been taken up again and has not continued in contemporary essays (Wang Zengqi 1993). The Chinese essay is an accommodating object of study, because one may look to it to prove any theory of the essay. One can find examples for each topic in almost every period, simply because the essay has a wide range of subjects.
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==
When Zhou Zuoren showed that only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge it was again possible to write about a candy seller (1924), he was critizised as "paralyzing" (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943). When he wrote a piece on the "Fly", he was reproached with dealing with subjects of minor importance. Reproaches like this lie in the very nature of the genre, since ''marginalism'' is substantial to the essay. The mentioned formal reproach of Luo Dajing can be found again in the 1990s, Hong Kong students critisized the literary style as it appears in Ba Jins "Thoughts" (Suixiang lu) as too direct and too less artful. But this perspective does not recognize the very nature of the essay, which is a very individual expression of an author's thoughts and not bound to tradition, and therefore much more free also in content.
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==
The essay - from its very nature free and independant - almost disappeared in the time of the Cultural Revolution and - except for the ideologically influenced essays - had a hard struggle between Yan'an and the loss of moral legitimacy by the leadership in 1989.

The essay was ''the'' genre of the modernizing society of the early 20th century. Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to war and warlordism and later in the modernizing society, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming "needs" of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products.
==Meng Ying 孟莹==
But from its very nature, the essay set new boundaries in form and content, and therefore not only survived the ideological restrictions, but also established its own critical subculture within. The essay was not only a medium of discussion and a documentation of the social-political background for us today, but also a documentation of the personal struggle of the writers finding a position in a changing environment, since the essay is "a genre of self-reflection". Some essays even deconstructed master narratives like the one of leftist ideology, often simply by confronting it with subjective experience, reality or art.

I want to mention another position on literature, which stresses the impact of literature on life, especially on the eve of revolutions - following this view, all literature is political (Jameson).
==Mo Ling 莫玲==
Not only the understanding of literature as a whole changes if we take into consideration the essay, also the view of single authors shifts, if we see not only their novels or poems, but also their essays. I mention only Zhou Zuoren. His ideas connected him spiritually to his contemporary collegues in Europe, Japan and America, but these where ideas for which China turned out to be not yet ready. At that time, China had taken a road which led away from progress, wealth, freedom and spiritual enlightenment. The consequences have yet to be overcome.
==Mo Nan 莫南==
In 1927, Chinese literature has taken the form of 'engaged literature'. The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology.
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==
Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (My own garden 9.1923, "The Fly" 1924, "Reading on the Toilet" 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==
I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda. This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character.
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==
In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.

Taking into account of a genre shifts the whole perspective on literature, taking into account the essayistic works of an author shifts also the view of the author. I will name only one author as an example for a modern essayist: Zhou Zuoren.

20世纪90年代，20、30年代民国时期的文本和当代的文本一样也经常被重印。显然，我们可得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的那些政治宣传文只能留存在特殊的政治文章选集当中，到了21世纪初，就不再有作者去写这类文章，也不会有中国读者去看这类文章了。

考虑到整个体裁对整个文学角度的转变，以及散文作品反映出的作者观点的变化，我只举一位现代散文家的例子：周作人。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

20世纪90年代，20-30年代民国时期的文章仍然和当代的同类文章一样经常被重印。显然，我们可以得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的政治宣传类散文只保存在专门的政治散文集中，到21世纪初，不再有人去写，也不再有人读这类文章了。

一种文学体裁会转变整个文学的视角，一位作家的散文作品，同样也会转变对这个作家的看法。我只以一位现代散文家为例：周作人。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Dan 彭丹==
'''Zhou Zuoren'''

I mentioned already his theoretical contribution to the Chinese essayism, but still, his essays have been neglected until the 1980s. The reason does not lie in literary quality, but in political valuing. The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that the theoretical May Fourth genius "degenerated" and later became a "traitor". Publishing in the Japanese sponsored magazines ''Reminiscences'',* and ''Chinese Literature'', he was blamed together with Zhu Pu and Yuan Xi of collaboration. An unanswered question is, why another author, who published there, Zhang Ailing, was never reproached with collaboratorship. The difference between all of them is that Zhang Ailing tried to avoid political committments, whereas Zhou felt guilty, Zhu justified it and Yuan simply accepted it.
==Peng Juan 彭娟==
''The 'mainstream' writers took an affirmative approach in their writing, whereas the other writers formed a minority. The individual authors did not necessarily belong to either one of these groups throughout their life, but may have moved between them. Since the essay is a medium which enables the individual to express thoughts directly, the writers chosen for this paper can be classified according to their position.''

''Yu Guangzhong's essay'' "The wolves are coming" ''shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting.''
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==
In his small literary pieces, Zhou tried to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday life out of the subjective experience of his private space. The major contribution of Zhou Zuoren is, that he set the turning point in Chinese essay writing with his call for writing short literary pieces (''Meiwen'' 1921).

In foreign literature there is the so-called ''lunwen'' 論文 (treatise), which is roughly divided into two groups: the reflecting ones, piping 批評 (critical), are scientific articles. The others are ''jishu'' 記述 (descriptive) and ''yishuxing'' 藝術性 (artistic), they are also called ''meiwen'' 美文 (aesthetic essay). Within these texts, one can distinguish between ''xushi'' 敘事 (narrative) and ''shuqing'' 抒情 (lyric). But there are also mixed texts. [...] I hope that the aesthetical essay is encouraged to come back, and will open up a new field for the New Literature. Wouldn’t that be wonderful?
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==
With these words from the essay "''The aesthetic essay''" this new vernacular form was defined. This starting point founded a whole new tradition of essay writing in China. Contemporary writers called this piece the "king of essays".

In order to bring this new form to his compatriots, he tried to find similiarities with the ''xiaopinwen'' of the Ming dynasty. He further discussed these thoughts in his essay theory. In his own essays, he profited a lot from ancient ''suibi''. Later he further developed his literary theory towards an up and down of two trends. In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to "treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives" and to "make children the essence of children's literature" (Zhou 1923). He promoted the ''baguwen'' and the independance of literature from politics and effected the literary scene and the development towards a modern Chinese society especially between 1917 and 1938.

“美学散文”中的这些词语定义了这种新的白话形式。这个起点在中国建立了一种新的散文写作传统。当代作家称此作品为“散文之王”。

为了将这种新形式带给他的同胞，他试图找到其与明朝“小品文”的相似之处。他在散文理论中进一步讨论了这些思想。他自己的散文也从古代的“随笔”中受益匪浅。后来，他将文学理论朝着上下两种趋势进一步发展。在现代化社会中，他呼吁解放妇女、“将儿童看作具有外在和内在生命的完整主体”以及“让儿童成为儿童文学的本质”（Zhou 1923）。他提倡“八股文”和文学脱离政治的独立性，这对文学界产生了影响，并推动了中国向近代社会尤其是1917年至1938年的发展。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 09:48, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==
With this theoretical foundation and his own vo'luÉminous essayistic work, Zhou Zuoren through the example of his own form of short literary pieces within this genre, fought at that stage of the development of his literary theory like Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque 130 years ago in France for the idea "l'art pour l'art" , for individuality and independance of the writer, for disinterested literature. The jugdment, that Zhou was an apolitical author cannot be proved with his essays. Instead, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance (Zhou 1929:180-181).
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==
In fact he saw himself as ‘patriotic underground fighter’ and looked at the collaboration with the Japanese puppet regime as a forced one, following his attempted assasination, through which his driver had lost his life. His own concept of essay writing served less the needs of the building of a nation-state and comes closer to the ideal of the individual.

"I don't really know why, but I am feeling as if I am born into a dark age. I admit, that our forests are not inhabited by dragons, tigers and wolves, but shapeless "monsters" and "goblins" are still creeping around and try to swallow our souls. [...] What alarms me most, is the absence of freedom in this prison, into which we writers have been thrown."
==Qi Kai 漆凯==
Confronting tradition and progress in the essay "''Ancestor Worship''", he is in favor of the latter, since past could only become present through changes (Zhou 1919:7-8).

Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque (1767 - 1830) war französischer Romanschriftsteller und liberaler Politiker, der neben der Freiheit der Kunst nach der Französischen Revolution die Einführung der konstitutionellen Monarchie nach englischem Vorbild forderte.

==Qu Miao 瞿淼==
Siehe ''Journal'' (10.2.1804). Die "Kunst um der Kunst willen" propagierte die Zweckfreiheit der Kunst. Im Gegensatz dazu versteht sich die engagierte Literatur. Die Parallele zwischen Zhou Zuorens Literaturverständnis und dem Konzept "Kunst um der Kunst willen" zieht auch Wolff: ''Chou Tso-jen'' 1971, S. 84.

Siehe Zhou Zuoren: ''Der Ursprung der neuen chinesischen Literatur'' 1934, S. 95 - 98; vgl. auch Chen Zizhan: ''Vorträge zur chinesischen Literaturgeschichte'' 1937, Bd 3, pp. 416 - 422, besonders S. 422. Hinweis in: H. Martin: "''Liang Qichao on Poetry Reform''" 1996, Bd 1, S. 213.
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==
Regarding Zhou Zuoren, I want to correct the official assessment of the People’s Republic, that his work would have experienced a caesura in 1938. In order to explain his opposition of the propaganda to build up national heroes about 1937 and his collaboration from 1939, it has been said officially, that his thoughts had "duoluo 墮落" (degenerated) at that time (Zhu Jinshun 1990:59). In fact, this caesura, namely the change in the style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xianshi'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment) is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest through the Guomindang (1945).
==Sagara Seydou ==
Therefore not the Japanese suppressors are responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots'.

On the basis of the stigma of the 'traitor', he has been undervalued until now. That his work in the 1990s is almost as often published as Lu Xun's and Zhu Ziqing's shows that his texts finally experience a more positive literaric evaluation through the audience, which now must be registered also by scholars.

==Shi Diwen 石迪文==
Another example of a misread Zhou Zuoren is his short essay on "''The Fly''", where he describes his changing attitude towards flies, which he had played with as child but later disgusted when he learned about their danger of passing on diseases. ”''The fly''” shows Zhou Zuoren’s strength to describe details and make them a real topic by recalling memories on them or describing a change of perspective on them. Zhou summarized the philosophical wisdom he learnt from this, that people did not judge on things objectively, but were likely to praise or damn things.
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==
The official reading re¬proaches Zhou that he "saw only the fly and not the cosmos" , a quotation of the young Zhou about a position he himself clearly opposed.

His ability to chat about the more pleasent things in life is displayed in his essay ”Birds’ twitter”. In ”''Peking cakes and sweet-meat''” and in ”''Wild vegetable of my home region''”, Zhou Zuoren shows his ability to make the reader feel at home at a region, where he feels at home himself, by describing the customs and special regional food.

Siehe Zhou Zuoren: "Cangying 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: ''Chenbao fujuan'' 晨报副镌 (Beilage zur Morgenpost) (1924.7.13). Eine Zu¬sammenfassung des Inhalts findet sich in: Yu Daxiang (Hg.): ''Auswahllexikon chinesischer Essays mit Inhaltsangaben und Analysen'' 1993.

''Siehe Vollständige chinesische Anthologie der Wissenschaften - Bd Chinesische Literatur'' 1988, Bd 2, S. 1300. Dies spielt auf den Essay "''Cangying'' 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: Zhou Zuoren: ''Zhi Tang. Sammlung'' 1933 an.（文献无需翻译）

==Si Yu 司妤==
His piece ”''Bitter rain''” shows the atmosphere, for what his essays had been labelled ”bitter tea”: There remains a taste in one’s mouth after reading. If you compare Lu Xun’s ”''On tea drinking''” (Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326) with Zhou Zuoren’s essay with the same title, you see the difference of ”short and to the point” and ”eloquent and well-read”. ”''First love''” is more hilarious. The essay ”''Three different ways to die''” shows that Zhou Zuoren can compete with his elder brother in sarcasm. Lu Xun's essay on the same subject, the massacre on March 18, 1926, was a sight.
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==
Zhou asks for the ”best” way to die and favors the short and painless one. In ”''On alcohol''” and ”''The awning bunk boat''” Zhou Zuoren continues the tradition of late Ming ''biji''.

'''7. The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''

''What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.''

==Su Lin 苏琳==
The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a consciously “corrected” truth.
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==
The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (Wang Meng: "''Anxiang'' 安详" (Serene) 1992, "''Zuohao ni ziji de shi'' 做好你自己的事" (First make your own things in a good way) 1994).
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==
These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.

Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive ("''Shanxi opera''", Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world ("''The nightmare''", Si Yu 1995).

From the essay, we can see contemporary trends of literature, which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:

==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==
- The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall 1984:xiii);

- The increasing consciousness of indivi¬duality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjecti¬ve expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands;

- A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.

- The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.

- 当下中国社会的浮躁节奏，对转折性和短文的要求。"[...]我们生活在一个论述的时代"(Hall 1984:xiii)。

- 越发增加的独立意识，对其而言，文章是最直接的主体表达形式，甚至比诗的格律和形式要求更直接。

- 通过散文这一媒介讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复苏，就像20世纪20/30年代的情况一样。

- 日常生活的平庸性通过成为文学话题而变得自觉，最常见的是日常生活的文体--散文。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

-当前中国社会节奏轻快，要求有趣味的短文：“[…]我们生活在一个博览会时代”（大厅1984:xiii）；

-对于个人二元性意识的增强，散文是主体性表达的最直接形式，甚至比诗歌的韵律和形式要求更直接；

-通过这篇文章讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复复苏，如同20世纪20年代或30年代的情况一样。

-日常生活的平庸通过成为一个文学主题而变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活的体裁——散文。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:59, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tang Bei 汤蓓==
- The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays.

- Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.
==Tang Ming 唐铭==
This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publis¬hing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: "readers").

- The criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China are the following: In the most often printed essay "''The Back View''", filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", both written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==
Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Wang Zengqi. Therefore one can state, that moving es¬says form the top.

- ''In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in¬dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.''

==Tao Ye 陶冶==
''In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph'' China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war (''No''! 1996).

- ''The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art.''
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==
''Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Jia Pingwa, Feidu; Gu Cheng, Yingger) and'' New Borderlessness ''since'' 1995, ''cannot be pro-ven in the essaywriting. ''

- Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being "''The Small Dog Baodi''", written by Ba Jin 1981, in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before ("''In memoriam of Xiao Shan II''", Ba Jin 1984).
==Wang Xuan 王轩==
Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Der-Wei Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of Wang Zengqi's "''Rain in Kunming''" as well as for Jia Pingwa's "''Shanxi opera''".

- The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing fictional truth through the metaphor of his dog Baodi.

Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.（文献无需翻译）

''Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay "The nightmare", where Si Yu appears as a de-constructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.''（文献无需翻译）

And maybe for Xie Bingxins* reflections on her experience as one of the chosen voluntaries of the Wuhan military academy: She insisted to remain a lifelong "woman soldier" .（文献无需翻译）

==Wang Yu 王煜==
'''8. Discussion: Is the genre of the essay the form of literary expression in 21st century China?'''

Regarding the future of the Chinese literature, we can only speculate. But out the risk of being wild and provocative, I would like to suggest some questions for considering the place of the essay in the field of Chinese literature and literary studies.

- People have less time for actions like reading, and get used to reduced visualized information through the Internet. Will the brevity of the essay make it the ideal medium?

==Wang Yuan 王源==
- If the Chinese people are rediscovering their individuality, will the essay allow them to express individual thoughts more directly?

- Modern societies are characterized by TV culture, mass consumption, and the loss of consciousness of one's own tradition, often partly due to the American impact on national cultures. Is the essay less bound to the restrictions of tradition, especially compared to the poem and thus more adaptable to the modern phenomenon of mass consumption?

==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==
- The alienation and the anonymity of citylife worldwide, in China is combined with a loss of traditional values like ideology, family, solidarity etc. in favor of the concept of profit for oneself, - if this has produced a longing for new orientation, will it possibly be filled by morally guiding essays or nationalistic thinking?

《红楼梦》与其他世界文学作品的相似性——推荐《红楼梦》列入世界记忆遗产名录

'''Commonness between the Red Chamber Dreams and other World Literature Novels – Proposing the Red Chamber Dreams to the World Documentary Heritage List'''（修改）

吴漠汀，湖南师范大学 Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University

Source: Lecture at Harvard University, Cambridge, MA USA, 14.3.2000（文献无需翻译）
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==
'''Abstract'''

In every culture, readers associate the literature they know with new literature they read. So literature is always cumulative, it grows out of existing literature and can refer back to it. When Western readers read the Red Chamber Dreams, they foremost associate novels and other pieces of literature of their own cultural tradition with the Dreams. This has also influenced the first full translation into German.

Cao Xueqin and even more his protagonist Jia Baoyu both are early humanists, universalists and world citizens. ''The Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide.

摘要

在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中生长出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。

曹雪芹，尤其是他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。（修改）

在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中衍生出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。

曹雪芹，甚至于他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:09, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==
''The Dream'' is a complex showroom of diverse aspects of Chinese cultures and is the embodiment and essence of Chinese cultures, but it has also a global impact, therefore it should be honoured as “World Documentary Heritage”.

红楼梦》综合展示了中国的多元文化，是中国文化的集中体现和精华，同时在全球范围内产生影响，理应列入世界记忆遗产名录。（修改）

多元一体

'''Key words'''

Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage

“红楼梦”是一个多元的中国文化综合体，是中国文化的体现和精髓，但它也具有全球影响力，因此应该被授予“世界文献遗产”的荣誉。（修改<nowiki>Insert non-formatted text here</nowiki>）

多元一体

'''Key words'''

Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage
--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==
'''1. Chinese Ethics'''

To help the poor and disadvantaged belongs to the traditional core values of Chinese culture.

When we sit in the Beijing Subway today, the loudspeaker announcement reminds us, that it is Chinese traditional ethics to give seats to the disadvantaged (老弱病残孕让座是中国传统道德). We know of Cao Xueqin, that he supported the poor and disadvantaged, and that he made kites for children.

However, when we look closer at these “Chinese Ethics”, we discover, that they are claimed also in Indian Buddhism “karuna” and in the Christian tradition of “caritas” and in almost every civilization. Therefore, we might call these values “human ethics”.

==Wu Kai 吴恺==
'''2. Compatibility
'''
Why do the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide and have achieved world literature status even in their translations?

First of all, the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are, like novels worldwide, a piece of entertainment literature. In comparison to the drama, in which every element is compulsory and plays its part in the overall structure, in the novel the line of action itself is simpler and not so important, most of the scenes or episodes are loosely put together and fit in the broader theme of the novel.
==Wu Qi 吴琪==
However, the lose arrangement of episodes of the ''Dreams'' comes from the tradition of almost unconnected episodes like in the ''Shuihuzhuan'' and is a step towards the greater coherence of the episodes, the aligning into a story line and the greater concentration on fewer protagonists. Therefore, the ''Dreams'' show clearly a step towards the Western tradition of novels, maybe because of growing Western influence in Qing dynasty.

'''3. Impact of translator’s native culture on the translation process'''

There are intercultural parallels between the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' and Western works of literature.
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==
These parallels are fundamental for the translation and were explicitly and implicitly fundamental for the German translator Martin Woesler during his translation and editorial work on the first full German translation. In the following, I will mention some of the Western novels and pieces of literature, which the Western reader of the ''Dreams'' will immediately think of.

'''4. The novel as embodiment of “Zeitgeist”'''

According to Georg Lukács’ ''Theory of the Novel'', while the Epos (like Homer’s ''Ilias'', which like the ''Dream'' reasons the stories in the divine realm) displayed a holistic world experience, a complete, self-contained culture, the novel displays, that the modern world has become infinitely large and has lost its homely quality.
==Wu Xiang 邬香==
The novel as a genre is no longer documenting just one culture, but represents, with the words of Walter Benjamin, the Organon of History. So the understanding of the novel changed with Lukacs to historical-philosophically. A novel is understood as typical for its historical era, the novel embodies the spirit of the epoch (Zeitgeist).

The ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are written in front of the background of the Manchu minority having taken over the power in formerly Han-shaped Ming-China (which was a multi-ethnic and crosscultural society) and families suffering the changing favor of changing emperors, with the Cao family being fostered by Kangxi and being persecuted by Yongzheng.
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==
While the author in his time could not criticize the system and power of emperors, in the novel he came to terms with this life by seeking the guilt for the persecution in the growing decadence of the family (engaging in Daoism, leisure, poetry-writing, arts and music instead of learning for being able to earn a living) and in himself not fulfilling the expectations as the family heir. This description of decadence of a declining family reminds us of the novels of Tschechov (and e.g. in the ''Buddenbrooks'' by Mann, including the turn to arts and music).
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==
Moreover, with the detailed description of life on all social levels in early Qing Dynasty, the Dream appears as a documentary historical novel very much like Günter Grass’ The Tin Drum 1959.

'''5. Coming-of-age and Alienation'''

Abandoning the paradise-like garden in the Red Chamber Dreams is a symbol for leaving the protected childhood and arriving in the complex world of adults. With George Lukács theory of the novel, the protagonist starts to problematize the sense of his life, in the novel, the protagonist’s self permanently struggles with his environment.
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==
However, Cao Xueqin’s message is not simply the one of “Paradise Lost”, instead he himself made the best out of his life. Although being less wealthy than when his family still enjoyed the favour of the emperor, there was a payroll system and a social net intact in Early Qing China, where he received enough income to be independent from his rich relatives, to be selective on accepting jobs, to live a relaxed life in a small house in the nature, spending time with his family and friends, follow his own interests, like reading, writing and drinking wine, making kites for the children and thinking of the disadvantaged.
==Xiao Ting 肖婷==
Cao Xueqin was fully aware of his time and China’s cultural achievements, he was familiar with the different levels of society, he was a detailed observer and skilful narrator. He may have conceptualized the ending of the novel as a discussion about the different personalities of the characters in the novel and therefore displaying his reflection about life and his psychological understanding of the diversity of human nature. He was able to grasp the “spirit of time” (Zeitgeist) and with his autobiographical experience create an eternal coming-of-age novel not just for his family, for the Qing-Chinese, for Chinese people, but for mankind.
==Xiao Xi 肖茜==
This tradition of Coming-of-age novels is also a European one, like enlightenment philosopher Voltaire’s novel ''Candide or Optimism''《老实人》shows at the very same time (1759) in Europe. Also Voltaire’s Candide has to leave the luxurious paradise of his childhood and strives for true love, but his main learning is more pessimistic, since Voltaire wrote the novel in opposition to Leibniz, who optimistically looked to China as “the best of all worlds”. Recent research findings show that China had a much larger influence on European enlightenment philosophers and we can be sure, that also Cao Xueqin was aware of some European literary traditions.
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==
Also the German readership is familiar with the chronological following of the life of the protagonist and his development, the fate of a family over generations, the German readership knows this type of novel as the “Education novel” or “Coming-of-age-novel”. In Germany, the genre of the coming-of-age novel has a long tradition and it is shaped more by single characters, who appear as teachers (Goethe: ''Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802).
==Xie Fan 解帆==
Wilhelm Meister, parallely to Jia Baoyu, is struggling with the traditional education, in ''Wilhelm Meister'' this is represented with the classics revived in Shakespeare’s dramas. Tradition can give orientation, but the personality of the protagonist needs to develop through emancipation is a wisdom, we can learn from all mentioned novels including the ''Dreams''.

'''6. Pornography and True Love, female rivals'''

Sexuality is a basic human need and has developed into different shapes in all cultures. The German audience is familiar with erotic topics from the Middle Ages, in which sexuality was stylized. In the “Schwänke” of the 15th century (Wittenwielers Ring), erotic scenes are described sexually explicit.

与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，这通过莎士比亚的经典戏剧得以体现。传统可以作为方向标，但主人公的个性需要通过解放才能发展，这是一种智慧，我们可以以上提过包括《梦》的所有小说中学习。
“6.色情与真爱，女性对手"
性是人类的一种基本需求，在不同文化中展现出不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是有固定程式的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:37, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==
In the barock literature of the 17th century even the physical act is described extensively.

According to „cumulativity“, every human being is a product of history and literature is based on previous literature, therefore the author of this pager thinks that this background has to be taken into account while translating.

The best study on ''qing'' passion in the Dreams is the one by Anthony Yu, who understood it as ''desire'' and as the central motif of the ''Dreams''. „The centrality of qing in shaping virtually every aspect of The Story of the Stone’s structure and meaning cannot be denied [...].“ (Anthony Yu 2001, 54).

==Xu Jia 徐佳==
In the framework story of the Dreams, the narrator consciously takes a stand against low-action and stereotypical pornographic literature as well as against the widespread romance novels (with the classic roles of the beautiful, talented woman and the poor scholar who finally achieves a respected position and prosperity by passing a civil service exam).

In chapter 1 he says: ”of the true feelings of young people [...] nobody has reported about so far.”

Erotic scenes are described in a decent and associative way (“Game of clouds and rain”), while displaying another quality in its openness e.g. towards bisexuality.

==Xu Jing 许晶==
The ''Dreams'' narrate the story of unfortunate lovers. Unfortunate lovers also in the West have a literary tradition, they constitute an archetype, such as Hero and Leander, Pyramus and Thisbe, Tristan and Isolde, Flore and Blanscheflur as well as Troilus and Cressida, the latter being considered the model for Arthur Brookes, who wrote Romeo and Juliet in 1562 and thus directly influenced Shakespeare.

While Marián Galik saw as the central topic of both, the ''Dream'' and ''Faust'', the eternal feminine, which draws us on high, Gu Cheng called it the “eternal virgine”.

==Xu Jing 许静==
In Goethe’s coming-of-age novel ''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre'', we find a similar motif of female rivals, in the Keller 凯勒 ''The Green Henry'' 《绿衣亨利》1855, the hero turns away from an emphatically sexually designed figure and turns to the 'real' woman. In Jane Austen’s ''Pride and Prejudice'' 1813 Elizabeth and Lin Daiyu are similar, e.g. they both strive for real love (Zhuang 2011).
==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==
'''7. Feudal society and slavery'''

A widespread interpretation is that Jia Baoyu’s equal treatment of family members and slaves would be a manifesto to free the slaves. I also do not share this interpretation, since Aristotle, when he demanded democracy, would exclude slaves from the right to vote. So we cannot use modern concepts to judge on the past. In my understanding, Jia Baoyu was not fighting inequality, but looked at the people as humans and individuals.

封建社会和奴隶
一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶一视同仁，这将成为奴隶解放的宣言。我并不同意这个解释，因为亚里士多德的民主就排除了奴隶的投票权。所以，我们并不能用现代观念去评判过去。在我看来，贾宝玉并不是和不平等作斗争，而是把人视作群体和个人。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 09:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德，当他要求民主的时候，会排除奴隶的投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人看成是群体和个人。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:31, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==
Also the understanding of the servants as slaves does not match the description in the Dream, since some servants had servants themselves, the family took care after they left the Jia family to find a match for them and Jia Zheng refers to his daughter Yingchun as „yatou 丫头“, so it is inappropriate to translate this expression with slave. Therefore, the translator preferred “servant” over “slave” in the translation.

另外，把仆人理解为奴隶也与《红楼梦》中所描述的不符，因为有些仆人自己也有仆人，他们离开贾家后，家人会照顾他们，为他们婚配，并且贾正把女儿迎春称为“丫头”，所以用奴隶来翻译这个词是不合适的。因此，译者在翻译中更倾向于“仆人”而不是“奴隶”。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

而且把仆人理解为奴隶与《红楼梦》中的描写不符，因为有些仆人自己还有仆人，贾府会在她们离府的时候为她们寻一门亲事，作为贾府对她们的照料；贾政也把自己的女儿迎春喊作 “丫头”，所以把这些翻译成奴隶是不合适的。因此英文翻译中采用“servant”会比“slave”更为合适。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:08, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==
Mo Yan in his speech at the Frankfurt Bookfair in 2009, when China was the guest of honor, draws the (similarly) parallel between the ''Dream'' and Goethe’s ''Sorrows of the Young Werther'', that both expressed the wish to abandon feudal society. My own impression is that both do not express this wish, but that this is a later concept and interpretation and we should not apply this to judge the past.

2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，他在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的印象是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，而我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的感觉是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:43, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Hairong 杨海容==
'''8. Tragedy of all tragedies'''

Aristotle explained in ''On the Tragedy'' (Poetics VI), that tragedies move people more than comedies because they “imitate [mimēsis] an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude” (Aristotle 1971, 51), This high esteem of the tragedy in Europe is partly ascribed to the loss of Aristotle’s work ''On the Comedy''.

==Yang Hui 阳慧==
While Europe has the Hamlet as its tragedy of all tragedies, the lack of tragic literature in Chinese literary tradition has long been lamented. Wang Guowei sees the Dream as "tragedy of all tragedies". To Wang Guowei the suffering of Faust and Jia Baoyu is central in the novels. However, many scholars contest that Faustianism is central for Chinese culture.

In 18th century Europe, we saw a new development in the genre of the drama, to establish a “bourgeois tragedy”.

==Yang Yi 杨逸==
It developed as an emancipatory movement in the 18th century in London, Paris and Germany, and demonstrated that tragedy was not reserved to rulers, but was also imagineable for lower noblemen and ordinary citizens. The ''Dream'' at the same time as the bourgeois tragedy in Europe shows a tragic story of a mid-level noble family which loses its titles and privileges.

==Yang Yue 杨悦==
'''9. “Non-Binary” Novels'''

One of the things attracting Western readers is the adorable but mysterious protagonist Jia Baoyu. With his open bisexual orientation and his interest in his mates regardless of their social status, he appears “modern” or at least displaced in time. His struggle with traditional learning makes him appear sympathetic, his long states of rapture out of the world give him both the aura of a timeless character and of mystery.

==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==
With the bisexual orientation of the Dreams’ protagonist, the novel appears non-binary.
According to Karl-Heinz Pohl, binaries are just superficial, ultimately decisive is the ''Heart Sutra''. Today, the novel is listed among the genre of non-binary literature (see e.g. the bibliographical list on https://www.goodreads.com/list/tag/non-binary), in which contrasts are dissolved deconstructivistically.

==Yao Cheng 姚诚==
'''10. Foreign Cultures in the Red Chamber Dreams'''

Foreign Cultures frequently appear in the Dreams in all kinds of varieties, like exoticism with the many objects in the household and presented to the household as novelties, especially the blond girl of the same age as Baoyu referred to in person (combining different origins and cultures, including European, Japanese, Chinese) or several times on paintings, one time shown with wings as an angel.

==Yao Jia 姚佳==
The playful combination of different traditions we can see also when a religious dress is described, which carries characteristics of different religions. Similarly, the Daoist monk and the Confucian priest appear together. Cao Xueqin wanted to show the richness and diversity, also with the many topics and societal levels of the novel. Even a variety of Christian motifs can be found, like when Jia Baoyu is not recognized by his father in chapter 120 and when he disappears, all parallel to Jesus Christ.

==Yi Huan 易欢==
The variety of cultures is paralleled with the variety of elements of different dynasties, which makes it timeless and therefore even more a masterpiece of Chinese art and a masterpiece of human art. Therefore I would like to nominate the Red Chamber Dreams as “World Documentary Heritage”.

'''References'''（参考文献不用翻译）

Anthony, C. Yu. (2001). ''Rereading the Stone: Desire and the Making of Fiction in Dream of the Red Chamber''. Princeton University Press.

Aristotle. (1971). ''Poetics''. Trans. S. H. Butcher. Ed. Hazard Adams. Critical Theory since Plato. ew York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 48-66.

Woesler, Martin, ed., Cao Xueqin, Gao E et al. (2016). ''Der Traum der Roten Kammer oder Die Geschichte vom Stein'' [''Red Chamber Dreams or The Story of the Stone''], Peking: Foreign Languages Press, ISBN 9787119094120, 4813 pages, 6 vols., hardcover, transl. by Rainer Schwarz and Martin Woesler; Chinese-German bilingual edition

Woesler, Martin. (2011). “Being Explicit About the Implicit – John Minford’s Translation of the last Forty Chapters of The Story of the Stone with a Field Study on two Sexually Arousing Scenes”. ''Hong lou meng xue kan'' 6: 274-289

Woesler, Martin. (2010). “ ’To Amuse the Beaux and Belles’ The Early Western Reception of the Hongloumeng”. ''Journal of Sino-Western Communications'' 2 (2010.12) 2:81-107

Zhuang, Xiuhua. (2011). Self, Ideal and Salvation: A Comparative Study of Jane Austen’s Elizabeth and Cao Xueqin’s Lin Daiyu. ''Journal of Language Teaching and Research'', Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 420-423, March 2011. Fulltext: http://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/jltr/vol02/02/19.pdf.

==Yi Zichu 义子楚==
'''Virtual Communication Between Machines with the Human as Their Object
'''

A new stage of multimodal communication after oral, written, printed, electronic and machine-human communication

Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University

'''Abstract'''

Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role.

==You Yuting 游雨婷==
This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new media epoch of “virtual communication” (communication 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).

Algorithms do not only listen to oral or read written human communication (between humans or between humans and bots), but they analyze multimodal communication (including likes, behaviour, surfing habits, mobility profile, values, dreams, aims, beliefs etc.), compare them with Big Data (e.g. cloud data) and base decisions of manipulation on a prediction of behavior according to a personality profile and correlations.

==Yu Ni 余妮==
These algorithms target not only the explicit communications, but the emotions and thoughts of humans too and predict future behavior, therefore allowing simulations of reality. Mightier algorithms have also taken over decision-making roles in societies where they: replace human court decisions, fine tune just-in-time and on-demand production, censor chatrooms etc. Sets of algorithms help to manage smart cities and a whole society.

----
==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==
Although the human is still part of the communication, especially as the analyzed object and the target of the manipulation, the human is often unaware of the virtual communication and a passive receiver of the machine’s decisions, while the main actors in the virtual communication are machines.

虽然人仍然是通信的一部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人往往没有意识到虚拟通信和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟通信的主要参与者是机器。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

尽管人类仍然是交流活动的一个组成部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人类往往没有意识到，自己是虚拟沟通和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟沟通的主导者是机器。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

虽然人仍然是构成通信的一部分，尤其是作为分析对象和操纵目标，但人往往没有意识到人们在虚拟通信中扮演机器决策的被动接受者，而机器才是主要参与者。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==
Research describes these forms of virtual communication, finds evidence in social management systems and credit systems (in Germany, we have the “Schufa”, in the USA there are big players in credit history, which leads to credit-orientation and gamification of human life) or customized (fake) news filter bubbles and in customized consumption offers (Amazon, Facebook, Google, Netflix) and analyzes benefits, including security enhancements through such virtual communication.

研究对这些形式的虚拟沟通进行了描述，在社会管理系统、信用系统（定制的（虚假）新闻筛选泡沫）和定制的消费商（亚马逊、脸书、谷歌、网飞）里面找到了证据（德国有“Schufa”，美国则因为信用史有重大人物而使得社会信用至上并日趋游戏化），并对益处加以分析，这些益处包含通过这类虚拟沟通提升安全。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:20, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

研究描述了这些虚拟通信的形式，在社会管理系统和信用系统中找到证据（在德国，我们有 "Schufa"，在美国有信用记录的大玩家，这导致了信用导向和人类生活的游戏化）或定制化（假）新闻过滤气泡，以及在定制化的消费优惠中（亚马逊，Facebook，谷歌，Netflix），并分析了好处，包括通过这种虚拟通信增强安全性。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==
But research also has the duty to warn of abuse or harmful developments and to raise ethical questions. Exoskeletal ethics, imposed by gamifications like credit systems, especially need to be valued against intrinsic ethics.

'''Introduction'''

In this paper dealing with machine to machine communication, I skip the machines assisting humans to make their life more convenient (ranging from “The milk is out, please add the usual amount of milk to the delivery list,” to “The old lady has not left her bed this morning, I’ll better call the doctor”).

但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展发出警告，同时要对引起的伦理问题承担责任。特别是信用体系游戏化所造成的外骨骼伦理问题更需要得到重视，要反对内在的伦理问题。

引言

本论文在涉及机器与机器之间的交流时，我不考虑那些帮助人类让生活更便捷的机器（从“牛奶没了，请在送货单上加平常剂量的牛奶”到“老太太今早卧床不起，我最好叫医生吧”）。
--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:10, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==
Instead, I deal with communication like: “Let’s create a user personality profile and compare it with Big Data to learn how I can best catch this user’s attention and make him/her vote for presidential candidate A or B.”; “Let’s check this users’ mouse movements and compare it with Big Data to get a correlation to estimate if (and if “yes” when) he will get Parkinson, to decide whether or not to deny him the loan or health insurance.”

==Zeng Liang 曾良==
“Let’s check this users sexual orientation, religious beliefs, fears, secrets like adultery etc. to blackmail him to get ransom money for my programmer.”; or even “Let’s use this user’s location to aim the killer drone.”

The current neoliberal system with Amazon, Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, Google, Netflix etc. provides incentives to collect as much user data as possible and to abuse user data for manipulation, which creates huge profits.

“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、诸如通奸之类的秘密去勒索他为我的程序员去获取赎金”。或者甚至“使用用户的位置瞄准杀手无人机。”

当前具有亚马逊、脸谱网、瓦茨艾普、照片墙、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义系统激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:04, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

"让我们查一查这个用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、通奸等秘密，以勒索他为我的程序员获取赎金。"；甚至"利用这个用户的位置来瞄准杀手无人机。"
目前亚马逊、脸书、WhatsApp、Instagram、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义体系，为收集尽可能多的用户数据，并滥用用户数据，从而创造了巨大的利润。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==
Very much like the financial crisis, which was caused by the unregulated use of derivatives, this is a systemic development, which currently follows a path to enslave the human race under the control of algorithms for the benefit of tech companies. The enslavement has already begun, as we can see from the world wide addiction to social media, from the growing mass of conspiracy theorists and from the polarization of the USA over Trump or the polarization of Great Britain over the Brexit.

==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==
'''1 History of Media Epochs'''

Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role.

This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new stage of “virtual communication” (media epoch 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).

==Zhang Hu 张虎==
While Luhmann would still summarize this under digital communication, I see a full new quality here, and have therefore coined the term “communication 5.0” or “virtual communication” for it. In Luhmann’s view, the computer consists out of the “surface” of the machine (the visible interfaces like screen, keyboard, mouse) and the “depth” of the machine (the invisible, often incomprehensive inside).

虽然卢曼仍然会在数字通信中总结这一点，但我在这里看到了一个全新的品质，因此创造了术语“通信5.0”或“虚拟通信”。在卢曼看来，计算机是由机器的“表面”(屏幕、键盘、鼠标等可见界面)和机器的“内里”(看不见的、内部不全面的部分)组成的。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:41, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hui 张慧==
However, we are almost constantly producing data, with our chats and geotracked movements, with our addiction to social media, our carrying of cell phones and more and more smart devices at all times, and we are therefore an object of analysis by algorithms.

The traditional setting of a communicative act blurs: The machine can directly communicate with the human (there the Turing test marks a threshold), and, after a certain complexity, it can hide its machine nature.

但是，我们几乎一直在通过聊天和地理位置追踪运动，不断沉迷于社交媒体，携带手机以及越来越多的智能设备来生成数据，因此，我们一直是通过算法进行分析的对象。

交流行为的传统设置变得模糊：机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标记了阈值），并且在经过一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏机器的本质。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:49, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

然而，我们几乎在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和地理追踪的动作，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们随时携带手机和越来越多的智能设备，我们因此成为算法分析的对象。

传统的交流行为的设定模糊了。机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标志着一个门槛），在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Ling 张玲==
The machine can also indirectly communicate with the human by simply analyzing humans’ verbal communication, non-verbal multimodal communication, behavior, personality etc. and interacting with the human with, or without, revealing its existence. A human, growing up in a filter bubble and believing in conspiracy theories is one such example: The human has been manipulated by social media and news which prefer lies over truth.

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==
Without even noticing that there was an interaction taking place between the human and the machine, the human has lost his/her independence to the machine.

'''2 Types of communicative acts'''

1.Texts (oral and written comments/chat texts/blogs/emails)

2.Surf behavior (websites visited)

3.Consumer behavior (purchases)

4.Likes (see OCEAN, UEBA)

5.Duration/Attention (see UEBA)

6.habits/repetitiveness/occurrences (is an element of analysis in different AI apps/tools)

==Zhang Qi 张琪==
7.Unconscious, often unique data allowing identification (way of writing, mouse movements pattern, see Raj Kannan 2020)

8.social interaction incl. friendships, sexual relationships

9.mobility behavior/pattern (e.g. immediate environment – e.g. unconsciously recording the inside of houses while playing “Pokemon Go”), travel: Travel Behavior (Yu Cui et al. 2018)

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==
'''3 Types of analysis'''

1.General (User and Entity Behavior Analytics UEBA: AI-assisted cybersecurity tools like by Gartner, Inc.)

2.True identity (e.g.: mouse movements, face recognition, find real name) (Verschuere 2016)

3.Personality profile: Big Five Personality Inventory: Openness to Experience, Consciousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism “OCEAN” (Golbeck 2011), by only analyzing the users' likes, Facebook can generate personality profiles (AI-Demand 2020)

4.Mobility profile/pattern

==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==
5.Health situation (health apps, ai supported disease research, see Daley 2020)

6.Job situation/job market (Talent Search People 2020 analyzes the job market, and classifies 4 different AI systems: 1. systems that think like humans, 2. systems that act like humans, 3. systems that think rationally, and 4.) systems that act rationally.)

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==
7.Financial credit-worthiness: E.g. German Schufa company uses AI in addition to human expertise for evaluations, see Banken-Technologie 2020. Banken-Technologie 2020. Schufa’s attempt to gain access to customers’ bank account transfer information was discussed in the news.

8.Consumer Behavior: e.g. the "clickworker" company analyses and optimizes customers' searches in respect to a client company's goals/products with the help of AI (clickworker 2019)

9.Secrets (like adultery)

==Zhang Yu 张瑜==
'''4 Unique quality of media epoch 5.0'''[ I have coined the terms “media epoch 5.0” and “virtual communication” I have developed it from concepts like „Industry 4.0“ in Germany and the four media epochs Luhmann and Baecker developed (by Baecker called 1.0 … 4.0). There are several authors speculating about the media epoch 4.0, like Ray Kurzweil. The Age of Intelligent Machines. 1990.]

1.the human switches from active to passive

2.the human switches from subject to object

3.the human becomes addicted to social media, which enhances depression (Van Den Eijnden et al. 2016, Jasso-Medrano et al. 2018, Shensa et al. 2017)

4.the human switches from puppeteer, or entity with seemingly free will, to puppet

5.nature of the internet turns from freedom to surveillance

4.媒介5.0时代的独特品质 [我创造了 "媒介5.0时代"和 "虚拟通信 "这两个词，它们是从德国的“工业4.0”以及卢曼和贝克提出的媒介4.0时代（贝克称之为1.0...4.0）等概念发展而来的。一些作者揣测媒介4.0时代这个词的含义，比如1990年出版的雷-库兹韦尔的《灵魂机器时代》]

1.人从主动到被动的转换

2.人从主体到客体的转换

3.人沉迷于社交媒体，提高了患抑郁症的风险

4.人从木偶操纵者或看似拥有自由意志的实体到木偶人的转换

5.互联网的性质从自由到监测的转换--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 01:25, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==
6.direct communication turns into indirect communication (humans may not be aware of this communication/analysis)

7.explicit communication (voice, words) turns into implicit communication (preferences/thoughts/dreams/wishes/ values (first experiments with brain scanners in worker hats have started in Shanghai and Peking))

8.man-man communication turns to man-machine communication (phone bot) to machine-machine

9.4.0 was from centralization to decentralization, 5.0 is partial centralization and partial decentralization, but also concentration

==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==
So far, mass media has been considered one-way. The interaction and processing of data of millions of individual users seemed simply too much work. In the age of virtual communication, the media epoch 5.0, mass media is individualized and interactive and therefore even more influential.

'''5 Types of manipulation (consciously or unconsciously, sometimes half-consciously)
'''

1.Priming by unconscious advertisements: Influencing consumer decisions

2.Filter bubbles => supports conspiracy theories, influences judgments

==Zhao Xi 赵茜==
3.Nature of social media: lies spread 6 times faster than truth. (Vosoughi et al. 2018).

4.Change of political attitude: Case Cambridge Analytica: Helped minority to win election by manipulating young people of majority not to vote (Do so: Don’t vote campaign, Oddleifson 2020); Trump election and Brexit were won by manipulation

5.Use of private information/dependencies to obtain advantages (blackmailing for money or for conducting crimes etc.)

6.Identity theft

==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==
'''6 Consequences'''

1.Virtual Communication is mostly “hidden”, the human is mostly unaware of it, but may endure the consequences (policeman may detain suspect simply because the face recognition glass recognizes a pedestrian passing by and assesses him/her as “dangerous”; loan is declined; insurance company declines to accept new customer)

6.后果

1.虚拟通讯大多是 "隐蔽 "的，人多半不知道，但可能会承受后果（警察可能仅仅因为人脸识别玻璃识别出路过的行人，并评估其为 "危险 "而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新的客户）--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

6.后果

1.虚拟通信通常是“隐藏的”，人类大多数情况下是不知道的，但可能会承受后果（警察可能只是因为面部识别玻璃杯识别出行人经过并将他/她评估为“危险”而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==
2.User becomes transparent (government can fight terrorism, any user can be blackmailed, jealous spouse can check on adultery)

3.Less will to communicate and discuss (since positions are too far apart)

4.Populists and populist views gain supporters

5.Polarization of Society

6.There is an incentive not to reveal how much one knows about the object, because the object then could question the legality, the system etc.

7.Last resort, the thinking, is tackled: Machine interprets “real” attitudes, not lip-service words

==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==
8.The knowing ones (algorithms, hackers, controllers of algorithms) have power over the unknowing ones (victims)

9.Exoskeleton ethics (like points/awards for measurable performances) reduce incentives to build inner ethics
'''
7 Simulation of the imminent future'''

1.The imminent future behavior of a human can be predicted

2.With many analyzed humans, the imminent future of reality can be predicted => simulation

==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==
Is this an Orwellian dystopia or reality? Some cases of the above listed phenomena have been documented. However, we are still at the beginning of “little” AI development (optimizing existing processes) and on the brink of a much more powerful development, that of “big” AI (rethinking whole industries, being able to reproduce and enhance itself). (cf. Euchner 2019).

==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==
'''8 Conclusion and Outlook'''

Data has succeeded oil as the most valuable resource for today’s economy. Big Tech companies already use users’ data and make big profits with it while legislation is delayed and national boundaries (which do not exist for the Tech companies) are struggled over.
Although input-legitimized liberal democracies and market economies, like that of the European Union, still protect privacy and data security, US- and China-based technology companies are already penetrating the European market.

==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==
We need to raise awareness and guide the youth to be careful with screen time and what they share online. We need to avoid addiction to social media.

'''The algorithms do not just check which film to suggest viewing next, they have started to invade the innermost sanctum of personality, our thoughts, dreams, wishes, visions, hopes, fears and secrets.
'''
'''
The listed consequences document a fundamental change of paradigms:
'''
我们需要提高意识，引导青少年注意屏幕时间和他们在网上分享的东西。我们需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。

'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''

所列出的后果证明了范式的根本变化:

==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==
'''The cause-based decision-making by humans with established institutions like politicians, judges etc. is being replaced with correlation-based decision-making by algorithms which often serve the profit interests of tech companies or the political interests of election-manipulators.
'''

AI took the wrong development path, when it changed from serving humans to trying to manipulate humans for economic or political profit. When AI is used to educate citizens – like helping German customers to keep a clean credit history and a good credit score – then it changes the behavior of citizens to an exoskeletal ethic.

==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==
However, animals with an exoskeleton reduce their inside muscles and develop a soft inside, making them totally incapable of living without the exoskeleton. An exoskeletal ethic, giving reward points, for example, for behavior which is deemed positive and subtracting points for behavior which is deemed negative, deprives the human of the natural learning and developing process, in a social environment, of his responsibility and inner ethical judgment. If you were to meet a human with exoskeletal ethics and one who has inner ethics, whom would you trust more?

==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==
If we want to avoid the consequences listed in point 6, the public needs to become aware of this and nations and supranational organizations need to define legislation to a) protect privacy and data security, and b) give the user the control over his/her data including the commercial use of it where they earn a share from the profit made with the usage of his/her data.

==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==
'''9 Outlook'''

We need to accept, that the development is irreversible. Every new technology has created fears. Important is, that we become aware of the developments and adjust where the development heads into the wrong direction. We need set the right framework and incentives that the new technology stays on track to serve humanity.

==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==
New developments open new possibilities. We need to make sure that not only a few tech companies and terrorists use this powerful new technology to achieve their goals, but that the mass of smart device users emancipate themselves from addiction to and manipulation by technology and gain back their dignity, privacy and free will.

'''References
'''
（参考文献不用翻译）

AI-Demand. (2020). www.ai-demand.com/insights/data/big-data/big-data-and-facebook-the-heavenly-pair-that-isnt-quite-in-heaven/

Baecker, Dirk. (2007). ''Studien zur nächsten Gesellschaft''. Frankfurt 2007

Banken-Technologie. (2020). 26. Handelsblatt Jahrestagung. Banken-Technologie. „New Normal” in der Finanzwirtschaft: digital – intelligent – automatisiert – hybrid. 2. und 3.12.2020, Digital [Conference Announcement] https://veranstaltungen.handelsblatt.com/bankentechnologie/ki-machine-learning-finanzanalyse/

Booth, T. "Cambridge Analytica controversy must spur researchers to update data ethics." ''Nature'' 555.7698 (2018): 559-560.

Clickworker. (2019). www.clickworker.com/2019/04/30/ai-for-ecommerce/

Cui, Yu, Qing He, and Alireza Khani. (2018). Travel behavior classification: an approach with social network and deep learning. ''Transportation research record'', 2672(47), 68-80. https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10109453

Daley, Sam. (2020). 32 Examples of AI in Healthcare that Will Make you Feel better about the Future (July 4, 2019, updated July 29, 2020). builtin.com/artificial-intelligence/artificial-intelligence-healthcare

Euchner, Jim. (2019). Little ai, Big AI—Good AI, Bad AI. Terminology Management 62:3, 10-12. pdf:

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/08956308.2019.1587280?needAccess=true

Golbeck, Jennifer, Cristina Robles, and Karen Turner. (2011). "Predicting personality with social media." ''CHI'11 extended abstracts on human factors in computing systems''. 2011. 253-262.

Jasso-Medrano, José Luis, and Fuensanta Lopez-Rosales. (2018). "Measuring the relationship between social media use and addictive behavior and depression and suicide ideation among university students." Computers in Human Behavior 87: 183-191.

Luhmann, Niklas. (1997). ''Die Gesellschaft der Gesellschaft''. 1997

Oddleifson, Evan. 2020, The Effects of Modern Data Analytics in Electoral Politics: Cambridge Analytica’s Suppression of Voter Agency and the Implications for Global Politics, ''Political Sciences Undergraduate Review'' 5 (2020) 7, 1-7.

https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/psur/index.php/psur/article/view/130/90/130-Article%20Text-642-1-10-20200401.pdf

Raj Kannan, J., Sabitha, R., Karthik, S., & Shanthini, J. (2020). Mouse Movement Pattern Based Analysis of Customer Behavior (CBA-MMP) Using Cloud Data Analytics. ''Wireless Personal Communications'', OnlineFirst, 1-17.

Ruan, Lotus, et al. "One App, Two Systems: How WeChat uses one censorship policy in China and another internationally." (2016).
Shensa, Ariel, et al. (2017). "Problematic social media use and depressive symptoms among US young adults: A nationally-representative study." ''Social Science & Medicine ''182: 150-157.

Talent Search People. (2020). How Will Artificial Intelligence Affect the Job Market? www.talentsearchpeople.com/en/blog/494-how-will-artificial-intelligence-affect-the-job-market/.

Van Den Eijnden, Regina JJM, Jeroen S. Lemmens, and Patti M. Valkenburg. (2016). "The social media disorder scale." ''Computers in Human Behavior ''61: 478-487.

Verschuere, Bruno, and Bennett Kleinberg. "ID‐check: Online Concealed Information Test reveals true identity." ''Journal of forensic sciences'' 61 (2016): S237-S240.

Vosoughi, Soroush, Deb Roy, and Sinan Aral. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science 359.6380: 1146-1151.. science.sciencemag.org/content/359/6380/1146

==Zhu Xu 朱旭==
'''Bio'''

Martin Woesler, PhD, is Jean Monnet Chair in European Studies with Hunan Normal University since 2020. At its Foreign Studies College, he is Distinguished Professor of Chinese Studies, Translation Studies and Comparative Literature since 2019. Woesler was elected Academian of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts, Salzburg in 2019.
Woesler has co-edited the books "China's Digital Dream", "Ethics of Information Society" and Springer has scheduled to publish the book "Diverse Voices in Chinese Translation and Interpretation" including his book chapter "Modern Interpreting with Digital and Technical Aids" in February 2021.

==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==
Woesler was a Senior Fellow of the German Science Foundation's (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) Research College "Media Cultures of Computer Simulations" 2019‐2020 and hosted a related workshop with Bertelsmann Foundation in 2020. Woesler is also a researcher with Witten/Herdecke University, Germany, investigating the impact of daily screen time of children and of young people on their health.

20201228 cult

2020-12-25T14:36:20Z

Zhang Yu: /* Zhang Yu 张瑜 */

==Alsied, Saffana==

==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==

==Chen Han 陈涵==

==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==

==Dashkin, Gennadii==

==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==

==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==

==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==

==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==

==Grosheva, Anna==

==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==

==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==

==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==

==Guirou, Barthelemy==

==Guo Lu 郭露==

==Ha, Thi Thu Hang==

==He Changqi 何长琦==

==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==

==Hu Jin 胡瑾==
1. 《道德经》简称老子，是中国的经典文本。根据传统，它是由公元前6世纪的圣人老子所写，老子是周朝的一位记录者，在中国广为人知。尽管最早出土的文字可以追溯到公元前4世纪晚期，但文字的真正作者和撰写或编纂日期仍有争议。

1. The Tao Te Ching simply referred to as the Laozi，is a Chinese classic text. According to tradition, it was written around 6th century BC by the sage Laozi, a record-keeper at the Zhou dynasty court, by whose name the text is known in China. The text's true authorship and date of composition or compilation are still debated, although the oldest excavated text dates back to the late 4th century BC.

2. 《论语》是儒家学派的经典著作之一，由孔子的弟子及其再传弟子编撰而成。它以语录体和对话文体为主，记录了孔子及其弟子言行，集中体现了孔子的政治主张、论理思想、道德观念及教育原则等。

2. The Analects is one of the classical works of Confucianism, compiled by the disciples of Confucius and his disciples. It is mainly in the style of discourses and dialogues, recording the words and deeds of Confucius and his disciples, concentrating on Confucius' political ideas, theoretical thoughts, moral concepts and educational principles.

3. 《慧能经》附有慧能对《金刚经》的逐条注释——这是它有史以来第一次出版的英文译本。他的谈话集也被称为《六祖坛经》，是唯一的禅宗记录，一般被尊称为经，或经文。

3. The Sutra of Hui-neng is here accompanied by Hui-neng's verse-by-verse commentary on the Diamond Sutra—in its very first published English translation ever.This collection of his talks, also known as the Platform or Altar Sutra, is the only Zen record of its kind to be generally honored with the appellation sutra, or scripture.

4. 《生活的艺术》是林语堂旅美专事创作后的第一部书，也是继之后再获成功的又一英文作品。该书于1937年在美国出版，次年便居美国畅销书排行榜榜首达52周，且接连再版四十余次，并为十余种文字所翻译。

4. “The Art of Living” was Lin Yutang's first book after he had traveled to the U.S. and was another successful work in English. It was published in the United States in 1937 and topped the American bestseller list for 52 weeks the following year, and was reprinted more than forty times and translated into more than a dozen languages.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 07:31, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==

==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==

==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==

==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==

==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==

==Li Lili 李丽丽==
1.1417年，永乐皇帝下令郑和将使节送回国内。郑和和他的舰队再次回到海上启航，进行他的第五次远征（1417-1419）。他在许多相同的地方停留，包括爪哇岛、苏门答腊岛，还为他遇到的不同的统治者带来了信件和财富。

By 1417, the Yongle Emperor ordered Zheng He to return the envoys home. Once more back on the seas, Zheng He and his large fleet set sail for his fifth expedition (1417-1419). He stopped in many of the same places, including Java, Sumatra, and also brought letters and riches to the different rulers Zheng He met.

In 1417, Emperor Yongle ordered Zheng He to send the envoys back home. Zheng He and his fleet returned to sea again to set sail on his fifth expedition (1417-1419). He stopped at many of the same places, including Java and Sumatra, and also brought letters and wealth to the different rulers he met. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.海上丝绸之路从福建泉州开始, 是秦汉时期形成、三国时期发展到隋朝、盛唐宋朝、明清衰落的最早航程航线。

Starting from Quanzhou Fujian Province, the maritime Silk Road was the earliest voyage route that was formed in the Qin and Han dynasties, developed from the Three Kingdoms Period to the Sui Dynasty, flourished in the Tang and Song dynasties, and fell into decline in the Ming and Qing dynasties.

The Maritime Silk Road began in Quanzhou, Fujian Province, and was the earliest voyage route formed during the Qin and Han dynasties, developed during the Three Kingdoms Period to the Sui dynasty, flourished in the Tang and Song dynasties, and fell into decline in the Ming and Qing dynasties. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3.西学东渐不仅客观上促成了马克思主义哲学在中国的广泛传播, 构成了马克思主义哲学中国化的一个重要历史前提, 而且引发了中国哲学历史发展过程中的重大变革, 推动了中国哲学从古代传统向近代传统的转变。

The spread of Western learning to the East objectively promoted the dissemination of Marxist philosophy, forming an important historical precondition for its Sinicization. Moreover, it triggered a great transformation in the historical development of Chinese philosophy and facilitated its transition from an ancient to an early modern tradition.

The eastward spread of Western learning has not only objectively contributed to the widespread dissemination of Marxist philosophy in China, constituting an important historical premise for the Chineseization of Marxist philosophy, but also triggered a major change in the historical development of Chinese philosophy, promoting the transformation of Chinese philosophy from the ancient to the modern tradition. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.鸦片战争、不平等条约和19世纪中叶的大规模起义的残酷现实，使清朝朝臣和官员认识到壮大中国的必要性。自19世纪40年代以来，中国学者和官员一直在研究和翻译“西学”。

The rude realities of the Opium War, the unequal treaties, and the mid- 19th century mass uprisings caused Qing courtiers and officials to recognize the need to strengthen China. Chinese scholars and officials had been examining and translating "Western Learning" since the 1840s.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

The harsh realities of the Opium War, the unequal treaties, and the mass uprisings of the mid-19th century made courtiers and officials of the Qing Dynasty realize the need to strengthen China. Since the 1840s, Chinese scholars and officials had been studying and translating "Western Learning". --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Liqin 李丽琴==

==Liu Liu 刘柳==

1.《道德经》是中国历史上最伟大的名著之一，对传统哲学、科学、政治、宗教等产生了深刻影响。

As one of the greatest masterpieces in Chinese history, ''Tao Te Ching'' has a profound impact on traditional philosophy, science, politics, and religion.

Tao Te Ching, as one of the greatest masterpieces in Chinese history, has a profound impact on traditional philosophy, science, politics and religion.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.孔子因材施教，对于不同的对象，考虑其不同的素质、优点和缺点、进德修业的具体情况，给予不同的教诲，表现了诲人不倦的可贵精神。

Confucius taught students in accordance with their aptitude. He gave different instructions to different students, taking into account their different qualities, strengths and weaknesses, and the specific circumstances of their advancement and cultivation, showing the valuable spirit of tireless teaching.

Confucius taught students in accordance with their aptitude. For different objects, he considered their different qualities, advantages and disadvantages, and the specific situation of moral education, and gave different instructions, which showed the valuable spirit of tireless teaching.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3.近年来，中国大多数学者都认为《坛经》的基本内容代表了慧能思想，同时其中也有后人增益的成分。

In recent years, most Chinese scholars believe that the basic content of the ''The Sutra of Huineng'' represents the thought of Huineng, while there are also some elements of later additions to it.

In recent years, most Chinese scholars believe that the basic content of Tanjing represents Huineng's thought, and it also contains the later additions.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.《生活的艺术》是林语堂旅美专事创作后的第一部书，也是继《吾国与吾民》之后再获成功的又一英文作品。该书于1937年在美国出版，次年便居美国畅销书排行榜榜首达52周，且接连再版四十余次，被翻译为十余种文字全球发行。

''The Importance of Living'' was the first book after Lin Yutang had traveled to the United States and was another successful work in English after ''My Country and My People''. It was published in the United States in 1937 and topped the American bestseller list for 52 weeks the following year, and was republished more than forty times and translated into more than a dozen languages for global distribution.--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 07:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

''The Art of Life'' is the first book written by Lin Yutang after his trip to the United States. It is also another successful English work after ''My Country and My People''. The book was published in the United States in 1937. The following year, it ranked the top of the best seller list in the United States for 52 weeks. It has been reprinted for more than 40 times and has been translated into more than 10 languages for global distribution.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Ou 刘欧==

==Liu Yi 刘艺==
1、传统的丝绸之路，起自中国古代都城长安，经中亚国家、阿富汗、伊朗、伊拉克、叙利亚等而达地中海，以罗马为终点，全长6440公里。这条路被认为是连结亚欧大陆的古代东西方文明的交汇之路，而丝绸则是最具代表性的货物。

The traditional Silk Road, which started from Chang'an, the ancient capital of China, and reached the Mediterranean Sea via Central Asian countries, Afghanistan, Iran, and Syria, and ended in Rome, was 6,440 kilometers long. This road is considered to be the intersection of ancient eastern and western civilizations linking Asia and Europe, and silk is the most representative cargo. The road reached the Mediterranean Sea from Iraq, Syria, etc. and ended in Rome, with a total length of 6,440 kilometers. This road is considered to be the crossroads of ancient civilizations between East and West, linking Asia and Europe, and silk is the most representative cargo.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 12:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2、东海航线，也叫“东方海上丝路”。春秋战国时期，齐国在胶东半岛开辟了“循海岸水行”直通辽东半岛、朝鲜半岛、日本列岛直至东南亚的黄金通道。唐代，山东半岛和江浙沿海的中韩日海上贸易逐渐兴起。宋代，宁波成为中韩日海上贸易的主要港口。

The East Sea Route, also known as the "Eastern Sea Silk Road". During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, the State of Qi opened up a golden route on the Jiaodong Peninsula, which led to the Liaodong Peninsula, the Korean Peninsula, the Japanese islands and Southeast Asia. During the Tang Dynasty, the maritime trade between China, Korea and Japan on the Shandong Peninsula and the coast of Jiangsu and Zhejiang gradually emerged. During the Song Dynasty, Ningbo became the main port for maritime trade between China, Korea and Japan.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 12:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3、东学西渐指的是一个和西学东渐互相补充的东西方文化交流过程。东学西渐有一千多年的历史，对世界文化的发展有十分深远的影响。

Eastern learning and Western learning refers to a process of cultural exchange between East and West that complements Western learning and Eastern learning. With a history of over a thousand years, East to West has had a profound impact on the development of world culture.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 12:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4、洋务运动虽然在客观上刺激中国资本主义发展、并且在一定程度上抵制了外国资本主义的经济输入，但并没有使中国走上富强之路。

Although the foreign affairs movement objectively stimulated the development of Chinese capitalism and to a certain extent resisted the economic import of foreign capitalism, it did not put China on the road to wealth and power.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 12:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==

==Lo, Minh Thao==

==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==

==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==

==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==

==Mo Ling 莫玲==

==Ngo, Thi Minh Huong==

==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==

==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==

==Phyo, Su Kyi==

==Pingki, Tanchangya==

==Qu Miao 瞿淼==

==Rajabov, Anushervon==

==Seydou, Sagara==

==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==

==Si Yu 司妤==

==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==

1.汉武帝刘彻即位时，张骞已在朝廷担任名为“郎”的侍从官。据史书记载，他“为人强力，宽大信人”。即具有坚韧不拔、心胸开阔，并能以信义待人的优良品质。建元三年，即公元前138年，张骞“以郎应募，使月氏”。“郎”，是皇帝的侍从官，没有固定职务，又随时可能被选授重任。

When Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty Liu Che assumed the throne, Zhang Qian was already working at the court as a retainer named "Lang". According to historical records, he was "a strong, generous and trustworthy". In other words, he was tough, open-minded, and could treat people with faith and justice. In the third year of Jian Yuan, that is, 138 B.C., Zhang Qian was recruited to make a mission to the Moon Dynasty. The "Lang", the emperor's retainer, has no fixed position, and may be chosen at any time to reappoint.

2.有观点认为，明初时海外威胁受到重视，故有郑和下西洋之事。然而，或许郑和过于成功了，“他的海军满载荣誉胜利归来，并确认帝国没有来自海上的威胁”，因此“郑和与他的随从也可以说失去了继续远航的意义。”

It has been argued that the overseas threat was taken seriously at the beginning of the Ming Dynasty, hence Zheng He's voyage to the West. However, perhaps Zheng He was too successful, "his navy returned triumphantly laden with glory and confirmed that there was no threat to the empire from the sea", so "Zheng He and his entourage could be said to have lost the point of continuing their voyage".

3.甲午战争以后，由于中国当时面临着国破家亡的命运，许多有识之士开始更积极全面地向西方学习，出现了梁启超、康有为、谭嗣同等一批思想家。他们向西方学习大量的自然科学和社会科学的知识，政治上也要求改革。这一时期大量的西方知识传入中国，影响非常广泛。许多人以转译日本人所著的西学书籍来接受西学。进入民国时期，由于对政治的不满又进一步导致知识分子们提出全盘西化的主张，在五四时期这种思想造成了很大的影响。这一波的西学东渐，一直持续到当代而未止。

After the First Sino-Japanese War, as China was facing the fate of national ruin, many learned people began to learn more actively and comprehensively from the West, and a group of thinkers emerged, such as Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei and Tan Sitong. They learned a lot of natural and social science knowledge from the West, and also demanded reforms in politics. A great deal of Western knowledge was introduced into China during this period, and its influence was very widespread. Many people embraced Western learning by translating Western books written by the Japanese. In the Republican period, dissatisfaction with politics further led intellectuals to advocate wholesale Westernization, which had a great impact in the May Fourth period. This wave of Western learning continued into contemporary times.

4.洋务派前期创办的军事工业，经费由清政府调拨，产品分配给军队使用，管理方式是封建衙门式的。虽然这些企业采用机器生产，但本质上属于带有资本主义因素的封建官办企业。

The military industries founded by the foreign affairs faction in the early period were financed by the Qing government, and the products were allocated to the army for use, and managed in a feudal government office style. Although these enterprises adopted machine production, they were essentially feudal government-run enterprises with capitalist elements.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:23, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tang Bei 汤蓓==

==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==

==Wang Meiling 王美玲==

==Wang Xuan 王轩==

==Wu Qiong 吴琼==

==Wu Yilu 吴一露==

==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==

==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==

==Xiao Ting 肖婷==

==Xie Fan 解帆==

==Xu Jia 徐佳==

==Xu Jing 许静==

==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==

==Yang Hairong 杨海容==

==Yang Hui 阳慧==

==Yang Yue 杨悦==

==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==

==Yi Zichu 义子楚==

==You Yuting 游雨婷==

==Yu Ni 余妮==

==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==

==Zeng Liang 曾良==
1.公元前123年，张骞随大将军卫青出使匈奴，在他的引导下，平息了多年来北方匈奴对汉王朝的骚扰，张骞因此被封为博望侯。

In 123 B. C. , Zhang Qian followed General Wei Qing in a major military raid against the Xiongnu. His guidance led to a number of victories, which succeeded in ending the harassment by the Xiongnu of the Han Dynasty. Zhang Qian was therefore conferred the title of Marquis of Bowang.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

In 123 B.C., Zhang Qian accompanied the great general Wei Qing on a mission to the Xiongnu. Under his guidance, the Xiongnu harassment of the Han dynasty in the north for many years was quelled, and Zhang Qian was thus made the Marquis of Bowang.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:00, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.郑和的船队由三百艘大船及三万多名水兵组成，船队中最大的一艘船被称为“宝船”，其船身长达133米，船桅多达九根，可搭载一千人。郑和和汉人与穆斯林船员一起打开了中国在非洲、印度及东南亚的贸易航线。

Zheng He’s fleet had more than 300 ships and 30,000 sailors. The largest vessels, 133-meter-long “treasure ships”, had up to nine masts and could carry a thousand people. Along with a Han and Muslim crew, Zheng opened up trade routes in Africa, India, and Southeast Asia.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

Zheng He's fleet consisted of 300 ships and more than 30,000 sailors, the largest ship in the fleet was called the "treasure ship", with a hull length of 133 meters and as many as nine masts, which could carry 1,000 people. Zheng He and the Chinese and Muslim crews together opened up Chinese trade routes in Africa, India and Southeast Asia.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:00, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

Zheng He’s fleet had more than 300 ships and 30,000 sailors. The largest vessels(also called “treasure ships”),133-meter-long ,had up to nine masts and could carry a thousand people. Along with a Han and Muslim crew, Zheng opened up trade routes in Africa, India, and Southeast Asia.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:26, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3.清末时，在“西学东渐”浪潮的冲击下，传统儿童教育踏入近代的门槛。

In late Qing dynasty, impacted by the wave of “ The Eastward Spread of Western Learning”, traditional children education stepped into the threshold of modern education. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

At the end of the Qing Dynasty, under the impact of the wave of "Western learning", traditional children's education entered the threshold of modern times.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:00, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.西进运动促进了农业、工业、交通业的飞速发展，也促进了美国城市化的进程。

The Westernization Movement promoted the rapid devepment of agrilucture, industry, transportation and the urbanization process of the United States as well. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

The westward movement contributed to the rapid development of agriculture, industry, and transportation, as well as to the urbanization of the United States.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:00, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==

==Zhang Hui 张慧==

1.张骞出使西域,接触到西域各国的风土人情，是汉朝开始对西域各国有所了解，使汉朝与西域建立了友好关系，为后来西汉政府设置西域都护府，使西域正式归西汉政府管辖打下了基础。

Zhang Qian’s mission to the Western Regions brought in contact with the customs of the Western Regions. It was the Han dynasty that began to understand the Western Regions countries, which enabled the Han dynasty to establish friendly relations with the Western Regions. Later, the Western Han government set up the Western Regions Protectorate and made the Western Regions officially returned to the Western Han government. Jurisdiction laid the foundation.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

Zhang Qian's mission to the Western Regions brought him into contact with the customs and traditions of the countries in the Western Regions, and enabled the Han Dynasty to establish friendly relations with the Western Regions, which later laid the foundation for the Western Han government to set up the Western Regions Capital Protection Office, making the Western Regions officially under the jurisdiction of the Western Han government.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.海上丝绸之路自秦汉时期开通以来，一直是沟通东西方经济文化交流的重要桥梁，而东南亚地区自古就是海上丝绸之路的重要枢纽和组成部分。

Since the opening of the Maritime Silk Road during the Qin and Han Dynasties, it has always been an important bridge for the economic and cultural exchanges between the East and the West. Southeast Asia has been an important hub and part of the Maritime Silk Road since ancient times.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

Since the opening of the Maritime Silk Road during the Qin and Han dynasties, it has been an important bridge to bridge the economic and cultural exchanges between the East and the West, and the Southeast Asian region has been an important hub and part of the Maritime Silk Road since ancient times.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3.西学东渐将西方近代各种学术上的新成果带入了中国，深深影响到各种学术的发展，而许多在传统中国不被重视甚至不存在的学科也在此影响下得到发展。

Western learning has brought various new academic achievements in modern Western modern times into China, deeply affecting the development of various academics, and many disciplines that are not valued or even existed in traditional China have also been developed under this influence.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

The gradual expansion of Western learning brought various new achievements in modern Western scholarship into China, which deeply influenced the development of various academic disciplines, and many disciplines that were not valued or even did not exist in traditional China also developed under this influence.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.洋务运动虽然在客观上刺激中国资本主义发展、并且在一定程度上抵制了外国资本主义的经济输入，但并没有使中国走上富强之路。

Although the Westernization Movement objectively stimulated the development of Chinese capitalism, and to a certain extent resisted the economic import of foreign capitalism, it did not make China embark on a path of prosperity.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

Although the foreign affairs movement objectively stimulated the development of Chinese capitalism and to a certain extent resisted the economic import of foreign capitalism, it did not put China on the road to wealth and power.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Ling 张玲==

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==

==Zhang Yu 张瑜==
1.除了朴素的唯物主义观点，《道德经》一书中还包括大量朴素辩证法观点，如一切事物均具有正反两面。

In addition to the simple materialistic view, ''Tao Te Ching'' also includes a large number of simple dialectical views, such as all things have positive and negative sides.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.《论语》较为集中地体现了孔子及儒家学派的政治主张、伦理思想、道德观念及教育原则等。

''The Analects'' embodies the political ideas, ethical thoughts, moral concepts and educational principles of Confucius and the Confucianism in a more concentrated manner.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3.经文主要记载慧能的生平事迹和言教。《坛经》的思想对禅宗发展起到了重要作用。

The Sutra mainly records the life story and teachings of Hui-neng. ''The Sutra of Hui-neng'' played an important role in the development of Zen Buddhism.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.林语堂先生在《生活的艺术》中将中国人旷怀达观、陶情遣兴的生活方式和浪漫高雅的东方情调充分传达出来。

In ''The Importance of Living'', Lin Yutang fully conveys the Chinese way of life of being open-minded and broad-minded, and the romantic and elegant oriental sentiment.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==

==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==

==Zhao Xi 赵茜==

==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==

1.先秦时期，连接中国东西方交流的通道已经存在，丝绸正式西传始于西汉通西域，丝绸之路真正形成始于西汉张骞凿空。

The pre-Qin period, connecting China's East and West exchange channel has existed, the official western transmission of silk began in the Western Han Dynasty through the Western Regions, the Silk Road really formed from the Western Han Dynasty Zhang Qian chiseling.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:53, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

In the pre-Qin period, a channel connecting China's east and west already existed. The official spread of silk to the west began in the Western Han Dynasty, and the real formation of the Silk Road began when Zhang Qian's hollowed out in the Western Han Dynasty.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.海上丝绸之路，是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，也称"海上陶瓷之路"和“海上香料之路”，1913年由法国的东方学家沙畹首次提及。

The Maritime Silk Road, also known as the "Maritime Route of Ceramics" and the "Maritime Route of Spices", was first mentioned by the French orientalist Chavannes in 1913, and is a maritime route for traffic, trade and cultural exchanges between ancient China and foreign countries.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:53, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

The Maritime Silk Road was an ancient maritime channel for communication and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. It was also called the "Sea Ceramic Road" and "Sea Spice Road". It was first mentioned in 1913 by the French orientalist Shawan.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3.明代万历年间，以利玛窦为代表的西书七千部传教士来华传教，同时带来西方科技、文化等。这对中国传统思想文化有所触动。

During the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty, the seven thousand missionaries of the Western Book, represented by Matteo Ricci, came to China to preach, and at the same time brought Western technology and culture. This has touched the traditional Chinese thought and culture.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:53, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

During the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty, 7,000 missionaries represented by Matteo Ricci came to China to preach, and at the same time brought Western technology and culture. This has touched traditional Chinese thought and culture.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.洋务运动，又称自强运动，是19世纪60年代到90年代晚清洋务派所进行的一场引进西方军事装备、机器生产和科学技术以挽救清朝统治的自救运动。

The Foreign Affairs Movement, also known as the Self-Strengthening Movement, was a self-help movement conducted by the Foreign Affairs faction of the late Qing Dynasty from the 1860s to the 1990s to introduce Western military equipment, machinery production and science and technology to save the Qing Dynasty.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:53, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

The Westernization Movement, also known as the Self-Strengthening Movement, was a self-rescue movement carried out by the Westernization Movement from the 1860s to the late Qing Dynasty that introduced Western military equipment, machine production, and science and technology to save the Qing rule.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==

==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==

==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==

==Zhu Xu 朱旭==

==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==

==Zubareva, Ekaterina==

20201221 cult

2020-12-25T14:33:37Z

Zhang Yu: /* Zhang Yu 张瑜 */

History of Translation Studies 11

2020-12-21T12:32:05Z

Zhang Yu: /* References */

==Reflections of Translation Theory Books 李丽琴 Li Liqin, Student No.202070080595 MTI 英语笔译==

===Abstract===

Rooted in translation practice, Chinese and Western translation theories share many similarities. Since they are bred in different cultural soil, they also have their own characteristics. On the basis of reviewing some books and papers on translation theories, this paper gives a detailed overview of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, and then makes a comparison between them to reveal similarities and differences. In addition, this paper makes a comparative study of translation methods in the Chinese and Western translation circle, aiming to provide readers with a new perspective to have a better understanding of the framework and characteristics of the development of translation theories. In this context, the translation practice and study will be advanced.

===Key Words===

Chinese translation theories; Western translation theories; Translation methods; Similarity; Difference;

===题目===

读翻译理论书籍有感

===摘要===

中西译论根植于翻译实践活动，具有诸多得相似性，但它们孕育在不同的文化土壤之中，故又各具特色。本文在阅读有关翻译理论书籍及论文的基础上，对中西翻译理论的发展历程进行了较为详尽的梳理概述，并在此基础上对中西译论进行对比，揭示其相似性与相异性。此外，本文对中西译界的翻译方法进行对比研究，旨在为读者提供一个全新的视角，认识中西翻译理论发展的框架及各自的特点，有针对性地更好地推动翻译实践以及翻译研究的发展。

===关键词===

中国翻译理论；西方翻译理论；翻译方法；相似性；相异性；

===Introduction===

When it comes to translation, this paper argues that the concepts of translation and translation studies must be distinguished at the first place. On this basis, the relationship between translation theory and translation practice must be explored in depth, so as to better promote the development of translation studies and translation practice.

====Translation and Translation Study====

In 1987, the first National Seminar on Translation Theory was held in Qingdao province, China, which focused on the subject construction and development of translation studies. The issue "since translation studies is a science of translation, whether it should be regarded as an independent disciplinary" was raised and widely discussed at the conference. Tan Zaixi called for the establishment of translation studies after Dong Qiusi, which had a great impact on the translation circle and greatly promoted the development of translation. (Liu Junping 2018, 56)

Tan Zaixi believes that translation is a process of expressing the meaning of the source language into the target language. It is mainly a technology or art, but it is not a science. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 7-10) Translation studies is the study of translation. Its task is to reveal the objective laws of translation process and provide guidance for practical translation work. Translation studies is a comprehensive but independent science closely related to semiotics, literature and art, sociology, psychology, information theory, and linguistics. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 12)

A complete translation theory should include the following five parts. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30-39) First of all, it need to clarify the essence of translation, including what is translation, what is the purpose of translation, what is the function of translation, what are the types of translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30)

Secondly, a complete translation theory should describe the process of translation. In translation circle, the most influential one is the four-step model put forward by Nida: analysis-transliteration-recombination-test. Specifically, it means to analyse a text from the perspectives of semantics, grammar and style firstly. Then, transform the materials into the target language, and reorganize these converted materials to make them meet the requirements of the target language. Finally, translators should compare the translated text with the original one, thus making the translation as close as possible to the original information and maintaining the fluency and style of the original. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 32)

Thirdly, it need to define the principles and standards of translation, which is the key task of a translation theory. Translation is an activity with certain rules to follow. People summarize translation practice and then conclude principles of universal significance in ways that guide the practical translation process and measure the translation. In order to produce a good translation, the translator must have a clear aim or direction in the process of translation and a clear standard or measurement method to measure the translation. However, since the fact that translation is a complex activity with multiple purposes and functions, it should never be studied from a single perspective. Any attempt to hold a specific standard as the highest standard in the absolute sense or to adhere to dogma is not in line with the translation principles and is unreasonable. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 34)

Fourthly, it should describe the methods of translation. It refers to the methods and techniques adopted in the translation process, which directly influence the choice of words and sentence of the translator and the structure of the translation. There are various translation methods commonly used in translation practice, such as augmentation, ellipsis, repetition, conversion, displacement, segmenting long sentences, and free translation. The translation theory must give a comprehensive and systematic summary of these translation methods to help the translator to better leverage translation methods in translation practice. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 37)

Fifthly, it must present a comprehensive explanation of possible contradictions in translation, including the contradiction between content and form, the contradiction between purpose and method, the contradiction between the author and the translator. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 38)

====Translation Theory and Translation Practice====

Corresponding theories will inevitably emerge when social practice of humanity develops to a certain stage. Translation, as a long-term practice activity, is no exception. Therefore, translation theories must come from translation practice. (Zhou Lingshun 2019, 15) Translation theories will never be generated without the in-depth observation and understanding of translation practice and its influences. There is an interactive relationship between translation theory and translation practice. (Xu Jun, Mu Lei 2009, 104)

In the long-term social practice, people will inevitably encounter problems that need to be solved and generate doubts that need to be explained. Theory is the ideological system explaining social practice, and its purpose is to answer questions and eliminate doubts. In this sense, the fact is that practice calls for theory. (Sun Yifeng 2002, 4-5)

Taking China's current translation situation as an example. As the Belt and Road Initiative proposed by China gains increasing popularity in countries along the route, the desire of other countries to know more about China is getting stronger. In this context, the volume of translating Chinese into foreign languages exceeds that of translating foreign languages into Chinese for the first time in translation history, meanwhile, related problems are also arising. (Yang Mingxing 2014, 103) Specifically, if the translation stays faithful to the original text, it external communication function will not be fully leveraged. Therefore, translators is confused about whether the translation should be faithful to the original text.

Although translation practice does not depend on translation theory for its existence, translation theory inevitably comes from translation practice. Once it comes into being, it will guide translation practice in turn.

===Comparison of Translation Theories between China and the West===

Both Chinese and western translation activities enjoy a long history. In the long course of translation practice, translation theory came into being. Chinese translation theories gradually develops towards the direction of systematic and comprehensive since the start of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Meanwhile, western translation theories have witnessed improvement as the advancement of translation practice and translation study. Both the Chinese translation theory and the western translation theory are based on translation practice, and they are gradually developed into systematic theories while guiding translation practice. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)

This chapter first combs the development of Chinese and western translation theories in detail, on this basis, it further reveals the similarities and otherness between the two theories.

====The Development of Western Translation Theory====

The development of Western translation theory can be divided into five stages. (Tan Zaixi 2009, 46-70)

1. Literature and Bible translation theories in ancient Rome

At the end of the 4th century BC, the once flourishing Greek began to decline and Rome grew stronger. However, at that time, the Greek culture was superior to the Roman culture, so it was attractive for Rome. Many of epics of Homer and dramatic works of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides were translated into Latin by many writers. This was the first translation activity with a large scale in Europe and even in the whole western history, which initiated the translation activity and gave birth to the Roman literature. (Liang Dan 2016, 103)

From the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, religious forces in western countries were strong and stubborn, and the Christian church remained hostile to secular literature and tried its best to develop a religious culture for the interests of themselves. As the source of Christian thought and a spiritual weapon, the Bible became the classic in the religious circles. On this basis, the Bible was translated widely. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91)

The earliest translation theorist in the West was Cicero in the Roman Empire. For the first time, he distinguished translations "as a translator" and "as a speaker". (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Cicero viewed translation from the perspectives of a rhetorician and speaker. A translation "as a translator" refers to a translation that is not creative, while a translation "as a speaker" refers to one that is creative and comparable to the original work. After that, the history of western translation theories has been focusing on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-for-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93)

2. Translation theories from the Middle Ages to Renaissance

Boethius contributed to the introduction of Greek philosophical thoughts by translation, and also had unique views on translation theory. According to Boethius, it is impossible to maintain both content and style in translation. Translators should put aside subjective judgment, especially for some religious translations, which only require accurate content rather than elegant style. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) What’s more, Dante put forward the theory of "literary untranslatability", in which he contended that the characteristics of the original text can hardly be reflected in the translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Therefore, he believed that literary translation is impossible.

At the end of the Middle Ages, people's demand for national language became urgent. In this context, a large-scale translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the upsurge of nationalism. Bruni, the representative of this period, believed that a translator should act according to his ability. Specifically, a translator should never do anything beyond his capacity for fear that it will waste energy and come to nothing. In addition, he believed that translators should have a wide range of knowledge; the best translation method is to keep the style of the original work as much as possible; translators should figure out the attitude and standpoint of the original author and try to imitate the rhetoric devices and idioms used by the original author. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)

3. Theories of literary translation in the Renaissance

The Renaissance refers to the revival of literature, art and science in ancient Greece and Rome. It began in Italy at the end of the 14th century and spread to Europe, especially western European countries, in the 15th and 16th centuries. During this period, many translators compared their achievements in translation to "trophies" of literary knowledge. Besides, they translated many works relating to building a prosperous country into national languages, including political, philosophical, social systems, literature, art and other classic works. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91) There are also many representatives in this period.

Erasmus did not submit to the authority of theology, and believed that the translation of the Bible depended on the language knowledge of the translator; while Luther put forward that translation must adopt and absorb the humanist thought of popular language. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55) In terms of Amyot, he held the opinion that the translator must fully understand the original text and concentrate efforts to the translation of the content; the writing style of translation must be simple and natural. He emphasized the unity of literal translation and free translation as well as the combination of content and form. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)

''On How to Translate Excellently'' was published in 1540. In this article, Dolet proposed five basic principles to be followed in the process of translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163) That is, the translator must understand the original content; the translator must be bilingual; the translator must avoid word-for-word translation, for the reason that word-for-word translation damages the communication and linguistic beauty of the original text; the translator must adopt colloquial forms of language; the translator must pay attention to the diction and adjust word order properly, so as to reproduce the equivalent effects as the original one. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 165)

4.Theories of literary translation in Modern times

Influenced by the impetus of the Renaissance, translation in western countries continued to march forward in modern times. The 18th century was an important period in the course of Western translation. In the 19th century, translation began to shift its focus from ancient works to modern or contemporary works. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)

According to Bartow, the original author is the master while the translator is the servant in translation activities. The translator can only follow the original work closely and faithfully reproduce the idea and style of it, instead of creating, modifying and subtracting. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)

Tytler put forward three basic translation principles in his book ''Essay on the Principles of Translation'': a translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; a translation should have all the ease of the original composition. In addition, he also proposed the standards of an excellent translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163)

Schlermacher, one of the leading figures in German romanticism, had extensive knowledge and made great contributions in hermeneutics and translation studies. He proposed two translation methods in ''On the Different Methods of Translating''. One is to do not disturb the author and let the reader get closer to the author, while the other is to make the author approach readers and do not disturb the reader, among which the former is regarded as the source of foreignizing translation by later generations. At the same time, he took the lead in making a clear distinction between interpretation and translation and to elaborate on it. Although his views on interpretation were wrong, they were still of great significance. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)

Humboldt believed that language determines the world view and put forward the theory that language is both translatable and untranslatable. This had a great impact in the 20th century, making the translatability and untranslatability of language once again become one of the hot topics discussed by translation theorists. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)

5.Contemporary translation theories since the World War II

Since the end of the World War II, the world has been in a state of relative peace. After the baptism of the war, western countries began to restore and develop production and economy in full swing. In this context, translation has also entered a new stage of development in which the dimensions, forms, scales and achievements of translation are unparalleled in any other period in history. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 100)

During this period, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological and other professional translations witness unprecedented development; translation teaching is widely carried out; many organizations of translators are established and the publications on translation-related studies are increasing; machine translation is emerging; works on translation theory emerge in an endless stream. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)

Jakobson, an outstanding Russian linguist, divided translation into three categories from the perspective of semiotics: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to the use of language signs to explain other language signs in the same language, which is also called "the change of expression"; interlingual translation is the interpretation between two languages, that is, to explain certain language signs with the signs of another language; intersemiotic translation is to interpret linguistic signs through the non-linguistic sign system, or to interpret non-linguistic signs with linguistic signs. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 157)

Nida is an American linguist, translator and translation theorist. On the basis of previous research results, he constantly improved his theory from the practical point of view. The core concept of Nida's theory is "functional equivalence", which means that the translation should achieve functional equivalence between two languages instead of the rigid correspondence of words. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 139)

Levy is a Czech literary theorist and translation theorist. He believed that the process of translation is the process in which the translator makes decisions constantly, and discussed the translator's decision strategies in detail. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)

====The Development of Chinese Translation Theory====

The development of Chinese translation theory can be divided into four stages.(Tan Zaixi 2005, 188)

1. Translation theory of Buddhist in the Late Han, Sui and Tang Dynasties

The first stage mainly focused on classical translation theory, which began in the East Han period and ended in the Opium War. The translation theory of this period mainly discusses the translation of Buddhist scriptures, generating a positive enlightenment to the later translation theory. Zhi Qian, Dao An, Kumarajiva and Xuanzang are the representative figures of this period. (Liang Dan 2016, 103)

Zhi Qian broke the shackles of literal translation and pursued the elegance of the text. Different from Zhi Qian, Dao An advocated literal translation for fear of distortion when he was responsible for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. What’s more, he put forward the famous translation principle of "Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation", believing that in translating Buddhist scriptures, there are five circumstances in which the translation will lose its original features and three dimensions that are difficult to achieve in translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188-189)

Kumarajiva was in charge of over four hundred volumes of Buddhist scriptures translation, which played an important role in the formation and development of Buddhism in China during the Six Dynasties period. His views on translation methods was profound and unique, but unfortunately there are few written records. Xuanzang is regarded as one of the influential figures in the ancient Chinese translation field. He put forward the translation standard of "a good translation should be both faithful to the original and intelligible to the public", believing that the translation must be faithful and smooth. (Li Yuntao 2007, 107)

2. Translation theory of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties

The second stage began with the Opium War and ended with the May 4th Movement. Against the background of domestic turmoil and foreign aggression, translators engaged in scientific and technological translation by adhering to the philosophy of "beat foreigners by learning from their advantages". (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Therefore, the translation theory in this period is practical.

The main representatives were Ma Jianzhong, Yan Fu, Reform Scholars, members of the Westernization School and so on. Ma Jianzhong put forward "good translation" and tried to eliminate the disadvantages of the translation of the Westernization School. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189) In addition, Yan Fu called for "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", which not only had a great impact at that time, but also generated an unprecedented influence on the entire translation circle for years to come. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 190)

3. Modern translation theory from 1919 to 1949

The third stage began with the May 4th Movement and ended with the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188) During this period, there were a great number of foreign literature being introduced in the translation field, resulting in flourishing literary translation.

Qu Qiubai put forward the concept of "equivalence", that is, translation should deliver the meaning of the original text to Chinese readers in a complete and correct manner, so that the Chinese readers can receive the meaning as the readers of the original text. (Liang Dan 2016, 103)

Chen Xiying drew a conclusion of the three realms of translation--resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit--from the experience of artistic creation and copying. He combined translation theories with the aesthetics of literature and art, directly inspiring the translation theories of Fu Lei and others. (Liang Dan 2016, 103)

Fu Lei emphasized the resemblance of spirit but not of form. Besides, Mao Dun believed that the reproduction of artistic conception is the most important task of literary translation, so that the target readers can receive the same feelings as if reading the original text. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189)

4. Contemporary translation theory since the 1950s

During this period, translation is considered as a discipline by translators. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) In 1951, Dong Qiusi published On the Construction of Translation Theory, which marked the beginning of the transformation of Chinese translation theory towards a systematic development. In 1990, Liu Miqing published Modern Translation Theories, marking the establishment of a modern translation system in China. (Liang Dan 2016, 103)

====Similarities and Differences====

By sorting out the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be found that due to the differences in economic, political, cultural and social backgrounds between China and the West, there are some differences between Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222)

First of all, the purposes of establishing translation theory are different for both sides. Chinese theorists stress the practicality of theories and and emphasize the function of theories to better guide the translation practice. However, theorists in western countries pay more attention to the abstractedness, systematicness and organization of translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222-224)

Secondly, there are different thinking patterns. The Chinese people attach great importance to understanding ability and sensitivity, while the West is rationality-oriented. Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism require people’s understanding ability and sensitivity; the western philosophy, which originated from Plato and Aristotle, emphasizes rational thinking of humanity. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 226)

Thirdly, they have different ways of expressing translation theories. In China, translation theorists tend to refine their words and condense their meanings, thus giving people more space for understanding. So Chinese theorists explain translation theories in a vague and implicit way. For example, after putting forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” in the first half of his great work Evolution and Ethics, Yan Fu did not make any further supplement or explanation for this translation standard. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)

Fourthly, China maintains relatively conservative in translation studies while the West pursues innovation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 233) Traditionally, the Chinese people have a strong tendency to worship the ancient and authority, and their thinking pattern is influenced by the philosophy of "universal application". For instance, the “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” proposed by Yan Fu is regarded as an insuperable existence by some people.

The difference is inevitable. Although Chinese and Western translation theorists have their own terminology and experience in translation, there are strikingly similarities in terms of principles, methods, standards and categories of translation. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163) It reveals the inherent commonness in the thinking mode of translation, and indicates that translation has rules to follow, which are objective and break the shackles of different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi, 2005, 213)

First of all, there are similarities in basic translation methods between Chinese and Western translation history. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 216) Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theorists have considered similar issues, including the principle of translation, the purpose of translation, the process of translation, the relationship between the author, the translator and the reader, and so on. In terms of translation methods, it can be found that literal translation and free translation are distinguished by both Chinese and Western theorists in the study of translation methods, and that the commonly used methods are amplification, abridgement, adaptation, interpretation, transliteration and so on. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)

Secondly, issues relating to "faithfulness" have always been the core topic of translation theories in both China and the West since ancient times. (Liang Dan 2016, 104) When expressing the concept of "the translation must be faithful to the original", various terms are used both in China and in the West, mainly including fidelity, loyalty, accuracy, equivalence, correspondence, etc. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 218-219)

Thirdly, the principles and methods of translation have been systematically summarized by both Chinese and Western translation theorists. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 220) For example, Dolet summarized the "five elements of translation"; Tytler put forward "three principles of translation"; Dao An proposed ""Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation"; Xuanzang proposed a concrete principle of "Five Categories of Untranslated Terms”. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)

After a detailed analysis of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be concluded that the difference in philosophical thoughts, value systems, and languages and cultures has always posing an important impact on the development of Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193-194) Although Chinese and Western translation theories have different development backgrounds and show some differences, the similarity between them should be observed. Similarity is the main characteristic of the development of translation thoughts, which is not restricted by different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193)

It can be reflected in the striking similarity between Chinese and Western translation principles, methods and standards. For example, Yan Fu's translation standard presents similarity with that of Tytler. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) The development of translation theories of the two sides is independent from each other, but they share some commonality. This exactly reveals that translation is objective and transcends the barriers of different languages and cultures.

===Reflections on Translations Methods===

====Domestication and Doreignization====

Domestication and foreignization are proposed by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, in the Translator's Invisibility in 1995. (Zhang Mei, Wang Rongyuan 2019, 19) As two translation methods, domestication and foreignization are contrary, united and mutually reinforcing.

Domestication is to localize the source language. (Venuti 1995, 19-21) It adopts the expressions that the target reader is accustomed to to convey the content of the source language. In addition, it helps readers to understand the source text better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. Foreignization is to adapt to the language features of foreign cultures, absorb foreign language expressions. (Venuti 1995, 29)

Since this method fully takes the difference and diversity of national cultures into consideration and reflects the characteristics of foreign language styles, its purpose is to preserve and reflect the exoticism. In other words, domestication is oriented toward the target language culture, while foreignization is source language culture oriented. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 13) For example, the sentence”something is springing up like mushrooms”, if handled in foreignizing translation, its Chinese version will be”犹如蘑菇一般”; but if in domestication, it will be “如雨后春笋一般’。

Some scholars believe that translators should only use one translation strategy in entire translation process, and that domestication or foreignization should be separated. However, it is difficult for translators to adhere to it in translation practice. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the ideas and styles of the original authors, which are of strong exotic atmosphere, so it is inevitable to adopt the foreignizing method. Meanwhile, the translation should also take the reader's response and the smoothness of the original text into consideration. In this context, the domestication method is essential. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17)

This paper holds the opinion that translation is more likely to be dominated by domestication. The essential purpose of translation is to facilitate communication and help the target readers to understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, in most cases, translation should conform to the norms of the target language, so as to make it possible for readers to understand the foreign cultures and achieve the purpose of translation. However, although the paper contends that domestication is in a dominant role, it doesn’t mean the foreignization method should be abandoned. Actually, foreignization and domestication are not two antagonistic concepts, instead, they are complementary and mutually reinforcing. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17-18)

====The Three Principles of Tytler and Yan Fu’s Theory====

In the long course of translation development in both China and the West, various schools of translators have put forward important translation standards. Among them, Yan Fu proposed "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" and Tytler put forward the “three principles of translation”. These two standards are of great importance and far-reaching influence in the translation circle. More importantly, the similarity between them has drawn wider attention among translators. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)

In 1989, Yan Fu mentioned in the preface of the Evolution and Ethics, "three things are hard to achieve in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance". (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220) However, Yan Fu did not present detailed definition of it, instead, he further stated that "it is difficult to stay faithful to the original text; if the translation is faithful without expressiveness, it is equal to untranslated ones; therefore, expressiveness should be put at priority”. It is the statement that generates controversy of its definition in the academic circle. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)

In 1790, Tytler proposed the three principles of translation in his great work Essay on the Principles of Translation, that is, a translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; a translation should have all the ease of the original composition. (Tytler 1790, 9) It caused extensive repercussions in the translation circle and is considered as a milestone in the history of Western translation. (Ren Qingliang 2016, 201)

The three principles of Tytler pose put requirements on the translator from three aspects: meaning, style and spirit. (Reng Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) In addition, according to Tytler, the three principles are ranked in order of importance. When the three principles are in conflict, the third principle should be abandoned first, the next is the second principle. Tytler contended that at no time should the content of the original be abandoned for the sake of the fluency of the translation. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220)

Yan Fu believed that translation should pursue faithfulness, but if it is inexpressive, it would be equivalent to untranslated ones. Thus it can be seen that Yan Fu emphasized the relationship and coordination among faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, and elevated importance of “expressiveness” to the same position as "faithfulness". (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)

====Free Translation and Literal Translation====

The central problem of translation has always been whether to translate literally or freely. The argument has been going on since at least the first century BC. (Newmark, Peter 1988, 45) In China, as early as the late Eastern Han Dynasty, a famous translator of Buddhist scriptures Zhi Chen put forward his opinion of literal translation that pays more attention to the preservation of the original intention than wording. He advocated that since scriptures are abstruse and hard to understand, the translation should focus on the content and meaning of the original text rather than the flowery language. However, his disciple Zhi Qian objected to the method of literal translation from the perspective of literary form and called for free translation. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99)

Literal translation refers to an adequate representation of the original. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) It reproduces both the style and the ideological content of the original, and retains as much as possible the figures of speech or sentence structures. Free translation does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original while only maintains the content of the original work. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) For instance, the Chinese sentence “你不要班门弄斧”, if handled in free translation, it English version will be “don’t teach fish to swim”; but if in literal translation, it will be “don’t display your axe at Lu Ban’s door”.

In the process of translation, only by having a thorough understanding of the thoughts and emotions in the original text and using the two strategies flexibly, can the original text be translated into a fluent and expressive target language. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99) Both literal translation and free translation should be accurate and reproduce the original meaning both in form and in spirit. There should be no judgement of good or bad between the two strategies. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 100)

Nevertheless, the differences between the two can not be ignored. Literal translation requires higher degree of faithfulness to the original. It is generally used in the science, technology and law-related translations for the reason that such article types require precise words and avoid ambiguity. Free translation, on the other hand, is relatively abstract. It is often used in translating poetry, prose and other literary works, to express the main connotation of the original text with divergent thinking, thus increasing the aesthetic feeling and artistry of translation.(Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 100)

===Conclusion===

Translation is the process of replacing the source language with the target language. (Catford 1965, 20) In the final analysis, translation is an activity closely related to language, while language cannot be separated from thinking ability. It is the overlap of human thought patterns that makes translation possible. However, the difference between Chinese and Western way of thinking is universal, which will be manifested in all fields, including the translation circle. Traditionally, the Chinese people were good at synthesizing, while people in the West were adept in analyzing. Therefore, traditional Chinese translation theories are mostly a summary of experience, which largely depends on the subjective feelings of the translator. However, western translation theories are based on rational analysis and scientific research, instead of relying on subjective feelings.

Translation has its own rules of development, which is proved by the similarity between Chinese and Western translation theories. Since translation theories in China and the West have their own advantages, this paper proposes that more tolerance should be given to the diversity and the essence should be absorbed so as to promote the development of translation theories in the world.

Both Chinese and Western translation theories are important parts of the translation systems, and they provide strong theoretical support for translation practice. There is no superiority or inferiority of translation theories. Translation theories in China and the West are rooted in translation practice but nurtured in different linguistic environments and cultural backgrounds. It must be realized that the similarities are greater than differences, and that the significance of differences more important than similarities. It is because of the differences that China and the West need to draw on strengths and learn from each other.

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==A Brief Introduction to Lu Xun's Translation Theory - 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 202070080625, MTI英语笔译==
<center>张瑜 Zhang Yu 202070080625 </center>

===Abstract===
Lu Xun, as China's renowned writer, thinker and one of founders of Chinese modern literature, has left a great amount of precious spiritual wealth. His representative works include ''Outcry'', ''A Madman's Diary'', ''Dawn Blossoms Plucked at Dusk'', ''Wild Grass'' and so on, which are the bright pearls of Chinese literature. We have a general understanding of his identity as a writer. In fact, as a translator, Lu Xun has also left profound translation works for next generations, including translations of literature and theory works. Even from the time line, the records of his translation activities are far prior to his literary creation. His earliest novel, ''Nostalgia'', was finished in 1911, while his earliest translation, ''Mournful World'', was finished in 1903. In the process of translating different works, Lu Xun gradually formed his own translation theory. Therefore, learning more about his translation theory is conducive to comprehensively recognizing him. This paper mainly introduces Lu Xun's translation theory as well as its formation and development. The purpose is to lead everyone to have a more profound understanding to Lu Xun's theory.

===Key Words===
Lu Xun, Translation Theory, Literal Translation, Hard Translation, Rather to be Faithful than Fluent

===题目===
浅谈鲁迅的翻译思想

===摘要===
鲁迅作为我国著名的文学家、思想家、中国现代文学的奠基人之一，给我们留下了一大批宝贵的精神财富，如他的代表作品《呐喊》、《狂人日记》、《朝花夕拾》、《野草》等，都是我国文学宝库中璀璨的明珠。而我们对他的了解可能始于他的作家身份，但事实上，作为翻译家的鲁迅也给后人留下了内容丰富的翻译作品，其中包括文学作品翻译和理论著作翻译。甚至从时间上来看，他从事翻译活动要远远早于文学创作活动，鲁迅最早的小说《怀旧》创作于1911年，而他最早的译文《哀尘》则完成于1903年。鲁迅在从事翻译活动的过程中，逐渐形成了自己的翻译思想，所以了解鲁迅的翻译思想有助于我们更加全面地了解鲁迅。本章回将主要介绍鲁迅的翻译思想及其形成与发展,以此让大家对鲁迅的翻译思想有一个更深刻的了解。

===关键词===
鲁迅，翻译思想，直译，硬译，宁信不顺

===Introduction===
It is estimated that Lu Xun has translated 144 pieces of works of 110 writers from 15 countries and regions in his whole lifetime. Meanwhile, Lu Xun was engaged in translating foreign literary works from 1903 to 1936, starting from the translation ''Yue Jie Lv Xing'' and ending with the ''Death Souls'', which last a long period. Therefore, his identity as a translator cannot be neglected. In fact, in the process of undertaking translation, Lu Xun has made great contributions to the Chinese translation history, such as coming up with a series of translation theory. This paper intends to introduce Lu Xun's translation theory, including his purpose of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent", retranslation and translation criticism. Then it discusses the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theories from the perspective of "intermediate". At last, it analyzes the social reasons for the formation and development.(Xu Lan 2017,447)

===Lu Xun's Translation Theories===
About the translation theory, Lu Xun had not written a book to expound it. His translation theory is embodied in his numerous translation works, and concluded by late scholars. In this part, it intends to introduce five aspects of his translation theory, namely purposes of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent", retranslation as well as translation criticism.

====Purpose of Translation====
From 1903 to 1936, the works and articles translated by Lu Xun can be divided into two categories. One includes scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works; another includes other articles and works such as children's literature. However, the translations of these two categories have different purposes.（Chen 2000, 289）

For the first category, he hoped that these translation works are able to serve for the revolution and serve as the "guide of future revolutions". In the ''Hard translation and Hierarchy of Literature'' published in 1930, Lu Xun responded that "it works for me, for some who claim proletarian literary critics, and for some readers who are willing to learn more about the theory in spite of having difficulties" (Chen 2000,289). From the remarks of Lu Xun, it can be seen that his translations aimed at not only improving and introspecting himself, but also helping those literature workers who stand with him. In his essays, he usually compared the importance of translation to the Greek mythology that the hero Prometheus stole fire from the gods and gave it to earthly mortals. In his views, he believed that these scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works were able to bring "fire and light" for people. For example, the purpose of translating the Russian work, ''Destruction'', was to introduce steel-willed characters and struggles without fear of sacrifice, encourage Chinese people to engage themselves in revolutionizing the old society, and provide references for Chinese revolutionary writers to create more inspiring works. (Chen 2000,289-290)

For the second category, Lu Xun hoped that these translation works were able to provide reference materials for people. In the preface of his translation work, ''Ideology, Landscape, Figure'', he mentioned that "my translation and introduction aim at making partial readers learn the existence of those things, persons, ideology and remarks…Therefore, if I believe that it’s useful and beneficial, I would attempt to translate it (Chen 2000,290)." It’s obvious that as long as Chinese people could learn something from these works translated by him, the value of translations has been achieved. (Chen 2000,290-291)

There are two aspects to explain Lu Xun's translation of children's literature. On the one hand, there was no fairy tales in Chinese literature at that time. Thus, he wanted to make up for the blank. Meanwhile, children, as the future of nation, were deemed to the white paper, which had the boundless possibility to develop and shape. On the other hand, the feudal thoughts of old China had some detrimental effects on cultivating children (Wu 2009,183). Therefore, Lu Xun translated foreign works about children's literature to introduce new educational views and patterns and attract people's attention to dissolve constraints. (Wu 2009, 183-184)

====Free Translation and Hard Translation====
The concept of "literal translation" was proposed by Lu Xun and his brother Zhou Zuoren in the 1920s. In the ''Outside Novels'', they definitely put forward the concept literal translation, which played an important role in the modern history of translation and triggered heated discussion. Their purposes mainly focused on the problem of prevailing translation methods including mistranslation and random correction and deletion at that time. They hoped that the introduction of literal translation could give a definite direction to the chaotic situation. They mentioned that "it is better to choose the word-for-word translation, and if not, it should be translated as a sentence rather than be translated in the middle" (Chen 2000,176) in order to keep the style of the original text. Besides, they also distinguished the differences between literal translation and irresponsible translation. In the preface of his collected translation ''Peg-top'', Zhou Zuoren proposed that "the precondition of literal translation was that it should convey the meaning of the original and preserve its style as much as possible. In other words, it should be "faithful" and "expressiveness". Some people were seemed to misunderstand the meaning of the literal translation and they regarded literal translation as rigid translation word for word. For example, they translated 'lying on his back' into '卧着在他的背上' instead of '仰卧着'. Here, the former was irresponsible translation and the latter was literal translation (Chen 2000,177)." Lu Xun also supported his statement. In the following translation practice, Lu Xun has been sticking to literal translation. (Chen 2000, 176-177)

In 1929, Lu Xun formally proposed the concept of hard translation in ''The Supplement to the Translators of Literature and Criticism''. "Because of the inadequate ability of translators and the shortcomings of the Chinese text, the translation is obscure, making it difficult for readers to comprehend many parts of the translation. If the text was translated word for word, the refined original tone will be lost. However, there is no other methods other than hard translation. The only remaining hope is that the readers are still willing to read it in spite of difficulties (Lu 1958,286)." On September 10, 1929, Liang Shiqiu published ''Discussion on Lu Xun's Hard Translation'' and he believed that "hard translation" was just "rigid translation". In the reply to Liang Shiqiu, Lu Xun expounded his opinions on "hard translation" from the perspective of academy. Firstly, the works used with hard translation including scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works aimed at specific readers. Here, it closely related to the purpose of his translation. Lu Xun hoped that these translation works could awaken insensitive Chinese people and make them learn more about the reality of western countries to change the current situation of old China. Therefore, he chose hard translation and present readers the authentic pictures as much as possible. Secondly, in fact, Lu Xun also confessed that his translation was not satisfactory, but he had not found more appropriate methods to translate these books. And he believed that there were excellent translators who were able to translate faithful articles without using of hard translation or distortions in translation. When the better translation appeared, the version of his translation would be discarded naturally. However, in the period from nothing to good versions, his translation was willing to serve as the intermediate to make up for the blank.(Chen 2000,294-295)

====Rather to be Faithful than Fluent====
In the ''Message About Translation'', Lu Xun definitely proposed the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent" in the process of translating. In Lu Xun's views, he believed that the translation should not only keep the "exoticness" and "foreignness" of the original text in its contents and culture, but also imitate the word order and sentence structures of foreign language, which naturally led to be non-fluent. In the ''Title of Essays are Not Fixed'', Lu Xun pointed out that "every translation must take care of both sides, the first side is that it should be easy to understand, and the other is to preserve the richness of the original. But the second one often contradicts the first one. That means readers can't understand it. The original text is foreign to the target reader. For the sake of the readability, the translator has to change the original structure, but he should not shorten the original expression" (Huang 2018,24). At that time, Zhao Jingshen proposed his own view "rather to be fluent than faithful". His view was criticized by Lu Xun. As for the idea of "rather to be faithful than fluent", readers were able to understand the contents; if not, they could understand when connecting it with practice. While "rather to be fluent than faithful" emphasized the fluency instead of faithfulness, it resulted that readers were unable to understand the original text or even misunderstood based on subjective speculation. It obviously made no sense. For example, due to supporting the idea of "rather to be fluent than faithful", Zhao Jingshen translated the "Milky Way" into "牛奶路" instead of "银河". This kind of translation was ridiculous and easy to misdirect and confuse targeted readers. (Chen 2000, 296)

There were two purposes for Lu Xun to put forward the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent". Firstly, one was to resist ethnocentrism and introduce foreign culture to reform and rebuild the profound impression on Chinese culture. Therefore, he introduced the new vocabulary, new grammas and new expressions from the foreign languages, and then involve the readers into the new foreign context. He pointed out that being non-fluent was temporary. It resulted from unfamiliarity and intolerance of Chinese readers to the foreign language. And then it would change into fluency when native language absorbed the foreign language and people began to be accustomed to it (Li 2019,204). Secondly, another purpose was to change Chinese people's thinking model and language expression. The language controlled people's thinking pattern. It was necessary to reform Chinese language in order to change the national spirit. In the ''Message About Translation'', he said that "in addition to introducing the original contents to Chinese readers, translation had another important function, that is, to help us create new and modern Chinese language (Lu 2005,380)." Lu Xun also mentioned that Chinese had many disadvantages such as a lack of explicitness and accuracy. In the introduction of ''Little Jones'', he said that "European language is explicit, but my ability is limited (Lu 1981,256)." Besides, at that time the development of vernacular was immature. Then Lu Xun also said that "the biggest reason that the Europeanized grammar intruded into the Chinese vernacular was for the necessity rather than curiosity (Lu 1981,520)" Therefore, based on the deep understanding to flaws of Chinese, it was necessary to introduce useful expression and vocabulary to reform Chinese.(Li 2019, 201-209)

In conclusion, although the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent" was attacked by other scholars after its introduction, in fact, this concept showed Lu Xun's progressive thoughts and his tolerance to foreign cultures.

====Retranslation====
Retranslation refers to two kinds of translation, that is, one is using the third language to indirectly translate the original works, and another is having different translation versions for the same work. Although the first type of retranslation is not an ideal method, it's quite common in the history of translation. For example, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was from foreign languages to Chinese instead of being translated directly from Sanskrit. As for Lu Xun's attitude towards retranslation, he believed that the ideal translation should be translated by those who mastered the original-text language. However, in the first quarter of 20th century, no one understood or had a good command of eastern European languages. Therefore, under the circumstance retranslation was the best choice to introduce other nations' literature. In the foreword of the ''Russian Fairy Tales'', Lu Xun even candidly confessed that "I was not satisfied with my version of retranslation, but there are no other translation versions because of objective limitations. My version existed just for the period of vacancy. Once someone directly translated it, and its version must be much better. Then my version was willing to be replaced (Chen 2000,302-303)." In his point of view, he agreed that retranslation was much easier than direct translation. It included two reasons: firstly, the translator who directly translated the original text spent a large amount of time to research and digest the unintelligible and complex contents, and then he was able to express the meaning of the original text as much as possible. Secondly, as for those excellent but indigestible contents, the translator who was faithful to the original text would provide annotations to explain them. (Gu 2009, 26)

The second type of retranslation was having different translation versions for the same work. At the beginning, Lu Xun's attitude towards it was firmly against it. He believed that bookstores and readers at that time were unable to accept two translation versions for the same book. However, later Lu Xun actually put forward the necessity of retranslating the same work. In 1935, he wrote a piece of monograph and explained the reasons (Chen 2000,305). On the one hand, retranslation was the only choice to repel irresponsible translation. If there was only one version for the original text, it was unavoidable for the irresponsible translator to randomly tamper the original meaning or add subjective opinions. On the other hand, retranslation was conducive to improving the levels of new literature. When different versions appeared, comparison and critical analysis appeaered. Consequently, people were willing to choose the better one to read. Besides, Lu Xun also mentioned that the later translators could learn from the previous translation and add their own new ideas in order to make the new translation version closer to the original text. (Gu 2009, 27)

====Translation Criticism====
As for the translation criticism, Lu Xun came up with two questions, that is, the methods of making translation criticism and the importance of translation criticism. Firstly, about the methods of translation criticism, in the ''Defended for Translation Criticism'', Lu Xun proposed that "the major responsibility of translation criticism depended on translator, and circles of readers and publishing should take a part of responsibility. The correct methods of translation criticism were to point out the bad one and reward the best one; if not, the better one could also be considered (Chen 2000,306)." Besides, in order to explain the methods of translation criticism, Lu Xun used a vivid comparison. He compared the translation problems to apples with scars. As for the previous methods, once there were scars in the apples, people would discard them completely, which led to a high price. Later as long as the apples with scars were edible, they were worthwhile to criticize. Then the latter one led to less losses. In other words, previously, if the translation had obvious problems, people would forsake it without hesitation. But people also found that it was likely to waste a great amount of time and energy. The later methods further improved the disadvantage of the first one. If translation problems were found, people were able to exploit the useful part and learn something from the problems to create a better translation. This method not only helped people distinguish the quality of translation, but also saved time and reduced losses. (Chen 2000, 306-307)

Secondly, Lu Xun also expounded the importance of translation criticism. In the ''Rediscussion on translation'', he mentioned that translation criticism "undertook the responsibility of cultivation or deletion, and avoided numerous and miscellaneous translations swarming into the translation field" (Chen 2000,308). In the face of a multitude of translation works, translation criticism was conducive to distinguishing high quality works and dispelling translation of poor quality. Besides, the difficulty of translation criticism also provided great challenges for translation critics. The previous part had mentioned that Lu Xun was in favor of retranslation. Therefore, one foreign work was likely to have several different translation versions, which required translation critics to read all the translation versions, compared their advantages and disadvantages, and then made conclusions. It took a great amount of time and energy to do this work. Meanwhile, the standards of translation criticism were difficult to master. As for the same version, different people had different opinions. The qualification of translation critics should also take into consideration. (Chen 2000, 308)

===The Formation and Development of Lu Xun's Translation Theories===
Lu Xun's translation theory did not take shape in a short time. It took a long time for it to form and develop through long-lasting translation practice and improvement. In this part, it intends to introduce the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory from the perspective of "intermediate", and then analyze the social reasons for the changes.

====Philosophy of "Intermediate"====
In the ''Postscript of Tomb'' published in 1926, the philosophy of "intermediate" was firstly proposed. It intended to expound that everything was in the process of change, and it should go through the middle process to eventually reach a higher level. The philosophy originated from the "survival of the fittest" advocated by Darwin, the "gold mean" in traditional Chinese philosophical culture as well as the ideas of Nietzsche's superman (Liu and Luo 2019,34). The philosophy of "intermediate" was embodied in the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory and had played a significant role in the process. It intends to analyze his philosophy of "intermediate" from the following two aspects. (Liu and Luo 2019, 34)

=====From the Perspective of Language=====
In the aspect of language, it experienced three phrases, that is, the writings in classical style, vernacular Chinese and modern language (Wu 2009,74). At the beginning, Lu Xun regarded language as the instrument and use native language and style to change original text. Thus, he mixed the writings in classical style and vernacular Chinese to translate foreign literary works such as ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre''. In the two scientific novels, he even used the traditional pattern of chapters and delete some psychological descriptions as well as narrations of scientific knowledge in order to cater readers' taste. However, he still founded that the translation was obscure to understand for Chinese people. Later he realized that the flaws of writings in classical style were the primary cause and gradually adopted vernacular Chinese to translate and further improved it. In the ''Classical Books and Vernacular'', Lu Xun said that "the classical language has died; the vernacular Chinese was the bridge in the process of reform (Lu 2005,228)." It obviously showed that vernacular Chinese was just the intermediate or middle process with the development of new culture and literature. (Wu 2009, 74-75)

=====From the Perspective of Translation Strategy=====
In his earlier translation of late Qing Dynasty, Lu Xun mostly adopted free translation or adaptation to translate foreign literary works. For example, when translating two works written by Jules Verne, ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre'', there were obvious indications of free translation. In his translation, "''Yue Jie Lv Xing'', a total of 28 chapters of the novel were cut into only 14 chapters, and the article was deleted. The wording and writing style are suitable for Chinese readers (Lu 1981,152)." Then starting from the ''Outside Novels'', Lu Xun changed his translation style and began to use literal translation. Then from his late translation works such as ''Dead Souls'', it can be seen that he still adopted the method of literal translation. The change was that his style of literal translation became more proficient and mature in this period. In conclusion, Lu Xun's translation style changed from free translation into literal translation, and later he even used hard translation and the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent". In the process of exploring the most appropriate translation strategy, Lu Xun began to recognize his own limitations. He mentioned that his translation versions could serve as the "intermediate" to make up for the vacancy. When the better version appeared, his translation version would be discarded naturally. He also confessed that his translations were not satisfied in terms of hard translation and one reason was that his ability was limited and unable to find better translation methods. However, he was willing to provide the "intermediate" for readers and late translators for reference. (Xu 2017, 448)

Another statement was that Lu Xun's translation strategy changed from domestication into foreignization. In the history of Chinese translation, under the trend of "domestication", Lu Xun was the first one to express new and different opinions and advocated the translation strategy of "foreignization". Changing from the domestication into foreignization, his real purpose was to optimize the Chinese language. In fact, the translation strategy of "domestication" included free translation, adaptation and translation in classical style, while the strategy of "foreignization" just referred to the literal translation. Therefore, the first statement and the second one achieved the same effect through different description.(Wu 2009, 82-85)

====Social Reasons for the Formation and Development====
Lu Xun's translation activities lasted about 33 years. His translation theory can be found among his numerous translation works. The following intends to explore the reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. It intends to mainly expound the social reasons.

In the first stage of his translation activity (1903-1908), affected by Liang Qichao and Lin Shu, Lu Xun adopted the free translation to translate scientific novels. On the one hand, the translation notion advocated by Liang Qichao had a deep influence on selection of translation materials. Liang Qichao believed that translation has played an important role in reforming thinking and pushing Chinese people to make advance. From his early translation works, it can be concluded that the category of these works mainly focused on the scientific novels, which closely related to the ideology that used science to renovate people's ideas. On the other hand, in the late Qing Dynasty, the free translation adopted by Lin Shu was popular and widely accepted. Lu Xun praised that Lin Shu's translation works can convey a kind of fun. Therefore, under the influence of Lin Shu, Lu Xun began to imitate Lin Shu and used free translation to translate foreign scientific works. (Chen 2000, 170-175)

In the second stage (1909-1926), Lu Xun changed his translation method from the free translation into literal translation. At the same time, the materials he selected had also changed into literary works of weakest and oppressed nations. In the ''Youth of Lu Xun'', Zhou Zuoren mentioned that "''Gulliver's Travels'' written by Swift and ''The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon'' written by Irving were valuable books, but the translation versions of them were terrible. ''Don Quijote de la Mancha'' written by Cervantes was renamed as the ''Tale of the Daredevil'' (''Mo Xia Zhuan''), and in the translation, there were lots of mistranslation and irresponsible translation (Wu 2009,104)." It can be seen that Lu Xun criticized the novels translated by Lin Shu as well as the free translation he used. Besides, the translation works translated by Lin Shu mainly focused on the literature of developed countries including Europe and America. In order to change the situation and make up for the blank at that time, Lu Xun put forward the literal translation and translated literary works of weakest and oppressed nations to encourage Chinese people to revolution and change the current situations of old China. Therefore, the Outside Novels, born in this background, symbolized the transformation of Lu Xun's translation style. (Wu 2009, 104-105)

In the third stage (1927-1936), Lu Xun definitely and firmly stuck to literal translation. And the materials he selected mainly focused on the works of Soviet-Russian literary theory. This stage was also the most productive period with the appearance of large number of translation works. In this period, he had a deeper understanding of literal translation and wanted to introduce the new ideas and expressions to reform the shortcomings of early vernacular. In 1930, the league of left-wing was established. Lu Xun, as the leader of the league, took actions to practice his translation theory. At the same time, many opponents opposed his theory, leading to heated debate between different schools. Therefore, the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent" were proposed in the following. He still believed that literal translation and hard translation were the most appropriate methods to present foreign literary works. (Wu 2009, 109-111)

===Conclusion===
Lu Xun made great contributions to modern Chinese literature. One of his contributions was his translation theory. In the first part, this paper mainly introduces five aspects of Lu Xun's translation theory, that is, his translation purposes, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of "rather to be faithful than fluent", retranslation as well as translation criticism. At that time, when the free translation was prevailing, he put forward the concept of "literal translation" to break the convention and adopted new translation strategy. In the process of practicing his translation theory, he further proposed the concept of "hard translation" and "rather to be faithful than fluent". Although his ideas were opposed by other scholars, his purpose that enlightened Chinese people and save the old China by learning from foreign literary works promoted him to stick his translation theory all the time. Besides, his ideas about retranslation provided possibility for the appearance of more and more translation versions. And the translation criticism was the critical step to prevent miscellaneous and poor translations from circulating among people. Then in the second part, it mainly introduces the formation and development of his translation theory. It put forward the concept of "intermediate" to expound its formation and dynamic development from two perspectives including change of preferential language as well as translation strategy. Finally, it also mentions the social reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. In conclusion, this paper strives for exploring Lu Xun's translation theory and having a deep understanding of his translation activity.

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*李文革 Li Wenge.“重释鲁迅的‘宁信而不顺’——西方解构主义的视角” [Reinterpreting Lu Xun's "Rather to be Faithful Than Fluent: a Western Deconstructionist Perspective]. 跨语言文化研究[Cross Linguistic and Cultural Studies]. 2019年.
*刘孔喜，骆贤凤 Liu Kongxi and Luo Xianfeng.“鲁迅翻译思想的‘中间物’哲学理据” [The Philosophical Justification of 'Intermediates' in Lu Xun's Thought on Translation]. 绍兴文理学院学报[Journal of Shaoxing College of Arts and Sciences]. 2019年.
*黄琼英 Huang Qiongying. “鲁迅语言观与翻译策略关系初探” [A Preliminary Study on the Relationship between Lu Xun's View of Language and Translation Strategy]. 曲靖师范学院学报 [Journal of Qujing Normal College]. 2008年.
*Huang Xiaojun 黄晓军. "The Difference Between Lawrence Venuti's Foreignization and Lu Xun's Foreignization" [劳伦斯·韦努蒂的异化与鲁迅的异化的差别]. Proceedings of 2018 7th International Conference on Applied Social Science (ICASS 2018)[2018年第七届国际应用社会科学大会论文集]. Ed. 2018.
*Zhu Xiaodong 朱晓东 and Ding Ting 丁婷. "The Influence of Lu Xun's 'Hard Translation' Concept on the Transformation of Modern Chinese Culture" [鲁迅的 "硬译 "理念对中国现代文化转型的影响]. Proceedings of 7th International Workshop on Arts, Culture, Literature, and Education (IWACLE 2018) [2018年第七届国际艺术、文化、文学和教育研讨会论文集]. 2018.
*Xu Lan 徐兰. "On Lu Xun's Translation Activities in the 1930s Viewed Through Bourdieu's Sociological Theory" [论从布迪厄的社会学理论看20世纪30年代鲁迅的翻译活动]. Sino-US English Teaching 14[中美英语教学14期]. 2017.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 12:45, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology Theory 刘怡瑜 Liu Yiyu, 202070080598, MTI==
===Abstract===
Translation is not just an activity that refers to the practice of translation. In translation, theories form an integral part. With translation practice comes translation theory, and advances in theory will better guide practice. Perhaps the translation theories that translators are most familiar with are Skopos theory, domestication and foreignization, dynamic equivalence and the like, but these are all translation theories developed by celebrated foreign scholars.

The foreign translation theories have been introduced to China and have developed in China, perhaps tinged with Chinese characteristics in order to adapt to Chinese translation, but we have always lacked translation theories that originate from China. Eco-translatology is a theory from the local. This thesis is aimed to give a brief introduction to ecological translation theory, embracing the inspiration for ecological translation theory, the three-dimensional transformation as a main strategy and the emphasis on the subjectivity of translators.

In this paper, the translation of the subtitles of the American drama Prison Break will be taken as an application of the ecological translation theory strategy, so as to deepen the readers' understanding of the theory and possibly provide references for other translators on the application of ecological translation theory.

===Keywords is missing===

--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 10:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===题目 is missing===

--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 10:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===摘要===
翻译不仅仅是指翻译实践这样一种活动。在翻译的世界里，翻译理论占了不可或缺的一部分，有了翻译实践就会产生翻译理论，而理论的进步也会更好地指导翻译实践。或许译者最为熟悉的有翻译目的论、异化和归化、动态对等等一些翻译理论，但是这些都是国外著名学者所提出的翻译理论。

国外的翻译理论传到中国，在中国变化发展，也许有了中国特色，从而适应中国翻译，但我们始终缺乏从本土出发的翻译理论。生态翻译理论，就是从本土出发的翻译理论。本篇论文旨在对生态翻译理论进行一个简要地介绍，其中包括生态翻译理论的灵感来源、生态翻译的主要策略三维转换以及该理论对译者主体性的强调与诠释。

理论要应用就少不了实践，本文将会以美剧《越狱》的字幕翻译作为生态翻译理论策略的应用对象，从而深化读者对该理论的理解，也尽可能给其他研究者提供生态翻译理论应用的参考。
===关键词===
Eco-translatology; Subtitle Translation; Three-dimentional transformation
===1 Introduction===
In the study of translation theory, Eco-translatology, as an important methodological tool, a way of interpreting translation activities and a method of exploring translation theories, has increasingly shown its unique function and great charm. It is in the process of dynamic development and continuous improvement.

The theory of Eco-translatology and the proposal of Eco-translatology have undoubtedly achieved breakthroughs and its methods reached a new stage. Therefore, the study and exploration of the ideological basis of Eco-translatology and the three-dimensional transformation of the core methodology of Eco-translatology will help us fully understand the significance of Eco-translatology in contemporary translation studies and theoretical analysis of translation.

In this study, the author will introduce the inspiration of Eco-translatology and its practical translation strategy as multi-dimensional transformations then analyze the subjectivity of translators in the second chapter,. Finally, the author will integrate the theory of Eco-translatology with American TV show Prison Break.
===2 Eco-translatology===
===2.1 Inspiration of Eco-translatology===
Professor Hu Gengshen, driven by Darwin's adaptive selection theory, put forward and further developed the theory of ecological translation. The adaptation theory of translation choice is the core concept of this theory, which defines translation as "the translator's selection activities adapted to the translation ecological environment".(Hu Gengshen, 2010) The ecological environment of translation refers to “the world presented by the source language, the source language and the target language, that is, language, communication, culture, society, authors, readers and clients.”

For instance, Friends as a celebrated sitcom, only its translation must take these specific group of people into consideration can it achieve its purpose. In this process, the translator is the only subject with subjective initiative.(Hu Gengshen, 2010) As the strategy of translation, multi-dimensional adaptation and adaptive selection appear to be crucially significant. The three-dimensional transformation of language, culture and communication dimensions are included in translation methods.

What can be considered as the best translation is that the translation with the highest degree of integration adaptation and selection. The definition of translation ecological environment is the sum of all external conditions that affect the survival and development of translation theme. It includes the author, translator, reader, initiator, sponsor, publisher, and other characters of the original text.

The external environment related to the natural and economic environment, language and culture environment, social and political environment which concerns translation activities. The ecological environment of translation is interwoven by various elements, which is the sum of natural and humanistic factors in the occurrence, existence and development of translation activities. Cultural dimension and communicative dimension into practice by putting the transformation of linguistic dimension.

Three-dimensional transformation reveals its sweeping influence in translation. Language dimension transformation amounts to the translator's adaptation and selection of language forms in the process of translation. This transformation can occur at different stages, levels and aspects of the translation process. To transmit information accurately and faithfully, the translator should choose and transform the language form in an adaptive way.

Cultural dimension transformation adds up to the translator's methods to the transmission and interpretation of bilingual cultural connotations in the process of translation. More crucially, profound comprehension for the cultural discrepancy is the key to communicate accurate information. In this study, it demands translators must take the characteristics of historical and cultural documentary into account, and to use accurate language to transform the expression of cultural characteristics.

Communication dimension transformation emphasizes the adaptation and selection of translators' attention to bilingual communicative intentions in the process of translation. Only through multi-dimensional adaptation and at least three-dimensional selection and transformation can proper translation be carried out. (Hu Gengshen, 2004)

===2.2 Three Dimentional Transformation of Eco-tranlatology===
In order to make sure the precise and correctness of translation, the translator must consider the translation from multiple perspectives, levels and integrate various factors. Only in this way can the translation be closer to the original context. However, it is nearly impossible to achieve this goal in reality. After all, translation concerns a variety of contexts, cultures and other intricate factors. The environment is complex and changeable, which is difficult for translators to grasp those comprehensively.

As long as the translator find the key links and points, appropriate translation can be achieved to a certain extent. According to the theory of Eco-translation, three key dimensions must be transformed during translating the information, which is considered as three-dimensional transformation.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)

What language dimension transformation stresses is that the translator's adaptation and selection of language forms in the process of translation. Since adaptation requires to be achieved, the original text must be understood and analyzed, and the translator must have a full insight of the meaning of the translated text.

What cultural dimension transformation indicates is that the translation process in which the translator pays attention to the transmission and interpretation of bilingual cultural connotations. America and China both has totally different historical background, thus formed very distinguished cultural features. It needs translators to mind the cultural discrepancy between these two countries.

What communicative dimension transformation serves is that it requires translators to focus on the level of communication and whether the communicative intentions of the original text can be reflected in the translation, in addition to the transformation of linguistic information and the transmission of cultural connotations. Communication is unavoidable. If we want to communicate properly, then we should have a proper tone. When translating, the translator must grasp the emotion expressed by the author of the original text and accurately express the message the speaker wants to convey. (Hu Gengshen, 2008)

===2.3 The subjectivity of Translators===
Katherine Reiss proposed the text type theory, which summarized various types of text into informative, expressive and operative types. She believes that almost all texts can find their own classification based on these three types, but there are also mixed text types, such as the autobiography of statesmen, which may have the function of operative as well as informative. Reiss believes that the specific translation method is determined by the text type.

However, as translation theories continue to develop, and more and more translators find that text type theory may be too restrictive, ecological translation theories also propose translator subjectivity, aiming at transforming the translator from an invisible role to an explicit one.

The previously popular textual determinism or other factor determinism may ignore the creativity of the translator to a certain extent, treating the translator as a mere "servant" of the two languages, and the translator's subjectivity is not given full play and many translations lose their vitality.

From the point of view of ecological translation theory, we can re-understand the relationship between the translator and the translation ecological environment in the translation process, so as to highlight the influence of the translator and emphasise that the translator is no longer invisible.

Eco-translatology believes that in the translation process, the translator's subjectivity is primary and the object, the original text, is secondary. This is a significant reversal of the previous theory of focusing on the original text, and is in fact more in line with the reality that the translator plays an active and creative role in actual translation activities. Nowadays, machine translation is developing rapidly, and common economic and trade texts can be edited and modified after translation, greatly improving the efficiency of translation.

However, in literary translations, especially on subjects such as poetry, the subjectivity of the translator cannot be ignored, both in terms of understanding the content and the creativity of the output. In addition, the translation ecosystem boasts some characteristics: The translation as a whole is greater than the sum of its parts. The parts include the various elements of the translation process, such as the original work, the translation ecosystem, the translator and the reader.

Moreover, through the adaptation and choice of the translator, the nature and function of each translation element interacts with each other, which ultimately affects the translation system as a whole and manifests itself in the translator's work.

As we can see from these points, the translator-centred theory does not mean that the translator is completely free to create regardless of the original text. Eco-translation theory emphasises that translators adapt and make choices in an ecological translation environment, and that they should focus on their own creativity as well as the original text in order to produce dynamic translations.(Dong Jie, Yi Yongzhong, 2020)
===3 Application of the Theory in Subtitle Text Analysis of Prison Break===
===3.1 The Characteristics of America Television Show===
After the reform and opening up, people's living standards and quality of life have improved dramatically. People no longer just pursue food and clothing satisfaction, but have started to enrich their spiritual world. With the opening up of the country's policies, not only economic exchanges have been brought in, but also the spread of American films and TV shows has had a deeper impact on the country. It is said that art comes from life, so to a certain extent, American TV shows also reflects its style of life, attitudes and humanistic values.

Subtitle translation of movies and TV plays proves to be a relatively new field of translation. A film with vivid subtitle translation can better convey the complete information to be expressed. As global economy and cultural exchanges advance, a large number of foreign films and TV programs have been introduced into China. As a medium, film and television works have made important contributions to the cultural exchange between China and the West.
Seriousness and colloquialism go hand in hand.

Films and TV dramas are not just for the entertainment. Therefore, translators should take a serious attitude towards the subtitling of American dramas in order to avoid any inadvertent misunderstanding of different cultures. This gives the dialogue of American dramas a certain seriousness. However, seriousness does not mean that the subtitling of American dramas needs to be written throughout, as most of the plots take place in everyday life and the characters' dialogue is as commonplace as when we go out to eat, which requires the translators to avoid written language as much as possible, giving the audience a sense of being close to life and in reality.

Flexibility.
Film and television translation is a special literary form. While choosing accurate and vivid language to reproduce the ideological and artistic features of the original film to ensure the accuracy and vividness of the translated language, the translator should also make it consistent with the expressions and accents of the characters in the play. The most fundamental principle is the flexible handling of retention and innovation in subtitle translation.

First of all, there is a huge difference between Chinese and English languages, so the translator should pay special attention to the language difference when translating, and change the word class flexibly to avoid the situation where the words are not clear and the meaning is difficult to understand. Secondly, intonation is also very important as part of the dialogue.

The seriousness or liveliness, formality or casualness of the dialogue has a direct impact on the character, so the translator should ensure the accuracy of the translation and choose suitable language styles according to the different types of films in order to make the audience feel the same as the original language audience.

In the process of translation, the translator should fully understand the connotation of the film, and flexibly handle the retention and innovation in subtitle translation according to the language characteristics and cultural background of both parties, making the subtitle translation more suitable for the cultural context through vocabulary and word class conversion, to show the charm of the film and retain the artistic value of the film to the greatest extent.（Qian Shaochang, 2000）
===3.2 A Introduction of Prison Break===
Prison Break is a crime-thriller, with an exciting, interlocking plot, adored by national and international audiences,. In this show, Mike (Wentworth Miller) and his brother Lincoln (Dominic Purcell) are interdependent. Lincoln borrows $90,000 from a loan shark to cover the tuition of his brother, and Mike uses the money to become a successful building and structural engineer.

Lincoln, however, reluctantly agrees to shoot a man in order to repay the loan shark, and is then set up as a scapegoat by a senior government official. Mike takes advantage of his career and learns about the prison structural system. After deliberately robbing a bank, he insists that he wants to be put in the same prison as his brother, and then tries his best to save him from being sentenced to death. quotation is missing--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 08:40, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

===3.3 Adaptive Selections in Linguistic Dimension===
After discussed the basis of Eco-translatology, the characteristics of American TV shows, we should put it into practice so as to deepen our understanding.
Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese emphasizes meaning, while English appears to be in strict accordance with the structure of sentences. Nida said that from a linguistic light, the biggest difference between Chinese and English is hypotaxis and parataxis.(Nida, 2001) In the process of translation, subtitle translators should learn by heart that the specific language characteristics so as to make the information transmission smoothly and authentically.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)

Original and Translation:
-You don't have a violent bone in your body,
我知道你天性善良，
-I said,are you being a smartass?
我问你是不是喜欢讽刺人？
-Just trying to fly low,avoid the radar,boss.
只不过想保持低调，不想引起注意，长官
-Do my time... and get out.
服完刑...就走人
Analysis: Reverse translations can also be considered to be a linguistic translation strategy, which can sometimes have a much more different effect than literal translations. This conversation occurs when Mike chats with a prison guard on arrival at the prison. “Don't have a violent bone in your body” is translated into “天性善良”. The reverse translation here show Mike's desire to impress the guard in order to facilitate a quiet environment in which to carry out his plans. In addition, “do my time” originally meant to pass the time, but the translator has chosen to adapt the translation to make it easier to understand and fit the context.

Original and Translation:
-He just sort of rolled over. He didn't put up a fight.
他就当睡觉翻个身似的，没任何反抗
Analysis: In a particular context, the meaning of a word often transcends its original meaning, and a context-dependent meaning appears, which is regarded as semantic addition. Therefore, the translator should jump out of the original meaning of the word and rely on the context in which the word is located to translate its meaning outside the context. The original meaning of “roll over” was to make a rolling motion or turn, but the phrase was translated to fit the context, adding the meaning of sleep over, which shows Mike's attitude to letting it run its course after being sentenced, and also provides an ambush for the plot to save his brother.

Original and Translation:
-Kellerman: There's a lawyer poking around.
有个律师在多管闲事
-Caroline: Anyone that's a threat is expendable.
对这种人不要心慈手软
Analysis: It is difficult to understand this sentence just by looking at the meaning of the word expendable. But according to the meaning of the whole sentence it is clear that what is meant here is that anyone who is a threat should be dealt with without considering the cost. Sometimes, the meaning of an adjective is far from restricted to its original, which embodies that the context matters.

===3.4 Adaptive Selections in Cultural Dimension===
China and America share dramatically different historical background and culture, thus there are some idioms, jargon, or any other adages that the two countries may has their own definition and explanation. In the process of translation, subtitle translators should bear in mind that the specific cultural characteristics between two countries so as to cause no misunderstanding.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)

Original and Translation:
-Someone wants him dead,Veronica.
有人要置他于死地，Veronica
-Something more is going on here.
这背后有阴谋
-This is desperation,Michael.
你是在孤注一掷，Michael
-You're grabbing at straws.
是想抓救命稻草
Analysis: The above sentences relatively use“want him dead”“desperation”“grab at straws”and the translator relatively selects typical Chinese sayings which are “置于死地”“孤注一掷”“救命稻草”. These Chinese idioms all have specific meanings and historical origins. “置于死地” means to put the opponent in a position to perish. This Chinese idiom is from Sun Wu's The Art of War: A person who falls into the water suddenly finds a straw and is saved by breathing underwater through a hollow straw.

It is now often used in a metaphorical sense to refer to a person's only hope in a difficult situation. The context of this conversation is Mike and his brother's friend discussing the situation in which his brother has been set up and imprisoned, and these idioms are appropriate for the feeling of being set up and yet having no choice.

Original and Translation:
-Look where it got me.I'm not asking you to love me. I already screwed up that chance long ago. I'm asking you to love yourself. You can still put the brakes on this thing.
可看看我现在身处的地方，我不是在恳求你再爱我，很久以前我就失去了这个机会。我是让你要自爱，亡羊补牢，为时不晚。
Analysis: “亡羊补牢，为时不晚” is a Chinese proverb. Once upon a time there was a child called Zhang San whose family had many sheep, but he was sloppy in his work. One day, there came a hole in the railing of the sheep pen. When Zhang San's neighbours saw the hole, they reminded him to repair the sheep pen. He shook his head and said, "It's only a small hole, it doesn't matter, you can fix it in a few days. When Zhang San was about to mend the fence of the sheep pen to see how the baby lambs were growing, he noticed that many of the sheep had run away and there were not many left.

An old man heard Zhang San's cries and asked him with concern. “It is not too late to fix it now, and you can save the remaining sheep.” Zhang San came to his senses. Zhang San thanked the old man, picked up a hammer and repaired the fence on the sheep pen firmly.

Since then, Zhang San has completely changed his bad habit of dragging his feet. Although Zhang San lost a lot of sheep, he learned a great lesson from the incident, and from then on developed a good habit of correcting mistakes as soon as they were made. This proverb is very appropriate in the translation of this paragraph.

When the Mike's brother ends up in prison and his child come to visit and see his father's decadence in prison, he wants to drop out of school, and the father says this to the child to make up for the bad influence he has had on him. The English word literally means you should step on the brakes, but the Chinese idiom is more apt.

Original and Translation:
-Westmoreland: Three days inside,and he's already thinking about turning rabbit.
才在牢里呆了三天，他就想着要大闹天官。
Analysis: In this dialogue, the translator translates turning rabbit as “大闹天宫”. For Chinese audiences, the Great Tribulation is a very familiar episode of Journey to the West. In the original story, Sun Wukong, was sued by the Dragon King for forcibly borrowing the East Sea Needle of the Goddess of Certainty, a treasure of the sea and also a powerful weapon.

After being humiliated and disgraced at the Peach Party, he fought his way to heaven. The Jade Emperor's Heavenly Hall was turned upside down and the immortals were helpless. This Chinese story is more graphic to the Chinese audience than the image of a turning rabbit.

Original and Translation:
-Michael: Van Gogh over there is my new cellmate.
那边的“梵高”是我的新牢友
-Fernando: But you're going to do something about it, right?You're gonna get rid of him.
但我知道你不会坐以待毙的对吗?你会想办法摆脱他的。
Analysis: This dialogue contains an idiom that is “坐以待毙”, which describes a person in extreme difficulty who is not actively trying to find a way out. The idiom is from the book ZhuKo Kungming's Second Memorial to the Throne on his Expedition. In the context of the whole episode, Mike wants to dig a hole to escape, but there is a new cellmate in the prison, who is unable to sleep at night due to mental problems, which makes the job of digging extremely difficult, as night is the only period to be free. So Fernando was worried that the plan could not be carried out, and if it was, most of the condemned prisoners in the prison would indeed be sitting around waiting to die.

Original and Translation:
-Told you not to go around me to the Pop. But you just keep making waves, don't you?
跟你说了别去找狱长，但你还在惹是生非。
Analysis: In this dialogue, “make waves” is translated as to “惹是生非”. This idiom means to stir up trouble, to cause trouble, and is taken from Feng Menglong's Instruction Stories to Enlighten the World. All of the escape partners just want to escape in peace and quiet, but the main character, Mike, has his own agenda, so he keeps the prison warden on his toes to achieve his goal. However, the other inmates think that Mike is just trying to disturb the warden, and “惹是生非” is a very accurate translation here.
===3.5 Adaptive Selections in Communicative Dimension===
Communication proves to be a crucial intention of words. Audience needs to get the idea of what movies or documentaries want to express thus communicative purpose can be achieved.(Yangli, 2013)

Original and Translation:
-Top of your class at Loyola. Magna cum laude, in fact. I can't help wondering what someone with your credentials is doing in a place like this.
Loyola的尖子生，优等成绩，我就纳闷了象你这么优秀的人才，跑到这种鬼地方干什么？
-Michael:Took a wrong turn a few months back,I guess.
也许是几个月前拐错弯了。
-You make it sound like a traffic infraction.
你说的好像是交通违规似的。
-Michael: Like all you did was turn the wrong way up a one-way street. Everyone turns up one sooner or later.
就像在单行道上开错方向，人人迟早都会发生点意外。
Analysis: In the process of translation, it is very important to choose the right words. And proper words refer not only to the correspondence of meaning, but also to the tone in a certain context. This translation method includes mood reproduction. Mood refers to the speaker's attitude towards what he says. It is a grammatical feature in the form of intonation and mood words. In the way of mood expression, there is only exclamation in English, such as oh my god, gosh, oh dear lord, and the like, which tries to show the audience the tone of surprise, praise, pain, but there is a lack of mood words with the same emotional meaning as in Chinese, such as“哦”“呢”“呀”.

Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese translation, the translator should have a keen sense and a deep understanding of the mood in the original English text, managing to transplant the original characters' tone to the translation by appreciating the diverse moods in the ordinary English text. In this dialogue, it is nearly impossible to tell the tone of the speaker by the literal meaning of the words alone.

But the translator has made his own adaptations in the context. The protagonist, a talented student, devises his own plan to rob a bank and get arrested in order to save his wrongly accused brother from prison. The prison governor, after reading the Mike's CV, expresses his own incomprehension. Phrases such as “纳了闷” and “鬼地方” convey the tone of the speaker very well.

Original and Translation:
-Michael:we only got a few minutes. We're gonna spend them spitting on each other, or are we gonna talk some business?
我们只有几分钟，我们是要用这几分钟来互相扯皮，还是我们来谈点儿正经事儿？
Analysis: The dialogue includes the words “互相扯皮” and “谈点儿正经事”, which fits Mike's irritation at the lack of cooperation from his "teammates" at the time. The colloquialisation is also very much in line with the Chinese.

Original and Translation:
-Caroline: Move on the younger brother. Do it preemptively before anything rises up,bites any of us in the ass.
把他弟弟弄走，早做打算。
Analysis: The use of the word “弄” in this dialogue shows Caroline's disregard for human life and the coldness of her character. The officials became a little worried when they found out that Mike was in his brother's prison. A literal translation of “move on” would not have had this effect. In addition, the second sentence does not translate the meaning of every single word, but rather uses only “早做打算”, which is very much in keeping with the leadership style of the person behind the plan.

Original and Translation:
-Michael: I think I've got enough grout out to bust through. I'm going to need you to make some noise.
我想我已经挖得够多了，你得帮我制造点噪音。
-Is that the best you can do?
你就这么点能耐？
-all: Shut up!
闭嘴!
-Berwick: Not one more word!
谁也别出声！
Analysis: This conversation took place when Mike was organising a tunnel excavation for people in the prison. While the digging was going on, Mike was worried that the noise would attract the guards, so he asked his cellmates to make other noises to attract attention. However, when the inmates saw that Mike was digging just a little bit of a tunnel, they shouted at him. The translator has chosen to translate this as “这点能耐”, which is a good way of conveying the impatience and arrogance of the cellmate, both in terms of content and tone. For communicative purposes, it serves as a warning.
===4 Conclusion===
From the perspective of Eco-translatology, this paper analyses the subtitle translation strategies of Prison Break. Under the guidance of this theory, its subtitle translation language can be described as quite refined, from which we can see the translator's cultural connotation and translation ability, and the application of Eco-translatology theory in subtitle translation of the show is in place.

However, this study is still very limited in the use of analytical Eco-translatology theory. The first is that translation studies are scattered but not specialized. Second, this study is still at the stage of quoting relevant terms or general concepts of ecology, and it has not yet given a systematic, in-depth and detailed description and interpretation of translation activities according to the basic connotation of ecology.

Third, the thesis is narrow-minded, lacking multi-dimensional interpretation and generalization of more problems. In addition, some studies are only on the matter, not on the background of global ecological trend and academic trend of thought. Therefore, Eco-translation theory needs to be enriched and developed in subtitle research.

===References===
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[2]胡庚申.生态翻译学:产生的背景与发展的基础[J].外语研究,2010(4).

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参考文献需要中英双语--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 10:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==A Study of English Translation of HUAWEI’s Advertising Videos from the Eco-translatology Perspective 张宇星 Zhang Yuxing 202070080650 英语口译==

===摘要===

随着经济全球化的发展，越来越多的中国公司步入国际化行列，竞相抢占国际市场。广告片是宣传产品、公司项目，提升企业形象的重要手段之一，对广告片翻译进行研究对企业的国际化发展具有重大意义，因此国际化企业对此十分重视。华为技术有限公司成立于1987年，历经30余年的发展，已成为有国际影响力的大公司。为对产品进行有效的宣传，华为摄制较多高质量的双语宣传片，这些宣传片激发了较多潜在顾客。然而，由于东西方文化差异的存在，宣传片字幕翻译对译者提出了较高的要求。

本文以生态翻译学为理论框架对华为三个宣传片的英译进行了研究。作者根据生态翻译学的三维转换理论，考虑到中英文在语言习惯、文化背景和文本交际意图的差异，分别对华为的三个宣传片，即关于华为Mate20登月的故事，华为海洋，科技普济天下，进行评析。最后通过分析总结发现：译者在进行商务字幕翻译实践时，需要充分了解源语与目的语在语言、文化等方面的差异，充分适应具体的翻译环境，传递文本的交际意图，只有达到了语言维、文化维和交际维三者的统一，才是真正成功的译文。

===关键词===

生态翻译学；三维转换；华为；宣传片；广告语翻译

===Abstract===

With the development of globalization, more and more Chinese enterprises are stepping into the competition of global market. As advertising video contributes a lot to promoting products projects as well as the image of enterprises, its translation is critical to enterprises to go global and has caught businessmen’s attention greatly. Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, founded in 1987, has evolved into an international corporate with profound influence over the last 30 years. In order to advertise products, HUAWEI has shot many high-quality bilingual advertising videos which have attracted many potential customers. However, the subtitle translation of advertising videos requires high professional skills for translators as many cultural differences lie between the West and the East.

This paper aims to study the English translation of advertising videos Eco-translatology theory perspective. Based on three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory, the author gives full consideration to differences in linguistic tradition, cultural background and communicative intention of the text between Chinese and English, and comments the subtitle translation of three HUAWEI’s advertising videos, A Story about the Moonfall of HUAWEI Mate 20, Huawei Marine and TECH4ALL. In the end, the conclusion comes that translators should fully understand the linguistic and cultural differences between the source text and target text and adapt themselves in specific translation environment so as to transmit the whole communicative intention when they translate commercial subtitles. And successful translation texts should be those realizing the unification of linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension.

===Key Words===

Eco-translatology, three dimensional transformations, HUAWEI, advertising video; subtitle translation

===1 Introduction===

As early as 2001, Hu Gengshen has put forth the notion of “approach to translation as adaptation and selection” and “translation is adaption and selection” in the FIT Third Asian Translators’ Forum (Hu Gengshen, 2001, 5), which marked the birth to Eco-translatology. In Eco-translatology, Hu combined the translation process with Darwinism, “survival of fitness”, and proposed that translators, when they translate a text, should fully adapt themselves to source languages’ environment to understand its specific meaning and find out targeted readers at first, and then, on the basis of good command of the source language and its culture, write down appropriate words so that readers using target language can get the same and correct information about the whole text. As the theory gives an inspiration for many translators, there are an increasing number of translators conducting translation, translation criticism and other activities in accordance with Eco-translatology.

In addition, the background of this paper is that the advent of Internet and convenient transports arouses most enterprises’ awareness of the importance and necessity of advertising videos in products or business promotion. Especially in the era of scientific technology, Internet and advanced transportation are breaking the geographical boundaries to a large extent, therefore, enterprises can expand their operation worldwide, enjoying a larger business scope than ever before (Chen K., Yang F. F, 2019, 21). However, there still exit language and cultural limits when enterprises promote a product, so proper translation is quite important for companies to extend their business scope.

Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, the tech giant enjoying satisfactory reputation coming from both customers and competitors, has shown its presence in many countries and regions with advertising videos presented in various languages. For HUAWEI’s advertising video, there is a common sense that people feel passionate about learning more about the product or the company and even want to buy it after they watch those videos, so undoubtedly, HAEWEI does a good job in advertising videos. Meanwhile, HUAWEI, on behalf of domestic Communications Service Provider, has wide influence over international market. Considering all those facts, the author tends to comment the subtitle translation of HUAWEI’s advertising videos from the perspective of Eco-translatology and hope for some possible enlightenment for subtitle translation.

The thesis applies qualitative analysis, case study and contrastive analysis to study both the Chinese versions and English versions of three videos about HUAWEI. For each video, the author comments them respectively from linguistic dimensional transformation, cultural dimensional transformation and communicative dimensional transformation, the processes of translation in Eco-translatology theory.

===2 Literature Review===

Eco-translatology, put forward by Hu Gengshen, is a systematic translation theory to explain the translation process. It studies and guides the translation practice(practices)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) from the perspective of ecology, which provides a new way for translators to conduct translation, so since its birth, the theory has widely broadened the theoretical researches in both China and abroad (Hu Gengshen, 2001).

===2.1 Eco-translatology===

At the beginning of the 21st century, Hu Gengshen put emphasis on translators’ adaptation and selection when they translate a text, which is the origin of Eco-translatology theory. In Eco-translatology theory, translation process is similar to Darwinism’s “natural selection”. Translators, like all creatures in evolutionary history, also experience the selection and adaptation in translating so as to create masterpieces to satisfy variable purposes and people using different languages (Hu Gengshen, 2001, 17). As well, their works tend to confront the “natural selection”, the market, and finally the best works will be preserved as time goes by. So, in order to create high-quality and ever-lasting translated texts, translators have to bury themselves in different eco-environments so as to get the pure and true understanding of the source text, and translate it into the target language with appropriate words which will meet different needs. During the process, the “natural selection” is the market, or readers’ feedback.

Since Hu proposed the notion of “approach to translation as adaptation and selection” and “translation is adaption and selection” in 2001 (Hu Gengshen, 2001, 103), studies on Eco-translatology began to grow vigorously. In 2004, Hu published a book, An Approach to Translation as Adaptation and Selection. This book focuses on translators’ adaptation and selection, including their relations, mechanisms, basic characteristics and principles, so as to describe or interpret translation process, standards and methods in a new perspective (Hu Gengshen, 2004). After that, Hu continued to study “adaption and selection” and briefly summarized translation principle as multidimensional adaptions and adaptive selection, and translation methods as “three dimensional transformations” (Hu Gengshen, 2006).

As Eco-translatology developed in a positive way, Hu reviewed the development of the theory, including basic connotation, background, current situation and existed limits, and pointed out directions for future research (Hu Gengshen, 2008, 23 ). And then, Hu expounded on nine focuses on research and theoretical tenets from the perspective of Eco-translatology (Hu Gengshen, 2011, 3). As Eco-translatology has widely been accepted by most translators and employed in many fields, Hu, in Eco-translatology: Construction & Interpretation, was commitment to give a general overview and description of the translation ecology and translation theory viewing from ecology (Hu Gengshen, 2013, 11).

In order to provide some inspiration in translation practices, Hu, based on the present research concerning Eco-translatology, put forward different research focus in the future from several angles and aspects in light of Eco-translatology so that scholars could get certain enlightenments and directions for their future studies (Hu Gengshen, 2017, 34).

Apart from Hu’s studies on Eco-translatology, many scholars have conducted a lot of researches in previous years. Tang applied Eco-translatology in advertisement translation and proposed that translators, from linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions, should have focus according to advertisement’s contents, targeted audiences, source language and cultural background of the target text (Tang Yixin, 2015, 52).

The theory has also been employed to analyze the Chinese-English translation of corporate profiles (Xing Yanchao and Dong Hailin, 2017, 142). Just in the same year, in order to assist Chinese films to go global, Zhu researched films’ subtitle translation with the exemplification of “Mr. Six” from three dimensional transformation in Eco-translatology, that is, linguistic dimensions, cultural dimensions and communicative dimensions (Zhu Jingyan, 2017, 78).

Over the past ten years with countless scholars and translators’ efforts, Eco-translatology has developed to cover many points, such as translator-centeredness, eco-paradigm, sequence chain, adaptive selection and selective adaption, eco-environment and post-event penalty (Hu Gengshen, 2011, 5). Viewing from translation process, Eco-translatology theory requires translators to select different translation environments and adapt themselves in it for many times; from translation principles, Eco-translatology theory is multi-dimensional selective adaption and adaptive selection; from translation skill, Eco-translatology promotes the translation from three dimensional transformation, linguistic dimensional transformation, cultural dimensional transformation and communicative dimensional transformation (Hu Gengshen, 2003, 283).

===2.2 Subtitle Translation===

Subtitle translation of advertising videos, an essential part of translation of commercial texts, generally refers to inter-lingual translation. Since the flourishment of domestic films in 21st century, more and more high-quality films with interesting plots compete to go global to boast Chinese traditional culture and tell Chinese stories, which is part of Chinese dream of great rejuvenation. Therefore, in order to promote Chinese culture, provide Chinese solution and tell Chinese story well, quite a few scholars and translators are commitment to subtitle translation and relative studies.

According to Wang (2007, 13), subtitle translation, a special language transformation, should be focused on condensing the oral language in videos into written language. Then, Wu studied language features of subtitle translation, which are instantaneity and popularization, and proposed that translators should pay more attention to logicality, artistry and affection of the words (Wu Wei, 2013, 154). Yu studied the features and technical constraints of dubbing and subtitling English into Chinese, and found that standardization and simplification were two major techniques for subtitling while lip synchronization, gestures and pauses were major constraints for dubbing (Yu Haikuo, 2015, 493).

2019 witnessed the prosperity of not only films but also studies related to subtitle translation. In the same year, several scholars studied the machine translated subtitles, all of which were selected from MOOCs, and found that “participants who were offered full PEMT subtitles scored better overall on our reception metrics than those who were offered raw MT subtitles” (Hu et al., 2019, 13), and Zheng discussed the features and limitations of subtitle translation (Zheng Jie, 2019, 247).

After that, Zheng furthered the study about subtitle translation and proposed that different comments about subtitle translation, be it satisfactory or not, came out when audiences viewed it in different situation and prospects (Zheng Xiqing, 2020), and Wang briefly discussed subtitle translation of Chinese films in ''Western Leather'' by commenting several cases (Wang An, 2020). Just in the same year, Wang analyzed and prospected the subtitling abroad through empirical research, suggesting that the subtitle translation in the future should be focused on the translation in dynamic images (Wang Juan, 2020, 89).

All in all, subtitle translation, as a special part of translation, should be emphasized on not only the basic information of the text but also the emotional awareness, the contextual effects, which are the focus of translators. Moreover, few studies concerning subtitle translation were conducted from the perspective of Eco-translatology theory, so the author comments subtitle translation of advertising videos through three dimensional transformations promoted by Eco-translatology theory.

===3 A Case Study of HUAWEI’s Advertising Videos: Three Dimensional Transformations===

Since the reform and opening-up in China, Chinese enterprises have boosted their business operation all over the world and won worldwide recognition and reputation in over three decades. Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd is a tech giant with commitment to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world (https://www.huawei.com/en/fully-connected-intelligent-world/ ). As HUAWEI has been expanding business presence in every corner of the world, many advertising videos have been created to promote the products, enhance corporate image and advertise projects. However, according to the author’s research, few studies on subtitle translation of advertising videos are conducted from the perspective of Eco-translatology theory.

According to Eco-translatology theory, translators should conduct translation practices based on the principle of multi-dimensional selective adaption and adaptive selection, while the translation approach is three dimensional transformations, which are linguistic transformation, cultural transformation and communicative transformation (qtd. in Zhu Jingyan, 2017, 80). In the translation process, the translator has to select different eco-environment and adapt himself based on different dimensions. For example, if the translator translates from linguistic dimension, the top priority for translator is to keep syntax and grammar correction and among others; if the translator does translation from cultural dimension, he has to consider the cultural background, local customs etc.; if the translator translates text from communicative dimension, he should pay more attention to the communicative function of the text.

In order to elaborate on subtitle translation of advertising videos from the perspective of Eco-translatology, the author selects three advertising videos of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, and analyzes them from linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension respectively.

Three videos are related to mobile phone’s promotion: Mate 20, corporate promotion, Huawei Marine, and projects promotion, TECH4ALL (https://www.huawei.com/minisite/tech4all/cn/ ). The first video, focusing on the release of HUAWEI Mate 20, a smartphone designed by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd in 2018, marked the expansion of Huawei’s commercial landscape in telecommunication all over the world.

In 2018, both domestic and abroad customers have been completely amazed by the performance of Mate 20, and even in 2020 when many new series of masterpieces of mobile-phones were releases, there still exist many customers keeping using HUAWEI Mate 20. In fact, apart from great performance and customers’ excellent experience, what attracts and retains customers includes the contribution of the eye-catching advertising video, A Story about the Moonfall of HUAWEI Mate 20. The video is about the communication between an astronaut and the ground, so the whole eco-environment in linguistic dimension is the daily communication, and every word and sentence should conform to characteristics of daily interactions.

The second advertising video is about Huawei Marine (http://www.huaweimarine.com/cn/Company/CorporateVideo ). Huawei Marine has combined competitive edges of both parent companies with strong commitment to the establishment of submarine cable network globally. And the vision of Huawei Marine, being “Connecting the World, One Ocean at a Time”, has also fully reflected the vision of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd, “Building a Fully Connected, Intelligent World”. This video is selected from the official website of Huawei Marine, aiming to give a brief introduction of the company as well as what they have done over the past decade. As it is an official video concerning Huawei Marine’s corporate image, the words employed in subtitle are very formal, and the same is true to subtitle translation.

The last advertising video introduces HUAWEI’s non-profit project, TECH4ALL (https://www.huawei.com/minisite/tech4all/cn/). It is a non-profit project launched by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd with strong commitment to bring technology to everyone and everywhere, both rich and poor, in the world. It is certain that the wealth people are more likely to get advanced technology and information to catch more wealth while poor people would face the embarrassing situation of getting poorer, which is the application of the Matthew Effect in information era.

In the following analysis, specific comments about the subtitle translation of those advertising videos are offered from linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions, key points of Eco-translatology theory.

===3.1 Linguistic Dimensional Transformations===

The adaptive selection transformation in linguistic dimension means that translators have to focus on the transformation of linguistic form. The basic requirements for translators in linguistic dimensional transformations are grammatically correction, clearness, accuracy and others. The author gave some specific comments about the subtitle translation of selected videos from linguistic dimensional transformation, part of three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory (Tang, 2015, 143). In the following analysis, examples are given with their translations, and the source text is marked as ST and translated target text, TT, and specific comments about those examples, from linguistic dimensional transformation, are provided in the following text.

Eg.1 ST: 在这广阔的海域下，正是这一条条蓝色的信息脉络，传递你我的声音，想法传递着每一份情感，让想象呈现于现实，连接五洲四洋，承载沟通梦想，让世界无界。

TT: Deep under our vast seas, there is a blue highway of information, spreading our voices, ideas, and feelings, allowing our imaginations become reality, carrying our dreams across the oceans, and making a world without boundaries.

It is the last part of the advertising video about Huawei Marine focusing on its vision. This video ends with “连接五洲四洋，承载沟通梦想，让世界无界”, which includes broad words of “洲” and “洋”. In Chinese, “五洲四洋” is a word developed from a Chinese four-character idiom, “五洲四海” which refers to “世界各地”, every corner in the world, and it originates from the essay, 《魔鬼的笛音》 written by Sima Da. Meanwhile, the literal meaning of “五洲四洋” is continents and oceans, while the translator put it into “oceans” solely. The reason behind is that the translator tried to satisfy the requirements of(in)--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC) corporate promotion.

Just as the advertising video presented before, Huawei Marine aims to promote the image of International enterprises, Huawei Marine, and it gives some basic information about Huawei Marine, such as the business landscape. Most tasks Huawei Marin has conducted are on the ocean, rather than continents, by establishing as much as optical fibers across the ocean to connect the whole world, and the mission of Huawei Marine is “Connecting the World, One Ocean at a Time”. Based on the mission of Huawei Marine and its business landscape, the translator chose the image, ocean, and threw away another image, continent. Just in this way, the action translator conducted echoes to the purpose of this advertising video.

Eg.2

ST: 这里是位于印度洋深处的海洋秘境，仅5万人口，但他们的存在却无法让世界忽视或遗忘

TT: And on one secluded island in the Indian Ocean, that only has a population of 50,000, people have made their existence unforgettable and un-ignorable.

In this example, the translator applies “secluded island” to translate “海洋秘境” in describing the tough situation in Mauritius. “秘境”, in Chinese, is a phrase with many far-reaching meanings. Meanwhile, the conception, “海洋秘境”, conforms to Chinese perceptual knowledge since ancient times. In addition, according to Oxford dictionary, “secluded” also has diverse meanings, such as “(of a place) quiet and private, not used or disturbed by other people” and “without much contact with other people” (Oxford Dictionary, 2018, 297), which are correspondence to secret places of “秘境”. Although “secluded island” is lack of some meaning and the artistic conception of “秘境”, it has fully transmitted the key points in this passage, so the translator performed excellently.

From above examples, it is easy to conclude that translators should fully understand the translation eco-environment, the context or the background, adapt themselves in it, and aim to satisfy the requirements of linguistic style, accuracy, readability, customs and clearness on the basis of local translation eco-environments, when they understand the source text or conduct the translation practices. Otherwise, tedious, boring and untie in with reality may be the likely result of translation.

===3.2 Cultural Dimensional Transformations===

The adaptive selection transformation in cultural dimension requires that translators should pay pay special attention to convey and interpret the cultural connotations in both languages (Hu Gengshen, 2006, 49). As different countries have different history, people in this country have been cultivated with different culture, so it is naturally that people in China and other English-speaking countries own many differences, including opinions, values, cultural backgrounds, attitudes, customs and so many others.

As the existence of cultural differences, the top priority for translators, to broadcast a product or a company, is to eliminate differences or narrow the gap in cognition of people in two different cultural environments. So in order to make customers learn more about and accept the product or an enterprise, translators should exhaust their knowledge and skills to eliminate those cognitive differences towards some specific things, which carry completely different meanings in different cultures. The author has employed the subtitle translation of advertisement video to make specific comments from cultural dimensional transformations. The followings are some examples and comments about the subtitle translation from cultural transformation dimension.

Eg.3

ST: 70%的表面被海洋覆盖，这里孕育着神奇的物种，埋藏着丰富的资源，也成为人类沟通的天堑。

TT: 70% of our world is covered by oceans, which are home to amazing species and rich resources. Now, they will bring a new era of communication.

“天堑” is a literary word referring to natural chasms unable to be conquered easily, most of which are big rivers. In Southern Dynasty, people viewed “天堑” as the Changjiang River. Mr. Fan, a famous writer of the Northern Dynasty, once said that “长江天堑，古来限隔，虏军岂能飞度?”, which means that enemy troops of Sui Dynasty could not pass the Changjiang River, because it separated the north and south. Although the Sui Dynasty succeed in this battle because of militaries of that the Northern Dynasty led a befuddled life while militants in the Sui Dynast, we could still get a glimpse of difficulties of the natural chasm.

After that, people employed “天堑” to describe many natural chasms, especially the Changjiang River. For example, in 1957 when Wuhan Yangtze River Bridge was completed, Mao Zedong wrote a poem 《水调歌头•游泳》 to celebrate the great events. In 《水调歌头•游泳》, there exists a saying of “天堑变通途”, which means that the Changjiang River, the natural chasms are conquered to be clear roads.

In English, there is no specific words corresponding to “天堑”, so the translator turned to the specific meaning of the sentence and rendered it into that the ocean “will bring a new era of communication”. It is also the mission of Huawei Marine. Both Chinese version and English version transform the vision of Huawei Marine differently based on different cultural background.

Meanwhile, as “天堑” has such a few profound meanings, it not only illustrates how hard those places are and how extraordinary achievements Huawei Marine has made, but also creates an artistic conception that there are a lot of challenges lying in Huawei Marine’s projects. The artistic conception refers to the situation which is created by the integration of emotion and scene, void-solid combination and poetic space with profound meanings and the rhythms of vibrant life. For most people, they cannot get the specific points when they read such words, but after watching the whole video and relating those words to specific situation in this video, they would catch a glimpse of the corporate image.

Apart from that, the translator translated “天堑” as “they will bring a new era of communication” in English. These words echo to the beginning words which have shown the rich resources and coverage of the vast ocean, because people may not view the ocean as a way leading to communication era as it is generally accepted that continents are divided by ocean so that ideas are unable to communicate freely. Therefore, “bring a new era of communication” in the video introduces Huawei Marine’s business landscape, showing its presence in creating a new era of communication in the vast ocean. The English version has less twists in the whole passage and targets at the theme, introducing Huawei Marine, directly, which satisfies Westerners’ customs and advocates the corporate image in a more appropriate way.

Eg.4

ST: 科技普济天下。

TT: Tech for all. Pass it on.

This comes from the advertising video about the non-profit project, TECH4ALL. “科技普济天下” can be easily related to a Chinese old saying, “穷则独善其身，达则兼济天下” with the English meaning being “In hard time, try to seek self-development; in success, try to let others be benefited”, which is the highest mission of scholars in ancient China. It tends to arouse Chinese people’s admiration to HUAWEI. The English version, “Tech for all. Pass it on”, is a fixed expression that passes on something from generation to generation or from one man to another. To some extent, the last sentence, being the finishing touch, promotes HUAWEI’s corporate image greatly. And both versions have transferred the theme to the audiences successfully.

From the above analysis, the conclusion emerges. Viewing from cultural dimensions, translators should consider not only the cultural differences between source language and target language, but also the theme of the advertising videos, describing the performance of a company. And as cultural tradition, Chinese version prefers to employ broader words to create an atmosphere while the English version tends to use more specific and direct ones. Only in this way, customers with different cultural background would know the company or product in a correct and positive way.

===3.3 Communicative Dimensional Transformations===

The adaptive selection transformation in communicative dimension focuses on the communicative ability of the text (Hu Gengshen, 2006, 97). In other words, the purpose of an advertising video is to introduce and promote a product, projects or enterprise, so the video would contain the basic information of the product, project or enterprise, so as to enable potential customers to know more about them or engage in the project or join in the company.

In this dimension, it will focus on the translation of the communicative ability. For example, if an advertising video of Chinese version focuses on a mobile phone and introduces its basic information, and most of the domestic customers itch to buy one after watching that video, the translator has to translate not only all of the basic information but also the emotion–appealing. If the translator fails to arouse customers’ impulse to buy the phone, the translation practice is a failure (Hu Gengshen, 2008, 13). However, in this aspect, HUAWEI’s advertising videos are excellent examples, and the followings are some specific analysis of subtitle translation of those advertising videos from communicative dimensional transformation.

Eg.5

ST: 偏远的尼日利亚村民第一次连接外部世界，一根科技木杆，立起数字信号覆盖村落。无法离家的孟加拉农村女性，第一次掌握数字工具，六部培训巴士，带着数字技能穿梭百万公里。特殊的聋哑孩子，第一次享受到阅读的乐趣，一款移动应用，让手机通晓数十种语言。

TT: In remote areas of Nigeria, connectivity brings new life to local communities, opening doors to trade, banking, better education and healthcare. In Bangladesh, digital training has given more than 240,000 women new opportunities in life. With AI, deaf children everywhere can translate written words into sign language, so no child misses out on the joy of story time.

This example is selected from TECH4ALL (https://www.huawei.com/minisite/tech4all/cn/index.html#stories ), a non-profit project. As a non-profit project, the most important point is to elaborate on the purpose of the project and reflect on the corporate’s social responsibility. According to the advertising video, both Chinese and English version, the project focuses on bringing the general access to people with some troubles, such as people in remote areas in Nigeria and Bangladesh, and vulnerable children.

For those villagers in remote Nigeria, the translator translated “第一次连接外部世界” as “connectivity brings new life to local communities”. That is overstatement in the first sight of “new life”, but it conveys that how dramatically that power of Internet is and how great the project, conducted by HUAWEI, is in the information era. Again, women in poor Bangladesh can visit places, break the limit of ignorant and backward idea and “have new opportunities in life” with the power of digital technology. As for those children with self-inability, they miss many joys in the word. However, they “cannot miss out on the joy of story time”, and is able to write a completely new chapter with AI, the digital technology, compared with that when they lack of AI before.

From those three examples, three vulnerable groups with characteristic can meet a brighter world and enjoy the colorful life with the access to technology, Internet and AI. Although they fail to connect and communicate with the world because of geographical limits, financial limits and self-inability, their life can also be changed with the advanced technologies, just as HUAWEI did in this project. From this communicative dimension, the subtitle translation of this advertising video has been conveyed completely and successfully----Technology, to great extent, has changed their life completely.

Eg. 6

ST: 世界并非天生完美，数字包容改变世界。

TT: Our planet may not be perfect, but digital technology can help make it better.

In this example, “世界并非完美，数字包容改变世界” has two implications. The first is that the world has many imperfections, which echoes to those vulnerable group. The second implication is the theme of this advertising video. Meanwhile, the English version is also a fixed expression. The words, “help make it better”, means that something can promote another thing in a more positive way. Apparently, both source text and target text reemphasizes the importance of digital technology and underlines the vision of this project---making a better world.

From the comments above, it seems clear that translators should exhaust their efforts to transform the communicative intention of the text so that customers in both languages would arouse the same or similar emotion and get the same or similar information of the project, product or enterprise, when conducting translation practice. Only in this way, the translation can be deemed as successful translation.

===4 Conclusion===

In the first chapter, this thesis gives a basic overview of the development of Eco-translatology theory and mentions the current fruits of the theory. Then the author gives an overview of studies related to subtitle translation in recent years, and introduces the focus of this paper. With the help of theoretical support listed above, the author researches the subtitle translation of advertising video from three dimensional transformations in Eco-translatology theory.

With the development of technology and Internet, more and more domestic enterprises are going global. Considering HUAWEI is a tech giant with far-reaching influence in both China and the world, the author selects three advertising videos about product, enterprise and project concerning HUAWEI to comment in three dimensions respectively. The product’s advertising video is about HUAWEI Mate 20, a mobile phone catching world’s eye since its release.

The enterprise’s advertising video is that of Huawei Marine, a joint venture established by Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd and Global Marine System Limited. And the project’s advertising video concerns a non-profit project launched by HUAWEI, TECH4ALL. The author analyzes those three videos from linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension respectively, and finds that translators should consider the linguistic customs, cultural background and communicative ability of both cultures so as to enable more people to know more about what advertising videos have advertised and to buy the product, join in the enterprises and engage in the project.

Eco-translatology, an emerging theory put forward by Hu Gengshen, offers an insight to subtitle translation of advertising videos. Although commercial translation is booming in recent years, it seems that not enough attention is given to translation practices from the perspective of Eco-tranlatology. Thus, this paper, with analysis of advertising video from the perspective of Eco-translatology, provides people who are involved in subtitle translation of advertising video and bilingual video makers with new inspiration.

From the perspective of linguistic dimensional transformation, translators should adapt themselves in specific translation ecology so as to ensure the linguistic style, accuracy, readability, and clearness of the translated text; from the perspective of cultural dimensional transformation, translators, in order to make sure target audiences grasp what the advertising video promote in a correct and positive way, should consider the cultural differences between source language and target language more; from the perspective of communicative dimensional transformation, translators need to transmit the communicative intention of the text so that customers in both languages would arouse similar emotion which helps build similar image of the project, product or enterprise.

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--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 13:01, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

='''Translation Theories'''=

==A study on a History of Translation Theory 李梦 Li Meng 202020080613 亚非语言文学==
<center>李梦 Li Meng </center>
===Abstract===
Translation theory guides translation practice, and the technical aspects demonstrated in translation practice are also based on translation theory. Therefore, translation theory is of great importance to both translation teaching and translation practice. To understand a subject, one must first understand its history.By studying the history of Chinese and Western translation theories, this paper analyzes the similarities and characteristics of Chinese and Western translation theories, and expounds the importance of the history of translation theories to translation studies.

===Key words===
Translation Theory, History of Translation, History of Translation Theory, History of Chinese Translation Theory , History of Western Translation Theory

===摘要===
翻译理论指导翻译实践，在翻译实践中所展示的技术层面也是以翻译理论为基础。因此翻译理论对翻译教学和翻译实践都至关重要。而要了解一门学科，必须先读懂它的历史。本文将通过研究中西方翻译理论史，分析中西翻译理论史的共性与特性，阐述翻译理论史对翻译研究重要性。

===关键词===
翻译理论，翻译史，翻译理论史，中国翻译理论史，西方翻译理论史

===1. Introduction===
Translation, as a cross-cultural communication activity, has a history as long as the origin and development of mankind. With the acceleration of human civilization and globalization, translation has gradually shouldered the heavy responsibility of promoting communication and exchange among people of all nationalities in the world and promoting common development and progress. However, as an important part of translation studies, the history of translation theory has received far less attention than the study of translation theories and techniques. (Luo Hui 2017,198)

The study of translation history, translation theory and translation technique is considered to be the three main components of translation research, but from the books on translation research published over the years, we can see that the research achievements and academic theories of translation theory and translation skills far outweigh the research of translation history, which shows that translation history has not attracted enough attention. (Luo Hui 2017,198)

Translation, however, has historical characteristics, and when we study translation, we must examine the translation activities in the long river of human history, so that we can find out more clearly that the form and connotation of translation activities are constantly enriched, and that it plays different roles in different historical stages. Therefore, if you want to do a good translation study, you have to understand the history of translation theory.(Luo Hui 2017,198)

===2. The History of Chinese Translation Theory===
Chinese translation theory was born out of contact with vassal states during the Zhou Dynasty. It developed through translations of Buddhist scripture into Chinese. It is a response to the universals of the experience of translation and to the specifics of the experience of translatingfrom specific source languages into Chinese. It also developed in the context of Chinese literary and intellectual tradition. There have been three high tide of translation in the history of Chinese translation: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Song Dynasty, the translation of Western studies from the late Ming to the early Qing Dynasty and the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement. (Liang Dan 2016,104)

====2.1 The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from the Eastern Han to the Song Dynasty====
From the Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song dynasties, Buddhism was introduced into China and blended with traditional Chinese Confucianism and Taoism.Indian philosophy, literature and art, medicine, astronomy, arithmetic and even language have some influence in our country with the translation of Buddhist scriptures, but the translation activities of this period mainly focus on spreading religion.(Cai jie 2018,1)

Important Translators in this period and their translation theories：

Zhi Qian(3rd c.AD)
Zhi Qian (支谦) 's preface (序)is the first work whose purpose is to express an opinion about translation practice. The preface was included in a work of the Liang Dynasty. It recounts an historical anecdote of 224AD, at the beginning of the Three Kingdoms period. A party of Buddhist monks came to Wuchang. One of them, Zhu Jiangyan by name, was asked to translate some passage from scripture. He did so, in rough Chinese. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)

When Zhi Qian questioned the lack of elegance, another monk, named Wei Qi (维祇), responded that the meaning of Buddha should be translated simply, without loss, in an easy-to-understand manner: literary adornment unnecessary. All present concurred and quoted two traditional maxims: Laozi's "beautiful words are untrue, true words are not beautiful " and Confucius s "speech cannot be fully recorded by writing, and speech cannot fully capture meaning". Zhi Qians own translations of Buddhist texts are elegant and literary, so the "direct translation" advocated in the anecdote is likely Wei Qi's position, not Zhi Qians. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)

Dao An(314-385AD)
Dao An focused on loss in translation. His theory is the Five Forms of Loss (五失本).
① Changing the word order. Sanskrit word order is free with a tendency to SOV. Chinese is SO.
② Adding literary embellishment where the original is in plain style.
③ Eliminating repetitiveness in argumentation and panegyric (颂文).
④ Cutting the concluding summary section (义说).
⑤ Cutting the recapitulative material in introductory section.(Chen Fukang 1996,320)

Dao An criticized other translators for loss in translation, asking: how they would feel if a translator cut the boring bits out of classics like the Shi Jing or the Classic of History?
He also expanded upon the difficulty of translation, with his theory of the Three Difficulties (三不易).
① Communicating the Dharma to a different audience from the one the Buddha addressed.
② Translating the words of a saint.
③ Translating texts which have been painstakingly composed by generations of disciples. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)

Kumarajiva(344 - 413AD)
Kumarajiva's translation practice was to translate for meaning. The story goes that one day Kumarajiva criticized his disciple Sengrui for translating "heaven sees man, and man sees heaven"(天见人，人见天). Kumarajiva felt that " man and heaven connect, the two able to see each other"(人天交接，两得相见) would be more idiomatic, though heaven sees man, man sees heaven is perfectly idiomatic. (Chen Fukang 1996,320)

In another tale, Kumarajiva discusses the problem of translating incantations at the end of sutras. In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people (嚼饭于人).(Chen Fukang 1996,320)

Huiyuan(334-416AD)
Huiyuan' s theory of translation is middling, in a positive sense. It is a synthesis that avoids extremes of elegant (文雅) and plain (质朴). With elegant translation, " the language goes beyond the meaning"(文过其意)of the original. With plain translation, "the thought surpasses the wording" (理胜其辞). For Huiyuan, "the words should not harm the meaning"(文不害意). A good translator should "strive to preserve the original"(务存其本). (Chen Fukang 1996,321)

Sengrui(371-438AD)
Sengrui investigated problems in translating the names of things. This is of course an important traditional concern whose locus classicus is the Confucian exhortation to "rectify names" (正名). This is not merely of academic concern to Sengrui, for poor translation imperils Buddhism. Sengrui was critical of his teacher Kumarajiva's casual approach to translating names, attributing it to Kumarajiva's lack of familiarity with the Chinese tradition of linking names to essences. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)

Sengyou(445-518AD)
Much of the early material of earlier translators was gathered by Sengyou and would have been lost but for him. Sengyou's approach to translation resembles Huiyuan's, in that both saw good translation as the middle way between elegance and plainness. However, unlike Huiyuan Sengyou expressed admiration for Kumarajiva's elegant translation. (Chen Fukang 1996,321)

Xuanzang(600-664AD)
Xuanzang's theory is the Five Untranslatables (五不翻). or five instances where one should transliterate:
① Secrets: Dharani (陀罗尼), Sanskrit ritual speech or incantations, which includes mantras.
②Polysemy: bhaga (as in the Bhagavad Gita) (薄伽), which means comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed.
③ None in China: jambu tree (门浮树)，which does not grow in China.
④ Deference to the past: the translation for anuttara-samyak-sambodhi is already established as Anouputi (阿耨菩提).
⑤ To inspire respect and righteousness: Prana (般若) instead of "wisdom"(智慧) (Chen Fukang 1996,325)

====2.2 The Translation of Western Studies from the Late Ming to the Early Qing Dynasty====
In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, due to the need for external transportation, Sanyi Hall was established to train translators.At the end of the Ming Dynasty, Western studies gradually began to advance eastward, and translation became more active.But by this time the translation has completely changed, and it is no longer the Buddhist scriptures of India, but rather the classics of astronomy, geometry and medicine in Europe, and the history of Chinese translation has reached a new stage.(Cai jie2018,2)

====2.3 The Translation of Western Studies from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement ====
After the Opium War, Chinese intellectuals felt the need to learn from the West in pain, and the translation activities began to rise again, forming a new stage in the history of Chinese translation. After the May 4th Movement, Chinese history entered modern times, and the importance of translation went back to ancient times.The rise of China's new literature is inseparable from translation. (Fang Wenhua 2005,108)

Important Translators in this period and their translation theories：

Yan Fu(1854-1921)
Yan Fu is famous for his theory of fidelity, clarity and elegance (信达雅), which some believe originated with Tytler. Yan Fu wrote that fidelity is difficult to begin with. Only once the translator has achieved fidelity ane clarity should be attend to elegance. The obvious criticism of this theory is that it implies that inelegant originals should be translated elegantly. Clearly, if the style of the original is not elegant or refined, the style of the translation should not be elegant either. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)

Liang Qichao(1873-1929)
Liang Qichao put these three qualities of a translation in the same order, fidelity first, then clarity, and only then elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)

Lin Yutang(1895-1976)
Lin Yutang stressed the responsibility of the translator to the original, to the reader, and to art. To fulfill responsibility, the translator needs to meet standards of fidelity (忠实), smoothness (通顺) and beauty. (Fang Wenhua 2005,200)

Lu Xun(1881-1936)
Lu Xun' s most famous dictim relating to translation is "I'd rather be faithful than smooth"(宁信而不顺). (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)

Ai Siqi(1910-1966)
Ai Siqi described the relationship between fidelity, clarity and elegance in terms of Western ontology, where clarify and elegance are to fidelity as qualities are to being. (Fang Wenhua 2005,201)

Zhou Zuoren(1885-1967)
Zhou Zuoren assigned weightings, 50% of translation is fidelity, 30% is clarity, and 20% elegance. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)

Zhu Guangqian(1897-1986)
Zhu Guangqian wrote that fidelity in translation is the root which you can strive to approach but never reach. This formulation perhaps invokes the traditional idea of returning to the root in Daoist philosophy. (Fang Wenhua 2005,202)

Fu Lei(1908-1966)
Fu Lei held that translation is like painting: what is essential is not formal resemblance but rather spiritual resemblance (神似). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)

Qian Zhongshu(1910-1998)
Qian Zhongshu wrote that the highest standard of translation is transformation (化, the power of transformat in nature): bodies are sloughed off, but the spirit (精神), appearance and manner (姿致) are the same as before (故我, the old me or the old self). (Fang Wenhua 2005,203)

===3. The History of Western Translation Theory===

====3.1 Translation Studies of the Romans====
Studies on translation go back to the Romans. Eric Jacobson claims that translating is a Roman invention. Cicero and Horace (1st century B.C.) were the first theorists who made an important distinction between word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Their views on translation influenced successive generations of translators up to the twentieth century.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)

Important Roman Translator and his Translation Theory：

Marcus Tulluis Cicero(106-43B.C.)
①A Translator must, like an oratore, use idiomatic Roman language in expressing what is conveyed by a foreign language.
②A translator must avoid word-for-word translation and try to retain genus omne vimque (meaning).
③One who translates Demosthenes must be Demosthenes as translation means literary production.
④Different rhetorical devices in different languages share smilarities, which enables a translator to achieve correspondence in style.
⑤ The translation should surpass the original and the translator is superior to the original author.(Liu Danna 2016,1)

====3.2 Bible Translation in the Middle Ages ====
In the Middle Ages，from the end of the Roman Empireto the Renaissance, the Bible translation holds a very important positionin the Western translation history. With the spread of Christianity, translation came to acquire another role, that of dissemination the word of God. Translation of the New Testment was marked by St Jerome (fourth century CE). His approach to translating the Greek Septuagint Bible into Latin would affect later translations of the scriptures. In the sixteenth century the history of Bible translation acquired new dimensions with the advent of printing. (Fan Ningyu 2017,123)

The sixteenth century saw the translation of the Bible into a large number of European languages, in both Protestant and Roman Catholic versions, and revised version of existing translations continued to appear in English, Dutch, German and French.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)

Important Bible Translators and their Translation Theories :

(1)St Jerome(331-420 A.D.)
①Fexibility is a very important principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible.
②It is necessary to distinguish between literary translation and religious translation.
③Correct translation must depend upon correct understanding of the source text.
④While doing translation, the translator must be as flexible as he can, as flexibility is a very mportant principle that must be adopted in translation when word for word rendition is impossible Languages differ from each other in diction, style, idiomatic usage, syntax and meaning and content. Therefore word-for-word rendition is not workable.
⑤The translator must differentiate between - literary translation and - religious translati. In the former, the translator must adopt what is easier to understand to convey the original thought. However, in the Bible translation, the translator can not always use sense for sense method, but literal rendition. Cicero preferred sense for sense to word for word, but Jerome considered them to be complementary to each other. He applied this to his translation practice.
⑥Correct translation must depend on correct understanding of the source text. He did not believe the inspiration of God.
⑦Jerome's principles and methods of translation greatly influenced the later translation especially the Bible translation in other western countrie.
(Zhang Yan 2011,117)

(2)St. Augustine(345-430A.D.)
①A translator must meet the following requirements:(a)a good command of the two languages,(b)knowledge of the subject matter selected for translation,(c)capability of proofreading.
②Pay full attention to three kinds of style: plain, refined and sublime.
③Pay due attention to the triangle relationship between signified, signifier and the translators judgment.
④The basic level in translation is word.
⑤Translating the Bible must be done under the inspiration of God.(Zhang Yan 2011,118)

====3.3 Translation Theory during the Renaissance====
Translation in Renaissance Europe came to play a role of central importance. And translation was by no means a secondary activity, but a primary one, exerting a shaping force on the intellectual life of the age, and at times the figure of the translator appears almost as revolutionary activist rather than the servant of an original author or text. Renaissance is the period in Europe between the 14th and 17 centuries, when the art, literature, and ideas of ancient Greece were discovered again and widely studied, causing a rebirth ofactivity in all these things. The role translation plays in Renaissance: means of transplanting new ideas and thoughts, compared to war trophies in literature and art. (Fan Ningyu 2017,123)

Renaissance in turn influenced translation greatly in terms of attitudes toward translation and translation methods or approaches. The Renaissance period witnessed a considerable increase in the number of translations, due to the stimulating influence of the Renaissance and the introduction of printing technology and perception of translation as a means of disseminating knowledge to a wider audience. In addition, new views on translation appearedand translation activities centered not only on the Bible and classical literary texts, but also on other kinds of texts such as scientific ones and helped develop the national languages.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)

Important Renaissance Translators and their Translation Theories :

(1)Martin Luther(1483-1546)
①Translation must adopt the language accepted by the people.
②Translation must pay much attention to the relation of grammar to sense.
③Translation must follow seven principles:(a) the translator can change the original word order,( b) the translator can chose proper helping words,(c) the translator can supply necessary words,(d) the translator can omit the words which can not find exact counterparts in TL,(e) the translator can render a word a phrase,(f) the translator can translate metaphorical expressions into nonmetaphorical expressions and vice versa,(g) the translator must pay due attention to the deviation of language and the accuracy of interpretation
④Translation must draw on collective wisdom and absorb all useful ideas. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)

(2)Etienne Dolet(1509-1546)
①The translator must understand what he wants to translate.
②The translator must know SL and TL.
③The translator must avoid word for word rendition, which harms the conveyance of the origina message and the beauty of the language.
④The translator must use the common speech.
⑤The translator must make the version appropriate in effect through diction and adjustment of syntactical components.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)

====3.4 Translation Theory in the Early Modern Times====
17th century - 19th century is a very important period of translation and translation studies in the west. Translation became prosperous because of boosting of production, prosperous economy, more and more people receiving education and being eager to read and write. In this period each period differs from the other and each country differs from the other in translation. Translation is characterized by inaccurate representation of the original message in the TL in many cases in some countries. Translation theories began to develop systematically interms of their framework in the 18th century and foundits center in the 19th century Germany. (Fan Ningyu 2017,123)

The focus of translation practice began to be shifted from classics to modern works. Jesus Christ school: inaccurate translation, making classics religious in translation version. Port-Royal school: stressing the present, often addingsomething to the original content or omitting something of the ST in the translation. The 19th century French translators such as Francoise-Rene de Chateaubriand (1768- 1848), Gerard Nerval(1808-1855) and Charles Baudelaire(1821-1867) focused their attention on translating modern work such as those of Shakespeare and Allen Poe. By the mid-seventeenth century the widening of the gap between traditional Christian Humanism and science had all led to radical changes in the theory ofliterature and hence to the role of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)

Important Translators in the Early Modern Times and their Translation Theories：

(1)John Dryden (1631-1700), formulated the trichotomy oftranslation:
① Metaphrase (直译), or turning an author word by word, and line by line, from one language into another.
② Paraphrase (意译), or translation with latitude (flexibility), the Ciceronian "sense-for-sense" view of translation.
③ Imitation (仿译), where the translator can abandon the text of the original as he sees fit.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)

Of these types Dryden chooses the second (paraphrase) as the more balanced path, provided the translator fulfils certain criteria: To translate poetry, he argues, the translator mustbe a poet, must be a master of both languages, and must understand both the characteristics and spirit ofthe original author, besides conforming to the aesthetic canons of his own age. He uses the metaphor of the translator/portrait painter, that was to reappear so frequently in the eighteenth century, maintaining that the painter has theduty of making his portrait resemble the original.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)

Dryden's views on translation were followed fairly closely by Alexander Pope (1688 - 1744),who advocates the same middle ground as Dryden, with stress on close reading of the original to note the details of style and manner whilst endeavoring to keep alive the "fire" of the poem. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)

In the Eighteenth Century, underlying Dryden's and Pope's concept of translation is another element, beyond the problem ofthe debate between overfaithfulness and looseness: the whole question of the moral duty of the translatorto his contemporary readers. The impulse to clarify and make plain the essential spirit of a text led to large scale rewritings of earlier texts to fit them to contemporary standards of language and taste. Hence the famous re-structuring of Shakespearian texts, and the translations of Racine. (Zou Yujuan 2019,239)

(2)Alexander Fraser Tytler(1747-1813)published a volume entitled The principles of translation, the first systematic study in English of the translation processes.
Tytler set up three basic principles:
①The translation should give a complete transcript ofthe idea of the original work
②The style and manner of writing should be of thesame character with that of the original.
③The translation should have all the ease of theoriginal composition.(Zou Yujuan 2019,239)

In the Romantic Period, so many texts were translated at this time that were tohave a seminal effect on the TL. Stress on the impact of the translation in the target culture in fact resulted in a shift of interest away from theactual processes of translation. Moreover, two conflicting tendencies can be determined in the early nineteenth century: one exalts translation as a category of thought, with the translator seen as a creative genius in his own right, in touch with the geniusof his original and enriching the literature and language into which he is translating; the other sees translation interms of the more mechanical function of "making known" a text or author.(Liu Danna 2016,3)

====3.5 Translation Theory in the Twentieth Century====
In the second half of the twentieth century, studies on translation became an important course in language teaching and learning at schools. The grammar-translation model studies the grammatical rules and structures of foreign languages. The cultural model is also a witness for the development of translation studies in the period. It required in translation not only a word-for-word substitution, but also a cultural understanding of the way people in different societies think. With this model, we can distinguish between the ethnographical-semantic method and the dynamic equivalent method.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)

Another model that appears in the period is text-based translation model, which focuses on texts rather than words or sentences in translation process. This model includes avariety of sub-models: the interpretative model, the text linguistic model and models of translation quality assessments that in turnprovide us with many models such as those of Riess,Wilss, Koller, House, North. The period is also characterized by pragmatic andsystematic approach to the study of translation.(Fan Ningyu 2017,123)

Important Translators in the Twentieth Century and their Translation Theories：

(1)Arne Jacobson(1896-1982)
①Jakobson points out that "there is ordinarily no full equivance between code-units".
②From a lingusitic and semiotic angle, Jakobson approaches the problem of equivance with the following definition: "Equivalence in difference is the cadinal problem of language and the pivotalconcern of linguistics."
③In Jakobson's discussion, the problem of meaning and equivalence thus focuses on differences in the structure and terminology of languages rather than on any inability of one language to render a message that has been written in another verbal language. Thus Russian can still express the full semantic meaning of cheese even if it breaks it down into two seperate concepts.
④For Jakobson, cross-linguistic differences center around obligatory grammatical and lexical forms: "Languages differ essentially in what they must convey and not in what they may convey".
⑤On the basis of semiotic theory, Jacobson divides translation into Intralingual translation, Interlingual translation and Intersemiotic translation.(Zhao Shanshan 2020,143）

(2)Eugene A. Nida(1914-2011)
Eugene A. Nida's most notable contribution to translation theory is functional equivalence theory. According to Nida's theory, the best translation should never sound like a translation. To studiously avoid." translationese", certain fundamental sets of precedence in translating should be established, such as the precedence of contextual consistency over verbal consistency, the precedence of dynamie equivalence over formal consistency and the precedence of forms that are acceptable to the audience for which a translation is intended over the forms that may be traditionally more practicable. (Jia Xiuhai 2008,25)

Aocording to functional equivalence theory, testing the quality of translation does not consist in a comparison of corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical classes, and rhetorical devices to see the extent of verbal consistency, but in how well the receptors understand and appreciate the translated text. Funetional equivalence focuses on reader's response, which calls for the response of the receptors to translated text is the same as the response of the original receptors to original text.(Jia Xiuhai 2008,25)

(3)Peter Newmark(1916-?)
Newmark divided the translation into four main categories: semantic translation, communicative translation, literal translation and dead translation. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Semantic translation focuses primarily on the semantic content of the source text. Communicative translation focuses essentially upon the comprehension and response of receptors. (Liang Dan 2016,105）

Newmark argues that translation is both a science and an art, and that translation is a science because something in the language has been standardized, allowing only two types of translation, and that when the two languages are translated into one another, the translation is basically fixed.(Liang Dan 2016,105）

Translation is art because some things in language allow for various options, various translations, and not standardization.resort to other theories to perfect its theoretical foundation and exist as a whole as a whole in terms of artistic appeal and rhetoric. Newmark thought that translation had rules to follow.To make the content of the original the same as the translation, metaphors, proverbs, idioms, slang terms, terms, judicial structures, and orders should be the same as the original in terms of frequency of use of the language.(Liang Dan 2016,105）

===4. The Commonality and Characteristics of Chinese and Western Translation Theory History===
The commonality of the history of Chinese and Western translation theory can be summed up from three aspects: content, process and influence.In terms of content, the West attaches great importance to the translation of the Bible, while China is keen to translate the Buddhist scriptures, both of which belong to the translation of religious documents, and this stage is considered one of the high tide of translation in Chinese and Western history.(Luo Hui 2017,199)

In terms of process and influence, the field of translation of Chinese and Western translation has changed from single to pluralism, from the original translation of religious literature to the translation of historical, political, and literary fields, and has become more and more important, and the people of different regions have become more and more closely intercommunicated, the social culture has spread more rapidly, and the influence on human history has been deepened. (Luo Hui 2017,199)

Although the translation of religious documents has sparked a high tide in the history of Chinese and Western translation, because religion's position and influence in the two societies are very different, China is far less concerned about translation of Buddhist scriptures than in the West. The effect of translating the Bible cannot be compared with that of translating the Bible. In addition, Ma Zuyi scholars have shown that during the long period of the Zhou and Qing dynasties, there have been three high tides of translation in the history of Chinese translation.Since the third century AD, Western translations have had six high tides in history, and although their translation activities are later than in China, they have developed at a relatively rapid rate.Especially in modern times, Western translation theory and school of thought are increasingly scientific and systematic, and are in the lead position. (Luo Hui 2017,199)

===5. Conclusion===
As a cross-cultural communication activity with a long history, translation has reduced the communication barriers between people of different regions and languages and accelerated the development of human civilization. The history of translation theory is the historical record and witness of the origin and development of translation activities. It is an indispensable part in the process of translation studies and should be paid enough attention to. With the research results of translation theory history, this paper provides a clear and definite guidance for translation studies, thus promoting the vigorous development of translation activities.

===6. References===

Fang Wenhua方文华.(2005). "二十世纪中国翻译史" [History of Chinese Translation in the 20th Century]. "西北大学出版社" [Northwestern University Press].(02):200-203.

Chen Fukang陈福康.(1996). "中国译学理论史稿" [Historical Drafts of Chinese Translation Theory]. "上海外语教育出版社" [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].(03):320-321.

Cai Jie蔡杰.(2018). "概述中国翻译理论与实践的发展" [Summarize the Development of Chinese Translation Theory and Practice]. "课程研究" [Curriculum Research and Education].(G64):1-2.

Liu Danna刘丹娜.(2016). "西方翻译理论通史述评" [Commentary on the General History of Translation Theory in the West]. "语言研究" [Language Study].(18):1-3.

Zhang Yan张艳. (2011). "从范式理论评介中西翻译理论的发展" [A Study on the Development of Chinese and Western Translation Theory from the Paradigm Theory]. "大学英语" [College English]. (08):117-119.

Zou Yujuan邹雨娟. (2019). "中西翻译简史述评" [Commentary on the Brief History of Chinese and Western Translation]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (23):239-240

Fan Ningyu樊宁瑜.(2017). "西方翻译简史之浅析" [A Brief Analysis of the History of Western Translators]. "文史纵横" [Literature and History].(18):123.

Liang Dan梁旦.(2016). "中西翻译理论对比" [Comparison between Chinese and Western translation Theory]. "海外英语" [Overseas English]. (04):104-108.

Luo Hui罗辉.(2017). "浅谈研究中西方翻译史对翻译研究的意义" [The Meaning of Studying Chinese and Western Translation History in Translation Research]. "语言文化" [Language and Culture]. (H059):198-199.

Zhao Shanshan赵珊珊.(2020). "翻译理论研究现状与趋势研究" [A Study on the Present Situation and Trend of Translation Theory Research]. "语言艺术研究" [The Study of Language Arts].(059):141-145.

==A Comparative Study of Translation Theory between Bell and Liu Zhongde 林鑫 Lin Xin 202020080617 英美文学==

<center>林鑫 Lin Xin </center>
===Abstract===
Roger T. Bell is recognized as a famous sociolinguist. As a linguist, Bell has framed his translation theories in terms of diagrams and models, and developed unique insights into translation issues. His main work on translation is "Translation and Translating:Theory and Practice". He objects seeing translating as evaluation of the product of translation, but stressing the importance of translation process.

Liu Zhongde is one of the most influential translation theory researchers and translators, and he has made great contribution to translation circle of theory as well as practice. Liu's research on translation theory is comprehensive and profound, and he not only pays attention to traditional Chinese translation theories, but also focuses on introducing and studying new western translation theories.

A comparison of Bell's and Liu's translation theories is useful for comparing the similarities and differences in their translation theories and providing references for the practice of translation theories.

===Key words===
Roger T. Bell; Liu Zhongde; Translation Theory; Comparative Study

===题目===
贝尔与刘重德翻译理论的比较研究

===摘要===
罗杰·贝尔是著名社会语言学家。作为一名语言学家，贝尔用图表和模型来构建他的翻译理论,并对翻译问题形成了独特的见解。他在翻译方面的主要著作是《翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践》。他反对把翻译看作是对翻译结果的评价，而是更加强调翻译过程的重要性。

刘重德是最具影响力的翻译理论研究者和翻译家之一，他对翻译界的理论以及实践都做出了巨大的贡献。刘重德对翻译理论的研究全面而深刻，他不仅重视中国传统的翻译理论,而且注重引进和研究西方新的翻译理论。

对贝尔和刘重德的翻译理论进行对比，有利于对比二者翻译理论中的异同，为翻译理论的实践提供借鉴和参考。

===关键词===
罗杰·贝尔；刘重德；翻译理论；比较研究

===1. Introduction===

====1.1 Introduction to Roger T. Bell's Translation Theory====
As a sociolinguist, Bell is characterized by applying linguistic method in translating. He is trying to set a model to explain and study the translating process, thus put the translator at the center instead of the product. The shift from emphasizing of the translated text to the call of paying attention to the process is significant. When the focus is on the process of translation, Bell inevitably put the translator at the centre of his translation study. From a functional linguistic perspective, Bell describes the translator's working process by using linguistics and psychology. He advocates an investigation of the psycholinguistic mechanisms of decoding and encoding in the context of bilingual rather than monolingual information exchange. He places the translator at the center, because the meaning and memory he discusses in his translation theory must be based on the translator, and it is on this basis that he builds his translation model.(Wu Yicheng Li Yingyuan 1998, 55)

Bell tries to be objective and modest. He gives examples of translation only to conduct the working mode of translating. He is a translation theorists, in my opinion, he studies the study of translation. Because he denies the importance of setting rules and maxims for translation and regards it as superficial. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged. He is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that this is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.(Bell 1987, 10-12)

====1.2 Introduction to Liu Zhongde's Translation Theory====

Critically inherited the translation principles proposed by Yan Fu, Liu Zhongde put forward the translation concept of "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "closeness". This means faithfulness in content, expressiveness in language, and closeness to the style of the original work. Yan Fu's translation concept is "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu thinks that if the original text is not elegant, then the translation couldn't be elegant. The two schools: school of science and school of art is influential in translation history. Liu Zhongde's thoughts about translation's essence: translation is of double nature-both a kind of science and an art. Moreover, this is proved and commonly greed by scholars in academic circle. Now many researchers are attempting to probe into translation more scientifically; translators are striving to translate literature works more artistically. (Mao Liyin 2011, 5)

However, we feel regretful that Mr. Liu passed away. Otherwise, he could have been keeping on with this meaningful work arduously. Fortunately, scholars are coming to some agreements on the double nature of translation activity. No matter which one of these two characteristics of translation outweighs the other, we at least confess that on one hand, translation can be discussed from the perspective of natural science, like psychology and physiology; on the other hand, translation can be probed from the perspective of social science, such as linguistics and sociology. Therefore, it can be concluded that Mr. Liu's qualitative research on translation was credible and useful; his opinion on the nature of translation was convincing: translation is both a science and an art.(Guo Meng 2010, 25)

===2. Comparative Study on Bell and Liu Zhongde's Translation Theory===

To do a comparative study on Bell and Liu Zhongde's translation thoery, firstly, it is necessary to take the background of their translation theory into consideration. Understanding the social background of their theory helps better understand what their translation theory is and focuses on. Though very different in study perspective, their thoughts towards translation and practice bear much similarities.This article compares the two people's translation theory in the nature of translation, principles of translation,literal or free translation and literary translation practices in poems.

====2.1 Comparison on Background of Translation Theory====
In the west, since the twentieth century, the phenomenon of translation has been increasingly examined and discussed from a scientific and especially linguistic perspective. Although there are still many misunderstandings and differences between traditional translation studies and linguistic translation studies (but the latter tend to prevail). The former often accuses the latter of being fanciful and out of touch with reality, while the latter considers the former as subjective, arbitrary and unscientific. According to Bell, the essential orientation of translation theory, in the English-speaking world in particular, is still towards the evaluation of translation as product.The situation at that time, however, is one in which translation theory has, for the most part, concentrated on the product to the exclusion of the process and has adopted a normative attitude to it by making inferences back to it through the description and evaluation of the product.(Bell 1987, 3)

The attempt to describe and explain the process and that the process itself is, essentially, mental rather than physical, according to Bell's explanation. Mental aspect here refers to the investigation within the discipline of psychology, or to be more specifically, studies of perception, information processing and memory within the cognitive science and psychological framework. There is no doubt that translation process crucially involves language. Bell draws on the resources of linguistics and, more precisely, those branches of linguistics which are concerned with the psychological and social aspects of language use: psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics. The first of these examines the process in the mind of the translator, the second places the source language text and target language text in their cultural contexts. Although Bell puts forward the importance of putting translation process in cultural contexts, in his "Translation and Translating: Process and Practice", he doesn't stress it in his models. He tells us the importance of cultural importance, but for how to practice it, he doesn't have a deep explanation. (Bell 1991, F30)

In China, There has also been a long debate between three basic principles are the of Yan Fu's "faithfulness", "expressiveness" and "elegance". Mr Liu points out that elegance is actually only one of the styles, and translation cannot be uniformly elegant in their style. "Closeness" is a neutral word and it is applicable to various styles. Indeed, the original text is not elegant, so why translate it with elegance? The original poem is not elegant, so how can it be translated with elegance? The fundamental of translation is faithfulness. The content should be remained if the style is hard to copy.(Liu Zhongde 1991, 27-29)

Both Bell and Liu Zhongde critically and creatively tackle problems in translation and they try hard to make perfection, but they are different in their study perspectives, which is due to the difference of their times and social background. Bell is doing linguistic translation studies. In Bell's view, translation theorists almost invariably make little systematic use of contemporary linguistic techniques and perspectives, while linguists either despise translation theory or remain silent about translation studies. His translation mode is an effort and practice to conduct linguistic and psychological ideas in translation process. However, his translation theory does not give enough consideration to the cultural factor in translation activities, which is a hot topic that has gradually become more and more valued by translators. Liu Zhongde is not the first one who doubted about Yan Fu's translation principle, but he develops it and makes it objective and applicable, which is really thoughtful in this aspect.(Weng Tao 2008, 99-100)

====2.2 Comparison on Nature of Translation====
Bell conforms in the definition of regarding translation as "the expression in another language (or target language) of what has been expressed in another, source language, preserving semantic and stylistic equivalences".(Bell,1991:5）So translation can be regarded as the replacement of a representation of a text in one language by a representation of an equivalent text in a second language. Bell holds the view that "Essentially, a theory is judged on the extent to which it is externally and internally adequate. It must correspond with the data (which is external to itself) and also conform to particular (internal) design feature." (Bell 1991, 4-5)

As for the nature of translation, Bell makes comparisons between three different kinds of view. First, the view of translation as product, which means merely translated texts. This would require a study of texts not merely by means of the traditional levels of linguistic analysis syntax and semantics but also making use of stylistics and recent advances in discourse analysis. Second, the view of translation as both process and product, which means a theory of translating and translation. This would require the integrated study of both and such a general theory is, presumably, the long-term goal for translation studies. Third, the view of translation as process. He calls for a shift from only the product to paying attention to translation process. In translation, topics as perception, memory and the encoding and decoding of messages, happens at the same time. It is an information processing and would draw heavily on psychology and on psycholinguistics. (Bell 1991, 14)

His translation mode is based on linguistic and psychological analysis. Clearly, Bell knows that a theory of translation, to be comprehensive and useful, must attempt to describe and explain both the process and the product. But he regards it as a long-term goal for translation studies, which cannot be achieved at present. Bell thinks that overall schema is involved even at the beginning of the translation of a text. Translators shall be very cautious indeed and, on this occasion, try to be as “faithful” as possible to the conception of the original, and moreover to reproduce its forms and meanings, its style and temporal characteristics in a text. By "faithfulness", Bell here means the translation neither adds nor deletes content. (Bell 1991, 11)

As proposed in at the very beginning of “Ten Lectures on Literary Translation”, Liu Zhongde also proposed “translation” means “translating”, which refers to the process of translation, in which something is translated instead of the work translated. Liu Zhongde lists six definition of translation and he thinks they are all true in a specific angle, that is Translation is a science; Translation is an art; Translation is a craft; Translation is a skill; Translation is an operation; Translation is a language activity; Translation is communicating. The view that translation is a science represents the school of science. It holds the view that translating should reproduce the message of the original by means of the transformation of linguistic equivalence. The view that translation is an art represents the school of art. The school advocates recreating a literary work by using expressions of another language. It emphasizes the effect of translation.（Liu Zhongde 1991, 1)

Bell and Liu Zhongde agrees in that their translation all means translating, which means the focus on the process of translation rather than merely the product of translation. Their consensus in this aspect makes their translation theory is comparable in some aspects. Bell objects creating a set of normative maxims for the production of the ideal translation by means of such evaluation. What is proposed by him here is a shift of focus away from the translation as an artifact or a product towards translating as process. His translation is not putting prescriptive rules but offer descriptive linguistic options for translators to choose ad select. Bell thinks that translation should achieve equivalence. The equivalence is similar to Liu’s faithfulness in content. Both of them think that translation should neither deletes nor adds content, because translation is a process of representing the original text rather than creating the original text. Translation is not for showing off the translator’s artistic talent, so the mark of the translator should be reduced to the least necessity. For the lonely debated discussion of whether translation is science or art, obviously, Bell thinks translation is science and discusses it from linguistic perspective. However, Liu thinks translation is both science and art.(Mao Liyin 2011, 6)

====2.3 Comparison on Principles of Translation====
According to Bell, there are three principles in translation. Firstly, the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. And thirdly the Translation should have all the ease of original composition. However, it doesn't mean that he thinks that translation theory should be prescriptive. Actually, he thinks translation is essentially arbitrary norms of behavior. Nonnative prescriptions deriving directly from the subjective and evaluative description of the “good” translation. These prescriptive translating rules are like the rules of etiquette. Translators are told what they ought and ought not to do in particular translation circumstances. But very rarely, why they are to conform to these dictates, they have not been told the reason. The rules discussed in linguistics seek to be descriptive, a constitutive type. Bell's principles of translation is his effort of seeking descriptive rules in translation from a linguist view. (Bell 1991, 37)

The frequent assumption that the purpose of a theory of translation is to devise and impose prescriptive rules as a means of both regulating the process and evaluating the product. For Bell, his position is (when playing the role of a descriptive linguist), necessarily, the converse; he is in search of descriptive rules which help us to understand the process, not normative rules which we use to monitor and judge the work of others. The notion of the good translator is inherent in any discussion of translation. That, however, is only part of the specification we need. While we would reaffirm our desire not to subscribe to the notion of the good translation, which has dominated translation theory for two centuries, we would not allow our rejection of that position to lead us also to preclude the study of the good translator as one element of an integrated, interdisciplinary, multi-method and multilevel approach to the description of the process.(Bell 1991, 10)

According to Mr. Liu, faithfulness refers to the translation must express the profound meaning of the original. In terms of meaning, the translation must conform to the original text. Besides, the transmission of ideas is the most significant one in the principles of translation. There is no any controversy on this, which is determined by the function and characteristic of translation. Translation is the transformation between two languages, while it is the fact that meaning convection lies in the middle level, and culture transmission is in the depth of translation activity. Correct meaning convection is the basic assurance to the fulfillment of translation function. Therefore, the faithfulness at the content of the original texts by Mr. Liu should be actually “loyalty to the meaning of the original texts”. (Jiang Hongxin 2005, 65)

The faithfulness at the content lies in the correct convection of the meaning. Here is an example of Mr. Liu’s translation practice in two editions for the translation of Emma.

Me! I should be quite in the way. Miss Wood house looks as if she did not want me.”(2009:174)

“我！我会是十分不受欢迎的。但是也许——我在这里也同样不受欢迎。伍德豪斯小姐的神气，好像并不要我。”(Liu Zhongde,1982: 303)

“我！我会是十分不受欢迎的。但是也许——我在这里也同样不受欢迎。伍德豪斯小姐的神气，好像并不欢迎我。”（Liu Zhongde,1993:223）

The translation of “want” as “to be” in the 82nd edition is a direct translation that superficially fits the meaning of the original. The translation of "want" in the 82nd edition is a literal translation, which superficially conforms to the meaning of the original text and expresses the meaning of the English and Chinese languages very aptly. But in fact, it did not fit the context of the time and did not have the effect of expression. The translation of "want" as “welcome", on the other hand, reflects the meaning of the context in which the original text was spoken. The translation of "welcome" is apt, smooth and natural. (Mao Liyin 2011, 7)

Mr. Liu has discussed this translation principle to be as expressive as the original many times in different places. But this is a tough demand. One of the reasons is that there are too many differences between two languages, particularly in the structure of them. Just taking Chinese and English as an example, we will find that Chinese is a typical language depending on its structure. This bamboo-like structure makes Chinese language connect meaning by assembling one word after another in linear form. Conversely, English is grape-like-structure language, which transmits meaning by logical connection. Therefore, we must transform the structure of these two languages so as to translate them well. Otherwise, the translation we do will be unreadable: either loosing meaning or being difficult to be understood.This three-character principle proposed by Mr. Liu is the reflection of his staidness towards academic researches. He held his opinion on how researchers should look on the relationship between inheriting and developing in translation theory research circle. The proper attitude, according to Mr. Liu, should be “making best use of the old theories for reference; taking advantage of foreign thoughts to create”.(Jiang Jiansong 2003, 210)

====2.4 Comparison on Views of Literal Translation and Free Translation====

According to Bell's theory, the choice is between translating word-for-word (literal translation) or meaning-for-meaning (free translation). Pick the first and the translator is criticized for the "ugliness" of a faithful translation; pick the second and there is criticism of the inaccuracy of a "beautiful" translation. Bell doesn't show his personal preference between this two translation method. Actually, he thinks both literal translation and free translation is acceptable. Here Bell stresses the achievement of semantic and stylistic equivalence. The semantic and stylistic equivalence actually is hard to achieve since the source language and target language are much different in their forms. (Bell 1991, 7)

According to functional linguistic perspective, forms contain meaning. Languages are different from each other because they are different in form, thus having distinct codes and rules regulating the construction of grammatical stretches of language. These forms have different meanings. To shift from one language to another is, by definition, to alter the forms. There is even no absolute synonymy between words in the same language, let alone finding synonymy between languages. Furthermore, the contrasting forms convey meanings in two languages cannot but fail to coincide totally. The process of translating from one language to another language actually impair the source language. It is a loss or inappropriate gain for the source language. Something is always lost or gained in the process of translating and translators can find themselves being accused of reproducing only part of the original and so betraying the author's intentions. (Wu Yicheng Li Yingyuan 1998, 56)

Although it is a fallacy to achieve complete equivalence, texts in different languages can be equivalent in different degrees, either highly or partially equivalent.Here Bell bring in the definition of the term: the nature of equivalence for the conducting of semantic and stylistic equivalence. So the equivalence can be fulfilled in respect of different levels of presentation such as equivalent in respect of context, of semantics, of grammar, of lexis, etc. Moreover, it can also be equivalent at different ranks: word-for-word, phrase-for-phrase and sentence-for-sentence. If equivalence is to be preserved at a particular level at all costs, which level is it to be? What are the alternatives? The answer, it turns out, hinges on the dual nature of language itself. Language is a formal structure and also a code, which consists of elements which can combine to signal semantic sense and, at the same time, a communication system which uses the forms of the code to refer to entities (in the world of the senses and the world of the mind) and create signals which possess communicative value. The translator has the option, then, of focusing on finding formal equivalents which preserve the context-free semantic sense of the text at the expense of its context-sensitive communicative value or finding functional equivalents which preserve the context-sensitive communicative value of the text at the expense of its context-free semantic sense. (Bell 1997, 6-10)

The controversy over direct translation and paraphrase has always been a matter of great concern to Mr. Liu, who has put forward his own unique opinion on this issue: the two phenomena and methods of translation, direct translation and paraphrase, have been objectively proven by a large number of historical facts and cannot be denied. Both literal translation and paraphrase must basically be based on the unit of sentence translation and on the premise of successfully realizing the three principles of translation. Here are three versions of translation to a poem in "A Dream of Red Mansions".

《红楼梦》卷头诗

满纸荒唐言，

一把辛酸泪。

都云作者痴，

谁解其中味？

1.Liu Zhongde

The Prologue to A Dream of Red Mansions

Papers here are full of such words as sound queer,

Mixed with a handful of drops of bitter tear,

People, one and all, call the author insane ,

But who understands how his words one should explain?

2. David Hawkes:

Pages full of idle words

Penned with hot and bitter tears

All men call the author fool

None his secret message hears.

3. 杨宪益：

Pages full of fantastic talk

Penned with bitter tears

All men call the author mad

None his message hears.

Xu Yuanchong divided them into three schools: classical school, who translate poems in the form of classical poetry, represented by Giles; free school , who translate poems in the form of free verse, represented by Waley; and creative school, who creatively adapt the original into English, represented by Ezra Pound. According to my opinion, a translated poem should convey the content of the original poem and take the form of the original poem. Only a poem in translation that meets these two requirements can be considered the ideal translated poem. Liu is well aware of the difficulties, so in his technical treatment, he adds, "In most cases, free and literal translations should be used flexibly or in combination." It is obvious that Liu opposes the extreme of scientific translation which falls into dull and unintelligible, as well as the artistic translation which is detached from the original text and pursues the translator's self-expression. In his view, free translation and literal translation are two complementary methods of translation, and of course, literal translation is the main one, while free translation is the supplement, which can be used alternately if necessary.(Jiang Hongxin 2005, 64)

====2.5 Comparison on Literary Translation Practices in Poems====
Bell divided translation of poetry into three steps:
Firstly, the analysis of the source language text;
Secondly, the organization of the semantic representations of the individual clauses of the poem into an integrated schema which contains the whole of the information the reader has been able to accumulate in the course of reading the text;
Thirdly, the synthesis of the new target language text. There are plenty of alternatives and the strategic options available to the literary translator. (Bell 1991, 61)

They can be presented as the extremes of five continua:
(1)to reproduce either the forms (syntax and lexis) or the ideas (the semantic content) of the original;
(2)to retain the style of the original or adopt a different style; retain or abandon the source language form; for example, to translate a poem as a poem or as prose;
(3)to retain the historical stylistic dimension of the original or to render it in contemporary form; to translate Dante into Middle English or into modem English
(4)to produce a text which reads like an original or one which reads like a translation;
(5)to add or omit words, phrases, clauses. . . or to attempt to transfer everything from source to target text.(Bell 1991, 68)

Bell admits the importance of retaining style in translation, but Bell tries to be as objective as possible. He clarifies that the procedure is in no sense being suggested as the best or only way of tackling the text nor are the translations themselves offered as models. He intend to make no judgement, merely to work through the process, indicating, as we do so, what kinds of decision need to be made and what means we have at our disposal for making and realizing our decisions. In Bell's opinion, judgement of the quality of translated texts have to be made by translators and translator-trainers and are also made by their readers but he do not wish to become engaged, in a book which is attempting an objective description and explanation of a phenomenon, in the debate which inevitably arises over quality assessment and translation criticism. His purpose is not to give prescriptive laws for the creation of the perfect translation, besides he points out that This is not his purpose nor is it the purpose of the vast majority working in the field of translation studies.(Bell 1991, 70)

Liu defines the characteristics of translated poetry in a macro way. He concisely summarizes the basic characteristics of poetry translation as poetry translation is not one's own creation, not the translator's own writing of poetry, and not borrowing ideas from the original poem to write poetry. The translation of poetry is obviously different from the creation of poetry. The translation of poetry is only a kind of reworked copy of the poem created by the translator after fully understanding the poet and expressing it again in another language. It goes without saying that in this process of reproduction, the translator inevitably has to exert creative labor in order to effectively and equivalently convey the content and style of the original poem, that is, the translator cannot be completely free from creation in the process of mental activity of translation, but, nevertheless, it is difficult to identify this mental activity as creation in the true sense of the word. (Guo Meng 2011, 9-13)

In the process and practice of poetry translation, Liu also stresses the importance of retaining the style. To show how style influence poetry, he cites a comparison between Li Bai and Du Fu, the style of the former is elegant and forceful and the later is profound and thoughtful. Liu pays much attention to the style of translation, and he compares an excellent translator to a good actor, who should reach the state of forgetfulness in the process of translation and be fully absorbed into the work.(Liu Zhongde 1991, 128)

He firmly holds that it is possible to translate poems though it is difficult to translate poems satisfactorily and successfully. As to the reason why poems are translatable, firstly, Liu said : “There exist many things in common among men. For instance, they all have the thinking powers to reason logically and the feelings to express joy or sorrow, love or hatred , and possess the same nature, world and universe no matter what races they may be. In other words, all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has the same function so that they can commune with one another. Poetry is a literary form by which poets express their thought and emotions. As a consequence, poetry, a product of the mind, is understandable, enjoyable and translatable.” Not only is poetry-translating possible, it is also necessary. Through poetry translating between Chinese and English, English and Chinese poetry have exerted mutual influence and as a result promoted the development of both. For example, Chinese classical poetry deeply influenced the school of imagism in the West, while Chinese new poetry was greatly inspired by West poetry. (Liu Zhongde 1988, 4-9)

Due to differences in language, social customs and cultural background, a translator of poetry, who should represent in another language the beauty of the original in meaning, sound and form, is confronted with many difficulties which may cause obstacles in understanding and expression. The difficulties will be discussed from three aspects. First, there exist linguistic differences in the two languages. From a grammatical perspective, English is a language which is in the main connected in grammar by hypotaxis whereas Chinese by parataxis. Secondly, difference in culture also adds to the difficulty of poetry translating. As English poetry and Chinese poetry take in different cultural backgrounds, some poems with particular cultural factors are extremely hard to handle in translating. For example, poets' selection of images in poems may vary. Concrete images are often used in Chinese poetry while some abstract images are often used in English poetry. Another example is the use of allusion in poetry. Poets sometimes expound their views and express emotions through historical incidents, fairy tales, legends and folk stories. Liu also adopts his new three-character principles to rendering poetry.(Liu Wenbin 1996, 295-298)

Liu Zhongde is an advocator of "rendering poetry as poetry". He puts forward views on three specific situations of poetry translating: translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, translation of English regular into Chinese and translation of English free verse into Chinese. As for the translation of Chinese classical rhyming poetry into English, Liu holds that the original meaning and artistic conception is most important and on the prerequisite that they are fully conveyed, we may try to reproduce the neatness of the original form and adopt the same or similar rhyme scheme as the original. If necessary, when it is difficult to translate a poem in rhyme, it can also be translated in a loose form, so as not to harm the meaning by rhyme. If the translation looks like a poem but has no poetic meaning, it is better to be in harmony with the appearance. It is much better to make people feel the interest of the original poem than to make it look like a poem. Finally, he believed that the ideal translation of poetry should be a translation of metrical poetry with metrical poetry.However, Liu also pointed out dialectically that one should not be absolute, and when necessary, when the meaning and artistic conception of the original poem must be preserved.(Liu Zhongde 1996, 31-33)

===3.Conclusion===
Bell's and Liu Zhongde's translation theory have many similarities. For the nature of translation, they both agree in translating, namely process, instead of products.Bell puts the focus on generalizing descriptive rules in process. In that way, Bell is trying to study the study of transtion. To understand the equivalence all his theory Bell thinks tranlation shouldn't delete or add content, which is similar to Liu's principle of "faithfulness" in translation. On the question whether translation is science or art, Bell agrees in the former while Liu combines school of science and school of art. The method of literal translation is weighed more by them when compared with free translation. However, Liu adds that when literal translation is difficult to achieve, it is also acceptable to apply free translation into practice. Liu thinks that the shift between literal translation and free tranlation can be flexible under different kinds of texts and styles.

Bell and Liu put their theory into practice in poetry's translation. However, the purpose for Bell's three steps and five schema is to prove the feasibility of his model theory. Though he uses it as an example, which is quite specific. He thinks that poetry translation should be like a poem. That is to say the translated poem should also be made to have a certain poetic form and a certain rhyme scheme and rhythm. He vividly represents the whole translating process and suggests translators should choose from many versions to figure out the closest translation. Bell is tryinng to be objective, so he doesn't give advice on how to achieve "good" translation. He firmly believe that the judgement should be made by translators, tranlator-trainers and readers. Liu's view is not so general but more specific.He thinks poetry translation sometimes can be difficult, but not untranslatable. He gives his preference to poetey which is faithful to the original text.

By comparising Bell's translation theory with Liu Zhongde's, it is found that Bell's translation theory seems to be more objective but less applicable. With a systematic linguistic model, Bell attempts to describe the translation process and the knowledge and skills that translators should acquire. He also apply psychological and information-theoretic models to describe the workings of the translator's brain during the translation process. The effort he makes is based on his hope that these models he created will eventually become a theoretical and practical model for translation research in the broad field of applied linguistics.

If we generalize Liu's translation theory as a summary of translation problems and methods to tackle with it. Then obviously, Bell's research is undoubtedly more difficult than the summary of translation experience or the analysis of translated works. Though whether the model he tries to create really reflects the mental activity of translators in the translation process remains to be further studied. We cannot expect one theoretical model to solve all translation phenomena and all the problems encountered by translators, but Bell's innovative attempt to break through the traditional translation theoretical model and establish a scientific research model is worthy of recognition. His views and model can at least provide useful references for translator's in-depth study of translation phenomena.

===Reference===
Bell, Roger T. Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London and New York: Longman.(1991)

Bell, Roger T. Translation Theory: Where Are We Going?. Meta (1987).

Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "文学翻译十讲"[Ten Lectures on Literary Translation]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation].1991.

Jiang Hongxin.蒋洪新. "刘重德翻译理论与实践研究"[A Study of Liu Chongde's Translation Theory and Practice]. 外国语第四期[The fouth edition on Jounal of Foreign Language]. 2005:62-67.

Wu Yicheng.Li Yingyuan.吴义诚,李英垣. "贝尔的《翻译与翻译过程:理论与实践》评介"[Review of Bell's Translation and the Translation Process:Theory and Practice].中国翻译(第五期)[The fifth edition on Chinese Translation]. 1998:55-56.

Mao Liyin.毛利尹. "刘重德翻译观研究"[J].[A Study of Liu Chongde's View of Translation]. 传奇:传记文学选刊(第五期)[Legend: Selected Biographical Literature]. 2011:5-7.

Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "论译诗(上)——《中国古诗汉英比译五十三首》序"[J][On the translation of poems (above)--Preface to "Fifty-three Chinese ancient poems in Chinese and English"]. 现代外语(第二期)[Modern Foreign Languages]. 1996:26-30.

Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "论译诗(下)——《中国古诗汉英比译五十三首》序"[J][On the translation of poems (below)--Preface to "Fifty-three Chinese ancient poems in Chinese and English"]. 现代外语(第三期)[Modern Foreign Languages]. 1996:31-33.

Liu Wenbin.刘文彬. "刘重德教授的译诗观"[Professor Liu Zhongde's View on Translating Poetry].中国英汉语比较研究会第二次全国学术研讨会论文集[Proceedings of the Second National Symposium of the Chinese Society for Comparative English and Chinese Studies]. 1996;293-299.

Weng Tao.翁涛. "罗杰·贝尔的翻译理论在汉译英中的应用"[Application of Roger Bell's Translation Theory in Chinese to English Translation]. 大学英语(学术版) [University English] (Academic Edition). 2008:99-101.

Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "翻译原则刍议"[Rumination on Translation Principles]. 中国翻译(第四期）[The fourth period on Chinese Translation]. (1983):9-13.

Liu Zhongde.刘重德. "文学风格翻译问题商榷"[The Question of Literary Style Translation]. 中国翻译（第二期）[Chinese Translation]. (1988):4-9.

Guo Meng.郭猛. "刘重德翻译思想研究"[D][A Probe into Liu Zhongde's Translation Thoughts]. 天津理工大学[Tianjin University of Technology]. 2011.

Jane Austen.简·奥斯汀. 《爱玛》[M][Emma]. 上海:上海世界图书出版公司[Shanghai: Shanghai World Book Publishing Company]. 2009.

Jane Austen. Translated by Liu Zhongde.奥斯汀.爱玛[M][Emma].刘重德译. 桂林:漓江出版社[Guilin: Lijiang Publishing House]. 1982.

Jane Austen. Translated by Liu Zhongde.奥斯汀.爱玛[M][Emma].刘重德译. 广州:广州花城出版社[Guangzhou: Guangzhou Huacheng Publishing House]. 1993.

Jiang Jiansong.Peng Liyuan.蒋坚松,彭利元. 刘重德翻译思想及其他[Liu Chongde's Translation Thought and Others]. 湖南：湖南师范大学出版社[Hunan: Hunan Normal University Press]. 2003.

==A Comparative Study of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect 罗维嘉 Luo Weijia 202070080600 MTI==

<center>罗维嘉 Luo Weijia</center>

===Abstract===

Since the introduction of Nida’s translation theory into China in the 1980s, Jin Di, a Chinese translation scholar, has explored the applicability of “dynamic equivalence” to literary translation between English and Chinese. And on the basis of Nida’s theory he formulated his own theory of “equivalent effect”. When Jin was translating James Joyce’s ''Ulysses'', he put his theory into practice. Jin’s translation practice as well as his exploration of “dynamic equivalence” provides us a good chance to further scrutinize some aspects of Nida’s theory and its application to English-Chinese literary translation. By studying Jin’s theory and his Chinese translation of ''Ulysses'', we will examine the applicability of Nida’s theory to literary translation between Chinese and English. A comparative study on Nida’s theory and Jin’s theory is also made to reveal the differences and similarities between the two theories.

===Key words===

dynamic equivalence; equivalent effect; Eugene Nida; Jin Di

===题目===
A Comparative Study of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect

===摘要===

自20世纪80年代奈达的翻译理论传入中国以来，中国翻译学者金堤开始探索“动态对等”在英汉文学翻译中的适用性。在奈达理论的基础上，他形成了自己的“等效理论”。金堤的《尤利西斯》翻译实践以及他对“动态对等”翻译理论的探索为我们进一步审视奈达理论及其在英汉文学翻译中的应用提供了良好机会。通过对金堤理论及其汉译《尤利西斯》的研究，我们将分析奈达动态对等理论对中英文学翻译的适用性。通过对奈达与金堤理论的比较研究，揭示两者的异同。

===关键词===

动态对等；等效理论；尤金·奈达；金堤

===Introduction===

Prior to his reception of Nida’s theory, Jin had already been an experienced translator and formed his own views about translation. Jin spelled out how he looked at the nature of translation and the gist of his argument was that “translating must meet requirements of accuracy and smoothness” (Jin Di 1998, 119). Evidently, Jin regarded the combination of accuracy and smoothness as a translation criterion and smoothness played a very important role in accomplishing the goal of accuracy in translating. We can see that before Jin’s reception of Nida’s theory, his focus was still on the old debate over faithfulness and smoothness, which began in the 1930s and continued to the late 1970s.

Before Jin knew Nida’s theory, he had already noticed the important role of target readers in translating in his years of translation experience. When discussing how to achieve the objective of accuracy and smoothness at the same time, he mentioned more than once the close relationship between accuracy and target readers. He wrote:

"A translation should be smooth and natural so that target readers do not feel big gaps between the two languages concerned. Accuracy and smoothness as a translation standard are like two sides of a coin, and one cannot be separated from the other. If the reader cannot understand the so-called “accurate” translation and do not know what it means, there is of little significance for such “accuracy”. If the translator only pays attention to smoothness in his work, but ignores the consistency between the original text and the translated text, his translation is not legitimate (Jin Di 1998, 119). "

Evidently, Jin shared similar views with Nida about the role of target readers in translating. This paved the way for his ready reception of “dynamic equivalence” as soon as he got in touch with it in the late 1970s.

===Introduction of Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect===

====Nida's Translation Theory of Dynamic Equivalence====

“Dynamic equivalence” is a key concept in Nida’s translation theory. The essential idea of “dynamic equivalence” is first mentioned by Nida in his article “Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating” (Nida, Eugene A. 1959, 326). In his attempt to define translating, Nida writes:

"A definition of translating... could be stated as follows: "Translating consists in producing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent to the message of the source language, first in meaning and secondly in style." (Nida, Eugene A. 1975, 33)

In Toward a Science of Translating (1964) Nida distinguishes two types of equivalence and first postulates his concept of “dynamic equivalent” translation as follows:

"In such a translation (dynamic equivalent translation) one is not so concerned with matching the receptor-language message with the source-language message, but with the dynamic relationship, that the relationship between receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and the message (Nida, E. A. 1964, 159)."

In this book, Nida also proves the legitimacy of dynamic equivalent translation from the viewpoint of information theory and communication theory. However, he does not give a clear definition of " dynamic equivalence" until 1969. In his 1969 textbook The Theory and Practice of Translation, “dynamic equivalence" is defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language" (Nida, E. A. 1969, 24)

In From One Language to Another (De Waard, Jan and E. A. Nida 1986), the expression “dynamic equivalence is superseded by "functional equivalence". But essentially there is not much difference between the two concepts. The substitution of " functional equivalence is just to stress the concept of function and to avoid misunderstandings of the term dynamic", which is mistaken by some persons for something in the sense of impact. In Language, Culture and Translating (1993), “functional equivalence " is further divided into categories on two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level. The minimal level of “functional equivalence" is defined as " The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it". The maximal level is stated as "The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did" (Nida, E. A. 1993, 118; 1995, 224). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level is ideal. For Nida, good translations always lie somewhere between the two levels (Nida, E. A. 1995, 224). Clearly, “functional equivalence" is a flexible concept with different degrees of adequacy.

In Nida's theory, " dynamic equivalence" is defined with “receptors' response" as its nature. Unlike traditional translation theories, which focus on verbal comparison between the original text and its translation, Nida's concept of translating shifts from "the form of the message" to " the response of the receptor. Thus, the importance of receptors' role in translating is emphasized. In Nida's view, when determining whether a translation is faithful to the original text or not, the critic should not compare the formal structures between the source text and its translation but compare "receptors' response". If he finds that the reader in the receptor language understands and appreciates the translated text in essentially the same manner and to the same degree as the reader in the source language did, such a translation can be evaluated as a dynamic equivalent translation. That is to say, the critic should judge a translation not by verbal correspondence between the two texts in question, but by seeing how the receptor, for whom the translated text is intended, reacts to it. Nida likens his theory of “readers' response to market research. When judging a product, one should test how consumers react to the product, for “regardless of how theoretically good a product might be or how seemingly well it is displayed, if people do not respond favorably to it, then it is not going to be accepted” (Nida and Taber 1969, 162). Similarly, in evaluating a translation, when a high percentage of people misunderstand a rendering, or find it difficult to understand, the critic cannot regard it as a legitimate translation (Nida and Taber 1969, 2). Nida's theory of “readers' response” emphasizes the importance of the acceptance of a translated text by the intended reader in the receptor language and avoids the subjective evaluation of the critic.

"Dynamic equivalence" has been widely adopted by Bible translators since the 1950s and has been successful. Its value, however, is not merely restricted to Bible translation. Some scholars agree that “dynamic equivalence” can be used to guide general translation practice. Jin Di claims that the principle of " equivalent effect", a modified dynamic equivalence, is applicable to all translation practice (Jin Di 1995). Newmark considers the principle of “equivalent effect” an important concept in translating with reservation. He states that “equivalent effect is the desirable result, rather than the aim of any translation...it is an important concept which has a degree of application to any type of text, but not the same degree of importance... in the communicative translation of vocative texts, equivalent effect is not only desirable, it is essential” ( Jin Di 1988, 48). But some scholars express their doubts about the application of “dynamic equivalence” to translation practice, especially literary translation. I suggest that Nida’s theory has practical significance for literary translation in some aspects, but it is a fact that it fails to address the issue of transferring aesthetic values of literary work in literary translation.

====Jin Di's Translation Theory of Equivalent Effect====

Jin Di is renowned for his translation theory of “equivalent effect” and his Chinese version of ''Ulysses''. His theoretical study on translation and translation activity contribute a lot to the development of contemporary translation studies. In this section Jin’s theory of “equivalent effect”will be concentrated, for a survey of Jin’s theory may give us insight into some aspects of Nida’s theory and its application to literary translation.

When Nida’s theory was introduced into China, Jin studied intensively Nida’s works on translation and endeavored to apply “dynamic equivalence” to his Chinese-English translation practice. In ''On Translation'': with special reference to Chinese and English (Jin Di 1984, with Nida), Jin basically adopted Nida's “dynamic equivalence”, which was defined in terms of a dynamic relationship, namely, “the relation of target language receptors to the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptors and the original text” (Jin Di 1984, 85, with Nida). As the first author, Jin furnished many convincing examples from his experience as a translator and proved that “dynamic equivalence” could provide practical help for translators in dealing with many difficulties in translating from English into Chinese and from Chinese to English. In fact, this book was acclaimed as “a masterpiece of combination of Nida’s translation theory with Chinese translation practice”. (Lao Long 1987, 56)

When Jin made a further study on Nida's theory, he discerned some biblical elements in it which were not applicable to general translation practice. As a result, a discrepancy appeared between Jin and Nida. According to Jin, when Nida talked about the relationship between message and receptors, he did not make any distinction between “impact” and “response”. For instance, Nida sometimes said“the impact of the message upon the receptors” and sometimes claimed “the receptors’ response to the message”. In Jin's view, Nida further highlighted the term “response” both in his definition of “dynamic equivalence” and his explanation of it. Jin argued that this was because Nida's theory was intended to guide Bible translating for evangelism, and the ultimate purpose of Bible translating was to make receptors “respond to the translated message in action” (Jin Di 1998, 17-18). Thus, according to Jin, the concept of “response” in Nida's theory was not suitable for a theory of general translation. Jin explained:

"In terms of the nature of language behavior, the impact of a translation upon receptors and receptors' response or reaction to the translation belong to opposite directions. Although receptors' response could be used as an important feedback to evaluate how the receptors understand and appreciate the translation to some extent, and the translator could test the quality of his translation according to receptors' response, such activity occurs only after the translation is completed. Since each receptor's response and reaction involve a number of subjective and objective personal factors, it is unnecessary for us to explore these factors in our study of translation process. Hence, in our discussion the term “effect refers to the impact of the translated message upon the receptors.” instead of the receptors’ response. (Jin Di 1998, 18)"

This was the reason why Jin modified Nida's “dynamic equivalence” and put forward his own theory of “equivalent effect”. Jin also gave specific definition of his principle of “equivalent effect”. He wrote:

"The objective of an equivalent effect translation is that although the form of a translated text may be different from that of the original text, the receptor-language reader can obtain a message as substantially the same as the source-language reader does from the original, including main spirit, concrete facts and artistic imagery. This is what I mean by an equivalent effect translation or similar effect translation (Jin Di 1998, 40)."

In Jin's view, only when the three essential factors (“main spirit", “concrete facts" and “artistic imagery”) of the original were successfully reproduced in the receptor language could a translation be termed as a translation of equivalent effect. He admitted that it was not always possible for the translator to produce" main spirit", " concrete facts" and "artistic imagery" at the same time, and necessary semantic adjustments should be made on condition that the main spirit of the original was better represented in the translation (Jin Di 1998, 20).

In short, the delimitation of the concept of “effect” as “impact” instead of “response”, and the emphasis on the reproduction of the three factors constitute Jin's theory of “equivalent effect”. We can see that Jin has attempted to improve Nida's “dynamic equivalence” in order to make it more applicable to general translation practice, especially literary translation.

In the 1990s, Jin further developed his theory of " equivalent effect" with insights gained from his translation experience of ''Ulysses''. In his article, “Translating Spirit” (1996), he borrowed two characters from Yan Fu's three-character translation principle (“faithfulness , expressiveness and elegance”) and advanced his theory of “faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit” (信、达、神韵). The term “spirit” in Jin's theory was used in a broad sense, indicating various artistic styles of literary works (Jin Di 1998, 162).

Jin's redefinition of the three-character principle was another way to describe his theory of “equivalent effect”. He elaborated:

"The three-character principle of “faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit” indicates faithful representation of the fundamental facts, transference of effect and reproduction of artistic style respectively. I think the goal of making the translated text similar to the original text in the above mentioned three aspects is what I strive for in the art kingdom of translation (Jin Di 1998, 162)."

In recent years Jin began to put more emphasis on the " reproduction of artistic style" , and tried to develop his theory of “equivalent effect” by making use of Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism. It seemed that Jin's theory deviated away from Nida's theory. One may ask, what accounts for such a change? According to Jin, this was because Nida, having changed his theory from “dynamic equivalence” to “functional equivalence”, no longer took the principle of “equivalent effect” as a translation objective (Wang Zhenping 2000, 56). The real reason is that Nida's theory fails to adequately address the problem of transference of aesthetic values in literary translation; while Jin, having attempted to solve it, has to absorb Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism, where discussions about stylistic or aesthetic effects and their transference are abundant. The evolution of Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” reveals his continuous effort to make Nida's theory applicable to literary translation as well as the inadequacy of Nida's theory in guiding literary translation.

===Similarities and Differences===
====Similarities between the Two Theories====
There are several similarities between the two theories. “The relation of target language receptors to the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptors and the original text”(Jin Di and Nida 1984,85). Such relationship indicates that translating is not completed unless the translated message is received by the reader in the receptor language in substantially the same manner as the original message is received by the original reader. As we can see, they both emphasized three important concepts of "receptor", "effect" and "equivalence". Jin Di's equivalent effect theory is close to Nida's dynamic equivalence theory, and their views on translation methods are basically consistent with their understanding of equivalent translation.

==== Differences between the Two Theories and the Reasons====

What are the differences between Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” and Nida’s “dynamic equivalence” except that the concept of effect in Jin's theory refers to “impact” rather than“ response”? Jin held that he basically adapted Nida's translation principles, and only made some adjustments in respect of some biblical elements which he found to have originated from religious and particularly missionary demands, and removed a certain residue of the old “free translation” tendency in Nida's theory (Nida, 1998). But this is only part of the problem. ln this section we will concentrate on the differences between the two theories from three aspects.

=====Reader-Oriented vs. Text-Oriented=====

“Dynamic equivalence” pays more attention to the target readers, while Jin's theory of “equivalent effect” attaches more importance to the original text. This distinction can be revealed by the definitions of the two translation principles. “Dynamic equivalence” is defined in terms of readers' response. For Nida, to measure “dynamic equivalence”, one should “only rightly compare the equivalence of response”(Nida 1969, 23). Jin's equivalent effect translation, however, requires reproduction of the “main spirit”, “concrete facts” and “artistic imagery” of the original text. Nida's focus on readers' response allows necessary linguistic adjustments. For example, if the expression “white as snow” was rendered into a language that had no corresponding word for “snow”, Nida suggested that the translator could replace it with comparable idioms, such as “white as egret feathers” in the receptor language. In Nida's view, such rendering was a dynamic equivalent translation, for it was functionally equivalent to “white as snow”(Nida 1964, 171-172). According to Jin's theory of “equivalent effect”, however, this rendering of “white as egret feathers” for “white as snow” was not a translation of equivalent effect, for the concrete fact “snow” was not reproduced in the receptor language.

Another example to illustrate Jin's adherence to the concrete fact of the original text is about the rendering of “butter for fish” in his Chinese version of ''Ulysses'':
(1)-And so say all of us, says Jack.
-Thousand a year, Lambert, says Crofton or Crawford.
-Right, says Ned, taking up his John Jameson. And butter for fish. （U12）

-我们大家也都这样说，杰克说。
-一年一千，兰伯特，克罗夫顿或是克罗福德说。
-对，内德拿起自己的约翰.詹姆森威士忌说。吃鱼有黄油。(金译第12章)

The original describes a scene of toast in a drinking party among common Irishmen. In “REVIEWS: ULYSSES, by James Joyce, translated by Jin Di”(Jin Di 1995), Dr. Kun-liang Chuang expressed his views about Jin's translation of the phrase“Butter for fish”:

“Butter for fish,”according to Don Gifford and Robert J. Seidman, is a lower class Dublin toast, also meaning “wealth and good fortune.” Jin's literal, word-for-word translation, “吃鱼有黄油”(pronounced chi yu you huang you) which is definitely not a common Chinese expression, creates more bewilderment than understanding for his Chinese readers. In fact, the Irish toast, “fish for butter”(sic) has a Chinese equivalent, “干杯” (pronounced gan bei). I believe that, in some cases, an appropriate annotation that explains cultural life is needed in terms of slang translation. In Jin's case here, the playfulness of the "toast" is lost in his loyalty to simple verbal equivalence (Chuang, Kun-liang 1995, 765).

Judging by the concept of “dynamic equivalence” , I think Chuang' s suggestion “干杯” for “butter for fish” is adequate. However, Jin did not think so. In his opinion, Chuang disregarded the transference of the concrete fact in the original text, and such translation could not achieve a translational equivalence, though it might attain a pragmatic equivalence (Jin Di 1998, 22). We can see that Jin is unwilling to sacrifice the content for the intelligibility of the translated text to the average target reader, who has not enough background knowledge to understand the implied meanings of the translated message.

Some people held a similar view with Jin. For example, Wang Zhenping said that Jin's rendering “吃鱼有黄油”was justified, because the Chinese reader learn Irish culture when reading this version. Wang argued that if the translator put the three toasts in the dialogue above into “干杯” , the original language variation would be spoiled and the reader be deprived of a chance of learning typical Irish culture and of understanding Joyce (Wang, Zhenping 2000, 35). In my opinion, Wang has pushed his argument to the extreme. If a toast, such as “Thousand a year”, is not a hindrance for the average readers to understanding, there is no reason to render it into “干杯”. This could be verified with Chuang's another suggestion of putting the English saying "[y]ou cannot eat your cake and have it as “鱼与熊掌，不可兼得”(Chuang, Kun-liang 1995, 764) instead of Jin's rendering “一块蛋糕，你不能又吃又拿”(Jin Di 1994, 311). In terms of naturalness and forcefulness, Chuang's suggestion is acceptable. Just as Lin Yuzhen commented, Jin's literal rendering was not so direct and forceful as Chuang's version (Jin Di 1996, 166). Besides, for average Chinese readers, who have little knowledge of Irish culture, it is difficult to understand the specific cultural meaning of “吃鱼有黄油”without the help of any annotation. Yuen Ren Chao, the noted Chinese linguist, expressed his views about a similar case in translating:

“A very important dimension of fidelity which translators often neglect is comparability in frequency of occurrence, or the relatively familiarity of the expressions in the original text and the translation. Too great a discrepancy in this respect will affect fidelity, even though the translation is accurate in other respects. As it is well-known in information theory, the less often a thing is talked about, the more it means to talk about it. Sometimes the very things one talks about may be a familiar thing in one culture and strange and exotic in another. In such a case, if the thing is the main topic of the discourse, it cannot be helped. . . However, in cases where a familiar expression is used casually as a figure of speech, then sometimes a translation by a different figure of speech of the same import but with a comparable degree of familiarity will result in a higher degree of overall fidelity than an apparently faithful translation which is very unfamiliar. For example, to speak of reaching the third base might be rendered, in Chinese, as reaching the “listening stage” in a game of mahjong, where the apparently “free” translation has greater fidelity, because it is a better match in the frequency of occurrence.”

Chao's view about fidelity is dialectical and comprehensive. In fact, it is in accord with Nida's “dynamic equivalence”. To Chao, whether or not naturalizing translation was adopted should depend on the context. If a figure of speech was the main topic of a discourse, the translator should faithfully reproduce it into the receptor language. If it was used in a casual way, it could be replaced with an idiomatic equivalent in the receptor language (such as Nida's suggestion of “white as snow” into “white as egret feathers”, or Liu Zhongde's “as lean as a rake” into “骨瘦如柴”). Jin's disapproval shows that he tends to be text-oriented both in theory and practice.

===== Flexible vs. Inflexible=====
Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is more flexible than Jin's theory of“equivalent effect”. A dynamic equivalent translation tends to be a type of free translation, while Jin's equivalent effect translation tends to be a literal translation, though such a classification is made in a quite loose manner. Jin's literal tendency is clearly reflected in the reviews about his Chinese version of ''Ulysses'' by some critics. Liu Junping stated that in translating ''Ulysses'' , “Jin insisted on literal translation and paid more attention to the transference of the form of the original text. As a result, his version was stiff to a certain degree in respect of language expression” (Liu Junping 1997, 35). Wang Yougui expressed a similar view in stating that Jin's translation was “like a leech, adhering closely to the original text” (Wang Yougui 1998, 69). In an interview Jin himself admitted that his translation was not so flexible as Nida's dynamic equivalent translation:

“Wang: ... Briefly speaking, the discrepancy between your theory and Nida's theory is that you put more emphasis on loyalty to the original text and the writer, and Nida is more flexible in translating. Do you agree with me?

Jin: Yes. The scope of flexibility in Nida's theory is much greater. That is to say, according to Nida, the translator is not required to adhere closely to the original text. This is because his theory is to guide Bible translation, and his translation purpose is to make people believe in Christianity. So Nida holds that the most important thing in translating is not words or content, but “receptors' response”, namely, their belief in Christianity. In my opinion, such a view is not suitable for literary translation. What I strive for is “effect”,i.e. the impact of the translation upon its readers is similar to the impact of the original text upon its readers (Wang Zhenping 2000, 56).”

In Jin's view, a literary translation must adhere closely to the original text. As long as the three factors of the original text, namely, the “main spirit”, “concrete facts” and “artistic imagery”, are faithfully reproduced, an equivalent effect can be achieved. Evidently, Jin's theory of “equivalent effect is less flexible than Nida's “dynamic equivalence”. To illustrate this point, we may look at some examples from Jin's Chinese version of ''Ulysses'':

(2) Steak, kidney, liver, mashed at meat fit for princes sat princes Bloom and Goulding. Princes at meat they raised and drank Power and cider. (U11)

V1牛排、腰子、肝、马铃薯泥，可供王侯享用的菜肴，坐着享用的王侯是布卢姆和古尔丁。两位用餐的王候，他们举杯喝酒，帕尔威士忌和苹果酒。(金译第11章）

V2布卢姆和古尔丁俨然像王候一般坐下来，牛排、腰子、肝、土豆泥，吃那顿适宜给王侯吃的饭。他们像进餐中的王侯似的举杯而饮鲍尔威士忌和苹果酒。（萧、文译第11章）

Comparing the two versions with the original text, we can find that Jin's version sticks closely to the English syntax, while the Xiao's version reconstructs the original sentences according to normal Chinese syntactical structure. In Jin's version, the objects“牛排、腰子、肝、马铃薯泥” is placed before the verb“坐着”, and the subjects“布卢姆和古尔丁”are placed at the end of sentence; while in the Xiao's version the normal Chinese syntactical structure “Subject + Verb” is adopted.

(3) By the sandwichbell in screening shadow, Lydia her bronze and rose, a lady's grace, gave and withheld: as in cool glaucous eau de Nil Mina to tankards two her pinnacles of gold.

V1 网状阴影中的三明治罩旁站着莉迪亚，古铜衬玫瑰，贵妇风度，欲授又止:同时在清凉的淡湖色的eau de Nil中，米娜的金色高髻向着啤酒缸子两只。（金译第11章）

V2在帘子的遮荫下，钟形三明治容器旁边，莉迪亚胸前插了朵玫瑰。一头褐发淑女的娴雅派头，忽隐忽现; 而头发挽成高髻、沉浸在冰凉而银光闪闪的一片淡绿蓝色中的米娜，在两位举着大酒杯的顾客面前也是这样。（萧、文译第11章）

In this example, Jin's version adheres so closely to the original text that it is difficult for the average Chinese reader to understand such expressions as “古铜衬玫瑰” and“欲授又止”. Moreover, one can recognize at first sight that“向着啤酒缸子两只”is a word-for-word translation even if he does not read the original text. Owing to Jin's inflexibility, some renderings of his Chinese version ''Ulysses'' appear unnatural and awkward.

=====Ideal Objective vs. Realistic Goal=====

Some scholars have assumed that Nida's “dynamic equivalence”and Jin's principle of “equivalent effect”are ideal goals, which could not be realized in translating. However, such assertion is too simplistic. In fact, Jin's translation objective is ideal while Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is far more than an ideal goal. Jin emphasized more than once that an equivalent effect translation was an ideal aim, for which the translator must strive in his work. In “Where Is the Spirit of Ulysses?” (Jin Di 1996), Jin stated that an equivalent effect translation was “an ideal objective”. Though there was no perfect translation, it was desirable for a serious translator to work at it (Jin Di 1998, 214). In “What is a Perfet Translation” (Jin Di 1997), he even summarized that “the theory of equivalent effect” was an attempt to define the ideal of the non-existent perfect translation and to explore the approach to approximating it in practice, i.e. t producing a rendition as close to the ideal as possible” (Jin Di 1998, 229). Jin's theory, like Chinese traditional translation theories, is really an ideal translation standard.

However, Nida's “dynamic equivalence” is not an ideal criterion. As we all know that Nida's attitudes toward “dynamic equivalence” / “ functional equivalence” were different from phase to phase. In phase one (1959-1964), Nida simply described the features of two basic translation equivalences: “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence”, and did not point out which equivalence was better. Dynamic equivalent translations were not always good, while formal equivalent translations were not always bad. Rather, some formal equivalent translations were“often perfectly valid translations of certain types of messages for certain types of audiences” , and some dynamic equivalent translations were likely to obscure “the intent of the original” (Nida 1964, 166, 191-192). Both dynamic equivalent translations and formal equivalent translations could be achieved in actual translating. Furthermore, between strict formal equivalence and complete dynamic equivalence, there were“a number of intervening grades, representing various acceptable standards of literary translating” ( Nida 1964: 160). There were also “varying degrees” of dynamic equivalent translations. For example, according to Nida, both J. E. Philips' rendering “a hearty handshake” and “brotherly kiss” in the Today's English Version were dynamic equivalent translations. The difference between the two renderings was only a matter of degree.

A dynamic equivalent translation did not mean that the more a translation approached the original text, the better it was. In fact, there was no such thing as the best dynamic equivalence. If a dynamic equivalent translation went to extremes, the very freedom of form tended to distort the original message as well (Nida 1964, 191-192). For Nida "dynamic equivalence" was not an ideal objective, but just one of the basic types of equivalence, which had varying degrees.

In phase two (1969-1984), Nida discussed "dynamic equivalence" in opposition to "formal correspondence". During this period, he suggested that "dynamic equivalence" was a good translation, in which the form was restructured to preserve the same meaning, whereas "formal correspondence" and "paraphrase" were bad translations, for the former preserved the form but distorted the meaning of the original text, and the latter had addition, deletion, or skewing of the message in the translated text (Nida and Taber 1969, 173). Though Nida in this phase considered dynamic equivalent translations good, he did not take it as an ideal goal for which the translator must strive in his work. This could be verified with his attitudes towards the following three renderings of a verse in the Hebrew text of the Bible:

KJV:
I returned, and saw under the sun, that the race is not to the swift, nor the battle to the strong, neither yet bread to the wise, nor yet riches to men of understanding, nor yet favour to men of skill; but time and chance happeneth to them all. (Ecclesiastes9, 11)

TEV:
I realized another thing, that in this world fast runners do not always win the races, and the brave do not always win the battles. Wise men do not always earn a living, intelligent men do not always get rich, and capable men do not always rise to high positions. Bad luck happens to everyone. (Ecclesiastes 9, 11)

NEB (The New English Bible):
One more thing I have observed here under the sun; speed does not win the race nor strength the battle. Bread does not belong to the wise, nor wealth to the intelligent, nor success to the skillful; time and chance govern all. (Ecclesiastes9, 11)

Both renderings of the NEB and of the TEV were considered by Nida as "dynamic equivalent" translations, though they were at two quite distinct rhetorical levels. The NEB "preserved more the aphoristic style of the passage "while the TEV" adopted a style more characteristic of modern-day practical philosophy". The NEB was "semantically more condensed", while the TEV was expanded with "sufficient redundancy". This was because the former was intended to be read by readers themselves, and the latter was for people who heard the scriptures. "It is essentially for this reason that one can justify two different types of dynamic equivalent translations designed primarily for two rather different purposes" (Jin Di and Nida 1984, 87-89). It is safe for us to say that dynamic equivalent translations are not those that are closest to the original text in lexicon and grammar. Rather, depending on the readers for whom the translation is made, there are more than one dynamic equivalent translations.

At phase three (1984-), " functional equivalence" was divided into two levels of equivalence: the maximal level and the minimal level. The maximal level was an ideal, but Nida did not suggest that the translator must take it as an aim to work at. On the contrary, he claimed that this maximal level of equivalence was "rarely, if ever, achieved, except for text having little or no aesthetic value and involving only routine information" (Nida 1993, 118). In Nida's view, such an ideal goal could only be achieved in certain limited types of texts, and it was impossible to attain such an objective in literary translation. In brief, a functional equivalent translation was not an ideal goal that the translator must pursue in their work. Rather, it had "different degrees of adequacy" from minimal to maximal level and a good translation always lay somewhere in between the two levels (Nida 1993, 1995).

=====Reasons for the Differences between the Two Theories =====

There are mainly two reasons for the differences between Jin's theory and Nida's theory:(1) Jin's theory is, to some extent, very much influenced by traditional Chinese translation theories, and (2) Nida's theory fails to address the issue of transference of aesthetic elements.

Before Jin accepted Nida's theory in the late 1970s, he had formed his own views about translation, and taken the combination of "accuracy and smoothness" as the standard of a good translation. In his view, "accuracy is the ultimate objective of a translation while smoothness is the necessary means to attain it. The translator's objective is to accurately reproduce the content and feeling of the original text in an idiomatic language" (Jin Di 1998, 119- 120). Theoretically, it is desirable to achieve this objective, but in actual translating it is hard to accomplish it. Just as a saying goes: "Translation is like a mistress. If she is beautiful, she is not faithful. If she is faithful, she is not beautiful". Certainly, Jin had to face this dilemma of keeping "accuracy and smoothness" at the same time in his translation practice. After he had contact with Nida's theory, he tried to find the way out of it from the standpoint of readers and communication theory. He wrote:

"Accuracy and smoothness in translating are inseparable from target readers. Translating is communicating across two languages. An accurate translation indicates that the message the target reader obtains from the translated text should be substantially the same as the message the original reader has acquired from the original text. A smooth translation indicates that the target reader can understand the translation and receive the translated message e without any difficulty. (Jin Di 1998, 114)."

The fact is that even after Jin advanced his own theory of " equivalent effect" in the 1980s, he was not totally free from the bondage of his former translation standard of " accuracy and smoothness". For instance, he held that an equivalent effect translation was to preserve "accuracy and smoothness" at the same time (Jin Di 1998, 39). This explained why he emphasized the importance of transference of "concrete facts" in his definition of equivalent effect translation, and why he was strongly opposed to the alteration of "concrete facts" in his arguments against Phillip's rendering of " a hearty handshake" and Chuang's suggestion of "干杯" .

In the 1990s, Jin's dependence upon Chinese traditional translation theory was more conspicuous. In his article "Translating Spirit" (1996), Jin borrowed "faithfulness and expressiveness" from Yan Fu's three-character translation principle and put forward his translation principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit". He held that to accomplish an equivalent effcet translation, the translator should “make the translated text similar to the original text in terms of faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit" (Jin Di 1998, 162). Clearly, during this period, Jin's theory of "equivalent effect mainly depended on faithful representation of the original text, and the target reader was no longer involved ass the decisive role in translating. It is safe for r us to say that when Jin absorbed the useful elements from traditional Chinese translation theory, Chinese classic literary criticism and aesthetics to discuss his translation objective, his theory went further away from Nida’s "dynamic equivalence", though he claimed that his translation criteria " faithfulness, expressiveness and spirit" were similar to his translation principle of " equivalent effect” (Wang Zhenping 200, 56).

Another reason for the discrepancy ' between the two theories is the limitations of Nida's theory. "Dynamic equivalence" is not restricted to Bible translation, but it has some limitations in guiding literary translation. This is simply because Nida's immediate concern is not about literary translation, hence it fails to address the transference of formal structures possessing stylistic values and aesthetic effects.

As we all know, the general background against which Nida formulated his translation theory in the early 1960 was that the English Revised Version of the Bible and the American Standard Version of the Bible (1901) were very literal to the extent that "they simply did not communicate effectively, owing to their 16th century forms and the literal, awkward syntax" (Nida 1964, 20). Due to this fact, Nida in his theory objected to word-for-word translation of "formal correspondence", and advocated a free approach to translation, i.e. a meaning-oriented dynamic equivalence. This translation approach has great significance for translators, providing them with theoretical support to break the chains of literalism. However, as far as literary translation is concerned, merely translating sense is not enough. Just as Lin Yutang says, there are two types of literary works. One originates from the writer's experience and thoughts, and the other lies in the language itself, i.e. the specific means to express the writer's experience and thoughts. The first type does not rely on the native language of the writer to a certain degree, while the second is inseparable from the spirit of his mother tongue (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 430-431). Jin Yuelin also states: "Translating sense, which only requires expressiveness and faithfulness, is not an easy thing, and in some cases it is very difficult. Nevertheless, the difficulty is only a technical problem. Translating flavor, however, is quite another matter, for it requires recreation in translating" (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 464). When meaning and flavor in the original text cannot be kept at the same time in literary translation, in some cases the translator retains flavor and sacrifices sense. But in Nida's theory translating means translating meaning, and his exploration of style or spirit is very inadequate for literary translation. When Jin translated Joyce's ''Ulysses'', he had to face the problem of spirit transference. This is the reason why Jin eventually turns to Chinese traditional translation theory and classic literary criticism to seek for support for his theory of "equivalent effect".

===Conclusion===

There are some similarities between Nida’s Dynamic Equivalence and Jin Di’s Equivalent Effect. They both have profound research and insight into the theory of equivalent translation, and have a lot of common points in their understanding of the theory. There are also some differences between the two theories. Jin Di is deeply influenced by traditional Chinese translation theories and lacks a scientific basis for translation analysis. However, Nida's theory does not mention aesthetics, which has its limitations in guiding literary translation. Therefore, Nida's theory is not applicable to general translation, but only to biblical translation and informative or vocative translation. How to learn from the two translations to better guide translation practice is a task that translation researchers need to do in the future.

===References===

Chuang, Kun-liang 庄坤良. (1995). "Ulysses, by James Joyce, translated by Jin Di." [金堤译《尤利西斯》]James Joyce Quarterly 32.

De Waard, Jan and E. A. Nida 得·瓦得和尤金·奈达. (1986). From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating [从一种语言到另一种语言]. New York: Nelson.

Jin Di 金堤.(1998). In Search of the Principle of Equivalent Effect [等效反应原则]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.

Jin Di and Eugene A. Nida 金堤和尤金·奈达. (1996). On Translation: with special reference to Chinese and English [论翻译]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.

Jin Di 金堤. (1995). Equivalence Effect in Translation [翻译中的等效反应]. Chinese University Press.

Jin Di 金堤. (1994-1996). trans. Ulysses(You Li Xi Si). By James Joyce[尤利西斯]. Beijing: People's Literature Press.

Liu, Junping 刘军平.(1997). "Comments on Two Chinese Versions of Ulysses." [《尤利西斯》两种译文的比较研究]. Chinese Translators Journal 3.

Lao Long. (1988). "Book Review: On Translation by Jin Di and Eugene A. Nida" [书评: 论翻译]. Chinese Translators Journal 2: 56-57.

Luo, Xinzhang 罗新璋. (1984). An Anthology of Writings on Translation [翻译论集]. Beijing: Commercial Press.

Nida, E. A. 尤金·奈达 (1975). Language Structure and Translation: Essays by Eugene A. Nida [语言结构与翻译]. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

Nida, E. A. 尤金·奈达 (1959). Principles of translation as exemplified by bible translating [从圣经翻译看翻译原则]. Bible Translator, 72(4), 323-342.

Nida, Eugene A. 尤金·奈达. (1993).Language, Culture and Translating [语言、文化与翻译]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Nida, Eugene A. 尤金·奈达. (1964). Towards a Science of Translating: with Special Reference to Principles and Procedures Involved in Bible Translating [翻译的科学探索]. Leiden: Brill.

Nida, Eugene A. and C. R. Taber. 尤金·奈达和查尔斯·泰伯. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation [翻译理论与实践]. Leiden: Brill.

Wang, Zhenping 王振平. (2000). "An Interview with Prof. Jin Di." [金堤教授访谈录] Chinese Translators Journal.

Wang, Yougui 王友贵. (1998). "On Two Chinese Versions of Ulysses"[《尤利西斯的两个中译本研究》]. Chinese Comparative Literature 4.

==Translation , Translating and Interpreting 漆凯 Qi Kai, 202020080636 亚非语言文学==

<center>漆凯 Qi Kai </center>
===Abstract===
First of all, this paper briefly introduces the Chinese and western studies of translation theory and translation principles, and then introduces the definitions of translating and interpreting centering on translation and interpretation.then it discusses what they have in common from four aspects: basic principles, requirements for translators, operational procedures and quality assessment standards. Then it discusses the differences between interpretation and translation in terms of criteria, translation process and requirements for the quality of translators. Mastering the similarities and differences between the two can help us to better deal with different types of translation, which is the only way to become an excellent translator.

===Key words===
Translation; Translation Theory; Translation Principles; Translating; Interpreting

===题目===
翻译，笔译与口译

===摘要===
本文首先以翻译理论和翻译原则为出发点，简要介绍了两者的中西方研究状况，其次以笔译和口译为中心，对两者的定义进行了介绍，然后从基本原则、对译者的要求、操作流程、质量评定标准四个方面论述了两者的共同点，紧接着论述口译和笔译在衡量标准、翻译过程以及对译员的素质要求方面的差异。掌握两者的同于不同，能够帮助我们更好地处理不同类型的翻译，是成为一个优秀翻译工作者的必经之路。

===关键词===
翻译、翻译理论、翻译原则、笔译、口译

===Introduction===
With the enhancement of China's national strength and the increasing complexity of international exchanges, the market needs more and more high-quality translators. The establishment of MTI and BTI majors in colleges and universities in China also meets this demand. Translation includes two different forms: translation and interpretation. many people will be shocked by the real-time translation of the interpreter around the prime minister and admire the ability of the interpreter. Translation plays an important role in Mo Yan's winning the Nobel Prize for Literature. The comparison between interpretation and translation can give us a correct understanding of the relationship between them, so as to better guide the study of translation and improve the ability of translation.(Liu Heping 2009,35)

This paper first defines translation and holds that translation refers to the expression of the meaning of one language in another language, or the expression of symbols or numbers that represent language and literature, and translation is a conversion between two symbols. But this kind of transformation is not only the language transformation at the literal level, but also the transfer of ideas and the transplantation of culture.(Liu Heping 2009,35)

Secondly, it discusses the similarities and differences between translation and interpretation, focusing on the differences between them. Specifically, firstly, the common points of the two are discussed from four aspects: the basic principles, the requirements for the translator, the operation process and the quality evaluation standard. As for the difference between the two, the criteria for evaluating the advantages and disadvantages of translation and interpretation are discussed. Interpretation needs an interpreter to make a quick response because of its immediacy. Then it analyzes the process of the two translation methods and points out their differences.(Liu Heping 2009,35)

Finally, it discusses the different requirements for the quality of interpreters. In view of the particularity of interpretation, it focuses on the requirements for interpreters, including psychological quality, listening, memory and shorthand ability. It is hoped that through the analysis and discussion of this paper, we can once again realize the importance of translation and let readers have a further understanding of the similarities and differences between interpretation and translation.(Liu Heping 2009,35)

===Definition of Translation===
Translation is an activity with a long history. Both Chinese and Western translators have experienced several thousand years of development. During such a long period of time, people have benefited from translation activities; at the same time, people have actively thought about issues related to translation.(Huang Yongchang 2003,36)

First, people need to give a precise definition of translation. As a matter of fact, most of the first translation activities performed by human beings were oral translations. The communication of language and ideas between two primitive tribes was dependent on translation. Later, with the need for narration and communication, translation activities also emerged, and the initial translations were all related to the translation of religious texts.(Huang Yongchang 2003,36)

In modern society, with the development of science and technology, translation activities have covered more colorful forms: human translation and machine translation; literary translation and non-literary translation; excerpt translation, compilation, translation evaluation, etc.; there are also research institutions and training institutions for translation and its works. It can be said that after a long historical development, translation activities have become very diverse in form.Therefore, it is very difficult to give a precise definition of translation. Many experts and scholars have made attempts to define translation from various perspectives, such as culture, sociology, semiotics and psychology.(Huang Yongchang 2003,36)

Secondly, according to the Modern Chinese Dictionary, translation refers to expressing the meaning of one - language and literature in another language and literature, or expressing the symbols or digits representing language and literature in language and literature. (Huang Yongchang 2003,36)

Translation is a conversion activity between two symbols. Therefore, in the activity of conversion of two linguistic symbols, that is, in the activity of translation, one's primary task is to work on the regeneration of symbolic meaning. And translation is fundamentally about translating meaning. Then, what is the meaning becomes an important and crucial question.(Huang Yongchang 2003,36)

For example, Ogden and Richards, the British scholars of semantics, published in 1923, put forward a theory of meaning, which represents the typical view of traditional semantics. The theory refers to a mutually constraining and interactive relationship between symbols, meanings and objective things. And this theory has also influenced translation activities. Language philosophers often think about this issue and give an essential requirement to translation, which should not be a literal level of language conversion, but a transfer of ideas and a cultural transplantation.(Liu Heping 2009,37)

Thirdly, the activity of translation, which has undergone thousands of years of development, has played an important role in the evolution of human society, and it is always going on, and the various functions it can achieve are constantly evolving. Jacobson, one of the founders of the Prague School, divided translation into three types: intra-linguistic translation, interlinguistic translation and inter-rational translation.(Liu Heping 2009,37)

By understanding these three types, it helps us to recognize the functions and roles of translation. There is no doubt that translation facilitates communication between people and enables ideas to be spread. For the ideas and culture of a country to be expanded geographically, it is inevitable to resort to translation. Moreover, translation also plays the function of creation, and through translation activities, the original ideas are developed and extended.(Ma Chao 2010,18)

In the process of translating Buddhist scriptures, our country has made a bold creation, creating. The creation of new vocabulary and new ideas not only expands the substance of the language, but also introduces new ideas and new thoughts. And in the West, especially in the process of translating the Bible, the role of translation for linguistic transformation has been more profoundly highlighted.Therefore, in order to study translation, it is necessary to understand the definition of translation, the content of translation and the function of translation.(Ma Chao 2010,18)

===Research status of Translation principles in China and the West===
From ancient times to the present, Chinese and Western scholars have never stopped exploring the principles of translation. There are also differences between Chinese and Western translation principles in terms of development history, research direction and system integrity.

====Research status of Translation Principles in China====
Yan Fu once spoke in the Theory of Heaven. In the translation example, it has been pointed out that there are three difficulties in translating things: faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance. It is very difficult to ask him to believe himself.(Ma Chao 2010,19)

Although the translation is still not done, "faithfulness" means that the content of the translation does not violate the original and expresses the meaning of the original. "expressiveness" requires that the translation is smooth and easy to understand. "elegance" refers to the literary style, suitability and readability of the choice of words, as well as the proper use of language style. "elegance" refers to the choice of words, suitability and readability, as well as the proper use of language style. In fact, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" is not completely pioneered by Yan Fu, but is systematically summarized, refined and summarized.(Ma Chao 2010,19)

Before Yan Fu, there were Zhiqian's "follow this purpose without literary decoration", the "struggle for cultural quality" in the Sui and Tang dynasties, the "five losses and three difficult" by Dao'an, "rather be simple and reasonable, not skillfully but from the source" by Yan Yi. Xuan Zang's "five do not turn", Zanning's "six examples", Ma Jianzhong's "good translation" and so on. (Huang Yongchang 2003,37)After Yan Fu, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" also has a new development.(Ma Chao 2010,19)

For example, Lu Xun said that "it would rather be faithful than smooth" and "all translators must take into account two sides: one is to strive for ease of understanding, and the other is to preserve the grace of the original work." Lin Yutang put forward the standard of "faithfulness, smoothness and beauty". Fu Lei's "attaching importance to spirit but not form", "harmony between spirit resemblance and form resemblance", Qian Zhongshu's "transformation environment", Jin Shi's "equivalence" translation principle, Liu Zhongde's "faith, reach, cut" regiment, Zhang Jin's "truth, goodness, beauty", and Xu Yuanchong summed up the "beauty of meaning, sound, form" and so on. (Ma Chao 2010,19)

Although various translation standards emerge one after another, the translation standard of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" has always been the "golden rule" in the field of translation. The translation standard of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" is Yan Fu's summary and sublimation of a great deal of practice, raising the translation theory from the dual standard of "literal translation and free translation" to the ternary standard, which is also the development and inheritance of the previous translation theory. At the same time, the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" is also a discussion on the traditional Chinese philosophy of "the unity of man and nature", "the subject is integrated into the object", and it is a "incidental discussion" of translation. (Yang Zijian 1994,52)

Although many other translation standards have appeared after the translation standard of faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance, the scope of influence of faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance. It's always been widespread. This is because the subsequent translation standards are based on the translation criteria of "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance", and the contents of the framework are updated and inherited critically with the development of the times. Although it has some historical limitations, as a translation concept and basic proposition, as Guo Hongan said: as long as we keep pace with the times and constantly update the interpretation of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", we will continue to give it new vitality.(Yang Zijian 1994,55)

====Research status of Translation Principles in the West====
According to different periods, there are many representative translation principles in the West. Such as "translation as a commentator" put forward by Cicero Cicero of the traditional empirical period, Alexander FraserTytler's "completely interpreting the advantages of the source text into another language", the "functional equivalence theory" and the thought circle of "response" and "domestication" advocated by Eugene A. Nida in the period of modern linguistics, CatFord's "equivalent translation", PeterNewmark's semantic translation and communicative translation theory. And the hermeneutics theory "understanding is translation" advocated by GeorgeSteiner in the contemporary pluralistic theory period, Andre Lefevere's "translation is rewriting" Hermans's "the text is manipulated by the translator" and so on.(Yang Zijian 1994,53)

In the process of development, western translation theories pay more attention to the intuitive way of thinking and the integrity of the system. In the process of using and developing translation theory, we can take it as a reference, absorb its essence, and combine it with domestic translation principles and translation practice to form a domestic characteristic translation theory. For example, when using the translation standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", we should comprehensively consider other translation theories at home and abroad, fully consider the style and content of the text, apply the idea of "domestication", and choose suitable translation methods. so that the content and style of the text can be restored to the maximum extent.(Xu Jun 2009,36)

===Definitions of Translating and Interpreting===
Translating is a written process. It converts the written text in the source language into another written language. Translators must have a deep understanding of the source text and accurately translate it into the target language in terms of meaning, structure and style. The translator has enough time, tools and ways to ponder over and over the language sentences so as to complete the translation. In "language and Culture: context in Translation", Eugene A. Nida (2006 105)holds that the first step is for the translator to analyze the source text by reading many times, consulting references or dictionaries and consulting experts in relevant fields in order to deepen their understanding.(Marianne Lederer 2011,12)

After the conversion from the source language to the target language, translators also need to transform and improve the target language in order to obtain the satisfaction of the readers or the target audience. Before that, translators can ask people in the target audience to read the translation on behalf of the target audience, so as to get feedback on the translation, and have time to correct and polish it again. In terms of the connotation of translation, translation requires higher satisfaction with accurate grasp of language, creativity, artistic level of language and aesthetic style.(Marianne Lederer 2011,12)

Interpreting can be divided into impromptu translation and simultaneous interpretation. Impromptu translation, also known as consecutive Interpreting or continuous translation, is mainly in the form of segmented expression of what the speaker is going to express, and the translator translates during each pause. The time of each speech varies from a few seconds to a few minutes according to the specific situation. Consecutive Interpreting is widely used, such as tourism translation, banquet speeches and so on.(Sun Sucha 2008, 44)

Simultaneous interpretation, also known as simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter provides instant translation through special interpretation equipment without interrupting the speaker's speech,constantly interpreting the contents of his speech to the audience. Simultaneous interpretation is suitable for large-scale seminars and international conferences, usually conducted by two interpreters in rotation.(Sun Sucha 2008, 44)

===Similarities and Differences between Translating and Interpreting===
As two practical forms of translation, the relationship between interpreting and translating is self-evident. If interpreting is the superstructure. Then the written review is the lower building. To put it simply, interpretation is based on written reviews. Before oral training or practice, the written details should be passed (at least step by step): the two not only go hand in hand. And the quality of the former often determines to a large extent the level of interpretation or the potential for development in the future.Although interpretation and translation have different forms of translation, they share many common basic principles. In some basic translation strategies and techniques.And it is also consistent or similar.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,147)

Fundamentally speaking, these two kinds of translation practices are guided or dominated by general translation theories and principles, which are always accepted and digested first in the training process of written reviews. If the cultivation of oral and detailed talents is not only based on translation training, but also not far away from the training of translation, the cultivation of oral talents is not far away from the basis of translation training. If you ignore the importance of translation. Or the amount of translation training is not enough. In that case, it is bound to be top-heavy and light, and it is difficult to make further progress in interpretation.(Li Jun 2007,54)

====Similarities between Translating and Interpreting====
First of all, the basic principles of translation are the same. In an introduction to Translation, Xu Jun (2009) pointed out that translation is the fundamental meaning of translation; Li Jun (2007) also believes that the basic task of translation is to understand and retell the meaning that the source language is trying to express. It can be seen that as far as its basic principles are concerned, translation should faithfully express the meaning and ideas that the source language wants to express in accordance with the language habits of the target language.(Marianne Lederer 2011,108)

Whether interpreting or translating, it is not the formal translation of words or sentence-by-sentence translation, but the translation of the source language information and the transmission of the original meaning, which is the first basic principle that we should make clear when learning interpreting and translating. The explanation of interpretive translation by French interpretive theory further clarifies this principle: the purpose of translation is to "understand"-"discourse", and then "re-express", the "discourse" (Marianne Lederer 2011,108)

Secondly, the requirements for translators and translators have something in common. From the perspective of software, both translators and translators must have a solid bilingual foundation, profound encyclopedic knowledge accumulation and strong autonomous learning ability; from the perspective of hardware, both must have great enthusiasm for translation. and have good physical fitness.Since translation is simply a process of understanding and expressing the meaning of the source language in the target language, and understanding requires the reserve of knowledge of the source language and knowledge outside the language, and expression requires both the level of the target language and the level of expression, then the importance of software construction is self-evident.(Sun Sucha 2008,45)

Moreover, in order to do any work well, we need to be enthusiastic about it and put it into practice. Translation is a time-consuming and energy-consuming work that requires the attention of translators and translators. The improvement of hardware is particularly important. To sum up, only when we have both hardware and software, can we do a good job in translation. (Sun Sucha 2008,45)

Thirdly, the translation process is similar. The process of completing the translation work is like the process of producing a certain product, which must be put in place step by step. If you relax a little bit, the final product may be defective. Generally speaking, whether you are an interpreter or a translator, you need to make full preparations before translation, including reading a large number of parallel texts, mastering knowledge in related fields, communicating with experts or scholars, and understanding the key points: to establish your own corpus and corpus so as to be easy to extract and use at any time. And lost-translation feedback and summary are needed after translation, and translation is also subject to one or more post-translation revision.In addition, in many cases, the same complicated translation work is often done by the cooperation of two or more translators and translators.(Chen Kaisha 2012,134)

Finally, although there is no final conclusion on the evaluation criteria of translation quality, in professional translation, from the results of translation, the evaluation criteria of translation quality are the same between interpretation and translation. (Chen Kaisha 2012,134)These similarities can be simply summarized as "three looks": to see whether the result of the translation accurately conveys the message of the source language; to see whether the result of the translation has produced the desired effect on the audience; finally, in professional translation, we also need to see whether the result of the translation work is satisfactory to the customer.(Chen Kaisha 2012,134)

====Differences between Translating and Interpreting====
(1) Differences in measurement criteria
As two different forms of translation, the criteria for evaluating translation and interpretation are also different. Although translation theorists have not formed a unified opinion on the issue of translation standards, especially after the "cultural turn", a hundred schools of thought contend among translation theorists, the main criteria for evaluating translation quality in China are still faithfulness and fluency, which is in line with the "faithfulness, faithfulness and elegance" standard put forward by Yan Fu, which requires the translation to be consistent with the source text in terms of content, form, style and style as far as possible. And make it smooth.

Based on the characteristics of interpretation, some interpretation experts and scholars have put forward corresponding theories to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of interpretation.(Yang Zijian 1994,62) According to the Dayism theory of French interpretation expert Celeskovic, interpretation is a kind of interpretive translation, its purpose is to achieve meaning, and the standard is to achieve meaning and fluency.(Li Jinze 2010,23)

The interpretation standard put forward by interpretation expert Li Yueran is accurate, smooth and fast. Accuracy is the soul of English interpretation, which requires the interpreter to accurately convey the information of one party to the other in English or Chinese, so as to achieve the purpose of communication between the two parties. Fluency, that is, the interpreter should fluently convey the information obtained, it is easy for people to understand; fast, because the interpretation is immediate, its own time limit requires the interpreter to be able to respond quickly.(Li Jinze 2010,23)

Zhong Weihe, an interpreter, argues that interpretation should be faithful and timely. Faithfulness means that the target language must be faithful to the content of the source language and the emotional color of the language under specific circumstances, while timely communication means timely communication. As a relatively new discipline, the development of interpretation theory is not as complete as translation theory, and the evaluation criteria are not the same.(Yang Zijian 1994,64)

However, the basic requirements for interpretation are as follows: the translation results should be accurate, rather than speculating on the content of the source text according to the interpreter's own understanding; aiming at the recipient of the translation result,the expression form of the translation result must conform to the recipient's language habits to facilitate their understanding; in addition, the translator needs to adjust the tone, speed and intonation according to the actual situation.(Yang Zijian 1994,64)

(2) The difference of translation process
The process of translation is the process of correctly understanding the original text and creatively reproducing it in another language. Translation and interpretation have their own characteristics, and the translation process also differs greatly. There are also great differences in the translation process. One of the differences between the two stems from the difference between written and spoken language, with written language being more rigorous and spoken language being more casual and loose.(Zhao Shuo 1999,100)

Interpreting is an activity with strong immediacy. It emphasizes the effectiveness, independence, field, and one-time nature, and belongs to a kind of individual labor (Zhao Shuo 1999,99). The immediacy of interpretation requires the interpreter to analyze, understand and express the speaker's words continuously within a limited time, so that the speaker's meaning can be correctly conveyed to the audience and both parties can communicate with each other. Due to this fundamental characteristic of immediacy, interpreters tend to "use frequently used words and small words with monosyllables or few syllables, as well as words and abbreviations with strong generality" (Zhao Shuo 1999,100)

Due to the time constraint, the interpreter cannot refer to any documents or materials, nor can he or she discuss with others or ask experts for advice. Interpreting in ordinary situations should be as colloquial as possible, and the sentence structure used is relatively simple and in line with the spoken habits. In addition, interpreters generally cannot make a lot of corrections and additions to what has been translated, unless there are major errors or omissions.The translator, on the other hand, communicates with the reader in the form of text, which is generally not limited by time. The interpreter expresses the original text in written form through a thorough understanding of the text, and then uses the help of the materials, and then repeats the translation until he or she is satisfied.(Liu Heping 2009,37)

In terms of sentence structure, translation requires sentence components to be in place and sentence structure to be complete.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,148) Translators can use parallel sentences, compound sentences and rhetorical methods such as metaphor and prose in order to beautify the translation; translators can also have time to discuss with others and ask for their help before writing the translation.(Liu Heping 2009,37)

Fang Fanquan, an interpreter scholar, proposed the process of translation and interpretation. The basic process of translation is reading - thinking and analyzing - converting and reorganizing - writing and expressing; while the basic process of interpretation is recording - coding - expressing. Recording, or temporary storage, means storing the perceived coded information temporarily; encoding means decoding the information in the source language and assigning it to the expression form of the target language; expression means the interpreter translates the encoded information in the target language through oral expression.(Liu Heping 2009,37)

(3) Different requirements for interpreters
Translators and interpreters have some common basic requirements, for example, they should have good bilingual understanding and expression, and be able to convert between Chinese and English skillfully and accurately; they should have a broad knowledge, especially familiar with Chinese and foreign cultural background; they should go through systematic professional knowledge and skills learning and practical training, and so on. However, in view of the immediacy of interpretation, the requirements for interpreters are different from those for translators, and the special requirements for interpreters are mainly reflected in the following points:(Ma Chao 2010,19)

①Psychological quality
Interpreting is a hard and intense mental work, a complex thinking process. Interpreters are often unprepared to understand the information they hear instantly and then convert it into another language and express it orally, which often puts them under greater pressure (Guo Jirong, 2008: 232). Therefore, interpreters must have good psychological quality. "the psychological factor of the interpreter, although invisible and intangible, plays a role in the translation process." The interpreter will undergo psychological changes due to the occasion of interpretation, the level of knowledge, the degree of understanding of the subject matter, etc.(Li Jinze 2010,102)

Interpreters who are still shallow are prone to be in a nervous mood before interpreting, unable to start, and even unable to get into the state immediately after the meeting starts. This psychological state will affect the level of play, and even cause serious adverse consequences. The specific method is to practice more, try to contact with the conference organizers and speakers before the meeting, learn more about the background knowledge of the meeting, and also read some relevant information in advance, so as to have the bottom in mind and prevent the translation quality from being affected by emotional tension. The interpreter can also judge whether he/she understands according to the expression of the audience, and can change the expression or add some explanation, which cannot be done in the translation.(Chen Kaisha 2012,134)

②Listening
Interpreting is built on the basis of "listening" and relies on "listening". To receive information, keen listening is a prerequisite for becoming an excellent interpreter. If you encounter obstacles in receiving information, it will be difficult to carry out the following steps of interpretation.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,148)

Interpreters should have the basic conditions of bilingual communication, good bilingual comprehension and expression ability, be able to use the previously acquired knowledge to understand the new discourse, know how to analyze and synthesize the content while listening, and understand the content of language expression with the help of cognitive knowledge and encyclopedic knowledge, instead of the conditioned reflex or accumulation of language words.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,148)

In order to express better when interpreting, interpreters must pay attention to listen to more English accents, dialects and variants, pay attention to summarize their characteristics and rules, and learn to reason logically and judge the causes and consequences of speech, and correctly judge the message and intention of the speaker. There are many dialects of Chinese, and there are many dialects and variants of English. British English and American English differ in speech, expression and even the meaning of the same word; even people from the same English-speaking country speak different English due to their social class, educational background and geographical differences.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,149)

For example, there is a big difference in the language used by the aristocracy and the lower class in Britain. For example, the language used by the aristocracy and the lower class in Britain is very different. When foreigners whose mother tongue is not English speak English, it is inevitable that they have their own accent. Therefore, as an interpreter, you must first understand the dialect and accent of the translation target in order to carry out the translation smoothly. In addition, the interpreter must have a pure accent, be fluent in English and Mandarin Chinese, and be familiar with various expressions of foreign languages and Chinese.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,149)

③Memory and shorthand ability
Due to the constraints brought by the immediacy of interpreter communication and the potential influence of the "absence factor" of the context, interpretation work shows its great challenge (Xie Zhaolin 2012,149).As an interpreter, it is necessary to have an excellent memory, because it is impossible for the interpreter to consult information during the interpretation process, so he or she must remember a large number of words, abbreviations and idioms.(Xie Zhaolin 2012,149)

===Conclusion===
This paper focuses on the differences between translation and interpretation in terms of measurement standards, translation process and the quality requirements for translators. Mastering the differences between the two can help us to better deal with different types of translation. Want to be a good translator, whether interpreter or interpreter. Both workers and translators must have solid bilingual language skills and rich cultural background knowledge.

In cultivating and improving translation skills, there are more requirements for the accuracy of language expression. Therefore, translators need to read literary classics widely, improve their literary appreciation and their ability to master English and Chinese bilingualism. It can not only be faithful to the original text but also be accurately conveyed in beautiful and fluent words in translation. The original message. When developing interpreting skills, it is necessary to strengthen the training of English-Chinese bilingual pronunciation, intonation and articulation, strengthen psychological quality, improve adaptability, enhance memory, and train shorthand ability in order to attain a yet higher goal.

===References===

*Chen Kaisha. 程凯莎. (2012). 浅析英语口笔译之异同.[A brief Analysis of the similarities and differences between English interpreting and Translating].科教文汇[Cultural exchange of science and education]133-134.

*Huang Yongchang. 黄勇昌. (2003).对翻译忠实性原则的解构分析[A Deconstructive Analysis of the Translation Fidelity Principle].番禺职业技术学院学报[Journal of Panyu Vocational and Technical College]35-37.

*Liu Heping. 刘和平. (2009). 论本科翻译教学的原则与方法[On the Principles and Methods of Undergraduate Translation Teaching].中国翻译[Translation in China]34-39.

*Li Jinze. 李金泽. (2010). 国内口译研究的历史与现状[The History and Current Situation of Domestic Interpreting Research].边疆经济与文化[Frontier Economy and Culture]101-102.

*Li Jun. 李军. (2007). 英汉汉英翻译训练与解析[Training and Analysis of English-Chinese Chinese-English Translation].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].

*Li Yun. 李云. (2001). 翻译的忠实性[Fidelity of Translation].山东电力高等专科学校学报[Journal of Shandong Electric Power Higher Specialized School]56-57.

*Ma Chao. 马超. (2010). 浅谈中国翻译史中的翻译原则[A Brief Introduction to the Translation Principles in the History of Chinese Translation].科技风[Science and Technology Wind]18-19.

*Marianne Lederer. 玛丽安·莱德尔. (2011). 释意学派口笔译理论[The Theory of Interpretation and Translation in the School of Interpretation and Translation].中国对外翻译出版社[Chinese Foreign Translation and Publication].

*Sun Sucha. 孙素茶. (2008). 口译与笔译之区别[The Difference between Interpreting and Translating].商情[Business Information]44-45.

*Xu Jun. 许钧. (2009). 翻译概论[Introduction to Translation].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].

*Xie Zhaolin. 谢昭霖. (2012). 论口笔译学习的异同[On the Similarities and Differences between Interpreting and Translating Studies].海外英语[English Abroad]147-149.

*Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1994). 翻译新论[New Theory of Translation].湖北教育出版社出版[Hubei Education Press].

*Zhao Shuo. 赵硕. (1999). 探讨翻译过程中的忠实性问题[Exploring the Problem of Fidelity in Translation].西北工业大学学报[Journal of Northwestern Polytechnic University]99-100.

--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 11:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==A Brief Introduction to Chinese Translation Theories in the Late 19th Century 郭露 Guo Lu 202070080588 英语笔译==

<center>郭露 Guo Lu 202070080588</center>

===Abstract===

As China suffered from wars in the late 19th century, western culture was introduced into China inevitably. Chinese intellectuals at that time knew little about western works and were prejudiced against them.

During this period, translation acted as a bridge between China and the rest of the world. There were several translators and scholars who had translated numerous western works and came up with their translation theories, which promoted the development of translation studies and helped people to know more about the western countries.

This paper mainly discusses the translation theories of Yan Fu and Lin Shu who were of great significance at that time, and it also introduces Yan Fu’s and Lin Shu’s translation theories through case analysis, so as to deepen our understanding towards translation theories in this period.

===Key Words===

Translation theory, Chinese translation theory, Yan Fu, Lin Shu

===题目===

19世纪晚期中国翻译理论简介

===摘要===

19世纪晚期，中国遭受战争磨难的同时，外国文化随之涌入中国。当时中国各界人士对于西方作品的了解极少，并对其作品抱有较大的偏见。在这一时期，翻译充当了中外交流的桥梁，中国涌现出了许多伟大的译者，他们的作品为中国的翻译发展做出极大贡献。本文旨在讨论当时的翻译发展以及严复和林纾两位在当时具有突出贡献的译者，并通过案例分析对严复和林纾的翻译理论进行了简要概括和介绍，以加深我们对于该时期翻译理论的了解。

=== 关键字===

翻译理论；中国翻译理论；严复；“信达雅”；林纾

===Introduction===

The failure in the First Sino-Japanese War at the end of the Qing Dynasty put China and the Chinese nation as well in great danger. In order to educate people and save the nation, scholars including Yan Fu and Lin Shu realized that they need to learn from Western countries and bring in their culture and advanced thought. (Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 2002, 1-3) Therefore, those scholars started to translate western works. For example, during the translation of Thomas H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'', Yan Fu quoted the survival of the fittest and called for people to save the nation from subjugation and ensure its survival. (Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 2002, 1-3)

In addition, with the growing demand for culture and entertainment, coupled with the improvement of printing technology, the market for books and magazines also underwent rapid development, which also provided room for the development of novels. While scholars favoured classical books, common people preferred novels, providing an opportunity for the development of novel translation.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 34-35)

As many scholars began to translate foreign books, they too formed a variety of translation theories in the process of translation, which made a lot of contributions to the development of translation.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 34-35)

===Yan Fu===

1. Introduction

Yan Fu(1854-1921), courtesy name Ji Dao, is a scholar and translator in modern China. He is famous for introducing Western thoughts, including Darwin’s idea of “natural selection” into China and was singled out among a few who contributed most to China’s knowledge of the West at that period. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)

Yan Fu is especially famous for ''Tianyanlun'', the rendering of Thomas H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics''. The survival of the fittest in this book took wing in time in the fermenting air of nationwide struggle for survival. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)

Besides that, Yan stated in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics'' that "there are three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance". Although he did not set them as general standards for translation, since the publication of that work, the phrases "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" have been attributed to Yan Fu as standards for any good translation, giving rise to numerous debates. Therefore, it has been the catchword among Chinese translation theories. (Wang Shi 1986, 1321-1322)

Yan Fu was also one of the most influential scholars of his generation as he worked to introduce Western social, economic and political ideas to China. During his lifetime, Yan Fu translated the following major works of Western liberal thought: ''Evolution and Ethics'' by Thomas Henry Huxley as ''Tianyan lun'', ''The Wealth of Nations'' by Adam Smith as ''Yuan fu'', and ''The Study of Sociology'' by Herbert Spencer as ''Qunxue yiyan'', most of them inspired later scholars to better learn about Western culture. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91-99)

2. Translation Theory

Yan Fu’s theories, which include faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness(''da'') and elegance(''ya''), plays a vital important role among Chinese translation theories. Another English version is fidelity, fluency, and elegance. Still, another is fidelity, fluency and flair rendered by Brian Holton, using the alliterative "f" for the sake of memory. They are cited as follows:

(1)Translation involves three difficult requirements to fulfil: faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness (''da'') and elegance(''ya''). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance.(Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 44-47)

(2)In addition to faithfulness and expressiveness, we should strive for elegance in translation. This is not just for extending the effects far. In using the syntax and style of the pre-Han period one actually facilitates the expressiveness of the profound principles and subtle thoughts whereas in using the modern vernacular one finds it difficult to make things comprehensible. (Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 44-47)

Here, faithfulness means to be faithful to the content of the original, the translation should be accurate, and translators are not allowed to change the meaning in the original text. “Meanwhile, translators should translate words correctly and concisely, and omission and amplification are not recommended.”(Wang Rui, Wei Shengxin 2020, 1-4)

Furthermore, expressiveness means to be expressive as the original, and the translation should be in accordance with the expression of Chinese habits and be fluent and readable. And as for elegance, which is ''ya'', it originally means the authentic and correct use of the Chinese language. However, with the development of the times, the meaning of ''ya'' has also undergone much development. It doesn’t require translators to keep the syntax and style of the pre-Han period, instead, they should translate the original text depending on its language style. (Wang Shi 1986, 48)

3. Case Analysis

Example1: He was an old man who fished alone in a skiff in the Gulf Stream and he had gone eighty-forty days now without taking a fish. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)

Translation 1: 他是一个老头子，一个人划着一只小船，在墨西哥湾大海流打鱼，而他已经有84天没有捕到一条鱼了。 (Zhang Ailing 2015, 5)

Translation 2: 那老人独驾轻舟，在墨西哥湾流里捕鱼，如今出海已有84天仍是一鱼不获。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 1)

Translation 3: 他是个独自驾一只小帆船在湾流上捕鱼的老人。到今天为止，老头儿已经接连下海84天，一条鱼也没捕到。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 2)

Translation analysis: In this example, the skiff was translated into “小船”, “轻舟” and “小帆船”, and according to the context, we can easily draw a conclusion that the third one is the best, as “小船” didn’t tell the reader what the skiff looks like, so it has a much broader definition. Besides that, “轻舟” in China is a poetic word, which does not conform to the style of the original text. And “小帆船” seems more vivid and specific. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 1)

Example 2: The old man was thin and gaunt with deep wrinkles in the back of his neck. The brown blotches of the benevolent skin cancer the sun brings from its reflection on the sides of his face and his hands had the deep-creased scars from handling heavy fish on the cords. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)

Translation 1: 老人瘦而憔悴，颈后有深的皱纹。面颊上生着棕色的肿起一块块，那是热带的海上反射的阳光晒出的一种无害的瘤。顺着脸的两边，全长满了那肿起的一块块。他的手因为拉绳子，拖曳沉重的鱼，有纹路很深的创痕。 (Zhang Ailing 2015, 5)

Translation 2: 老人瘦削而憔悴，颈背皱纹很深。热带海上阳光的反射引起善性的皮癌，那种褐色的疮痍便长满两颊，两手时常用索拉扯大鱼，也留下深折的瘢痕。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 1)

Translation 3: 老头儿身形单薄，脖颈子上皱纹很深。从他的腮帮子上一溜顺着颊边往下，长着些褐色的疙瘩，那是太阳在热带海面上的反光晒出来的良性皮肤瘤。他那双手则因为同大鱼较量，被钓索勒出了深深的伤痕。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 3)

Translation analysis: Among all the translation versions, the last is the most understandable one for it is in accordance with the logical order and more natural. For example, “较量” in the third version seems very different from the original meaning of “handling”, but considering the context, “较量” is more authentic than “拖曳” or “拉扯” which are just translated literally. This also reflects the importance of expressiveness and elegance. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 2)

Example 3: He did not remember when he had first started to talk aloud when he was by himself. He had sung when he was by himself in the old days and he had sung at night sometimes when he was alone steering on his match in the smacks or in the turtle boats. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)

Translation 1: 他记不起自己从什么时候开始，便爱一个人大声自言自语。往日，在孤独的时候，他曾爱唱歌自娱；有时夜间独自在渔船上或龟船上轮班掌舵，他也会唱起歌来。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 27)

Translation 2: 他记不得一个人独处的时候是何时开始大声说话的。以前他独个儿时曾唱过歌。在小帆船或者捕龟船里，独自值班掌舵时曾在夜里唱过。 (Huang Yuanshe 2011,16)

Translation 3: 他不记得自己从什么时候起，在独自一人的情形下会大声说话。从前独自一人时，他会唱歌；当年在渔船或捕龟船上轮夜掌舵的时候，他有时也会唱歌。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 22)

Translation Analysis: Though these translations are all faithful to the original text, the first one is uncomparable among all the versions. By reading the first one, we can have a deep understanding of the loneliness of the old man who was fishing on the sea and we can also feel his optimism, especially in “自言自语” and “唱歌自娱”. This translation can undoubtedly arouse the sympathy of the readers. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 1-3)

4. The Criticism of Yan Fu’s Theory

Though Yan Fu’s translation theory was widely recognized by Chinese scholars, it also provoked heated debates, and elegance, which is ya, was criticized mostly by other scholars. Some of them even believed that it is useless. And the reason why Yan put elegance into his translation theory is that he preferred the writing style of Tong Cheng School. Since this pompous style is obsolete, the standard of ya may also out of fashion. (Gao Xiaopeng 2017, 1-2)

Nevertheless, “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are still one of the most important translation theories in China. Faithfulness means being faithful to the author and conveys the core values and meanings of the work to the readers. Expressiveness means the translation should be plain and fluent. And elegance requires the translation to obey the aesthetic concepts of the target language. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 28-30) This theory has inspired later scholars in translation practice and theoretical exploration. Due to the limit of time and history, the translation study should be conducted in a historical context, so we also need to evaluate Yan Fu’s translation thought and translation works historically.

===Lin Shu===

1. Introduction

Lin Shu(1852-1924) is a traditional Chinese literatus and translator, most famous for introducing the Western literary works into China in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Though being ignorant of foreign languages, Lin Shu collaborated with different interpreters and translated more than 180 western literary works, mostly novels, from England, the United States, France, Russian, Switzerland, Belgium, Spain and Norway, etc. into classical Chinese in his lifetime. (Zhu Yu 2008, 3-7)

Because of his ignorance of foreign languages, Lin seldom concerned himself with the original or with the equivalence of any sort. What he cared about most was the functions of his translation works. In Lin’s opinion, to translate books is to enlighten the mind of our people in a contest against foreigners. In his foreword to ''Yilin Monthly'', he stated:

“The inferiority of Asia to Europe can be attributed to the fact that the Europeans are daily intent on learning whereas the Asian peoples moon away in a stupor or, jealous of the European learnings and slandering them as eccentric extremity, throw themselves into blind combats, fancying of victory. That is the so-called landlubber swimming against the good swimmer. As for me, to enlighten the mind of our people, we must begin with the establishment of schools. But the schools work steadily and slowly, so timely speeches in academic associations are preferable. Considering the inconveniences in preparing speeches, translating books becomes the ultimate choice.” (Chen Fukang 1992, 133)

2. Translation Methods

Lin Shu knew no foreign languages, so he had to cooperate with a collaborator who was familiar with foreign languages and worked as an interpreter for him. Though he was an efficient translator, he didn’t come up with any significant translation theories. Having said that, during his translation process, there were four translation methods that he mainly used, which include omission, addition, alteration and adaption. (Chen Jianyong 2013, 20)

(1) Omission

In his translation process, Lin deleted some words or sentences for some reasons. Omission is a very common practice in his translation. He deleted some contents for the sake of Chinese literary norms and so as to arose the Chinese reader’s interests. In the late 19th century, Western literature was novel to the Chinese people. As Chinese readers prefer the tradition of story-telling in traditional Chinese fiction like ''The Water Margin'', Lin had to delete the psychological description in the western novel as it has nothing to do with the development of the story.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)

(2) Addition

During his translation, Lin Shu made some additions to polish and improve the original text so as to help the readers to have a better understanding of the original. Being a writer and a good story-teller, Lin excelled in making the translation more interesting and appealing through addition. Even Qian Zhongshu, another Chinese translator and writer, mentioned Lin's addition in his translations: “When Lin Shu found a perceived void in the source text, he would add here and polish there so that the wording in the version was more concrete, the scene more vivid, and the description more substantial.” (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)

For example: The married couple were enjoying their honeymoon... (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 20)

彼夫妇在蜜月期内，两情忻合无间（蜜月者，西人娶妇时，即挟其妇游历，经月而归） (Lin Shu 1981, 3)

Here, Lin translated “honeymoon” literally into Chinese, but to help his readers better understand the Western tradition, Lin made a specific explanation of this word. Addition is quite a common phenomenon in Lin's translations. He took the readers into consideration, which makes his translation popular in China. In the meantime, he broadened the horizon of his readers and narrowed the gaps between Chinese and Western cultures.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)

(3) Alteration

Due to the social and cultural differences between the source and target languages, alterations are inevitable. Hence Lin Shu made some compensation or replacement in his translation. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)

For example: The slanting light of the setting sun quivers on the sea-like expanse of the river; the shivery canes, and the tall, dark cypress, hung with wreaths of dark, funeral moss, glow in the golden ray. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 23)

日脚斜穿云罅而出，直射江上芦港。芦叶倒影，万绿荡漾于风漪之内，景物奇丽，江光如拭。 (Lin Shu 1981, 4)

Lin Shu made the alteration considering the Chinese readers' aesthetic tendencies. Although Lin Shu changed the word order of the original, the style and literary effects of the original are reproduced.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)

(4) Adaptation

Considering the Chinese culture and the readers' acceptability, Lin Shu had to retranslate or rewrite the original text, which is similar to domestication. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)

For example: On which Mr. Micawber delivered a eulogium on Mrs. Micawber's character and said she had ever been his guide, philosopher, and friend and that he would recommend me, when I came to marrying time of life, to marry such another woman, if such another woman could be found. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 18)

密考泊遂历称其妻嘉言懿行，为世贤女，能相夫教子，共处患难，且谓余曰：“汝论娶者，所娶亦当如吾妻。惟不审闺秀中更有贤类吾妻否?” (Lin Shu 1981, 3)

In Lin's time, the wife had a very low status. For her, the most important responsibility was to take care of the husband and rear the children. So here in Lin's version, it was rewritten according to Chinese feudal ethics. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)

3. Case Analysis

Example 1: In that pleasant district of merry England which is watered by the river Don, there extended in ancient times a large forest, covering the greater part of the beautiful hills and valleys which lie between Sheffield and the pleasant town of Doncaster. The remains of this extensive wood are still to be seen at the noble seats of Wentworth, of Warncliffe Park, and around Rotherham. Here haunted of yore the fabulous Dragon of Wantley; here were fought many of the most desperate battles during the Civil Wars of the Roses; and here also flourished in ancient times those bands of gallant outlaws, whose deeds have been rendered so popular in English song. (Ivanhoe 2009, 25)

Translation 1: 英国东河流域之内，前此有大树林，踞歇非儿、东加斯德二城之间，楼橹雉堞，均为树荫所被。至今老树凋残，尚有一二根株在焉。相传古来有神龙窟蟠其地。当时玫瑰之战，兄弟争立，即以此地为战场。而绿林豪客，仗侠尚义，亦据为寨。至今诗人歌曲恒举其事，播为美谈。 (Lin Shu 1981, 5)

Translation Analysis: In this translation, Lin translated the original text in classical style, which was more acceptable to his readers at that time. Instead of translating the word literally, he even translated the “Dragon of Wantley” and “gallant outlaws” into “神龙窟蟠” and “绿林豪客” respectively, which are two positive phrases. （Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 49）

Example2: Here the door opened, and a small quadroon boy, between four and five years of age, entered the room. There was something in his appearance remarkably beautiful and engaging. His black hair, fine as floss silk, hung in glossy curls about his round, dimpled face, while a pair of large dark eyes, full of fire and softness, looked out from beneath the rich, long lashes, as he peered curiously into the apartment. A gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid, carefully made and neatly fitted, set off to advantage the dark and rich style of his beauty; and a certain comic air of assurance, blended with bashfulness, showed that he had been not unused to being petted and noticed by his master. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 5)

Translation 2: 门辟，陡入一稚子，约四五岁，貌绝慧黯，雏发未燥，笑处辄动微涡，两目精光耿然。见海留，意殊骇。海留见其服饰之善，心知此奴必为主。 (Lin Shu 1981, 1)

Translation Analysis: There are many descriptive words in this example like “a gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid”, “the dark and rich style of his beauty”, and etc., which makes the sentences more appealing and attractive. However, considering the Chinese literary norm, Lin Shu translated all these phrases into “服饰之善”, which is much more concise compared with the original one. (Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 49）

4. The Criticism of Lin Shu’s theory

During the 1917-1919 New Culture and May Fourth movements, Lin Shu was severely criticized and his popularity suffered badly. Many scholars deemed Lin as an unfaithful translator and there exists non-correspondence between his translations and their sources as they thought he deleted and edited the source texts at will, which violates the principle of “faithfulness”. “In Lin Shu’s opinion, however, retelling the story is more important than acting as a faithful intermediary between the writer and his Chinese readers.” (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 38-39)

In the meantime, his translation changed Chinese people’s disregard of foreign literature. During the late 19th century, the intellectuals in China lacked interest to learn from the West.They even thought that they had nothing to learn from there in the areas of art and literature. And Lin was the first translator who introduced such famous writers as Shakespeare and Charles Dickens to Chinese readers. With the help of Lin’s translation, those intellects and the younger generation began to eliminate their prejudice against the Western literature and realized its value. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 39-41)

===Similarities and Differences Between Yan Fu and Lin Shu===

Being two famous translators in the late Qing Dynasty, Yan Fu and Lin Shu achieved remarkable success in translation theories and practice, both of whom played critical roles in China. And there are several similarities and differences between them. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)

After the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War, Yan Fu started to translate western works so as to introduce western advanced culture to Chinese people. Yan once stated that he wants to serve the nation through translation. Lin Shu, however, started his translation out of interest. But as time went by, he also translated western books to enlighten Chinese people. Therefore, we can say that both of them tried to save the nation through translation. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)

Besides that, Yan Fu had a higher contribution than Lin Shu in terms of translation thoughts. He is known for “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which is one of the most outstanding translation theories in China while Lin Shu didn’t come up with a systematic translation theory during his lifetime. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)

Furthermore, as Yan Fu had an opportunity to study abroad while Lin Shu learnt Chinese traditional Confucianism, Yan had a better understanding of western culture. Meanwhile, most of the western works Yan Fu translated were about social science, he was the first person who introduced western social science in the 19th century to all Chinese people. As for Lin Shu, who was especially famous for novel translation, translated ''La Dame aux Camélias'' and was well-received by Chinese readers. They are quite different in terms of translation works. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1-2)

And as for translation theories, Yan Fu once put forward faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. He attached great importance to faithfulness and believed that being faithful to the original text is of great importance during translation. And this translation theory helped people to know more about western society and culture. Meanwhile, Lin Shu preferred faithfulness, too, but during the translation, he tended to delete those unnecessary words and sentences so as to help readers have a better understanding of the text. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1-2)

To sum up, while Yan Fu and Lin Shu are similar to each other, they are quite different in some aspects. However, both of them made great contributions to Chinese translation and left a profound impact on later translation theories. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 2)

===Conclusion===

During the 19th century, Chinese people’s lives were filled with untold suffering. Being the two great translators, Yan Fu and Lin Shu had made great contributions to not only the nation but also the whole world. The principle of Yan Fu stands as one of the most significant translation theories in China, which guided numerous translators and scholars as well of later generations. Meanwhile, Lin Shu’s translation works broadened people’s horizon at that time, enriching their lives as well as eliminating their prejudice against Western literature. Although there are several shortcomings in their translation thoughts and translation works, they had a far-reaching influence on future generations. Until now, there are still many scholars that analyze and learn from their translation theories.

===References===

* Charles Dickens. (2008). David Copperfield. Oxford University Press.

* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (1992). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [Draft of Chinese translation theory]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.

* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). ''中国译学史'' [A History of Chinese Translation]. Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House 上海人民出版社.

* Chen Jianyong 陈建永. (2013). 从《黑奴吁天录》看林纾的翻译策略 [A Study of Lin Shu’s Translating Strategies: Taking Uncle Tom’s Cabin as an Example]. 山东大学 Shandong University 20-36.

* Ernest Hemingway. (2016). The Old Man and the Sea. Beijing: Affairs Press知识出版社.

* Gao Xiaopeng 高晓鹏. (2017). 严复翻译标准——“信达雅”再思考 [Yan Fu’s Translation Standard: A Rethinking of “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”]. 四川外国语大学 Sichuan International Studies University 1-2.

* Harriet Beecher Stowe. (2008). Uncle Tom's Cabin. Oxford University Press.

* Huang Yuanshen. (2011). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Nanjing: Yilin Press 译林出版社.

* Li Changbao, Shao Bin 黎昌抱, 邵斌. (2013). ''中外翻译理论教程'' [Translation Theory: A Coursebook]. Hangzhou: Zhejiang University Press 浙江大学出版社.

* Lin Shu 林纾. (1981). ''撒克逊劫后英雄略'' [Ivanhoe]. Shanghai: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.

* Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 欧阳利锋, 尚敏锐. (2002). 以西方观点解读二十世纪中国翻译理论 [Twentieth--century Chinese Translation Theory Against the Background of Western Views]. 语言与翻译 Language and Translation (01) 1-3.

* Sun Yanyu 孙演玉. (2019). 经典儿童小说的复译与信、达、雅——以《老人与海》为例 [Retranslation of Classical Children’s Fiction and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance: Taking The Old Man and the Sea as an Example]. 英语广场 English Square (04) 2-3.

* Walter Scott. (2009). Ivanhoe. Signet Classics.

* Wang Rui, Wei Shengxin 王蕊, 韦生鑫. (2020). “信、达、雅”翻译原则在文学翻译中的应用.[Analysis of the Application of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in Literary Translation]. 吉林化工学院学报 ''Journal of Jilin Institute of Chemical Technology'' (10) 1-4.

* Wang Shi 王栻. (1986). ''严复集'' [Yan Fu Ji]. Shanghai: Zhonghua Book Company 中华书局.

* Wang Tao 王涛. (2016). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Qunyan Press 群言出版社.

* Wu Yingli, Li Yan 吴萤丽, 李艳. (2018). 严复与林纾: 中国近代两大翻译家的对比 [Yan Fu and Lin Shu: A Comparison Between Two Chinese Modern Translators]. 开封教育学院学报 ''Journal of Kaifeng Institute of Education'' (09) 1-2.

* Yu Guangzhong 余光中. (2010). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Nanjing: Yilin Press 译林出版社.

* Zhang Ailing 张爱玲. (2015). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Beijing October Arts and Literature Publishing House 北京十月文艺出版社.

* Zhang Chiheng 张炽恒. (2015). ''老人与海'' [The Old Man and the Sea]. Beijing: Beijing Institute of Technology Press 北京理工大学出版社.

* Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 张政, 彭发胜. (2007). ''中西翻译理论简明教程'' [A Coursebook of Chinese and Western Translation Theories]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.

* Zhu Yu 朱瑜. (2008). 林纾的翻译和时代 [Lin Shu’s Translation and His Time]. Beijing: 中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Studies (05) 3-7.

--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 07:00, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

='''Comparison of Translation Theories'''=

==Comparison Of Translation Theory Between Yan Fu And Tytler 陈涵 Chen Han 202070080580 MTI 英语笔译==
<center> Chen Han 陈涵 202070080580 </center>

===Abstract===

Yan Fu and Tytler are outstanding translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. Tytler's “Three Principles of Translation” and Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are representatives of the most important translation theories. It is believed that the two theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. Although they lived in different times, their theories were quite similar which aroused much controversy. This paper will expound “Three Principles of Translation” and “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and focus on the similarities and differences between these two theories in terms of content, theoretical basis and culture. It aims to figure out the relationship between the two theories, better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a dialectical perspective, thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.

===Key Words===

Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Three Principles of Translation; Yan Fu; Tytler

===题目===

严复与泰特勒的翻译理论比较

===摘要===

严复与泰特勒分别是中西方翻译史上的杰出翻译家。严复的“信达雅” 与泰特勒的“翻译三原则”分别是中西翻译史上最重要的翻译理论之一，对翻译理论与实践方面有着广泛深刻的影响。严复与泰特勒二人虽处于不同的时代，但他们的翻译理论却十分相似，从而引起许多争议。本文将系统阐述二人的翻译理论，从这两种理论的内涵、文化背景和理论基础等方面比较二者的相似点和不同点。这种做法有助于理清两个理论之间的关系，更好的将翻译理论应用于翻译实践，并主张我们辩证看待中西方翻译理论，从而使翻译研究更具有系统性与科学性。

===关键词===

信达雅；翻译三原则；严复；泰特勒

===1. Introduction===

In the history of translation, many outstanding scholars and translators have emerged both in China and in the West. They have never stopped discussing translation, and most of them have systematically summarized translation standards (Xu Baoqiang & Yuan Wei 2001, 162). In ancient China, many translation thoughts and translation theories emerged, including Shi Daoan’s “Five Instances of Losing the Source and Three Instances of Difficulties” and Xuan Zang’s “Five Guidelines for Not-Translation a Term” (Martha P.Y. Cheung, 2006). Later, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” appeared successively. Prominent representatives of Western translation theory include five elements of translation put forward by a French linguist Etienne Dolet in the 16th century, seven rules of translation put forward by a German translation theorist Martin Luther, three principles of translation by a British translation theorist Tytler in the 18th century, semantic translation and communicative translation of Newmark in the 20th century, and the dynamic equivalence of Nida (Tan Zaixi 2004, 213).

In this process, Chinese and Western translation theories developed independently in a relatively isolated state. It was not until about the beginning of the 20th century that initial exchanges and dialogues have begun. Translation standards are the core issue of translation theory and practice. At the beginning of the exchange, the translators were concerned about it (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 201). At the end of the 18th century, Tytler proposed three basic principles for translation and evaluation of translation, which had a great impact on later translation theorists. More than 100 years later, Yan Fu’s translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” was put forward (Di Dongrui 2012, 132). This chapter will discuss two representative translation theories from China and the West — Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation", and analyze the two theories from the historical and cultural background and their theoretical basis. Through comparison, we can grasp the similarities and differences between the two theories, so as to contribute to translation studies and guide future translation practices.

===2. An Overview of the Two Theories===

Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation" have had a profound impact on the history of translation at home and abroad. If we compare and analyze the two theories, we must first correctly understand the connotation of each theory.

====2.1 Yan Fu’s "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance"====

Yan Fu was a Chinese scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas. His three translation principles—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance first made its appearance in Yan’s preface to his own translation of T. H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'' (Liu Miqing 2012, 1).

“Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (''xin''), expressiveness (''da'') and elegance (''ya''). Faithfulness is difficult to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by Shipping, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so.” (Luo Xinzhang & Chen Yingnian 2009, 202)

In his words, the three principles indicate that the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression in the target language and elegant in style. Faithfulness emphasizes the fidelity to the original. Yan believes that the translator cannot begin his work until he has mastered the connotation of the original text. Expressiveness stresses the fluency and acceptability of the translation. As for elegance, Yan holds that dictation without elegance cannot reach far. So far, elegance has led some discussions in the study of translation. (Fan Yun 2007, 97)

Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and his own translation practices, Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” which has become the fundamental tenets of 20th Chinese translation theory. (Liu Miqing 2012, 1)

====2.2 Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation"====

Alexander Fraser Tytler is an eminent British translation theorist. In 1790, he proposed three principles of good translation in his book, ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. When it comes to a good translation, he described that the merit of the original work is so completely transfused into another language, as to be as distinctly apprehended, and as strongly felt by a native of the country to which that language belongs, as it is by those who speak the language of the original work (Tytler 2007, 8-9).

According to his description of good translation, it can be easily seen that Tytler has attached great importance to mastery of ideas in the original texts. Therefore, he put forward three principles on the basis of good translation: (1) That the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; (2) That the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original; (3) That the Translation should have all the ease of original (Tytler 2007, 9).

The first principle is that the translation should be faithful to the content and ideas of the original. The second principle is that the translation should be faithful to the form and style of the original. The faithfulness to the style is not limited to the equivalence of the original style or subject, but consistent with the original author’s personal writing style and the background of the corresponding period. The third principle is to emphasize that the translation should be as natural and smooth as the original writing do. From Tytler’s point of view, the order of these three principles is appropriate and natural, and it is arranged by importance. If translating a text, one cannot pursue the smoothness and elegance at the cost of ignoring the ideas in the source language. (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)

The appearance of Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation" laid a good foundation for Western translation studies. And it is not only a very important milestone in the history of British translation theory, but also the entire history of Western translation theory. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 132)

===3. The Social and Theoretical Background of the Two Theories===

Due to the rapid development of social production, the increasing prosperity of the economy and the increasing number of educated people, more and more people have demands for reading, writing and translation (Tan Zaixi 2004, 84).

====3.1 The Social Background====

The emergence of new theories is often related to the prevailing translation practice at that time. Tytler lived in the 18th century. The rise of the industrial revolution and the further development of modern technology have highlighted the importance of translation, especially the demand for scientific and technological translation, which has increased dramatically during this period. In addition, Renaissance and classicism occupy the main position in the literary field, which also played a role in promoting the development of translation activities. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)

Yan Fu had a solid foundation in Chinese when he was young and then he learned from Wu Rulun, a master of the Tongcheng School, acquiring a rich knowledge of ancient Chinese. In 1877, Yan Fu studied in the United Kingdom to delve deeply into the Western society, and began to come into contact with some important Western classics (Chen Fukang 2010, 91). As a result, profound research on Chinese and Western culture and language has laid a good foundation for Yan Fu’s translation career.

At the end of the 19th century, China suffered from internal and external troubles. The Sino-Japanese War of 1894 to 1895 was an important turning point to Yan Fu. He realized that the backwardness of China included political, economic, social and ideological factors, so that he believed that learning from the West could help the country get rid of the predicament. The political purpose of Yan Fu’s translation was quite clear. He wanted to arm the minds of scholar-officials. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)

In addition, A large number of people with lofty ideals realized that the only way to save the country was to learn advanced political ideas, economic systems and democratic ideas from the West. Under this circumstance, translation may be the best way to bring those to China, which also promoted the second translation climax in the history of our country. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)

====3.2 The Theoretical Background====

Both “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and "Three Principles of Translation" were proposed on the basis of other translation theories or thoughts (Di Dongrui 2012, 132). In other words, Yan Fu and Tytler learned from their predecessors and put forward their ideas.

Like many translation theories in the 18th century, Tytler’ s "Three Principles of Translation" was influenced by some ideas from outstanding translation theorists. Etienne Dolet, a French linguist and translation theorist, proposed translation principles in ''La manière de bien traduired d’une langue en autre'' in 1540: The translator must fully understand the content of the original text; the translator must be proficient in both the source language and the target language; the translator must avoid translating word by word, because word-by-word translation is detrimental to convey the original meaning and aesthetic value; the translator must use popular language form; the translator must make the translation produce the appropriate effect by choosing proper words and adjusting the order of them. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 70-71)

John Dryden was a prominent translator in the 17th century and he put forward a number of translation principles and views. From his perspective, translation is an art; translators should master the characteristics of the original; target readers should be taken into consideration; translators need to absolutely follow the original meaning; translation can be divided into three types—metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation (Tan Zaixi 2004, 120-122). It is easy to find that Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation can be partially derived from his theories.

“Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is also not new. The basis of it can date back to the Three Kingdom Period. During the Qing Dynasty, there was another translation theorist, Ma Jianzhong, who was ignored by the public. Before Yan Fu’s translation principles made its first appearance, Ma Jianzhong put forward three requirements for good translations in ''On the Establishment of Translation Academy'': The translator is proficient in foreign languages and Chinese, and knows the similarities and differences between the two languages; the translator should fully understand the meaning, spirit and style of the original text and express these accurately in the translation; there should be no difference between the translation and the original text. That is, the translation and the original are the same. (Chen Fukang 2010, 77-78)

It is shown that Ma Jianzhong sets a high demand for translators which can be summarized by “faithfulness” (''xin''). This word includes not only the faithfulness to the original text and the translation, but also the consistency in style and spirit. Therefore, compared with Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Ma Jianzhong’s requirements are more comprehensive. However, his translation theory is not as influential as Yan Fu’ principles. Generally, speaking, there are two reasons. One is that Ma is a grammarian, not a translator. The other is that he did not do any translation practice. (Fan Yun 2007, 98)

From the analysis and comparison of Tyler's and Yan Fu’s social and theoretical background, it can be seen that both of them are affected by political, economic, cultural and other factors. And both of them were influenced by the previous translation theories and put forward their theories similar to the previous ones. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)

===4. Similarities and Differences Between the Two Theories===

====4.1 Similarities====

Although Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation" were not put forward during the same era, the two theories could be found some common ground (Di Dongrui 2012, 132).

By comparing the content of the two theories, three similarities can be found. Firstly, both Yan Fu and Tytler emphasize the importance of faithfulness, namely the fidelity to the original. From their perspectives, it is necessary to convey the meaning or ideas of the original text. They both agree that a translator should put faithfulness first. Secondly, both Yan Fu and Tytler stress the importance of fluency and acceptability of translation. Yan believes that a translation which is faithful but not expressive is no translation at all. And in the third principle of Tytler’s theory, all the ease of the original text is highlighted which refers to the translation should be natural, fluent and readable. In other words, translators need to regard their translating process as a re-creating one. It requires that they not only convey the ideas of the original but also make their words smooth and readable. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)

====4.2 Differences====

Both Chinese and Western translation theories have a long history. At the very beginning, they almost developed independently. It was not until the early 20th century that the two theories began to communicate. As the focus of translation theory research, translation standards have attracted many scholars at the beginning of their exchanges. Some scholars believe that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is extracted from Ttyler’s “Three Principles of Translation”, which is a copy of Ttyler’s translation theory (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 681-687). In fact, there are indeed similarities between the two theories literally. But a deeper look will present the difference between the two.

=====4.2.1 Differences in Content=====

In the previous chapter, we have discussed the similarities literally in terms of the content. However, the two theories are not quite similar. First of all, the most prominent characteristic of Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is the semantic vagueness (Liu Junbiao 2009, 221). He did not clearly define the three. If “faithfulness” includes the style of the work, the word ''xin'' can cover all the content of Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation". In Yan Fu’s opinion, “faithfulness” is the core, and achieving the principles of “expressiveness” and “elegance” is on the basis of the core. As for Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation", although they are arranged by importance, the principles are not presented to tell which one is the most important (Di Dongrui 2012, 132).

Yan Fu’s “faithfulness” and Tytler’s first principle focus on different scopes. According to Yan Fu’s point of view, the translator should accurately reproduce the ideas of the original work, and he also emphasizes the important role of understanding. But Tytler’s “that the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work” (Tytler 2007, 9) discusses the fidelity from three aspects: meaning, form and language. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133)

In addition, the main difference between their translation principles is the translation technique and style (Fan Yun 2007, 97). Tytler’s second principle and Yan Fu’s “elegance” both discuss this issue. In Yan Fu’s opinion, “elegance” refers to use elegant words, especially the words before the Han Dynasty. This is a special method used by Yan Fu in a specific historical period to attract specific target readers and achieve specific translation purposes. The “elegance” explained by later generations is equivalent to “consistency in technique and style”, which has actually deviated from Yan Fu’s original intention. But Tytler’s “style and manner of writing” refers to a broad sense. He believes that an outstanding translator should be able to quickly identify the characteristics of the original author’s writing style and apply this style to his translation. In other words, the translation should correspond to what kind of writing style the original work is. (Tytler 2007, 9)

=====4.2.2 Differences in Cultural Origin=====

Yan Fu and Tytler are in different cultural backgrounds, and the formation of their theories have their own cultural characteristics.

It is believed that Yan Fu’s theory of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is deeply rooted in traditional Chinese cultural origin. As we all know, Chinese translation has a long history, and the discussion of translation standards has been recorded in Zhi Qian’s ''Preface to the Translation of he Dharmapada''(''Faju jing xu''). He emphasized that although Jiangyan (将炎) was good at the language of India, he was not necessarily versed in Chinese. Thus, in his translations there were either Sanskrit expressions literally rendered or simply literal transliterations. (Martha P.Y. Cheung 2006, 57)

Zhi Qian used to dislike Jiangyan’s work for lack of elegance. Weidinan (维祗难) argued that the translation of Buddha’s words should be adherent to the meaning, disregarding rhetoric, and we should retain its Dharma, free of rigidity. Those who translate should stress on transparency without losing the original meaning, hence good translations. Laozi said that beautiful words are not faithful and faithful words are not beautiful. And Confucius believed that words fail a book and senses fail a form. What a saint said is the profound of the profoundest. Therefore, Zhi Qian argued that when translating sutras, we should follow the original import without using ornate words. (Martha P.Y. Cheung 2006, 59-60)

It can be seen from the above that traditional Chinese translation theories often appear in the form of prefaces, which are relatively fragmented and conforms to the characteristics of Chinese people’s emphasis on perceptual thinking rather than rational analysis, and personal perception rather than logical reasoning (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 202). In addition, it can prove that Yan Fu’s translation principles are not new but put forward on the basis of some thoughts from the ancients. We can see that theories similar to “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” have appeared in the past.

Chinese translation theory is closely related to the words of sages and classic literary theory so that translation theorists often use the words of the ancients to make arguments or the aesthetic standards in literary theory to evaluate good translations. On the one hand, it embodies the inheritance of classical translation theory which advocated the ancients, and on the other hand it reflects the profound literary tradition of classical translation theory. It can be seen that the principles were put forward by Yan Fu in the preface to his own translation of T. H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'', which is consistent with the traditional Chinese tendency to place important points in the preface. In the era when Yan Fu lived, people greatly respected the words of the ancients. The language of Yan Fu’s translation theory is as concise as the traditional literary theory, and the connotation is profound. It often brings endless speculation for future generations with uncertain meaning. (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 202)

Different from the Chinese cultural accumulation carried by Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, western translation theories pay much attention to the inherent continuity (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 202). In western culture, people emphasize rigorousness in language so that they treat translation as rigorously as science. Scholars have studied on translation standards for a long time and their generalization of standards is much more systematic (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203).

Eticnne Dolet was the relatively early one who summarized the translation standards systematically. He put forward four principles of a successful translation. Then came Martin Luther’s “Seven Principles for Translation”. An in the 18th century, Charles Batteux, a French translation theorist, put forward twelve rules in ''Principes de littérature'' for dealing with issues such as word order in translation. Compared with the 17th century, although some achievements have been made in the study of translation theory in the 18th century, substantial progress has not been made and some research just focused on the theory of Dryden in the 17th century. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 127)

However, at the end of the 18th century, there was a breakthrough in the history of translation theory. Theoretical research was no longer limited to scattered viewpoints and methods, and monographs on translation issues have begun to appear comprehensively, scientifically and systematically. The first to bring this breakthrough was the translation theorist George Campbell (Tan Zaixi 2004, 127). Before Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation" appeared, he had put forward the three principles of translation for the first time: translation should accurately reproduce the meaning of the original work; on the premise of conforming to the characteristics of the target language, translation should try to transplant the spirit and style of the original author as much as possible; the translator should make the translation as natural and smooth as the original. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 128)

From the discussion of translation standards by many translation theorists above, we can see that Western translation theories are rigorous in thinking and clear in expression as a whole. They represent a unique academic spirit and character, which deeply reflects the inherent continuity of their thinking and methodology of Western translation theories (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203). According to the previous discussion, it can be found that there is an obvious relationship between Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation and Dryden’s translation theories. The two theories from Yan Fu and Tytler are from different cultures, featuring Chinese and Western signs respectively.

=====4.2.3 Differences in Thinking Patterns=====

Translation itself is a complex practical activity, and it has a close relation with the way of thinking. The huge differences between Chinese and Western historical and cultural traditions and thinking habits are reflected in language that has such characteristics: Chinese people pay attention to understanding in the way of expression, focusing on grasping things through intuitive understanding of the whole. Chinese are not as good at logical reasoning and experimental argumentation as Westerners. (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 202)

The consciousness of subject and object has always been prominent in western thought (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203). Tytler’s framework of his principles tends to be rational and aims to seek the truth, while Yan Fu’s framework tends to be perceptual and aims to be practical. In the historical context of the Enlightenment, Tytler inherited rationalism of the European continent, thus his three principles of translation all reflected the speculative, logical and systematic nature of philosophy. When he discussed the three principles of translation, they were clear, progressive, and well-organized, but they were too fragmented, ignoring the internal connection. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133)

When it comes to Yan Fu’s proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, although it refers to three simple words in Chinese, it condenses the traditional Chinese doctrine of the golden mean and profoundly embodies the influence of traditional culture on the research of translation theory (Zhao Meiguo 2011, 203). Compared with Western translation theories, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” includes more humanistic spirit and pays more attention to humanistic care. Although Yan Fu’s translation theory lacks logic, organization and system, its refined and implicit artistic conception bring endless imagination for future generations. If people want to understand “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” comprehensively, it is necessary to have an understanding of the thoughts from our ancestors. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 221)

=====4.2.4 Differences in Motivations=====

When it comes to their motivation, the times where Yan Fu and Tytler lived have a huge impact on their translation studies. Tytler was in a relatively comfortable environment, and the society at that time was relatively relaxed and free, making it possible for him to learn for the sake of academics. Tytler put forward the three principles of translation only for theoretical research, not for practical purposes. (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 203)

However, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” came from the enthusiasm of waking up the world and saving the country. The old China where Yan Fu lived suffered from internal and external troubles. The social and historical environment enabled him to spread Western learning through translation. The works translated by Yan Fu were all Western classics. They either promoted natural selection, survival of the fittest, or explained human rights, democracy and freedom. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)

Undoubtedly, reading Yan Fu’s translations became a major way for Chinese intellectuals and even the whole society to learn the development of the world. The target readers of these translations were the increasingly decadent feudal ruling class and intellectuals. Feudal thoughts were deeply ingrained in their minds, and they could not immediately accept the advanced thoughts of the West. As a translator, Yan Fu put forward the standards of Faithfulness Expressiveness and Elegance on the basis of summarizing traditional Chinese translation theories. He used the language of Han and Tang dynasties to promote the Western democracy, so as to make the feudal scholar-officials easy to accept. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) It can be seen that “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” reflects Yan Fu’s desire to save the country and his awareness of difficulties and risks.

In addition, a misunderstanding should be mentioned. After Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” made its first appearance, many scholars gave it various titles such as translation principles, translation standards and translation norms. As a matter of fact, Yan Fu did not describe it as standards or norms. He only realized that there were three requirements difficult to fulfill from his own translation practice. In his opinion, the difficulties of translating were also the ''dao'' (道) of problem-solving (Liu Miqing 2012, 1). Therefore，Yan’s ''dao'' of translation was expressed by “translation principles” in the West. To a certain extent, people tended to regard Yan Fu’s propositions as translation standards, thus deviating from Yan Fu’s motivation.

In short, by comparing the content, cultural origins, thinking and motivation of the two theories, we can see that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s "Three Principles of Translation" are quite different. In other words, although the two theories are very similar in terms of forms, they are quite different in essence.

===5. Significance of the Comparison===

Generally speaking, different translation principles are essentially the same for they are all determined by the nature of translation (Fan Yun 2007, 98). In a broad sense, translation is a bridge for international communication. It involves the source language and the target language or the original text and the translated text. No one can deny the extraordinary contribution of translation in exchanging ideas, spreading knowledge, and enhancing intercultural communication. As an ancient activity, translation has a history of more than 3,000 years in China and has been popular in the West for more than 2,000 years (Tan Zaixi 2004, 2). Although the translation principles put forward by translators and translation theorists seem to be different, they are essentially the same and cannot be mentioned without translation itself. (Fan Yun 2007, 98)

Through comparison, we can realize the characteristics and development of their translation principles respectively. The Chinese and Western translation principles are the same on the macro level, but different on the micro level. The differences are mainly determined by the characteristics of the Chinese and Western languages and do not reflect the subjective wishes of people. Both the traditional Chinese and Western translation theories focus on faithfulness or truth. They are based on the original texts, and at the same time do not neglect the reception of the readers and the artistic and aesthetic value of the translated texts. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133)

Through the analysis between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s theories and their development, we can know that Chinese and Western translation principles present a diversified pattern of development, but the West seems to be more open in terms of research ideas and academic view. Western theorists place translation in the multi-dimensional space between the original text and the target text, and they are good at analyzing from different perspectives. What’s more, Western theorists have comparatively strong awareness in theory. Any research is carried out under the guidance of a certain theory, making full use of the achievements of related subjects to make translation principles and research methods become truly diversified. (Ren Qingliang & Deng Jingjing 2016, 203) Therefore, the achievements of translation research in the West are more fruitful.

However, we must learn from each other. In fact, there is no gap between Chinese and Western translation theories. Although the study of translation theory in the West is earlier than that in China (Tan Zaixi 2004, 1), we should not belittle ourselves. The development environment of Chinese and Western theories is different so that the theories put forward are definitely different. Through comparison, we can grasp advanced Western theories, and with Western theories as a reference, we can avoid detours and make progress in Chinese translation theories.

===Conclusion===

This chapter compares the similarities and differences between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s theories by reviewing the theories of them and pointing out social and theoretical backgrounds of their theories. The translation theory is often closely related to cultural background, theoretical background and way of thinking. From the above analysis, it can be seen that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation are different in specific content, cultural origin, theoretical basis, way of thinking and motivation. If these differences are not analyzed and pointed out, it is easy to think that the two theories are roughly the same.

The comparison between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s translation principles gives us the following enlightenment: When studying Chinese and Western translation theories, we must correctly understand the advantages and limitations of traditional Chinese translation theories, and we cannot ignore the achievements of other countries. We should actively absorb the achievements of western translation theories on the basis of developing the traditional Chinese translation theories to make contributions to the translation studies.

===References===

* Alexander Fraser Tytler. (2007). ''Essays on Principles of Translation''. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.
* Martha P.Y. Cheung. (2006). ''An Anthology of Chinese Discourse on Translation''. London/New York: Routledge.
* Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). ''中国译学史'' [History of Chinese Translation] Shanghai: Shanghai People's Publishing House 上海人民出版社.
* Di Dongrui 狄东睿. (2012). 论“翻译三原则”与“信达雅” [On the Three Principles of Translation and "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance"] ''海外英语'' Overseas English (06) 132-133.
* Fan Yun 樊云. (2007). 泰特勒和严复翻译原则的比较 [A comparison of the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu] ''宿州教育学院学报'' Journal of Suzhou Education Institute (02) 97-98.
* Liu Junbiao 刘俊标. (2009). 辨析严复“信达雅”说与泰特勒翻译三原则 [Discussing Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and Tytler's Three Principles of Translation] ''经济研究导刊'' Economic Research (09) 220-221.
* Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2012). ''中西翻译思想比较研究'' [Translation Thinking: In China and in the West] Beijing: China Translation&Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版有限公司.
* Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋. (1984). ''翻译论集'' [On Translation] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.
* Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 罗新璋, 陈应年. (2009). ''翻译论集'' [On Translation] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.
* Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 任庆亮, 邓晶晶. (2016). 严复“信达雅”与泰特勒翻译三原则的比较 [A comparison of Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and Tytler's Three Principles of Translation] ''太原城市职业技术学院学报'' Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College (05) 201-203.
* Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short History of Translation in the West] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.
* Xu Baoqiang, Yuan Wei 许宝强, 袁伟. (2001). ''语言与翻译的政治'' [The Politics of Language and Translation] Beijing: Central Compilation&Translation Press 中央编译出版社.
* Zhao Meiguo 赵美国. (2011). 从思维方式看严复与泰特勒翻译原则比较 [A comparison of Yan Fu and Tytler's translation principles from a mindset perspective] ''海外英语'' Overseas English (02) 203-204.

--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 11:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

== Comparison between Nida and Newmark 李丽丽 Li Lili NO.202070080594 MTI 英语笔译==

===Abstract===

Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark are famous representatives of the Western linguists. Their translation theories are based on linguistics. Nida puts forward the famous "dynamic equivalence" theory and "functional equivalence" theory, which has made outstanding contributions to the translation of the Bible. Newmark devotes himself to teaching and puts forward some famous theories such as semantic translation, communicative translation and relevance translation. Their translation theories have many similarities and differences. This paper will make a systematic comparison from the same and different points and represent my own views on their advantages and disadvantages.

===Key words===

Nida; Newmark; similarities; differences

===摘要===

尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是著名的语言学家。他们的翻译理论建立在语言学的基础上，奈达提出了著名了“动态对等”理论和“功能对等”理论，为翻译《圣经》做出了杰出贡献。纽马克一声致力于教学工作，由此提出了著名的“语义翻译”，“交际翻译”，“关联翻译”等理论。他们的翻译理论有诸多相同之处和不同之处。本论文将从相同以及不同之处来进行系统综合的比较，并就其优缺点提出自己的看法。

===关键词===

奈达；纽马克；相同；不同

===Introduction===

====Eugene Nida====

Eugene Nida is a famous American linguist, a biblical research and a translation expert, as well as one of the outstanding representatives of the western contemporary translation theory research center. Nida's academic activities and achievements are multifaceted, but Nida's main theoretical contribution is that he helps to create a new attitude towards different languages and cultures, so as to improve the language communication and understanding among human beings. （Liao Qiyi 2000，85）

He thinks that what can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another. Different languages and cultures can communicate with each other by searching for translation equivalents and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of information in an appropriate way. With the help of linguistic achievements, Nida has made a descriptive rather than a normative study of various subjects in translation studies, and made a serious discussion on the problems that may be encountered in the theoretical research and practice of translation. His thoughts can be roughly divided into three stages: first， descriptive linguistics; second, communicative theory; third, social semiotics.（Liao Qiyi 2000，85）

=====The Stage of Descriptive Linguistics=====

At this stage, Nida publishes a series of works and articles on the study of English syntax and gramma. Besides, he tries to clarify the structural nature of language through the description of syntax, morphology and language translation. He is greatly influenced by the American structuralist school. In language research, he attaches much importance to the collection and analysis of language materials and collects many examples of differences between different languages. However, he does not regard these differences as insurmountable barriers between languages, but as different phenomena of their same nature. （Liao Qiyi 2000，86）

=====The Stage of Communication Theory =====

Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill, but also a science. Its so-called science refers to the scientific way to deal with language structure, semantic analysis and information when there are problems in translation. Nida applies information theory to translation studies and believes that translation is communication and judgment. Whether a translation activity is successful or not depends on whether it is understood by the receiver or whether it can play the role of communicating thoughts, information and feelings. Nida points out all languages in the world have the same ability of expression and that the first task of translation is to make the readers understand the translation clearly. （Liao Qiyi 2000，87）

That is to say, the translation should be fluent and natural, so that readers can easily understand it even if they do not have the cultural background knowledge of the original language. This requires that in the process of translation, we should use as few rigid words in the source language as possible and use as many expressions as possible coming from the target language. For example, in the language without snow, “白如雪” may be confusing, so we had better change it into something as white as frost or as white as egret hair. （Liao Qiyi 2000，87）

According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language message” (Tan Zaixi 1984,10). Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translators cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, they should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. （Liao Qiyi 2000，88）

And in response to questions like how and what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers have the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. （Liao Qiyi 2000，88）

For example, “black tea” can be literally translated into “黑茶”，but it should be translated into“红茶”to achieve equivalence. Another example: “The old man was the worst form of unluck.” because “worst form” is used to modify “unluck”, it can be translated into “这个老人倒霉到了极点。” instead of “这个老人是倒霉的最高形式。” Such examples achieve lexical equivalence.

=====The Stage of Social Semiotics=====

At this stage, he describes his theory as follows: first, based on the translation theory of social semiotics, he emphasizes that everything in the text has meaning, including language form, which means form cannot be easily overlooked; second, rhetorical features of language play an important role in language communication and should not be underestimated; third, it is to replace the dynamic equivalence theory with the functional equivalence theory in order to make the meaning of the terms clearer and easier to be understood.（Liu Junping 2009,143）

====Newmark====

Peter Newmark is a famous translation theorist and educator in Britain. He has devoted his whole life to the teaching of translation between English and German or English and French. He has made a lot of research on translation theory, applied the research results of cross-cultural communication theory and modern linguistics to translation practice, and made a brilliant exposition on translation theory, teaching translation, linguistics and translation skills. As a result, he puts forward the famous communicative translation and semantic translation method, and then puts forward the correlative translation method, which indicates that his translation theory is becoming more and more systematic and perfect. （Liao Qiyi 2000，123）

Most of his views are reflected in the papers published in the past 20 years. Communicative translation and semantic translation theories, which have a great influence in the field of translation, were introduced into China as early as the 1980s and have aroused great repercussions in the fields of Chinese translation. He focuses on the past and present of western translation studies, states the views of various schools, and then puts forward his own opinions. He is a typical practical theorist. The purpose of his research on translation theory is to solve the practical problems in translation, and he always discusses translation from the details. （Liao Qiyi 2000，123-124）

The classic Romance of the Three Kingdoms writes: “谋事在人，成事在天”. There are two versions for this sentence, which are "man proposals, heaven disposes." and "man proposals, God disposes." Although the translated versions are short, they fully reflect the different translation strategies of translators. In Chinese traditional culture, "heaven" dominates the nature, while in the western world, what controls nature is not heaven, but God. Therefore, different cultural concepts are deeply rooted in the hearts of people in the East and the West. (Hu Aiping 2014,81)

In the first version, the translator translates "天" into "heaven", which faithfully retains the Taoist concept of the original language culture and conveys the meaning of the original text; while the later translation transforms the Taoist concept into Christian culture familiar to westerners on the basis of "communicative translation" strategy, so that the translated version is more acceptable to western readers. (Hu Aiping 2014,81)

For another example ”grandmother”, when it is translated into Chinese, we can put it into”奶奶” or “外婆” according to real situation. That is because people in western culture do not pay much attention to relationship between family members. And they view father’s mother and mother’s mother as the same. By contrast, Chinese have long held the view that families are quite important, especially those sharing the same surname. We often suppose we come from the same family with “奶奶” rather than “外婆”. As a result, we tend to believe that we have a more intimate relationship with father’s mother than mother’s mother. So we need to distinguish “奶奶” from “外婆”.

===Similarities and Differences===

====The Similarities Between the Theories by Nida and the Theories by Newmark====

=====Both Are Translatable=====

Nida believes that "translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style. " (Nida 1969,1）Newmark thinks that: "translation is to take the meaning of a text into another language according to its original author." (Newmark 1988,21) Nida's and Newmark's translation theories have similar theoretical basis, and they both think that there are similarities between different languages. Nida's translation theory is "Anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another Language. " (Nida 1969,4）He believes that although different nationalities have different languages and cultures, yet the commonness is more than the individuality. Because language of any nation can be used to describe the objective world. No matter what the language form is, the object can be basically reflected. (Lin Minyu 2008,61)

In his "About Translation" , Newmark also points out clearly that “the every layer of meaning can be interpreted in the original text, so everything is translatable. “(Newmark 1991,28）Therefore, both Nida and Newmark recognize translatability in different languages. At the same time, they both realize that translatability is limited because it is impossible to achieve absolute equivalence. In the process of translation, a certain degree of meaning will be missing, so one of the most important tasks of the translators is to minimize the loss after language conversion. (Lin Minyu 2008,61)

=====Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status=====

Newmark's text category theory divides the text into three categories. Among them, the appealing text thinks readers are the most important, putting readers in the first place, and taking full account of readers' needs, knowledge level and background. Newmark also divides readers into experts, ordinary educators and illiterates. Nida, on the other hand, believes that the success of a translation activity depends on whether it can be accepted by the target readers. The target readers are object of translation services. Nida also divides readers into children readers, primary readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)

For example, for the phrase“鱼米之乡，丝绸之府”, when translated into “the land of rice and fish, and the home of silk”, it may cause confusion among western readers who have no idea what is the meaning of “the land of rice and milk”. Therefore, in order to arouse the similar reaction between the target readers and the original readers, it is better for the translators to change it as follows: "a land of honey and milk", which is in line with British and American culture. In this way, western readers and Chinese readers will be able to respond to the phrase in the same way, so as to achieve the purpose of conversion. (Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 2010(1),41-)

Another example: “济公劫富济贫，深受穷苦人民爱戴。” It is translated into" Ji Gong, Robin Hood in China, robbed the rich and helped the poor and was deeply loved by the poor people". In this case, the translator compares Ji Gong to the hero Robin Hood in western countries. When western readers see Robin Hood, they would have roughly the same reaction as Chinese readers. (Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 2010(1),41-42)

=====Both Constantly Develop Their Theories=====

Nida and Newmark are real theorists. In their own translation practice, they constantly improve and perfect their own theories. In his initial interpretation of dynamic equivalence, Nida highlights the idea of "content first, form second". This has caused people's misunderstanding so that they think translation is only the content of translation, without considering the form of language expression. Therefore, all kinds of free translation are characterized by dynamic equivalence. Later, in his book From One Language to Another, he changes "dynamic equivalence" into "functional equivalence". In functional equivalence, Nida further defines "information", stating that information includes not only ideological content but also linguistic form. The translation of functional equivalence is not only the equivalence of information content, but also the equivalence of form as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),108)

What’s more, Nida makes a further elaboration on "functional equivalence" and hence "the highest level of equivalence" and "the lowest level of equivalence" are proposed. In short, the highest level of equivalence refers to a high degree of equivalence in the translation, which makes the response of the target language readers and that of the source language readers basically the same when they appreciate and understand a text. But this is almost impossible. Equivalence at the lowest level refers to the full equivalence of the translated text, so that the target language readers can appreciate the source language readers' understanding for the original text. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),108)

Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are prone to bringing misunderstanding and criticism. Therefore, Newmark later puts forward "correlative translation". In the past, he believed that language, linguistics and text typology were the main themes of text study. It does not need to always consider the text, discourse, author, reader, source language and target language. （Fang Mengzhi 2011, 534）

But by summarizing the translation activities, he finds that translation is mainly reflected in the details of the text processing, that is, when the text is adjusted and changed, there will be under translation. If the metaphor is converted or not translated, there will be over translation. So the method of translation should not only depend on the whole text. The definition of "correlative translation" is that the more important the language of the original text or the target text is, the more closely it should be translated.（Fang Mengzhi 2011, 534）

====The Differences Between the Theories by Nida and the Theories by Newmark====

=====Different Definition of Translation=====

Translation, as an independent discipline, should first answer the question of what is translation? Nida points out: "the so-called translation refers to the reproduction of the source language information in the receiving language with the most appropriate and natural equivalence from semantics to style" (Nida, 1969:1). Newmark's interpretation of translation is: "translation is to translate the meaning of a text into another language in the way the original author intends. " (Newmark, 1988:21) After comparing the two definitions, it can be seen that Nida emphasizes "equivalence", "information", "meaning" and "style", while Newmark focuses on "meaning" and "text". （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）

Nida's definition seems to be more comprehensive and specific than Newmark's, but throughout their theoretical systems, we realize that the actual starting point of the two definitions is different. On the basis of semantics and information theory, the former emphasizes the communicative function of translation. Although "information" includes "meaning" and "style", it only exists at the level of communication. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）

On the contrary, the latter emphasizes "textual meaning", which is complex, multi-level and rich. Therefore, it can be said that "text-oriented theory" is the pillar of Newmark's translation theory framework, while Nida's theory is "functional equivalence" at its root. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）

=====Different Nature of Translation=====

The nature of translation has been long discussed. Both Nida and Newmark have changed in their understanding of whether translation is a science or an art. Nida's understanding of translation has gone through a process from regarding translation as a science to viewing it as an art. In the second stage of Nida's translation theory- communicative theory stage, translation is a science, which is a scientific description of translation. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88)

At the same time, he also admits that the description of translation can be carried out at three functional levels: science, skill and art. In the third stage of Nida's translation, that is, the stage of social semiotics, he tends to see translation as an art. He believes that translation is an art at its root, and excellent translators are born with it. Meanwhile, he changes the original "translation is science" into "translation research is science". In the 1990s, he proposed that translation is basically a skill. He believes that translation is not only an art, but also a science and a skill. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88)

Newmark's understanding of translation has also undergone some kinds of changes. At first, he believes that translation is not only a science but also an art and a skill. Later, he thinks that translation is partly a science, a skill, an art. He divides language into standard language and non-standard language. He says that translation is a science, because there is usually only one correct translation method for standard language, and there are rules to follow, which shows that translation is scientific. This is really true in technical terms.（Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88)

By contrast, there are many correct translation methods in non-standard language. How to choose the appropriate translation method depends on the translator's own vision and ability, which reflects the nature of translation as an art. But the translation must also be scientifically tested to avoid obvious mistakes in content and wording, and the style should be natural. As a result, although Newmark believes that translation is a science, he thinks with a lack of unified and all-round systems in current translation theories, there are no scientific translation. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）

=====Different Translation Theories=====

The core of Nida's translation theory is equivalence theory, including formal equivalence and functional equivalence. Formal equivalence, with the source language as its center, requires to reproduce the form and content of the original text. The equivalence theory pays more attention to readers' reflection and requires the closest and most natural response in order to make the target readers and the original readers get the same information as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)

The center of Newmark's translation theory is semantic translation and communicative translation. In his opinion, translators should adopt different translation strategies according to different types of texts. Semantic translation is mainly used to translate expressive texts (such as literary works, essays, autobiographies and personal letters). Communicative translation is mainly put into translating informative texts (such as academic papers and teaching subjects, books, newspapers, etc.) and appealing texts (such as advertisements and notices). (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)

Semantic translation, from the perspective of the original texts, demands the author pays attention to the meaning and form, and keeps the style and features of the original text as far as possible. Communicative translation takes the target readers as the starting point and focuses on the effect of the translation on the readers. As a result, appropriate rewriting or adaptation is allowed in the translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)

=====Application for Different Kinds of Text=====

Nida puts forward "formal equivalence" and "dynamic equivalence" in guiding the practice of Bible translation, but he really advocates the latter one and believes that dynamic equivalence is applicable to all text types. Nida's translation theory focuses too much on the intelligibility and communicability of the translation, which limits its application. It is reasonable to emphasize the intelligibility of the translated version in the translation of the Bible and similar original works aimed at expressing information. However, if it is used in literary translation, it will inevitably lead to the simplification of language and the loss of literary charm. So it has only been applied to some specific texts. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)

Newmark points out that the translation method should depend on different text types. He divides the text into expression function, information function and calling function. On the one hand, in the texts with expressive function, such as literary works and private letters, the priority is to express the meaning, and the form and content of language are equally important, so semantic translation should be mainly adopted. On the other hand, texts with information function, such as textbooks and academic papers, whose core is the real world outside the language, should adopt communicative approach; For texts with calling function, such as notices and advertisements, its core is to call on readers to act and think, so communicative approach should be put into use. Therefore, we can see that Newmark's translation theory is more applicable than Nida’s. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)

=====Different Attitudes towards Translators=====

When seeing translation as an art, Newmark puts forward the following three requirements that an brilliant translator should be equipped with: first, one should be able to master rich vocabulary and various sentence patterns, and be excellent in writing elegant, lively and concise articles in the aspect of native language; second, be proficient in foreign languages, and have abilities to distinguish common sayings from original ideas and innovations; third, be able to express the meaning obtained from the original works with accurate wording. Thus, Newmark believes that good translators can be developed through hard work. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 89）

However, Nida doesn’t agree with him. He thinks that most translators with outstanding achievements and creative spirit seldom use translation theory. In fact, he thinks that only those who can't do translation well do translation theory. Outstanding translators are born, not made. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 89）

=====Different Level of Emphasis on Readers' Response=====

Although Newmark thinks that readers' acceptance should be taken into account in the process of translating informative texts and appealing texts, but the reader is only a part of the translation criteria. During translating expressive texts, it is necessary to ensure the "sacred status of the original author", and different readers may have different understandings and reactions to a text because of their different educational level, mode of thinking and cultural background. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)

On the contrary, Nida believes that the reader's response is the only criterion to judge whether the translated version is good or not. This is because, from the perspective of information theory, he believes that "translation is communication". If the original information cannot be fully transmitted to the target text in the process of translation, the translation activity will not be successful. It can be seen that Nida pays more attention to reader response than Newmark. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)

===My Views on Their Theories===

Before the new translation principles were put forward, translation was mainly divided into literal translation and free translation. Functional equivalence theory by Nida and semantic translation and communicative translation strategies by Newmark have exerted great influence on the western translation circles. Their theories end the endless debate between literal translation and free translation in the west, and provide a new perspective for the guiding translation practice. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131 )

The principle of "dynamic equivalence" plays an important role in guiding the translation of the Bible. It can also be applied to the translation of some texts that mainly convey information. However, it overemphasizes the communicative nature of the translation, so it has certainly limitations. If applied to literary translation, it may lead to the loss of literariness. One of the defects of Nida's functional equivalence is that the translator not only changes the original information according to his own understanding, but also covers up the cultural differences between different languages. He equates translation with simple language conversion and blurs the cultural characteristics of language. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131)

For example, due to the different geographical locations between China and Britain, their monsoon and wind direction are not the same, and hence there are also differences between their translations. Chinese poems mainly praise east wind while English poems focus on west wind. For example, for “东风破早梅，向暖一枝开” and “小楼昨夜又东风，故国不堪回首月明中”, “东风” should be converted into “west wind” in order to achieve equivalence. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131)

Besides, the absence of culture-loaded words is another defect of functional equivalence. As we all know, the concepts expressed by culture-loaded words in the source language may not correspond to those in the target language because many English words are derived from religious allusions. In the sentence "John can be relieved on. He eats no fish and plays the game", “eat no fish “comes from the following allusion: in the era of Queen Elizabeth in England, in order to show their loyalty to the government, the Jesuits refused to abide by the anti-government Rome Catholics’ habit of eating fish on every Friday, so “eat no fish” means loyalty. " (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 132)

There are a lot of allusions from the Bible in English. But if you don't understand its symbolic meaning, you may be confused. For example: “thirty pieces of silver” means getting money from betraying others and “apple” means temptation. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 132)

Newmark's greatest theoretical contribution is communicative translation and semantic translation, and he believes that all translation is both semantic translation and communicative translation to a certain extent, which makes up for the defects of Eugene Nida's theory. Newmark advocates that communicative translation and semantic translation should not be viewed in the same way, but should be combined together. Actually, during translating an article, the two are often used together. At the same time, determining the type of text before translation is helpful to select appropriate translation methods. (Newmark 2001, 40)

However, there are following limitations for his communicative translation: first, the translator has an imaginary reader in his mind. If he wants to conform to the readers’ expression habits, his expression will get out of the original form or meaning; second, it is difficult to determine to what extent basic information is simplified and emphasized, because the knowledge and emotion of readers are difficult to define; third, it is not objective to examine a text only through the readers’ reaction. (Newmark 2001, 40)

===Conclusion===

There is no universally applicable theory in the world. Nida and Newmark have been developing their own theories. We should treat them dialectically. It is undeniable that Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are very rich in content and have practical value for the majority of later translators. But we should also see the shortcomings of these theories. We should extract their essence and then we will further study and learn more valuable things in practice of translation and further improve our translation theory. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)

===References===

*Tam Jae-hee 谭载喜.(1984).''奈达论翻译'' [Nida on Translation] 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing: [China Foreign Translation and Publishing Company]
*Liao Qiyi 廖七一.（2000). ''当代西方翻译理论探索''[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory] 译林出版社[Translating Forest Press]
*Liu Junping 刘军平.（2009). ''西方翻译理论通史''[Translation and translation] 武汉：武汉大学出版社Wuhan: [Wuhan University Press]
**Fang Mengzhi 方梦之.（2011). ''中国译学大辞典'' [Dictionary of Chinese Translation] 上海：上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai: [Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 534
*Lin Min-yu 林敏煜.（2008). 浅议纽马克与奈达翻译理论之异同 [The similarities and differences between Newmark and Nadar translation theories] ''文教资料''[Journal of Translation and Education] 61-62
*Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 崔建周，卢静.（2006). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较 [ A Comparison of the Translation Thought of Eugene Nadar and Peter Newmark ] ''河南商业高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Henan Higher Commercial College] 106-108
**Xu Xianghui 徐向晖.（2010). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想之对比探讨[A Comparative Discussion of the Translation Thought of Eugene Nadar and Peter Newmark] ''漯河职业技术学院学报''[Journal of Luohe Institute of Vocational Technology] 88-89
*Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 杨山青，饶家林.（2010). 奈达与纽马克的翻译理论在旅游资料翻译中的运用[The Application of Neda and Newmark's Translation Theory in the Translation of Tourism Materials] ''黔西南民族师范高等专科学校学报''[Journal of Qianxi Southwest China's National Teachers College] 41-42
*Hu Aiping 胡爱萍.（2014). 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译理论对比研究[A comparative study of Eugene Neda and Peter Newmark's translation theory ] ''铜陵学院学报'' [Journal of Tongling College] 81
*Wang Xiaodan 王小丹.（2009). 奈达的功能对等论及其评价[Naida's functional equivalence theory and its evaluation] ''陕西师范大学学报''[Journal of Shaanxi Normal University ] 131-132
*纽马克 Newmark.（2001).翻译问题探讨[Exploring Translation Issues] 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press]
*Eugene A. Nida. (1986). ''From One Language to Another'' Thomas Nelson Incorporated
*Eugene A. Nida. (1964). ''Towards a Science of Translating'' Leiden: E. J. Brill
*Eugene A. Nida, (1969). Charles Taber. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill
*Peter Newmark. (1991). ''About Translation'' Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd,
*Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Text Book of Translation'' London: Prentice Hall International (UK)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:44, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==A Study On The Division Of Western Translation Theories - 刘柳 Liu Liu, 202070080596 MTI==

<center>刘柳 Liu Liu </center>

===Abstract===

Western transaltion theories have been paid more and more attention in modern times and will be of graet help and value to our translation practice and further development of transaltion.Western translation theories have a strict methodology, precise theoretical description, delicate and qualitative and quantitative analysis. Western translation studies have flourished with a variety of translation schools and outstanding translators after the World War Ⅱ, as well as a great many of translation thoughts, translation methods, and views of research.Based on this background, this paper discusses and analyzes a great number of schools of western translation theories, its representative translators and their representative works, and expresses opinions on the significance and value of western translation theories from a historical perspective.

===Keywords===

Western translation theories; translation schools; translation theorists

===题目===

西方翻译理论划分之研究

===摘要===

西方翻译理论在现代受到越来越多的关注，其对我们的翻译实践和翻译的进一步发展有很大的帮助和价值。西方翻译理论具有严谨的方法论、精确的理论描述、细腻的定性和定量分析。西方翻译研究在二战后蓬勃发展，出现了各种翻译流派和优秀的翻译家，也出现了大量的翻译思想、翻译方法和研究观点。本文基于此背景，讨论并分析了西方翻译理论诸多流派及其代表人物和代表译作，并从历史的角度对西方翻译理论的意义和价值陈述相关意见。

===关键词===

西方翻译理论; 翻译流派; 翻译理论家

===Ⅰ.Introduction===

Throughout the development of Western translation studies in the past 30 years, there are many transaltion schools and excellent translators. Western translation theorists had different points of view towards the division of western translation theories. Peter Newmark divided the development of translation theories by major translation activities. According to the development of translation thoughts, Nida divided western translation into philological translation, linguistic translation, communicative translation and socio-semantic translation.(Nida 1984, 9-15)

According to George Steiner, the study of Western translation theories has gone through four periods: 1) from classical translation theory to the publication of the "three principles of translation" by Tytler and Campbell at the end of the eighteenth century, 2) from Schleiermacher to the middle of the twentieth century, 3) from the post-war period to the 1970s, marked by the rise of the translation linguistics school, represented by Nida, Mounin and Catford, 4) from the 1970s to the present, marked by the emergence of new schools of thoughts and the flourishing of interdisciplinary research.

Liu Miqing basically adopts this classification method. Tan Zaixi divided western translation into six periods: 1) the beginning of the fourth century B.C., 2) from the late period of Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, 3) the Middle Ages, 4) the Renaissance, 5) the modern translation period, i.e., from the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, 6) from the period after World War II to the present. E. Gentzler divided modern translation theories into five schools based on translation thoughts, which is The American Translation Workshop, The Science of Translation, Early Translation Studies, Polysystem Theory and Deconstruction.

Western translation theories research realizes the transition from linguistics to literary, and to culture and science of international politics. Accordingly, the trend of translation research has changed from the source language text to target language text, from the prescriptive to the descriptive, and the status of target language text has changed from inferior to the source language text to be equal to it,and in the end, more important than the source language text, and the status of translator has changed from less important than the author of source language to play a decisive part in translation activities and so on.(Pan Wenguo, 2002)

Li Wenge analyzed and studied eight schools of translation, including the literary theory of translation, the linguistic school, the translation studies school, the Hermeneutics, the deconstruction, the American Translation Workshop, the French interpretive theory, etc. The literary theory of western translation includes: the literary theory of western translation before the 20th century, such as the literary theory of Russian translation, the literary theory of translation in the former Soviet Union, and the literary theory of western translation in the 20th century.

The linguistic school of translation includes the Prague School of Jakobson, the London School of Catford and Newmark, the American Structuralists of Quine, the Communicative Theory of Nida and Wilss, the German Functionalists translation theory of Nord, and the Soviet Linguistic School of Federov and Barkhudarov. The Translation Studies school includes the Early translation Studies school of Holmes, the Polysystem Theory of Even-Zohar, the Descriptive Translation Studies of Toury, the Cultural School of Lefevere and Bassenett, the Integrated School of Snell-Hornby, Feminism, "Cannibalism", and post-colonial translation studies.

The Hermeneutics includes two ways of translation of Schleiermacher, the hermeneutic model of translation of Steiner, and the hermeneutic view of understanding of Heidegger and Gadamer. The deconstruction of translation includes the idea of "différance" deconstruction translation of Derrida, the idea of "pure language" deconstruction translation of Benjamin, and the deconstruction translation strategy of Venuti. The American Translation Workshop includes the theoretical foundation of Translation Workshop of Richards, detailed translation theory of Pound, contradictory view of translation of Will.

The French interpretative theory includes the basic problems of interpretative theory, translation procedure, translation evaluation criteria, interpretative theory and translation teaching. From the ancient Roman Empire to the European Union, from the establishment of nation-states to the foundation of the United Nations, cultural (including philosophy, literature, art, science, technology, etc.) exchanges between countries and political and economic exchanges and communication have been increasingly expanded and strengthened through the participation of translators.(Tan Zaixi 2004,15)

===Ⅱ.The division of western translation theories===

====2.1 Translation in Ancient Times====

The history of Western translation started in the third century B.C. The translation activities in ancient Rome was the first great upsurge in the history of Western translation, with a distinctive literary character. In the late Roman Empire, religious translation gradually became the mainstream of the western translation. In a broad sense, the earliest western translation was the translation of ''Old Testament'', i.e. ''Septuagint'', which was translated by 72 Jewish scholars in Alexandria, Egypt, between the third and second century B.C.. Strictly speaking, the first western translation work was the Homer's Epic ''Odyssey'' translated in Latin by Andronicos in Rome around the middle of the third century B.C..(Tan Zaixi 1991, 4)

=====2.1.1 Marcuss Tullirs Cicero=====

The earliest theorist of translation in the West was Marcuss Tullirs Cicero in the Roman Empire. He first made a distinction between translation as interpreter and translation as orator. He wrote in Volume 5, Chapter 14 in ''De Optimo Genere Oratorum'', "...And I did not translate them as an interpreter, but as an orator, keeping the same ideas and the forms, or as one might say, the 'figures’of thought, but in language which conforms to our usage.And in so doing , I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language. For I did not think I ought to count them out to the reader like coins, but to pay for them by weight, as it were.(Robinson 1997, 9)

Cicero viewed translation from the perspective of a rhetorician and an orator. Translation as interpreter is a translation without creativity, while a translation as orator is a translation that is creative and comparable to the source language text. In this way, Cicero set the seal on the two basic methods of translation, thus pioneered in the field of theory and methodology of translation studies. Subsequently, the history of western translation theories has developed centred on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-by-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy.

=====2.1.2 Quintus Heratius Flaccus=====

Quintus Heratius Flaccus was deeply influenced by Marcuss Tullirs Cicero in the aspect of literary criticism and translation theory, he insisted that translation should be flexible, and opposed word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation. He also believed that translation should be "sense for sense". At the same time, Heratius advocated to create new words or introduce foreign words in creation and translation when necessary in order to enrich the national language and enhance the expressive power of the work. He advocated that "a translator who is faithful to the original text is not fit to translate word for word". This sentence is often quoted to criticize those of literal translation by those of free translation."(Tan Zaixi 1991, 26).

=====2.1.3 St. Jerome=====

St. Jerome is considered one of the four leading theologians in the West, who was proficient in Hebrew and Latin, and was fond of Latin literature.He translated ''The Vulgate'' in the late Roman Empire and proposed that literary translation and religious translation should be treated differently, arguing that when translating ''The Bible'', literal translation should not be used in the whole text, but mainly in literal translation.But in literary translation, translators could and should convey the meaning of the original text in an understandable style, so as to use one's own style and language to make the translation as beautiful as the original text. It is a good idea to use a combination of literal transaltion and free translation.

=====2.1.4 St. Augustine=====

St. Augustine did not translate many works, only revised some parts of ''The Vulgate'', but his translation theories are extremely valuable, which can be mainly found in ''On Christian Education'', as well as several interpretations of the ''Psalms'' and two letters, one of which is to his son Adeodatus.He believed that a good translator must be proficient in two languages, familiar with the material to be translated and have the ability to revise. He suggested that people should use "simple", "elegant", or "sacred" style according to different readers.

He related the style of target language text to targeted readers, holding that people should use "simple" style when translating enlightment texts, use "elegant" style when it comes to texts praising the God, and use "sacred" style to translate texts with the characteristic of exhortation and guidance. He quoted the "semiotics theory" of Aristotle and emphasized the triangular relationship of the "significatio", "sonus" and "judgment" in translation. He is regarded as the originator of the linguistic school in the history of western translation, whose theories have exerted profound influence on linguistics and translation studies.

====2.2 Translation in the Middle Ages====

Between the eleventh and twelfth centuries A.D., Western translators gathered in Toledo, Spain, to translate a large number of works from Arabic into Latin. As a result, Toledo became the center of European academic world (similar to the "Translation Institute" in Baghdad), its translation and academic activities has continued for more than a hundred years with far-reaching effects.

=====2.2.1 Manlius Boethius=====

Manlius Boethius contributed not only to translating and introducing Greek philosophical thoughts, but also to translation theories. His views can be mainly found in the preface to the translation of Porphyrius's work (Boethius, 1906; referring to Kelly, 1979: 71, 134-135, 204, 222-224), which can be summarized as follows: 1) Content and style are contrary, either style or content can be preserved. 2) Translation is centralized on objective things, and the translator should abandon subjective judgment. In the translation of some works, what the translator seek is accurate content rather than elegant style. Therefore, in order to express "truth without error", the translator should use word-for-word translation.

Manlius Boethius contributed not only to translating and introducing Greek philosophical thoughts, but also to translation theories. His views can be mainly found in the preface to the translation of Porphyrius's work (Kelly 1979, 71, 134-135, 204, 222-224), which can be summarized as follows: 1) Content and style are contrary, either style or content can be preserved. 2) Translation is centralized on objective things, and the translator should abandon subjective judgment. In the translation of some works, what the translator seek is accurate content rather than elegant style. Therefore, in order to express "truth without error", the translator should use word-for-word translation.--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 13:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.2.2 Dante=====

Dante held a pessimistic view on translation in his work ''The Banquet'', holding the view that poetry is untranslatable. The significance of this viewpoint strated the long debate on translatability and untranslatability of literary translation in the history of western translation, and at the same time, it drew people's attention to the organic connection between poetry and language in poetry translation, which was very helpful for future generations to establish the correct principles of poetry translation. Don Quixote, the protagonist in the Spanish writer Cervantes's novel ''Don Quixote'', held the similar point of view.

====2.3 Translation in Renaissance====

The Renaissance Movement that took place in Europe from the fourteenth to the sixteenth centuries was a major movement of intellectual and literary innovation, it was also a major development in the history of Western translation. Especially in the sixteenth century and the period afterwards, when the Renaissance Movement was widespread in Western European countries, translation activities reached an unprecedented peak, involving various fields such as thought, politics, philosophy, literature and religion, covering major works of ancient times and contemporary times, and a large number of outstanding translators and a series of excellent translation works emerged at that time.

=====2.3.1 Martin Luther=====

Martin Luther was a German translator and the leader of Religious Reform. His translations of ''The New Testament'', which was written in Greek and ''The Old Testament'' written in Hebrew were published in 1522 and 1534 respectively, and his translation of ''The Bible'' in German became the model of German, exerting an unprecedented influence on the development of the national language in German. In addition, his translation of ''Aesop's Fables'' is also of high literary value. His outstanding contributions to translation theories can be summarized as follows: First, he held the view that people should translate in a language that is straightaway and easy to understand, and is acceptable to the public.

He insisted on the humanistic view of language, believing that different languages cannot be equated absolutely in terms of structure and vocabulary. Since the target readers of The Bible is the public, "we must use authentic German instead of Latinized German." (Tan Zaixi 1991, 81), and get rid of the traditional principles that ''The Bible'' can only be translated in Latin, "let the prophets of ''The Old Testament'' use natural German." (Nida 1984, 10) Secondly, Luther believed that the form, style, and spiritual essence of the original text can only be reproduced in free translation to some extent. Thirdly, translators should respect the original text, understand its spiritual essence in depth, and should not be credulous about the traditional explanations of priests.

In order to reproduce the spiritual essence of the original text, the translator can add some meanings which are implicit between the lines but not literally Fourth, translators ought to put heads together. Finally, he proposed seven principles that translators should follow: they can change the word order of the original text; they can use modal particles; they can add conjunctions; they can omit words; they can substitute words with phrases; they can replace metaphor with non-metaphor and vice versa; and they should pay attention to the variation of words and the accuracy of translation. (Tan Zaixi 1991, 83)

=====2.3.2 Etienne Dolet=====

Etienne Dolet was the first person who put forward translation theory in a systematic way in the history of modern western translation. Apart from several translations and monographs on Greek and Latin, his contributions to translation can mainly be reflected in his famous paper ''La manière de bien traduire d'une langue en autre'', which was published in 1540. The paper was short but innovative, and the issues involved have already been connected to the matters of principle which were raised by later translation theorists.

The basic principles of translation he listed in his paper were as follows: 1) The translator must fully understand the content of the texts to be translated. 2) The translator must have a good knowledge of source language and target lanuage. 3) The translator should avoid word-for-word translation, which can not express the original meaning of the text accurately and the sense of beauty of the language. 4) The translator must translate in an understandable way. 5) The translator must make the target language text an appropriate one through diction and adjustment of word order.

====2.4 Translation in the Early Modern Times====

After the Renaissance, from the second half of the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, Western translation kept on moving forward. Although in terms of scale and influence, translation in this period was not as good as that of the Renaissance, a large number of excellent translation works emerged. Its most important character was that translators not only continued to translate classical works, but also developed a great interest in modern and contemporary works. The works of great writers such as Cervantes, Shakespeare, Balzac, and Goethe were repeatedly translated into various languages, and translations of Oriental literature came out one after another.

=====2.4.1 John Dryden=====

John Dryden was a famous poet, translator and translation theorist, whose contributions to translation exceeded that of his predecessors and other contemporaries, with a large number of translation works and systematic theories. His most well-known translation work is Virgil's ''Aeneid'', which was published in 1697. In his numerous papers and prefaces, he clearly put forward comprehensive and systematic views of translation.

First of all, translation is an art, translators must have the temperament of an artist, a keen appreciation of art and a rich expressive power, only in this way can they grasp and reproduce the artistic features of the original text. Secondly, translators must consider target readers. When translating dialects, translators should focus on the fact that whether target readers can accept and understand it or not, and can appropriately borrow some foreign words, but these words should be carefully considered. Thirdly, translators are slaves of the original author, "only working in other's manor, fertilizing and pruning the grapes, but the wine is for the master's". (Tan Zaixi 1991, 153)

Finally, he roughly divided translation into three categories: metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation,arguring that imitation was close to creation, which broke away from the original text. Therefore, he advocated paraphrase that emphasizes the meaning while neglects the linguistic form. His division of translation broke through the limitations of traditional classificationof translation, i.e. free translation and literal translation, which was a major development in the history of western translation and was of great significance.

=====2.4.2 Alexander Fraser Tytler=====

Alexander Fraser Tytler's translation theories and thoughts can be mainly found in the book ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. In this book, which was the first monograph of western translation theory, Tytler put forward the famous three principles of translation. The translator should be proficient in the language and subject matter of the original work, and completely reproduce the thoughts of the original work. In translation, the translator can limitedly add essential contents to the original work and reduce unnecessary contents that are bad for the original work.

The translator should have the ability to accurately judge and appreciate the style and writing technique of the original work, and imagine how the original author would express himself if he composed in target language to make the style and writing technique of the translation be equal to that of the original work. The translation should be as fluent as the original work. Although the translator is engaged in imitation as well as the painter, the translator can't copy the original's brushwork and use the same colors, instead, he must use his own techniques and another language to express the soul of the original work.

In addition, Tytler believed that poetry can only be translated in the form of poem, idioms can be transformed into meaning and translated in an understandable language, and good translations must make the readers appreciate the merits of the original work and get "the same strong feeling" (Tan Zaixi 1991, 164). The three principles of translation, which are "the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work", "the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original" and "the translation should have all the ease of original composition" became the tenet followed by numerous translators later, and had a positive influence on translation theories in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.

=====2.4.3 Matthew Arnold=====

In modern English translation theories, the debate between Arnold and Newman on the translation of ''Homer's Epic'' is of positive significance. Matthew Arnold put forward his insights in the following six aspects: 1) Translating ''Homer's Epic'' must first clarify the characteristics of Homer. 2) The essential features of ''Homer's Epic'' must be preserved. 3)Translating poem must have the insight of a poet. 4)The translation must resemble a poem. 5)The translation must have the same appeal as the original text. 6)It is the scholars, not the general readers, who test the fidelity of the translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 134-135)

=====2.4.4 Francis W. Newman=====

Newman evaluated Arnold's translation based on his points of view, his viewpoints are as follows: 1) Homer is a poet, and the translation must reproduce him as a poet. 2) The criterion for measuring the translation is mainly the reaction of general readers rather than scholars. 3) The translation is a kind of compromise, and the more outstanding the original work is, the less the translation work can be compared with it. Their differences lie in their respective translation principles, techniques and viewing perspectives, so it is difficult for us to to say which is right and which is better. Their arguments have played an active role in enlivening the academic atmosphere and promoting the study of translation theory from multiple perspectives and multiple aspects.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 135-136)

=====2.4.5 Friedrich Schleiermacher=====

Friedrich Schleiermacher published his paper ''On the Methods of Translation'', which discussed the close relationship between translation and understanding from a hermeneutical point of view, theoretically discussed the principles and approaches of translation.He put forward the hermeneutic proposition of examining semantics, including grammatical interpretation and psychological interpretation, and believed that the translator cannot accept the original work passively, but must create it actively, "and must grasp a 'pre-structure' beyond the text according to the original author's mental process and thought track" (Liu Miqing 1989, 3).

He proposed the differences between interpreting and translation for the first time, believing that interpreting is similar to a mechanical activity, while translation is a creative activity. Similarly, translation can be divided into literary translation and mechanical translation. The former is the translation of works of literature, art and natural science, which requires independent thinking and creativity of the translator, and strong comprehension and expression skills. While the latter involves only commercial and business interpreting, which "can be done with a general command of two languages" (Wells 1988, 24), and is not of high quality because it involves something tangible and clearly defined.

In addition, Schleiermacher divided translation into two approaches: obedience to the original work and obedience to the translation work. The former is to let the readers approach the original author, and the translator only "fills in the blanks where the readers don't understand the language of the original work" (Tan Zaixi 1991, 135), i.e., using literal translation to let the readers understand the meaning of the original work. The translator usually adopts flexible translation and free translation, so that the readers can easily understand the original work.

His thoughts has inspired the classification of prospective and retrospective of Postgate in the twentieth century.Friedrich Schleiermacher's translation theories had a great impact in the 19th century and is still significant even today. Although he was the first theorist to distinguish between interpreting and translation, his views on interpreting were wrong. From the perspective of modern translation theories, interpreting is not a mechanical activity, but also a skill that requires a high level of language expression ability and the ability to recreate, and because interpreting is a kind of simultaneous interpretation, there is no room for careful thinking, and it is even more difficult than translation in many aspects.

=====2.4.6 Wilhelm von Humboldt=====

Wilhelm von Humboldt's translation theory was based on his unique philosophy of language. He believed that language is only the "external manifestation of the spirit of each nation", and that the language of each nation is their spirit, and the spirit of each nation is also their language. Due to the differences of each language, translators are in a dilemma of either following the original tex too closely and losing the charm of their own language, or sticking to their own language and sacrificing the elegance of the original work (Wells 1988, 27-28).

However, Humboldt also suggested that "there is nothing that language cannot express" and that "language is the nature of human, and all languages hold the key to understanding any other languages" (Wells, 1988:29). This dialectical thinking on the issues of translatability and untranslatability, language as system and language as speech act has greatly influenced linguists such as Saussure and Chomsky in the twenties century.

However, Humboldt also suggested that "there is nothing that language cannot express" and that "language is the nature of human, and all languages hold the key to understanding any other languages" (Wells 1988, 29). This dialectical thinking on the issues of translatability and untranslatability, language as system and language as speech act has greatly influenced linguists such as Saussure and Chomsky in the twenties century.--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 13:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.5 Translation in Contemporary Times====

After the World War II, the West entered a relatively stable period, production got developed, the economy gradually recovered, and science and technology were changing day by day. This was the material basis of the prosperity of translation. Due to the evolution of the times, the characteristics of translation have also changed a lot. The translation in the new period differs from that of any period in the past in scope, scale, function and form and has made great progress.

The first change is the expansion of translation scope. While the traditional translation mainly focused on the translation of literary and religious works, the translation in the new period expands to other fields, especially in science, technology and commerce fields.

Secondly, the scale of translation greatly exceeds that of the past. In the past, only a few literary giants worked on translation, but now translation has become a specialized profession, with not only litterateur, philosophers and theologians engaging in translation, but also a specially trained professional team undertaking various translation tasks. Moreover, the function of translation is unparalleled in the past.

Especially after the foundation of the United Nations and the European Common Market, exchanges among Western countries in various fields, such as literature, art, science, technology, politics and economics, have become increasingly frequent and close, and all these communications are carried out through translation, because translation plays an increasingly practical role in the process. Finally, the form of translation has also changed and progressed greatly. The three changes are in fact an important sign of the development of the new period.

=====2.5.1 Roman Jakobson=====

Roman Jakobson was originally from Russia, then moved to the Czech Republic, and then moved to the United States during World War II and became an American citizen. As one of the founders of the linguistic school, his contributions to translation theory is mainly reflected in his article ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation''. From the perspective of linguistics, the article provided a detailed analysis and discussion of the relationship between language and translation, the importance of translation, and the problems in translation. Since its publication in 1959, this article has been regarded as one of the classics of translation studies in western theoretical field.

There are five main points of Jakobson's discussion. Translation is divided into three categories: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The so-called intersemiotic translation refers to the interpretation of some linguistic symbols by other linguistic symbols in the same language, that is rewording. Interlingual translation refers to the interpretation of the symbols of one language into the symbols of another language between two languages, i.e., translation in the strict sense. Intersemiotic translation refers to the interpretation of linguistic symbols by non-linguistic symbol systems, or the interpretation of non-linguistic symbols by linguistic symbols, such as the transformation from semaphore or gesture into verbal expressions.

The understanding of the meaning of words depends on translation. He believed that translation plays a decisive role in the process of language learning and language comprehension. Accurate translation depends on information symmetry. What translation involves is the reciprocal information in two different speech symbols. All languages have equal expressive power. If there is a lack of vocabulary in a language, the language can be processed by borrowing words, creating words or paraphrasing them. The grammatical category is the most complex issue in translation.

=====2.5.2 John Catford=====

John Catford, a linguist and translation theorist of University of Edinburgh, published ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' in 1965, in which he interpreted the previous problems of translation from a novel modern linguistic perspective and created the new approach to the study of translation theory in the West, thus exerting a great influence in Western linguistic and translation theory circles. John Catford used the "Scale and Category Grammar" of the descriptive linguist Han Lide to describe translation.

He focused on the central question of "what is translation" in terms of the nature, categories, equivalence, shifts, and limits of translation. The nature of translation. According to Catford's definition, translation is "the substitution of textual material from one language (source language) for its equivalent in another language (target language)". (Catford 1965, 20-21) The categories of translation. In terms of its extent, it can be divided into "full translation" and "partial translation". In terms of language level, it can be divided into "total translation" and "restricted translation". In terms of the level of linguistic structure, it can be divided into "level restricted" translation and "level unlimited" translation.

The equivalence of translation. It is the center of translation practice and translation theoretical research, and must be explained in two ways. On the one hand, translation equivalence is an empirically based phenomenon that is found on the basis of a comparison between two languages. On the other hand, translation equivalence must make sure that whether the target text and the source text have the same or at least partially the same substantive features. The shifts of translation. It refers to the deviation from formal correspondence when turning the source text into the target text. There are two main types of shifts,which are level shifts and category shifts.

The limits of translation. It refers to untranslatability. There are two types of untranslatability in translation. The first one is linguistic untranslatability, which includes puns and ambiguous grammatical structures. The other is cultural untranslatability which is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs and different backgrounds of the times.

John Catford's translation theory has injected fresh blood into translation studies in Britain and even the West as a whole, and it has advanced the modern linguistic consciousness in the field of contemporary Western translation studies. In a sense, all kinds of contemporary Western translation theories that have emerged so far have benefited from this increased linguistic consciousness. No matter whether, or to what extent and within what limits, his proposition of using the linguistic theory of "Scale and Category" to explain translation problems is effective or not, the proposition itself has made a contribution to the development of contemporary Western translation theories.

=====2.5.3 Eugene A. Nida=====

Eugene A. Nida was one of the most important representatives of the linguistic school who published two famous translation theoretical works ''Toward A Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1964 and 1965 respectively and proposed the concept of "the science of translation", whose theory has made great contributions to contemporary translation studies in the West. He proposed "dynamic equivalence" theory, and then proposed "functional equivalence" theory from the viewpoint of sociolinguistics and communicative function of language.

He proposed the four-step model of "analysis", "transformation", "reorganization" and "examination" of the translation process. His main academic activities in his life were centered on the translation of ''The Bible''. In the process of translating ''The Bible'', Nida developed his own translation theory from a practical point of view, which eventually became one of the classics of translation studies. Nida's most important theory is "functional equivalence" theory,which means that the translation should not seek for a rigid correspondence between words on the surface, but to achieve functional equivalence between two languages.

In this theory, he pointed out that "translation is the reproduction of the information of source language from semantics to style in the most appropriate, natural and reciprocal language" (Guo Jianzhong 2000, 65). The "dynamic equivalence" theory includes four aspects, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, chapter equivalence and stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believed that "meaning is the most important, and form is the second" (Guo Jianzhong 2000, 67).

Form is likely to conceal the cultural meaning of the source language and hinder cultural communication. Therefore, in literary translation, according to Nida's theory, the translator should take the four aspects of "dynamic equivalence" theory as the principle of translation to accurately reproduce the cultural connotation of source language in target language.

=====2.5.4 James Holmes=====

James Holmes is the founder of Translation Studies, and his book, ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies''(1972), is the founding manifesto of Translation Studies. He first argued that translation theory should arise from the scientific description of the translation process, and then apply the theory to translation practice and translation teaching. The translation of poetry can be regarded as a kind of meta-literature, which is both an evaluation and interpretation of the original work, and at the same time a new and independent literary work itself. Translation studies should focus on the relationships between the translated text and the original work and between the translated text and the target language culture, rather than the traditional equivalence or fidelity.

ames Holmes is the founder of Translation Studies, and his book, ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies'' (1972), is the founding manifesto of Translation Studies. He first argued that translation theory should arise from the scientific description of the translation process, and then apply the theory to translation practice and translation teaching. The translation of poetry can be regarded as a kind of meta-literature, which is both an evaluation and interpretation of the original work, and at the same time a new and independent literary work itself. Translation studies should focus on the relationships between the translated text and the original work and between the translated text and the target language culture, rather than the traditional equivalence or fidelity.--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 13:23, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.5.5 Peter Newmark=====

Peter Newmark is a professor of modern linguistics at the University of Surrey, who is mainly engaged in teaching translation theory and practice. After the publication of his masterpieces ''Approaches to Translation''(1981) and ''A Textbook of Translation''(1988), semantic and communicative translation theory has been highly regarded by the translation circles. In 1991, his another famous work ''About Translation'' was published, which collected Newmark's most important translation theoretical findings in recent years. ''Paragraphs on Translation'', which was published in 1991, is a collection of detailed discussions of translation theory, translation teaching, translation linguistics, and translation techniques that were published in the journal ''The Linguist'' from 1989 to 1992.

Peter Newmark is a professor of modern linguistics at the University of Surrey, who is mainly engaged in teaching translation theory and practice. After the publication of his masterpieces ''Approaches to Translation'' (1981) and ''A Textbook of Translation'' (1988), semantic and communicative translation theory has been highly regarded by the translation circles. In 1991, his another famous work ''About Translation'' was published, which collected Newmark's most important translation theoretical findings in recent years. ''Paragraphs on Translation'', which was published in 1991, is a collection of detailed discussions of translation theory, translation teaching, translation linguistics, and translation techniques that were published in the journal ''The Linguist'' from 1989 to 1992.--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 13:23, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Ⅲ.Discussion===

The Western translation theory system consists of two main theories. One is the literature and art translation theory. It is the oldest theory, extending from ancient dramatic translators such as Terrence to modern translation theorists (e.g. Levy in the Czech Republic, Gachechiladze in the former Soviet Union, Steiner in the UK, etc.), and it focused on how to translate literary texts in order to realize literary and cultural exchanges in the ideal sense. In this theory, translation was considered as literarature and art, and the focus of translation was on recreation. The theorists not only discussed the pros and cons of literal translation and free translation, word-for-word translation and flexible translation, but analyzed the purposes and effects of translation.

They also emphasized respecting target language culture, paid attention to the style and literariness of target texts, and required the translators to have a natural literary talent. The other is the linguistic translation theory. It extended from Augustine in ancient times to the structural linguistics school in the 20th century, which closely combined translation theories with the analysis of semantics and grammar, discussed translation in terms of language usage techniques, believing that translation aims to produce a text that is semantically equivalent to the original, and seeked to explain how to produce such semantic equivalence in terms of vocabulary and grammatical structure.

It was more concerned with how to realize the transformation of the words of the two languages in order to convey the information in source language. Looking back at the history of Western translation theories over the past two thousand years, especially the above two main theories constituting the Western translation theory system, we can easily find that, from ancient times to contemporary times, although each period has its own peak of development, on the whole, the contemporary times since the end of World War II in the middle of the 20th century can be regarded as the highest peak of the development of Western translation theories so far.

===Ⅳ.Conclusion===

We should study the outline, changes and development of Western translation theories, and state our opinions on the significance and value of the study of Western translation theories from a historical perspective. On the one hand, we should absorb the relevant contemporary research results at home and abroad, make comments on the representative figures and their representative works, schools of thought and important historical events in Western translation of various historical periods, especially in the 20th century.On the other hand, we should make an in-depth analysis and discussion on the mutual promotion, evolution and the development process of translation practice and translation theory, and elaborate our basic understanding on the nature and direction of the development of translation thoughts and theories.

===References===

Guo Jianzhong.郭建中.(2000).''当代美国翻译理论''. [Contemporary Translation Studies In USA].湖北教育出版社[Hubei Education Press].

Liao Qiyi. 廖七一.(2002).''当代西方翻译理论探索''. 译林出版社[Yilin Press].

Liu Miqing.刘宓庆.(1989).''文体与翻译（第二版）''.[English Varieties and Translation(2nd Edition)].中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation and Publishing Corporation].

Pan Wenguo.潘文国.(2002).''字本位与汉语研究''.华东师范大学出版社[East China Normal University Press].

Tan Zaixi.谭载喜.(1991).''西方翻译简史''.[A Short History Of Translation in the West].商务印书馆[The Commercial Press].

Tan Zaixi.谭载喜.(2004).''西方翻译简史(增订版)''.[A Short History Of Translation in the West(Revised Edition)].商务印书馆[The Commercial Press].

Catford,J.C.约翰·坎尼森·卡特福德.(1965).''翻译的语言学理论''.[A Linguistic Theory of Translation].牛津大学出版社[Oxford University Press].

Nida, Eugene A.尤金·A·奈达.(1984).''论翻译''.[On Translation].中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation and Publishing Corporation].

--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

== A Comparison of the Translation Theory of Eugene. A. Nida and J. C. Catford – 陈莎 Chen Sha, 202020080596==
<center>陈莎 Chen Sha </center>
<center>Foreign Linguistics and Applied Linguistics </center>

===Abstract===
This paper made a comparison between Eugene. A. Nida's translation theories and J. C. Catford's translation theories from three perspectives, that is, their linguistic foundations, their perspectives regarding some important concepts such as meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability, and the impact of their translation theories in the realm of translation. Although both of them are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theory, Nida and Catford elaborate their respective translation theories from different perspectives and even the same term has been endowed with different meanings in the two translation theories, thus having different influences on the academic world. A clear grasp of the differences between the two theories will be conducive to the further understanding of translation theory.

===Key words===
Eugene. A. Nida; J. C. Catford; Translation Theory; Comparison

===题目===
尤金•奈达和约翰•卡特福德翻译理论之比较

===摘要===
本文比较了尤金•奈达和约翰•卡特福德各自的翻译理论中所涉及的语言学基础、对意义、形式、对等以及不可译性等概念的观点以及他们的翻译理论对学界产生的影响。尽管同属于西方翻译理论语言学派的代表人物，奈达和卡特福德却分别从不同的角度论述各自的翻译理论，甚至同一个术语在两种译论中具有不同含义的现象也常有见之，因此不免对学界产生了不同的影响。清晰地把握这两种译论中的不同之处，将有利于我们对翻译理论的进一步认识。

===关键词===
尤金•奈达；约翰•卡特福德；翻译理论；比较

===1. Introduction===
Nowadays, it has become an irreversible trend to integrate the translation theory researches into the field of linguistics, which broke through the traditional translation theories and created a new approach to explore them. Nida and Catford are two prominent representatives in this field. As to Nida, he is a famous contemporary American translation theorist, known as the father of modern Western translation theory, with ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''as his major works. As to Catford, he is a famous English linguist and translation theorist, with ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' as his masterpiece.

From what I have mentioned above, it can be seen clearly that both Nida and Catford are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theories. However, in spite of this fact, their respective translation theories are actually based on different linguistic schools. As a result, it is no wonder that they have different understandings and interpretations in terms of the same concept and the acceptability of their respective translation theories are largely varied in the academic world. Therefore, this paper will elaborate the differences of the translation theories between Eugene. A. Nida and J. C. Catford from these three perspectives, namely, their linguistic foundations, their perspectives regarding some concepts such as meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability, and the impact of their translation theories in the realm of translation.

===2. Linguistic Foundation===
Both Nida's and Catford's translation theories are systematic and scientific due to the fact that both of them are rooted in linguistics. However, what deserves noticing is that they are actually based on different linguistic schools.

Specifically speaking, Nida's translation theories are mainly based on Noam Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar, in which grammatical structure is divided into deep structure and surface structure, kernel sentences and a series of transformational rules are put forward and a whole set of grammatical system is established.(Jiang Li 2010, 44)

Based on transformational-generative grammar, especially the principle of kernel sentences, a new model of translation is put forward by Nida, that is, to translate on the level of deep structure. Therefore, a complete inter-lingual conversion process is created, which can be generally divided into three steps. The first step is to convert the surface structure of the source language to the deep structure of the source language; the second step is to identify a deep structure that is equivalent to the deep structure of the source language in the target language; the final step is to convert the deep structure of the target language to the surface structure of the target language. Generally speaking, this process can be viewed as such a transformational mode:(Jiang Li 2010, 44)

[[File:chenshachenshachensha111.jpg]]

In addition, through the analysis of the semantic relations of vocabularies in the context, Nida broke through the limitations of the traditional translation view holding that the parts of speech should be correspondent between source language and target language. He puts forward four semantic categories, namely objects that correspond roughly to nouns, events that correspond roughly to verbs, abstracts that correspond roughly to the modifiers of objects and events and relations that correspond roughly to the prepositions and connectives in Indo-European languages. (Lin Shuwu 1981, 5) And then based on his semantic categories, Nida comes up with seven kernel sentences that are used to discuss the inner relationship of sentences. (Jiang Li 2010, 44)

In summary, Nida broke through the limitations of the traditional translation views that pursues the correspondence of words or sentence patterns on the level of surface structure. He believes that there are great similarities among the kernel structure of different languages, and these similarities are much more pronounced in terms of their deep structure than their surface structure. What’s more, he holds the opinion that the transformation between languages on the level of deep structure can guarantee the faithfulness of the translated text to the original text to the greatest extent. In addition, since the surface structure of the target language is the free expression transformed from the deep structure of the target language, the smoothness of the translated text can also be guaranteed to some extent. (Shi Xishu & Du Ping 2004, 70) In this way, Nida's translation theories broke through the formal constraints in translation and retained the content of the original text, which plays a great guiding role in the specific translation practices.

In contrast, Catford's translation theories are mainly based on Michael A.K. Halliday's systematic linguistics, which consists of two basic points. Firstly, it emphasizes the systematicness of language and holds that languages are systems containing many subsystems. Secondly, systematic linguistics emphasizes the close relationship between language and society, so it holds the opinion that the study of language should start from the society. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)

However, Catford does not adopt the two points completely. Based on the first point that different languages are actually different systems, Catford concludes that translation cannot convey one hundred percent of the meaning of the original text. Nevertheless, when it comes to the second point, it seems that Catford does not delve into the relationship between language and society, and some people even think that his theoretical research is purely static language comparison and serves only for computers. What’s more, Catford focuses on analyzing the relationship among such substances as phonic substance, graphic substance and situation substance from such four levels as phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary, based on which, Catford stresses that under no circumstances can complete translation be achieved, that is, translation cannot be carried out on the four levels of phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary simultaneously. He also holds that even if the translation is carried out at only one level, the complete translation is impossible. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)

In summary, Catford's translation theories are based on Halliday’s systematic linguistics, but he does not confine himself within the scope of systematic linguistics. Instead, he applies systematic linguistics to his translation theories in a selective way, which makes his translation theories innovative and in turn has a positive effect on Halliday's systematic linguistics.

===3. Different Perspectives Regarding Some Important Concepts===

====3. 1 Different Perspectives Regarding Meaning====
Nida's translation theories mainly serve the translation of ''The Bible'', with the ultimate aim of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of ''the Bible'', the transmission of information is the most important goal. In order to spread the doctrine, Nida not only regards meaning as translatable, but even as sacrosanct because he wants to convey the will of God. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)

In Nida's opinion, “translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style.” (Nida 1969, 13) Nida's definition regarding translation clearly pointed out the relationship between meaning and form, claiming that meaning comes first while form comes second. In the analysis of meaning, Nida refined it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning and connotative meaning, which is the basis for the four modes of analysis, transformation, reorganization and verification in the process of translation. As a faithful supporter of language universality, Nida always maintains that the information contained in one language can be conveyed into another language, that is to say, the meaning is fixed. (Jiang Li 2010, 46) In the communication between different languages and cultures, equivalent words and expressions can be found. There is no such thing as an unbridgeable gap between languages. (Xiong Demi 2001, 88)

Compared with Nida's translation theories, Catford's translation theories does not discuss the specific problems encountered in the process of translation, but focuses on the essence of translation, that is, what the translation is. Catford emphasizes the individuality of different languages and that each language has its own unique semantic system formed under the influence of its unique culture and the lexical and grammatical systems which embody the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship among languages, and analyzes the root causes of their differences.(Jiang Li 2010, 46)

According to Catford, meaning is a property of language, so the source language and the target language have their respective meanings. The opinion that the source language has the same meaning as the target language or that there is transfer of meaning in the process of translation is untenable. Obviously, this argument is a kind of deconstruction and subversion of people’s perspectives regarding meaning in traditional translation theory, which is why his translation theories arouse suspicion of other scholars. Actually, readers who do not carefully read his original work tend to come to their lopsided conclusions according to its literal meaning, so there is no wonder why they will misunderstand Catford and his translation theories. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)

====3. 2 Different Perspectives Regarding Form ====
Both Nida and Catford have involved form in their translation theories. However, the term has different meanings in the two theories.

In Nida's translation theories, form mainly refers to the concept corresponding to content, including prosody, word selection, duality, parallelism and other grammatical structures with distinct features. For biblical translation, meaning must be prioritized in order to convey content and information,so its translation can sometimes be greatly altered in form. In other words, if form and content cannot be retained at the same time, then the content should be retained while the form be discarded. (Jiang Li 2010, 46) Of course, this does not mean that Nida thinks that form is not important at all in the process of translation. On the contrary, Nida believes that when it comes to some cases in which form is very important to the original text, like poetry, the original form should be retained as far as possible.

As for Catford, he regards language as forms, a concept corresponding to entities. In his opinion, forms include phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary, which are all linguistic aspects while entities refer to such raw materials as phonic substance, graphic substance and situation substance, which are all non-linguistic aspects. He also holds the opinion that a form always corresponds to an objective entity in the real world. In Carford translation theories, forms can actually be understood as systems, that is, each language is composed of different systems, which in turn include numerous subsystems.(Jiang Li 2010, 46)

Thus, to translate between two languages belonging to different systems is to look for entity features that are identical (at least partially identical) in both the source language and the target language. Since there can never be a completely identical system among different languages and even the most closely related languages have their own unique forms, the forms and meanings of different languages can never be completely the same. Therefore, in the process of translation, meaning cannot be fully conveyed from one language to another, which is also an important point that makes Catford's translation theories different from others’. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)

====3. 3 Different Perspectives Regarding Equivalence====
Nida believes that the reason why there is equivalence in the process of translation is that different languages can perform exactly the same function. Based on this belief, Nida put forward the concept of dynamic equivalence, which is “defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptor in the source language.” (Nida 1969, 25) What’s more, in elaborating functional equivalence, which is the modified version of dynamic equivalence, considering the differences in terms of languages and cultures in bilingual communication, Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels, namely, the maximum level of equivalence which refers to the one in which the readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it essentially the same as the original readers did and the minimal level of equivalence which refers to the one in which the readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it. (Xiong Demi 2001, 88)

In addition, Nida pointed out that the translation should not excessively pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should shift the attention to accurately convey the meaning of the original text. Therefore, translators can be allowed to change the form of the original text when readers are prone to misunderstand the original text. (Jiang Li 2010, 45)

In summary, Nida's dynamic equivalence theory broke the previous static model of focusing solely on text comparison and held that only by getting the receptors of the target language to completely understand the translated text, can they respond in much the same way as the receptors of the source language. That is to say, dynamic equivalence emphasizes readers' response.

As for Catford, he believes that "translation is the replacement of textual materials in one language by equivalent textual materials in another language." (Catford 1965, 13) In his definition, Catford did not use the word "text", but "textual materials", because he believes that the meaning of a text could not be completely translated into another text, at least when it comes to the meaning at two or more levels, the equivalence could not be found, but only a substitute is available. Catford regards translation equivalence in traditional translation theory as an empirical phenomenon and puts forward the conditions for translation equivalence,that is, in order to get the text or words of the source language and the target language to be equivalent, there must be some consistency between the entities they refer to.(Jiang Li 2010, 45)

Apparently, according to Catford's theory, equivalence can only exist if the entities involved in the two languages share some common characteristics. Moreover, such equivalence can only exist on the same level, that is, phonics, glyphs, grammar and vocabulary. Equivalence on the four levels cannot be achieved simultaneously, because there are different entities on different levels, and it is impossible for two equivalent words to have the exactly identical entity characteristics. In other words, perfect equivalence does not exist. This also explains why there is no complete translation in Catford's point of view. At this point, Catford's translation theories seem to go deeper into the nature of language. (Jiang Li 2010, 46)

In short, Nida's perspective regarding equivalence is not the same as Catford's. By emphasizing equivalence, Nida means emphasizing the effect of translation. In order to achieve the desired effect of translation, the form sometimes can be abandoned; while Catford’s translation theories focus on the fact that there is no such a thing called perfect translation. Despite their different emphasis, both of them are of guiding significance to the translation practices.

====3. 4 Different Perspectives Regarding Untranslatability====
No discussion of untranslatability can avoid the subject of the essence of translation, which also applies to the translation theories of Nida and Catford.

In the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida pointed out that translation refers to the reproduction of source language information with the closest and most natural equivalent in the target language from the semantic to the stylistic. (Nida 1969, 13) In his opinion, the maximum equivalence that can be achieved in translation is only the so-called "closest" and no real equivalence can be achieved. In other words, Nida holds that untranslatability is ubiquitous and the complete equivalence both on the level of meaning and style can only be impossible. Translation is like a seesaw, and the two ends of the board are the meaning and the style of source language, which in most cases cannot be completely retained at the same time.(Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)

Therefore, translators should make a choice and decide whether to care more about the meaning of the source language or the style of the source language. In Nida’s opinion, meaning should come first while style should come later. In short, as far as Nida’s translation theories are concerned, the equivalence refers to the one hundred percent transmission of the information of the source language in the target language, while the correspondence means that both the information and the style of the source language are one hundred percent transmitted into the target language, which is of course impossible. Hence, Nida chooses to use equivalence to describe the translatability rather than correspondence. (Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)

Catford, on the other hand, is more pessimistic about translatability. In his book ''A linguistic Theory of Translation'', he defines translation as the process of replacement of the textual materials of source language with the equivalent textual materials of the target language,(Catford 1965, 13) Catford uses "replacement" to correspond to Nida's "reproduction", just because he realizes that different languages are actually different systems that can never be coincided with each other. As a result, there will never be the so-called transformation and reproduction between two languages. Whether the equivalence can be achieved depends on the degree of coincidence of the described entities in the two languages.(Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)

Catford also further elaborates in this book that the idea that the source language and the target language have the same meaning or there exists such a thing called transmission in the process of translation is untenable. In order to better prove his point of view, Catford introduced a new viewpoint, that is, different languages are actually different systems and each system has its own unique linguistic forms, syntactic relations and grammatical relations. In general, there are basically two kinds of untranslatability in the broad sense. One is the untranslatability on the level of language and the other is the untranslatability on the level of culture. (Cui Yangtong 2018, 241)

All in all, we can draw a conclusion regarding Nida’s and Catfort’s views of untranslatability. On the one hand, Catford’s idea that linguistic forms refer to the formal characteristics of the original text is very close to what Nida calls style. However, on the other hand, what Catford calls the untranslatability on the level of culture is totally different from what Nida calls information. Therefore, we can see that Catfort has a much more strict standard towards translation equivalence.

===4. Significance===

====4.1 Contributions to Translation Studies ====
Nida views the communication and integration between different languages and cultures with a new perspective. He jumped out of the bondage of language and instead paid attention to the pragmatic function of language and the external linguistic equivalence. As a faithful supporter of language universality, he insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can also be expressed in another and that communication can be achieved by looking for translation equivalence among different languages and cultures and reorganizing the form of the original text and semantic structure in an appropriate way, which is also the basis for his establishment of equivalence translation theory. In short, Nida's dynamic equivalence theory breaks the previous static mode of solely emphasizing text comparison and creates a new mode of fully respecting the response of the receptors of the target language to translated text. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)

Catford believes that the main concern of translation practice is to find equivalent components and the central task of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of these equivalent components. His equivalence theory mainly focuses on the study of language, which relates the analysis of translation theory closely to the analysis of the functions of semantics and grammar, aiming at explaining how such a semantic equivalence on the level of vocabulary and grammatical structure is achieved. In his opinion, translators’ main task is to seek content equivalence rather than form correspondence, which is exactly what Catford calls translation conversion. In summary, as a means to realize the equivalence in terms of text, Catford’s translation theory has its positive significance in specific historical periods. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)

=====4.2 Influences in China=====
In the early 1980s, Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories were introduced into China almost at the same time, but their occasions in China were quite different.

As soon as Nida’s translation theories were introduced, the research and citation of them achieved a climax. From 1980 to 2000, 147 papers citing Nida's translation theories were published on ''China Translation'', the core journal of Chinese translation circle. According to the statistics of Wanfang database, 25 papers on Nida’s translation theories were published on such core journals as ''Chinese Science and Technology Translation'' from 2000 to 2012. In 2012 alone, there were 80 journal papers, doctoral papers and master's papers on Nida translation theory. (Li Zhidan 2014, 95)

Compared with Nida's translation theories, Catford's translation theories have not attracted enough attention in domestic academic circles. According to the statistics of Wanfang database, only 3 papers on the Catford’s translation theories were published on ''Chinese Science and Technology Translation'' from 2000 to 2012 and there were only 8 journal papers, doctoral papers, master's papers and bachelor's papers on Catford's translation theories. (Li Zhidan 2014, 95) What’s more, from the number of Chinese papers published on CNKI regarding Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, the domestic influence of the two theories are also evident.

[[File:Chenshachenshachensha222.jpg]]

[[File:Chenshachenshachensha333.jpg]]

In summary, compared with Catford's translation theories, which are abstract and difficult to understand due to its professionalism, Nida's translation theories are more easily accepted and play a greater guiding role in Chinese-English translation.(Li Zhidan 2014, 95)

====4.3 Limitations====
Nida's research is mainly carried out from a macro perspective and is about the universal principle, which will inevitably ignore the research and discussion of specific skills at the micro level. As a result, the theories obtained will also inevitably be out of touch with practice. Nida's equivalence theory is mainly applicable to the translation of ''The Bible'', and the specific purpose of ''The Bible'' to educate and influence people makes it reasonable to sacrifice the form equivalence and strengthen the functional equivalence in a moderate way.(Li Zhidan 2014, 94)

However, if this theory is used to guide the translation of those texts whose forms cannot be ignored, such as the translation of poems, the limitations show up. What’s more, equivalence theory is based on the assumption that readers will have a consistent response, but the problem is that the reader's response is not uniform in any case. It is difficult or almost impossible for readers with different cultural levels, ideologies and positions to produce the same or similar response to the same translation in real life. Therefore, it is difficult to measure the translation effect with this standard. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)

As for Catford, as soon as his theory of equivalence translation was put forward, severe criticism in academic circles was brought about, with most of which focusing on the abstraction and idealization of Catford's examples used to prove his theory. In addition, Newmark pointed out that the interpretation of comparative linguistics conducted by Catford was conducive to translators' judgment and selection in translation practices, but had little contribution to translation theory. Venuti pointed out that the words, sentences and instances used by Cadford were created by himself rather than real. Hornby pointed out that the examples used by Catford were simple and decontextualized, while in fact, the process of translation cannot be simply viewed as language practices, actually, it wiould also be influenced by such factors as text, culture and environment. At the same time, she did not agree with Catford's view that linguistics is the only support of translation research. In addition, Mu Lei believes that the examples Catford used to support his theory are mainly the translation within Germanic languages or Slavic languages, or between Germanic and Slavic languages, so his theory does not have universally guiding significance. In other words, whether Catford’s theory is applicable to the translation between different language families, especially the translation between Chinese and English or not still needs to be discussed. (Li Zhidan 2014, 94)

===5. Conclusion===
In summary, although both Nida and Catford are representatives of the linguistic schools of Western translation theory, their translation theories are actually different in many aspects. Firstly, their translation theories are based on different linguistic schools, with Nida’s based on Noam Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar and Catford’s on Halliday’s systematic linguistics. Secondly, their perspectives in terms of some important concepts are different, such as their perspectives regarding meaning, form, equivalence and untranslatability. Last but not least, their translation theories have caused different impact on the field of translation and this difference is especially prominent in China.

Of course, due to their different linguistic foundations, the two translation theories also have different limitations. It seems that Nida’s translation theories are more widely accepted than Catford’s in China because it is a theoretical system that is more compatible to the traditional Chinese translation theories. However, what we should keep in mind is that when we introduce foreign translation theories, in order to broaden our horizon, translation theories that seem to be incompatible to our traditional opinions are as important as those that are similar to our traditional translation views. Only in this way, can the translation theories be improved and developed further.

===References===
Cui Yangtong. 崔洋通. (2018). 不可译性:奈达与卡特福德之对比研究. [Untranslatability: A Comparative Study of Nida and Catford]. ''“校园英语” [Campus English]'' 241.

Jiang Li. 姜丽. (2010). 奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较. [A Comparison of Several Concepts in Nida's and Catford's Translation Theories]. ''“文教资料” [Cultural and Educational Materials]'' 44-46.

Lin Shuwu. 林书武. (1981). 奈达的翻译理论简介. [An Introduction to Nida's Translation Theory]. ''“国外语言学” [Foreign Linguistics]'' 1-7.

Li Zhidan. 李志丹. (2014). 卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨. [A Speculation on Catford’s and Nida's "Equivalence" Translation Theory]. ''“哈尔滨学院学报” [Journal of Harbin Institute]'' 93-95.

Shi Xishu & Du Ping. 石锡书 & 杜平. (2004). 辩证地看待奈达的“功能对等”理论. [A Critical Look at Nida's "Functional Equivalence" Theory]. ''“翻译科学初探” [A Preliminary Study on Translation Science]'' 69-71.

Xiong Demi. 熊德米. (2001). 奈达翻译理论评述. [A Review of Nida's Translation Theory]. ''“重庆大学学报” [Journal of Chongqing University]'' 85-89.

Catford, J. C. (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: E.J. Brill.

==Comparison of Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's Poetry Translation Principles 徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie 202020080657 英美文学==

<center> 徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie </center>

===Abstract===
Ezra Pound is a representative poet and literary critic at the beginning of 20th Century in western literary world. Together with important literary figures such as T.S. Eliot, he started a new trend in poetry creation and study, and at the same period, China was also undergoing an essential transition from old style poetry to free verse written in vernacular language. Inevitably, associations were made between them. Wen Yiduo's poetic theory is thought to be deeply influenced by Pound's, but growing out of specific cultural and social background, Wen's theory still has his own features which should be distinguished from Pound's. Therefore, it's necessary for us to distinguish their principles in poetry translation so as to better comprehend their contributions.

This paper aims to analyze the differences and similarities between Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's principles in poetry translation from comparisons of their translation principles in rhyme, image, and structure.

===Key words===
Poetry translation; Wen Yiduo; Ezra Pound

===题目===
埃兹拉·庞德和闻一多诗歌翻译原则的对比研究

===摘要===
20世纪初,埃兹拉·庞德是西方文坛一位具有代表性的诗人和文学批评家。他和艾略特等其他重要的文坛人物一起开创了诗歌创作和研究的新潮流。在同一时期的中国，一场重要的文化运动也正在进行，即从旧诗向白话新诗的转变。这两场运动之间也难以避免地有所联系。人们认为闻一多的诗歌理论深受庞德的影响，但是考虑到闻一多诗歌理论诞生的文化和社会背景，他的一些诗歌翻译原则和庞德的有不同之处。因此，为了更好地理解两者，我们有必要进行对比研究。

本文通过对比分析闻一多和庞德在诗歌韵律，意象，结构三方面的翻译原则，来看两者观点的异同。

===关键词===
诗歌翻译理论；闻一多；埃兹拉·庞德

===I.Introduction===

1. Research Background

With the fast development, China began to play a much more important role on world stage, naturally giving rise to the need of recommending Chinese culture to the world. From traditional Chinese literary creation to today's modern culture, it's vernacular literary movement that deserves our attention. At the beginning of 20th century, China was in an urgent need of opening up and learning from the western world. Some extreme ideas even caused the split between classical Chinese literary compositions and modern compositions， but at the same time， traditional Chinese culture was revived by western scholars like Ezra Pound， Amy Lowell, etc. Ezra Pound published ''Cathy''in 1915, setting off Imagist Movement (1909-1917). Wen Yiduo is a representative of the vernacular writing movement, and his first new poetic compositions might be ''A Rainy Night'' (雨夜) and ''Moon and Men'' (月亮和人)(Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993(1), 172-173).

Wen distinguished himself from the other representatives of vernacular writing movement by his relative complete frame both in literary composition as well as in literary criticism. Besides, Wen Yiduo's personal painting learning experience and his contact with western poets at that time are materials also worthy of discussion (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（12），432-433).

The reasons why these two figures are chosen to be compared in this paper are because, first, they two lived in the same time period ,and participated in two important literary movements of the time; second, both of them interpreted and applied Chinese traditional poems into modern composition but in different ways. Therefore, comparison on their understanding of poetic translation is a way to learn the role of Chinese traditional culture in modern times and to know these two poets and translators better.

2. Research Method

Close reading: this paper has collected relative works of Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound and papers on them. Through close reading, we come to know their ways of poem composing and their principles of poetry translation. Works covered in this chapter are, ''Complete Collections of Wen Yiduo'', ''Biography of Wen Yiduo'', ''Cathy'' of Ezra Pound, etc.

Comparative study: since there are some common points between these two poets and translators, comparisons are made between them to better distinguish their roles in relatively vernacular writing movement and imagist movement, in inheriting the old and making the new, and lastly in their poem translation principles(Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），37).

===II.Literature Review===

Wen Yiduo has been widely studied as a composer of new poetry, a painter, a researcher of classical poetry, as well as a revolutionist. Papers on Wen Yiduo focused more on his identity as a poetry composer than as a translator, so this chapter mainly studies his identity as a translator, complemented by his identity as a poet.

[[File:A.png]]

Papers on Wen Yiduo cover almost all aspects including his multiple identities as well as his further studies of traditional Chinese mythologies, classical poetry, etc. From the 1970s to present, this chapter chose recent papers on Wen Yiduo's translation. We can see from the picture below that studies of Wen Yiduo are still favored by scholars and in recent years even more papers on his translation principles were published. In 2005, a paper by Lv Jing is a watershed, for he announced the dawn of a new age of modern metrical poetry. Wen Yiduo is a pioneer of metrical poetry at the beginning of 20th century but he is inevitably constrained by his time. With the development of culture , now we are gradually entering a new era of modern metrical poetry(Lv Jing 2005，133-134).

[[File:8.png]]

Major works often cited by scholars are these two biggest black dots in the picture, works of Qian Liqun's (1998) ''Chinese Literature in Recent 30 Years'' (中国现代文学30年) and ''Collection on Translation Theories''(1984).

As for papers about comparison between Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound,there are 18 papers published in recent years in China.

Among the 18 papers, the most mentioned phrases are "Chinese new poetry", "poetry in translation", "the beauty of painting" in these papers. Most of these papers study on Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound from a general comparison between two movements (vernacular writing movement and imagist movement) with only one paper directly comparing the two figures in a comprehensive manner. It was written by Fu Jianan and Zhang Li in 2019. In this paper, the authors pointed out that Wen Yiduo was heavily influenced by Ezra Pound, which can be seen from his three principles of beauty: the beauty of music, the beauty of painting, and the beauty of architecture. Besides, they also believed that Wen Yiduo was influenced by the national and creative features of Ezra Pound's literary creation and criticism (Fu Jianan, Zhang Li 2019, 101-102).

====III.Discussion====

Wen Yiduo is a representative poet and translator in China at the beginning of 20th Century. At that time, China was experiencing a social and cultural upheaval with collapse of the old and emerging of the new. Since Wen Yiduo was born in a family with avant-garde thoughts, he came to get revolutionary idea at an early age. Although Wen Yiduo didn't participate directly in the May 4th movement, he demonstrated his firm support of students through a passionate patriotic poem. Clearly, Wen Yiduo's literary creation is indispensable from his social ideas. This could be revealed in subjects of his poems, for instance, ''Songs of Seven Sons'' (七子之歌), ''Song of the Sun''（太阳吟）, ''Silent Night'' (静夜), etc. As for his ideas in translation which are also closely associated with his understanding of poem composing, based on his personal learning and experiences (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（1）, 92).

Wen Yiduo experienced several transitions in his poetic writing throughout his life. He was at first a poet of classical poems (1916-1925) with works like, ''Ode on Horse'' (马赋), ''Ode on Pine'' （松赋), ''Spring Willow'' （春柳), etc. Later influenced by Hu Shi and vernacular writing movement, he devoted himself to new poem writing and criticized that classical poem shouldn't be composed and it should be totally abandoned (评本学年《周刊》里的新诗). After several tries in composing new poems, Wen Yiduo later went to America to continue his study on painting and literature. Here he came into contact with the Chicago poets and the American Imagists, which made his another transition. He then again criticized Hu Shi's absolute abandonment of rhyme and rhythm and advocated retrospectively drawing on classical Chinese culture, partly enlightened by his painting and classical poem study experiences in Chicago. After he was back to China, he pioneered in creating metrical poems, which associated western new poems' features together with image and structure of classical Chinese verses. He asked for beauty in music, beauty in image, and beauty in Architecture. His best work which realized his principles is ''Dead Water'' (死水) (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（1），275-277).

Ezra Pound had a same starting point of translation, which was to find an answer for his epoch and to solve problems existing in society. He even leveled the importance of Confucianism to that of Christianism, which is of immense importance in Western culture. He believed that the "order" and "benevolence" mentioned by Confucius were exactly what was needed, to conquer the social plight brought by industrialism, periodic economic crisis, isolation between human beings, etc (Jiang Hongxin 2001,78-79). Ezra Pound denied that poem translation should be word-to-word but maintain connotations behind it. He decided the name "imagism" for the writing movement in 1912 and later published ''Cathy''in 1915. He was delighted when he discovered that Chinese characters were full of beauty of images and classical poems like ''The Books of Songs''all could be a good source for imagist movement.

In ''A Pact'', Pound likened Whitman as his father in literature and himself as his son. Although he held some disagreements with his father, they two had to share the same root and sap. Whitman is like Hu Shi in China, who highlighted the importance of free expression, direct use of vernacular language, and relatively neglected the significance of structure, rhyme, and rhythm. Wen Yiduo had also mentioned that, he disagreed with Hu Shi's composition of absolute free verses in his ''Experiment'' (尝试集). In Wen Yiduo's view, sound and music are what contained within words, and only a concise expression like poem can produce powerful emotions with its natural, artistic syllables (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），62).

====1. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in image translation====

Wen Yiduo started painting when he was young and continued his study of painting in Chicago Academy of Fine Arts. All these experience provided him a chance to paint poems and he had a unique understanding of images based on his study on both classical Chinese poems and new poems. At the beginning of his composing of new poems, poems on nature took a great part of them. Yet he later found that his direct use of a lot of common images in classical poems made his poem too direct and superficial. He therefore decided to use more uncommon images. When he came to America and knew Chicago poets like Carl Sandburg as well as imagists like Amy Lowell, he was affected by their ideas in poem composing. The Chicago poets use direct language and free verse to paint out the world in a vivid way. Images are important to Chicago poets but they put rhythm and rhyme in a non-essential position (Jiao Jianping 2001, 134-135). Wen Yiduo therefore, at the earlier period of his poem composing, he paid great attention to image use and also disregarded rhythm and rhyme. Here we have one short excerpt of his earlier composition:

太阳辛苦了一天，
赚得一个平安的黄昏，
喜得满面通红，
一气直往山洼里狂奔。

This excerpt was from one of his earlier vernacular poem and it's very direct and daily, yet lacking beauty in music, image, and depth, and he soon gave up this style. He agreed with Hu Shi's idea in liberating human mind by literature revolution, but he still enhanced the importance of literary form (Bei Ta 2011,105-106). Wen Yiduo therefore, criticize Hu Shi's writing for lacking beauty in music and in image. As a translator, his principles of poem translation are heavily impacted by his identity as a poet. He believed that translator of poem should be a poet himself and the process of translation could be viewed as a process of recreation. Wen Yiduo compared poem composing as traditional Chinese painting; the blending of colors creates a new harmonious image and words should be like colors (Sun Dandbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），202).

Take Wen Yiduo's poem ''Red Candler''as an example, he used the image of red candler to praise the selfless spirit of sacrifice and affirmed his belief in brightness. In Wen Yiduo's own writing, we could see the transition in his using of color image, which shifted from bright ones to dim ones as we can discover from ''Red Candler'' (红烛), ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Color'' (色彩) to ''Dead Water'' (死水). Images of colors in his poems are often studied by scholars. And it is taken as a clear combination of his idea on both painting and poetry composing. And as we've mentioned above, Wen Yiduo's poetry contained his patriotic idea which is not only shown in subjects but also in his insistence on the form of poetry. As we can see in both ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Dead Water'' (死水), Wen Yiduo pursued a visual presentation of descriptive pictures. Although Wen Yiduo had studied painting in America, he had shown more freehand sketch in his poem rather then western fine brush work (Xin Chunsheng 2011, 28-29). All his principles in poem composition were applied to his translation later. Wen Yiduo asked for concrete image rather than mystery one which also coincides with Pound's idea.

''"这种空空疏疏模模糊糊的描写法使读者丝毫得不着一点具体的印象，当然是弱于幻想力底结果。" （Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），62).

"Don’t use such an expression as "dim lands of peace." It dulls the image. It mixes an abstraction with the concrete. It comes from the writer’s not realizing that the natural object is always the adequate symbol." (A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste)''

Ezra Pound can be taken as an orientalist for his love and study on eastern cultures. Before he came to know Chinese, he was captured by the conciseness but rich connotation contained in Chinese traditional culture. His interests in traditional Chinese poems was started by ''A History of Chinese Literature ''(Herbert Giles) and later became addicted to it for Fenollosa's introduction of oriental art (Guo Wei 1988,110). In the process of translating Chinese traditional poem, he formed his poem composing principles. He believed that poem should not be written in superfluous words; abstraction should not be mixed with concrete natural symbols; and expressions should be polished with good ornaments (Ezra Pound, A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste). Pound had many practices of image-using and he was known for his superimposition of images.

“落叶依于重扃。（''落叶哀蝉曲'' 刘彻）”"A wet leaf that clings to the threshold."

This sentence has shown Pound's superimposition of images well. Here "wet leaf" and "threshold" are two different images but the verb "cling" is used well to paint a picture of deep autumn and to arouse the feeling of departure. Even the leaf is hesitating of leaving, how about humans? Both "fallen leaf" and "threshold" are classical images used in Chinese poems. Pound chose concrete images to convey the abstract melancholy just as Chinese classical poem did. In ''Cathy'', ''The Beauiful Toilet'' has shown that Ezra Pound also had his own understanding of color image. "Blue, blue is the grass about the river", "White, white of face, hesitates, passing the door." There are 6 duplicated words in original poem but Pound only kept the duplicated forms of the color words "青青" and "皎皎", which reflects his high attention to color image although he didn't mentioned that in his essay (''Cathy'').

Both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound drew nourishment from classical Chinese poems and attached great importance to image using. Yet, since Wen Yiduo had experiences as a painter, he was more sensitive to color images than Pound, though Pound also had his own preference to images. Therefore, we may assume that Wen Yiduo was affected by imagism and Ezra Pound, but Wen Yiduo also had his personally preference and choice of image application based on his understanding of classical Chinese poems and painting just as what was shown in ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（1），94).

====2. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in rhyme translation====

Wen Yiduo composed poems in classical Chinese with traditional style at first, when he was at school. Later deeply affected by ideas of vernacular poem composing as highlighted by Hu Shi, he accepted that we should liberate citizen's mind from constraints of classical writing and shifted his composing from classical style to vernacular free verse. When Wen Yiduo started to compose his new poem, he realized too direct an expression was would lose the hazy beauty. Different from Hu Shi, Wen Yiguo attached great importance to rhyme and rhythm of poems. This might have some association with his experience of Tang poem studies. He appreciated the beauty of classical poem and even believed that it's almost impossible for us to translate these poems into English, otherwise it woud be a waste of classical poems. To translate Yuefu folksongs, free verse is thought to be the best choice to him, for their similarity in form. And translator is given more space to think about rhyme (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），54).

In his comment on Shigeyoshi Obata's translation on Li Po's poems, Wen blamed the translator for using free verse to translate Li Po's metrical poems. Because Wen himself is a big fan of Li Po, he denied that Li Po's grander style and imposing manner could be kept in free verses (Huang Yanjie 2014, 611). He then practiced his translation believes into his own writings. In the next year(1927), he translated a poem of John Masefield.

Sea Fever (1902)
by： John Masefield

I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky,

And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by,

And the wheel's kick and the wind's song and the white sail's shaking,

And a gray mist on the sea's face, and a gray dawn breaking.

I must go down to the seas again, for the call of the running tide

Is a wild call and a clear call that may not be denied;

And all I ask is a windy day with the white clouds flying,

And the flung spray and the blown spume, and the sea-gulls crying.

I must go down to the seas again, to the vagrant gypsy life,

To the gull's way and the whale's way, where the wind's like a whetted knife;

And all I ask is a merry yarn from a laughing fellow-rover,

And quiet sleep and a sweet dream when the long trick's over.

我要回海上去

我要回海上去，再回到荒凉的天涯海角，

我要求的是一只楼船，一颗星儿做她的向导，

还有龙骨破着浪，风声唱着歌，白帆在风里摇，

海面上一阵灰色的雾，一个灰色的破晓。

我要回海上去，因为那一阵潮水的呼声

是狂暴的呼声，嘹亮的呼声，你没有法子否认

我要求的是一个刮风的天儿，还飞着些白云，

再加上海水翻着浪花儿，海鸥也在叫你。

我要回海上去，再过那漂泊的生涯才好！

走上海鸥的道，鲸鱼的道，那里的风像把快刀；

我要的是做完了的活，大伙儿谈着天儿说着笑，

临了，来一场甜蜜的梦，一宿安稳的觉。（''时事新报·学灯'' 1927）

John Masefield's Sea Fever is a rhymed poetry and Wen chose end rhyme to echo the original version, in order to achieve the musical beauty in poem. Besides a lot alliterations "a star to steer/ a clear call, etc." are used in the original poem to form the enormous power and repetition is another figure of speech in this poem, "I must go down to the seas again", which could emphasize the poet's emotion.

To maintain the original features, Wen Yiduo preserved the original repetition and parallels in his translation. Wen Yidou thought that art is an artificial decoration together with natural beauty. In his translation, to achieve the parallel structure and concise expression, he had chopped off unnecessary conjunctions and shift the order of words. For example, "I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky, And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by," "again" this world was shifted into the latter part of the translation and "lonely sea and the sky " was translated into a Chinese four-character idiom "天涯海角". The infinitive "To steer" was translated into a verb-object structure-"做她的向导" to ensure the balance of translation (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），54).

Compared with the original version, we can discover the translated version is even more concise and has clear beats to form music. To form a parallel structure and the clear rhythm, Wen Yiduo added some decorative elements or deleted some unimportant ones to achieve his ideal music. “龙骨”，“风声”，“白帆”are words chosen by translator based on original expression, in order to match both requirements of images and readability. “还”，“临了”，“天儿”， these are words added by the translator which are rich in Chinese culture and are tainted by vernacular feature. This can help to achieve an effect of a balance between the looseness and the tense within poem. Wen Yiduo believes that poems should have multiple rhythms serving for one theme, which can catch reader's attention and arouse emotions. It's more natural (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），54). In this poem, Wen wanted to present the poem in the rhythm of waves.

Different from Wen Yiduo's insistence on the rhyme and rhythm of poems, Ezra Pound believed that "It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music, but if it does rely on its music that music must be such as will delight the expert" (Ezra Pound, ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste'', 1913). Take ''The River-Merchant's Wife: a Letter'' as an example, Pound translated Chinese poem into a prose than a rhymed poem, and to this extent his emphasis is more on the other side as himself said that he agreed that music was important but he didn't take it as a priority. He believed that poems could be divided into three kinds, and poems of sounds is one of them. Poems of sounds could be appreciated without being translated, for its musicality to some extent is untranslatable. But he regarded images as conveyable and was devoted to convey images in Chinese poems to English translations.

Thus we can see, the rhyme and rhythm are as important as images to Wen Yiduo, for he thought these were indispensable ways to convey emotion and arouse feeling. Wen Yiduo asked for not only beauty in image but also beauty in music, and he showed no preference between the two, yet, to Pound, as said in ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste'', "It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music". Wen Yiduo attached so much importance to music, so that he once said, some five-character quatrains of Li Po could not be translated into another language for he believed that Li Po's five-character quatrains were ancient soul in modern cover with decorations added. The beats and syllables form the imposing manner of his poem and once these verses were transplanted into another container, the favor might be lost (Wen Yiduo 1926，1).

====3. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in translation of architecture====

Pound studied both Chinese and Japanese poems. Therefore, the structure of his translations can often be traced back to parallelism of Chinese poem as well as the Japanese Haiku.

In a Station of the Metro
The Apparition of these faces in the crowd;
Petals on a wet, black bough.

This is one of Pound's most famous poems and Pound regarded it as his masterpiece of imitation of Japanese Haiku. However, some scholars hold a different view, such as Wu Di, who believed that this poem is closer to an imitation of Chinese parallelism. He listed the reasons as follows: First, the poem has parallel compositions of time and space and contrasts of colors of flower petals and branches. Second, Wu thought that metrical unit of this poem is "word", which is distinct from "syllable" in English poems and Japanese Haiku. Haiku highlighted more on artistic conception than metrical harmony. Besides, this poem paid more attention to the conceptual words than functional words (Wu Di 2007，55-56).

Pound's translation of poems are influenced by forms of folk songs, sonnets, Greek-style lyric poems, and elegy, etc. and it can be traced back to Provence love song, Japanese Haiku and Chinese traditional poetry (Wang Guiming, Liujia 2006，85).

Wen Yiduo is the pioneer of new metrical poems in China and he asked poets to learn from western metrics and combined them with Chinese traditional poems. He advocated that the highest form of art should be "pure form". That is why he called for "beauty of architecture". In Chinese architecture, balance is taken as beauty in tidy form, which is also asked for in poem composed by himself (Cheng Liming 2016，72-73). Wen Yiduo once said that balance was very essential in Chinese aesthetic appreciation, and we could see it in both Chinese architectures and poems. Pattern, syntax, diction and coordination are elements required in a well composed poem.

Thursday
——Edna St. Vincent Millay

And if I loved you Wednesday,

Well, what is that to you?

I do not love you Thursday—

So much is true.

And why you come complaining

Is more than I can see.

I loved you Wednesday,

—yes—but what Is that to me?

礼拜四

即使我礼拜三爱你，

你管它做什么？

礼拜四我并不爱你，

却一点也不错。

我真不懂，你何为还

找着我来纠缠。

礼拜三我爱你—对—

可是那与我又何干？（　——原载1927年11月5日上海《时事新报文艺周刊》第9期）

This is a poem translated by Wen Yiduo which reflects his ideas in poem translation, especially in achieving beauty in architecture. First, this poem consists of two stanzas and in each stanza, the second and the fourth lines are shorter than the first and the third lines. We can see that the translator transferred the original form of the poem into the translation but did a little alternation to achieve a better presentation. In this sentence, "—yes—but what/Is that to me?", to balance the length of sentences, the translator shift the word "—yes—" to the verse before the last one, "礼拜三我爱你—对—" to match the number of words. Another instance in this poem is this sentence -"And why you come complaining/Is more than I can see". To ensure the balance of two stanzas, the translator broke the sentence, "你何为还找着我来纠缠" into two verses, "你何为还/找着我来纠缠"(Fan Shouyi 2004，101-102).

Besides, there is a semantic symmetry designed by the translator. There is no obvious transitional word before the last line of the first stanza but a dash to indicate it. Therefore the author added "却" to echo "可是" in the last line of the last stanza and replaced the dash to achieve the balance in form as well as in meaning. All these efforts of the translator are devoted to achieve the aesthetic sense in architecture(Fan Shouyi 2004，101-102).

In a word, both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound ask for beauty in form but they draw their nourishment from different places with different focus, for example, Ezra Pound studied and composed Provence love poems and Japanese Haiku. In ''Cathy'', we can see that many classical Chinese poems were translated into prose which are more loose in form, but in Wen Yiduo's translation, he highlighted the structural balance and was stick to Chinese traditional sense of beauty in architecture (Sun Dangbo, Yuan Chunzheng 1993（2），3).

====4.Conclusion====
To sum up, Ezra Pound as a imagist had absorbed elements in Chinese traditional culture and reinterpreted Chinese images in his translation. What should be emphasized is that his understanding of Chinese poems and images comes from Fenollosa, and ''Cathy'' is rewriting of Fenollosa's writing. In his translation, Ezra Pound calls for artistic conception through the image superimposition. And as for his form of translation, it's more loose than that of Wen Yiduo's, for Ezra Pound though required order in literary works, he didn't take "order" as "balance". His order may exist in his position of images but it does not have to be balance in number of words or pattern of expressions. Being a fan of Li Po, Wen Yiduo even though influenced by vernacular writing movements, Chicago poets, and imagist movements, he advocated the importance of form and highlighted artistic feature of poems, the metric, which was a combination of the old and the new.

Basing on comparisons of Ezra Pound and Wen Yiduo in these three aspects, we come to know that Wen Yiduo was influenced by the imagist movement and he did pay high attention to image-using later in his works, but Wen Yiduo's literary understanding should also be attributed to his family background, China's social environment at that time, and his life experiences. Before he becomes a poet, he is a patriotic citizen. Wen Yiduo's literary works have a solid patriotic foundation and that's why he always tried to maintain Chinese traditional culture and to spread it through literary creations. This explains the elements of traditional Chinese painting and Chinese aesthetic sense of architecture in his poems, as well as the specific Chinese images contained in his poems like chrysanthemum, candler, red bean, etc. It's better to say that Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound are two poets and translators born in a similar social environment than to say that one is an exact imitator of the other. Since they two have their unique cultural background and are both passionate lover of Chinese poems, they naturally share some common features in literary presentations, but there are also distinctions reflecting their own cultural identity like what we discovered in both their own writings and translations.

===V.Reference===

*Ezra Pound. Cathy. ''London: Elkin Mathews, Cork Street Mcmxv.伦敦:埃尔金·马修斯，科克街 Mcmxv''

*Ezra Pound (1913).A Few Don’ts by an Imagiste.[意象派不该做的几件事]. ''Poetry 诗歌''.

*Bei Ta 北塔.(2011).略论闻一多诗歌之英文翻译[On the English Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Researches Series''(12):97-108.

*Cheng Liming 陈历明.(2016).闻一多的诗歌翻译与格律诗学的生成[On Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poetry and the Generation of Metrical Poetics].''文艺理论研究 Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art'' 36(01):64-75.

*Fan Shouyi 范守义.(2004).论诗歌的句法结构美──汉英诗歌比较研究[On the Syntactic Structure of Poetry -- A Comparative Study of Chinese and English Poetry].''外交学院学报 Journal of China *Foreign Affairs University''(04):98-107.

Fu Jianan Zhangli 傅建安,张立.(2019). 论艾兹拉·庞德对闻一多的诗学影响[On Ezra Pound's influence on Wen Yiduo's poetics].''城市学刊 Urban Journal'' 40(05):99-102.

*Guo Wei 郭为.(1988).埃兹拉·庞德的中国汤[The Chinese Soup of Ezra Pound].''读书 Reading''(10):104-110.

*Jiang Hongxin 蒋洪新.(2001).庞德的翻译理论研究[Study on Pound's Translation Theory ].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University)''(04):77-80.

*Bei Ta 北塔.(2011).略论闻一多诗歌之英文翻译[On the English Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Researches Series''(12):97-108.

*Cheng Liming 陈历明.(2016).闻一多的诗歌翻译与格律诗学的生成[On Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poetry and the Generation of Metrical Poetics].''文艺理论研究 Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art'' 36(01):64-75.

*Jiao Jianping 焦建平.(2001).卡尔·桑德堡与“意象主义”[Carl Sandburg and Imagism].''西北大学学报(哲学社会科学版) Journal of Northwestern University (Philosophy and Social Sciences)''(04):134-137.

*Huang Lina黄丽娜.(2013) 闻一多诗歌翻译研究[Research on the Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''湖南师范大学 Hunan Normal University''.

*Huang Yanjie黄焰结.(2014) 英译李太白——闻一多与小畑薰良译诗对话的文化考量[English Translation of Li Po's Poems-- Cultural Study on Wen Yiduo and Shigeyoshi Obata's Talk on Poetic Translation ].''外语教学与研究 Foreign Language Teaching and Research'' 46(04):605-615+641.

*Lv Jing 吕进.(2005)三大重建:新诗,二次革命与再次复兴[Three Major Reconstructions: New Poetry, the Second Revolution and Rejuvenation ].''西南师范大学学报(人文社会科学版)Journal of Southwest Normal University (Humanities and Social Sciences edition)''(01):130-135.

*Sun Dangbo, Yuan Zhengchun 孙党伯袁春正.(1993).闻一多全集. [Complete Works of Wen Yiduo] ''武汉：湖北人民出版社 Wuhan: Hubei People's Publishing House.''12

*Wu Di吴笛.(2007)论庞德“在地铁车站”中的汉诗特性[On Characteristics of Chinese Poetry in Pound's ''In a Station of the Metro''].''外国文学研究 FOREIGN LITERATURE STUDIES''(05):53-57.

*Wen Yiduo.(1926)英译李太白诗[English translation of Li Po's poems]''《北平晨报》副刊 Supplement to Peiping Morning Post''.

*Wang Guiming, Liu Jia王贵明,刘佳.(2006)今韵古风——论埃兹拉·庞德诗歌翻译和创作中的仿古倾向[Archaic Style in Modern Form-- On the Archaic Tendency in Ezra Pound's Poetry Translation and Creation].''北京理工大学学报(社会科学版)Journal of Beijing University of Science and Engineering (Social Sciences Edition)''(06):79-85.

*Xin Chunsheng辛春生.(2011) 闻一多《忆菊》诗的绘画美新探[A new Exploration on the Beauty of Painting of Wen Yiduo's Poem "Reminicence of Chrysanthemum"].''名作欣赏 Master Pieces
Review''(35):28-29.

==A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Versions of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory 彭丹 Peng Dan==
<center> 彭丹 Peng Dan 202020080631 日语语言文学</center>

===Abstract===
With the development of cultural exchanges among all countries, more and more famous works, novels and films have been translated into many versions for people to enjoy. It has become a headache for many translators to realize the original style. In 1969, Eugene Nida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward the theory of functional equivalence, which focuses on the realization of communication between different cultures and languages. This thesis, from the perspective of functional equivalence, through comparing Fu Weici's and Li Jihong's two Chinese versions of ''The Moon and Sixpence'', which written by Maugham, sums up the way to realize the equivalence of words, sentences and semantics during the translation and the way to present the readers' response. Some scholars think that the functional equivalence theory ignores the equivalence of form and the style of the original work. However, the theory of functional equivalence is derived from practice, so its achievements are obvious and it makes great contribution to translation. In this paper, the author will propose that the form equivalence does not affect the reader's understanding of the original work. This paper focuses on the application of functional equivalence theory in the two versions and describes how translators realize the equivalence of meaning, form and cultural equivalence. In the end, the author will give opinions on the theory of functional equivalence and have a commentation on which version is more suitable for readers

===KEY WORDS:===
Functional Equivalence; Formal Equivalence; Reader's Response

===题目===
功能对等理论视角下《月亮与六便士》的两个汉译本对比研究

===摘要===
随着各国文化交流的发展，越来越多的名著、小说或影视作品被译成多种版本供人们欣赏。如何完美地展现原著的风采是让众多译者感到头疼的事情。1969年，美国著名翻译理论学家尤金.奈达提出的功能对等理论，强调实现不同文化、语言之间的沟通对等，侧重读者的反映。本文从功能对等理论的视角，通过对比研究傅惟慈和李继宏关于《月亮与六便士》的两个中文译本，总结出译者在小说翻译的过程中是如何实现单词、句子、语义和文化的对等以及实现读者的反映。有学者认为功能对等理论忽略了形式的对等和原著的文体，但功能对等理论源于实践，它的成果有目共睹并为翻译界做出了巨大贡献。本文会提及译者在翻译过程中所忽略的形式对等并不影响读者对原著的理解，侧重描写功能对等理论在这两本译文中的应用，并详细描写它是如何实现意思、形式以及文化的对等。最后我会提出自己对于功能对等理论的见解，并评判出我认为更加适合读者的译本。
===关键词===

功能对等；沟通对等；读者反映

===1. Introduction===

====1.1 Research Background====

Coincident with the development of cultural globalization, more and more foreign literary works are translated into Chinese for domestic people to read and appreciate. Whereas after reading the original works which have been translated frequently, we may still feel that there are many regrets in most works. On the one hand, if the translators only quest corresponding words, it may limit the reader's thought in a large aspect so that the readers couldn't deeply understand the emotion that the author wants to express. On the other hand, if the translators only pursue semantics and thought, it probably can not reflect the profound meaning of a word which the author wants to express. Furthermore, there are many differences between eastern and western cultures and everyone has their own style of expression. If a translator has polarity style for the original author to translate his works, the difference between the two may be obvious. In order to show the original works better and reduce the difference between source language and target language, Eugene Nida, according to the nature of translation, puts forward the famous Functional Equivalence Theory. It states that translation is not only the equivalence of words, but also the equivalence of style, semantic and type of writing. The information conveyed by translation not only includes the surface information but also the deepe culture information.(Nida 1984,21）

====1.2 Literature Review====

In 1969, Eugene Nida put forward the functional equivalence theory. In 1986, he published a book which called From One Language to Another. This work is a representative in his theoretical pursuit of translation. He also made numerous amendments and supplements according with his previous translation theories. He used the "functional equivalence" to replace the "dynamic equivalence".

From nearly five years of development at home and abroad, we can see that the functional equivalence theory not only involves the translation of novels but also the news, politics, traditional Chinese medical name, the loaded culture words, the road science and technology, drama and other related aspects of text translation and film translation etc.. After searching the published papers, we could find some papers which use the perspective of functional equivalence theory. Such as Zhou Xiaohui's "Translating Strategies of Movie and TV Scripts from English to Chinese from the Perspective of Functionalist Equivalence: as Shown in the Translation of the Script of Crash", published in Beijing Foreign Studies University. And Chen Anqi's "Applying Nida's Functional Equivalence to the Translation of the Non-Technical Part of Sci-tech Texts", published in Beijing Foreign Studies University and etc.

In 1919, Maugham's ''The Moon and Sixpence'' was published which described a British painter went to south Pacific Tahiti and had the primitive life with the Indigenous people here. And ultimately he became the successful painter. In China, there are numerous translation versions about ''The Moon and Sixpence''. In this thesis, I want to introduce Fu Weici's translation version and Li Jihong's tra versions in particular and compare these two Chinese versions.

====1.3 Research Methodology====

1. Literature study: in order to get the first-hand information of the functional equivalence theory, it is necessary for us to read many literature such as taking the thesis and journals in the CNKI or VIP. Through these materials, we can learn a lot unknown and complete the thesis more comprehensive.

2. Example-analysis: in this thesis, I will list a majority of examples. These examples are classified on words, sentences and semantics etc.. At the same time, this thesis will also illustrate some examples which do not seem to achieve the functional equivalence. Through these examples we can get a better understanding of the functional equivalence theory and its characteristic in application.

3. Comparative study: in this thesis, I will choose Fu Weici's and Li Jihong's Chinese versions to make comparison in words, style, culture and semantics. By comparing the differences of the two Chinese versions, we can have a deeper understanding on the functional equivalence theory in application.

4. Summarize experience: This thesis will take the summarize experience of two Chinese versions to show their relation with functional equivalence and the difference between them. This thesis will also list some summarize experience which maybe not be suitable for translation.

===2. The Functional Equivalence Theory===

====2.1 Introduction of Eugene Nida====

Eugene Nida is an outstanding theorist in translation in American. And his translation theory largely influence on the translation works in both foreign countries and domestic land. His theory on the translation is a landmark of studies in modern translation. Moreover, in contrast to contemporary theorists, he is evaluated as the most noted theorist.

Eugene Nida was born in a city of Oklahoma on the November 11, 1914. He went to university in Los Angeles where he elected the Greek as the major degree and he found that he liked the Bible. Then he created outstanding academic records during the university. Afterwards, he got master's degree in Greek new translation at Southern California. In 1943, he got his doctor degree after graduation. Then he was employed by American Bible Society and his duty was to check and estimate the publications of the Bible. He needed to provide the services for the missionary translators and given the advices to them about how to translate better. To help the translator to solve the questions about translation and different culture, he went to 85 countries and experienced various aspects of culture and language. In 1970, Eugene Nida was elected as the coordinator for the translations research in United Bible Society. His responsibility is to write the translators handbooks and prepare the materials for teaching the translators and test them. After long, there were many new versions about the bible were sold well all around the world. These new versions about the bible all translated by guidance of the Nida's dynamic equivalence. Eugene Nida has devoted decades to bible translation and he has contributed to the flourishing of the bible translation in twentieth century.

====2.2 Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory====

In the early period of Nida's essays, he emphasized that there were not complete equivalence between two languages so that there were no absolute translation. Subsequently, he devoted to finding the closest equivalence about the nature, on the basis of that, he developed three translation theories which were the formal equivalence theory, the dynamic equivalence theory and the functional equivalence theory.

The formal equivalence that mainly emphasizes the equivalence of language's formal and content. Therefore, in the translation process, the translators often due to excessively focus the grammatical structure of the source language, word's coherence and interior literal meaning so that neglect the target language reader's response, the different culture is the ascribed leads to the target language readers couldn't understand the original meaning. But it also has its own strength like Kelly said it could indicate how the meaning was expressed in original works, preserving un-translated idiom and rhetorical.

The dynamic equivalence theory has no essential difference with functional equivalence theory and it develops from formal equivalence. For avoiding it is often misunderstood that Nida uses the expression of functional equivalence to describe the accuracy of the translation. The former emphasizes the importance of formal and content, the latter more emphasizes on the communication with language and culture.

The functional equivalence is defined as "a term referring to the type of equivalence reflected in a target text which seeks to adapt the functional of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced" in the dictionary. From this definition it indicated functional equivalence not only emphasizes the linguistics and form but also emphasizes the communication of different background. Such as we could translate the "white as frost" to replace the "white as snow" if there isn't snow this word. If both of them are impracticable we could translate into "very very white". Form this example we could deeply understand the definition of the functional equivalence about communication. This theory pays attention to the target language reads' response under the different cultural and language. So he used "the functional equivalence" to replace "the dynamic equivalence" in the year of 1969.(Zhang Dongdong 2015,5)

The functional equivalence had made a great contribution for translation field. But there are also some critics about it by some translation scholars with different perspectives. First some scholars think it pays too attention about readers' repose that neglects the authority of text. They point out that sometimes the reader's response is subjective so it impossible to realize the equivalence of target language according to the readers' response. Secondly some scholars it is the superior to the form equivalence. Therefore it has litter emphasis on the form. As we all known that different countries have the different cultures and there are also great difference on the people's abilities about learning. So it means that it is not necessary to reduce much original difficulty to realize the communicative purpose.(Zhang 2015,7)

Although there are many critics about it, his theories come from the practice and these theories had strong guiding for our translation. What's more, the functional equivalence had solved the long-standing argument between the "literal translation" and the "liberal translation".

====2.3 Research of Functional Equivalence at Home and Abroad====

Presently at home and abroad, the functional equivalence theory's research is mainly focused on the study of translation's guidance of literary works. As opposed to business letters and legal materials, the functional equivalence theory is more inclined to convey the original works' content and connotation rather than grammatical forms. Currently there are majority researches on the versions about ''The Moon and Sixpence'' at home and aboard. However most of them are analyzing the protagonist's characteristic or the author's background and living condition. There are few researches that are about the compassion-studying and analyzing ''The Moon and sixpence'' from the perspective of the functional equivalence theory of Nida.(Liu Qiong 2016,14)

=== 3. Introduction of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' and Its Two Chinese versions===

====3.1 Brief Introduction of ''The Moon and sixpence''====

The moon and sixpence is one of the great works of William Somerset Maugham, a British novelist, written in 1919. The book is sold subject to the condition that is shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, resold, hired out, or otherwise circulated without the publisher's prior consent in any form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published and without a similar condition. First it published in Great Britain by William Heinemann in 1919. In this novel, Maugham tells the whole story in the first person narrative. This book is based on the French impressionist painter Gauguin's life who originally is a securities broker at the middle-aged. However he gave up everything to the South Pacific island of Tahiti and lived with the indigenous people. Finally he got inspiration and created many masterpieces of art. This novel became popular in the twentieth Century and it revealed the theme of escaping the reality. (Fu Weici 1994,12)

The work relates the content by the first person perspective. The protagonist is a writer who knows about Charles Strickland's family. The family looked happiness and perfectly satisfactory, however, Charles Strickland was always lacking in energy. After long, he left home to Paris that to decide look for his own art.

The protagonist goes to aboard and founds the Charles Strickland who denotes to struggle out of this life which he couldn't drawing absolutely obey his own heart. He firmly left his wife and children with nothing left. Fortunately, his wife found the skills to live well with the children. After five years, the protagonist met Charles Strickland in Paris that he lived in poverty and no friends with him but he still immersed his dream and never felt regret. His talent increasingly got the recognition during the progress of quest the art. (Fu 1994,136)

Latterly he decided to abandon the civilized life to the original islands in the South Pacific island of Tahiti where the protagonist met by chance. Charles Strickland married a native girl and had three children, spending three years short of happiness.

Finally the children died and he also had leprosy. Eventually, he finished a piece of work on the wall when he was blind. The native wife buried him, according to his wishes, destroyed his work on the wall which makes the protagonist feel regret. However the protagonist understood his pursuit in his paintings. (Fu 1994,198)

After the publishing of ''The Moon and Sixpence'', it attracts the readers by the plots and profound words and it makes a noise in the world.

====3.2 The Characteristics of the language====

Maugham is recognized the British with deeply influence of French literary. The largest characteristic of his work is that the language is humorous and interesting for readers. This mainly comes down to the fact that he is good at conceiving and telling stories. What's more it also in addition to what he often shows in his novels. Maugham's text is not tense and there are always cold tone of a British style detached from outside the novels and readers.

His works inevitably have some acrimonious words which could accurately describe the social reality by he own sees and hears. For in ''The Moon and Sixpence'' when he describes the success of the Charles Strickland that he write "I do not speak of that greatness which is achieved by the fortunate politician or the successful soldier; that is a quality which belongs to the place he occupies rather than to the man; and a change of circumstance reduces it to very discreet proportions. The prime Minister out of office is seen, too often, to have been but a pompous rhetorician, and the General without an army is but the tame hero of a market town. The greatness of Charles Strickland was authentic. It may be that you do not like his art, but at all events you can hardly refuse it the tribute of your interest. He disturbs and arrests." By these sentences we can know about the success clearly of the Charles Strickland by comparison. It may be that these languages are too direct to attack politicians and generals, but we can't deny the fact. Maugham's writing style is short and humorous and we can see the reality of society quickly by his text. (Guo Xiaoling 2014,4)

The novel describes Charles Strickland's feeling with three different women's. These three women basically represent the characteristics of the world most women. The first woman is most common who quest the materialistic, selfish, good face, and with a direct survival instinct. The second women considers the love is supremacy and she is weak and locking the ability to survive. The most pure is his third women. Maybe we couldn't define her feeling to Charles Strickland. Their marriage is like a merger of similar items, she lived just for him and she has been with him together. In my opinion, these three women are sympathy-worthy and pitiful. Since if eventually Charles Strickland said “Women are strange little beasts. You can treat them like dogs, you can beat them till your arm aches, and still they love you." These sentences are very simple neither too many gorgeous words nor long winded repetition words. However it is always able to impress deeply you from the heart and it can let you know what the emotion the author wants to express. (Guo 2014,4)

Likely these instances, Charles Strickland took keen to pursuit his own dream and he does not care these things around him so that he can't understand why women will follow him without any condition. He thinks they are sympathy-worthy and stupid. In order to vividly embody this feeling, the woman is compared to a dog. Even though you treat them as the dog, they still do not abandon you and love you as before. Through these words I believe that although you haven't read this book you could also understand the meaning which the author wants to express. Charles Strickland hates the limit of loving and family and he also couldn't feel the women's feeling. (Cao Jing 2013,2)

Charles Strickland shrugged his shoulders and said "Of course, it is one of the most absurd illusions of Christianity that they have souls." This sentence through the description of that they have the soul reflected that the pure in his heart. And he pitied them only because he thinks people have more important things to pursue and the people should follow their own heart to do what they want to do. He thinks women have souls, but they don't realize what they really want to do. Maugham's character and the inner world of the characters reflected in the simple humorous sentences have to admit that a simple sentence has a huge amount of information.

====3.3 Introduction of Fu Weici's and Li Jihong's Chinese Versions====

Fu Weici was born in Harbin in 1923. He is the remarkable translator of modern literary. Fu Weici worked in western language and literature respectively in the Fu Jen Catholic University, Zhejiang University and Peking University. He graduated from Peking University in 1950 and worked in Tsinghua University and Peking University for the job of Chinese teaching. Eventually he died in March 16, 2014 at the age of 91. As far as I am concerned and researching from computer, Fu Weici' version is more simple and there are a lot of language are very straightforward and particularly close to the social situation at that time. There are even a lot of vernacular and dialect. But this version is more close to the original so that the story does not seem boring.

Li Jihong was born in 1980 and his native is Guangdong, now resides in Shanghai. He is also remarkable translator but younger than Fu Weici. His publication has millions of best-selling translation of Kite Runne, conversations with God, the great Gatsby, the little prince and so on. His contributions are covering novels, prose, translations of sociology, economics, philosophy and religion etc. Comparing Fu Weici's version, Li Jihong's version is more close to people's voice habits and there are many languages are very smooth and complete, giving people a sense of comfort and in the language it has also increased a lot of modern elements. The specific differences of the two translations will be put forward in the following article.

===4. A Comparative Study of ''The Moon and Sixpence'''s Two Chinese versions===

====4.1 A Comparative Study on the Meaning====

=====4.1.1 A Comparative Study on the Designative Meaning=====

The designative meaning refers to referents in the realistic world. It is mainly based on observation of world's objects and experience and it is objective and easy to understand. The translators are easy to achievement equivalence of expression in another language to translate the word's designative meaning.

There are some instances of the two versions of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' following.

Example 1: "All we know is that the blackguard gone to Paris."

Fu Weici's version: "我们只知道那个流氓跑到巴黎去了。"

Li Jihong's version: "我们只知道那混蛋去了巴黎。"

In this word, we can see that either 流氓 Or 混蛋 are all to describe Charles Strickland and expresses the people's resentful to him. In the original work the author uses blackguard to describe Charles Strickland. The most meaning of this word is 流氓 and there is rarely 混蛋 this meaning on the Internet. If we translate it into 流氓 that we could understand that this people are homeless and are derelict in duty and run irrelevant business. And this people show low-down means or break the law and so on. Another if we translate into 混蛋 that expresses this person are unreasonable and are impervious to reason. In the original work the Charles Strickland abandon his wife and children without leaving anything and there are not any wrongs with his wife. We can learn from the post that he just to pursuit his dream and he considers the loving is the obstacle for him. The people around his wife all mostly think that he had mistress and he is heartless. From this we can see that he did not do the heinous thing or violate the law, merely because what he has done attracted people's discontent. Therefore I consist it is more appropriated to translate the blackguard into 混蛋. The 流氓 just release the equivalence of meaning. However the 混蛋 release the equivalence of functuionsal. (Cao Jing 2013,23)

Example 2: "It was about five years after this."

Fu Weici's version: "这件事过去大约五年之后。"

Li JIhong's version: "大概过了五年。"

The after five years it has happened a important thing and it points the Charles Strickland abandon his wife and children with nothing to left. The author mostly emphasize the protagonist had underwent this thing and it had influenced him. Moreover the main plot of this article is to express Charles Strickland's experience and his life of persuading his dream.

In first version Fu Weici points this thing but it doesn't be referred in Li Jihong's. So I think when the translators translating this sentence they need translate this thing.

Example 3: "The satyr in him suddenly took possession, and he was powerless in the grip of an instinct which had all the strength of the primitive forces of nature."

Fu Weici's version: "他内心深处的那个半人半兽的东西把他捉到手里,在这种具有大自然的原始力量的天性的掌心里他完全无能威力。"

Li Jihong's version: "他内心的兽欲猝然发难，而他根本无力摆脱那种本能的操控。"

The satyr of this sentence points to thought that he does not want love and he hasn't time for it but he is a man and sometimes he wants a woman. He hates this state but he couldn't control himself. By comparing the two versions, I think Li Jihong's translation is better than Fu Weici's. In the dictionary the satyr points a man who has strong sexual desire and is amorist. And in the Myths of Greece and Rome it points the God of half man and half beast. The first version reflects the equivalence of words' meaning. And later he used the power of nature to indicate this power. We can see that he mostly translates by word to word and it closes to the original's language characteristic. The second translators pay more attention to cultural equivalence and the influence of modern elements. Li Jihong translates the satyr into sexual desire and he describes this power is the instinct of the people. As far as I am concerned, the satyr points the sexual desire and it is the instinct which people couldn't control. (Cao Jing 2013,2)

=====4.1.2 A Comparative Study on the Associative Meaning=====

The associative meaning is an expression of the speakers by individual mental understandings. Sometimes the correct and faithful translation needs correct translating of designative Meaning and it is basis of language. However the associative meaning also is very important. There are different associative meanings though the terms have the same images. Because with the different culture and language that the readers have the different understanding. A closest equivalence of natural translation requires the target readers to fully and positively appreciate corresponding message of source text. For translating the source language's associative meaning, the translators need figure out correct associative meaning's expression. And they need do proper responses to original readers that can get from source text. Eventually the translators make the equivalence between the source text readers and target text readers.(Sun Zhili 1997,2）

Example 1: "Yes, she hadn't a drop of white blood in her."

Fu Weici's version: "是的,一滴白人的血液也没有。"

Li Jihong's version: "是的,她的身上没有半滴白人的血。"

It's about the last journey of Strickland's life, he met his wife who was indigent and without a drop of white. This sentence emphasizes she is born at here and she doesn't touch the white at all. In the Fu Weici's version, he translates a drop of white into 一滴白人的血,however in Li Jihong's, it is translated 半滴白人的血. Comparing to the original description of a drop of a blood, the later more reflects the equivalence of associative meaning and more vividly describing that she was native. 半滴 always is translated into half a drop in English. Although the translation here uses a half drop instead of a drop, I still don't think there is any not equivalence. There is not much difference between a drop and a half drop in the number, but in the degree of modification the half a drop more deeply to embody the noting. And the half drop is more strengthening the tone. From without a drop or a half drop of white to describe she is native, which indicates the equivalence of associative meaning. As far as I concerned, in this sentence, Li Jihong's version is better than Fu Weici's version.(Sun 1997,2）

Example 2: "Strickland had burst the bonds that hitherto had held him."

Fu Weici's version: "思特里克兰德已经把那一直束缚着的桎梏打碎了。"

Li Jihong's version: "思特里克兰已经打破了禁锢他的桎梏。"

"桎梏" is instruments of torture in ancient China and it is called "桎" when is worn on hand, on the contrast, it is called "梏" when is worn on foot. This thing usually used to punish the people who had committed a crime. In this part, the original work used the bonds to describe "桎梏". In the dictionary the bonds point to imprison or confine somebody to do something and make people not free. Foreigners who don't understand the Chinese culture maybe can't understand what the shackles are. However in China, almost every reader knows it and the meaning what it wants to express if they know the shackles is instruments of torture. In original work, the author wants to express Strickland had burst the bonds of thought that hitherto had held him. In the version of Fu Weici and Li Jihong, they both translate the Strickland broke the shackles which always constrained him on the thought. As we all know, thought is a thing which we could not see and grasp, and it is impossible for us to restrain a thing which is not exist with instruments of torture. Yet the translators translate that the shackles that constrain the thought. From using a real thing to show a thing which is not existing, we could deeply feel the thing that does not exist as if it were real. Although the shackles are different with bonds in the surface meaning, they both express the confine of thought and they are equivalence in associative meaning.（Wang Jia 2014,31）

====4.2 A Comparative Study on the Level of Style====

=====4.2.1 A Comparative Study on the Metaphor or Simile=====

Example 1: "He reminded you of a frightened sheep running aimlessly hither and thither."

Fu Weici's version: "像一只受了惊的小羊，没有目的地东跑西窜，张皇失措，晕头转向。"

Li Jihong's version: "他像慌不择路、到处乱跑的绵羊。"

The "小羊" refers to the sheep which small and relating thin, it does not specifically what kind of sheep. By comparing it the "绵羊" is more specific. When it comes to "绵羊", the first impression is timid and easily bullied. In the original work, the author described him like a frightened sheep. He did not point which kind of sheep but we could feel the sheep's fear and weak. Even more we could fell the sheep is timid and fearsome. Fu weici describes the sheep is little sheep. From little sheep we also could feel the meaning what the author wants to express. In Li jiong's version, he translates the sheep into Bujumbura. From Bujumbura we could know the sheep's character. Nowadays, when we express one person is timid and obedient. Usually we could use the Bujumbura. From sheep to little sheep or Bujumbura, we all were able to realize the Strickland's friend respects him and cherishes his talent. When he met Strickland’s work he felt that he was a clown. He wanted to destroy it but he is afraid. He loved his work and talent from the heart. From this sentence we know that the author and translators all use the way of metaphor. They compared Strickland friend to frightened sheep running aimlessly hither and thither. In my opinion, I more like the Li Jihong’s version because the jumbuck is more closed to our modern life. Although the original work doesn't show the kind of sheep however through metaphor we could realize the degree of the people's fear.（Wang 2014,31）

Example 2: "She was desire."

Fu Weici's version: "成了欲念的化身。"

Li Jihong's version: "她变成了欲望的化身。"

The author uses the rhetorical devices of simile in the sentence. He is desire that the two translators both compared him to the embodiment of desire. There aren't essential difference between the "欲念" and "欲望". They both express the desire for getting something. The former most points the desire of getting something in thought. The latter more inclined to express the desire for a specific thing. In original work, the author describes Strickland just pursuit the satisfaction of physiology. He only uses women to satisfy his desire and not really love them. He hated the woman just pursuit the love in life especially when he met the second woman. He didn't give her any more birthright and he didn't get married with her. He just wanted her to satisfy his desire of physiology. So when he was asked why he was with her he said that he just wanted her. The two translators both realize the equivalence of simile through compare him to the embodiment of desire.（Wang 2014,32）

Example 3: "I don't disapprove of the boa-constrictor; on the contrary, I'm interested in his mental processes."

Fu Weici's version: "我对蟒蛇的习性并不反对，相反我对它的心理活动倒很感兴趣。"

Li Jihong's version: "我并不鄙视毒蛇，恰恰相反，我对他的思维过程很有兴趣。"

The main features of "蟒蛇" is thick and long and it is the largest snakes compared to more primitive snakes in the world. "毒蛇" refers to the snakes which could secrete special venom. They are found of using stratagem to attract the vicious. They are beautiful animals, but also the embodiment of evil. In the original work, the author wants to express the protagonist’s dissatisfaction with his action. He abandoned his wife and two lovely children with leaving nothing. Even more he didn't feel this mistake and he had no need to take responsibility for them. In the eyes of ordinary people this is totally inconsistent with common sense. The true husband should love his wife and take care of the family. So many people think he is cold-bloode and the protagonist is no exception. The author uses the boa to describe. The Strickland's action calls the opposition from the people. Fu Weici translates the boa into the "蟒蛇". According to the introduction of the python, we can see that the boa is larger and they are carnivores. But these maybe the result of natural selection and these are not their nature is bad. On the contrary, the "毒蛇" are different and they are the real bad guys and they are devil incarnate. Through the description of the original text, we can know that the hero complained that he abandoned his family and he was not human. So I think compare him to "毒蛇" is more appropriate. It reflects his cold-bloodedness and unfeeling.（Wang 2014,33）

=====4.2.2 A Comparative Study on the Repetition=====

Example 2: "I will never have him in my house-never."

Fu Weici's version: "我永远也不让他进咱们的家门-永远也不让。"

Li Jihong's version: "我绝不让他踏进我的家-绝不。"

Never and absolutely not both describe the no. However the latter tone is more serious. Repetition is to emphasize a certain meaning and it is to highlight a certain emotion. Especially when using some certain repetition of words, sentences or paragraphs. Through this chapter, we can see that Strickland is ill, however, Mrs. Stroeve against him to move to her home. She says "I will never have him in my house-never". Two repetition of "never" shows the Mrs. Stroeve's firm attitude. After reading, we can know the reason why she firmly opposed because she did not want to admit that she was falling in love with a penniless pauper, and he does not have what advantage. She was afraid to see him because she was afraid that it would come true. So we can know that she is very reluctant Strickland to come to her house for recuperating. The repetition of never and absolutely not both could reflect this feeling.（Zhao Dandan 2011,54）

====4.3 A Comparative Study on the Cultural Transmission====

The culture is very complicated and it refers to the entire way of life in the society. It involves many aspects that knowledge, art, law, translation and other habits in the society. Eugene Nida depicts the relationship between the culture and language in the translating practice like that in whole translating and interpreting, the source language and the target language should be implicitly or explicitly compared, but all such interlinguas communication extend far beyond the mechanizes of linguistic similarities and difference. The main reason is that the meaning of verbal symbols on every level depends on the communication of culture and language. The language also is a part of culture, and it is the most complicated part of the habits comparing the other culture factors. Language provides access to the culture, reflects culture and in the some aspects it constitutes a model of culture. Eugene Nida also indicates that if there were not so many misunderstandings about the language and the function within a society relation between the culture and the language couldn't constitute such difficulties for intersecting culture understanding.（Zhao 2011,55）

From Eugene Nida's perspective, the language and the culture are closely related. He thinks the words should denote to show the corresponding culture. The language is loaded by culture and the culture is expressed, transmitted, preserved and promoted by language. Thus the translator should take considerable account of the culture factors in their translation. That means the translators should try to find the closed equivalence in the translation of the culture connotation. The translation couldn't beyond the target language readers' acceptance or give them a distorted understanding. On the contrast, the translators need make sure their translations can enable the target language readers to accurately and adequately understand the source texts. "Eugene Nida considers culture as the totality of the beliefs and practices of a society, and classifies culture into five categories: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture." (Nida 1964,91)

===5. Conclusion===

====5.1 Evaluation of the Two Chinese Versions====

Through the comparison of the two papers, I prefer to Li Jihong's version. It is more closed to modern reading habits. In this version, functional equivalence is used in many place, which not only the pursuit of literal meaning but the pursuit of the original expression of emotion. By comparing Li Jihong's version, the Fu Weici's version is more reflecting the equivalence of the meaning and sometimes pursuit the equivalence of words. On the other hand, the two versions differ 19 years. With the change of time, cultural background and the reader's preferences also changed. By comparing, the latter's translation is more closed to modern readers' reading habit. More accurately, the latter is more in line with my reading habits.

To summarize, the author hopes that this study may contribute a little to the research field of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' and its translation. What is done in this thesis is just an elementary study concerning translation strategy. There are much more needed to be explored in this field.

====5.2 The Limitation of Present Study====

As all above, this thesis has studied the translation of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' on the aspects on meaning, study and culture. Some examples are analyzed under each type of device to evaluate the two versions of translation based on the functional equivalence theory. However there are too much pages of these two translations, and just some parts of them are taken as examples to discuss in the study in the chapter three of this paper. Therefore, this study may not be comprehensive and it has to be confined due to the author's personal perspective and the limitation of research material and time.

===References===

*W.Somerset Maugham. The Moon and Sixpence[M].England: Vintage Classics Press, 2008-5-1.

*Halliday, M.A.K. Language Structure and Language Function[M].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2008.

*Nida, Eugene. On Translation[M]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Cooperation, 1984.

*Nida, Eugene. Toward a Science of Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.

*Halliday, M.A.K. An Introduction to Function Grammar [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2008.

*Nida, Eugene.A. & Jan De Ward. From One Language to Another[M]. Nashville: Thomas Nelson Inc, 1986.

*Nida, Eugene.A. Language, Culture and Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993.

*Ma Huijuan. A Study on Nida’s Translation Thery[M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2003.

*傅惟慈.月亮与六便士[M].上海：上海译文出版社，1994.

*李继宏.月亮与六便士[M].天津：天津人民出版社，2015.

*张东东，姜立维.功能翻译理论与应用笔译研究[M].黑龙江：哈尔滨工程大学出版社，2015-5.

*刘琼.“功能对等理论”指导下文化负载词的翻译--以《金翅雀》为例[D].北京：北京外国语大学，2016.

*孙致礼.关于我国翻译理论建设的几点思考[J]. 中国翻译, 2(1997).

*刘宓庆.当代翻译理论[M].北京: 中国对外翻译出版社， 2005.

*顾维勇.实用文体翻译[M].北京: 国防工业出版社, 2005.

*陈安琪.用奈达功能对等理论指导当代科技文本非技术部分的翻译[D].北京：北京外国语学院，2014.

*王佳.从功能对等理论看《爱玛》的翻译[J]. 2014（10）：31-33.

*赵丹丹.浅论奈达的功能对等理论[J]. 2011（03）：54-55.

*王德春.语言学概论[M].上海: 上海外语教育出版, 1997.

*马会娟.奈达翻译理论研究[M].北京: 中国对外翻译出版社，2003.

==Differences in style and language expression in Japanese-English narrative translation 谢子熠 Xie Ziyi==

--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 14:01, 9 December 2020 (UTC)

'''Abstract:''' When Japanese narrative texts translated into English, the translated versions often have different forms and syntax from the original texts. From the perspective of cognitive linguistics, it is thought that the difference in form and structure is due to the difference in cognitive practices of the actors who recognize and conceptualize the situation in the narrative as a linguistic expression. In the present paper, mainly based on Langacker 's theory, I argue that there are two opposing modes of situation recognition, one in which the conceptualize　perceives the situation objectively from outside and the other in which the conceptualize perceives it subjectively from inside the situation, and that before and after translation, the former is dominant in the English narrative and the latter in the Japanese This study confirms the fact that the trend appears in the trend. The paper concludes with the following points: (1) the present tense in the past-tense story, (2) the clarification of the person who experienced the situation (mainly the subject), and (3) the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words as useful objects for future contrastive analysis in Japanese and English.

'''Key words:''' Conceptualization, conceptualization, subject (gender), perspective, Japanese-English translation

'''1. Introduction'''

In one study, I contrasted Soseki Natsume's "I am a Cat" with its Chinese translation, focusing on the use of poses, and found that there were far more examples of translating the original passive sentence into the active voice than the reverse. This means that it is essentially a misuse (or non-use) of Chinese to express its context passively. It can be said that I consciously changed the form of expression to the Chinese form from the perspective that it would be a good fit. Even if the Japanese conception is natural for the passive, it may be an unnatural idea that does not fit in with the Chinese language. The same can be said for the translation of narrative text in Japanese and English. Japanese to English and vice versa. In both cases, the forms and syntax used in the translated language are often different from those in the original.

In one study, I contrasted Soseki Natsume's "I am a Cat" with its Chinese translation, focusing on the use of poses, and found that there were far more examples of translating the original passive sentence into the active voice than the reverse. This means that it is essentially a misuse (or non-use) of Chinese to express its context passively. It can be said that I consciously changed the form of expression to the Chinese form from the perspective that it would be a good fit. Even if the Japanese conception is natural for the passive, it may be an unnatural idea that does not fit in with the Chinese language. The same can be said for the translation of narrative text in Japanese and English. Japanese to English and vice versa. In both cases, the forms and syntax used in the translated language are often different from those in the original.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

This paper considers the above-mentioned problems in the translation of Japanese and English narrative texts within the framework of cognitive linguistics. In cognitive linguistics, every linguistic expression reflects the subject's interpretation of the situation it represents; in other words, the subject conceptualizes the situation it perceives on its own initiative, and the product of that interpretation is the linguistic expression. In other words, subjects conceptualize the situation they perceive on their own, and the product is their linguistic expression. If different forms of expression and syntax used to express the same situation before and after Japanese/English translation, the degree of subjectivity of the cognitive subject's interpretation is different.

This paper considers the above-mentioned problems in the translation of Japanese and English narrative texts within the framework of cognitive linguistics. In cognitive linguistics, every linguistic expression reflects the subject's interpretation of the situation it represents; in other words, the subject conceptualizes the situation it perceives on its own initiative, and the product of that interpretation is the linguistic expression. In other words, subjects conceptualize the situation they perceive on their own, and the product is their linguistic expression. If different forms of expression and syntax used to express the same situation before and after Japanese/English translation, the degree of subjectivity of the cognitive subject's interpretation is different.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Based on this concept, the present paper structured as follows. First, we mainly support previous studies and this "subjectivity" and "conceptualization" and their closely related "perspectives" and "perspectives". The concepts of cognitive linguistics that form the basis of the analysis are presented, and at the same time, these concepts are used as the basis for the analysis of Japanese and English. I will describe the differences in the style of situation recognition in the language. Next, we will describe them in the narrative sentences of Japanese and English. In the following section, we present the framework of "cognitive narrative" contrastive research, which is applied to the contrastive analysis of The following are some examples of the use of the present tense in past tense stories in Japanese and English narratives via translation use, the clarification of the cognoscenti, and the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. We have shown that differences found in English and that it is the style of situational awareness in Japanese and English differences. In addition, in Section 4, we will show a concrete example of this in the actual Japanese English Briefly presented with examples of analysis of the translation of narrative sentences, and in the final section as the cornerstone of the subsequent specific linguistic analysis. We shall describe the prospects. In other words, this thesis is the first of many Japanese English narrative texts and their adaptations in the future. Contrast analysis with the translated version and consider the stylistic and syntactic differences between the Japanese and English versions. In doing so, we will focus on the above perspectives from the framework of cognitive linguistics, and thus we will be able to translate the narrative text into Japanese and English The purpose is to describe the basis for trying to explore contributions to language typology in terms of it is.

Based on this concept, the present paper structured as follows. First, we mainly support previous studies and this "subjectivity" and "conceptualization" and their closely related "perspectives" and "perspectives". The concepts of cognitive linguistics that form the basis of the analysis are presented, and at the same time, these concepts are used as the basis for the analysis of Japanese and English. I will describe the differences in the style of situation recognition in the language. Next, we will describe them in the narrative sentences of Japanese and English. In the following section, we present the framework of "cognitive narrative" contrastive research, which is applied to the contrastive analysis.

The following are some examples of the use of the present tense in past tense stories in Japanese and English narratives via translation use, the clarification of the cognoscenti, and the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. We have shown that differences found in English and that it is the style of situational awareness in Japanese and English differences. In addition, in Section 4, we will show a concrete example of this in the actual Japanese English Briefly presented with examples of analysis of the translation of narrative sentences, and in the final section as the cornerstone of the subsequent specific linguistic analysis. We shall describe the prospects. In other words, this thesis is the first of many Japanese English narrative texts and their adaptations in the future. Contrast analysis with the translated version and consider the stylistic and syntactic differences between the Japanese and English versions. In doing so, we will focus on the above perspectives from the framework of cognitive linguistics, and thus we will be able to translate the narrative text into Japanese and English The purpose is to describe the basis for trying to explore contributions to language typology in terms of it is.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

'''2. Definitions of cognitive linguistic concepts'''

Since language is a product of human activities, it is not in itself independent of the language user. Rather, all linguistic expressions reflect the subjective and subjective interpretation of the language user subject. The "subject" is, specifically, the language in which a situation verbalized. It is the subject of conceptualization, and at the same time, it is the conceptualizer that interprets the situation that the linguistic expression represents. In other words, as a conceptualizer, the language user is the subject that first recognizes the situation around him or her, conceptualizes it subjectively, and then expresses it in language. Behind every linguistic expression, there is always a conceptualizer who interprets the situation it represents. Perspective" is a concept that focuses on the role of this conceptualizer. It includes (i) orientation, (ii) vantage point, (iii) directonality, (iv) how subjectively or objectively one interprets an entity (i.e., how subjectively or objectively It contains four elements: (anentity is construed). To recognize a situation, the conceptualizer stands on a standpoint and perceives the situation from there. The concept that encompasses the conceptualizer's standpoint and the direction of his or her gaze is the "viewpoint" (viewpoint). In other words, "viewpoint" is a concept that encompasses not only the position from which one looks at an object, but also the extent to which one interprets an object as subject-object. The subject interprets the situation by focusing on the subjectively selected perspective, and reflects it in words. And then individual language expressions are produced on that basis.

Since language is a product of human activities, it is not in itself independent of the language user. Rather, all linguistic expressions reflect the subjective and subjective interpretation of the language user subject. The "subject" is, specifically, the language in which a situation verbalized. It is the subject of conceptualization, and at the same time, it is the conceptualizer that interprets the situation that the linguistic expression represents. In other words, as a conceptualizer, the language user is the subject that first recognizes the situation around him or her, conceptualizes it subjectively, and then expresses it in language.

Behind every linguistic expression, there is always a conceptualizer who interprets the situation it represents. Perspective" is a concept that focuses on the role of this conceptualizer. It includes (i) orientation, (ii) vantage point, (iii) directonality, (iv) how subjectively or objectively one interprets an entity (i.e., how subjectively or objectively It contains four elements: (anentity is construed). To recognize a situation, the conceptualizer stands on a standpoint and perceives the situation from there. The concept that encompasses the conceptualizer's standpoint and the direction of his or her gaze is the "viewpoint" (viewpoint). In other words, "viewpoint" is a concept that encompasses not only the position from which one looks at an object, but also the extent to which one interprets an object as subject-object. The subject interprets the situation by focusing on the subjectively selected perspective, and reflects it in words. And then individual language expressions are produced on that basis.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In cognitive linguistics, these concepts considered to produce linguistic expressions, and it is known that the subject that produces the linguistic expressions perceives the situation in various cognitive modes when it conceptualizes the situation. There are cases in which the subject grasps the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, and there are cases in which the subject grasps the situation as a part of the situation. There are also cases in which the situation is grasped as neither subject nor object, but rather as an existence that forms the situation. In other words, depending on the perspective of the subject, the same situation can be interpreted in several ways.

In cognitive linguistics, these concepts considered to produce linguistic expressions, and it is known that the subject that produces the linguistic expressions perceives the situation in various cognitive modes when it conceptualizes the situation. There are cases in which the subject grasps the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, and there are cases in which the subject grasps the situation as a part of the situation. There are also cases in which the situation is grasped as neither subject nor object, but rather as an existence that forms the situation. In other words, depending on the perspective of the subject, the same situation can be interpreted in several ways.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Based on the above conceptualization and discussion, I will confirm the facts that have been pointed out in the previous Japanese/English contrastive studies. It has been said that English is a language that prefers objective expressions, while Japanese is a language that prefers subjective expressions. While English native speakers tend to grasp the situation objectively, Japanese native speakers tend to grasp the situation subjectively. Unlike English native speakers, Japanese native speakers tend to place themselves in a situation and directly grasp the situation as a whole by feeling it with their own bodies. In Japanese, there are many linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings that reflect this kind of cognition of a situation. In other words, in English, linguistic expressions that reflect a point of view taken outside of a situation are prototypical, and linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings established through the special process of manifesting conceptual operations. On the other hand, at least in Japanese, it is more prototypical to take a point of view into a situation and express a subjective and subjective understanding of the situation through it.

Based on the above conceptualization and discussion, I will confirm the facts that have been pointed out in the previous Japanese/English contrastive studies. It has been said that English is a language that prefers objective expressions, while Japanese is a language that prefers subjective expressions. While English native speakers tend to grasp the situation objectively, Japanese native speakers tend to grasp the situation subjectively. Unlike English native speakers, Japanese native speakers tend to place themselves in a situation and directly grasp the situation as a whole by feeling it with their own bodies.

In Japanese, there are many linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings that reflect this kind of cognition of a situation. In other words, in English, linguistic expressions that reflect a point of view taken outside of a situation are prototypical, and linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings established through the special process of manifesting conceptual operations. On the other hand, at least in Japanese, it is more prototypical to take a point of view into a situation and express a subjective and subjective understanding of the situation through it.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Furthermore, the following facts have been identified as characteristic characteristics of the linguistic representation of Japanese stories. There are two attitudes to narrative expression in Japanese writing: one is to explain the development of the situation from the standpoint of an observer, and the other is to describe it as such from the author's point of view. In addition, there is a proactive narrative attitude of accepting events from the point of view of the characters in the story. Moreover, one is allowed to use them all at will, sometimes even shifting to a different level of narrative attitude. For example, in addition to the author, there may be another person in the story, and the story described from that person's point of view. In other words, there is a shift in perspective in the relationship between the two parties in the story. In other words, there is a shift in point of view from a bystander to a character in the story. In other cases, when explaining a topical scene, the author does not look down on the overall geographical situation with the eyes of a bystander, but rather passively perceives the scene from his own point of view within the realm of the story. Here, too, we can see the peculiarity of the Japanese language way of thinking. In any case, what is prototypical in the Japanese language is a mode of situational awareness that conceptualizes and expresses a situation from a point of view within the context of a situation.

Furthermore, the following facts have been identified as characteristic characteristics of the linguistic representation of Japanese stories. There are two attitudes to narrative expression in Japanese writing: one is to explain the development of the situation from the standpoint of an observer, and the other is to describe it as such from the author's point of view. In addition, there is a proactive narrative attitude of accepting events from the point of view of the characters in the story. Moreover, one is allowed to use them all at will, sometimes even shifting to a different level of narrative attitude. For example, in addition to the author, there may be another person in the story, and the story described from that person's point of view.

In other words, there is a shift in perspective in the relationship between the two parties in the story. In other words, there is a shift in point of view from a bystander to a character in the story. In other cases, when explaining a topical scene, the author does not look down on the overall geographical situation with the eyes of a bystander, but rather passively perceives the scene from his own point of view within the realm of the story. Here, too, we can see the peculiarity of the Japanese language way of thinking. In any case, what is prototypical in the Japanese language is a mode of situational awareness that conceptualizes and expresses a situation from a point of view within the context of a situation.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

'''3. Cognitive Narrative Theory'''

Before going into a specific translation analysis of Japanese and English narrative sentences, it is necessary to describe here the basic idea of cognitive narrative theory as its foundation.

If we define narrative as a formal text in which a speaker, who is a cognitive subject, manipulates the narrator to convey the situation he or she grasps (constructs) to the receiver, the problematic aspect of cognitive narrative theory is how the cognitive subject perceives and expresses the event or event. From this perspective, it can be said that the perspective of how we perceive a situation plays an important role in narrative structure. Even when describing the same object, the way of describing it differs depending on the viewpoint from which the object viewed. The narrative world reflects the dynamic cognitive process of the subject presenting that world. This kind of cognitive process is created by the subject's mode of interpretation, such as viewpoint projection, gaze movement/transformation, etc. The subject's cognitive processes constrain various aspects of narrative representation, including form and structure.

Before going into a specific translation analysis of Japanese and English narrative sentences, it is necessary to describe here the basic idea of cognitive narrative theory as its foundation.

If we define narrative as a formal text in which a speaker, who is a cognitive subject, manipulates the narrator to convey the situation he or she grasps (constructs) to the receiver, the problematic aspect of cognitive narrative theory is how the cognitive subject perceives and expresses the event or event. From this perspective, it can be said that the perspective of how we perceive a situation plays an important role in narrative structure. Even when describing the same object, the way of describing it differs depending on the viewpoint from which the object viewed. The narrative world reflects the dynamic cognitive process of the subject presenting that world. This kind of cognitive process is created by the subject's mode of interpretation, such as viewpoint projection, gaze movement/transformation, etc. The subject's cognitive processes constrain various aspects of narrative representation, including form and structure.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

If we apply Nishitaya's cognitive narrative theory, a study of Japanese and English narrative texts in terms of translation and contrast will ultimately depend on the differences in cognitive styles between languages, how the subject and conceptualizer of a situation perceives and expresses the situation in language, as well as the form of expression and syntax before and after translation. It can be considered to make a difference above. Hence, in the following, we will first describe typical human cognitive styles and then identify which cognitive style predominantly adopted by Japanese and English as the dominant language. If differences in the predominant tendency of the cognitive style of the situation reflected in both languages clarified, it can be a basis for differences in the forms and syntax produced before and after translation of the same situation.

If we apply Nishitaya's cognitive narrative theory, a study of Japanese and English narrative texts in terms of translation and contrast will ultimately depend on the differences in cognitive styles between languages, how the subject and conceptualizer of a situation perceives and expresses the situation in language, as well as the form of expression and syntax before and after translation. It can be considered to make a difference above. Hence, in the following, we will first describe typical human cognitive styles and then identify which cognitive style predominantly adopted by Japanese and English as the dominant language. If differences in the predominant tendency of the cognitive style of the situation reflected in both languages clarified, it can be a basis for differences in the forms and syntax produced before and after translation of the same situation.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

'''4. Findings from translation studies'''

As mentioned above, the subjective interpretation of the translator enters into the translation. It is impossible in principle for a source text to be objectively interpreted, objectively represented in its meaning, and objectively textualized in the target language on the basis of these objective representations. The act of translation is (1) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the individual translator, which is subject to the indeterminacy of meaning, and (2) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the translator. That is to say, there is an inherent indeterminacy of interpretation of the original text itself, as well as of the linguistic structure of its expression in the target language. Second, at the micro level, the habitus acquired by the individual translator in the professional field of translation plays a role as a control factor and influences the translator's disposition to act in a greater or lesser degree. There are also translation instructions and power dynamics from publishers and clients, as well as political, social, and cultural macro-contextual factors (the main ones being "norms" and "purpose," which will be discussed below) that are behind the translator's disposition to translate. At the same time, the indeterminacy and subjective bias of the translator inherent in the act of translation will inevitably lead to different results in the translation. Therefore, when we make a translation into a counter-language study, we need to pay attention to the (1) linguistic and social actions of the translation act, and (2) the interpretive tendencies of the individual translator.

As mentioned above, the subjective interpretation of the translator enters into the translation. It is impossible in principle for a source text to be objectively interpreted, objectively represented in its meaning, and objectively textualized in the target language on the basis of these objective representations. The act of translation is (1) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the individual translator, which is subject to the indeterminacy of meaning, and (2) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the translator. That is to say, there is an inherent indeterminacy of interpretation of the original text itself, as well as of the linguistic structure of its expression in the target language.

Second, at the micro level, the habitus acquired by the individual translator in the professional field of translation plays a role as a control factor and influences the translator's disposition to act in a greater or lesser degree. There are also translation instructions and power dynamics from publishers and clients, as well as political, social, and cultural macro-contextual factors (the main ones being "norms" and "purpose," which will be discussed below) that are behind the translator's disposition to translate. At the same time, the indeterminacy and subjective bias of the translator inherent in the act of translation will inevitably lead to different results in the translation. Therefore, when we make a translation into a counter-language study, we need to pay attention to the (1) linguistic and social actions of the translation act, and (2) the interpretive tendencies of the individual translator.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The following is a summary of the changing trends in translation studies. There are two aspects of translation: linguistic action and social action, and theories have been shifting their analysis from the former to the latter. Theories that focus on the linguistic action of translation are the linguistic stages of translation studies: equivalence, translation shift, translation strategies, and text-type theory. When socio-actionality was added to these theories, Scopos theory, register analysis, systems theory, and normative theory were developed, which became the next generation of the linguistic stage. However, as translation studies experienced a "cultural and ideological turn" from its textual analysis-centered era, it began to focus on "translation as rewriting," "translation of gender," "postcolonial translation theory," "(non)visibility of translation," and "power networks of translation," among others. This covers not only translation but also the social, cultural, and historical significance and role of the social practice of representation. In recent years, research has also focused on "people," with a focus on the translator's life history and life story, and an analysis of how the individual translator's habitus affects the translation. To summarize this trend, we can see a shift from (1) focusing on the linguistic action of translation to (2) social action, and (3) research that takes into account the interpretive tendencies of individual translators.

The following is a summary of the changing trends in translation studies. There are two aspects of translation: linguistic action and social action, and theories have been shifting their analysis from the former to the latter. Theories that focus on the linguistic action of translation are the linguistic stages of translation studies: equivalence, translation shift, translation strategies, and text-type theory. When socio-actionality was added to these theories, Scopos theory, register analysis, systems theory, and normative theory were developed, which became the next generation of the linguistic stage.

However, as translation studies experienced a "cultural and ideological turn" from its textual analysis-centered era, it began to focus on "translation as rewriting," "translation of gender," "postcolonial translation theory," "(non)visibility of translation," and "power networks of translation," among others. This covers not only translation but also the social, cultural, and historical significance and role of the social practice of representation. In recent years, research has also focused on "people," with a focus on the translator's life history and life story, and an analysis of how the individual translator's habitus affects the translation. To summarize this trend, we can see a shift from (1) focusing on the linguistic action of translation to (2) social action, and (3) research that takes into account the interpretive tendencies of individual translators.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

On the basis of the above, let's first discuss the aforementioned case of Ikegami (2007) in the context of translation studies. For now, the case of Snow Country can be reduced to the issue of equivalence and shift. The concept of equivalence itself is disputed and has been defined and characterized in numerous ways (see Pym 2010, pp. 7-42), but I will operationally define it as the same linguistic and cultural value between the source and target texts. Five levels can be assumed for this equivalence: word level, phrase level, grammatical level, textual level (thematic progression and cohesion), and pragmatic level (Baker 1992), and this paper will mainly focus on the grammatical level. The "shift" is a linguistic shift between the source and target texts due to structural differences between the source and target languages (Catford 1965). In this connection, "conversion operations" refer to various operations to achieve a translation shift, either obligatory because of linguistic structure, or selective in order to achieve target language identity or certain stylistic effects.

On the basis of the above, let's first discuss the aforementioned case of Ikegami (2007) in the context of translation studies. For now, the case of Snow Country can be reduced to the issue of equivalence and shift. The concept of equivalence itself is disputed and has been defined and characterized in numerous ways (see Pym 2010, pp. 7-42), but I will operationally define it as the same linguistic and cultural value between the source and target texts. Five levels can be assumed for this equivalence: word level, phrase level, grammatical level, textual level (thematic progression and cohesion), and pragmatic level (Baker 1992), and this paper will mainly focus on the grammatical level. The "shift" is a linguistic shift between the source and target texts due to structural differences between the source and target languages (Catford 1965). In this connection, "conversion operations" refer to various operations to achieve a translation shift, either obligatory because of linguistic structure, or selective in order to achieve target language identity or certain stylistic effects.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Let's apply this to the case of Ikegami (2007). If we assume that there is a certain situation objectively portrayed in the original text, then if we can faithfully reproduce that situation in the target text, we have achieved an "equivalent" translation. However, because of the difference in linguistic structure between Japanese and English, and the different grammatical categories that must be expressed as linguistic expressions, obligatory conversion operations must be performed to conform to the linguistic norms of the target language (for example, the subject is zeroed in Japanese, but in English it is basically, because the subject is obligatory, do the operation of making the subject stand up).

Let's apply this to the case of Ikegami (2007). If we assume that there is a certain situation objectively portrayed in the original text, then if we can faithfully reproduce that situation in the target text, we have achieved an "equivalent" translation. However, because of the difference in linguistic structure between Japanese and English, and the different grammatical categories that must be expressed as linguistic expressions, obligatory conversion operations must be performed to conform to the linguistic norms of the target language (for example, the subject is zeroed in Japanese, but in English it is basically, because the subject is obligatory, do the operation of making the subject stand up).

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In practice, however, there is a process of chronological translation involved, which means that there are more than just static differences in linguistic structure. (1) The translator first interprets the source text (interpretation; a situation from the words). Then, (2) based on this interpretation, he or she contextualizes it in the target language (construal).

In practice, however, there is a process of chronological translation involved, which means that there are more than just static differences in linguistic structure. (1) The translator first interprets the source text (interpretation; a situation from the words). Then, (2) based on this interpretation, he or she contextualizes it in the target language (construal).

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

'''5. Subject's Perspective and Style of Situational Awareness in Japanese and English'''

In general, there are two kinds of opposing modes of conceptualizer subject's perception of a situation.

''Form A. Subject (C) grasps a situation (O) in which it is not a participant from outside the situation, corresponding to Langacker's optimal viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "objective grasping," and Nakamura's "D mode.

''Form B. The subject (C) enters a situation and grasps its situation (O), corresponding to Langacker's egocentric viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "subjective grasping" and Nakamura's "I-mode".

In general, there are two kinds of opposing modes of conceptualizer subject's perception of a situation.

''Form A. Subject (C) grasps a situation (O) in which it is not a participant from outside the situation, corresponding to Langacker's optimal viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "objective grasping," and Nakamura's "D mode.

''Form B. The subject (C) enters a situation and grasps its situation (O), corresponding to Langacker's egocentric viewing arrangement, Ikegami's "subjective grasping" and Nakamura's "I-mode".

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In terms of these viewpoint arrays, English tends to prefer the optimal viewpoint array and Japanese tends to prefer the egocentric viewpoint array.
When the subject takes a perspective, as in Form B, where the language subject enters a situation that is the object of conceptualization and interprets it subjectively and subjectively, the degree of subjectivity is very high in the language expression reflecting that subjectivity, e.g., in (1) a. below. On the other hand, when the subject interprets the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, as in Form A, the linguistic expressions reflecting the subjectivity of the subjectivity are less subjective (or in other words, more objective), such as b. and c. below. In b., the existence of the subject as a reference point is explicitly stated, but here the subject "conceptually splits" itself up and objectively perceives another real self in the situation from outside the situation. In other words, the speaker plays the role of both the subject of conceptualization and the object of conceptualization. In contrast, in c., the subject, as the subject of the conceptualization, perceives it objectively from the outside without entering the object of the conceptualization. Therefore, c. has a lower degree of subjectivity than b. It is the linguistic expression that expresses the most object-oriented meaning among the three linguistic expressions. The degree of subjectivity reflected in each linguistic expression depends on the degree to which the linguistic expression reflects the subjective and subjective interpretation of the subject. In other words, differences in the degree of subjectivity based on each cognitive style embodied in differences in the form and syntax of the resulting language expressions.

In terms of these viewpoint arrays, English tends to prefer the optimal viewpoint array and Japanese tends to prefer the egocentric viewpoint array.
When the subject takes a perspective, as in Form B, where the language subject enters a situation that is the object of conceptualization and interprets it subjectively and subjectively, the degree of subjectivity is very high in the language expression reflecting that subjectivity, e.g., in (1) a. below. On the other hand, when the subject interprets the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, as in Form A, the linguistic expressions reflecting the subjectivity of the subjectivity are less subjective (or in other words, more objective), such as b. and c. below. In b., the existence of the subject as a reference point is explicitly stated, but here the subject "conceptually splits" itself up and objectively perceives another real self in the situation from outside the situation.

In other words, the speaker plays the role of both the subject of conceptualization and the object of conceptualization. In contrast, in c., the subject, as the subject of the conceptualization, perceives it objectively from the outside without entering the object of the conceptualization. Therefore, c. has a lower degree of subjectivity than b. It is the linguistic expression that expresses the most object-oriented meaning among the three linguistic expressions. The degree of subjectivity reflected in each linguistic expression depends on the degree to which the linguistic expression reflects the subjective and subjective interpretation of the subject. In other words, differences in the degree of subjectivity based on each cognitive style embodied in differences in the form and syntax of the resulting language expressions.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

⑴ a. Vanessa is sitting across the table.
b. Vanessa is sitting across the table from me.
c. Vanessa is sitting across the table from Veronica.
（深田・仲本2008：171-172）

As seen in the present example, multiple linguistic expressions based on cognitive styles with different degrees of subjectivity are possible in English as well, but as mentioned earlier, style A tends to be used relatively more often than style B.
I will now mention what Langacker calls the "stage model". The "stage model" is a cognitive model that idealizes the meaning of linguistic expressions and the typical positioning of "speakers". According to this model, the speaker typically observes what is on the stage from the outside and encodes the conceptualization of it into a linguistic representation. In this case, the speaker is the "subject" of the concept and the object of expression is the "object" of the conceptualization, and their roles completely separated. In other words, we can say that the speaker's perspective is "off-stage". From this point of view, subjectivization is a phenomenon in which the speaker that not directly depicted, but rather the speaker that is non-explicitly incorporated into part of the semantic structure of the object of description (the object). In other words, in subjectivized, highly subjective linguistic expressions, the speaker's perspective is "on-stage". A relative comparison between English and Japanese shows that the "off-stage" type is more prevalent in English forms and syntax, while the "on-stage" type is more prevalent in Japanese.

As seen in the present example, multiple linguistic expressions based on cognitive styles with different degrees of subjectivity are possible in English as well, but as mentioned earlier, style A tends to be used relatively more often than style B.

I will now mention what Langacker calls the "stage model". The "stage model" is a cognitive model that idealizes the meaning of linguistic expressions and the typical positioning of "speakers". According to this model, the speaker typically observes what is on the stage from the outside and encodes the conceptualization of it into a linguistic representation. In this case, the speaker is the "subject" of the concept and the object of expression is the "object" of the conceptualization, and their roles completely separated.

In other words, we can say that the speaker's perspective is "off-stage". From this point of view, subjectivization is a phenomenon in which the speaker that not directly depicted, but rather the speaker that is non-explicitly incorporated into part of the semantic structure of the object of description (the object). In other words, in subjectivized, highly subjective linguistic expressions, the speaker's perspective is "on-stage". A relative comparison between English and Japanese shows that the "off-stage" type is more prevalent in English forms and syntax, while the "on-stage" type is more prevalent in Japanese.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Next, let us look at the two cognitive modes presented by Nakamura. This is also true for Japanese and English. Tendentious differences which is found according to Nakamura, from the aspect of subjectivity, there are two types of human perception of the situation, two modes of cognition, and each syntax (linguistic representation) is thought to reflect one of these two modes more strongly. The first is called "I-mode" (situationally attuned cognitive mode), which is the predominant mode in Japanese for situational perspective; in relation to Langacker, it is "on-stage" and is often viewed as "situation-centered" and the speaker is the participant in the situation (S-perspective). Also, because the perspective is within the situation, it is "direct experience" and its expression is "non-reporting" in that it is experiential and not reportive in tone. These are exactly the features that have been revealed to predominant in the linguistic expressions of Japanese narrative sentences. In contrast, the "D-mode" (cognitive mode from outside the situation) is the predominant mode in English that places the perspective outside the situation; in relation to Langacker, it is an "off-stage" and "out-of-situation" mode, so the perspective is literally "extrinsic" and "external" to each participant in the situation, which will be the focus of attention (the "person-centered" view, O-Perspective). Thus, the expression is "reportive". These are, if anything, the predominant features of linguistic representation in English narrative writing.

Next, let us look at the two cognitive modes presented by Nakamura. This is also true for Japanese and English. Tendentious differences which is found according to Nakamura, from the aspect of subjectivity, there are two types of human perception of the situation, two modes of cognition, and each syntax (linguistic representation) is thought to reflect one of these two modes more strongly. The first is called "I-mode" (situationally attuned cognitive mode), which is the predominant mode in Japanese for situational perspective; in relation to Langacker, it is "on-stage" and is often viewed as "situation-centered" and the speaker is the participant in the situation (S-perspective).

Also, because the perspective is within the situation, it is "direct experience" and its expression is "non-reporting" in that it is experiential and not reportive in tone. These are exactly the features that have been revealed to predominant in the linguistic expressions of Japanese narrative sentences. In contrast, the "D-mode" (cognitive mode from outside the situation) is the predominant mode in English that places the perspective outside the situation; in relation to Langacker, it is an "off-stage" and "out-of-situation" mode, so the perspective is literally "extrinsic" and "external" to each participant in the situation, which will be the focus of attention (the "person-centered" view, O-Perspective). Thus, the expression is "reportive". These are, if anything, the predominant features of linguistic representation in English narrative writing.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The predominant cognition in Japanese, where the speaker interacts with the situation/object, is the situation-based cognition, or "I-mode," which is a subjective cognition in which the speaker and the experiencer assimilate (and thus the speaker himself becomes the cognitive subject). In other words, it is a state in which the cognitive subject and the object of cognition fused together, which called "subject-object unity. On the other hand, the cognitive mode of objective recognition of a situation/object, which is dominant in English, is the extrinsic cognitive mode, or the "D-mode", which does not presuppose the interaction between the subject and the situation/object. This is characterized by the point that the cognitive subject goes outside the interactive cognitive field and takes a viewpoint as if it were viewed objectively from the outside. In that sense, this one is a "separation of subject and guest," so to speak, against the former.

The predominant cognition in Japanese, where the speaker interacts with the situation/object, is the situation-based cognition, or "I-mode," which is a subjective cognition in which the speaker and the experiencer assimilate (and thus the speaker himself becomes the cognitive subject). In other words, it is a state in which the cognitive subject and the object of cognition fused together, which called "subject-object unity. On the other hand, the cognitive mode of objective recognition of a situation/object, which is dominant in English, is the extrinsic cognitive mode, or the "D-mode", which does not presuppose the interaction between the subject and the situation/object. This is characterized by the point that the cognitive subject goes outside the interactive cognitive field and takes a viewpoint as if it were viewed objectively from the outside. In that sense, this one is a "separation of subject and guest," so to speak, against the former.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The Japanese language has a self-centered viewpoint arrangement and Mode I dominance, while the English language has an optimal viewpoint arrangement and Mode D dominance, and for this reason, the following differences in linguistic expressions expected to appear in the narrative as a tendency. This difference in cognitive mode is thought to be the basis of the different structures and forms of expression in translation, which may lead to the selection of linguistic expressions, and thus to the differences in expression between the source and target texts.

The Japanese language has a self-centered viewpoint arrangement and Mode I dominance, while the English language has an optimal viewpoint arrangement and Mode D dominance, and for this reason, the following differences in linguistic expressions expected to appear in the narrative as a tendency. This difference in cognitive mode is thought to be the basis of the different structures and forms of expression in translation, which may lead to the selection of linguistic expressions, and thus to the differences in expression between the source and target texts.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The reason for (1) and (2) in the Japanese language, where the I-mode is predominant, is that the narrator describes the situation in a way that puts him or her in it. The following argument about the frequent use of the present tense in Japanese narrative writing will also reinforce this point. The underlined part of the sentence is only possible when the narrator puts himself in the situation.

The reason for (1) and (2) in the Japanese language, where the I-mode is predominant, is that the narrator describes the situation in a way that puts him or her in it. The following argument about the frequent use of the present tense in Japanese narrative writing will also reinforce this point. The underlined part of the sentence is only possible when the narrator puts himself in the situation.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The use of the non-present present tense effectively moves past events to the present moment, so the reader or listener can re-experience the story.
The use of the present tense in Japanese narratives has the effect of giving immediacy, making the reader feel the suspense and assimilate into the author's inner world in the time in which the story is going on.

The use of the non-present present tense effectively moves past events to the present moment, so the reader or listener can re-experience the story.
The use of the present tense in Japanese narratives has the effect of giving immediacy, making the reader feel the suspense and assimilate into the author's inner world in the time in which the story is going on.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The reason for (3) is that onomatopoeia and mimetic words are situationally relevant forms of expression. In general, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently in Japanese than in English and other languages. In Japanese, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently than in English and other languages, such as "pochan" and "shito", respectively. A linguistic expression that expresses the phenomenon in its entirety, without the need for the subject to enter into the situation and adhere to it. If we consider that a situation cannot be grasped as a whole unless the subject enters into the situation and follows it closely, we can say that Japanese onomatopoeia and mimetic words are linguistic expressions expressing subjective meanings that manifest the existence of the subject who recognizes and interprets the situation subjectively. Therefore, they can be considered to be forms reflecting the I-mode. In Japanese narratives, which are much richer in onomatopoeia and mimetic words than in English, the I-mode is dominant.

The reason for (3) is that onomatopoeia and mimetic words are situationally relevant forms of expression. In general, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently in Japanese than in English and other languages. In Japanese, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently than in English and other languages, such as "pochan" and "shito", respectively. A linguistic expression that expresses the phenomenon in its entirety, without the need for the subject to enter into the situation and adhere to it. If we consider that a situation cannot be grasped as a whole unless the subject enters into the situation and follows it closely, we can say that Japanese onomatopoeia and mimetic words are linguistic expressions expressing subjective meanings that manifest the existence of the subject who recognizes and interprets the situation subjectively. Therefore, they can be considered to be forms reflecting the I-mode. In Japanese narratives, which are much richer in onomatopoeia and mimetic words than in English, the I-mode is dominant.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

'''6. Japanese and English Narrative Sentence Contrastive Analysis'''

In order to confirm the previous discussion, I will look at and analyze the actual narrative text in Japanese and English through translation. The purpose of this paper is to examine how the cognitive style of the situation in the narrative texts of Japanese and English before and after translation reflected in the linguistic expressions and how it leads to the differences in the linguistic expressions in Japanese and English, especially in the three points mentioned in the previous section. The quantitative and quantitative data analysis itself will be done another time due to space constraints. Therefore, in this section, we will limit ourselves to a fact-finding exercise.

In order to confirm the previous discussion, I will look at and analyze the actual narrative text in Japanese and English through translation. The purpose of this paper is to examine how the cognitive style of the situation in the narrative texts of Japanese and English before and after translation reflected in the linguistic expressions and how it leads to the differences in the linguistic expressions in Japanese and English, especially in the three points mentioned in the previous section. The quantitative and quantitative data analysis itself will be done another time due to space constraints. Therefore, in this section, we will limit ourselves to a fact-finding exercise.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

First, let's see how explicit and non-explicit tenses and situation recognizers in past-tense narratives differ between Japanese and English, depending on the conceptualizer's perspective. These perspectives correspond to those of (1) and (2) in the previous section. I will use Kawabata Yasunari's novel Yukiguni (Snow Country) and its English translation as the subject matter. From the previous discussion, it can be seen that the degree of subjectivity increases as we go from 1. to 4. below. In other words, 1. is the typical D-mode, which is dominant in English, and 4. is the typical I-mode, which is dominant in Japanese.

First, let's see how explicit and non-explicit tenses and situation recognizers in past-tense narratives differ between Japanese and English, depending on the conceptualizer's perspective. These perspectives correspond to those of (1) and (2) in the previous section. I will use Kawabata Yasunari's novel Yukiguni (Snow Country) and its English translation as the subject matter. From the previous discussion, it can be seen that the degree of subjectivity increases as we go from 1. to 4. below. In other words, 1. is the typical D-mode, which is dominant in English, and 4. is the typical I-mode, which is dominant in Japanese.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

1.Past tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "Off Stage”
2.Past tense, experienced non-explicit, perspective. "Off Stage”
3.Present tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "On Stage”
4.Present tense, experienced person non-explicit, point of view. "On Stage”

1.Past tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "Off Stage”
2.Past tense, experienced non-explicit, perspective. "Off Stage”
3.Present tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. "On Stage”
4.Present tense, experienced person non-explicit, point of view. "On Stage”

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

⑵ a. …女はぷいと窓へ立っていって国境の山々を眺めたが、そのうちに頰を染めて、…
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)
b. She stood up abruptly and went over to the window, her face reddening as she looked out at the mountains.
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)

⑶ a. …島村が内湯から上がって来ると、もう全く寝静まっていた。古びた廊下は彼の踏む度にガラス戸を微かに鳴らした。その長いはずれの帳場の曲り角に、裾を冷え冷えと黒光りの板の上へ拡げて、女が高く立っていた。
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)
b. ...and by the time Shimamura had come up from the bath the place seemed to be asleep. The glass doors rattled slightly each time he took a step down the sagging corridor. At the end, where it turned past the office, he saw the tall figure of the woman, her skirts trailing coldly off across the dark floor.
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)

⑷ a. …島村はなぜかそれが心のどこかで見えるような気持ちもする。
(Present tense; empiricist explicit: the conceptualizer's Perspective is "On Stage”.)
b. Somewhere in his heart Shimamura saw a question, as clearly as if it were standing there before him.
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)

⑸ a. 島村はその方を見て、ひょっと首を縮めた。鏡の奥が真白に光っているのは雪である。その雪のなかに女の真赤な頰が浮んでいる。
(Present tense; empiricist non-explicit: the conceptualizer's perspective is "On stage”.)
b. Shimamura glanced up at her, and immediately lowered his head. The white in the depths of the mirror was the snow, and floating in the middle of it were the womanʼs bright red cheeks.
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)

⑵ a. …女はぷいと窓へ立っていって国境の山々を眺めたが、そのうちに頰を染めて、…
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)
b. She stood up abruptly and went over to the window, her face reddening as she looked out at the mountains.
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)

⑶ a. …島村が内湯から上がって来ると、もう全く寝静まっていた。古びた廊下は彼の踏む度にガラス戸を微かに鳴らした。その長いはずれの帳場の曲り角に、裾を冷え冷えと黒光りの板の上へ拡げて、女が高く立っていた。
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)
b. ...and by the time Shimamura had come up from the bath the place seemed to be asleep. The glass doors rattled slightly each time he took a step down the sagging corridor. At the end, where it turned past the office, he saw the tall figure of the woman, her skirts trailing coldly off across the dark floor.
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)

⑷ a. …島村はなぜかそれが心のどこかで見えるような気持ちもする。
(Present tense; empiricist explicit: the conceptualizer's Perspective is "On Stage”.)
b. Somewhere in his heart Shimamura saw a question, as clearly as if it were standing there before him.
(Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)

⑸ a. 島村はその方を見て、ひょっと首を縮めた。鏡の奥が真白に光っているのは雪である。その雪のなかに女の真赤な頰が浮んでいる。
(Present tense; empiricist non-explicit: the conceptualizer's perspective is "On stage”.)
b. Shimamura glanced up at her, and immediately lowered his head. The white in the depths of the mirror was the snow, and floating in the middle of it were the womanʼs bright red cheeks.
(Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; conceptualizer's perspective is "Off-stage”.)

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

From the above example, it can be seen that the English translation has a reduced degree of subjectivity in its form compared to the original Japanese.
Now let's look at the perspective in the previous section (3), i.e., examples of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. The following is the original English text of Hemingway's "The Old Man and the Sea" and its translation into Japanese, in which the situation is expressed subjectively in Japanese as onomatopoeia and mimetic words, respectively. In the Japanese translation, the subject's point of view penetrates into the situation and which is closely connected to it to understand the situation as a whole. In this respect, it can be said that the degree of subjectivity of the cognizant subject is relatively greater than in English.

From the above example, it can be seen that the English translation has a reduced degree of subjectivity in its form compared to the original Japanese.
Now let's look at the perspective in the previous section (3), i.e., examples of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. The following is the original English text of Hemingway's "The Old Man and the Sea" and its translation into Japanese, in which the situation is expressed subjectively in Japanese as onomatopoeia and mimetic words, respectively. In the Japanese translation, the subject's point of view penetrates into the situation and which is closely connected to it to understand the situation as a whole. In this respect, it can be said that the degree of subjectivity of the cognizant subject is relatively greater than in English.

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

⑹ a. ...and he loved to walk on them on the beach after a storm and hear them pop when he stepped on them with the horny soles of his feet.
b. また彼は嵐のあとなど、海岸に打ちあげられた浮袋を、角のように硬くなった踵で踏みつけては、それがプスッ、プスッと音をたてるのをききながら歩くのが好きだった。

⑺ a. In the dark, the old man could feel the morning coming and as he rowed he heard the trembling sound as flying fish left the water and the hissing that their stiff set wings made as they soared away in the darkness.
b. 老人は暗黒のうちに朝の近寄る気配を感じとっていた。飛魚が水を離れるときに生じるブルンという音、その硬い翼が暗い空をよぎるヒューという音、オールを操りながら老人はそれらの物音をはっきりききとっていた。

⑻ a. It floated cheerfully as a bubble with its long deadly purple filaments trailing a yard behind it in the water.
b. 黒ずんだ紫色の細い糸が水中に一ヤードも尾を引いていたが、それはまるで水泡のように、のんきにふわふわと漂っていた。

⑼ a. The bird went higher in the air and circled again, his wings motionless.
b. 鳥はさらに上空めがけて舞いあがり、ふたたびぐるぐる輪を描きはじめた。

'''7. Conclusion'''

In this paper, the framework and considerations of the contrastive study of Japanese and English narrative texts through translation are presented from the perspective of cognitive linguistics, with a particular focus on the concepts of "perspective" and "subjectivation," and some of the possibilities, methods, and examples of the analysis of linguistic representations of situation recognition in Japanese and English narrative texts have been seen. In particular, the contrastive analysis of Japanese and English The analysis from the standpoint of the opposition between the self-centered viewpoint arrangement and the optimal viewpoint arrangement proposed by Langacker, the I-mode and the D-mode proposed by Nakamura, and the subjective and objective grasping that Ikegami advocates seems to be effective, but it is necessary to collect data and attempt a quantitative analysis of more works in the future. In particular, with regard to item (1) of section 3, the position of the conceptualizer's point of view differs between the past and present tenses, with the former in the off-stage and the latter in the on-stage. Also, the item (2) in section 3, i.e., whether or not the perceiver of the situation is explicitly stated in the linguistic representation, may be explained by whether or not it is profiled in the direct scope. Further data analysis is needed to verify these as well. It should be noted that this Japanese-English controlled study may contribute to the further advancement of Nakamura's "cognitive typology".

In this paper, the framework and considerations of the contrastive study of Japanese and English narrative texts through translation are presented from the perspective of cognitive linguistics, with a particular focus on the concepts of "perspective" and "subjectivation," and some of the possibilities, methods, and examples of the analysis of linguistic representations of situation recognition in Japanese and English narrative texts have been seen. In particular, the contrastive analysis of Japanese and English The analysis from the standpoint of the opposition between the self-centered viewpoint arrangement and the optimal viewpoint arrangement proposed by Langacker, the I-mode and the D-mode proposed by Nakamura, and the subjective and objective grasping that Ikegami advocates seems to be effective, but it is necessary to collect data and attempt a quantitative analysis of more works in the future. In particular, with regard to item (1) of section 3, the position of the conceptualizer's point of view differs between the past and present tenses, with the former in the off-stage and the latter in the on-stage. Also, the item (2) in section 3, i.e., whether or not the perceiver of the situation is explicitly stated in the linguistic representation, may be explained by whether or not it is profiled in the direct scope. Further data analysis is needed to verify these as well. It should be noted that this Japanese-English controlled study may contribute to the further advancement of Nakamura's "cognitive typology".

--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

'''Bibliography:'''

[1] 川端康成『雪国』、岩波書店、1952年.

[2] Kawabata Yasunari Snow Country. translated by Edward G. Seidensticker, Charles E. Tuttle Company, 1957.

[3] Hemingway Ernest The Old Man and the Sea. Kodansha International, 1991.

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==The Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Communication 莫南 Mo Nan,202020080627,比较文学==
'''文化负载词在中英交流中的翻译'''
'''摘要：'''文化负载词是民族文化智慧的结晶，蕴含着深厚的民族文化遗产。文化负载词的准确翻译不仅可以促进跨文化交际的顺利进行，而且有助于传播民族文化，保持民族特色，促进各民族之间的友好交流。尽管文化负载词的翻译存在困难，但它仍然是可译的。前进模型、块模型、标注模型、集成模型和自适应模型是有效的转换模型;直译、意译和音译都是有效的翻译策略。译者应根据不同情况选择合适的翻译模式和翻译策略。
'''关键词：'''文化负载词，翻译，交际

'''Abstract:''' Culture-loaded words are the crystallization of national cultural wisdom and contain deep national cultural heritage. Accurate translation of culture-loaded words can not only promote smooth cross-cultural communication, but also help spread national culture, maintain national characteristics and promote friendly exchanges among ethnic groups. Although there are difficulties in translation of culture-loaded words, it is still translatable. The go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models; literal translation, liberal translation and transliteration are all effective translation strategies. Translators should choose the appropriate translation models and strategies in different situations.

'''Key words:''' Culture-loaded words; translation, communication

As we all know, translation plays an important role in intercultural communication. A good translator can help to promote the communication between two different cultures. With the process of globalization, intercultural communication is becoming more and more frequent. However, there exist plenty of cultural differences between different cultures, especially between the East and the West. Cultural differences make it hard for translators to translate well. Culture-loaded words belong to one of the differences between different cultures. Therefore, it is of great significance to be aware of the appropriate translation of culture-loaded words. This is because it can help translators translate better and thus make two different cultures communicate better.

'''1 Introduction'''
Culture refers to all the activities of a nation, including clothes, food, production, education, law, politics, customs, historical allusions, temperament and emotion, modes of thinking, values, religious mentality and many other factors. Language is one of the most fundamental systems of culture, with the function of storing, describing, expressing and spreading cultural information. Vocabulary, as the basic unit of language, is the most direct reflection of the cultural factors.
Culture-loaded words are words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations. Culture-load words have strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, and in the language system they can best reflect the cultural information carried and inherited by language and the social life of human beings. Culture-loaded words are important carriers to reflect national culture, and they are a special kind of information text, which has both textual meaning and rich cultural connotation.
Nowadays, economic and cultural exchanges among various ethnic groups are becoming more and more frequent. In order to better promote friendly exchanges between Chinese and Western nations, eliminate cultural barriers and conflicts caused by cultural differences, and smoothly carry out cross-cultural communication, it is especially important to understand national cultures and characteristics, especially to study the translation of culture-loaded vocabularies.

'''2 Definition, Classification and Translatability of Culture-loaded Words'''
'''2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words'''
Since Professor Xu Guozhang (1980) published “Culture Loaded Words and English Language Teaching” in Modern Foreign Languages, the study of culture-loaded words has attracted great attention from the academic circles. However, scholars in China have different opinions on the definition of culture-loaded words. In his book Contemporary Western Translation Theory, Liao Qiyi (2000) argues that it “refers to the words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations.” This kind of vocabulary carries a lot of cultural information and is very regional and national, i.e. “culture-loaded words”. Some scholars inherited and developed Mr. Liao’s definition, for example, Hu Wenzhong (1999) pointed out that “culture-loaded words are vocabularies of a specific cultural category, which are directly or indirectly reflected in the vocabulary level of national culture”. Since then, some scholars have argued that culture-loaded words are the phenomenon of lexical vacancies, that is, cultural information in the source language cannot find a corresponding word in the target language.
Culture-loaded words signify the changes of a country and a nation. In both domestic and foreign social life, culture-loaded words are a kind of words that cannot be ignored, which are conducive to the export of local culture and the introduction of foreign culture, so as to achieve the purpose of communication and integration between different cultures. The connotation of culture-loaded words determines that they have many distinctive features. The first characteristic is that it is very rich in meaning. In different contexts, it can express ever-changing and rich meanings. The second characteristic is that its usage is very flexible. It can not only play a significant role in longer and more complex sentences, but also play a similar role as a metaphor in short and sharp sentences. The third characteristic is that it is short and flexible. A few words can express a customary thing, so it can be applied separately to news and notifications, while ensuring that it does not deviate from the subject of news or notifications.
'''2.2 Classification of Culture-loaded Words'''
The classification of culture-loaded words is as diverse as the definition of it, but most scholars classify culture-loaded words on the basis of cultural categorization. Wang Rongpei (2002) classifies culture-loaded words into eight categories based on various aspects of human life: political words, social words, color words, legendary allusion words, human body words, animal and plant words, food words, and other words. Based on the classification of cultural factors in language by the famous American translation theorist Eugene A. Naida, Li Xuejun (2015) classifies culture-loaded words into material culture words, ecological culture words, linguistic culture words, social cultural words and religious culture words. The words themselves are characterized by generality, ambiguity and ethnicity in their meanings, an they are constantly changing with the development of society. The vocabulary is rich and the classification standards are difficult to unify, which hinders the classification of culturally loaded words.
'''2.3 Translatability of Culture-loaded Words '''
On the question of whether culture is translatable, Steiner, a well-known translation theorist, argues that “Human commonalities make translation possible” (2001: 259). Translatability and untranslatability is a crucial issue for translation studies to establish its principles and make it an independent discipline. Firstly, to deny the translatability of translation is essentially to deny the ability of language to express and describe the unknown. Secondly, untranslatability originates from the limited knowledge and ability of the translator, which is actually unknowable. Thirdly, translation cannot be classified as untranslatable just because it is difficult. The so-called untranslatable actually means that when the source language is translated into the target language, the loss of the source language is great. In addition, it is believed that only by understanding the differences between national cultures and acknowledging the translatability of culture-loaded words, can we effectively communicate with each other and achieve the goal of communication. Translatability is the mark of human language, and the development of human language and culture is built on the basis of translatability, without which there is no way to talk about human cultural exchange.
Due to the great linguistic and cultural differences between the source culture and the translated culture, the translator can only translate on the basis of making the translation as close to the original as possible. The translation of culture-loaded words should follow the following principles (Liao Qiyi, 2000): a. the reproduction of the meaning of the original words is better than the reproduction of the form; b. the context in which the original words are used must be taken into account in the choice of words; c. the key implied meaning of the original words should be converted into non-implied meaning in the translation. All these principles require us to: a. translate the connotation of the original language; b. pay attention to the cultural context of the original language; c. transform the more difficult cultural vocabulary in the original text into easily acceptable vocabulary in the target language. In view of this, when dealing with culture-loaded words, it is important for the content of the translation to be faithful to the original, but the cultural connotation should be paid more attention to. A translation without cultural connotation will make the readers of a different language get a wrong understanding.
'''3 Difficulties in the translation of culture-loaded words'''
'''3.1 Differences in Worldview and Ideology'''
Worldview refers to how people perceive the universe, nature, and how they perceive the relationship between humans and nature. As such, it affects all aspects of human perception, such as beliefs, ideas and behaviors. Chinese and Western cultures with different worldviews may contain different values and perceptions of the same objective thing. Generally speaking, China emphasizes unity, while the West emphasizes independence, which is the biggest difference between China and the West in terms of worldview. For example, the Chinese preach “harmony is precious” and advocate and glorify “collectivism”. However, Western culture focuses on individual independence, individual freedom and individual rights. It encourages people to realize and express themselves, believing that “everyone is unique”.
'''3.2 Differences in the Natural and Geographical Environment'''
Language is a reflection of the objective world in real life, and the environment in which people live produces the languages they speak. In the process of producing and developing a language, any nation is influenced to varying degrees by the geographical environment and climatic conditions in which it lives. Therefore, differences in the natural and geographical environment are also important factors in the formation of different culture-loaded words. For example, the true meaning of the phrase “east wind” and “west wind” in Chinese is very different from that in English. The “east wind” in the minds of the Chinese is warm and can make the grass and trees grow, similar to the spring wind. Because China’s topography is high in the west and low in the east, facing the sea in the east. In China, the east wind is given the cultural connotation of “vitality”, “spring”, “new life” and so on. In the Chinese winter, however, the northwest wind from Siberia is bitterly cold and harsh. In the West, for example, in the United Kingdom, the east wind comes from the northern part of the European continent and is extremely cold, while the west wind from the Atlantic Ocean is warm, humid and pleasant. This is why the famous English poet Shelley’s lyrical poem Ode to the West Wind appeared.
'''3.3 Differences in Historical Culture'''
There are significant differences in the historical culture backgrounds of China and the West. China’s feudal ruling system lasted for more than 3,000 years, and before 1840, China’s traditional philosophical thinking was mainly based on Confucianism, with the addition of Taoism. In the West, for example, the United Kingdom has been developing in the transition to capitalism since 1640. Due to the different historical development backgrounds of the two cultures, their cultural differences are also reflected in the use of words. For example, the English idiom “is it necessary to use a steam hammer to crack nuts?” means “no need to make a fuss”, which is equivalent to the Chinese saying “why use a cow's knife when killing a chicken? (杀鸡焉用牛刀)”. This idiom shows that Britain had entered the industrial age, while China was still in a backward production based on agriculture.
'''3.4 Differences in Religious Beliefs'''
China is a country that mainly believes in Buddhism, and Buddhism has a very wide influence in people’s social life. For example, the Chinese idioms “菩萨心肠”, “跑得了和尚跑不了庙”, “临时抱佛脚” and “借花献佛” are accompanied by connotations of Chinese culture, which are difficult for Westerners to understand. In the West, religion occupies an extremely important position in social life, thought and culture, and is one of the main characteristics of Western culture. For example, for the Chinese, the “End of World” can easily be understood as a terrifying moment when a catastrophe is imminent and mankind is about to be destroyed. However, for Westerners, it does not mean terror, but it means that one day the world will finally end, and everyone will accept God’s final judgment, which means that the time for justice is coming.
'''4 Approaches to Translate Culture-loaded Words'''
'''4.1 Translation on the Macro Basis of the Values of the Source Language Region'''
The word “worldview” encompasses a large category that reflects people’s understanding of the universe, the world, nature and the relationship between human beings and nature. At the same time, the influence of worldview is also very broad and significant. It affects people’s recognition of the value of things, and influences the way people perceive and think about things. Therefore, if someone want the translation of culture-loaded words to make the target readers feel the same as the readers in the source language, he or she should translate them on the premise of understanding the worldview and values of the source language.
'''4.2 Explanation of the Social and Historical Background and Religious Culture'''
The English-speaking countries of the West believe in the spirit and values transmitted by the ancient Greek and Roman cultures, while China mainly believes in the spirit transmitted by the Confucian culture, which also includes the spirit of Taoist culture. China has a history and culture of 5,000 years, more than half of which has been ruled by the feudal monarchy, while the feudal system in Western countries was established later and developed mainly towards capitalism after the Industrial Revolution. Such differences will be shown in the English vocabulary, so in the translation of culture-loaded words, explanation of the different social and historical backgrounds and religious and cultural beliefs is very necessary.
'''4.3 Understanding of the Natural and Humanistic Environment'''
The differences in the natural environment between the East and the West have a very important impact on the differences in English and Chinese culture-loaded words. For example, “east wind” in China means a good implied meaning, whereas “east wind” in the western population means desperate. It is mainly caused by geographical environment factors and climate factors in the east and west. The humanistic environment here refers mainly to customs and habits, and more specifically in the appellation of relatives and the use of honorific expressions. Easterners pay more attention to respect and courtesy, while Westerners emphasize equality.
'''4.4 Guided by the Semantic Basis of the English-Chinese Culture-loaded Words'''
Through various comparative studies between English and Chinese, linguists have found that there are four main types of culture-loaded words: vacancy words, conflict words, reciprocity words and iterative words. Among them, iterative words are divided into two types, one is words with the same meaning but different shapes, and the other is words with the same shape but different meanings. For example, in English, “red” (红) is not only used as “red”, but also as “black” (black tea 红茶) and “brown” (brown sugar 红糖) in some fixed words. It is a common phenomenon that people associate the same word with different meanings. For example, in the West, the English word “dog” is used in a sentence describing a person to express praise. While from the Chinese people’s perspective, the word “dog” is often used in a derogatory way, such as “走狗” (flunky/lackey).
'''5 Translation Models of Culture-loaded Words'''
Each language has many words that are used to express its own specific cultural concepts, and their signified is the clearest only in a particular cultural context. The problem of translation may arise once one moves out of a specific cultural context into one that is quite different from one’s own. The principle of translating culture-loaded mainly depends on the cultural background of the source language, the social background, the translator’s cultural concept and the cultural acceptance mentality of the targeted readers, and other factors, which are closely related and mutually reinforcing. In dealing with the translation of culture-loaded words, translators can take the following models.
'''5.1 Go-ahead Model'''
The go-ahead model refers to the direct entry of cultural expressions from the source language into the translation. Many cultural words are translated with the go-ahead model, which means that transliteration or literal translation is used in translation. There are transliterated words such as microphone, yin and yang, sofa, fans and the literal translation of words such as hot dog and three representations.
'''5.2 Block Model'''
The cultural expression of the source language fades away and its cultural meaning is not adopted by the targeted culture, which is the cultural block or block model. Some cultural words are blocked from the target language culture because of the limitation of language function. The most obvious example is some expressions that express self-effacement in Chinese, such as “鄙人”, “拙文” and “贵姓”. Even in the title of an article, people will often find expressions such as “浅谈”, “初探” and “刍议” to indicate one’s immature views. In addition, there are also some honorific expressions, such as “令堂”, “大作”, and “光临”, etc. When translating into English, the cultural connotations of such expressions can be appropriately reflected in the context of China, but it is not necessary to translate every word, i.e., the cultural connotations of the Chinese language can be blocked.
'''5.3 Annotation Model'''
Annotation model refers that the target language provides information about the cultural context of the source language cultural expression, that is, the method of interpretation of the target language provides a little but important context or situational information for foreign cultural concepts in the target language. For example, cynicism, as a foreign word, is one of the four major philosophical schools of ancient Greece, represented by the figure of Diogenes of Sinop. There is no existing equivalent in Chinese. At that time, the philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism seemed to behave, speak, act and even live in a way that was uninhibited, unscrupulous and shameless, but they were loyal, reliable, sensitive and clear-cut, which were very similar to some characteristics of dogs. So people call these philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism as “犬儒”.
'''5.4 Integration Model'''
The integration model refers to the fusion of cultural expressions in the source language and the target language, which enters the target language in a novel linguistic form. Obviously, the integration model is closely related to the openness of different cultures and the frequency of interaction. The terms “X-ray”, “typeB ultrasonic”, “T-shirt” and “Coca Cola” imported from the Western seem to be named directly in Chinese. This kind of translation method that integrates transliteration and free translation is undoubtedly an effective way for foreign culture to integrate into the target language culture.
'''5.5 Adaption Model'''
When the cultural expression of the source language is omitted and replaced by a translated one, the cultural meaning of the source language disappears, which is the process of adaption model. The domestication translation method aims to minimize the exoticism in the translation and provide a natural and smooth translation for the target language readers, according to Venuti (1995). The cultural domestication model is usually used together with the annotation model when it is used to translate cultural words. For example, the English expression for “拳击练习” is “shadow boxing”. If it is borrowed to express “太极拳” in Chinese, the word “Chinese” must be added before the expression to become “Chinese shadow boxing”.
'''6 Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words'''
'''6.1 Literal Translation: to Convey Cultural Connotations'''
As the name implies, "literal translation" is the direct conversion of the meaning and structure of the source language words into the target language words, including literal translation and literal translation with annotations. Human beings live on the same earth, and although there are huge differences between Chinese and English national cultures, there are also certain similarities. For some Chinese-English culture-loaded words, the literal translation method can not only retain the cultural connotation of the source language words, but also transmit them to the target language culture, thus achieving the cross-cultural communication purpose of cultural exchange.
There are many examples of literal translation in both Chinese and English languages, and almost no trace of translation can be seen, reflecting the successful fusion of Chinese and Western cultures. For example, “fast food” in English is directly translated as “快餐”, and “all roads lead to Rome” is translated as “条条大路通罗马”. In English, there are also vocabulary expressions directly translated from Chinese, such as “paper tiger (纸老虎)”, “one country, two systems (一国两制)”, and “keep pace with the times (与时俱进)” and so on. The above examples vividly illustrate that appropriate literal translation of culture-loaded words can not only maintain the unique national flavor of the source language vocabulary, but also enrich the vocabulary of the target language to a certain extent, provided that the literal translation does not cause misunderstanding among the target language readers.
The Chinese traditional culture is broad and profound, and the Chinese language is full of words with strong cultural connotations. In order to better retain the connotation and flavor of these culture-loaded words, and to make the traditional culture of the Chinese nation acceptable to the whole world, the translators very often adopt the literal translation method for such words. For example, “四书” is translated as “Four Books”, “五经” as “Five Classics”, “文房四宝” as “Scholar’s Four Jewels”, “龙舟” as “Dragon Boat” and “剪纸” as “paper-cut”, and so on. This kind of literal translation can preserve the profound connotation and infinite charm of traditional Chinese culture in the process of cross-cultural communication between East and West.
'''6.2 Free Translation: to Seek Functional Equivalence'''
Due to different cultural backgrounds and ways of thinking, there are many culture-loaded words with specific connotations in both Chinese and English languages, and if a literal translation is used, it is likely to cause misunderstanding among the target language readers and even cultural conflicts. Therefore, the translation of these words can be used to seek functional equivalence of the free translation method, without pursuing the language form of the source language, only to convey the meaning of the source language. As the name implies, free translation means translating according to the meaning of the words. The advantage of the free translation method is that the translator is not limited by the construction pattern of the words, and translators can translate by inferring the deeper meaning and cultural connotation of the words in the source language. Take the typical Chinese dishes with strong Chinese culture as an example, if the expressions such as “四喜丸子”, “醉蟹” and “红烧狮子头” directly translated into English in literal translation, they will definitely make foreign guests who do not understand Chinese culture feel more confused. Therefore, when translating the names of such Chinese dishes into English, the principle of free translation should be followed, indicating the ingredients and the method of preparation, so that foreigners can easily understand and accept them. For example, “红烧狮子头” could be translated as “braised pork ball in brown sauce”, “四喜丸子” as “braised pork balls in gravy” and “蚂蚁上树” as “vermicelli with spicy minced pork”, and so on.
In addition, there are many idioms containing historical allusions in Chinese. Such culturally loaded words cannot find the corresponding cultural connotations in English. If they are literally translated, they will often find it difficult for target language readers who know little about Chinese history and culture. In this case, it is a wise choice for translators to adopt free translation. For example, “悬梁刺股” can be translated as “to be extremely hard-working in one’s study”, “东施效颦” as “crude imitation with ludicrous effect”, and “塞翁失马，焉知非福” as “a loss may turn out to be a gain”, and so on.
By the same token, there are some words in English that are closely related to the characteristics of their national culture, but these words in Chinese do not have similar cultural connotations. In ancient England, the land was mainly ploughed by horses, so there are many slang expressions related to “horse” in English. However, the image of “horse” has no similar associative meaning in Chinese, so when translating from English to Chinese, one should only need to explain its meaning. For example, “horse doctor” can be translated as “蹩脚医生”, “horse sense” as “基本常识” and “work for a dead horse” as “徒劳无益”, and so on.
'''6.3 Transliteration: to Preserve Cultural Identity'''
Transliteration is a translation method that is parallel to literal translation and free translation, and it has an irreplaceable function in certain situations. According to Jin Huikang (2003), translators should not use words with different concepts because of vocabulary vacancies, and he points out that “the most prominent role of transliteration is that it can overcome the expression barriers brought about by linguistic and cultural gaps, bridge the two languages, spread foreign cultures, reduce the loss of information in translation, and thus promote language and cultural communication.” The two languages of Chinese and English have absorbed a large number of foreign words from each other, and these foreign words retain the unique cultural personality of the source language vocabulary. Foreign words are the inevitable product of cultural exchange and integration, and to a certain extent, they are the result of translators’ transliteration strategies in translation activities. The purpose of translation is to break through the language barrier between the source language and the target language and promote effective cross-cultural communication. Therefore, for some words carrying the cultural characteristics of the native language, the translator uses the translation strategy of transliteration or transliteration with annotation, which is effective in preserving the cultural characteristics of the source language words and integrating them into the cultural system of the target language, so that the target language readers can understand the foreign culture to the maximum extent and promote cultural intercommunication and integration.
There are many words in Chinese that are directly transliterated from English culture-loaded words, such as “沙发” (sofa), “汉堡” (hamburger), “吉他” (guitar), “爵士” (jazz) and “麦克风” (microphone). Accordingly, there are a large number of culture-loaded words in Chinese that have been transliterated into English. Most of them are everyday words with Chinese cultural characteristics, cultural specific items and some words related to Chinese politics. For example, “tofu” (豆腐), “chowmein” (炒面), “litchi”(荔枝), “fengshui” (风水), “wushu” (武术) and “erhu” (二胡) in English are all directly transliterated from Chinese culture-loaded words.
When some vocabularies are first introduced into the English context, the target language readers are not familiar with their cultural connotations, so it is difficult for them to be understood only by transliteration. Therefore, the method of transliteration with annotation is adopted, which not only preserves the cultural characteristics of Chinese words through transliteration, but also enables the target language readers to clearly understand their meanings through annotation. With the in-depth development of cross-cultural communication between East and West and the increase of Western understanding of Chinese culture, the annotation of these culture-loaded words can be omitted and only transliteration can be used. For example, for the Chinese term “阴阳”, translators initially adopted the strategy of transliteration with annotation to translate it, that is, “yin and yang, the two opposing principles in nature, the former feminine or negative, the latter masculine or positive”. Nowadays, most western readers have already understood the cultural connotation of “阴阳”, so many translators directly transliterate it as “yin and yang”.
'''7 Conclusion'''
Culture is national, special and complex. As a special linguistic phenomenon, “culture-loaded words” are rich in cultural connotations and record the influence and penetration of a nation on language in various aspects. This poses a challenge to translators, who are required to be flexible in dealing with culture-loaded words. American scholar Venuti (1992) advocates the use of resistant translation to reveal the gap between the original culture and the target culture, in contrast to the previous reader-centered domestication or transparent translation methods. When translating culture-loaded vocabularies,the original culture should be taken as the core, and the national characteristics of the original culture should be preserved in the translation process, which is respectful of the original culture on the one hand, and meets the requirements of translation standards on the other hand.
In a word, the go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models for culture-loaded words; literal translation, free translation and transliteration are effective translation strategies for overcoming culture-loaded word translation barriers. As to which translation model and translation strategy to choose, the translator should make a decision at the right time according to different situations. Every model and strategy has its advantages and limitations, but the translator should be flexible in choosing the right one to make the translation as meaningful and effective as possible.
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