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20220112 final exam

2021-12-29T06:52:18Z

Zhong Yifei: /* History of Translations */

20220112 final exam

2021-12-29T06:49:35Z

Zhong Yifei: /* History of Translations */

20211020 homework

2021-12-29T06:46:38Z

Zhong Yifei: /* 钟义菲 Zhōng Yìfēi 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081553 */

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==陈静 Chén Jìng 国别女 202020080595==

太宗曾多次谕令“金、汉之人都要读书”，认为发展文教裨益于国家治理，而翻译和讲解汉文书籍则是旗人教育中的重要环节。[] 罗振玉：《天聪朝臣工奏议》，北京：中国人民大学出版社，1989年，第13页。为推进旗人教育，给朝廷选拔人才，太宗又对汉人进行考试，“分别优取”，赏以银两或差事。

The Emperor Taizong(Li Shiming) repeatedly ordered that the people of Jin and Han should be educated, believing that the development of culture and education is beneficial to national governance, and the translation and interpretation of Chinese books is an important part of education for Bannermen.(Luo Zhenyu. The Proposal From the Courtier During the Tiancong Period. Beijing : Renmin University Press, 1989, p. 13.). In order to promote the education of the Bannermen and select talents for the court, Emperor Li carried out examinations among the Han people to select the excellent and rewarded them with money or jobs.--[[User:Chen Jing|Chen Jing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jing|talk]]) 08:48, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

Taizong has repeatedly ordered that "people of Jin and Han Dynasties should study", believing that the development of culture and education is beneficial to national governance, and the translation and interpretation of Han books is an important link in the education of Manchu. [] Luo Zhenyu: Memorial of Tiancong courtiers, Beijing: China Renmin University Press, 1989, P. 13. In order to promote the education of the Manchu and select talents for the imperial court, Taizong also conducted an examination of the Han people, "selected the best respectively" and rewarded them with silver or errand.
--[[User:Cai Zhufeng|Cai Zhufeng]] ([[User talk:Cai Zhufeng|talk]]) 10:57, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

==蔡珠凤 Cài Zhūfèng 日语语言文学女 202120081477==

太祖、太宗等人的支持使得清初之际的汉籍翻译蔚然成风，且旗人教育为之一变，为后来的旗学设立和旗学教育营造了条件。旗学之兴及其翻译人才培养之定位。顺治朝以后，随着政权推进和时局变化，入关之初所谓“满洲、蒙古、汉军皆通国语”的情况不复存在，新任官吏中因为语言不通导致政务受阻者，成渐长之势。

The support of Taizu, Taizong and others made Han books’s translation popular in the early Qing Dynasty, and the education of Manchu changed, which created conditions for the establishment and education of Manchu. The flourish of Manchu studies and the orientation of translation talent training. After the Shunzhi Dynasty, with the advancement of the political power and the change of the current situation, the so-called "Manchuria, Mongolia and the Han army all know the national language" at the beginning of entering Han no longer exists. Among the new officials, those whose government affairs are blocked due to linguistic barrier have gradually grown.
--[[User:Cai Zhufeng|Cai Zhufeng]] ([[User talk:Cai Zhufeng|talk]]) 16:53, 16 October 2021 (UTC)

The support of Taizu, Taizong and others made Han books’s translation popular in the early Qing Dynasty, and the education of Manchu changed, which created conditions for the establishment and education of Manchu. The flourish of Manchu studies and the orientation of translation talent training. After the Shunzhi Dynasty, with the advancement of the political power and the change of the current situation, the so-called "Manchuria, Mongolia and the Han army all know manchu language" at the beginning of Qing’s army entering Central Plains no longer exists. Among the new officials, those whose government affairs are blocked due to linguistic barrier have gradually grown.--[[User:Zeng Junlin|Zeng Junlin]] ([[User talk:Zeng Junlin|talk]]) 11:00, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

==曾俊霖 Zēng Jùnlín 国别男 202120081478==

尤其是地方督抚等汉籍官员，凡遇到国书文移，往往都不认识，只能委任“内三院”中通晓翻译的笔帖式，代为办理。[] 昭梿：《啸亭杂录》，北京：中华书局，1980年，第254页。但代为办理自有其弊，如“猜疑推诿”等，因而如何解决旗人读书，为国家培养语言人才，便成为当务之急。

In particular, Chinese officials including local governors often don't know the imperial decrees declared by the Cabinet, so they can only appoint translators in the "three courts of Cabinet" to handle it on their behalf. (Zhao Lian: Records of Howling Pavilion, Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1980, P. 254.) However, it has its own disadvantages, such as "suspicion and prevarication". Therefore, how to solve the problem of studying for the people of Eight Banners and cultivate language talents for the country has become a top priority.--[[User:Zeng Junlin|Zeng Junlin]] ([[User talk:Zeng Junlin|talk]]) 01:44, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

Expescially Chinese officials including the local governors often don't know the imperial decrees declared by the Cabinet, so they can only appoint translators in the "three courts of Cabinet" to handle it on their behalf. (Zhao Lian: Records of Howling Pavilion, Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1980, P. 254.) However, it has its own disadvantages, such as "suspicion and prevarication". Therefore, how to solve the problem of studying for the people of Eight Banners and cultivating language talents for the country has become a mergent task.--[[User:Chen Huini|Chen Huini]] ([[User talk:Chen Huini|talk]]) 06:41, 20 October 2021 (UTC)Chen Huini

==陈惠妮 Chén Huìnī 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081479==

顺治元年，国子监祭酒李若琳（？-1651）上疏世祖，奏请效仿明初之制，扩大国子监的生员人数，为国家培养人才。摄政王多尔衮对此颁布圣谕，敕令不论满、汉官员，其子弟中有愿读清、汉书者，皆可入国子监学习。同年十一月，李若琳就太学事宜再次上奏，要求增补教官，并以“晷短途遥”为由，建议在各八旗辖地觅空房一所，设立书院，此即为八旗官学之始。[]

In the first year of Emperor Shunzhi, Directorate of Imperial Academy Li Ruoling （？-1651）submitted memorials to the throne to imitate the institution of the early Ming Dynasty, expanding the number of people who went to the Imperial College and cultivating talents for the country. Prince Regent Duoergun issued an edict that whoever the officers of Man or Han, anyone of them can study in the Imperial Academy as long as they were willing to learn the books and classics of Qing and Han. In the same year of November, Li Ruoling submitted to the Emperor again on the issue of school, proposing to add more instructaors. Because of the short white day and long distance, she also proposed to build School on the vacant room of every jurisdictional areas, which was the beginning of eight banners of official school. --[[User:Chen Huini|Chen Huini]] ([[User talk:Chen Huini|talk]]) 14:38, 16 October 2021 (UTC)Chen Huini

In the first year of Emperor Shunzhi（1644）, Directorate of Imperial Academy Li Ruoling （？-1651）submitted memorials to the throne to advise the imitation of institutions in the early years of Ming Dynasty.He suggested to larger the number of people who enrolled in the Imperial College and cultivate talents for the country. Prince Regent Duoergun issued an edict that whoever the officers of Man or Han, anyone of them can study in the Imperial Academy as long as they were willing to learn the books and classics of Qing and Han. In the same year of November, Li Ruoling submitted to the Emperor again on the issue of school, proposing to add more instructaors. Because of the short white day and long distance, she also proposed to build School on the vacant room of every jurisdictional areas, which was the beginning of eight banners of official school. --[[User:Chen Xiangqiong|Chen Xiangqiong]] ([[User talk:Chen Xiangqiong|talk]]) 10:18, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

==陈湘琼 Chén Xiāngqióng 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081480==

鄂尔泰等：《清实录·世祖章皇帝实录》，北京：中华书局，1985年，第112页。从顺治元年设立国子监八旗官学，到顺治九年设置宗学，再到康熙二十五年设立景山官学，以及雍正七年设立咸安宫官学，再到驻防各省八旗官学、义学和清文学等的相继设立，清代的旗学体系经历了从无到有，从零散到完备的发展过程。这些学校不仅教授涉及满洲根本及其文化特征的各种科目，如清语、骑射等，也教授翻译、汉书等科目，目的是在八旗满洲、蒙古和汉军中兴贤育才，将文、武学业综于一体，教导民族特质，并为朝廷培养治理人才，尤其是翻译专才。

Eertai et al. Chronicles of Qing Dynasty •Chronicles of Chongde Emperor [Z].Beijing: Chinese Publishing House, 1985:112）Since the construction of Guozijian Manchu Eight Banners Official School in 1644, many schools were built accordingly from Patriarchal school in 1653, Jingshan Official School in 1686, Xianangong Official School in 1729, to Provincial Manchu Eight Banners Official School, Yi School and Qing Literature School. School systems of Qing dynasty grew out of nothing and became perfect.These schools not only taught subjects rooting in Manchu culture like:Qing language, riding and shooting, but also taught translation and Han books.They aimed to encourage and educate talents and virtues, combine literature and martial arts, cultivate national features and develop officials with governability, especially with translation ability.--[[User:Chen Xiangqiong|Chen Xiangqiong]] ([[User talk:Chen Xiangqiong|talk]]) 09:23, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

Ertai et al. Chronicles of Qing Dynasty •Chronicles of Chongde Emperor [Z].Beijing: Chinese Publishing House, 1985, p. 112. From the first year of Shunzhi to set up the eight banners official school, to the ninth year of Shunzhi set up educational institutions for royal clan, to the 25th year of Kangxi set up Jingshan official school, as well as the seventh year of Yongzheng set up Xian'an Palace official school, and then stationed in the provinces of the eight banners official school, community-run schools charging no tuition and literature of Qing dynasty , etc. The banner school system in the Qing dynasty has undergone the development process from nonexistence to pass into existence, from fragmented to complete. These schools not only taught a variety of subjects involving the fundamental and cultural characteristics of Manchuria, such as Qing language, archery, etc., but also taught translation, Han books and other subjects. The purpose was to raise talents in the eight banners Manchurian, Mongolian and Chinese army. It was a combination of literature, martial arts, teaching national characteristics, and for the imperial court to cultivate governance talent, especially translation expertise.--[[User:Chen Xinyi|Chen Xinyi]] ([[User talk:Chen Xinyi|talk]]) 09:47, 18 October 2021 (UTC)

==陈心怡 Chén Xīnyí 翻译学女 202120081481==

鄂尔泰等修，李洵、赵德贵点校：《八旗通志·初集》，长春：东北师范大学出版，1986年，第895页。旗学教育的兴起是政治考量和文化统制的产物，从一开始便有着明确的目标性和指向性。一方面，它是为了培养和提升旗人的语言能力与文化素质；另一方面，则是为了培养旗人从事满、汉或满、蒙翻译，以及处理国家政务的能力。

Ertai et al., punctuation collated by Li Xun and Zhao Degui, "The Eight Banners - The First Collection", Changchun: Published by Northeast Normal University, 1986, p. 895. The rise of banner education was a product of political consideration and cultural unification, and had a clear goal and direction from the beginning. On the one hand, it is to cultivate and improve the language ability and cultural quality of banners; on the other hand, it is to cultivate banners to engage in translation between Manchu and Chinese or Manchu and Mongolian, as well as the ability to deal with state affairs.--[[User:Chen Xinyi|Chen Xinyi]] ([[User talk:Chen Xinyi|talk]]) 08:47, 18 October 2021 (UTC)
Ertai et al., punctuation collated by Li Xun and Zhao Degui, "The General Annals of the Eight Banners - The First Collection", Changchun: Published by Northeast Normal University, 1986, p. 895. The rise of the education of the Banners’ schools was a product of political consideration and cultural unification, and had a clear goal and direction from the beginning. On the one hand, it was to cultivate and improve the language ability and cultural quality of banners; on the other hand, it was to cultivate banners to engage in translation between Manchu and Chinese or Manchu and Mongolian, as well as the ability to deal with state affairs.--[[User:Cheng Yang|Cheng Yang]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yang|talk]]) 02:24, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

==程杨 Chéng Yáng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081482==

因而，和汉书翻译、翻译科考一样，旗学教育中也天然地植入了翻译课业与考课的成分。嘉庆四年，铁保奉敕修撰《八旗通志》，其中论及八旗官学的作用，认为旗学之重心在于儒家礼教，而非翻译，其中指出：至中人以上、以下，课以经义，则不能不从事于讲肄；从事于讲肄，则不能不读圣贤之书；读圣贤之书，则耳濡目染，渐至于心领神会，晓然于事理之是非。
Therefore, as in translation of books of the Han Dynasty and translation tests, the components of translation and examination were naturally implanted. In the fourth year of Jia Qing, a reign title of Qing Dynasty from 1796 to 1821, Tie Bao, in accordance with the emperor’s order, compiled ''the General Annuals of the Eight Banners'', which discussed the functions of official schools of Eight Banners, thought that the essential of Banners’ schools is Confucian etiquette, not translation. It pointed out: as for those with medium talents above or below, they had to learn the Confucian classics argumentation, then we must participate in lectures; if they wanted to participate in lectures, they had to read the book of sages; if they read the book of sages, they would be influenced by what one constantly sees and hears, and they would gradually understand the Confucian etiquette, then understand the truth of things right and wrong.--[[User:Cheng Yang|Cheng Yang]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yang|talk]]) 02:20, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

Therefore, as the translation of Han Books and translation tests, the components of translation lessons and examinations were naturally implanted in Banner Education. In the fourth year of Jia Qing, a reign title of Qing Dynasty from 1796 to 1821, Tie Bao, in accordance with the emperor’s order, compiled ''the General Annuals of the Eight Banners'' in which he discussed the functions of official schools of Eight Banners and thought that the core of Banner Education is Confucian etiquette rather than translation. He pointed out: as for those with medium talents above or below, they had to learn the Confucian classics argumentation and they must participate in lectures; if they wanted to participate in lectures, they had to read the book of sages; if they read the book of sages, they would be influenced by what one constantly sees and hears, and they would gradually understand the Confucian etiquette and quite distinguish the correctness and falsity of things. --[[User:Ding Xuan|Ding Xuan]] ([[User talk:Ding Xuan|talk]]) 07:26, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

==丁旋 Dīng Xuán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081483==

事君必能知大义，临事亦必能知大体，即其限於材质，不能大成者，亦可娴于礼教，明於廉耻，凜然不敢妄为，而不失开国敦庞之旧俗。[] 铁保等：《钦定八旗通志》，台北：台湾商务印书馆，1983年，第2-3页。铁保的说法不是没有道理，但旗学目的与功能的转向，反映的不是旗学教育对于翻译教学的剥离与舍弃。

One can show his loyalty to the emperor he serves and pay attention to the interests of the whole when coping with matters. Though he could not obtain great achievements for his disability, he can be acquainted with courtesy and distinguish probity and corruption well. He definitely dare not do everything at his will, which is conducive to maintaining the old conventions since the foundation of this country. Tie Bao: ''King James Instituted the Eight Banners'', Taibei: Taiwan Commercial Press, 1983, P2-P3. Tie Bao’s argument is not unreasonable, but the shift of Banner Education’s purpose and function did not reflect the peeling and abandonment for translation teaching. --[[User:Ding Xuan|Ding Xuan]] ([[User talk:Ding Xuan|talk]]) 03:05, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

One can show his righteousness and pay attention to the interests of the whole when coping with matters. Though he could not obtain great achievements for his disability, he can be proficient with courtesy and distinguish probity and corruption well. He definitely dare not act recklessly and abandon the old conventions since the foundation of this country. Tie Bao: ''General Annal of the Eight Banners Made by Imperial Order'', Taibei: Taiwan Commercial Press, 1983, P2-P3. Tie Bao’s argument is not unreasonable, but the shift of Banner Education’s purpose and function had not reflected the stripping and abandonment from translation teaching. --[[User:Du Lina|Du Lina]] ([[User talk:Du Lina|talk]]) 06:31, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

==杜莉娜 Dù Lìnà英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081484==

恰恰相反，旗学教育之所以偏重儒教而非翻译，正是因为长期以来旗学教育中重视汉族文化与汉籍翻译的传统所致。换言之，正是因为旗学中长期使用汉籍满文译本作为教学内容，使得八旗官学生逐渐被汉族文化浸染，导致思维取向和价值观念发生变化。同时，频密、深刻的民族交往使得满族旗人的汉语能力日益提升，翻译能力因之渐长，而无需在旗学教育中专门培养。

On the contrary,the reason why the education of Manchu focused on Confucianism rather than translation is that for a long time it had attached Chinese cultures and translation of Chinese books as importance. In other words,long using translation of Chinese books by Manchu as teaching contents, the officers of the Manchu Eight Banners and students had been gradually influenced by Chinese cultures,which has resulted in the changes of thinking orientation and values of theirs. Meanwhile,the frequent and deep communication between Han and Manchu had contributed to the gradual enhancement of Chinese skills and translation ability of the Manchu Eight Banners, without being taught by the special education of Manchu.--[[User:Du Lina|Du Lina]] ([[User talk:Du Lina|talk]]) 13:17, 19 October 2021 (UTC)

On the contrary,the reason why the education of Manchu focused on Confucianism rather than translation is that for a long time it had attached Chinese cultures and translation of Chinese books as importance. In other words,long using translation of Chinese books by Manchu as teaching contents, the officers of the Manchu Eight Banners and students had been gradually influenced by Chinese cultures,which has resulted in the changes of thinking orientation and values. Meanwhile,the frequent and deep communication between Han and Manchu had contributed to the gradual enhancement of Chinese skills and translation ability of the Manchu Eight Banners, without being taught by the special education of Manchu.--[[User:Fu Hongyan|Fu Hongyan]] ([[User talk:Fu Hongyan|talk]]) 11:06, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

==付红岩 Fù Hóngyán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081485==

但不可否认的是，旗学作为整体仍与翻译有着千丝万缕的关系。如清太祖努尔哈赤十三世孙爱新觉罗瀛生（1922-2013）在总结旗学教育时指出的那样，旗学中的官学生除了学习满语语法之外，也需要学习大量汉文典籍（满文译本），如满汉合璧本的《三字经》和《四书》等，其实质内容与汉族教育并无不同，这么做即是为了使学生兼通满、汉，熟读经史，掌握翻译之术，为朝廷所用。[] 爱新觉罗瀛生：《谈谈清代满语教学》，《满族研究》，1990年第3期，第43-49页。

What isn’t refutable is that the education of Manchu, on the whole was inextricably linked to the translation. For instance, just as Arising Gioro Yingsheng, the thirteenth grandson of Nurhaci made a summary about the education of Manchu, the offspring of the officials were supposed to learn the Manchu grammar, besides a number of Chinese classics(the Manchu versions ), for example, Three Character Primer or Four Books edited with Chinese and Manchu. Indeed, the education of Manchu, to the great extent, was much the same as Han education, the purpose of which was to equip the students with the abilities of mastering the Manchu and Chinese, profound understanding of Chinese classics, and got the political career. Arising Gioro Yingsheng: Simple Analysis of Manchu teaching in Qing Dynasty, Manchu Research. From page 43-49, the third issue in 1990. --[[User:Fu Hongyan|Fu Hongyan]] ([[User talk:Fu Hongyan|talk]]) 04:41, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

But what is undeniable is that the education of Manchu on the whole is still inextricably linked to translation. Just as Aixinjueluo Yingsheng(1922-2013), the thirteenth generation of Nuerhachi, made a summary about the education of Manchu, in addition to learning the Manchu grammar, official students also need to learn a lot of Chinese classics(Manchu translation). For example, “Three-Character Canon” and “The Four Books” edited in combination of Chinese and Manchu, to the great extent, was much the same as the education of Han. This is to enable students to understand both Manchu and Chinese, familiarize themselves with scriptures and history, and master the skills of translation, so as to serve for the imperial court. [] Aixinjueluo Yingsheng: “ Simple Analysis of Manchu teaching in Qing Dynasty, Manchu Research. From page 43-49, the third issue in 1990.--[[User:Fu Shiyu|Fu Shiyu]] ([[User talk:Fu Shiyu|talk]]) 09:54, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

==付诗雨 Fù Shīyǔ 日语语言文学女 202120081486==

满洲入主中原之后，统治上采取旗、民分治的形式，维护统治阶级的政治优势。为了巩固新生政权，虽然统治者不得不在满、汉之间寻找平衡点，审慎考量汉族士子和汉民利益，以免因为失去民心而危及稳定，但为了维护统治集团的特殊地位，又不惜牺牲汉人利益。而创办官学，倡导国语骑射，正可以保持满洲的民族特质，抵御汉文化冲击。

After Manchu entered and hosted the central China, the ruling classes took a divided governance of Manchu and Han to maintain their political dominance. In order to consolidate the new political power, rulers had to to find a balance between Manchu and Han, and deliberate for both Han scholars and ordinary people’s interests, so as not to lose the hearts and minds of the common people which would endanger the stability of the governance. But they had no choice but to sacrifice the interests of Han people, in order to safeguard the special position of the ruling classes. However, the establishment of office schools and the promotion of Manchu language , horsemanship and marksmanship just could maintain the national characteristics of Manchu and resist the impact of Han culture.--[[User:Fu Shiyu|Fu Shiyu]] ([[User talk:Fu Shiyu|talk]]) 14:53, 16 October 2021 (UTC)

After Manchu entered and hosted the central China, the ruling class took a divided governance of Manchu and Han to maintain their political dominance. In order to consolidate the new political power, the ruler had to find a balance between Manchu and Han, deliberating for the interests of both Han scholars and ordinary people so as not to endanger the stability of the governance for losing the hearts and minds of the common people. However, to safeguard the special position of the ruling class, they had no choice but to sacrifice the interests of Han people. And the establishment of official schools and the promotion of Manchu language, horsemanship and marksmanship could help maintain the national characteristics of Manchu and resist the impact of Han culture.--[[User:Gao Mi|Gao Mi]] ([[User talk:Gao Mi|talk]]) 04:26, 18 October 2021 (UTC)

==高蜜 Gāo Mì 翻译学女 202120081487==

兴办旗学，使八旗人等兼通满、汉，既学习语言，又学习骑射，兼习翻译，一则可以沟通政事，二则可以学习汉制，可谓一举多得。正是由于有了这样的功能设定，旗学教育自其创设之日起，便与翻译结下了不解之缘。以宗学为例，该学初设时，只对满洲教习、满语学习做了规定，而未对汉语进行要求，但统治者从国家治理的需要出发，仍对宗室的翻译能力留有期待。

The promotion of the Eight Banner official education enabled such people as the Eight Banners to master both Munchu and Chinese, learn riding and shooting and the intertranslation of munchu and Chinese. It could not only contribute to the consultation of political affairs, but also the learning of Han policies, which was literally killing two birds with one stone. It’s exactly due to such functions that the Eight Banner official education has been inextricably bound to translation. Take the education institution for royal clans for example. When it was first established, the institution only made rules with regard to staff recruitment and Munchu language learning, whereas no requirement was made of Chinese learning. However, the ruler, given the need of national governance, still expected members of the royal clan could develop their competence in translation.--[[User:Gao Mi|Gao Mi]] ([[User talk:Gao Mi|talk]]) 04:24, 18 October 2021 (UTC)

The promotion of the Eight Banner official education enabled such people as the Eight Banners to master both Munchu and Chinese, learn riding and shooting and the intertranslation of munchu and Chinese. It could not only contribute to the consultation of political affairs, but also the learning of Han policies, which achieve many things at one stroke. It’s exactly due to such functions that the Eight Banner official education has been inextricably bound to translation. Take the education institution for royal clans for example. When it was first established, the institution only made rules with regard to staff recruitment and Munchu language learning, whereas no requirement was made of Chinese learning. However, the ruler, starting from the needs of national governance, still has expectations for the translation ability of the royal clan.--[[User:Gong Boya|Gong Boya]] ([[User talk:Gong Boya|talk]]) 14:05, 19 October 2021 (UTC)

==宫博雅 Gōng Bóyǎ 俄语语言文学女 202120081488==

《清朝文献通考》中说，宗室子弟不仅要“咸涵于礼仪道德之途”，“讲明与伦纪纲常之大”，而且应该“服习于书射翻译之业”。[] 刘锦藻：《清朝文献通考》，杭州，浙江古籍出版社，2000年，第5437页。又以八旗蒙古官学为例，该官学虽于雍正六年停办，但吏部在给出的裁撤理由中，也明确提及蒙古官学生和监学生等均需学习翻译，并认为这一点与国子监官学中蒙古官学生的学习内容相同，因而“实属多设”。[]

In the comprehensive studies of Qing documents, it is said that the children of the imperial clan should not only "be well-educated, immerse in etiquette and morality", "be civilized, take the Principal Relationships and Constant Virtues as the most important", but also "learn to read, shoot an arrow and translate". [] Liu Jinzao, Comprehensive studies of Qing documents, Hangzhou, Zhejiang ancient Books publishing house, 2000, p. 5437. Taking the “Eight Banners” Mongolian official school as an example, although it was suspended in the sixth year of Yongzheng, the Ministry of Appointments also explicitly mentioned in the reasons for the abolition that Mongolian official students and students of the Imperial Academy were required to learn translation, and thought that this was the same as the learning content of Mongolian official students in the directorate of Imperial Academy, so it was "multi-set". []--[[User:Gong Boya|Gong Boya]] ([[User talk:Gong Boya|talk]]) 03:09, 18 October 2021 (UTC)

In ''A Comprehensive Studies on Qing Dynasty Literature'', it was said that the offsprings of the imperial family should not only be “well-educated and immerse in etiquette and morality” and “prioritizing manners and moral principles”, but also be engaged in “reading, archery and translation” [Liu Jinzao, ''A Comprehensive Studies on Qing Dynasty Literature'', Hangzhou, Zhejiang Chinese Ancient Classics Publishing House, 2000, p. 5437.] Example was taken that the Eight Banners Mongolian Official Academy was though suspended in the sixth year in the reign of Emperor Yongzheng, for it was redundant, according to the Ministry of Official Personnel Affairs, in that translation was a required course in both Mongolian official Academy and Imperial Academy.--[[User:He Qin|He Qin]] ([[User talk:He Qin|talk]]) 15:27, 19 October 2021 (UTC)

==何芩 Hé Qín 翻译学女 202120081489==

鄂尔泰等：《清实录·世宗宪皇帝实录》，北京：中华书局，1985年，第1089页。清军入关之后，随着政权范围的日益扩大，驻防体系随之变动。但就旗学体系而言，除特殊区域因特殊目的设置旗学之外，其余旗学基本定在京畿，其作用主要是为了教导在京八旗子弟，而驻防各地设学并不普遍，导致驻防八旗弟子无法与京师旗人子弟一样，获得同样的教育机会。

[Er Ertai etc. ''Records of the Qing Dynasty—Records of Emperor Shizongxian'', Beijing: Zhonghua Publishing House, 1985, p.1089. ] Since the Qing army crossed the Shanhai Pass, its garrison system changed accordingly with its increasing scope of the regime. However, in terms of the Banner School system, Schools were established basically in the Capital City and its Environs, except for special areas where the Banner Schools were set up for special purposes, for the Banner School was mainly to teach the Eight Banners and their offsprings in Beijing. But the Eight Banners in other territories could not have the same education opportunity as their clansmen in Beijing and its Environs because the Banner School was not common in other territories.--[[User:He Qin|He Qin]] ([[User talk:He Qin|talk]]) 14:43, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

[E Ertai etc. ''Records of the Qing Dynasty—Records of Emperor Shizongxian'', Beijing: Zhonghua Publishing House, 1985, p.1089. ] Since the Qing army entered the Shanhai Pass, with the increasing scope of the regime, its garrison system changed. But as to the Banner school system, except the schools established for special aims in special areas, the rests were basically set up in the Capital City, whose function was mainly to educate offsprings of the Eight Banners in Beijing. While schools were scarcely set up in the garrisons, resulting in that the offsprings outside Beijing could not get the same educational opportunity as the offsprings of the Eight Banners in Beijing.--[[User:Hu Shuqing|Hu Shuqing]] ([[User talk:Hu Shuqing|talk]]) 04:47, 18 October 2021 (UTC)

==胡舒情 Hú Shūqíng 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081490==

即便如此，驻防各地旗学中，仍有不少明确规定教习翻译。如康熙三十二年设防的荆州，于乾隆二十四年兴建学舍，设置八旗两翼义学，后又于乾隆四十五年添设各旗义学一所，并专设八旗翻译义学一所。绥远城于乾隆二年设防，乾隆八年兴建学舍，除设立义学八所各十二间之外，也设立满、汉翻译学一所共十间。

Even so, lots of the Banner schools of the garrisons still clearly specified that translation should be taught and learned. For example, in Jingzhou, garrisoned in the 32nd year of the reign of Kangxi, there were many schools built in the 24th year of the reign of Qianlong and free schools for the Eight Banners set. Later, every banner added a free school in the 45th year of the reign of Qianlong, and specially established a free school of translation for the Eight Banners. In the city of Suiyuan, fortified in the 2nd year of the reign of Qianlong, there were numerous schools in the 8th year of the reign of Qianlong. Besides the establishment of eight free schools with 12 rooms respectively, there was also a school for translation between Manchu and Chinese with 10 rooms established.--[[User:Hu Shuqing|Hu Shuqing]] ([[User talk:Hu Shuqing|talk]]) 04:36, 18 October 2021 (UTC)

Even then there were lots of places requiring translation study among those Banner’s station. For example, Jingzhou which was militarized in the 32th year of the reign of Kangxi then built many schools in the 24th year of the reign of Qianlong, especially public schools for all eight banners. Later every banner set up a new public school, and another for the translation of Eight Banners in the 45th year of the reign of Qianlong. Suiyuan Ctiy, militarized in the second year of the reign of Qianlong, secured many schools in the 8th year of the reign of Qianlong. Except for the 8 public schools with 12 classrooms for every banner, there were another 10 classrooms for translation of Man and Han. --[[User:Huang Jinyun|Huang Jinyun]] ([[User talk:Huang Jinyun|talk]]) 06:30, 19 October 2021 (UTC)

==黄锦云 Huáng Jǐnyún 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081491==

伊犁古扎尔城（即宁远城）于乾隆二十六年设防，乾隆三十四年兴建学舍，设各旗满、汉学房四间，并设满、汉翻译蒙古学舍一所共九间。清初之际朝廷究竟在各省驻防之地设立官学多少，实难考证。其中原因，与《八旗通志》和《钦定八旗通志》等主要文献中的记载不详有关。

The city, Guozard（Ning Yuan）in Ili was fortified in the 26th year of the reign of Qing Emperor Qianlong；there were lots of schools built in the 34th year of the reign of Qing Emperor Qianlong, four for learning Man and Han’s culture, nine for learning Man and Han’s translation into Mongolian. It was difficult to verify how much administrative institutions and schools were built in early Qing Dynasty because of the lack of information in major classical books like the General History of the Eight Banners and Qinding Baqi Tongzhi.--[[User:Huang Jinyun|Huang Jinyun]] ([[User talk:Huang Jinyun|talk]]) 06:49, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

Guerzha city（Ningyuan）in Ili was fortified in the 26th year of the reign of Emperor Qianlong. There were lots of schools built in the 34th year of the reign of Qing Emperor Qianlong, four for learning Man and Han’s culture, nine for learning Man and Han’s translation into Mongolian. It was difficult to figure out how many official educational institutions were built in early Qing Dynasty because of the lack of detailed information in classical books like the General Annals of the Eight Banners and the authorized version of the book.--[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 13:47, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

==黄逸妍 Huáng Yìyán 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081492==

例如，《八旗通志》中，对于湖北荆州兴建学舍与官学一事只字未提，但在希元修纂的《荆州驻防八旗志》（《续修四库全书》第859册）中，则记有乾隆四十五年长泰（右翼蒙古协领）奏设满、汉官学、义学，以及八旗翻译学之事。[] 希元等：《荊州驻防八旗志》，上海：上海古籍出版社，1997年，第473页。虽然驻防各地旗学名称不一，其中有名官学者，也有名义学者，更有名翻译义学者，但教学内容上有着极大的相似性，其紧要者无非语言（清语、汉语、蒙语）、骑射，以及翻译。

For example, there was nothing about school building in Jingzhou, Hubei Province in the General Annals of Eight Banners. However, it was recorded that in the 45th year during the reign of Emperor Qianlong, Changtai (right-wing Mongolian general) advised to build schools imparting knowledge about Man's culture and Eight Banners' translation, official educational institutions with Han's pattern and public schools. And this record was written in the Annals of Eight Banners' Garrison in Jingzhou proofread by Xiyuan. (《Complete Library in the Four Branches of Literature(revised edition)》Book 859)[Xiyuan et al: 《the Annals of Eight Banners' Garrison in Jingzhou》, Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House,1997,page 473] Although the names of schools for Eight Banners were called differently such as official educational institutions, public schools and even translation public schools, varying with different garrisons, these schools shared extremely similar courses content. And they focused on language (language used by Qing, Han people and Mongolian), horseback archery and translation.--[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 13:39, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

For example, there exists nothing about building schools and official schools in Jingzhou, Hubei Province in ''the General Annals of Ba Qi''. However, it was recorded that in the 45th year during the reign of Emperor Qianlong, Changtai (right-wing Mongolian general) advised to build schools imparting knowledge about Man's culture and Ba Qi's translation, official educational institutions with Han's pattern and public schools. And this record was written in ''the Annals of Ba Qi's Garrison'' in Jingzhou proofread by Xiyuan. (''Complete Library in the Four Branches of Literature(revised edition)Book 859'')[Xiyuan et al: ''the Annals of Eight Banners' Garrison in Jingzhou'', Shanghai, Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House,1997,p. 473] Although the names of schools for Ba Qi were called differently such as official educational institutions, public schools and even translation public schools, varying with different garrisons, these schools shared extremely similar course contents. And they focused on language teaching (language used by Manchu, Han people and Mongolian), horseback archery and translation.--[[User:Huang Zhuliang|Huang Zhuliang]] ([[User talk:Huang Zhuliang|talk]]) 02:12, 20 October 2021 (UTC)Huang Zhuliang

==黄柱梁 Huáng Zhùliáng 国别男 202120081493==

1.旗学教育与翻译教学契合的典范：绥远城官学。乾隆六年十二月初六日，绥远城扬威将军补熙等奏请设立满、蒙学馆，教育兵丁子弟。奏章指出，绥远城地处偏远，咨报、文移和案件审理等政务活动均用满、蒙文字，如果不加以教习，则政令之推行难以为继。A model of the combination of Manchu education and Translation Teaching is the Official School in Suiyuan City. On the sixth day of December (lunar calendar) in the sixth year of Emperor Qianlong's reign, General Bu Xi and others in Suiyuan City asked to set up Manchu and Mongolian schools to educate the children of soldiers. The memorial pointed out that Suiyuan City is located in a remote area, and government activities such as consultation, document transfer and case trial all use Manchu and Mongolian characters. If the children are not taught, the implementation of government orders will be unsustainable.--[[User:Huang Zhuliang|Huang Zhuliang]] ([[User talk:Huang Zhuliang|talk]]) 02:04, 20 October 2021 (UTC)Huang Zhuliang

A model of integration of Manchu education and Translation Teaching is the Official School of Suiyuan City. On the sixth day of December (lunar calendar) in the sixth year of Emperor Qianlong's reign, General Bu Xi and others in Suiyuan City asked to set up Manchu and Mongolian academies to educate the children of soldiers. The memorial to the throne pointed out that Suiyuan City is located in a remote area, and government activities such as consultation, document transfer and case trial all use Manchu and Mongolian characters. If the children are not taught, the implementation of government orders will be unsustainable.--[[User:Jin Xiaotong|Jin Xiaotong]] ([[User talk:Jin Xiaotong|talk]]) 02:53, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

==金晓童 Jīn Xiǎotóng 202120081494==

虽然此前经皇帝御批，并着军机处大臣等议奏，同意从归化城（呼和浩特）都统衙门中挑选二人，派往绥远城，专司翻译、书写蒙古文字，但军机处并没有同意设立满、蒙学馆，以教习满、蒙语言文字。然而，补熙认为，绥远城咨行各地方官府的差务甚多，而移驻兵丁均来自包衣，通晓满、蒙者实属寥寥，如不能设立学馆，教习旗人子孙，则现役旗人兵丁亡故后，满、蒙语言文字无以为继。这一点不仅于满洲旧俗不合，而且遇有政务时，会无人差遣。
Although approved by the emperor and discussed by the minister of Office of Military Secret，they agreed to select two people from the Provisional Government of Guihua City(Hohhot) and send them to Suiyuan City to be responsible for the translation and writing of Mongolian characters, the Office of Military Secret didn’t agree to set up Manchu and Mongolian academies to teach Manchu and Mongolian characters and languages.However,Buxi believed that advisors of local governments of Suiyuan City had a lot of work to do,and the soldiers stationed in the city were all born in Baoyi family(servant),so few of them knew Manchu and Mongolian characters well.If they could not set up academies to teach the descendants of the people of Baqi,the Manchu and Mongolian languages would disappear after the death of the soldiers in active service.This is not only inappropriate manchurian old customs,and no one can be send when meeting government affairs.--[[User:Jin Xiaotong|Jin Xiaotong]] ([[User talk:Jin Xiaotong|talk]]) 09:26, 18 October 2021 (UTC)

Although approved by the emperor and discussed by the minister of Ministry of Defense，they agreed to select two people from the Provisional Government of Guihua City(Hohhot) and send them to Suiyuan City to be responsible for the translation and writing of Mongolian characters, the Office of Military Secret didn’t agree to set up official schools of Manchu and Mongolian to teach Manchu and Mongolian characters and languages.However,Buxi believed that advisors of local governments of Suiyuan City had a lot of work to do,and the soldiers stationed in the city were all born in Baoyi family(servant),so few of them knew Manchu and Mongolian characters well.If they could not set up academies to teach the descendants of the people of Baqi,the Manchu and Mongolian languages would disappear after the death of the soldiers in active service.This is not only inappropriate manchurian old customs,and no one can be send when meeting government affairs.--[[User:Kuang Yanli|Kuang Yanli]] ([[User talk:Kuang Yanli|talk]]) 11:12, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

==邝艳丽 Kuàng Yànl 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081495==

补熙所奏虽名为满、蒙选馆，实则为满、蒙翻译官学，意在培养翻译专才，处理以满、蒙文字书写的文移，或者以上述两种文字推行的政务。同年十二月十八日，即补熙奏陈之后不出半月，大学士兼军机处大臣鄂尔泰上疏皇帝，议准设立满、蒙官学，拟敕交吏部，由吏部从蒙古旗革职人员中拣选通晓满、蒙文字者二人，委任其以巴克什身份进行教学。

What Bu Xi, a vice director of the Court of Colonial Affairs, submitted to the emperor referred to the government officials selected from Manchu and Mongolian nationality on the surface, but in fact, the official school which was engaged in translation between the two languages. It aimed to train professional translators so as to deal with official documents or the government affairs written in Manchu and Mongolian. No longer after Buxi submitted a written statement, Ertai, the Bachelor and Minister of The Grand Council, submitted his proposals to the emperor on December 18th of the same year. It was agreed that the official school would be established and the order of the emperor will be handed in to the official department. It was responsible for the official department to select two ones who were good at Manchu and Mongolian from the demobilized personnel of Mongolian Banner and who was appointed to teach them as Barksh.--[[User:Kuang Yanli|Kuang Yanli]] ([[User talk:Kuang Yanli|talk]]) 10:21, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

What Buxi, the vice director of the Court of Colonial Affairs, submitted to the emperor referred to the government officials selected from Manchu and Mongolian nationality on the surface. In fact, it referred to the official school which was engaged in translation between the two languages. It aimed to train professional translators so as to deal with official documents or the government affairs written in Manchu and Mongolian. No longer after Buxi submitted a written statement, Ertai, the Grand Secretary and Minister of The Grand Council, submitted his proposals to the emperor on December 18th of the same year. It was agreed that the official school would be established and the order of the emperor will be handed in to the official department. It was responsible for the official department to select two ones who were good at Manchu and Mongolian from the demobilized personnel of Mongolian Banner and who was appointed to teach them as Barksh.--[[User:Li Aixuan|Li Aixuan]] ([[User talk:Li Aixuan|talk]]) 01:14, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

==李爱璇 Lǐ Àixuán 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081496==

乾隆帝批复“依议。钦此”，于是绥远城翻译官学得以设立。[] 中国第一历史档案馆（郭美兰编译）：《乾隆朝绥远城设立八旗官学满文档案》，《历史档案》，2012年第2期，第47页。乾隆八年九月初三日，补熙和副都统纳明等奏请设立蒙古学，以便翻译文移资用。

Emperor Qianlong gave a written reply, ''consent and implement now'', so the translation official school of Suiyuan city was established. [] The First Chinese Historical Archive (translated and edited by Guo Meilan): ''Manchu Archives of Eight Banners Official Schools Established in Suiyuan City During the Qianlong Dynasty'', ''Historical Archives'', 2012(02): p47. On September 3,the 8th year in the period of Emperor Qianlong, Buxi and the deputy lieutenant-general Naming, etc. reported to the emperor for the establishment of Mongolian studies and then they could have funds to translate documents.--[[User:Li Aixuan|Li Aixuan]] ([[User talk:Li Aixuan|talk]]) 08:16, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

Emperor Qianlong gave an official written reply, ”Consent and implement. By command of the Emperor”, so the translation official school in Suiyuan city was established. [] The First Historical Archives of China (translated and edited by Guo Meilan): ''Manchu Archives of Eight Banners Official Schools Established in Suiyuan City During the Qianlong Period of Qing Dynasty'', ''Historical Archives'', 2012(02): p47. On September 3, the 8th year in the period of Emperor Qianlong, Buxi and deputy lieutenant-general Naming, etc. submitted memorials to the emperor for establishing Mongolian studies which could be conductive to documents and affairs.--[[User:Li Ruiyang|Li Ruiyang]] ([[User talk:Li Ruiyang|talk]]) 12:25, 18 October 2021 (UTC)

==李瑞洋 Lǐ Ruìyáng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081497==

补熙认为，绥远城地处旷野，政务繁多，若只设官学（满蒙官学），恐为不够，且教习由京城择员派往，也与省城之例不合。关于教习满文一事，补熙奏称已照军机处先前所议，由各旗自行组织，教习之遴选并不困难，而所难者在于蒙古文的教习。原因在于，虽然绥远城内有会蒙古语者，但其语言能力不足以充任教习之责。

The official Bu Xi believed that Suiyuan city had a remote location but heavy government affairs, so it was not enough to set up the official school of Manchu and Mongolia only. And teachers sent from Central Government were unfamiliar with specific circumstances of Suiyuan city. As for teaching language of Manchus, Bu Xi submitted memorials to the emperor that each banner would have a self-organize according to the previous resolution of Privy Council. The difficulty was not the selection of teacher but teaching Mongolian, since the language competence of Mongolian speakers in Suiyuan city was insufficient for teaching.--[[User:Li Ruiyang|Li Ruiyang]] ([[User talk:Li Ruiyang|talk]]) 12:23, 18 October 2021 (UTC)

The official Bu Xi believed that since Suiyuan city was located in a remote place and burdened with heavy government affairs, it was not enough to set up the official school of Manchu and Mongolia only. And teachers dispatched from Central Government were unfamiliar with specific circumstances of Suiyuan city. As for teaching the language of Manchus, Bu Xi has submitted memorials to the emperor that each banner would self-organize in light of the previous resolutions of Privy Council. The difficulty lied not in the selection but the teaching of the Mongolian language, as Mongolian speakers in Suiyuan city were not competent for teaching the language.--[[User:Li Shan|Li Shan]] ([[User talk:Li Shan|talk]]) 00:42, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

==李姗 Lǐ Shān 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081498==

奏陈云：查，归化城土默特二旗，每旗各设学校一所，教习兵丁子弟翻译满蒙语文，每月支给巴克什等各银一两五钱，学生每日每人支给制钱十文。此项开支之银钱，由其所得房租银内动支。于雍正元年奏准施行，如今甚有裨益。

Then he proposed to Chen Yun, that a school should be respectively instituted in the two areas of Cha and Tumot, to teach the soldiers and warriors to translate the language of Manchu and Mongolia, and every month each school should be granted 15 Qian (about 1500 to 2250 Wen) and each student should be granted 10 Wen every day. And this bill could be paid by the rents of the houses constructed by them. Officially carried out in the first year of Yong Zheng's reign, this programm was still of great benefits.--[[User:Li Shan|Li Shan]] ([[User talk:Li Shan|talk]]) 06:49, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

Chen Yun propose that a school should be respectively instituted in the two areas of Cha and Tumed, that soldiers should lear to translate the language of Manchu and Mongolia, and that every month teachers should be granted 15 Qian (about 1500 to 2250 Wen) and each student should be granted 10 Wen every day. And this bill could be paid by the rents of their houses. Officially carried out in the first year of Yong Zheng's reign, this programm is still of great benefits.--[[User:Li Shuang|Li Shuang]] ([[User talk:Li Shuang|talk]]) 10:03, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

==李双 Lǐ Shuāng 翻译学女 202120081499==

窃思，臣等管带官兵驻防口外蒙古旷野地方，与各扎萨克往来文移甚多，蒙古语文极为重要，现若不设立蒙古学，拣选巴克什施教，蒙古语文必将无以为继。请准我属绥远城亦照归化城土默特设立旗学之例，每翼各设学馆一所，由土默特二旗内挑选通晓蒙古语文且能翻译者两人作为巴克什，每学视兵丁子弟之俊秀挑取十名教育。至巴克什、学生应得之项，照土默特旗之例，均由本城公用房租银钱内动支销算。

I think that officials and solders garrison the vast Mongolia which is outside the Great Wall, and that they have a lot of correspondence with county magistrates. The teaching of Mongolian is therefore very important. If the study of Mongolian isn’t set up, and that there is no knowledgeable literati who is familiar with Mongolia, this study won’t be passed on. Please allow Suiyuan City also as the same of Tumed of Guihua City to set up official studies, establish a school respectively in each army, and select two persons who have a good knowledge of Mongolian and can translate from two Tumeds as teachers. Every semester, we select 10 outstanding young soldiers to educate. As for the rewards of teachers and students, according to the banner of Tumed, they are reimbursed by the common rent money of the city.--[[User:Li Shuang|Li Shuang]] ([[User talk:Li Shuang|talk]]) 02:29, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

I thought that officials and solders garrisoned the vast Mongolia which was outside the Great Wall, and that they had a lot of correspondence with county magistrates. The teaching of Mongolian was therefore very important. If the study of Mongolian wasn’t set up, and that there was no knowledgeable literati who was familiar with Mongolia, this study won’t be passed on. Please allow Suiyuan City also as the same of Tumed of Guihua City to set up official studies, establish a school respectively in each army, and select two persons who had a good knowledge of Mongolian and can translate from two Tumeds as teachers. Every semester, we selected 10 outstanding young soldiers to educate. As for the rewards of teachers and students, according to the banner of Tumed, they were reimbursed by the common rent money of the city. --[[User:Li Wenxuan|Li Wenxuan]] ([[User talk:Li Wenxuan|talk]]) 10:58, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

==李文璇 Lǐ Wénxuán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081500==

又查，现经军机大臣等议准，为撰拟翻译本城咨行各扎萨克之文移，由归化城土默特旗兵丁内选取两人在司行走。唯彼等不食饷米，每日来本城应差，倘不酌赏饭茶之份，贫苦蒙古委实难以当差。请亦照户部所定本地同知、通判衙门支给撰拟满蒙文移之土默特蒙古等饭食银之例，每月支给银五钱。

After the second examination, now, with the approval of the grand minister of state, we will select two soldiers in the Tumote Qi of the Guihua city working in this area in oder to compile and translate the compositions in this city. However, only you went to our city applying for the job without eating food and even no tea and something else. In this way, it was really difficult for you in poor Mongolia. Please following the stipulation stated by the Ministry of Revenue in feudal China, we should pay five yuan a month as their wage for food to the people who wrote the Manchu-Mongolian language translation according to the example of local Tongzhi office and Tongan Yemen. --[[User:Li Wenxuan|Li Wenxuan]] ([[User talk:Li Wenxuan|talk]]) 05:59, 17 October 2021 (UTC)
After the second examination, with the approval of the grand ministers , we selected two soldiers in the Tumote department of the Guihua city to work in this area in oder to compile and translate the compositions in this city. However, only you went to our city applying for the job without asking salary and not to say tea and something else. In this way, it was really difficult for you to make a live in such poor Mongolia. Please follow the stipulation stated by the Ministry of Revenue in feudal China.We should pay five strings of silver coins a month as their wage to the people who wrote the Manchu-Mongolian language translation according to the example of local Tongzhi office and Tongan Yemen.--[[User:Li Wen|Li Wen]] ([[User talk:Li Wen|talk]]) 06:22, 19 October 2021 (UTC)

==李雯 Lǐ Wén 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081501==

俟本城学习之人能翻译蒙古语文后，将土默特旗两名兵丁仍行遣回本旗。倘蒙圣主恩准施行，不仅臣等办理口外诸务无误，且大有裨益。[] 中国第一历史档案馆（郭美兰编译）：《乾隆朝绥远城设立八旗官学满文档案》，《历史档案》，2012年第2期，第47-48页。
Since scholars of the city could translate Meng character, two soldiers of Tu Moteqi were recalled to the original department.If Emperor have allowed the implement, not only could the ministers deal with affairs correctly, but also it would be greatly helpful.[The First Historical Archives of China (translated and compiled by Guo Meilan): Archives in QianLong Dynasty of Sui Yuan City,Historical Archives, The Second Phase in 2012, Page47-48] --[[User:Li Wen|Li Wen]] ([[User talk:Li Wen|talk]]) 06:14, 19 October 2021 (UTC)

Two soldiers of Tumed Banner will be sent back to their own banner as soon as those studying in the city can translate the Mongolian language. If granted by the Grace of The Lord, it will not only be right, but also beneficial. [] The First Historical Archives of China (compiled by Guo Meilan) : Manchu Archives of eight Banners Official School set up in Suiyuan City during The Qianlong Dynasty, Historical Archives, no.2, 2012, pp. 47-48.
----
--[[User:Li Xinxing|Li Xinxing]] ([[User talk:Li Xinxing|talk]]) 11:02, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

==李新星 Lǐ Xīnxīng 亚非语言文学女 202120081503==

以“地处口外蒙古旷野”、“文移甚多”作为设立绥远城旗学的理由，这一点不只适用于此奏中提及的蒙古学，而且也适用于乾隆六年奏设的绥远城翻译官学，又名满、蒙官学。此折中，补熙不仅提到雍正年间于归化城土默特二旗设立旗学，教习兵丁子弟翻译满、蒙语言文字的事，而且建议朝廷允许绥远城效仿归化城之例，设立蒙古学，从巴克什中考选教习二人，但该教习必须通晓满、蒙文字，且精于翻译，并照土默特之例给予教习薪酬，同时给予学生生活补贴。

To "located in the outer Mongolian wilderness", "a lot of text shift" as the reason for the establishment of the Yanyuan City flag school, this not only applies to the Mongolian studies mentioned in this play, but also applies to Qianlong six years of the Yuyuan City translation officer, also known as full, Mongolian official studies. In this compromise, Tsushi not only mentioned the establishment of the flag school in the naturalized city of Tummert during the Yuzheng years, teaching the teachers and children to translate full, Mongolian language and writing, but also suggested that the court allow the city to follow the example of naturalized city, the establishment of Mongolian studies, from Bakshi to choose two people, but the teaching must be familiar with full, Mongolian script, and fine translation, and according to the example of the local special to give teaching and teaching pay, while giving students living allowance.--[[User:Li Xinxing|Li Xinxing]] ([[User talk:Li Xinxing|talk]]) 03:49, 19 October 2021 (UTC)

The reason for the establishment of suiyuan City banner School is that "it is located in the Mongolian wilderness outside the mouth" and "there is a lot of literary movement", which is not only applicable to the Mongolian studies mentioned in this play, but also applicable to suiyuan City Translation official school, also known as Manchu and Mongolian official School, which was played in the sixth year of Qianlong. Fill this compromise, the city is not only mentioned the yongzheng years in GuiHuaCheng tumed flag flag and establishing learning, teaching and the soldiers' children is full, the language of the translation, and suggested that the court permits suiyuan city to follow the example of GuiHuaCheng, set up the Mongolian learning, from buck assorted tests to choose the two teaching, but the teaching must be familiar with text, manchu, Mongol and skilled in translation, and tumed as the example to give teacher pay, At the same time, students are given living allowances.--[[User:Li Yi|Li Yi]] ([[User talk:Li Yi|talk]]) 01:24, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

==李怡 Lǐ Yí 法语语言文学女 202120081504==

至于绥化城咨送各下辖地之文移，经军机处议准，皆循例由土默特旗兵丁中，选取通晓满、蒙语者二人进行翻译和撰拟，但此二人并未获得朝廷酬佣。因此，补熙一并奏请按土默特翻译满、蒙文字者之例，给予每月银五钱的饷米。同年九月十三日，乾隆帝朱批“依议。该部知道。钦此。”，同意了补熙所奏。[]
As for the documents sent by Suihua city to each region under its jurisdiction, according to the approval of the Military Intelligence Office, two soldiers from Tumed banner who were proficient in Manchu and Mongolian were selected to translate and draft the documents, but these two men were not paid by the court. Therefore, Buxi also asked for a monthly rate of five coins for the interpreter of the Manchu and Mongolian languages according to the example of Tumed. On September 13 of the same year, Zhu PI, emperor Qianlong, "complied with the proposal. The ministry knows. Qin here." And agreed to buhee's play--[[User:Li Yi|Li Yi]] ([[User talk:Li Yi|talk]]) 02:05, 19 October 2021 (UTC)

According to the approval of the Military Intelligence Office, the documents sent by Suihua city to each jurisdiction were translated and drafted by two soldiers, who were selected from Tumed banner and proficient in Manchu and Mongolian. But these two men were not paid by the court. Therefore, Buxi presented a memorial and asked for five coins a month as salary with reference to the translators and interpreters of the Manchu and Mongolian in Tumed. On September 13 of the same year, emperor Qianlong wrote a response in red, "Proposal approved. The ministry informed. End here." and he agreed what Buxi put forward.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 08:23, 19 October 2021 (UTC)

==刘沛婷 Liú Pèitíng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081505==

乾隆十一年二月十三日，经吏部奏准，朝廷规定嗣后省城将军、副都统等衙门随印笔帖式，不再由京城委任，而改为本地兵丁内考取。因应此例，绥远城满洲、蒙古笔帖式的考选也做了调整，即从本地八旗兵丁中挑选适当人选，通过考试翻译（满、汉翻译）进行选任。由于绥远城蒙古学设立之初，蒙文教习系从归化城土默特巴克什中进行考选，因而补熙、保云、布彦图等又在乾隆十一年四月初三日联名具折，拟对蒙古学教习进行改选，并请设立满、蒙文翻译教习。

On February 13, the 11th year of qianlong's reign, after the approval of the Ministry of Personnel, the imperial court stipulated that the provincial generals, deputy dutong and other clerks in Yamen(government office in feudal China) were no longer appointed by the capital, but were selected from local soldiers. In response to this rule, the test and selection of Manchuria in Suiyuan city and Mongolia clerks has also been adjusted, that is, to select appropriate candidates from the local soldiers of the eight banners through the translation test (Manchu and Chinese translation). At the beginning of the establishment of Mongolian Studies in Suiyuan city, the Mongolian language teaching department selected students from tumot Bakshi, a naturalization city, so Buxi, Baoyun and Buyantu signed a joint proposal on April 3, the 11th year of qianlong, to change the teaching of Mongolian studies, and requested the establishment of Manchu and Mongolian translation teaching.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 13:56, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

On February 13, the 11th year of Qianlong's reign, with the approval of the official department, the imperial court stipulated that the provincial capital generals, deputy lieutenant-generals and other officials would no longer be appointed by the capital but would be admitted by local soldiers. In response to this regulation, the way to examine and select Manchuria and Mongolia clerks in Suiyuan city was also adjusted, that is, appropriate candidates were selected and appointed from the local soldiers of the “Eight Banners” through translation examinations (Manchu and Chinese translation). At the beginning of the establishment of Mongolian Studies in Suiyuan City, examinations were conducted in Guihua city, namely Tumert Bakshi to select Mongolian instructors. Therefore, Buxi, Baoyun, Bu Yantu and others jointly signed a letter to the throne on the third day of April in the eleventh year of Qianlong. They planned to reelect Mongolian instructors and seek to set up Manchu and Mongolian instructors of translation.--[[User:Liu Shengnan|Liu Shengnan]] ([[User talk:Liu Shengnan|talk]]) 14:26, 18 October 2021 (UTC)

==刘胜楠 Liú Shèngnán 翻译学女 202120081506==

具体而言便是，从将军随印三名笔帖式内，挑选精通满、汉文翻译者二人，照吏部所定之例考试录用。同时，由于绥远城旗人中，懂汉文者甚少，因此拟请将原来所设的蒙古笔帖式缺（一人）改为满、蒙文翻译笔帖式缺，从蒙古旗人中加以考取。三个月之后，即七月十四日，补熙等人再次递呈奏折，请设满、汉翻译学，以便考选笔帖式。

Specifically, two translators proficient in Manchu and Chinese were selected from the three clerks named bithesi accompanying the general, and employed in accord with the prescribed procedures set by the Ministry of Personnel. Meanwhile, few people of “Eight Banners” mastered Chinese in Suiyuan city, and therefore it was proposed to change the original lack of Mongolian clerk (one person) to the lack of Manchu and Mongolian translation clerks. The candidates for the positions were selected from the Mongolian Manchu people. Three months later, namely, on July 14, presenting their memorials to the throne again, Buxi and others asked for setting up Manchu and Chinese translation studies in order to test and select clerks.--[[User:Liu Shengnan|Liu Shengnan]] ([[User talk:Liu Shengnan|talk]]) 12:54, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

Specifically, two translators proficient in Manchu—Chinese were selected from the three bithesis by the general, and employed according to the example set by the Ministry of officials.At the same time, there are few people who understand Chinese among the Eight Banners in Suiyuan city. Therefore, it is proposed to change the original lack of Mongolian bithesi(one person) to the lack of Manchu-Chinese and Mongolian-Chinese translation bithesis, and take it from the Mongolian.Three months later, on July 14, Buxi and others submitted their memorials again and askde for setting up Manchu-Chinese translation studies in order to test and select the bithesi. --[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 14:00, 17 October 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

==刘薇 Liú Wēi 国别女 202120081507==

此奏折的撰拟源于乾隆十一年三月十六日吏部的一纸奏定，后者规定嗣后各省城驻防将军、副都统，以及城守尉随印笔帖式，停止由京城补放，一律改为各省地方考取。此例出台之后，绥远城即在辖地八旗兵丁内，办理满、汉翻译考试，试图选取随印笔帖式七人。但令人以外的是，应试考生中多数不通汉文，个别能说汉文者，也只是粗通翻译，译文既不流畅，也不确切。

The compilation of this memorial originated from a paper written by the Ministry of officials on March 16, the eleventh year of the Emperor Qianlong's reign.
According to the regulations of the Ministry of officials,stipulated that the provincial capital garrison generals, the vice capital, as well as the city guard officers with the bithesis, stopped by the capital replacement, must be admitted to provinces and localities provincial examinations.After the promulgation of this regulation,Suiyuan city conducted Manchu and Chinese translation examinations in the soldiers of the Eight Banners under its jurisdiction, trying to select seven people with the bithesis.But surprisingly, most of the examinees do not understand Chinese.some can speak Chinese, they can only translate roughly,and the translation is neither smooth nor accurate. --[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 14:34, 16 October 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

The edict originated from a memorial to the throne written by the Ministry of Civil Affairs on March 16, the eleventh year under the Emperor Qianlong's reign. The memorial stipulated that the appointment of the provincial capital garrison generals, the vice capital, as well as the bithesis of the city guard officers, should be made through provincial examinations rather than the capital decisions. After the promulgation of this regulation, Suiyuan conducted Manchu－Chinese translation examinations in the soldiers of the Eight Banners under its jurisdiction, trying to select seven people as the bithesis. But surprisingly, most of the examinees did not know Chinese. Even some could speak, they could only do the translation roughly, which was neither smooth nor accurate. --[[User:Liu Xiao|Liu Xiao]] ([[User talk:Liu Xiao|talk]]) 15:03, 16 October 2021 (UTC)

==刘晓 Liú Xiǎo 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081508==

故而，只能勉强从中选取考卷三份，加以阅读分析。由于绥远城中通汉文者甚少，长于翻译满、汉文者亦少，因而蒙古学设立三年以来，学生仍以参加满、蒙文考试居多，而以满、汉文考试为少。而自从将随印笔帖式改为从八旗兵丁内考选之后，汉文的学习越发重要，因为不学习汉文，便无法进行满、汉翻译。

Constraintly, the officials could only pick three papers to read. As few people in Suiyuan knew Chinese, as well as people who mastered the Manchu-Chinese translation, the majority of students still took Manchu-Mongolian examinations, with fewer people taking the Manchu-Chinese examinations since the Mongolian Language Studies had been set three years ago. However, since the general bithesi exmabination had been changed to choosing bithesi from soldiers among the Eight Banners, the study of Chinese became more and more important, for without learning Chinese, it was impossible to carry out Manchu－Chinese translation.--[[User:Liu Xiao|Liu Xiao]] ([[User talk:Liu Xiao|talk]]) 15:04, 16 October 2021 (UTC)

Therefore, the officials could only reluctantly select three test papers for reading and analysis. Due to the fact that few people in Suiyuan are proficient in Chinese, and few mastered the Manchu-Chinese translation, the majority of students still took Manchu-Mongolian examinations, with fewer people taking the Manchu-Chinese examinations since the Mongolian Language Studies had been set three years ago. However since the general bithesi exmabination had been changed to choosing bithesi from soldiers among the Eight Banners, the study of Chinese became more and more important, for without learning Chinese, it was impossible to translate Manchu－Chinese.--[[User:Liu Yue|Liu Yue]] ([[User talk:Liu Yue|talk]]) 22:55, 18 October 2021 (UTC)

==刘越 Liú Yuè 亚非语言文学女 202120081509==

因此，对于绥远城而言，仿照蒙古官学之例，设立满、汉翻译官学便显得非常重要。因为绥远城内无人可堪满、汉翻译教习之用，因而满、汉翻译官学设立之后，应当由吏部从京城八旗之内，挑选合适者充任。除此以外，补熙等人也在奏折中，一并奏请朝廷拨付用于翻译教学的笔墨、纸张等。

Therefore, for Suiyuan City, it is very important to establish Manchu and Chinese translation official schools, following the example of Mongolian official schools. Since there was no one in Suiyuan can be used to teach Manchu and Chinese translation, after the establishment of Manchu and Chinese translation official schools, the Ministry of officials should select suitable ones from the Eight Banners in the capital. In addition, bu Xi and others are also wrote memorials，requesting the court to allocate pen, ink and paper for translation teaching.--[[User:Liu Yue|Liu Yue]] ([[User talk:Liu Yue|talk]]) 13:32, 18 October 2021 (UTC)

Therefore, for Suiyuan city, it then became very important to establish the official school of Manchu and Chinese translation following the example of Mongolian official school. Since no one in Suiyuan city was eligible to teach Manchu and Chinese translation, after the establishment of the official school of Manchu and Chinese translation, the Ministry of Officials should select suitable candidates from the Eight Banners in the capital. In addition, Bu Xi and other officials also requested the imperial court to allocate pen, ink and paper for translation teaching in memorials to the throne.

==刘运心 Liú Yùnxīn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081510==

补熙认为，只有照此设立满、汉翻译官学，才能确保翻译满、汉文的笔帖式考选得以顺利进行。乾隆三十七年九月，继任绥远城将军容保奏请支付满、蒙八旗学教习和学生银两，其中提到补熙奏准设立的满、蒙翻译官学（即乾隆六年设立的满、蒙学馆）和十一年设立的满、汉翻译官学，以及两所学校教习的选拔。容保认为，满、蒙翻译官学和满、汉翻译官学的四名翻译教习并没有其它差务，而只是专于教学，因而每月支银各一两五钱，即每年支银七十二两，实属过分，应予以全数抽出。

Bu Xi believed that only by establishing the official school of Manchu and Chinese translation in such a way could ensure the success of selective test for bithesi. In September of the 37th year of Qianlong Emperor's reign, Rong Bao, the successor to the former General of Suiyuan, proposed that financial support should be provided for the teachers and students who were Manchu and Mongolian Eight Banners. The official school of Manchu and Mongolian translation (the Manchu and Mongolian school founded in the sixth year of Qianlong's administration) suggested by Bu Xi, the official school of Manchu and Chinese translation and the selection of their teachers are mentioned in the proposition. Bao Rong insisted that since the four teachers in the two schools have no other job but teaching, offering them 1 silver coin and 5 copper coins per month, namely 72 silver coins per year is excessive and thus all the money should be reallocated.--[[User:Liu Yunxin|Liu Yunxin]] ([[User talk:Liu Yunxin|talk]]) 12:36, 24 October 2021 (UTC)

Bu Xi believed that only by establishing the official school of Manchu-Chinese translation in such a way could the success of selective test for bithesi be ensured. In September of the 37th year of Qianlong Emperor' s reign, Rong Bao, the successor to the General of Suiyuan city, proposed that financial support should be provided for the teachers and students who were Manchu and Mongolian Eight Banners. The proposal also mentioned the official school of Manchu-Mongolian translation (founded in the sixth year of Qianlong) and the official school of Manchu-Chinese translation, which both built on the advice of Bu Xi, As well as the selection of schools' teachers. Bao Rong considered that since the four teachers in these schools had no other job but teaching, it was wasteful to offer them 1 silver coin and 5 copper coins per month, namely 72 silver coins per year. Thus all the money should be reallocated.--[[User:Luo Anyi|Luo Anyi]] ([[User talk:Luo Anyi|talk]]) 09:13, 19 October 2021 (UTC)

==罗安怡 Luó Ānyí 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081511==

逮于绥远城设立官学五所之后，遂将四名翻译教习，以及抽出的银两等，一同拨付给前者。虽然乾隆帝对于此折只是简单地批复道“知道了”，但根据后来的文献记载，容保所奏仍然得到了允准。如乾隆五十年九月二十二日，集福以绥远城将军身份上疏高宗，奏请改设满、汉翻译官学，其中便提到容保奏请裁汰翻译官学之事，其中指出：
Only after the five official schools were built in Suiyuan city, the imperial court then should allocate 4 translation teachers and salaries to the schools. Though Emperor Qianlong merely replied these memorials with "got it”, the sebsequent documents suggest that the memorial presented by Rong Bao had been approved by Emperor. For instance, on September 22rd, the fiftieth year of emperor Qianlong（1785), Ji Fu presented a memorial as the general of Suiyuan city, asking for a transformation of officals schools of Manchu-Chinese translation. Thereinto, he mentioned the advise proposed by RongBao that government should make a modification of officiall translation schools . It pointed out that:--[[User:Luo Anyi|Luo Anyi]] ([[User talk:Luo Anyi|talk]]) 06:10, 19 October 2021 (UTC)

Only after five official educational institutions had been set up,did these four translation teachers, the collected fund and so on been allocated to the institutions.Though Emperor Qianlong just replied “I see”，Rong Bao’s memorial still got approval according to the documents afterward.For instance， on September 22rd, the fiftieth year of emperor Qianlong（1785)，Ji Fu presented a memorial as the general of Suiyuan city, asking for setting up officals schools of Manchu-Chinese translation，in the case of which，he mentioned Rong Bao’s suggestion that the official educational institutions should be shut down.It pointed out that:----[[User:Luo Xi|Luo Xi]] ([[User talk:Luo Xi|talk]]) 02:38, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

==罗曦 Luó Xī 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081512==

奴才查，乾隆十一年经前任将军补熙奏准，在绥远城设立满蒙翻译学，考取两名教习，挑选八旗子弟二十名教育，俟三年期满后，诚能勤勉从事，所教有成，则将该教习保奏，记名挑补骁骑校。乾隆三十七年，经前任将军容保奏准，裁汰翻译学，设立五所满洲学，每学各设教习四名，教育所有年轻养育兵及闲散幼丁。奴才等查，每学现有学生百余名，徒有其名而已，并未得以好好学习，于学生甚无益处，反被耽误。

I have searched that in the eleventh year of Qian Long’s reign，the translation subject of Man and Meng nations had been settled down in Sui Yuan city under the approval of the former general———— Bu Xi，recruiting two teachers to teach twenty royal students enrolled，who will honored to be Tiao Buxiaoqixiao without test if he is literally diligent in teaching and has made an achievement during three years.In the thirty seventh year of Qian Long’s reign，the translation subject had been cancelled under the approval of the former general———— Rong Bao，and five Man Zhou institutions were set down with every institution having four teachers to teach those young soldiers and free childrens.We have investigated that every institution has more than one hundred student，who were not deserved to be called educational institution，cause students cannot study well but were reversely misled.

I had searched that in 1746, the 11th year under the reign of Qianlong, the former general named Bu Xi had got permission from the Emperor to set up Manchurian-Mongolian translation studies in Suiyuan city, recruited two instructors to teach 20 students enrolled in the Eight Banners who will be honored as candidate for valiant cavalry if he is diligent in learning and made an achievement during three years' training. In 1772, the 37th year under the reign of Qianlong, the formal general Rong Bao had approved the decision to cancel the translation studies and set up five Manchurian schools, each with four instructors, to teach those young soldiers and idle toddlers. We had investigated that every school had more than one hundred students with an undeserved reputation, which benefited nothing for students but delayed them on the contrary.--[[User:Ma Xin|Ma Xin]] ([[User talk:Ma Xin|talk]]) 05:14, 18 October 2021 (UTC)

==马新 Mǎ Xīn 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081513==

况且自裁汰翻译学以来，考取笔帖式及撰拟咨行各地汉字文稿，日渐难以得人。奴才等加紧训练兵丁之满洲语言外，自到任后即行整修将军衙门内房屋十五间，将八旗近三百名俊秀子弟编为五所学校，挑选贤能教习，每日教授满洲语言及马步箭。今经查看，已有成效，再加紧教习一二年后，皆可成长。

Besides, since the elimination of translation studies, it has become increasingly difficult to find people who passed the examination for bithesi and excelled at writing manuscripts in various industries and places with Chinese characters. In addition to stepping up the soldiers' Manchurian language training, we have also renovated 15 houses in the General's Yamun since taking office, grouped nearly 300 outstanding intelligence in the Eight Banners into five schools and selected talented instructors to teach them Manchuria language and horseback archery. Visible results have been achieved after checking today and they will all able to make greater progress if we step up training for one or two years.--[[User:Ma Xin|Ma Xin]] ([[User talk:Ma Xin|talk]]) 02:28, 18 October 2021 (UTC)

Another version: Moreover, since the abolition of translation studies, it has become increasingly difficult to garner talents to take part in and pass translation examination, and to draw up the drafts of news about all walks of life in various places. Apart from strengthening the soldiers’ training in Manchurian language, we and other ministers immediately arranged to renovate 15 houses in the General’s Yamen (the government office in feudal China) after taking office. The nearly 300 brilliant youths in the Eight Banners will be organized into five schools and taught by the select competent personages in Manchurian language, horse-riding, and arrow-shooting on a daily basis. After today’s checking, these young people have made great progress, and they will achieve more growth with subsequent one-to-two-year effective and intense study. --[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 06:36, 19 October 2021 (UTC)

==毛雅文 Máo Yǎwén 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081514==

奴才等愚见，请将八旗现有五所满洲学概行裁撤，仅留一处校舍，仍照旧例作为满汉翻译学，考取两名翻译教习，挑选八旗俊秀稍大子弟三十名，教授满汉文翻译。每年支给现有五所学校之公用银，即拨给新设翻译学校及将军衙门内所设五所学校使用。其所撤四所学校之房屋，并无用处，相应照先前腾出官署作价之例，交同知作价归入正项钱粮。
In our humble opinion, the five existing Manchurian schools in the Eight-Banners system should be abolished, with only one school building leaved to be used for Manchurian-Chinese translation studies as usual. Meanwhile, two translators will be admitted through tests into the school to teach translation, and thirty youths of outstanding intelligence in the Eight Banners will be selected to impart Manchurian-Chinese translation. The annual public money allocated to the existing five schools should be now distributed among the newly established translation school and the five schools in the General’s Yamen (the government office in feudal China). The four school houses which have been removed are useless, and the fees of these vacant houses will be valued according to the previous examples, handed over to the relevant ministers for pricing, and integrated into the tax and corvee system.--[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 15:09, 16 October 2021 (UTC)

In our humble opinion, the five existing Manchurian schools in the Eight-Banners system should be abolished, with only one school building leaved to be used for Manchurian-Chinese translation studies as usual. Meanwhile, select two translation instructors and thirty of the eight banners excellent older sons and daughters to teach the Manchu-Chinese translation. The annual public money allocated to the existing five schools should be now distributed among the newly established translation school and the five schools in the General’s Yamen (the government office in feudal China). The four school houses which have been removed are useless, and the fees of these vacant houses will be valued according to the previous examples, handed over to the relevant ministers for pricing, and integrated into the tax and corvee system.--[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 16:44, 16 October 2021 (UTC)

==毛优 Máo Yōu 俄语语言文学女 202120081515==

如此稍作调整，则考取笔帖式、撰拟汉字文稿皆可得人，于满洲语言、马步箭等技艺亦有益处。[] 中国第一历史档案馆（郭美兰编译）：《乾隆朝绥远城设立八旗官学满文档案》，《历史档案》，2012年第2期，第50页。根据集福的说法，乾隆三十七年，五所满洲官学设立之后，至今共有官学生五百余人，即每学为百余人，教习共二十人，即每学为四人，但这些学生自入学以后，并未专心学习，所谓肄业只是徒有其名。

With a little adjustment like this, you can become a bithesi, compose a kanji manuscript better than others, and benefit from skills such as Manchurian language and horseback archery. The First Historical Archives of China (compiled by Guo Meilan): "Manchu Archives of the Establishment of the Eight Banners Official School in Suiyuan City during the Qianlong Dynasty," Historical Archives, 2012, No. 2, p. 50. According to Ji Fu, in the thirty-seventh year of the Qianlong era, after the establishment of five Manchurian government schools, so far there are more than 500 students, that is, each school for more than 100 people, teachers a total of 20 people, that is, each school for four people. However, these students have not concentrated on their studies since they enrolled, and the so-called studies are only in name.--[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 16:32, 16 October 2021 (UTC)

With a little adjustment like this, talents emerged passing the test of bethesi and able to write Chinese texts. Manchurian language and Mabu archery and other skills all benefited from it. According to The First Historical Archives of China (compiled by Guo Meilan): "Manchu Archives of the Establishment of the Eight Banners Official School in Suiyuan City during the Qianlong Dynasty," Historical Archives, 2012, No. 2, p. 50. According to Ji Fu, in the thirty-seventh year of the Qianlong era, after the establishment of five Manchurian government schools, so far there are more than 500 students, that is, each school for more than 100 people, teachers a total of 20 people, that is, each school for four people. However, these students have not concentrated on their studies since they enrolled, and the so-called studies are only in name.--[[User:Mou Yixin|Mou Yixin]] ([[User talk:Mou Yixin|talk]]) 07:31, 18 October 2021 (UTC)

==牟一心 Móu Yīxīn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081516==

然而，集福自称自其就任以来，不仅强化八旗兵丁的满洲语言学习，从中挑选俊秀者充补至将军衙门内新设的五所学校，而且在教习的问题上挑贤选能，令其勤于教习，凡此种种已使学生的培养初见成效。因此，集福请旨将原来所设的五所满洲官学进行裁撤，将其并为一所，仍照旧例定为满、汉翻译官学，以两名翻译教习，教授三十名八旗俊秀子弟满、汉文翻译。乾隆帝为此责令军机大臣和珅等，遵旨议奏。

However, Jifu claimed that since he took office, he has not only strengthened the study of Manchuria language among the Eight Banners soldiers, from whom he selected excellent persons to fill the five new schools in the General's Office, but also selected talents on the issue of teaching, urging them to be diligent in their work. all of which have made the training of students first effective. Therefore, Jifu asked for an order to abolish the original five Manchurian official schools and make them one, which was still ordered as the official school of Manchu and Chinese translation as before. Two teachers were arranged to teach thirty young talents of Eight Banners Manchu and Chinese translation. For this proposition, Emperor Qianlong ordered He Shen and others, ministers of Junjichu, to discuss and make report on Jifu’s proposal.--[[User:Mou Yixin|Mou Yixin]] ([[User talk:Mou Yixin|talk]]) 15:05, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

However, Jifu claimed that since he took office, he has not only strengthened the study of Manchu among the Eight Banners soldiers and selected excellent candidates qualified for the five schools set up newly in the General's Office, but also selected talents on the issue of teaching and urged?them to be diligent in their work. All measures make the development of students first-time results. Therefore, Jifu asked for an order to combine the five Manchurian official schools into one, which was still ordered as the official school of Manchu and Chinese translation as before. Two translators were arranged to teach thirty young talents of Eight Banners Manchu and Chinese translation. For this proposition, Emperor Qianlong ordered He Shen and others ministers of Junjichu, to discuss and make report on Jifu’s proposal.--[[User:Peng Ruixue|Peng Ruixue]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruixue|talk]]) 10:25, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

==彭瑞雪 Péng Ruìxuě 法语语言文学女 202120081517==

于是，十月五日，即集福具折四日之后，和珅遵旨回奏，指出自裁汰翻译官学以来，各部院衙门在考取笔帖式和书写汉字文移时，竟不得人，因而同意了集福之议，裁汰原来所设的五处满洲官学，留一处作为官学房屋，照旧例设立满洲翻译官学，教习八旗英俊子弟满、汉语翻译。和珅在奏章中同时指出，各省将军和地方官员相互行文时，也需要用到汉字，因而也需要教授翻译。同日，乾隆帝即批复“著依议。钦此”，同意了和珅所议。

Therefore, on October 5, four days after the proposal of Jifu, He Shen played back according to his order, pointing out that since the abolition of the official school of translation, the Yamen of various ministries and institutes have been unable to find a qualified person when taking the examination of pen style and writing Chinese characters. Therefore, he agreed with Jifu's proposal to eliminate the five original Manchu official schools leaving one as the official school house, and to set up the Manchu official school of translation according to the old practice in order to teach the distinguished children of the eight banners to translate Manchu and Chinese. In He Shen’s proposal folding, he also pointed out that when provincial generals and local officials write to each other, they also need to use Chinese characters, so they also need to learn translation. On the same day, Qianlong Emperor approved his proposal by "I agree, that’s all" and consented to He Shen’s suggest.--[[User:Peng Ruixue|Peng Ruixue]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruixue|talk]]) 10:26, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

Therefore, on October 5th, four days after the preparation of memorial to the throne of Jifu, He Shen played back according to the emperor’s order, pointing out that since the adjudication and abolition of the official school of translation, the Yamen of various ministries and institutes had been unable to find a qualified person when they craved for the translate position and wrote the official document in Chinese. Therefore, he agreed with Jifu's proposal to eliminate the five original Manchu official schools leaving one as the official school house, and to set up the Manchu official school of translation according to the old practice in order to teach the distinguished children of the eight banners to translate Manchu and Chinese. Meanwhile, He Shen also pointed out in his proposal that when provincial generals and local officials wrote official documents to each other, they also need to use Chinese characters, so they also need to be taught translation. On the same day, Qianlong Emperor approved his proposal by "I agree, that’s all" and consented to He Shen’s suggest.--[[User:Qing Jianan|Qing Jianan]] ([[User talk:Qing Jianan|talk]]) 00:55, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

==秦建安 Qín Jiànān 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081518==

显然，无论是补熙和鄂尔泰等奏请设立或复设满蒙学馆，还是补熙奏请设立蒙古学、满汉翻译学，以及改设满蒙文翻译笔帖式，又或是德龄等奏请制定满蒙文翻译生员奖惩章程，容保奏请设立满蒙八旗学五所，以及集福奏请裁汰满蒙八旗学，并改设（复设）满汉翻译学等，凡此种种都表明绥远城官学的翻译人才培养目标与定位，其办学模式和办学效果在清代旗学体系中颇具典范性。

Apparently, whether Buxi and Ertai remit their requirements of establishing or set up the Academy of Manchuria and Mongolia anew to the emperor and Buxi asked the emperor for the instruction of establishing the study of Mongolia, translatology of Manchurian and Han language and authorizing the officers who transcribe and translate the Mongolian and Manchu language, or Deling asked the emperor to formulate the rewarding and penal regulations for Manchurian and Mongolian translators; Rongbao requested instructions from the emperor to found five schools for Manchurian and Mongolian Eight Banners and Jifu appeal for adjudicating and eliminate the study of Manchurian and Mongolian Eight Banners and turning to set up the translatology of Manchurian and Han language, those behaviors manifested the exemplary nature of the training goals and orientation for translation talents, school running modes and school running effects of Suiyuan official school in the system of banner hierarchy in Qing Dynasty.--[[User:Qing Jianan|Qing Jianan]] ([[User talk:Qing Jianan|talk]]) 14:36, 16 October 2021 (UTC)

Apparently, all the following proposals manifested the exemplary nature of the training goals and orientation for translation talents, school running modes and school running effects of Suiyuan official school in the system of Academy of Banner in Qing Dynasty. For example, Buxi and Ertai submitted their requirements to the emperor of establishing or setting up the Academy of Manchuria and Mongolia again; Buxi asked the emperor for the instruction of establishing the study of Mongolia, translatology of the Manchuand Han language and establishing the group of scholars of the Manchu and Mongolian translation; Deling asked the emperor to formulate the rewarding and penal regulations for Manchurian and Mongolian translators; Rongbao requested instructions from the emperor to found five schools for Manchurian and Mongolian Eight Banners; Jifu appealed for adjudicating and eliminating the study of Manchurian and Mongolian Eight Banners and turning to set up the translatology of Manchurian and Han language, etc--[[User:Qiu Tingting|Qiu Tingting]] ([[User talk:Qiu Tingting|talk]]) 03:53, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

==邱婷婷 Qiū Tíngtíng 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081519==

2.旗学教育中的汉籍（书）译本。旗学之设，必有教材方能成行，然而国初之际并无文字，书籍修纂只能借助其它民族文字，颇为不易。太祖、太宗年间，额尔德尼与噶盖受命创制老满文，后经达海改进，不仅给文移往来、记注政事等带来便利，也给满、汉翻译，以及解决旗人教育的教学用书等，创造了条件。

2.Translated version of the Han Dynasty in the education of Academy of Eight Banners. Only with teaching materials could the Academy of Eight Banners’ establishment be accessible, however, at the beginning of the country there was no text. Under this circumstance, books could only be compiled with the help of other nationality characters, which was quite difficult. During the reign of first and second emperors of the Qing Dynasty, Erdeni and Gagai were ordered to create the old Manchu which was later improved by Dahai. Not only made it much easy for official documents communication, political affairs’ notation, but also provided the conditions for the Manchu, Han translation, as well as solving the teaching books of the Bannerman’s education , etc. --[[User:Qiu Tingting|Qiu Tingting]] ([[User talk:Qiu Tingting|talk]]) 03:15, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

Translated version of the Han Dynasty in the education of Academy of Eight Banners. Only with teaching materials could the Academy of Eight Banners be established successfully, however, at the beginning of the country there was no text. Under this circumstance, books could only be compiled with the help of other nationality characters, which was quite difficult. During the reign of first and second emperors of the Qing Dynasty, Erdeni and Gagai were ordered to create the old Manchu which was later improved by Dahai. Not only made it much easier for official documents communication and political affairs’ notation, but also provided the conditions for the Manchu and Han translation, as well as solving the problem of teaching books of the Bannerman’s education , etc. --[[User:Rao Jinying|Rao Jinying]] ([[User talk:Rao Jinying|talk]]) 03:07, 18 October 2021 (UTC)

==饶金盈 Ráo Jīnyíng 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081520==

如太祖曾命达海翻译汉籍，太宗也曾分拨“书房”满官担任“译汉字书籍”的工作，译成之书包括《刑部会典》、《素书》、《三略》、《万宝全书》等。天聪八年，伊成阿（又名宜成格）参加礼部考试，以第一名取中“汉人习满书”举人，授内国史院行走，又翻译《礼部会典》成书。[] 鄂尔泰等：《清实录·太宗文皇帝实录》，北京：中华书局，1985年，第239页；清高宗敕纂：《八旗满洲氏族通谱》，台北：台湾商务印书馆，1983年，第12页。嗣后，大学士希福于崇德元年奉敕翻译《辽》、《金》、《元》三史，崇德四年六月译竣，顺治元年“敬缮成书以进”。[]

For example, Taizu once ordered Dahai to translate Chinese books, and Taizong once assigned Manchu officials in the "Study orgnization" to the work of "translating Chinese books". The successfully translated books include ''the code of the Ministry of punishment'', ''Su Shu'', ''San Lue'', ''Wan Bao Quan Shu''(''General People's Daily Life''), etc. In the eighth year of Tiancong, Yi chenga (also known as Yi chengge) took part in the examination of the Ministry of rites, took the first place in the "Han people's learning full books", was awarded to work part-time at the National Academy of history, and translated ''Ceremony of the Ministry of Rites'' into a book. [] Ertai et al：''Records of Emperor Taizong In Qing Dynasty''，Beijing：Zhong Hua Book Company，1985，p239；Imperial usurpation by Emperor Gaozong of the Qing Dynasty：''General Manual of Manchu Clan in Eight Banners''，Taibei：Taiwan Commercial Press，1983，p12. Subsequently, in the first year of Chongde, the grand seccretary Xi Fu was ordered to translate three historical books: ''Liao'', ''Jin'' and ''yuan'',and the translation work ended in June of the fourth year of Chongde, then the books were presented to the emperor in the first year of Shunzhi.[]--[[User:Rao Jinying|Rao Jinying]] ([[User talk:Rao Jinying|talk]]) 03:02, 18 October 2021 (UTC)

For example, Taizu once ordered Dahai to translate Chinese books, and Taizong assigned Manchu officials in the "Study orgnization" to the work of "translating Chinese books", which included ''the Code of the Ministry of Punishments '', ''Su Shu'', ''San Lue'', ''General People's Daily Life , etc. In the eighth year of Tiancong, Yi Chenga (also known as Yi Cheng’e) took the examination of the Ministry of Rites and won the first place in the "Han people's learning full books". He was awarded to work part-time at the National Academy of History as well as translated ''Ceremony of the Ministry of Rites'' into a book. [] Ertai et al：''Factual Records of Emperor Taizong In the Qing Dynasty''，Beijing：Zhong Hua Book Company，1985，p.239；Imperial usurpation by Emperor Gaozong of the Qing Dynasty：''General Manual of Manchu Clan in Eight Banners''，Taibei：Taiwan Commercial Press，1983，p.12. Subsequently, in the first year of Chongde, the grand secretary Xi Fu was mandated to translate three historical books: ''Liao'', ''Jin'' and ''yuan'',and the translation work ended in June of the fourth year of Chongde, then the books were presented to the emperor in the first year of Shunzhi. --[[User:Shi Liqing|Shi Liqing]] ([[User talk:Shi Liqing|talk]]) 05:08, 18 October 2021 (UTC)

==石丽青 Shí Lìqīng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081521==

鄂尔泰等：《清实录·太宗文皇帝实录》，北京：中华书局，1985年，第49页。这些满译汉籍或涉及修身正心，或涉及齐家治国，成为统治者了解汉制，学习知识的主要途径，同时也是清初旗人教育的重要来源。例如，顺治初开办国子监八旗官学时，朝廷拟将满、汉官员子弟分为“读清书”、“读汉书”两种，前者正是以汉籍的满文译本作为学习的主要内容。

Ertai et al.: “Factual Records of the Qing Dynasty • Factual Records of Emperor Taizongwen”, Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1985, p. 49. These Chinese books translated in Manchu language, either involving self-cultivation and moral integrity or related to regulating the family and ruling the state, became the main way for governors to learn about the Han system and acquire knowledge, as well as the significant source of Bannerman Education in the early Qing Dynasty. For instance, at the beginning of Emperor Shunzhi’s establishment of the Imperial Academy of Eight Banners, the court intended to divide the children of Manchu and Han officials into two types:” reading books of the Qing Dynasty and of the Han Dynasty, the former of which exactly took the Manchu translation of Chinese books as the main content of learning.--[[User:Shi Liqing|Shi Liqing]] ([[User talk:Shi Liqing|talk]]) 14:35, 16 October 2021 (UTC)

Ertai et al.:” Factual Records of the Qing Dynasty • Factual Records of Emperor Taizongwen”, Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1985, p. 49. These Chinese books translated in Manchu language, either involving self-cultivation and moral integrity or related to regulating the family and ruling the state, became the main way for governors to learn about the Han system and acquire knowledge, as well as the significant source of Bannerman Education in the early Qing Dynasty. For instance,at the time of establishing the Imperial Academy of Eight Banners in the beginning of the rule of Shunzhi, the court intended to divide the children of Manchu and Han officials into two types:” reading books of the Qing Dynasty and of the Han Dynasty, the former of which exactly took the Manchu translation of Chinese books as the main content of learning.--[[User:Sun Yashi|Sun Yashi]] ([[User talk:Sun Yashi|talk]]) 03:26, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

==孙雅诗 Sūn Yǎshī 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081522==

顺治年间，他赤哈哈番阿什坦先后翻译《大学》、《中庸》、《孝经》和《通鉴总论》等，这些书籍要么被用作治国理政之参考，要么也被用作旗人教育之教材。[] 鄂尔泰等修，李洵、赵德贵点校：《八旗通志·初集》，长春：东北师范大学出版，1986年，第5339页。据陳康祺在《郎潜纪闻·二笔》中说，“顺治初，翻译《大学》、《中庸》、《孝经》诸书，刊行之，以教旗人，皆出其手”，即是此情况之体现。[]

During the reign of Shunzhi, Tachihahafanashitan translated the ''University'', the ''Moderation'', the ''Classic of Filial Piety'' and ''The General of Tongjian'' one by one, which were either used as a reference for governing the country or as teaching materials for the education of Flag People.[]Revised by Ertai ect. Proofread by Li Xun and Zhao Degui: ''Eight Banner Tongzhi· Initial Collection'', Changchun: Published by Northeast Normal University, 1986, p. 5339.According to Chen Kangqi in ''Lang Qianjiang · Two Bi'', " At the beginning of Shunzhi, he translated the ''University'',the ''Moderation'', the ''Classic of Filial Piety'' and published them to teach the Frag People", which is the embodiment of this situation.[]--[[User:Sun Yashi|Sun Yashi]] ([[User talk:Sun Yashi|talk]]) 03:17, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

During the reign of Shunzhi, Tachihahafanashitan translated the ''University'', the ''Moderation'', the ''Classic of Filial Piety'' and ''The General of Tongjian'' successively， which were either used as a reference for governing the country or as teaching materials for the education of Banner People. []Revised by Ertai ect. Proofread by Li Xun and Zhao Degui: ''General Annals of Eight Banner ·Initial Collection'', Changchun: Published by Northeast Normal University, 1986, p.5339. According to Chen Kangqi in ''Folk Anecdotes Chronicle(Second Version)'', "In the early period of Shunzhi, he translated the ''University'',the ''Moderation'', the ''Classic of Filial Piety'' and published them to educate the Banner People", which is the embodiment of this situation. --[[User:Wang Lifei|Wang Lifei]] ([[User talk:Wang Lifei|talk]]) 04:49, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

==王李菲 Wáng Lǐfēi 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081523==

陈康祺著，晋石点校：《郎潜纪闻·二笔》，北京：中华书局，1997年，第362页。除了是八旗臣民的学习教材之外，汉籍满译本也是最高统治者的学习蓝本，深深影响了清初君主的知识结构。例如，世祖即位之初，仅识满文，逮亲政后方习汉语。《清实录·世祖章皇帝实录》中的说法是“六龄即嗜观史书”，显然世祖是以汉籍的满文译本为限。[]

Written by Chen Kangqi, edited by Jinshi: ''Folk Anecdotes Chronicle(Second Version).'' Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1997, page 362. In addition to being the learning material of the eight banners, the Manchu translation of Chinese classics was also the learning blueprint of the supreme rulers, which deeply influenced the knowledge structure of the early Qing emperors. For example, emperor Shizu only knew Manchu when he just ascended the throne, then he learned Chinese after taking over the reins. In ''the Records of Qing Dynasty· Emperor Fu Lin'', it is said that “be addicted to reading historical books at the age of 6”, which implies that emperor Shizu was limited to the Manchu translation of Han books at that time.--[[User:Wang Lifei|Wang Lifei]] ([[User talk:Wang Lifei|talk]]) 14:35, 16 October 2021 (UTC)

Annotations:
First:the Manchu translation of Chinese-the translation of Han Ji Manchu
Second:emperor Shizu-at the beginning of emperor Shizu’s accession --[[User:Wang Yifan21|Wang Yifan21]] ([[User talk:Wang Yifan21|talk]]) 05:16, 18 October 2021 (UTC)
==王逸凡 Wáng Yìfán 亚非语言文学女 202120081524==

鄂尔泰等：《清实录·世祖章皇帝实录》，北京：中华书局，1985年，第27页。《北游集》中，对于世祖勤学汉文的情形也有记载，认为他所阅读的汉书范围甚广，“《左》、《史》、《庄》、《骚》、先秦、两汉、唐宋八大家，以及元明撰著，无不毕备。”[] 释道忞：《北遊集》，上海：上海古籍出版社，2010年，第47-48页。

Ertai et al., Records of the Qing Dynasty, Records of the Emperor Shizu Zhang, Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1985, p. 27. There is also a record of Shizu's diligent study of The Chinese language in Beiyou, which says that he read a wide range of Han books, including Zuo, Shi, Zhuang, Sao, the eight masters of the Pre-Qin, Han, Tang and Song dynasties, as well as the works of the Yuan and Ming dynasties. [] Daomin Shi: A Journey in North China, Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House, 2010, pp. 47-48.--[[User:Wang Yifan21|Wang Yifan21]] ([[User talk:Wang Yifan21|talk]]) 03:10, 18 October 2021 (UTC)

Ertai et al. Records of emperor shizuzhang in the Qing Dynasty, Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1985, P. 27. There are also records of Shizu's diligent study of Chinese in the collection of northern travels, which holds that he has read a wide range of Han books, "Zuo, Shi, Zhuang, Sao, eight masters in the pre-Qin, Han, Tang and Song Dynasties, as well as the yuan and Ming Dynasties." [] Shi Daoyi: collection of northern travels, Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House, 2010, pp. 47-48.

==王镇隆 Wáng Zhènlóng 英语语言文学（英美文学）男 202120081525==

顺治帝学习汉文之时，内秘书院已完成组织翻译《通鉴》，并另行请译《大学衍义》，这些译本无论成书与否，都对顺治帝奠定知识基础具有重要作用。顺治十年，内院诸臣奉敕翻译《五经》，顺治帝在御览译本初稿时，也以御笔批注译本中的讹错，令译书官更正缮写。正是由于世祖亲近汉官，倾慕汉族文化，虽然因为统治阶级内部的压力，不得不在顺治十一年宣布宗学“永停其习汉字诸书”，但仍在宗学的教学内容上做出让步，允许宗学生“翻译各样汉书观玩”，使得宗学及其它官学仍可以保留满译汉籍文本作为教材。[]

When Emperor Shunzhi studied Chinese, neimi Academy had completed the translation of Tongjian and asked for another translation of University Spread Meaning. Whether these translations were completed or not, they played an important role in laying the knowledge foundation for emperor Shunzhi. In the 10th year of Shunzhi reign, the officials in the inner court translated The Five Classics. When Emperor Shunzhi read the first draft of the translation, he also annotated the errors in the translation with the Royal pen and ordered the translators to correct and rewrite. It was precisely because the ancestors were close to Han officials and admired Han culture,although they had to announce that the patriarchal school "stopped learning Chinese characters and books forever" in the 11th year of Shunzhi because of the pressure within the ruling class, they still made concessions on the teaching content of the patriarchal school and allowed the patriarchal students to "translate all kinds of Chinese books and watch and play", so that the patriarchal school and other official schools can still retain the fully translated Chinese texts as teaching materials. -- translated by Wang Zhenlong

When Emperor Shunzhi studied Chinese, Neimi Academy had completed the translation of ''Tongjian'' and asked for another translation of ''The Derivation of the Great Learning''. Whether these translations were completed or not, they played an important role in laying the knowledge foundation for emperor Shunzhi. In the 10th year of the reign of Emperor Shunzhi, the ministers in the Neimi Academy translated ''The Five Classics''. When Emperor Shunzhi read the first draft of the translation, he also annotated the errors in the translation with the royal pen and ordered the translators to correct and rewrite. They had to announce that the royal family "stopped learning Chinese characters and books forever" in the 11th year of the reign of Emperor Shunzhi because of the pressure within the ruling class. But it was precisely because the ancestors were close to Han officials and admired Han culture, they still made concessions on the teaching content of the royal clan and allowed the students to "translate all kinds of Chinese books and watch and play", so that the patriarchal school and other official schools can still retain the fully translated Chinese texts as teaching materials. --[[User:Wei Yiwen|Wei Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Wei Yiwen|talk]]) 05:20, 19 October 2021 (UTC)

==卫怡雯 Wèi Yíwén 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081526==

至于内秘书院原拟翻译的《大学衍义》，虽迟至康熙十一年完成，并于次年进呈，但无论太皇太后，还是康熙本人，都对该书格外重视，不仅命儒臣翻译刊刻，颁赐群臣，而且将其分发给八旗官学，以资肄习。[]康熙作为千古一帝，在位期间不仅敕译大量儒典，如《日讲四书解义》、《日讲书经解义》、《日讲易经解义》等，也敕撰或御制满汉合璧本的其它汉籍，如《御选古文渊鉴》、《资治通鉴纲目》、《御纂性理精义》等，这些书籍在颁赐大臣和各省之余，也一并被颁赐旗学，以教材资用。

As for The Original Draft of The Derivation of Great Learning by Secretary of Academy, though it was completed until the eleventh year of Kangxi and was presented the next year, both Kangxi’s grandmother and Kangxi himself attached great importance to the book. He not only ordered knowledgeable ministers to translate the cut blocks and gave it as an official favor to all ministers. He also handed it out for Eight Banners (military administrative system of the Manchus in the Qing Dynasty) to encourage them to leave school before graduation. As the first emperor in thousands of years, during the reign, he not only gave imperial order to translate many Confucian classics, such as Explain Four Books Every Day, Explain Books of Documents Every Day, Explain Books of Changes Every Day, but also ordered them to make other Chinese books of the combination of Manchu and Han, such as Imperial Selection of Guwenyuanjian, Compendium of History as a Mirror, Imperial Compile of Xinglijingyi. Besides as an official favor to the ministers and each province, it was also handed out Eight Banners in order to further enrich the use of teaching materials.--[[User:Wei Yiwen|Wei Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Wei Yiwen|talk]]) 04:13, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

As for ''The Original Draft of The Derivation of Great Learning'' by Secretary of Academy, though it was completed until the eleventh year of Kangxi and was presented in the next year, both Kangxi’s grandmother and Kangxi himself attached great importance to the book. He not only ordered knowledgeable ministers to translate and print the book and gave the translations as an official favor to all ministers. He also handed out them to Eight Banners (military administrative system of the Manchus in the Qing Dynasty) for their study. As an excellent emperor in the history, during his reign, Kangxi not only gave imperial order to translate many Confucian classics, such as ''Explain Four Books Every Day'', ''Explain Books of Documents Every Day'', ''Explain Books of Changes Every Day'', but also ordered to compile other Chinese books of the combination of Manchu and Han, such as ''Imperial Selection of Guwenyuanjian'', ''Compendium of History as a Mirror'', ''Imperial Compile of Xinglijingyi''. Besides as an official favor to the ministers and each province, these books were also handed out to Eight Banners as teaching material.--[[User:Wei Chuxuan|Wei Chuxuan]] ([[User talk:Wei Chuxuan|talk]]) 13:58, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

==魏楚璇 Wèi Chǔxuán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081527==

可以认为，清代的旗学教育从一开始便受到统治者重视与支持。如若不然，则汉籍的满文译本想要进入旗学，必不可能。以《孝经》为例，该书初由阿什坦以满文译成，后被用作旗学教材，其中原因即得益于顺治帝“以孝治天下”的战略。雍正年间，世宗同样力主孝道，以孝道为立教之原、立身之要，令儒臣“专译经文”，以便习诵。[]

It is believed that the education for the offsprings of Eight Banners was attached importance to and supported by the rulers from the very beginning. If it was not so, the Manchu translations of ancient classics of Han culture would never get into the schools for the offsprings of Eight Banners. Take ''The Book of Filial Piety'' as an example. The book was firstly translated by Ashtan with Manchu then was used as textbook for the schools. The reason of this is the strategy put forward by Shunzhi emperor that used the morality of filial piety to run the country. During the ruling years of Yongzheng emperor, he also emphasized the morality which should be the source of education and the core of personal moral cultivation and ordered scholars and officials to translate relevant scriptures for study and recitation.--[[User:Wei Chuxuan|Wei Chuxuan]] ([[User talk:Wei Chuxuan|talk]]) 04:19, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

It was believed that the education for the School for Children of the Eight Banners in Qing Dynasty had received great attention and supported by the rulers from the very beginning. If this was not the case, it was absolutely impossible for the Manchu translations of Chinese books to get into the School. Take ''The Book of Filial Piety'' as an example, this book was firstly translated by Ashtan in Manchu then was used as a textbook for the School. And the reason for that was that the Emperor Shunzhi put forward the strategy, ruling the world with "filial piety". During the year of Yongzheng emperor, he also thought highly of filial piety which should be the source of education and the core of personal moral cultivation. Besides, he also ordered confucian officials to specialize in translating scriptures for people to study and read.--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 15:04, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

==魏兆妍 Wèi Zhàoyán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081528==

最终，《孝经》又于雍正五年译印成满、汉合璧本，继续作为旗学教材之用，以助朝廷推行政策之需。当然，清代旗学教材并非仅有中央律定一途，各省驻防也有自行翻译、编纂和刊印者，如嘉庆年间杭州驻防将军萨秉阿重刻九鼐翻译的《戒赌十则》，广州将军衙门编纂的《满汉文八种》，以及光绪年间荆州驻防翻译总学也先后纂辑《吏治辑要》等，这些书籍虽非皇帝敕译、敕纂，但于清廷政治和地方政务亦有所合。上述书籍完成译印之后，即被用于旗学教育，进一步丰富了旗学教材的使用。

At last, ''The Classic on Filial Piety'' was translated and printed into a version included both Manchu and Chinese during the 5th year of Yongzheng, continuing to be used as a teaching material for the School for Children of the Eight Banners in Qing Dynasty in order to meet the needs of the court to carry out a policy. Certainly, the central government was not the only way to set up the textbook of the School. There were also people who translate, compile and print by themselves in the provincial garrison, such as ''Ten Rules for Quitting Gambling'' translated by the nine incense tripod, Sa Bing E Zhong Ke, a general garrison in Hangzhou during the year of Jiaqing and ''Eight Kinds of Manchu and Chinese'' compiled by the General Government of Guangzhou, ''Summary of Official Administration'' successively complied by general translators of Jinzhou garrison during the year of Guangxu. Although these books were not translated and compiled under the order of the emperor, they had some similarities in Qing politics and local government affairs. Upon finishing the translation and printing of these books, they were used in the education of the School, which further enriched the use of its teaching materials.--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 23:18, 16 October 2021 (UTC)

In the end, ''The Classic on Filial Piety'' was translated and printed into a version included both Manchu and Chinese during the 5th year of Yongzheng, continuing to be used as a teaching material for the School for Children of the Eight Banners in Qing Dynasty in order to meet the needs of the court to carry out a policy. Certainly, the central government was not the only way to set up the textbook of the School. There were also people who translate, compile and print by themselves in the provincial garrison, such as ''Ten Rules for Quitting Gambling'' translated by the nine incense tripod, Sa Bing E Zhong Ke, a general garrison in Hangzhou during the year of Jiaqing and ''Eight Kinds of Manchu and Chinese'' compiled by the General Government of Guangzhou, ''Summary of Official Administration'' successively complied by general translators of Jinzhou garrison during the year of Guangxu. Although these books were not translated and compiled under the order of the emperor, they had some similarities with Qing politics and local government affairs. Upon finishing the translation and printing of these books, they were used in the education of the School( “Qixue”) , which further enriched the use of its teaching materials. --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 04:57, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

==吴婧悦 Wú Jìngyuè 俄语语言文学女 202120081529==

3.旗学教育中的翻译课业与考课。清代旗学的课业要求与其教学重点密切关联，因而考课上并无完全一致的情况。以国子监八旗官学为例，顺治元年即将学生分为习清书、习汉书两类。顺治以后，虽然朝廷对于该学的学生额数屡有调整，但类别上仍保持了原来的习清书、习汉书之分。

Translation course and examination courses in the School(Qixue). The schoolwork requirements of the School in the Qing Dynasty are closely related to its teaching focus, so there is no completely consistent situation in the examination course. Take the official study of the Eight banners of Imperial College as an example, the first year of Shunzhi made students divided into two categories: some of them stydied the Qing Book and the others studied Han Book. After Shunzhi, although the imperial court had repeatedly adjusted the number of students in the study, it still maintained the original study of Qing and Han books in the category. --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 04:46, 17 October 2021 (UTC)
Translation course and examination in flag school education. The academic requirements of the flag school in the Qing Dynasty were closely related to its teaching priorities, so there was no complete consistency in the examination. Taking the Eight Banners official school of the Imperial College as an example, in the first year of Shunzhi, students will be divided into two categories: learning Qingshu and learning Hanshu. After Shunzhi, although the imperial court repeatedly adjusted the number of students in the school, it still maintained the original classification of learning Qing books and learning Han books.--[[User:Wu Yinghong|Wu Yinghong]] ([[User talk:Wu Yinghong|talk]]) 12:07, 18 October 2021 (UTC)

==吴映红 Wú Yìnghóng 日语语言文学女 202120081530==

如雍正五年，世宗令每旗额设国子监八旗官学生一百名，其中满洲六十名，仍分习清文、习汉文，蒙古和汉军各二十名，课业上虽无明确规定，但循例仍应分为两类：习蒙文、汉书，以及习清书、翻译。据时任国子监祭酒孙嘉淦奏报，朝廷在取录学生时，对于习清书、习翻译者的年龄要求有所不同，其中“学满书者，可用幼穉之人”，而“学汉文翻译者，必得十四五以上、资性聪敏之人。”[] 鄂尔泰等修，李洵、赵德贵点校：《八旗通志·初集》，长春：东北师范大学出版，1986年，第913-917页。
For example, in the fifth year of Yongzheng, Emperor Shizong ordered to set up 100 students of the eight banners of the Imperial College, including 60 in Manchuria, who were still divided into Qing and Chinese, and 20 in Mongolia and the Han army. Although there were no clear regulations on their schoolwork, they should still be divided into two categories: learning Mongolian, Chinese, Qing and translation. According to the memorial of sun Jiagan, then the Imperial College's eunuch, when recruiting students, the imperial court had different age requirements for Xi Qingshu and Xi translators. Among them, "those who have learned a lot of books can use young people", while "those who have learned Chinese translators must have more than 15 years of experience and intelligence."

For example, in the fifth year of Yongzheng’s reign, Emperor Shizong ordered to admit 100 students of the eight banners of the Imperial College, 60 of which are Manchurians, divided into two groups correspondingly learning works of Qing Dynasty and Han Dynasty, and the rest of which are soldiers of Mongolia and Han dynasty. Although there were no clear regulations on their learning content, they should still be divided into two categories: learning Mongolian, Works of Han dynasty, and works of Qing dynasty and translation. According to the memorial of sun Jiagan, then the Imperial College's eunuch, when recruiting students, the imperial court had different age requirements for Xi Qingshu and Xi translators. Among them, "those who have learned a lot of books can use young people", while "those who have learned Chinese translators must have more than 15 years of experience and intelligence."--[[User:Xiao Yiyao|Xiao Yiyao]] ([[User talk:Xiao Yiyao|talk]]) 10:52, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

==肖毅瑶 Xiāo Yìyáo 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081531==

自此以后，国子监八旗官学中教习翻译渐成定例。如乾隆年间，国子监议定《八旗官学生条例》，对学生的平时学习、例行测验等做了具体规定，从设立“到学薄”与“功课薄”等，到设立“常课”、“会课”、“会考”等，都是如此。其中，无论是每月一次的常课、会课，还是每年于春、秋二季各办一次的会考，考试环节和内容上均设有翻译一项，只不过考试翻译也分“满馆试”与“蒙古试”，前者试翻译或者清书一题，后者试蒙古翻译一题。[]

Since then, translation teaching has gradually become a routine for the Eight Banners officers in the Imperial Academy. For example, during the reign of Emperor Qianlong, the Imperial Academy proposed the ''Regulations on the Eight Banners Students'' which stipulated specifically their daily study and routine examination, from setting up the attendance record and academic performance record to the establishment of system of regular class, meeting class and general examination. Among them, not only the monthly regular class and meeting class, but also the general examination which were held every spring an autumn, set the translation part and content. There were mainly two types of such translation tests, including Manchu test and Mongolian test, in which the former translated the book in the language of Qing Dynasty ,while the latter tried the question of Mongolian translation.--[[User:Xiao Yiyao|Xiao Yiyao]] ([[User talk:Xiao Yiyao|talk]]) 03:21, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

Since then, teaching translation for the Eight Banners official school of the Imperial Academy has gradually become a rule. For example, during the reign of Emperor Qianlong, the Imperial Academy agreed on the regulations on eight banner students , which made specific provisions on students' daily study and routine tests, from the establishment of "attendance record" and "homework record" to the establishment of "regular classes", "meeting classes" and "general exams". Among them, whether it is the regular classes and meeting class once a month or the general examination held once a year in spring and autumn, there is a translation item in the examination links and contents, but the examination translation is also divided into "Manchu test" and "Mongolian test", in which the former examined Manchu translation ,while the latter tested the question of Mongolian translation.--[[User:Xie Jiafen|Xie Jiafen]] ([[User talk:Xie Jiafen|talk]]) 03:48, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

==谢佳芬 Xiè Jiāfēn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081532==

之所以要如此组织考试，是为了对师、生形成教、学的压力，特别是对学生的懒惰浮游进行责罚，以励其学。为此，朝廷在教习的选任与考课的要求上，也有严格规定。据孙嘉淦奏报，国子监八旗官学一般为“一旗三学”，即满书（习翻译者往往入满书房）、汉书、蒙文，每学设讲诵之所三、四间，故以每旗三学计，共十三、四间不等。

The reason why the examination is organized in this way is to put the pressure on teachers and students in their teaching and learning , especially to punish the lazy and idle students, so as to encourage them to learn. Therefore, the imperial court also had strict regulations on the selection and examination. According to Sun Jiagan's petition, the eight banners official school of the imperial academy usually set ''three courses for one banner'' , that is, Manchu (learners who study translation need to study in Manchu study), Chinese and Mongolian. Each course has three or four places for recitation. Therefore, based on the three courses of each banner, there are thirteen or fourteen classrooms in total.--[[User:Xie Jiafen|Xie Jiafen]] ([[User talk:Xie Jiafen|talk]]) 03:05, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

The reason for organizing examinations in this way was to put pressure on teachers and students in their teaching and learning , especially to punish the lazy and idle students, so as to encourage them to learn. Therefore, the imperial court also had strict regulations on the selection and examination. According to Sun Jiagan's petition, the eight banners official school of the imperial academy usually set ''three courses for one banner'' , that is, Manchu (learners who study translation need to study in Manchu study), Chinese and Mongolian. Each course has three or four places for recitation. Therefore, based on the three courses of each banner, there are thirteen or fourteen classrooms in total.--[[User:Xie Qinglin|Xie Qinglin]] ([[User talk:Xie Qinglin|talk]]) 15:05, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

==谢庆琳 Xiè Qìnglín 俄语语言文学女 202120081533==

顺治二年，朝廷为每处选任教习十人，乾隆十七年裁撤各旗汉教习一人，并将教射教习咨回本旗，但乾隆三十一年，又于每旗添设满教习一人，专门负责翻译和清书的教授，同时因为汉教习名下已经拨出翻译学生，故将汉教习裁减一名。考课上，国子监八旗官学在经历顺、康、雍、乾四朝年间，也有调整与变化。顺治二年，关于国子监八旗官学的考课规定是“每十日一次赴监考课，遇春秋演射，五日一次，就本处练习”，至康熙元年，考课规定中增加了翻译内容，调整为“每月赴监讲书一次、翻译一次，五日射箭一次。”[]

In the second year of the Shunzhi dynasty, the court selected ten teaching staff for each office, and in the seventeenth year of the Qianlong dynasty, the Chinese teaching staff of each banner was abolished, and the teaching staff of archery was consulted back to the banner, but in the thirty-first year of the Qianlong dynasty, a full teaching staff was added to each banner, specifically responsible for the teaching of translation and Qing books, and at the same time, because the name of the Chinese teaching staff had been allocated to translation students, so the Chinese teaching staff was reduced by one. Examinations, the eight banners of the National Palace of education in the years of Shun, Kang, Yong, Qian four dynasties, there are also adjustments and changes. Shunzhi two years, on the eight banners of the National Palace of Justice official school examination class is "once every ten days to go to the prison examination class, in the event of spring and autumn shooting, once every five days, on the practice of this place", to the first year of the Kangxi, examination class regulations added translation content, adjusted to "once a month to the prison lecture, translation once, five days archery once.--[[User:Xie Qinglin|Xie Qinglin]] ([[User talk:Xie Qinglin|talk]]) 15:01, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

In the second year of the Shunzhi’s reign, the court selected ten teaching staffs for each office, and in the seventeenth year of the Qianlong’s reign, the Chinese teaching staff of each county was laid off, and the teaching staff of archery was consulted back to the county, but in the thirty-first year of the Qianlong dynasty, a Manchu teaching staff was added to each banner, specifically responsible for the teaching of translation and Manchu books, and at the same time, since students for translation had been selected from Chinese teaching staffs, so the Chinese teaching staff was reduced by one. In the examination, the eight banners of the National Palace of education in the years of Shun, Kang, Yong, Qian’s reign, saw adjustments and changes. In the second year of Shunzhi’s reign, on the eight banners of the National Palace of Justice official school examination class was "once every ten days to go to the prison examination class, in the event of spring and autumn shooting, once every five days, on the practice of this place", to the first year of the Kangxi, examination class regulations added translation content, adjusted to "once a month to the prison lecture, translation once, five days archery once.--[[User:Xiong Min|Xiong Min]] ([[User talk:Xiong Min|talk]]) 02:41, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

==熊敏 Xióng Mǐn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081534==

至乾隆三十一年，进一步提高了考课要求，规定习汉文者在肄业十年之后，如不能获得进身，以及习翻译和清文者如不能考取中书、笔帖式、库使等，均一律咨送本旗，另挑差使。
宗学的情况也与国子监八旗官学的情况类似，其教学重点、教习选任，以及考课规定等同样经历了调适。如顺治九年，宗学于每旗设满洲官，教习满书。雍正二年，朝廷从各部院司官中书中，分别拣选清书、汉书和骑射教习四人，每翼分派二人。

Till the 31st year of Qianlong’s reign, the requirement for examination was higher. It was said that those who were good at Chinese but failed to be office in a decade and those who were skilled in translation and Manchu but failed to obtain Zhongshu, Bi Tieshi, Kushi and so on through examination, would all be sent back to where they belonged and be replaced by others.
Zongxue, school for royal family told the same story. The focus of education and the selecting system also saw adjustments. Take the ninth year of Shunzhi’s reign for example. Zongxue assigned Manchu officer in every county to teach. In the second year of Yongzheng’s reign, the court selected four people as Qingshu, Hanshu, coach for horse riding and archery from every department. Two persons were appointed in each county.

Till the 31st year of Qianlong's reign, the court enhanced requirement for examination. It was said that those who were good at Chinese but failed to be office in a decade and those who were skilled in translation and Manchu but failed to obtain Zhongshu, Bi Tieshi, Kushi and so on through examination, would all be sent back to where they belonged and be replaced by others. Zongxue, school for royal family told the same story. The focus of education and the selecting system also saw adjustments. Take the ninth year of Shunzhi's reign for example. Zongxue assigned Manchu officer in every county to teach. In the second year of Yongzheng's reign, the court selected four people as Manchu, Chinese, coach for horse riding and archery from every department. Two persons were appointed in each county.--[[User:Xu Minyun|Xu Minyun]] ([[User talk:Xu Minyun|talk]]) 09:09, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

==徐敏赟 Xú Mǐnyūn 语言智能与跨文化传播研究男 202120081535==

至乾隆四年，在选任宗学教习时，改为以学生人数为基础进行选派，即每十人选派一名。然而，由于乾隆二十一年起，翻译和清书、骑射一样，成为宗学的三大教学重点之一，于是朝廷裁减了九名汉书教习，俱改为翻译教习。嘉庆朝时期，翻译仍是宗学的教学重点，因而翻译教习得以保留，同时又因为复设了习汉书科目，于是对汉教习进行了改设，规定两翼每学各四名。

In the 4th year of Qianlong reign, when selecting teachers of royal clan education, the selection was based on the number of students, that is, one for every ten students. However, since the 21st year of Qianlong, translation became one of the three major teaching points of royal clan education, just like Manchu and horsemanship and archery. Therefore, the court cut down nine Chinese teachers and changed Chinese teaching to translation teaching. During Jiaqing Dynasty, translation teaching was still the focus of royal clan education, so the teaching of translation was kept. At the same time, because of the re-establishment of the subject of Learning Chinese, the court reformed Chinese teachers and assigned 4 teachers for every subjects of two parts.--[[User:Xu Minyun|Xu Minyun]] ([[User talk:Xu Minyun|talk]]) 09:17, 18 October 2021 (UTC)

In the 4th year of Qianlong reign, the selection for teachers of royal clan education was based on the number, that is, one for every ten students. However, since the 21st year of Qianlong, translation has become one of the three major teaching points of royal clan education, just like Manchu classics and horsemanship and archery. Therefore, the court cut down and changed nine Chinese teachers to translation teachers. During Jiaqing Dynasty, translation teaching was still the focus of royal clan education, so the teaching of translation was kept. At the same time, because of the re-establishment of the subject of Chinese classics, the court reformed Chinese teachers and assigned four teachers for every subjects of two parts.--[[User:Yan Jing|Yan Jing]] ([[User talk:Yan Jing|talk]]) 13:32, 19 October 2021 (UTC)

==颜静 Yán Jìng 语言智能与跨文化传播研究女 202120081536==

考课上，由于乾、嘉两朝中翻译本是宗学的教学重点，考课中自然设有翻译内容。即便在乾隆朝早期，当教学重点主要为清书、汉书和骑射时，朝廷也在左、右翼两学设“总稽课程”各二人，并规定于每月举办考试三次，含经义、射艺和翻译考试各一次，且每年于秋季举办考试一次，其中含翻译、经义、时务策各一题。

In the examination, because the translation in the Qian and Jia Dynasties was the focus for royal clan education, the translation content was naturally included. Even in the early Qianlong Dynasty, when the teaching focus was mainly on the Qing classics, the Han classics and horsemanship and archery, the imperial court also set up two "general inspectors for courses" on both the left and right sides, and stipulated to hold examinations three times a month, each for one subject of classics, horsemanship and archery and translation, and once a year in the autumn, of which the three questions are respectively about translation, classics and current affairs.--[[User:Yan Jing|Yan Jing]] ([[User talk:Yan Jing|talk]]) 14:13, 19 October 2021 (UTC)

of which the three questions are respectively about translation, classics and current affairs and policies.--[[User:Yan Lili|Yan Lili]] ([[User talk:Yan Lili|talk]]) 02:09, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

==颜莉莉 Yán Lìlì 国别女 202120081537==

礼部义学、咸安宫官学、觉罗学、清文学、盛京宗学和觉罗学等旗学中，翻译考试同样是考课的重要内容。如乾隆五年，礼部选派司员对礼部义学生进行每日稽考，规定学生需每季到部考课翻译经义，以及背书写字等，考试情况详登册籍，年终以优劣决定学生去留。雍正十二年，朝廷对咸安宫官学的教习额数进行调整，将原来所设清语教习九人裁撤三人，俱改为翻译教习，并对考课内容进行了明确规定，即五年考试一次，一次考试三日：第一日考试汉文，拟以《四书》二题的方式进行；

The translation examination is also an important part of the examination course in Yi school, Official school of Xian 'an Palace, Jueluo school, Qing Dynasty Literature, the Royal Clan Education of Shengjing and Jueluo school of the Ministry of Rites.For example, in the fifth year of the Qianlong dynasty, the Ministry of Rites selected and assigned administrators to carries on the daily assessments to the student of the Ministry of Rites, stipulating that students should come to the ministry every quarter to take tests on the translation of Confucian classics argumentation, as well as recite and write, etc. The examination conditions were listed in the books in detail, and the students were decided to stay or leave at the end of the year based on their merits.In the 12th year of Yongzheng,The imperial court adjusted the number of teachers in the Official school of Xian 'an Palace, removing three of the nine qing language teachers and changing them to translation teaching.The content of the examination was clearly stipulated, that is, the examination was conducted once every five years and each examination was conducted for three days: Chinese was tested on the first day, which was planned to be carried out in the way of two questions in the ''Four Books''
--[[User:Yan Lili|Yan Lili]] ([[User talk:Yan Lili|talk]]) 03:22, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

==颜子涵 Yán Zǐhán 国别女 202120081538==

第二日考试翻译、楷书和清字，拟以上谕一段进行；第三日考试骑射、步射。至于觉罗学、清文学、盛京宗学与觉罗学等，虽然考课规定中并没有明确提及翻译，但二者都设有翻译教习，可知翻译教学仍是其教学的重要内容。如雍正七年规定，各部院衙门现任笔帖式中，需考选能翻译者八人，充任觉罗学之清书教习，每旗各分一人。

The next day they took a translation，kai calligraphy and Qing text, which was intended to be tested with part of the emperor's imperial edict; On the third day they tested their horse archery and rifle shooting.As for Jueluo school, Qing Literature, the Royal Clan Education of Shengjing and Jueluo school, Although there was no explicit reference to translation in the examination rules, both had translation teaching. It could be known that translation teaching is still an important part of teaching. For example，the 7th year Yongzheng ruling period，be stipulated that among the current officials in various departments and yamen, Eight translators need to be selected as teachers for Manchu language of the Royal Clan Education of Jueluo school through the exam，they choosed one person per banner.--[[User:Yan Zihan|Yan Zihan]] ([[User talk:Yan Zihan|talk]]) 08:16, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

==阳佳颖 Yáng Jiāyǐng 国别女 202120081540==

同年，又规定清文学教习由汉军各旗会同满洲都统，从满洲闲散官、笔帖式，或者因公诖（guà）误（即，撤职或失官）人员中加以拣选。乾隆八年，朝廷对教习的年龄进行限制，要求翻译教习、清书教习均需年逾三旬。[]既然以上诸学中均设有翻译教习，各学官学生均需要接受翻译教学的内容与环节，那么考课中势必也不能离开翻译。

In the same year, it also made clear that the Qing literature teachers should be selected by the Han Army in the Eight Bannered Army of Qing Dynasty and the commander-in-chief of one of the Eight Banners selected from the manchurian idled officials, clerks, or those who had been dismissed or lost their official posts in the line of duty. In the eighth year of Emperor Qianlong’s reign, the imperial court imposed restrictions on the age of teaching, requiring teachers for translation and Manchu language to be over 30 years old. Since translation teaching is provided in all the above schools, and all students and officials need to accept the content and links of translation teaching, it is inevitable that examination cannot be separated from translation.--[[User:Yang Jiaying|Yang Jiaying]] ([[User talk:Yang Jiaying|talk]]) 06:34, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

In the same year, it also made clear that the Qing literature teachers should be selected by the Han Army in the Eight Bannered Army of Qing Dynasty and the commander-in-chief of one of the Eight Banners selected from the manchurian idled officials, clerks, or those who had been dismissed or lost their official posts in the line of duty. In the eighth year of Emperor Qianlong’s reign, the imperial court imposed restrictions on the age of the teachers, requiring that the teachers who teach translation and Manchu language should be over 30 years old. Since the above schools all have translation teachers and all students (the students in the official schools of Eight Banners) need to accept the contents and procedures of translation teaching, it is inevitble that translation should be included in the examination.--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 12:21, 22 October 2021 (UTC)

==杨爱江 Yáng Àijiāng 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081541==

而盛京宗学觉罗学自设立之初便有详细章程，如规定宗学、觉罗学分别教学，宗学和觉罗学皆由宗学总管管理等。由于该学中翻译一直是教学重点，因而翻译教习的设置更不可缺。如乾隆二年，即设翻译教习四人，与骑射、汉书教习人数相等。乾隆四十三年，汉教习被裁撤，但仍保留翻译教习与骑射教习。

There are detailed regulatios since the inception of the school of Royal Clan in Mudken and Jueluo. For example, school of Jueluo and Royal Clan teaches respectively and both are managed by General Administration office. It is indispensable to have translation teachers because translation is the teaching key point in this school. In the second year of emperor Qianlong, there are four translation teachers, equal to the number of teachers of equitation and toxophily and Han books.In the 43th year of Qianlong, teaching Han books was abolished while the teaching of translation and equitation and toxophily were still retained.--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 12:57, 24 October 2021 (UTC)

There are detailed regulatios since the establishment of the School of Shengjing Royal Clan Education and Jue Luo. For example, school of Jueluo and Royal Clan teached respectively and both are managed by General Administration office. The translation teachers are indispensable because translation is the teaching key point in this school. In the second year of Qianlong, there are four translation teachers, equal to the number of teachers of equitation and toxophily and Han books.In the 43th year of Qianlong, the teacher of Han books was dismissed while the teacher of translation and equitation and toxophily still retained.--[[User:Yang Kun|Yang Kun]] ([[User talk:Yang Kun|talk]]) 14:00, 22 October 2021 (UTC)

==杨堃 Yáng Kūn 法语语言文学女 202120081542==

至嘉庆年间（如嘉庆二年、二十五年），盛京宗学觉罗学虽然增设了满、汉教习，但翻译教习也属重要。盛京宗学觉罗学对教习进行分类选拔，即从现任司官笔帖式内选取精通翻译者，教习清语；从领催骁骑以上和闲散官员以下挑选精于骑射者，教习骑射；从奉天府举贡内挑选学问优长者，教习汉书。三者各自皆为四人，待五年期满后分别考以等第，并据此进行奖惩。

During the period of Jiaqing (such as the second and twenty fifth years of Jiaqing), although the Manchu and Chinese teaching were added to The School of Shengjing Royal Clan Education and Jue Luo, the translation teaching was also important. The School of Shengjing Royal Clan Education and Jue Luo classified and selected the teaching, that is, select the proficient translators from the officials Bithesi to teach the Qing language;choose those who are good at riding and shooting from those above the leader cavalry and those below the idle officials to teach riding and shooting; select the learned elders from the tributes of Fengtian Mansion to teach Han Shu. Each of the three is four. After the five years'expiration, they will be graded respectively, and will be rewarded and punished accordingly.--[[User:Yang Kun|Yang Kun]] ([[User talk:Yang Kun|talk]]) 14:07, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

During the period of Jiaqing (such as the second and twenty fifth years of Jiaqing), although the Manchu and Chinese teaching were added to The School of Royal Clan Education and Jue Luo in Shengjing, the translation teaching was also important. The School of Royal Clan Education and Jue Luo in Shengjing classified and selected the teaching, that is to select the proficient translators from the officials Bithesi to teach the Manchu; to choose those who were good at riding and shooting from those above the leader cavalry and those below the idle officials to teach riding and shooting; and to select the learned elders from the tributes of Fengtian Mansion to teach Han Shu. Each of the three needed four people. After the five years'expiration, they will be graded respectively, and will be rewarded and punished accordingly.--[[User:Yang Liuqing|Yang Liuqing]] ([[User talk:Yang Liuqing|talk]]) 08:07, 18 October 2021 (UTC)

==杨柳青 Yáng Liǔqīng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081543==

虽然盛京宗学觉罗学也将学生分成习清书、习汉书两类，但无论清书汉书，每日皆有应肄之业，且习清书者兼讲汉书，习汉书者则兼讲满书，目的就在于使学生兼通满、汉，造就翻译之才。教学管理上，盛京宗学觉罗学也对骑射与翻译做了区分，即每逢三、六、九日学习射箭，而每逢五、十日学习翻译，以及作文作诗。盛京宗学觉罗学初用的教材较为简单，后经李治滋奏准，高宗于乾隆九年颁赐《资治纲目》、《大学衍义》、《性理大全》、《古文渊鉴》及《钦定四书》等满汉书籍，其中多数为满文译汉文典籍。

Schools of Royal Clan and Jueluo in Mudken also classified students into two kinds: students studying books of Manchu and students studing books of Han. Even so, students should study everyday no matter books of Manchu or books of Han; those students studying books of Manchu should also study books of Han, and vice versa.In terms of teaching management, schools of Royal Clan and Jueluo also made a distinction between horsemanship and transaltion, that was, students learnt archery on every three, six and nine days and learnt translation, writing composition and Poetry on every five and ten days.The original textbooks used in thses schools were relatively simple, and later some others textbooks were awarded by Gaozong at Li Zhi's suggestion in the ninth year of emperor Qianlong's reign. These books included "Compendium of Zi Zhi mu", "College Yan Yi", " Xingli Daquan", "Gu Wenyuan Jian" and "The Imperial Four Books", most of which were translated into Chinese from Manchu. --[[User:Yang Liuqing|Yang Liuqing]] ([[User talk:Yang Liuqing|talk]]) 08:10, 18 October 2021 (UTC)

Although Schools of Royal Clan and Jueluo in Mudken also classified students into two categories: students studying books of Manchu and students studing books of Han,students should study everyday no matter books of Manchu or books of Han; those students studying books of Manchu should also study books of Han, and vice versa.In terms of teaching management, schools of Royal Clan and Jueluo also made a distinction between horsemanship and transaltion, which is, students learnt archery on every three, six and nine days and learnt translation, writing composition and Poetry on every five and ten days.The original textbooks used in thses schools were relatively simple, and later some others textbooks were awarded by Gaozong at Li Zhi's suggestion in the ninth year of emperor Qianlong's reign. These books included "Compendium of Zi Zhi mu", "College Yan Yi", " Xingli Daquan", "Gu Wenyuan Jian" and "The Imperial Four Books", most of which were translated into Chinese from Manchu.

==叶维杰 Yè Wéijié 国别男 202120081544==

当然，旗学与旗学之间亦有明显区别，如设立时间早晚不同，条例规范详略有异等，但在教学重点上，清书和骑射是其共设科目。在此基础上，不少旗学另从汉书、翻译、蒙文等科目中进行选择，使其符合自身的置办初衷和培养目标。一般来说，学生学习清书、汉书、骑射或（和）翻译等，都得在旗学中按部就班地进行，并随时接受稽查与考核，但宗室和大臣子弟循例可在家学习，这一点给课业及考课造成困难。

Of course, there are also obvious differences between the flag school and the other flag school, such as its establishment time, and the detailed regulations and norms. However, in terms of the focus of teaching, the Qing book and riding and shooting are their common subjects. On this basis, many flag schools choose from Chinese, translation, Mongolian and other subjects to make them meet their original intention and training objectives. Generally speaking, students who study Qingshu, Hanshu, riding and shooting or (and) translation have to go step by step in the flag school and accept inspection and assessment at any time. However, the clan and minister's children can study at home as the rule, which makes it difficult for schoolwork and examination.--[[User:Ye Weijie|Ye Weijie]] ([[User talk:Ye Weijie|talk]]) 01:54, 23 October 2021 (UTC)

Of course, there were also obvious differences between the banner school, such as the time of establishment, and the details of regulations were slightly different, but in teaching focus, the Qing book and riding and archery were the common subjects. On this basis, many banner school chose other subjects such as Chinese classics, translation, Mongolian and so on, so as to met their original intention and training objectives.Generally speaking, students learned Qing book ,Chinese classics, equestrian archery or (and) translation, etc., had to be carried out step by step in the banner school, and to accept inspection and assessment at any time, while royalty and the children of ministers could always study at home, which caused difficulties in the course and examination.--[[User:Yi Yangfan|Yi Yangfan]] ([[User talk:Yi Yangfan|talk]]) 02:32, 23 October 2021 (UTC)Yi Yangfan

==易扬帆 Yì Yángfān 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081545==

如雍正十三年十一月十八日，即乾隆帝即位之初，监察御史玛起元上疏高宗，奏请将八旗荫生拨入各旗义学，一体肄业，并交国子监堂官不时考察，择其娴习经书、通晓翻译者，咨送吏部考试补用。[]乾隆三十九年，高宗因见宗室中竟有不会清语者，令宗人府查明情况。遗憾的是，虽然朝廷对于学生的选补多所要求，对于教习的选任也有规定，并对学生和教习的勤惰不时稽查，但各项规范行之日久，难免废弛。如《钦定国子监则例》中，曾详细记载“满教习报满”、“汉教习报满”的情况，其中写道：

Such as on November 18, 13th year of Yongzheng, which is the beginning of the Emperor Qianlong ascended the throne , the Supervisory Censor Ma Qiyuan reported to the emperor that sent the heirs of Eight Banners to the free school and study together. And sometimes the administer of the Imperial College would test them and chose some person who master the classics or translation to the Ministry of Official Personnel Affairs for supplement. On 39th year of Qianlong, the emperor commanded the office to find out, as he found that some one who cannot speak Manchu in imperial clan. Unfortunately, though the royal had lots of requirements for those students and teachers. And they also checked the students and teachers for laziness from time to time, but the rules had been in place for so long that they were likely to fall apart. Such as some precisely examples in The Regulation of the Imperial College for “Manchu class in full” or “Chinese class is full”, written that:--[[User:Yi Yangfan|Yi Yangfan]] ([[User talk:Yi Yangfan|talk]]) 13:13, 17 October 2021 (UTC)Yi Yangfan

For example, on November 18, the thirteenth year of Yongzheng, which was the beginning of the Emperor Qianlong ascended the throne , the Supervisory Censor Ma Qiyuan proposed to the emperor that sent the heirs of Eight Banners to the free school and study together. And sometimes the administers of the Imperial College would test them and chose some persons who master the Confucian classics or translation to the Ministry of Official Personnel Affairs for supplement. On the thirty-ninth year of Qianlong, the emperor commanded the office to find out the learning process, as he found that some one who cannot speak Manchu in imperial clan. Unfortunately, though the royal had lots of requirements for those students and teachers. And they also supervised the students and teachers from time to time, but the rules had been implemented for so long that they were likely to fall apart. Such as some precisely examples in The Regulation of the Imperial College for “Manchu teaching staff expired”or “Chinese teaching staff expired”, written that:--[[User:Yin Huizhen|Yin Huizhen]] ([[User talk:Yin Huizhen|talk]]) 09:13, 19 October 2021 (UTC)

==殷慧珍 Yīn Huìzhēn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081546==

（满教习报满）将本名下学生，注明到学几年，現读何书，翻译几名，造冊移交档房，按日积算，如功课缺少，毫无成效者，教习不准报满，助教记大过一次；（汉教习报满）除将考中生员、恩监生、中书等学生开具清冊外，其现在读书者几名，某生若干岁，读经书若干卷；作文者几名，某生若干岁，读过古文、时文若干篇，某作起讲，某半篇，某全篇，并各学生入馆年分，详细造具清冊二本，……满教习报满，亦照此例。[]

（Manchu teaching staff expired）The students under the teacher's name shall be recorded that how many years they have studied, where they are studying now, how many translators have been trained, and the list of students shall be compiled and handed over to the archives room. It shall be recorded on every specific day, if they were absent from class and had no effect in learning, the teacher is not allowed to declare that their work has expired, and the teaching assistant will be recorded a major demerit once.
（Chinese teaching staff expired）In addition to making a list of such students like scholars, the students of the Imperial college, and Zhongshu, it should be recorded that how many of them are still studying, indicating their age and how many volumes of Confucian classics they have read; It also should be recorded that the number of writers, indicating their age, how many classics and Eight legged Essay they have read, articles they have discussed, which half or the whole, and the year of admission of each student should be registered in the two brochures in detail. When Manchu teaching staff expire，they should also follow this regulation.--[[User:Yin Huizhen|Yin Huizhen]] ([[User talk:Yin Huizhen|talk]]) 09:18, 19 October 2021 (UTC)

（Manchu teaching staff expired）The students under the teacher's name shall be recorded as to their period of schooling, books they were reading as well as the amount of translation they had done, which shall be compiled and handed over to the archives room. It shall be recorded on every specific day, if they were absent from class and had no achievement in learning, the teacher shall not declare expiration of their study, and the teaching assistant would be recorded a major demerit for once.
（Chinese teaching staff expired）In addition to making a list of such students as scholars, the students of the Imperial college, one book should be compiled in detail to include the number of students,their age,the number of Confucian classics they had read,the other the number of writers and their age,classics and Eight legged Essays they had read,the abstract of their articles, half or the whole, and the year of admission of each student. When Manchu teaching staff expired，they should also follow the suit.--[[User:Yin Meida|Yin Meida]] ([[User talk:Yin Meida|talk]]) 07:07, 22 October 2021 (UTC)

==殷美达 Yīn Měidá 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081547==

所谓“报满”原指官员任期届满，或历俸已满之意，此处当指教习的期满考核。由此可见，国子监八旗官学中的教习，无论满、汉，在任满三年之职后，都需要将个人名下学生的学习情况，及其绩效等，详细说明并造册入档，作为嗣后铨补的重要依据。同时，也说明国子监对于学生考课，以及教习考核的严格与认真，可谓赏罚分明。如乾隆二十一年，高宗谕令改圆明园学专习清书，以倡导满族传统特质之后，经礼部议准，规定嗣后生徒如能在四年期满时，由翻译考取录用，则“该教习列为一等”。[]
The so-called "full" originally referred to the expiration of an official's term of office, or that he had served a certain period of time, but here refers to the assessment of the instructors for their fulfillment of duty. It could be seen that the instructors in the Eight Banners Official School of Qing Dynasty were required, regardless of being Manchu or Han people, to make detailed explanations and recordings of their students' learning and performance after serving for three years. Meanwhile, it also showed that the Official School was strict and serious about the examination for students and the assessment for instructors, which could be described as putting the shoe on the right foot. For instance, in the 21st year of Emperor Qianlong's reign,after Emperor Gaozong had ordered to specialize in Manchu language for the purpose of promoting traditional Manchurian characteristics, the Ministry of Rites approved that "the instructor should be ranked first class" if the subsequent students could pass the translation examination and get employed by the end of four-year period of his duty.--[[User:Yin Meida|Yin Meida]] ([[User talk:Yin Meida|talk]]) 08:49, 19 October 2021 (UTC)

The so-called "full" originally referred to the expiration of an official's term of office, or that he had served a prescribed period of time, but here refers to the assessment of the instructors for their fulfillment of duty. Therefore, it could be seen that the instructors in the Eight Banners Official School of Qing Dynasty were required, regardless of being Manchu or Han people, to make detailed explanations and recordings of their students' learning and performance after serving for three years. Meanwhile, it also showed that the Official School was strict and serious about the examination of students and the assessment of instructors, which could be described as putting the shoe on the right foot. For instance, in the 21st year of Emperor Qianlong's reign, after Emperor Gaozong had ordered to specialize in Manchu language for the purpose of promoting traditional Manchurian characteristics, the Ministry of Rites approved that "the instructor should be ranked first class" if the subsequent students could be employed after examination by the end of four-year period of his duty.--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 15:03, 19 October 2021 (UTC)

==尹媛 Yǐn Yuán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081548==

无奈好景不长，至嘉庆、道光年间，国子监八旗官学中教习虚开功课，且学生不常入学肄业的情况并不鲜见。虽然皇帝对此已有觉察，并明令禁止，但终因积习日久，难以遏止，因而整顿旗学之事，有名而无实。清代对于翻译人才的需求源于内生、外在双方面因素的合力。

But it didn't last until Jia Qing and Dao Guang period, when it was common to see the eight Banners of the Imperial Academy teaching lessons irresponsibly, and students didn't often attend the school or study in the school. Although the Emperor had become aware of and prohibited it, this phenomenon, with the bad customs for a long time, couldn't be curbed. Therefore, the rectification of the learning of Manchu culture exists in name only. The demand for translation talents in Qing Dynasty stemmed from internal and external factors.--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 15:16, 16 October 2021 (UTC)

But it didn't last until Jia Qing and Dao Guang period, when it was common to see the eight Banners of the Imperial Academy teaching lessons, and students didn't often attend the school or study in the school. Although the Emperor had become aware of and prohibited it by official order, this phenomenon, with the bad customs for a long time, couldn't be curbed. Therefore, the rectification of the learning of Manchu culture existed in name only. The demand for translation talents in Qing Dynasty stemmed from internal and external factors together.--[[User:Zhan Ruoxuan|Zhan Ruoxuan]] ([[User talk:Zhan Ruoxuan|talk]]) 06:12, 19 October 2021 (UTC)

==詹若萱 Zhān Ruòxuān 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081549==

从内部讲，清代以异族取得政权，历代君主及其统治集团都以八旗为国家根本，又以清语为八旗根本，因而旗人必须学习清语，或具备清语能力。与此同时，为了稳固统治，使旗人“足充任用”，满族又得与其他族群沟通和交流。多语种能力的养成既是翻译的前提条件，又为翻译提供了现实可能。

From the inside, the Qing Dynasty took power by their different race, all previous emperors and their ruling cliques took the eight banners as the foundation of the country, and the Qing language as the foundation of the eight banners, so the banner men must learn the Qing language or had the ability of the Qing language. At the same time, the Manchu had to communicate with other ethnic groups in order to maintain their rule and made the banner men “fully employed”. The cultivation of multilingual competence was not only a prerequisite for translation, but also provided a realistic possibility for translation.--[[User:Zhan Ruoxuan|Zhan Ruoxuan]] ([[User talk:Zhan Ruoxuan|talk]]) 06:02, 19 October 2021 (UTC)
At the same time, in order to stabilize the rule and make the flag people "full appointment", the Manchu had to communicate and communicate with other ethnic groups.--[[User:Zhang Qiuyi|Zhang Qiuyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Qiuyi|talk]]) 06:04, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

==张秋怡 Zhāng Qiūyí 亚非语言文学女 202120081550==

清代的翻译教育与翻译人才培养，无疑也是政治考量的产物。尤其是清军入关后，面对语言文字、文化形态，以及政权结构迥异于自己的汉人族群，如何进行有效统治，维护并巩固统治基础，同时又不致满洲民族特质废弛，乃是统治者不得不考虑的问题。在此情形下，清初统治者循汉人国子监例，创设八旗官学，令八旗弟子学习语言、翻译和骑射等，便成为不二选择。这么做，既不失满洲特色，又增进了民族交流，对于呈现满洲特色的统治特征，以及扩大政权的参与基础等，意义重大。
The translation education and the training of translation talents in the Qing Dynasty are undoubtedly the product of political considerations.Especially after the Qing army entered the customs, facing the Han ethnic group whose language, cultural form and political power structure were very different from their own, how to effectively rule, maintain and consolidate the basis of rule, without the abandonment of Manchuria national characteristics, is the rulers have to consider the issue. Under such circumstances, the early Qing rulers followed the example of the Han Chinese National Sons, creating eight flag official studies, so that the eight-flag disciples learn language, translation and shooting, etc., will become the choice. In doing so, it has not lost the manchuria characteristic, but also enhanced the national exchange, which is of great significance for the ruling characteristics of Manchuria, and for expanding the participation base of the regime.--[[User:Zhang Qiuyi|Zhang Qiuyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Qiuyi|talk]]) 05:58, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

The translation education and the training of translation talents in the Qing Dynasty are undoubtedly the product of political considerations.Especially after Qing army entererd the frontiers, facing the Han ethnic group whose language, cultural form and political power structure were very different from their own, how to effectively rule, maintain and consolidate the basis of rule, without the abandonment of Manchuria national characteristics, is the rulers have to consider the issue. Under such circumstances, the early Qing rulers followed the example of the Han Chinese National Sons, creating eight flag official studies, so that the eight-flag disciples learn language, translation and shooting, etc., will become the choice. In doing so, it has not lost the manchuria characteristic, but also enhanced the national exchange, which is of great significance for the ruling characteristics of Manchuria, and for expanding the participation base of the regime.--[[User:Zhang Yang|Zhang Yang]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yang|talk]]) 09:21, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

==张扬 Zhāng Yáng 国别男 202120081551==

*基金项目：① 教育部人文社科基金项目“清代中前期翻译政策研究”；② 湖南省社会科学基金项目“清代中前期翻译政策的具体形态与变化轨迹研究”，项目批准号：20YBA131；③ 湖南省教育厅重点项目“清代中前期翻译政策研究”，项目批准号：20A222。

* Fund Project: ① Humanities and Social Sciences Fund Project of the Ministry of Education:"A Study on Translation Policy in the Early and Middle Period of Qing Dynasty"; ② Social Science Fund Project in Hunan Province:"A Study on the Specific Form and Variation Track of Translation Policy in the Early and Middle Period of Qing Dynasty", project approval No.: 20YBA131; ③ A Key Project of the Department of Education of Hunan Province:"A Study on Translation Policy in the Early and Middle Period of Qing Dynasty", project approval No.: 20A222.--[[User:Zhang Yang|Zhang Yang]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yang|talk]]) 08:40, 18 October 2021 (UTC)

* Fundation Project: ① Research on ''Translation Policy in the Middle and Early Dynasties of the Qing Dynasty'', Ministry of Education, Humanities and Social Sciences Foundation Project; ② Research on the ''Specific Form and Change Trajectory of Translation Policy in the Middle and Early Dynasties of the Qing Dynasty'', Hunan Provincial Social Science Foundation Project, Project Approval No. 20YBA131: ③ Research on ''Translation Policy in the Middle and Early Dynasties of the Qing Dynasty'', a key project of Hunan Provincial Education Department, project approval number: 20A222.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 07:41, 19 October 2021 (UTC)

==张怡然 Zhāng Yírán 俄语语言文学女 202120081552==

清初旗学中的翻译教育及其变化过程*

摘要：清初的旗学教育是内、外因素合力的结果，其目的是为了提升旗人素质，培养翻译人才，巩固国家统治。清初旗学教育及其翻译人才培养的整体脉络是：兴于顺治，隆于康、雍，驰于乾隆，废于嘉、道。

Translation education in Banner schools in the early Qing Dynasty and its process of change*
Abstract: Banner school education in the early Qing Dynasty was the result of a combination of internal and external factors, and its aim was to improve the quality of bannerman, cultivate translators and consolidate national rule.The overall lineage of Banner school education and its training of translators in the early Qing Dynasty was that it began during the reign of Shunzhi emperor, flourished under the Kangxi and Yongzheng emperors, declined under the Qianlong emperor and was abolished under the Jiaqing and Daoguang emperors.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 07:31, 19 October 2021 (UTC)

Translation education and its changing process in flag education in the early Qing Dynasty
Abstract: the flag education in the early Qing Dynasty was the result of the joint efforts of internal and external factors. Its purpose was to improve the quality of flag people, cultivate translation talents and consolidate national rule. The overall context of flag education and translation talent training in the early Qing Dynasty is starting in Shunzhi, prospering in Kang and Yong, declining in Qianlong, and abolishing in Jia and Tao.--[[User:Zhong Yifei|Zhong Yifei]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yifei|talk]]) 04:45, 19 October 2021 (UTC)

==钟义菲 Zhōng Yìfēi 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081553==

旗学教育的发展、改革与兴盛，其原因主要在于三个方面：历代帝王的支持、满、汉族官员的鼓吹、满洲大儒的力倡。而造成旗学教育最终走向颓势并废弛的因素则包括民族融合的加剧、旗人学习意愿的消退，以及章程管理的松弛等。旗学中的翻译教育主要有两种不同途径，即普通旗学机构中的翻译教育，以及满、汉翻译学、翻译义学中的翻译教育，所培养的翻译人才成为各个时期处理文书，办理翻译事宜的重要来源。

The reasons for the development, reform and prosperity of Banner schools mainly lie in three aspects: the support of emperors in previous dynasties, the advocacy of Manchu and Han officials, and the advocacy of Manchu Confucianism. The factors causing the decline of Banner schools include the intensification of national integration, the decline of banner people's willingness to learn, and the slack management of rules.There are mainly two different ways of translation education in Banner schools，namely, translation education in ordinary Banner schools institutions, and translation education in Manchu, Chinese translation and translation semantics. The trained translation talents have become an important source for dealing with documents and translation matters in various periods.--[[User:Zhong Yifei|Zhong Yifei]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yifei|talk]]) 01:17, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

The reasons for the development, reform and prosperity of Banner education mainly lie in three aspects: the support of emperors in previous dynasties, the advocacy of Manchu and Han officials, as well as the advocacy of Manchu scholars. The factors causing the decline of Banner education include the intensification of national integration, the decline of Banner people's willingness to learn, and the slack management of regulations, etc. There are mainly two different ways of translation education in Banner education, namely, translation education in ordinary Banner education institutions, and translation education in Manchu, Chinese translatology and translation semantics. The trained translation talents provide an important source for dealing with documents and translation matters in various periods.--[[User:Zhong Yulu|Zhong Yulu]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yulu|talk]]) 02:54, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

==钟雨露 Zhōng Yǔlù 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081554==

关键词：旗学；翻译教育；变化过程；翻译考试；汉书翻译1.引言。满洲以少数族群立国并统治中原，如何能保持民族特色，而又能与汉人交流，扩大政权的统治基础，乃是统治者不得不考虑的问题。而设置旗学，教授国语骑射，并推动翻译教育，乃是因应时势之举。

Key words: the School for children of the Eight Banners; translation education; changing process; translation examination; the translation of History of Han Dynasty.
1. Introduction. Manchuria, which was found by minority ethnic groups, ruled the central plains. The rulers had to consider the questions like how to keep the national characteristics and communicate with the Han people to expand the ruling base of the regime. Therefore, the establishment of the School for the children of the Eight Banners, where taught the Manchu language, riding and shooting, in the meantime, helped to promote translation education, was the trend of the times. --[[User:Zhong Yulu|Zhong Yulu]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yulu|talk]]) 02:34, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

Key words: the Banner Education; translation education; changing process; translation examination; the translation of History of Han Dynasty.
1. Introduction. Manchuria, which was founded by minority ethnic groups, ruled the central plains. The rulers had to consider how to keep the national characteristics and communicate with the Han people to expand the ruling base of the regime. Therefore, the establishment of the the Banner Education which taught the Manchu language, riding and shooting and helped to promote translation education as well, was the trend of the times. --[[User:Zhou Jiu|Zhou Jiu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Jiu|talk]]) 03:09, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

==周玖 Zhōu Jiǔ 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081555==

顺治初年，清廷循汉族国子监之例创设旗学，开清代官学教育制度之先河，专供旗人学习语言、骑射与翻译。顺治朝以后，旗学教育屡经调整与改革，不仅在特定区域设学，而且使旗学教育逐渐平民化、普遍化，既稳定了生源，又规范了教习的拣选和稽核，并适时调整旗学机构的设置、复设或改设，以及教学内容与考核方式，确保了旗人的学习品质。由于办理旗学的主要目的即是为了培养翻译人才，和具备多语种能力的治国之才，故旗学中的教学和学习用书多为汉籍译本，其中多数为满文译本，另有部分为蒙文译本，或者满、汉和满、蒙合璧本。

During the early years of Shunzhi Period, the Qing government was the forerunner of the OfficialEducation which was set exclusively for Banner people to learn language, riding, shooting and translation. After the Emperor Shunzhi Perid, the Banner Education, which was adjusted and reformed repeatedly, was set in specific areas. It also gradually became popularization and generalization, which stablized source of students, regulated selection and assessment of instructors. It not only adjusted the establishment, reestablishment and the change of establishment of the Banner's schools, but also adjusted the contents of coueses and assessment methods, which ensured the learning quality of Bannermen. Because of the reason that the Banner Education was aimed to cultivate qualified translators and statemenships possessed with multilanguage, textbooks mostly were Chinese works, most of them were translated into Manchu language; part of them were translated into Mogolian; some translated versions were combinated with Manchu language and Chinese, or Manchu language with Mogolian.--[[User:Zhou Jiu|Zhou Jiu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Jiu|talk]]) 04:48, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

During the early years of Shunzhi Period, the Qing government followed the example of the Official Education which set exclusively for Banner people to learn language, riding, shooting and translation, which was considered as the new way for the educational system since Qing dynasty. After the Emperor Shunzhi Period, the Banner Education, which was adjusted and reformed repeatedly, was set in specific areas. It was gradually popularizing and generalizing, which possess the stable source of students, the regulated selection and the assessment of instructors. It not only adjusted the establishment, reestablishment and the change of establishment of the Banner's schools, but also adjusted the contents of coueses and assessment methods, which ensured the learning quality of Bannermen. The Banner Education was aimed to cultivate qualified translators and ministerial talent who were multilingual, so textbooks mostly were Chinese works, most of them were translated into Manchu language; part of them were translated into Mogolian; some translated versions were combinated with Manchu language and Chinese, or Manchu language with Mogolian.--[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 08:28, 18 October 2021 (UTC)

==周俊辉 Zhōu Jùnhuī 法语语言文学女 202120081556==

虽然乾隆朝尤其是乾隆中期以后，旗学教育多有弊病，如旗学制度流于形式，章程管理日渐松弛，加上旗人子弟仕宦心态突出，致使学习不勤不精，但在最高统治者的要求与支持，以及内、外因素的交互作用下，仍为国家培养了大批治理之才和翻译专才。2.旗学的翻译使命。满族统治中国以来，为维护满洲的民族特质，以及少数族裔的统治优势，统治者一向提倡旗、民分治，要求旗人保持民族特质，习国语，专骑射，维护国家根本。

During the Qianlong period, especially after the middle period, there were many disadvantages that the education of Banner exerted, such as the system of Banner learning becoming a formality, the regulations and management becoming slack, coupled with the prominent attitude of the banner’s student for promotion in officialdom, so that they were nor diligent nor good at learning. But under the support and the request of the supreme ruler, with the interaction of internal and external factors, the education of Banner still cultivated a large number of governance talents and translation specialists for the country. 2. The translation mission of the Banner’s education. Since Manchu ruled China, in order to maintain the ethnic characteristics of Manchuria and the dominance of ethnic minorities, the ruler has always advocated the separate governance of the flag and the people, requiring the flag people to keep their ethnic characteristics, learn the National language, practice riding and archery in order to stabilize the foundation of the country.--[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 02:07, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

Although in the reign of Qianlong, especially after the middle of the Qianlong period, there were many disadvantages in banner school education, such as the system of banner study becaming a mere formality, the management of the articles of association being increasingly relaxed. Furthermore, the prominent official mentality of the banner people's children led to the lack of diligence and precision in learning, a large number of people who were proficient in governing and translating still cultivated for the country under the requirements and support of the emperor and the interaction of internal and external factors. 2. The translation mission of banner studies. Since the Manchu ruled China, in order to maintain the national characteristics of Manchu and the ruling advantages of ethnic minorities, the rulers have always advocated the separation of the banner and the people, requiring the banner people to maintain their national characteristics, learn the national language, specialize in riding and shooting for maintain the foundation of the country.--[[User:Zhou Qiao1|Zhou Qiao1]] ([[User talk:Zhou Qiao1|talk]]) 12:44, 18 October 2021 (UTC)

==周巧 Zhōu Qiǎo 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081557==

然而，为确保国家治理行之有效，国家长治久安，旗人亦必须兼通满、汉，与汉人沟通交往，以便学习其典章制度与执政经验。顺治朝以后，旗学教育逐渐兴起，其中除国子监八旗官学、顺天和奉天府学外，又有咸安宫和景山官学、宗人府宗学和觉罗学，以及各地八旗官学、义学和清文学等，这些官学成为清代兴贤育才，教养备至的重要场所。对于旗人而言，只有接受旗学教育，熟读经史，掌握翻译，练习骑射，才能符合政府的人才标准和要求，为自身的进身入仕觅得正途。

However, for ensuring the effectiveness of national governance and long-term stability of the country, the banner people must be proficient in both Manchu language and Han Language thus communicating with Han people to learn their laws and regulations and ruling experience. After the reign of Shunzhi, the banner education gradually rose. In addition to the eight banner official schools of the Imperial Academy, Shuntian and fengtianfu schools, there were also Xian'an palace and Jingshan official schools, the official school of Imperial Clan Court and Jueluo schools, as well as the eight banner official schools, righteousness schools and Qing literature schools in various places, all of which became an important place to cultivate talents and prepare for education in the Qing Dynasty. As for banner people, only by receiving banner education, reading classical and historical books, mastering translation and practicing riding and shooting can they meet the standards and requirements of the government of choosing people and find a right way for their official career.
--[[User:Zhou Qiao1|Zhou Qiao1]] ([[User talk:Zhou Qiao1|talk]]) 15:12, 16 October 2021 (UTC)

However, in order to ensure the effective governance of the country and the long-term stability of the country, the banner people must also communicate with the Manchu and Han people, and communicate with the Han people to learn their rules, regulations and governing experience. After the Shunzhi dynasty, banner education gradually emerged. In addition to the eight banner official school, Shuntian and Fengtian school, Xian’an Palace and Jingshan official school, Zongrenfuzong school and Jueluo school, as well as the eight banner official school, Yi school and Qing Dynasty Literature, etc., these official schools became an important place for educating and cultivating talents in the Qing Dynasty. For banner people, only by receiving banner education, learning by heart in classics and history, mastering translation, and practicing riding and shooting, can they meet the government's talent standards and requirements and find a right path for their own career.--[[User:Zhou Qing|Zhou Qing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Qing|talk]]) 13:31, 16 October 2021 (UTC)

==周清 Zhōu Qīng 法语语言文学女 202120081558==

而统治者之所以重视满、汉语学习，以及翻译能力的培养，乃是国家行政和治理的需要所致。众所周知，国初之际，官员的日常行政广泛使用满文，政务的推动离不开翻译。《钦定大清会典则例（乾隆朝）》中说，清初以来，皇帝颁发满、汉文谕旨时，往往先由内阁进行翻译，或将清字译汉，或将汉文翻清，如此才能上传下达，确保政令畅通。

The reason why the rulers attach importance to the study of Manchu and Chinese language and the cultivation of translation ability is due to the needs of national administration and governance. As we all know, in the early days of the country, officials widely used Manchu language in their daily administration, and the promotion of government affairs was inseparable from translation. According to the Rules and Regulations of the King's Chamber of the Qing Dynasty (Qianlong Dynasty), since the beginning of the Qing Dynasty, when the emperor issued a decree in Manchu and Chinese, the cabinet often translated it first, or translated the Qing characters into Chinese, or translated the Chinese into Manchu language, to deliver the message and ensure the smooth flow of government orders.

The reason why the rulers attach importance to the study of Manchu and Chinese language and the cultivation of translation ability is due to the needs of national administration and governance. As we all know, in the early days of the country, officials widely used Manchu language in their daily administration, government affairs cannot be handled without translation. According to the Rules and Regulations of the King's Chamber of the Qing Dynasty (Qianlong Dynasty), since the beginning of the Qing Dynasty, when the emperor issued a decree in Manchu and Chinese, the cabinet often translated it first. They translated the Manchu language into Chinese, or translated the Chinese into Manchu language, to deliver the message and ensure the decisions of the government are carried out effectively.--[[User:Zhou Xiaoxue|Zhou Xiaoxue]] ([[User talk:Zhou Xiaoxue|talk]]) 08:38, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

==周小雪 Zhōu Xiǎoxuě 日语语言文学女 202120081559==

各部院衙门撰写本章时，虽然兼用清、汉双语，但直省本章中不使用清字者较为常见，这种情况下则往往由通政司将本章咨送内阁，再由后者送交汉本房进行翻译，事毕之后由满本房誊写。（允祹等，1983：4）各省驻防将军、副都统等遇奏事之时，也只使用满语，因而旗籍官员中办理文书业务者，也必须娴熟翻译。（曹振镛，1986：488）至清末之际，虽然旗学中清语荒废的情形日益严重，学生的翻译能力每况愈下，但国家对于翻译人才的需求并没有完全消失。

When yamen(government office in feudal China) writes documents, although both uses Manchu and Chinese can be used, but people who do not use Manchu are more common in departmental documents. In this case, the the office of transmission would send the document to the cabinet, which would send it to the Hanbenfang(An organization that translates Manchu into Chinese)for translation, and then the Manbenfang(An organization that translates Chinese into Manchu) would copy it.(Yun Taodeng, 1983:4) Because the generals of garrison and deputy lieutenant-general used only Manchu when handing in documents,among the officials of the Qing Dynasty, those who handle documents must also be skilled in translation.(Cao Zhenpu, 1986:488) In the late Qing Dynasty, although abandonment of Qing language in the Banners study is becoming more and more serious and the translation ability of the students became worse and worse, the country's demand for translation talent did not completely disappeared.--[[User:Zhou Xiaoxue|Zhou Xiaoxue]] ([[User talk:Zhou Xiaoxue|talk]]) 08:22, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

When yamen(government office in feudal China) writes documents, although both Manchu and Chinese can be used,people who do not use Manchu are common in departmental documents. In this case, the office of transmission would send the document to the cabinet, which would send it to the Hanbenfang(An organization that translates Manchu into Chinese)for translation, and then the Manbenfang(An organization that translates Chinese into Manchu) would transcribe it.(Yun Taodeng, 1983:4) Because the generals of garrison and deputy lieutenant-general used only Manchu when handing in documents, so among the officials of the Qing Dynasty, those who handle documents must also be skilled in translation.(Cao Zhenpu, 1986:488) At the end of Qing Dynasty, although abandonment of Qing language in the Manchu study was becoming more and more serious and the translation ability of the students became worse and worse, the country's demand for translation talent did not completely disappeared.--[[User:Zhou Xiaoxue|Zhou Xiaoxue]] ([[User talk:Zhou Xiaoxue|talk]]) 08:22, 17 October 2021 (UTC)
--[[User:Zhu Suzhen|Zhu Suzhen]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suzhen|talk]]) 11:58, 19 October 2021 (UTC)

==朱素珍 Zhū Sùzhēn 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081561==

然而，有清一代，旗学教育到底兴于何时，旗学中培养的翻译人才究竟几何，等等问题仍存争议。即以宗学的设置时间为例，不同文献的记载便不相同。如《八旗通志·初集》和《钦定八旗通志》中，都载有顺、康年间宗学变化之事，但《（雍正）大清会典》中，却未见有此段史实，反而将宗学之设归于雍正二年。（鄂尔泰等，1986：945-946；铁保等，1983：1-2；允禄等，1995：26）

However, in the Qing Dynasty, there were still disputes about when the Manchu education was prosperous and how many translation talents were trained and so on. That is to say, taking the setting time of zongxue as an example, the records of different documents were different. For example, the first collection of Pa Ch'i T'ung Chih and Tongshu of Manchukuo Family in Eight Banner of Qinding contained the changes of zongxue during the years of Shun and Kang. However, this historical fact was not found in the (Emperor Yongzheng) Great Qing conference, but the establishment of zongxue was attributed to the second year of Emperor Yongzheng. (Ertai etc 1986:945-946; Tiebao etc 1983:1-2; Yunlu etc 1995:26)

annotation:
1. zongxue: educational institutions for royal clan
2. Pa Ch'i T'ung Chih: a book recording of Eight Banners system in detail;general annals of the Eight Banners

However, in the Qing Dynasty, there were still disputes about when the flag school education was prosperous and how many translation talents were trained in the flag school. That is, taking the setting time of zongxue as an example, the records of different documents are different. For example, the first collection of Tongzhi of the eight banners and the Tongzhi of the imperial eight banners contain the changes of zongxue during the years of Shun and Kang. However, this historical fact is not found in the (Yongzheng) Great Qing conference, but the establishment of zongxue is attributed to the second year of Yongzheng.--[[User:Zou Yueli|Zou Yueli]] ([[User talk:Zou Yueli|talk]]) 12:22, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

==邹岳丽 Zōu Yuèlí 日语语言文学女 202120081562==

虽然如此，有两点却可肯定：其一，不论雍正二年办理的宗室之学是“复开”，还是“创设”，其中原因确与康熙朝晚期的皇子夺嫡事件有关。《清世宗实录》中对此已有说法：朕惟睦族敦宗，务先教化。尝见宗室中，习气未善，各怀私心，互相倾轧，並无扶持爱护之意，惟知宠厚妻党姻娅，其于本支骨肉，视若仇敌，殊为悖谬。

Nevertheless, two points can be confirmed: first, whether the imperial clan school handled by Yongzheng in the second year of Yongzheng was "reopened" or "created", the reason is indeed related to the emperor's son's seizing the throne in the late Kangxi Dynasty. It has been said in the《true records of emperor Shizong of the Qing Dynasty》 that In order to make the family harmonious,relatives and friends sincere, we must educate them first. I often see some people in the imperial clan who are not kind-hearted, have selfish intentions, frame each other, and do not love each other. It's absurd to spoil your wife and treat other concubines as enemies.

Nevertheless, there are two points to be sure. For one thing, no matter whether the school for the imperial family in the second year of Yongzheng(1724) were reopened or created, the reason was indeed related to the prince’s replacement in the late Kangxi Period(1675-1722). In True Records of Emperor Shizong of the Qing Dynasty, it mentioned that: “In order to make the family harmonious, and relatives and friends sincere, they need to be educated first. I often see some people in the imperial clan who are not kind-hearted, have selfish intentions, frame each other, and do not love each other. It's absurd to spoil your wife and treat other concubines as enemies.--[[User:Chen Jing|Chen Jing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jing|talk]]) 09:05, 20 October 2021 (UTC)

20211110 homework

2021-12-29T06:42:02Z

Zhong Yifei: /* 钟义菲 Zhōng Yìfēi 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081553 */

Quicklinks: [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021|Back to course homepage]] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal#Frequently_asked_questions_FAQ FAQ] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal Manual] [[20210926_homework|Back to all homework webpages overview]] [[20220112_final_exam|final exam page]]

PLEASE READ [[Joint_translation_terms|Joint translation terms]]

PLEASE ALSO READ THE PREVIOUS PARTS, AT LEAST THE SENTENCES BEFORE YOUR OWN PART IN CHAPTER 19 [[20210303_culture|1, Mar 3 Chapters 1-4]], [[20210310_culture|2, Mar 10 Chapters 6-7]], [[20210317_culture|3, Mar 17 Chapters 11-13]], [[20210324_culture|4, Mar 24 Chapters 15-17]], [[20210331_culture|5, Mar 31 Chapters 4-7]], [[20210407_culture|6, Apr 7 Chapters 8-10]], [[20210414_culture|7, Apr 14 Chapters 13-15]] , [[20210519_culture|12, May 19 Chapters 17-19]], [[20210929_homework#Hongloumeng|for Sep 29 - rest of HLM Chapter 19]] [[20211110_homework|for Nov 10 - HLM Chapters 20-21]] etc.

==陈静 Chén Jìng 国别女 202020080595==
按语：拙著《红楼梦全解本》出版后，受到了不少专家与读者的好评，甚为欣慰。但也有读者认为，如果能删掉部分注文，既不影响读者阅读，也可节省书的成本，使更多读者买得起。

Note : After the publication of ''The Dream of Red Mansions(The Anotation Version)'', it was highly appreciated by many experts and readers. However, some readers believe that if some notes can be deleted, it will not affect readers ' reading and save the cost of the publication, so that more readers can afford it.--[[User:Chen Jing|Chen Jing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jing|talk]]) 10:02, 9 November 2021 (UTC)

Note: after my book the complete interpretation of Drdam Of Red Chamber was published, it was highly praised by many experts and readers. However, some readers believe that if some annotations can be deleted, it will not affect readers' reading, but also save the cost of the book and make it affordable for more readers.
--[[User:Cai Zhufeng|Cai Zhufeng]] ([[User talk:Cai Zhufeng|talk]]) 11:53, 9 November 2021 (UTC)

==蔡珠凤 Cài Zhūfèng 日语语言文学女 202120081477==
恰好中央编译出版社准备出版四大古典小说套书，为了平衡四部小说的注文，《红楼梦》的注文也嫌太长。因此接受读者的建议，将《红楼梦全解本》的注文删掉了差不多一半，其他一概未动；换言之，此版《红楼梦》校注本，实即《红楼梦全解本》的删节本（仅删注文）。因此《校注前言》仍用《红楼梦全解本》的《校注前言》，不再另写。

It happened that the Central Compilation and Translation Publishing House was preparing to publish four sets of classical novels. In order to balance the annotations of the four novels, the annotations of Dream Of the Red Chamber were too long. Therefore, we accepted the readers' suggestions and deleted almost half of the annotations in the complete interpretation of Dream Of Red Chamber, and the rest remained unchanged; In other words, the revised annotation version of Dream Of Red Chamber is actually an abridged version of the complete interpretation of Dream Of Red Chamber (only the annotation is deleted). Therefore, the preface to proofreading still uses the preface to proofreading of the complete interpretation of Dream Of Red Chamber, and needn’t be written again.
--[[User:Cai Zhufeng|Cai Zhufeng]] ([[User talk:Cai Zhufeng|talk]]) 06:36, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

It happened that the Central Compilation and Translation Publishing House was preparing to publish four sets of classical novels. In order to balance the annotations of the four novels, the annotations of ''The Dream of the Red Chamber'' were too long. Therefore, we accepted the readers' suggestions and deleted almost half of the annotations in the complete interpretation of ''The Dream of Red Chamber'', and the rest remained unchanged; In other words, the revised annotation version of ''The Dream of Red Chamber'' is actually an abridged version of the complete interpretation of ''The Dream of Red Chamber'' (only the annotation is deleted). Therefore, ''The Preface to Proofreading'' still uses ''The Preface to Proofreading'' of the complete interpretation of ''Dream Of Red Chamber'', and needn’t be written again.--[[User:Chen Huini|Chen Huini]] ([[User talk:Chen Huini|talk]]) 14:32, 8 November 2021 (UTC)Chen Huini

==陈惠妮 Chén Huìnī 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081479==
《红楼梦》以其包罗万象的内容，博大精深的思想，精湛完美的艺术，丰富生动的语言，尤其是众多栩栩如生的人物形象，不仅在中国小说史上奇峰独秀，而且在世界文学之林独树一帜。它是我国文化遗产中的珍品，值得每一个中国人所珍视。《红楼梦》在其尚未完稿的时候，已经被人竞相传抄，辗转传阅，不胫而走，蜚声神州。

''A Dream of Red Mansions'' is unique not only in the history of Chinese novels, but also in the world literature with its comprehensive contents, extensive and profound thoughts, exquisite and perfect art, rich and vivid language, and especially its numerous vivid characters. It is a treasure of our country's cultural heritage and is worth cherishing by every Chinese. ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' has been copied, circulated and spread like wildfire even when it's unfinished. It is really well-known in China.--[[User:Chen Huini|Chen Huini]] ([[User talk:Chen Huini|talk]]) 14:23, 8 November 2021 (UTC)Chen Huini

''A Dream of Red Mansions'' is outstanding not only in the history of Chinese novels, but also in the world literature for its comprehensive contents, extensive and profound thoughts, exquisite and perfect art, rich and vivid language, and especially its numerous vivid characters. It is a treasure of our country's cultural heritage and is worth being cherished by every Chinese.Before it is finished， ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' has been copied, circulated and spread like wildfire and it is really well-known in China.--[[User:Chen Xiangqiong|Chen Xiangqiong]] ([[User talk:Chen Xiangqiong|talk]]) 00:25, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==陈湘琼 Chén Xiāngqióng 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081480 ==
不仅“士大夫几乎家有《红楼梦》一书”（清·潘炤《从心录》卷首），而且“家弦户诵，妇孺皆知”（清·缪艮《文章游戏初编》卷六）。上层社会更出现了“开谈不说《红楼梦》，读尽诗书也枉然”（清·得舆《京都竹枝词·时尚门》）的时尚。《红楼梦》的魅力也使其商业价值大增，“好事者每传抄一部，置庙市中，昂其值，得数十金，可谓不胫而走者矣”（清·程伟元《〈红楼梦〉序》）。

''A Dream of Red Mansions'' was so popular that not only scholar officals（people obtain knowledge and wealth in feudal China） read it （the first volum of ''Essay'' by Pan Zhao, Qing），but also families，even women and children ， loved it（the sixth volum of ''Preliminary Article Games'' by Miu Liang, Qing）. Moreover ,there was a climate of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' that the upper class believed " it is useless to read great books without ''A Dream of Red Mansions''.（''Bamboo Pole Poem in the Capital'' by De Yu, Qing）. The charm of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' also rose its business value as in record： “Someone who is willing to copy ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' and sell it can raise 10 gold ingots everytime ，and everyone know it.（ the introduction of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'', Qing）.--[[User:Chen Xiangqiong|Chen Xiangqiong]] ([[User talk:Chen Xiangqiong|talk]]) 09:44, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

Not only did "almost every scholar had a copy of ''A Dream of Red Mansions''" (the first volum of Essay by Pan Zhao, Qing Dynasty), but "Every household recited it, and all women and children knew it" (the sixth volum of ''Preliminary Article Games'' by Miu Liang, Qing Dynasty). In the upper class, the fashion of "If you don't talk about ''A Dream of Red Mansions'', you can read all the poems and books in vain" (''Bamboo Pole Poem in the Capital'' by De Yu, Qing Dynasty) emerged. The charm of A Dream of Red Mansions also made its commercial value increased greatly, "Those who are interested in it can get a lot of money by copying one of the books and selling it in the market. The information spread quickly." (the introduction of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'', Qing Dynasty)--[[User:Chen Xinyi|Chen Xinyi]] ([[User talk:Chen Xinyi|talk]]) 07:07, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==陈心怡 Chén Xīnyí 翻译学女 202120081481==
至高鹗续写后四十回、由程伟元以活字正式出版完整的一百二十回本后，更出现了风行全国的盛况。时至今日，即使读不懂《红楼梦》的人，也都看过《红楼梦》电影或电视剧，对《红楼梦》的故事和人物无不耳熟能详。因此《红楼梦》已经不是普通的小说，而成为全民珍视的国宝了。

After Gao E continued to write the second forty chapters and Cheng Weiyuan officially published the complete one hundred and twenty chapters in movable type, the book became popular nationwide. To this day, even those who do not understand ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' have seen the movie or TV series versions, and are familiar with the story and characters of ''A Dream of Red Mansions''. Therefore, ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' is no longer an ordinary novel, but a national treasure cherished by all.--[[User:Chen Xinyi|Chen Xinyi]] ([[User talk:Chen Xinyi|talk]]) 06:39, 8 November 2021 (UTC)
After Gao E continued to write the following forty chapters and Cheng Weiyuan officially published the complete one hundred and twenty chapters in movable type, the book became popular nationwide increasingly. To this day, even those who do not understand ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' have already seen the movie or TV series versions, and are familiar with the story and characters of it. Therefore, ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' is no longer an ordinary novel, but a national treasure cherished by all.--[[User:Cheng Yang|Cheng Yang]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yang|talk]]) 08:37, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==程杨 Chéng Yáng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081482==
中国古代的文人墨客、传统学者、官僚士夫，无不鄙薄小说，最多被视为茶余饭后的谈资。唯独对《红楼梦》情有独钟，爱不释手。不仅百读不厌，而且像拜读经书般寻章摘句，眉批夹评，乐此不疲。
The ancient Chinese literats, traditional scholars, bureaucrats, all despised novels, and regarded them as after-dinner talk at most. But they only showed special preference to ''The Dream of Red Mansions'', and fondled admiringly. They not only tired of reading it, but also liked reading the Confucian classics as seeking remarkable passages and culling model sentences, making notes and commentaries, and always enjoying it.--[[User:Cheng Yang|Cheng Yang]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yang|talk]]) 08:33, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

The ancient Chinese literats, traditional scholars, bureaucrats, all despised novels, and regarded them as after-dinner talks at most. However, they only showed special preference to ''The Dream of Red Mansions'', and fondled admiringly. They not only weren't tired of reading it, but also liked reading the Confucian classics as seeking remarkable passages and culling model sentences, making notes and commentaries, and always enjoying it.--[[User:Ding Xuan|Ding Xuan]] ([[User talk:Ding Xuan|talk]]) 14:07, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

==丁旋 Dīng Xuán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081483==
久而久之，居然形成了“红学”。“红学”由起初对《红楼梦》的单纯评点，逐步发展成为对《红楼梦》及其作者的全面考证与研究，最后更成立了红学会，出版研究刊物，势头似乎越来越盛。这不仅是中国小说史上绝无仅有的，也是中国文学史上极其罕见的现象。

As time passes, redology is actually formed. Redology was about pure comments to ''A Dream in Red Mansion'' in the beginning and it gradually developed as the comprehensive textual research and study in ''A Dream in Red Mansion'' and its author. Finally, we even established redologist institution and published research periodicals, the momentum of redology more and more flourishing. This phenomenon is not only unique in the history of Chinese novels, but extremely rare in the history of Chinese literature. --[[User:Ding Xuan|Ding Xuan]] ([[User talk:Ding Xuan|talk]]) 05:29, 9 November 2021 (UTC)

As time passes, redology is unexpectedly formed. Redology came into mere comments to ''A Dream in Red Mansion'' in the beginning and it gradually developed as the comprehensive textual research and study of this work and its author. Finally, redologist institution was established to publish research periodicals with more flourishing tendency than ever. This phenomenon is not only unique in the history of Chinese novels, but extremely rare in the history of Chinese literature.--[[User:Du Lina|Du Lina]] ([[User talk:Du Lina|talk]]) 11:49, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==杜莉娜 Dù Lìnà 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081484==
遗憾的是，“红学家”们对《红楼梦》的作者及其版本似乎偏爱有加，而对《红楼梦》的思想和艺术价值却缺乏足够的兴趣，因此考证作者和版本的文章和著作连篇累牍，而研究《红楼梦》思想和艺术价值的成果却寥若晨星。我认为这是本末倒置。一个作家的价值不在于其生平如何，而在于其作品的思想和艺术水平的高低；是作品决定作家的价值，而不是作家决定作品的价值。

Unfortunately, redologists ( who are specialists in A Dream of the Red Chamber) seemingly are partial to research on the writer and verison of this book, but are short of interest for it's thought and artistic value. And therefore there are a lot of articles and books about the former while very few about the latter. It seems to me that puts the cart before the horse. What a writer is worth lies in thoughts and artistic level in his/her works but not in his/her life story; and the value of a writer depends on his/her production, not vice versa.--[[User:Du Lina|Du Lina]] ([[User talk:Du Lina|talk]]) 13:31, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

Unfortunately, redologists ( who are specialists in A Dream of the Red Chamber) seem to prefer to research on the writer and versions of this book, but are short of interest in the thought and artistic value. And therefore there are a lot of articles and books about the former while very few about the latter. It seems to me that puts the cart before the horse. What a writer is worth lies in thoughts and artistic level in his/her works but not in his/her life story; and the value of a writer depends on his/her production, not vice versa.--[[User:Fu Hongyan|Fu Hongyan]] ([[User talk:Fu Hongyan|talk]]) 14:10, 9 November 2021 (UTC)

==付红岩 Fù Hóngyán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081485==
读者对于作品的选择与评价，也只着眼于作品本身，而非作家本人。一部伟大的作品，即使作者佚名，也不影响其伟大，照样受到读者的追捧；相反，如果一个伟大作家偶然写了一部低劣的作品，读者也决不买账。因此“红学”的研究重点应该是《红楼梦》本身，而不是《红楼梦》作者。

Readers' choice and evaluation towards works is based on the works themselves, rather than the writers. As anonymous is the writer, the valued of a great work is definitely unlikely to be underestimated, which is still welcomed by the public. Likewise, readers cannot be attracted by the inferior work written by a great writer. Therefore, redology is supposed to focus on the context, instead of the writer Cao Xueqin--[[User:Fu Hongyan|Fu Hongyan]] ([[User talk:Fu Hongyan|talk]]) 14:01, 9 November 2021 (UTC)

Readers' choice and evaluation towards works is based on the works themselves, rather than the writers. As anonymous is the writer, the values of a great work are definitely unlikely to be underestimated, which is still popular with the public. Likewise, readers cannot be attracted by a low-quality work even written by a great writer occasionally. Therefore, redology is supposed to focus on the context, instead of the writer Cao Xueqin.--[[User:Fu Shiyu|Fu Shiyu]] ([[User talk:Fu Shiyu|talk]]) 09:02, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==付诗雨 Fù Shīyǔ 日语语言文学女 202120081486==
当然也应该了解作者，但目的只是为了有助于深入了解《红楼梦》，仅此而已。我认为要想深入研究《红楼梦》，首先必须完全读懂《红楼梦》。如果对《红楼梦》的文本只是一知半解，那么所谓研究，势必如医生不明病人的病情而乱开药方，不仅治不好病，倒可能致人于死命。

Certainly, we should also know the author, but the purpose is nothing more than to help us understand ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' in depth. I think that in order to make a further research on ''A Dream of Red Mansions'', we must first have a thorough understanding of it. If we have only a sketchy knowledge of the text of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'', then the so-called research would definitely be like the prescriptions prescribed indiscriminately without knowing the patient's condition. Not only can it not cure the disease, but it may lead to death.--[[User:Fu Shiyu|Fu Shiyu]] ([[User talk:Fu Shiyu|talk]]) 13:53, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

Certainly, we should also know about the author, but only with the purpose of deepening our understanding of the work. I think that further researches on ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' necessitate a thorough understanding of it. If we have only a sketchy knowledge of the text of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'', then the so-called research would definitely be like the prescriptions written indiscriminately by a doctor unaware of the patient's condition. Not only can it not cure the disease, but it may lead to death. --[[User:Gao Mi|Gao Mi]] ([[User talk:Gao Mi|talk]]) 03:04, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==高蜜 Gāo Mì 翻译学女 202120081487==
《红楼梦》研究中的许多无谓争论，正是研究者没有读懂《红楼梦》或对《红楼梦》文本的不同理解所致。因此对《红楼梦》文本的注释，显然是《红楼梦》研究的基础工作。其次，当今的读者和观众虽然热衷于《红楼梦》，但真正能够全面深入理解《红楼梦》的人恐怕并不很多。

A great many arguments regarding the study of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'', caused either by an incomplete understanding or different understandings of the text, are pointless. Therefore, it's apparent that annotating ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' is a foundation work for its further study. Besides, though today's readers and audience are crazy about the book, I'm afraid that not many of them get to know it thoroughly. --[[User:Gao Mi|Gao Mi]] ([[User talk:Gao Mi|talk]]) 03:09, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

Many unnecessary arguments in the study of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' are caused by the researchers' failure to understand ''A dream of Red Mansions'' or their different understandings of the text.Therefore, it's apparent that annotating ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' is a foundation work for its further study. Besides, though today's readers and audience are crazy about the book, I'm afraid that not many of them get to know it thoroughly.--[[User:Gong Boya|Gong Boya]] ([[User talk:Gong Boya|talk]]) 11:14, 13 November 2021 (UTC)

==宫博雅 Gōng Bóyǎ 俄语语言文学女 202120081488==
这是因为，《红楼梦》不是普通的白话小说，不是简单地为读者讲故事，不是为读者提供茶馀饭后的谈资，更不是为了赚稿费餬口（那时根本不存在稿费制度）。它不仅是一部反映封建社会的“百科全书”，而且作者还对人类共同关心的一些问题，如人生的目的、人性的善恶、爱情的真谛、宗教的精义等进行了探索。作品涉及的内容几乎无所不包，从至高无上的皇帝，到“芥豆之微”的细民，从国家的政治、军事、经济到百姓的日常生活，举凡天文、地理、动物、植物、建筑、服饰、医卜星相、琴棋书画等等，无不尽收笔底。

This is because ''a Dream of Red Mansions'' is not an ordinary vernacular novel. It is not simply a story for readers to read, not a topic for after-dinner conversation, or a way to earn a living (there was no contribution fee system at that time). It is not only an "encyclopedia" reflecting the feudal society, but also explores some common issues of human concern, such as the purpose of life, the good and evil of human nature, the true meaning of love, the essence of religion and so on. The works cover almost everything, from the supreme emperor to the ordinary people, from national politics, military affairs, economy to the daily life of the people, including astronomy, geography, animals, plants, architecture, clothing, medicine, astrology and practise divination, poetry and painting and so on, they're all in the book.--[[User:Gong Boya|Gong Boya]] ([[User talk:Gong Boya|talk]]) 13:47, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

It is because ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' is neither an ordinary novel in vernacular Chinese, nor a simple narrative or gossip for readers. The author wrote it not for remuneration for the system of remuneration for writters did not exist at that time. It is not only an "encyclopedia" reflecting the feudal society, but also an exploration of some issues of common concern to mankind, such as the purpose of life, the good and evil of human nature, the true meaning of love, and the essence of religion. It covers almost everything, from the supreme emperor to the plebeian as tiny as reed, and from the politics, military and economy of the country to the daily life of the people. It includes astronomy, geography, animals, plants, architecture, costumes, medicine, astrology, zither, chess, calligraphy and painting, and so on. --[[User:He Qin|He Qin]] ([[User talk:He Qin|talk]]) 11:48, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==何芩 Hé Qín 翻译学女 202120081489==
作者还调动了自己的全部才能和知识，汲取了前人的成果，撰写并引用了大量诗、词、曲、赋、歌、诔、谜语、酒令等，作为描写人物、叙述故事、揭示主题的艺术手段，从而成为作品的重要组成部分。这其中蕴藏着许多成语、典故和各种知识，现在的一般读者是很难读懂的。此外，由于曹雪芹以其家事为《红楼梦》的蓝本，且暴露了不少家丑，如秦可卿的淫荡乱伦等，因而大量采用了《春秋》笔法，即作者所谓将“真事隐去”，以“假语村言”的曲折方式进行暗示或隐寓，致使《红楼梦》扑朔迷离，迷雾重重。

The author also mobilized all his talents and knowledge and drew on the achievements of his predecessors, writing and quoting a large number of poems, lyrics, songs, eulogies, riddles and wine wager as artistic methods to describe characters, narrate stories and reveal themes, thus becoming an important part of the work. This contains many idioms, allusions and various kinds of knowledge that are difficult for the average readers to comprehend nowadays. In addition, Cao Xueqin used his family affairs as the blueprint for Dream of the Red Chamber and exposed many family scandals, such as Frivolity Grain's lewdness and incest. Cao, thus, adopted much of a writing style of ''Spring and Autumn Annals'', that is, the author's so-called "real things concealed", in the twisted way of "false words and village gossips", which has led to the ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' being puzzling and foggy.--[[User:He Qin|He Qin]] ([[User talk:He Qin|talk]]) 12:28, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

The author also mobilized all his talents and knowledge and took results from his predecessors, writing and quoting a large number of poems, lyrics, songs, eulogies, riddles and wine wager as artistic methods to describe characters, narrate stories and reveal themes, thus becoming an important part of the work. The novel contains many idioms, allusions and various kinds of knowledge that are difficult for the average readers to comprehend nowadays. In addition, Cao Xueqin used his family affairs as the blueprint for ''A Dream in Red Mansions'' and exposed many family scandals, such as Qin Keqing's lewdness and incest. Cao, thus, frequently adopted a writing style of Spring and Autumn Annals, that is, the author's so-called "real things concealed", using the twisted way of "false words and village gossips" to hint and make it metaphorical which has led to ''A Dream in Red Mansions'' being puzzling and foggy.--[[User:Hu Shuqing|Hu Shuqing]] ([[User talk:Hu Shuqing|talk]]) 08:35, 14 November 2021 (UTC)

==胡舒情 Hú Shūqíng 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081490==
因此帮助广大读者读懂《红楼梦》，也是《红楼梦》研究者义不容辞的责任。而要使读者读懂《红楼梦》，只作简单的文字注释不解决问题，必须加以详细注释，将隐藏于《红楼梦》字里行间的寓意一一揭示出来，才能完全展示《红楼梦》的本来面貌。我从学生时代起就期待这种《红楼梦》的详注本出现，一直等了半个世纪，可惜望眼欲穿而不见踪影。

Therefore, it is incumbent on researchers of ''A Dream in Red Mansions'' to help numerous readers understand the novel. For this, problem can’t be solved simply by text annotations. What should do is to add detailed explanatory notes to discover the meanings implied in characters, which can fully show the way the book originally is. I have expected the appearance of this version with detailed annotations since I was a student. I’ve waited for half a century, but it never comes out.--[[User:Hu Shuqing|Hu Shuqing]] ([[User talk:Hu Shuqing|talk]]) 02:46, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

Therefore, it is our researchers' duty to heip numerous readers understand A Dream in Red Mansions. To do that, simple text annotations are not enough. And detailed explanatory notes are needed to discover its implied meanings, which can fully show its characteristics. Waiting for half century, I have expected the apppearance of this version with detailed annotations since I was a student.--[[User:Huang Jinyun|Huang Jinyun]] ([[User talk:Huang Jinyun|talk]]) 01:49, 15 November 2021 (UTC)

==黄锦云 Huáng Jǐnyún 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081491==
很显然，“红学家”的队伍虽然不断壮大，看来他们对这种注释工作似乎不屑一顾。于是我这个“红学”的门外汉便斗胆一试，结果试出了这个《红楼梦》校注本。我这是“人弃我取”，希望不至于冒犯任何人。

Obviously, the amount of redologists who are sepcalists in A Dream of Red Mansion was increasing. They seemed to pay no attention to annotate that book, but I, as a layman, took a chance and tried to make the annotation of A Dream of Red Mansion. I thought it was an attitude of doing the things others gave up, which would not offend anyone.--[[User:Huang Jinyun|Huang Jinyun]] ([[User talk:Huang Jinyun|talk]]) 13:52, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

Obviously, the amount of redologists sepcalizing in A Dream of Red Mansion was increasing. They seemed to pay little attention to annotate that book, but I, as a layman, took a chance and tried to make the annotation of A Dream of Red Mansion. I thought it was an attitude of doing things others gave up, which I hope would not offend anyone.--[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 14:20, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==黄逸妍 Huáng Yìyán 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081492==
如果能成为“引玉”之“砖”，即使要做“众矢之的”，招来“万箭攒射”，我也决不后悔，因为这也算是我对《红楼梦》读者的小小奉献了。下面仅就与校注工作有关的几个具体问题略作说明。

一、作者问题

If I can serve as a modest spur to induce someone to come forward with his valuable contributions, I will never regret even if I could be the target of public criticism. It is because that the annotation work is also my dedication to the readers of A Dream in Red Mansions. And I will explain a little about the specific questions in proofreading below. 1. The Question of Author--[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 12:40, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

If I can become a "brick" for "inviting jade", even if I want to be "a target of all targets" and attract "a thousand arrows", I will never regret it, because this is also a small dedication to the readers of "A Dream of Red Mansions". The following is only a brief description of a few specific issues related to the proofreading work.
1. Author's question--[[User:Zeng Junlin|Zeng Junlin]] ([[User talk:Zeng Junlin|talk]]) 11:06, 17 November 2021 (UTC)

==曾俊霖 Zēng Jùnlín 国别男 202120081478==
中国文学史中有两个突出现象：一是在封建时代得意并著名的文人不写小说；二是小说作品多不署名或只署化名。这完全是由封建统治者造成的。封建统治者的文学观是纯粹的政治功利主义，即所谓“文以载道”。

There are two outstanding phenomena in the history of Chinese literature: one is that famous and proud literati in the feudal era do not write novels; the other is that many novels do not sign or only sign pseudonyms. This is entirely caused by the feudal ruler. The feudal ruler’s literary view is pure political utilitarianism, that is, the so-called "writing is used to carry Tao".--[[User:Zeng Junlin|Zeng Junlin]] ([[User talk:Zeng Junlin|talk]]) 11:03, 17 November 2021 (UTC)

There are two prominent phenomena in the history of Chinese Literature: first, the proud and famous literati in the feudal era did not write novels; Second, most novels are not signed or only signed by pseudonyms. This was entirely caused by the feudal rulers. The literary view of feudal rulers was pure political utilitarianism, that is, the so-called "literature carries Tao".--[[User:Huang Zhuliang|Huang Zhuliang]] ([[User talk:Huang Zhuliang|talk]]) 12:42, 22 November 2021 (UTC)

==黄柱梁 Huáng Zhùliáng 国别男 202120081493==
他们认为小说不仅不能“载道”，而且往往“诲淫诲盗”，对封建统治构成威胁。因此不仅将小说排斥在正统文学之外，甚至常常以“禁毁”的方式加以扫荡。在文网森严及小说地位低贱的环境下，多数文人自然不敢或不屑从事小说的创作；而那些痴迷小说的作者也就不敢或不愿在小说作品上亮出自己的真名实姓。They faithfully believe that novels not only can not "educate citizens of Qing Dynasty", but also often be blessed with "obscenity and theft", which poses a threat to feudal rule.Therefore, novels are not only excluded from orthodox literature, but also often cleaned up in the way of "prohibition and destruction". In the social background of highly strict policy of Literary Network and low status of novels, most scholars naturally dare not or disdain to engage in novel creation; Those who are obsessed with novels are afraid or unwilling to show their real names in their novels.--[[User:Huang Zhuliang|Huang Zhuliang]] ([[User talk:Huang Zhuliang|talk]]) 02:46, 10 November 2021 (UTC)Huang Zhuliang

They believed that novels not only can not "educate citizens of Qing Dynasty", but also often be blessed with "obscenity and theft", which poses a threat to feudal rule.Therefore, novels are not only excluded from orthodox literature, but also often cleaned up in the way of "prohibition and destruction". In the social background of highly strict policy of Literary Network and of low status of novels, most scholars naturally dare not or disdain to engage in novel creation; Those who are obsessed with novels are afraid or unwilling to sign their real names in their novels.--[[User:Jin Xiaotong|Jin Xiaotong]] ([[User talk:Jin Xiaotong|talk]]) 13:18, 11 November 2021 (UTC)

==金晓童 Jīn Xiǎotóng 202120081494==
因此研究中国古代小说多了一项工作，即不得不对小说作者加以考证。《红楼梦》也不例外，它的作者连化名都未署一个。“红学家”们为了考证它的作者，不知耗费了多少精力和时间，然而由于史料不足，至今仍然众说纷纭,难以形成共识。

Therefore, there is one more task to study ancient Chinese novels, that is, we have to do textual research on the authors of the novels. ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' is no exception. Its author does not even have a pseudonym. In order to do textual research on its author, the "redologists" spent a lot of energy and time. However, due to the lack of historical data, opinions are still varied and it is difficult to reach a consensus.--[[User:Jin Xiaotong|Jin Xiaotong]] ([[User talk:Jin Xiaotong|talk]]) 01:57, 6 November 2021 (UTC)
Therefore, there is one more task to study ancient Chinese novels, that is, we have to do textual research on the authors of the novels. ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' is no exception, whose author does not even have a pseudonym. In order to do textual research on its author, the "redologists" spent a lot of energy and time. However, due to the lack of historical data, opinions are still varied and it is difficult to reach a consensus.--[[User:Kuang Yanli|Kuang Yanli]] ([[User talk:Kuang Yanli|talk]]) 06:39, 15 November 2021 (UTC)

==邝艳丽 Kuàng Yànl 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081495==
据我个人所知，至少就有七种说法：其一为“曹作高续”说。即认为曹雪芹写到八十回而去世，并可能留下了后四十回的某些提纲以及部分书稿；高鹗根据曹雪芹的这些提纲、书稿以及前八十回中的许多暗示，还可能参考了其他人的续作，完成了后四十回的创作，并对前八十回加以修订，从而使《红楼梦》成为完璧。
As far as I am concerned, there are at least seven sayings: one of which is that ''Dream of Red Mansions'' was written by Cao Xueqin and then finished by Gao. The saying means that Cao passed away and left some outline and manuscripts of the latter fourth chapters when the former eighty chapters was finished. Then, Gao finished the latter forty chapters and reviewed the former eighty chapters, according to some outlines, manuscripts and clues made by Cao, referring to other sequels. Finally, ''Dream of Red Mansion'' was finished. --[[User:Kuang Yanli|Kuang Yanli]] ([[User talk:Kuang Yanli|talk]]) 06:27, 15 November 2021 (UTC)

As far as I am concerned, there are at least seven sayings: one of which is that ''Dream of Red Mansions'' was written by Cao Xueqin and then finished by Gao. The saying means that Cao had passed away and left some outline and manuscripts of the latter fourth chapters while the former eighty chapters was finished. Then, Gao finished the latter forty chapters and reviewed the former eighty chapters, according to some outlines, manuscripts and clues made by Cao, referring to other sequels. Finally, ''Dream of Red Mansion'' was finished.--[[User:Li Aixuan|Li Aixuan]] ([[User talk:Li Aixuan|talk]]) 13:04, 15 November 2021 (UTC)

==李爱璇 Lǐ Àixuán 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081496==
其二为“曹作程续高订”说。即认为前八十回的作者是曹雪芹，后四十回的作者是程伟元，高鹗只是参加了全书的修订工作。其三为“曹作高续程订”说。即认为前八十回的作者是曹雪芹，后四十回的作者是高鹗，程伟元则对曹雪芹的前八十回加以修订。

The second is the theory of "Cao came to write, Cheng continued to write, Gao to revise". That is, the author of the first 80 chapters is Cao Xueqin, the author of the last 40 chapters is Cheng Weiyuan, and Gao E only participated in the revision of the whole book. The third is the theory of "Cao came to write, Gao continued to write, Cheng to revise". That is, the author of the first 80 chapters is Cao Xueqin, the author of the last 40 chapters is Gao E, and Cheng Weiyuan revised Cao Xueqin's first 80 chapters.--[[User:Li Aixuan|Li Aixuan]] ([[User talk:Li Aixuan|talk]]) 12:47, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

The second statement said that "Started by Cao, completed by Chen, and revised by Gao". That’s to say, the first 80 chapters were written by Cao Xueqin, the last 40 chapters were written by Cheng Weiyuan, and Gao E only revised the whole book. The third statement said that "Started by Cao, completed by Gao, and revised by Chen". That’s to say, the first 80 chapters were written by Cao Xueqin, the last 40 chapters were written by Gao E, and Cheng Weiyaun made revisions to the first 80 chapters of Cao Xueqin.--[[User:Li Ruiyang|Li Ruiyang]] ([[User talk:Li Ruiyang|talk]]) 11:56, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==李瑞洋 Lǐ Ruìyáng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081497==
其四为“曹作某续高订”说。即认为在程伟元和高鹗之前，已有人为曹雪芹的未完稿续写完全，程伟元将搜集到的抄本交由高鹗修订，然后刊行。其五为“曹作程高修订”说。

The fourth statement said that “Started by Cao, completed by someone, and revised by Gao”. That's to say, before Cheng Weiyuan and Gao E, there was someone who completed Cao Xueqin's unfinished writing. Then, Cheng Weiyuan collected this hand-copied version and provided it for Gao E to revise, and afterwards ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was published . The fifth statement said that “Started by Cao, and revised by both Cheng and Gao ”.--[[User:Li Ruiyang|Li Ruiyang]] ([[User talk:Li Ruiyang|talk]]) 08:08, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

The fourth statement said that "This masterpiece is started by Cao, completed by someone, and revised by Gao". That's to say, before Cheng Weiyuan and Gao E, there was someone who completed Cao Xueqin's unfinished work. Then, Cheng Weiyuan collected these hand-copied drafts and offered them to Gao E to revise, and afterwards ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was published. The fifth statement noted that "It was started by Cao, and revised by both Cheng and Gao".--[[User:Li Shan|Li Shan]] ([[User talk:Li Shan|talk]]) 13:52, 14 November 2021 (UTC)

==李姗 Lǐ Shān 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081498==
即认为曹雪芹已经完成了《红楼梦》全书，只是未遑修饰而去世，后由程伟元和高鹗共同修订并刊行。其六为“叔作侄订”说。即认为《红楼梦》的原作者是曹雪芹的叔父曹頫，也就是给《红楼梦》加批的“脂砚斋”；曹雪芹只是对它“披阅十载，增删五次”。

It was commonly believed that Cao Xueqin had finished the draft of ''A Dream in Red Mansions'', while as a result of his death it was not polished by himself, but co-revised and published by Cheng Weiyuan an Gao 'E later on. Sixly, rumar had it that this classic was the common product of the uncle and the nephew. That was to say, the original author of that masterpiece was Cao Fu, Cao Xueqin's uncle, who was at the same time the very one that added notes in that masterpiece, and Cao Xueqin just played the role of repeatedly revising it.--[[User:Li Shan|Li Shan]] ([[User talk:Li Shan|talk]]) 13:55, 14 November 2021 (UTC)

It was commonly believed that Cao Xueqin had finished the draft of ''A Dream in Red Mansions''. As a result of his death it was not published by himself. However, co-revised and published by Cheng Weiyuan an Gao 'E later on. Rumar had it that this classic was the common product of the uncle and the nephew. Which shows, the original author of that masterpiece was Cao Fu, Cao Xueqin's uncle, who was at the same time the only one who added notes in that masterpiece, and Cao Xueqin just repeatedly revised it.--[[User:Li Shan|Li Shan]] ([[User talk:Li Shan|talk]]) 13:35, 6 November 2021 (UTC)
--[[User:Mahzad Heydarian|Mahzad Heydarian]] ([[User talk:Mahzad Heydarian|talk]]) 22:31, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

It was commonly believed that Cao Xueqin had finished the draft of ''A Dream in Red Mansions'', but died before he could polish it. As a result, the draft was co-revised and published by Cheng Weiyuan an Gao 'E later on. The sixth opinion is that this classic is the common product of the uncle and the nephew. That's to say, the original author of that masterpiece was Cao Fu, Cao Xueqin's uncle, who was at the same time the very one that added notes in that masterpiece, and Cao Xueqin just played the role of repeatedly revising it.--[[User:Li Shuang|Li Shuang]] ([[User talk:Li Shuang|talk]]) 15:35, 14 November 2021 (UTC)

==李双 Lǐ Shuāng 翻译学女 202120081499==
其七为“某作曹订”说。即认为《红楼梦》的原作者是个与曹家毫不相干的无名氏，曹雪芹只是个修订者。“红学家”对《红楼梦》作者的意见分歧，使出版者无所适从，因而造成了新版《红楼梦》署名的混乱：或只署曹雪芹，或并署曹雪芹、高鹗，或干脆不署名。

The seventh opinion is that “a certain author, Cao revised”. That is to say, the original author of ''A Dream in Red Mansions'' is an anonymous person who has no relation with Cao’s family, and Cao Xueqin is only the reviser. The different opinions among the “redologists” about the author of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' caused the publishers not to know what to do. The new versions are therefore in confusion: some signed Cao Xueqin alone, some signed Cao Xueqin and Gao E together, and some signed nothing at all.--[[User:Li Shuang|Li Shuang]] ([[User talk:Li Shuang|talk]]) 09:40, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

The seventh opinion is that “a certain author, Cao revised”. That is to say, the original author of ''The Dream of the Red Chamber'' was an anonymous person who had no relation with the Cao’s, and Cao Xueqin was only a reviser. The different opinions among the “redologists” about the author of ''The Dream of the Red Chamber'' caused the publishers not to know what to do. The new versions are therefore in confusion: some signed Cao Xueqin alone, some signed Cao Xueqin and Gao E together, and some signed nothing at all. --[[User:Li Wenxuan|Li Wenxuan]] ([[User talk:Li Wenxuan|talk]]) 11:33, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==李文璇 Lǐ Wénxuán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081500==
由于我对这个问题缺乏专门研究，只能在以上七种说法中加以选择。我认为这七种说法都有一定的根据，均非空穴来风。但相比之下，第一种说法的证据更为充分，也得到了学界的普遍认可，因此仍将曹雪芹和高鹗作为《红楼梦》的共同作者。

Because of a lack of specialized research to this question, I had to select from the seven statements above. I thought that the seven statements were of certain basis. However, with comparison, the evidence of first statement was more sufficient, and was largely approved by the academic circles. So, Cao Xueqin and Gao E were still regarded as the co-author of ''the Dream of the Red Chamber''. --[[User:Li Wenxuan|Li Wenxuan]] ([[User talk:Li Wenxuan|talk]]) 01:47, 6 November 2021 (UTC)
Being lacking in specialized research to this question, I had to select from the above seven versions . I thought that they were of certain basis. However, with comparison, the first statement was more credible, and was largely approved by the academic circles. So, Cao Xueqin and Gao E were still regarded as the co-author of ''the Dream of the Red Chamber''.--[[User:Li Wen|Li Wen]] ([[User talk:Li Wen|talk]]) 06:57, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==李雯 Lǐ Wén 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081501==
至于这种说法的具体根据，以及两作者的生平，已见于不少专文，这里不再赘述。

二、版本问题

由于《红楼梦》创作过程和流传过程的特殊性，造成了《红楼梦》版本的复杂性。
We will not describe more about the specific reason of this opinion and lives of the two authors because a lot of scholars have discussed it.
二、Version problem
The unique process of creating and circulating A Dream in Red Mansions leads to such complicated versions of it.--[[User:Li Wen|Li Wen]] ([[User talk:Li Wen|talk]]) 06:52, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

As well as the life of the two authors, has been seen in a number of articles, here will not be repeated.
Second, the version of the problem because of the "Dream of Red Mansions" creative process and the special nature of the process of circulation, resulting in the "Dream of Red Mansions" version of the complexity.--[[User:Li Xinxing|Li Xinxing]] ([[User talk:Li Xinxing|talk]]) 04:36, 24 November 2021 (UTC)

==李新星 Lǐ Xīnxīng 亚非语言文学女 202120081503==

而《红楼梦》版本的复杂性，又迫使我们不得不有所选择。《红楼梦》的创作和流传过程可以分为四个阶段：其一是曹雪芹的创作阶段。虽然曹雪芹自称“披阅十载，增删五次”，其实由于他溘然而逝，只留下了一部《红楼梦》的未完稿和未定稿。

The complexity of the version of a Dream of Red Mansions forces us to make choices. The creation and spread of a Dream of Red Mansions can be divided into four stages: one is cao Xueqin's creation stage. Although Cao Xueqin claimed that "reading for ten years, adding and deleting five times", in fact, because of his death, leaving only a dream of red Mansions unfinished and unfinished.--[[User:Li Xinxing|Li Xinxing]] ([[User talk:Li Xinxing|talk]]) 08:59, 9 November 2021 (UTC)

The complexity of the version of a ''dream of Red Mansions'' forces us to choose. The creation and spread of a ''dream of Red Mansions'' can be divided into four stages: one is the creation stage of Cao Xueqin. Although Cao Xueqin claimed to "read for ten years, add and delete five times", in fact, due to his death, only one unfinished and undecided version of a dream of Red Mansions was left.--[[User:Li Yi|Li Yi]] ([[User talk:Li Yi|talk]]) 14:16, 9 November 2021 (UTC)

==李怡 Lǐ Yí 法语语言文学女 202120081504==
他只完成了八十回，约相当于全书的三分之二。他不仅未对这八十回的书稿进行修订润色，而且还有不少待补的缺文。以“红学家”认为最好的版本“庚辰本”为例：第十七、十八两回合用一套回目，第十九回没有回目；第二十二回写荣国府作灯谜游戏，“此回未成而芹逝矣”(脂砚斋批语)，以至不仅缺了主要人物贾宝玉、林黛玉和史湘云的灯谜，而且本回还有不少其他缺文；如此等等。
He completed only eighty times, about two-thirds of the book. Not only did he leave the eighty drafts unrevised, but there was still much to be done. To the researcher of a dream of Red Mansions that the best version of the "gengchen Ben" as an example: the 17th, 18th round with a set of return, the 19th back no return; The twenty-second time to write rongguo Mansion for lantern riddle game, the chapter is unfinished but Cao Xueqin is dead (the ink stone lent comments), so that not only the lack of lantern riddles of the main characters Precious Jade Merchant , Mascara Jade Forest and Fragrant-cloud History, and this time there are many other lack of text; And so on.--[[User:Li Yi|Li Yi]] ([[User talk:Li Yi|talk]]) 05:26, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

He completed only eighty chapters, about two-thirds of the whole book. Not only did he leave the eighty drafts unrevised and unpolished, but there was still much missing pages to be filled. Take the “Gengchen Version” as an example, which was considered the best version by Redology scholars, the 17th, 18th chapters kept the same content and the 19th had no content; The chapter 22, which was about Rongguo Mansion' lantern riddle game, was unfinished before Cao Xueqin passed away. (comments from the Ink Stone Lent), so that there was not only a lack of lantern riddles of the main characters Precious Jade Merchant, Mascara Jade Forest and Fragrant-cloud History, but also many other contents, and so on.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 06:53, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==刘沛婷 Liú Pèitíng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081505==
其二是曹雪芹《红楼梦》八十回本的传抄阶段，其间大约近三十年。由于抄书速度很慢，《红楼梦》的篇幅又很长，要想在短时间内抄完一部，需集多人之手。故多为达官显宦之家雇佣抄手，集体完成。

The second lay in the transmission and copying stage of 80 chapters of Cao Xueqin's ''A Dream of Red Mansions'', which lasted about 30 years. Due to the slow speed of copying and the long length of the novel, it required cooperation in order to scribe it done in a short time. Therefore it was the noble officials anddignitaries who often hired scribes to do the task together.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 06:39, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

The second stage is the transmission and copying of 80 chapters of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' written by Cao Xueqin, which lasted about 30 years. Due to the slow speed of copying and the long length of the novel, it required cooperation in order to finish it in a short time. Therefore it was the noble officials and dignitaries who often hired scribes to do the task together.--[[User:Liu Shengnan|Liu Shengnan]] ([[User talk:Liu Shengnan|talk]]) 05:33, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==刘胜楠 Liú Shèngnán 翻译学女 202120081506==
又因它是一部未完稿和未定稿，抄手便自觉或不自觉地加以增删修改；而抄手大多水平不高，且良莠不齐，鲁鱼亥豕，在所难免。从而导致大量异文乃至讹误的产生。其三是高鹗和程伟元续写后四十回并对全书进行修订和刊行的阶段。

And because it was an unfinished and undecided manuscript, the scribes consciously or unconsciously added, deleted and modified it. Most scribes lacked skills and the level of copying varied in quality. Accordingly, it was inevitable that clerical errors occurred, which led to a large number of variant versions of the book and even misinterpretations in the text. The third was the stage when Gao E and Cheng Weiyuan wrote a continuation of 40 chapters for ''A Dream in Red Mansions'', revised and published the whole book.--[[User:Liu Shengnan|Liu Shengnan]] ([[User talk:Liu Shengnan|talk]]) 13:29, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

And because it was an unfinished and undecided manuscript, the copywriters consciously or unconsciously added, deleted or modified it; Because most copywriters lacked skills and their level of copying varied in quality.so it was inevitable that led to a large number of different texts and even errors in the text. The third was the stage when Gao E and Cheng Weiyuan continued to write the last 40 chapters of ''A Dream in Red Mansions'',revised and published the whole book. --[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 03:47, 7 November 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

==刘薇 Liú Wēi 国别女 202120081507==
其间又可分为四段：首先由程伟元对各种《红楼梦》抄本加以搜集(其中可能包括无名氏续写的书稿)；其次由高鹗续写后四十回，并对前八十回进行大量修订(程伟元也可能参与了修订工作)；又次由程伟元于乾隆五十六年（公元1791年）用活字排印出版一百二十回本，后来被胡适先生命名为“程甲本”；次年由高鹗和程伟元对“程甲本”加以修订再版，后来又被胡适先生命名为“程乙本”。据说还有“程丙本”，如今已经不知下落，据个别看过的人说，较之“程乙本”改动甚少，因而可以置之不论。

It can be divided into four periods: firstly, Cheng Weiyuan collected various transcripts of ''A Dream of Red Mansions ''(including the manuscripts of a sequel written by anonymous authors); Secondly, Gao E continued to write the last 40 chapters and made a lot of revisions to the first 80 chapters (Cheng Weiyuan may also had participated in the revision work); thirdly, another 120 copies were printed and published by Cheng Weiyuan in movable type in the 56th year of the emperor of Qianlong (AD 1791), which was later named "Cheng Jiaben" by Mr. Hu Shi;Lastly, in the following year, Gao E and Cheng Weiyuan revised and republished the "Cheng Jia Ben", which was later named "Cheng Yi Ben" by Mr. Hu Shi. It is said that there is also "Cheng bing ben", which is unknown now. According to someone who have seen it, there are few changes compared with "Cheng yiben", so it can be set aside. --[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 03:22, 7 November 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

It can be divided into four stages: in the first stage, Cheng Weiyuan collected all kinds of transcripts of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' (including the manuscripts of a sequel written by unknown authors); Secondly, Gao E continued the last 40 chapters and made a lot of revisions to the first 80 ones (Cheng Weiyuan may also had participated in the revision work); thirdly, another 120 copies were printed and published by Cheng Weiyuan in movable type in the 56th year under the reign of the emperor Qianlong (AD 1791), which were later named "Cheng Jia (the first) Editions" by Hu Shi; Lastly, in the following year, Gao E and Cheng Weiyuan revised and republished the "Cheng Jia Edition", which was later named "Cheng Yi (the second) Edition" by Hu Shi. It is said that there was also "Cheng Bing (the third) Edition", which now has no whereabouts. According to someone who had once read it, compared with "Cheng Yi Edition", there were so few changes that it could be set aside.--[[User:Liu Xiao|Liu Xiao]] ([[User talk:Liu Xiao|talk]]) 15:11, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==刘晓 Liú Xiǎo 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081508==
其四是《红楼梦》刊本的流传阶段。此段从程伟元的活字本问世开始，直到现在。在刊本出现后，虽然由于某些人的爱好或习惯，仍有抄本流传，但已是强弩之末，不成气候，而刊本的流传却如燎原之势，席卷全国。

The fourth period is the circulation of the printed versions of ''a Dream of Red Mansions''. This stage has been going on since Cheng Weiyuan's movable printed editions were published. After these versions appeared, though transcripts were still spreading due to some people's hobbies or habits, it was like a spent arrow and no longer had great influence, while the printed versions spread and swept like fire through the country.--[[User:Liu Xiao|Liu Xiao]] ([[User talk:Liu Xiao|talk]]) 14:22, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

The fourth period is the circulation of the printed versions of ''a Dream of Red Mansions''. This stage start from cheng Weiyuan's movable type book came out and until now. After the publication appeared, although due to some people's hobbies or habits, it was like a spent arrow and no longer had great influence, while the printed versions spread and swept like fire through the country.--[[User:Liu Yue|Liu Yue]] ([[User talk:Liu Yue|talk]]) 07:00, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==刘越 Liú Yuè 亚非语言文学女 202120081509==
《红楼梦》如此特殊的创作和流传过程，导致了《红楼梦》的“三多”现象：版本多，异文多，讹误多。幸运的是，近几十年来，这些版本不仅不断被发现，而且陆续被影印出版，从而使我们得以大饱眼福。仅就我个人视野所及，即有十二种版本，而且五花八门：或名《石头记》(5种)，或名《红楼梦》(7种)；或为抄本(10种)，或为刊本(2种)；或为八十回系统(8种，其中6种为残本)，或为一百二十回系统(4种)。

The special creation and dissemination process of A Dream of Red Mansions leads to the phenomenon of "three many" : many versions, many different texts and many errors. Fortunately, in recent decades, these editions have not only been discovered, but photocopied and published, so that we can feast our eyes on them. As far as I can see, there are twelve versions, and they are diverse，named as "The Story of the Stone" (five versions) or "A Dream of Red Mansions" (seven versions). Some are codex (10 kinds) and some are periodical (2 kinds); Some are 80 chapter system (8 types, 6 of which are incomplete) and some are 120 chapter system (4 types).--[[User:Liu Yue|Liu Yue]] ([[User talk:Liu Yue|talk]]) 06:53, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

The special creation and dissemination process of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' led to a phenomenon called "three many": many editions, many variants and many errors. Fortunately, in recent decades, these editions have not only been discovered, but successively photocopied and published, which greatly regale us. As far as I know, there are twelve editions in great diversity. Some are titled ''The Story of the Stone'' (five editions), or ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' (seven editions); some are hand-copied (10 editions), while some printed (8 including 6 incomplete editions); some are composed of 80 chapters, while some others 120 chapters.--[[User:Liu Yunxin|Liu Yunxin]] ([[User talk:Liu Yunxin|talk]]) 13:17, 13 November 2021 (UTC)

==刘运心 Liú Yùnxīn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081510==
《红楼梦》的众多版本，对于研究者是极有价值的，它们可以帮助研究者分析《红楼梦》的创作过程和流传过程，并进行比较研究。但对于普通读者来说，如此眼花缭乱的版本，犹如坠入五里雾中，使他们无从选择。因此《红楼梦》的研究者有义务为他们提供一个最好的版本。

The various versions of ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' have enormous value to researchers. They can be helpful to researchers in analyzing the processes of creation and dissemination, and facilitating comparative studies. However, for common readers, such a dazzling array of versions might leave them with a foggy head and unable to decide. Therefore, researchers are obliged to offer the best version. --[[User:Liu Yunxin|Liu Yunxin]] ([[User talk:Liu Yunxin|talk]]) 06:09, 10 November 2021 (UTC)
The various versions of ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' are valuable to researchers, which can helpful to them in analyzing the processes of creation and dissemination of the book, as well as working on comparative studies. However, it would be confusing and indeterminable for the general readers when facing with such a dazzling array of versions. It’ s therefore incumbent upon researchers to offer the best version.
--[[User:Luo Anyi|Luo Anyi]] ([[User talk:Luo Anyi|talk]]) 14:32, 14 November 2021 (UTC)

==罗安怡 Luó Ānyí 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081511==
况且为了很好地保存这笔珍贵的文化遗产，也必须确立一种《红楼梦》的最好版本。那么哪一种版本是《红楼梦》的最好版本呢？答案就是“程乙本”。鉴于至今仍有“红学家”对高鹗续写的《红楼梦》后四十回既持否定态度，又在出版《红楼梦》时不得不用它与曹雪芹的前八十回相配为完整的一百二十回本，我在这里必须首先对高续后四十回的价值略作说明。

Moreover, in order to preserve this precious cultural heritage, it is also necessary to establish the best version of ''Dream of the Red Chamber''. So which is the best version? The answer is "Cheng Yi Ben". Since, when publishing ''Dream of the Red Chamber'', there are still "Redologists" who have a negative attitude towards Gao E 's subsequent writing of the later forty chapters of ''Dream of the Red Chamber'', and who had to use Gao‘ s creation in conjunction with Cao Xueqin's first eighty chapters as the complete one—hundred and twenty chapters, I must first give a brief explanation of the value of Gao's continuation of the later forty chapters.--[[User:Luo Anyi|Luo Anyi]] ([[User talk:Luo Anyi|talk]]) 07:18, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

Moreover，it is also necessary to establish the best version of ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' to preserve this precious cultural heritage.So which one is the best version of it？The answer is "Cheng Yi Ben".Since there is still opposition against the forty chapters wrote by Gao E，the “master of the Dream of the Red Chamber，while it is a must to combine them and the eighty chapters wrote by Cao Xueqin to form an integral book which has one hundred and twenty chapters，I must briefly introduce the value of the forty chapters wrote by Gao E--[[User:Luo Xi|Luo Xi]] ([[User talk:Luo Xi|talk]]) 08:46, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==罗曦 Luó Xī 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081512==
率先冲破评点派和索隐派而从中国小说发展史的角度客观评价高鹗续书的是胡适先生。他在1921年11月12日定稿的《〈红楼梦〉考证》（见1923年亚东图书馆版《胡适文存》）中说：我们平心而论，高鹗补的四十回，虽然比不上前八十回，也确然有不可埋没的好处。他写司棋之死，写鸳鸯之死，写妙玉的遭遇，写凤姐的死，写袭人的嫁，都是很有精采的小品文字。
The man who first transcend the groups of criticizing and objectively comment the continuation of Gao E from the perspective of the history of the development of Chinese novels is Hu Shi.He said in his 《Test of the Dream of the red mansions》finalised in 1921，12th November that：“To be honest，Gao E’s supplementary forty chapters，though not comparable to the original eighty chapters，still boast their own outstanding merits.For instance，he wrote the death of Si Qi，of Yuan Yang，of Feng Jie，the encounter of Miao Yu and the marriage of Xi Ren，are all excellent facetious words.--[[User:Luo Xi|Luo Xi]] ([[User talk:Luo Xi|talk]]) 12:08, 9 November 2021 (UTC)

It was Mr. Hu Shi who firstly made a breakthrough between “Pingdian Group” and “Suoying Group” and objectively evaluated Gao E’s continuation from the perspective of Chinese novel’s history. In ''A Textual Research on A Dream of Red Mansions'' finalized on November 12, 1921 (''Hu Shi’s Article Archive'', Yadong Library Edition, 1923), he said, “To be fair, the following forty episodes written by Gao E certainly have undeniable charm although not as good as the previous eighty. He ended Siqi’s life with death, wrote about the death of Yuanyang, the suffering of Miaoyu, Sister Feng’s demise and the marriage of Xiren, all of which are really brilliant sketches. --[[User:Ma Xin|Ma Xin]] ([[User talk:Ma Xin|talk]]) 06:31, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

==马新 Mǎ Xīn 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081513==
最可注意的是这些人都写作悲剧的下场。还有那最重要的“木石前盟”一件公案，高鹗居然忍心害理的教黛玉病死，教宝玉出家，作一个大悲剧的结束，打破了中国小说的团圆迷信。这一点悲剧的眼光，不能不令人佩服。

It is noteworthy that all these people wrote about tragic endings, expecially th most important case of " Wood and Stone's Previous Oath". In the novel, Gao E auturally had the heart to leave Daiyu to die of illness and Baoyu to become a monk. He made it ended up as a great tragedy and broke the routine of "reunion superstition" in traditional Chinese novels, which could not be more admirable from the tragic perspective.--[[User:Ma Xin|Ma Xin]] ([[User talk:Ma Xin|talk]]) 05:00, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

It is most noteworthy that all these characters are created with tragic endings. And as regards the most important case --- "The Pledge in front of Wood and Stone", in the novel, the author Gao E actually ended Daiyu's life with death resulting from illness and left Baoyu (Precious Jade Merchant) to become a monk. Gao E finished ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' with a tragical epilogue so as to break the superstition that Chinese novels routinely end in happy reunion. In this sense, Gao E's tragic perspective deserves admiration and praise.--[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 08:09, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==毛雅文 Máo Yǎwén 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081514==
我们试看高鹗以后，那许多续《红楼梦》和补《红楼梦》的人，那一个不是想把黛玉、晴雯都从棺材里扶出来，重新配给宝玉？那一个不是想做一部“团圆”的《红楼梦》的？我们这里退一步想，就不能不佩服高鹗的补本了。我们不但佩服，还应该感谢他，因为他这部悲剧的补本……居然打倒了后来无数的团圆《红楼梦》，居然替中国保存了一部有悲剧下场的小说！

As we can see, after Gao E finished ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' (which was left unfinished by the previous author Cao Xueqin), many of those who wrote this work continually or supplementarily were all eager to save Lin Daiyu and Qing Wen (or Sunny Cloud Formation), who died and lay in coffin, and then to betroth them to Jia Baoyu (or Precious Jade Merchant). And these writers all had the desire to end the story in a warm reunion. On second thought, we cannot but have a high opinion of Gao E's supplementary version ''A Dream of Red Mansions''. Arguably, not only should we admire but show gratitude for him, on the grounds that, his edition packed with tragic color is unexpectedly more laudatory than those with happy endings, actually preserving a novel with the tragical epilogue in China.--[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 07:35, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

As we can see, after Gao E finished ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' (which was left unfinished by the previous author Cao Xueqin), many of those who wrote this work continually or supplementarily were all eager to save Lin Daiyu and Qing Wen (or Sunny Cloud Formation), who died and lay in coffin, and then to betroth them to Jia Baoyu (or Precious Jade Merchant). Which writer did not want to create "A Dream of the Red mansion" with a reunion ending? On second thought, we cannot but have a high opinion of Gao E's supplementary version ''A Dream of Red Mansions''. Arguably, not only should we admire but show gratitude for him, on the grounds that, his edition packed with tragic color is unexpectedly more laudatory than those with happy endings, actually preserving a novel with the tragical epilogue in China.--[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 12:33, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==毛优 Máo Yōu 俄语语言文学女 202120081515==
几乎与胡适同时，俞平伯先生也对高鹗的续书予以专章论述。他在1923年亚东图书馆出版的《红楼梦辨·论续书底不可能》中说：从高鹗以下，百馀年来，续《红楼梦》的人如此之多，但都是失败的……我以为凡书都不能续，不但《红楼梦》不能续；凡续书的人都失败，不但高鹗诸人失败而已。
Almost at the same time as Hu Shi, Mr. Yu Pingbo also devoted a chapter to the continuation of Gao E's book. He said in the "A Dream of the Red Mansion - the impossibility of the continuation of the book" published by the Yadong Library in 1923: From Gao E down, more than a hundred years, so many people have renewed the "A Dream of the Red Mansion", but they all failed ...... I think all books can not be renewed, not only the "A Dream of the Red Mansion" can not be renewed; all the people who renewed the book failed, not only Gao E and others failed.--[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 12:27, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

Almost at the same time as Hu Shi, Mr. Yu Pingbo also devoted a comment chapter to the continuation of Gao E. He said in the "A Dream of the Red Mansion - the impossibility of the continuation of the book" published by the Yadong Library in 1923: Since Gao E, more than a hundred years, so many people have renewed the "A Dream of the Red Mansion", but they all failed ... I think all books can not be renewed, not only the "A Dream of the Red Mansion" is in the case; all the people who renewed books failed, not only Gao E and others did.--[[User:Mou Yixin|Mou Yixin]] ([[User talk:Mou Yixin|talk]]) 01:43, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==牟一心 Móu Yīxīn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081516==
因此他的结论是：高鹗诸人续写的《红楼梦》都是“狗尾续貂”。俞先生“凡书都不能续”、“凡续书的人都失败”的说法未免武断，至少措辞不够严谨。事实上，成功的续书并非没有，只是不多。

Therefore, his conclusion is: The continuations of "The Dream of Red Mansions" written by the Gao E and others are all "wretched sequels to a masterpiece." Mr. Yu’s statement that “every book cannot be continued” and “everyone who renews a book fails” is a bit too arbitrary, at least the wording is not rigorous enough. In fact, successful continuations do exist, but are not substantial.--[[User:Mou Yixin|Mou Yixin]] ([[User talk:Mou Yixin|talk]]) 01:29, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

He therefore concludes that the sequels to Dream of the Red Chamber written by the Gao Ospreys are all "dog tails on a marten", which means a wretched sequels to a masterpiece. Mr. Yu's statement that "all books cannot be renewed" and "all those who renew books will fail" is arbitrary, or at least not carefully worded. In fact, successful continuations do exist, but are not substantial.--[[User:Peng Ruixue|Peng Ruixue]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruixue|talk]]) 23:35, 9 November 2021 (UTC)

==彭瑞雪 Péng Ruìxuě 法语语言文学女 202120081517==
且不说成功的学术著作不乏范例，就是小说作品的续书也有成功的。譬如清代陈忱的《水浒后传》、近代吴趼人的《新石头记》，就都是别开生面之作。不过俞先生毕竟是严肃的学者，尽管他对高鹗的续书很不满意，却对高鹗的功绩予以肯定。

Not to mention that there is no shortage of examples of successful scholarly works, there are also successful sequels to works of fiction. For example, Chen Chen's ''The Afterlife of Water Margin'' in the Qing dynasty and Wu Jianren's ''The New Story of the Stone'' in the modern era are both original works. But Mr. Yu, after all, was a serious scholar, and although he was dissatisfied with Gao E's sequel, he acknowledged Gao's merits.--[[User:Peng Ruixue|Peng Ruixue]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruixue|talk]]) 23:25, 9 November 2021 (UTC)

Not to mention that there is no shortage of successful examples of scholarly works, there are also successes in sequels to works of fiction. For example, Chen Chen's ''The Afterlife of Water Margin'' in the Qing dynasty and Wu Jianren's ''The New Story of the Stone'' in the modern era are both original works in new forms. But Mr. Yu, after all, was a serious scholar, and although he was dissatisfied with Gao E's sequel, he acknowledged Gao's merits.--[[User:Qing Jianan|Qing Jianan]] ([[User talk:Qing Jianan|talk]]) 09:06, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==秦建安 Qín Jiànān 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081518==
他在《红楼梦辨·后四十回底批评》中说：高鹗以审慎的心思，正当的态度来续《红楼梦》；他宁可失之于拘泥，不敢失之于杜撰。其所以失败：一则因《红楼梦》本非可以续补的书，二则因高鹗与曹雪芹个性相差太远，便不自觉地相违远了。处处去追寻作者，而始终赶他不上，以致迷途；这是他失败时底光景。

He said in the ''Defense of The Dream of Red Mansion: the criticism of the last forty chapters'': “GaoE continued writing The Dream of Red Mansion with his prudent intention and serious attitude; He would rather make it up than adhere to it. There are two reasons for the failure of his version. The first is that the book itself is not a book that can be continued writing. The other is GaoE’ s character is different far from Cao Xueqin’sw which naturally lead to his misconception about this book. He tried his best to catch the main points of Cao Xueqin whereas he even couldn’t see the back of Cao Xueqin resulting in the wrong path. This is his background of failure.--[[User:Qing Jianan|Qing Jianan]] ([[User talk:Qing Jianan|talk]]) 08:11, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

He said in the '' Defense of A Dream of Red Mansions: the criticism of the last forty chapters '': “Gao E continued writing '' A Dream of Red Mansions '' with his prudent intention and serious attitude; He would rather rigidly adhere to the content than fabricate some details. There are two reasons for the failure of his version. The first is that this novel itself is not the one that can be continued writing. The other is that Gao E’ s character is different far from Cao Xueqin’s which naturally lead to very distinct characteristics in this novel. He tried his best to catch the main points of Cao Xueqin whereas he even couldn’t see the back of Cao Xueqin resulting in the wrong path. This is the reason of his failure.--[[User:Qiu Tingting|Qiu Tingting]] ([[User talk:Qiu Tingting|talk]]) 13:28, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==邱婷婷 Qiū Tíngtíng 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081519==
至于混四十回于八十回中，就事论事，是一种过失；就效用影响而论，是一种功德；混合而论是功多罪少。“失败了，光荣地失败了！”是我对于高鹗底赞扬和指斥。俞先生在晚年对高鹗的续书给予更多的肯定，认为高鹗的续书使残缺的《红楼梦》成为完璧，是一大功劳。

As for adding forty chapters to the original eighty chapters, sticking to the facts, it is actually a demerit. However, it can be a kind of merits and virtues in terms of utility effect. With regarding to several aspects, and his merits can more than wipe out his faults. “Failed, gloriously failed!”It's my praise and rebuke to Gao E. In the later years of Mr. Yu, he gave more recognition to Gao E’sequel, believing that Gao E’ sequel made the fragmentary ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' a complete story which was a great credit.--[[User:Qiu Tingting|Qiu Tingting]] ([[User talk:Qiu Tingting|talk]]) 13:25, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

As for mixing the forty chapters to the original eighty chapters, actually it is a kind of negligence in terms of facts; in terms of effectiveness and influence, it is a kind of merit; in terms of mixing, it is more meritorious and less sinful. "Failed, failed gloriously!" I praised and reprimanded Gao E. In his later years, Mr. Yu gave more affirmation to Gao E’s sequel, and believed that Gao E’ s sequel made the incomplete ''Dream of Red Mansions'' a great achievement.--[[User:Rao Jinying|Rao Jinying]] ([[User talk:Rao Jinying|talk]]) 05:16, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

==饶金盈 Ráo Jīnyíng 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081520==
鲁迅先生也对高鹗的续书予以肯定，只是对书末贾府的“复振”表示遗憾。他在《中国小说史略》（1923、1924年由北京大学新潮社分上下册出版，1925年由北京北新书局合为一册出版）第二十四篇中说：后四十回虽数量止初本之半，而大故迭起，破败死亡相继，与所谓“食尽鸟飞独存白地”者颇符，惟结束又复振。

Lu Xun also gave a approval to the sequel of the book by Gao E, but regretted the “revitalization” part of Jias at the end of the book. He claimed in Chapter 24 of ''Chinese Novel Outline History''(In 1923 and 1924, published in two volumes by the New Trend Union of Peking University, and in 1925, published in one volume by Beixin Publishing House in Beijing) that although the latter forty chapters is only half of the original version in quantity, there are great changes, ups and downs, and dilapidated deaths one after another, which is very consistent with the so-called “eating all birds and flying alone in the white land”, but it ends and vibrates again.
--[[User:Rao Jinying|Rao Jinying]] ([[User talk:Rao Jinying|talk]]) 09:14, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

Lu Xun also affirmed Gao E’s sequel, and just expressed regret for the “revitalization” of Jia’s mansion at the end of the book. He claimed in chapter 24 of Chinese Novel Outline History(In 1923 and 1924, published in two volumes by the New Trend Union of Peking University, and in 1925, published in one volume by Beixin Publishing House in Beijing) that although the last forty chapters are only half of the original version in quantity, events occurred constantly and loss and death were in succession, which was quite consistent with the statement “birds ate and flew, then left the bleak place”. But it was a pity that the sequel ended in revitalization. --[[User:Shi Liqing|Shi Liqing]] ([[User talk:Shi Liqing|talk]]) 00:58, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==石丽青 Shí Lìqīng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081521==
以上三位权威学者对高鹗续书的评价不尽相同，但有两点共识：高鹗的后四十回逊于曹雪芹的前八十回，但他完成了曹雪芹的未竟之业，使残缺的《红楼梦》成为完璧；尤其打破了中国传统小说的“团圆迷信”，使《红楼梦》成为中国小说史上首部悲剧小说，这在中国小说发展史上是一个伟大创举。我认为三位先生的这两点共识是客观公正的，是高见卓识。

The above three authoritative scholars hold various comments on Gao E’s sequel, but sharing two points of consensus. One the one hand, Gao E’s last forty chapters are inferior to Cao Xueqin’s first eighty counterparts, but he has completed Cao’s unfinished work, rendering A Dream in Red Mansions perfect. On the other hand, in particular, Gao E breaks the routine of “reunion superstition”in traditional Chinese novels and makes A Dream in Red Mansions the first tragic writing in the past records of Chinese novels, which is a great pioneering work in the history of Chinese novel development. As far as I am concerned, these two points proposed by the three respected scholars are objective, fair and insightful. --[[User:Shi Liqing|Shi Liqing]] ([[User talk:Shi Liqing|talk]]) 14:23, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

The above three authoritative scholars hold various comments on Gao E’s sequel, but sharing two points of consensus. One the one hand, Gao E’s last forty chapters are inferior to Cao Xueqin’s first eighty counterparts, but he has completed Cao’s unfinished work, rendering the incomplete ''A Dream in Red Mansions'' complete. On the other hand, in particular, Gao E breaks the routine of “reunion superstition”in traditional Chinese novels and makes ''A Dream in Red Mansions'' become the first tragic writing in the past records of Chinese novels, which is a great pioneering work in the history of Chinese novel development. As far as I am concerned, these two points proposed by the three respected scholars are objective, fair and insightful.--[[User:Sun Yashi|Sun Yashi]] ([[User talk:Sun Yashi|talk]]) 06:49, 9 November 2021 (UTC)

==孙雅诗 Sūn Yǎshī 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081522==
晚近的某些“新红学家”尽管对高鹗大加挞伐，却无法推翻三位先生的这两点共识；最多只能进一步证明高鹗的续书比不上曹雪芹的原作，而不能抹煞高鹗续书的这两大功绩。我们可以设想，如果没有高鹗的续书，只能有两种结果：一是我们只能看到一部残缺不全的《红楼梦》，犹如只能欣赏一只断尾巴的孔雀；二是我们只能看到《红楼复梦》、《红楼圆梦》之类下三流续作，使《红楼梦》跳不出“团圆”小说的窠臼。

Although some recent "new Redologists" criticized Gao E drastically, they could not overturn the consensus of the three gentlemen; at most, they could only further prove that Gao E's sequel is not comparable to Cao Xueqin's original, rather than erase the two achievements of Gao E's renewal. We can imagine that if we have no Gao E's sequel, there can only be two results: one is that we can only see an incomplete ''A Dream of Red Mansions'', like only enjoying a peacock with a broken tail, the other is that we can only see ''A Dream of Red Mansions Again'', ''A Dream of Red Mansions Reunion'' and other renewals that are third-classs, which makes ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' cannot jump out of the mold of "reunion" novel.--[[User:Sun Yashi|Sun Yashi]] ([[User talk:Sun Yashi|talk]]) 06:45, 9 November 2021 (UTC)
--[[User:Mahzad Heydarian|Mahzad Heydarian]] ([[User talk:Mahzad Heydarian|talk]]) 16:25, 9 November 2021 (UTC)

Although some recent “new Redologists” criticized Gao E drastically, they could not overturn the two consensuses of the three gentlemen; they could only further prove that Gao E's sequel is not comparable to Cao Xueqin's original, rather than obliterate the two achievements of Gao E's continuation. We can imagine that, without Gao E's sequel, there would be only two results: one is that we could only see an incomplete ''A Dream of Red Mansions'', as if we could only appreciate a peacock with a broken tail, the other is that we can only see such third-rate sequels like ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' Again, ''A Dream of Red Mansions Reunion'', making ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' cannot jump out of the set pattern of "reunion" novel. --[[User:Wang Lifei|Wang Lifei]] ([[User talk:Wang Lifei|talk]]) 06:17, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==王李菲 Wáng Lǐfēi 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081523==
因此，不仅我们应该感谢高鹗，如果曹雪芹地下有知，也会视高鹗为知己。胡适等三位先生论证了高鹗的两大功绩，就等于完全肯定了完整的一百二十回的《红楼梦》。但完整的《红楼梦》有两种版本，即“程甲本”和“程乙本”，两者的出版时间仅隔一年左右。

Therefore, not only should we be grateful to Gao E, if Cao Xueqin was alive and knew about it, he would also regard Gao E as a confidant. Hu Shi and other three gentlemen demonstrated Gao E’s three achievements, which was equivalent to confirming the complete 120 chapters of a Dream of Red Mansions. However, there are two versions of the complete work, namely the “Cheng A edition” and “Cheng B edition”, whose publishing interval was only about one year. --[[User:Wang Lifei|Wang Lifei]] ([[User talk:Wang Lifei|talk]]) 15:35, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

Hu Shi and other three gentlemen demonstrated gao e's two great achievements, which is equivalent to confirming the complete 120 chapters of a Dream of Red Mansions. However, there are two versions of the complete work, namely the "Cheng Jiabo edition" and "Cheng Yibo edition", which were published only about a year apart.--[[User:Wang Yifan21|Wang Yifan21]] ([[User talk:Wang Yifan21|talk]]) 05:17, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

==王逸凡 Wáng Yìfán 亚非语言文学女 202120081524==
这两种版本究竟哪一种更好呢？当然是“程乙本”，因为它是高鹗对“程甲本”精心修订的定稿本。程伟元和高鹗在“程乙本”《〈红楼梦〉引言》中说：因急欲公诸同好，故初印时不及细校，间有纰缪。今复聚集各原本，详加校阅，改订无讹。

Which of these two versions is better? Of course, it is "Cheng B", because it is gao e to "Cheng A" carefully revised final version. Cheng Weiyuan and Gao E said in "Cheng Yiben" "DREAM of Red Mansions" introduction: Due to the urgent desire for public relations, the initial printing was not corrected in detail, and there were mistakes. This complex gathered the original, detailed review, change without error.--[[User:Wang Yifan21|Wang Yifan21]] ([[User talk:Wang Yifan21|talk]]) 05:12, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

Which version is better? Of course, it is "Cheng Yi", because it is gao e to "Cheng Jia" carefully revised final version. Cheng Weiyuan and Gao E said in "Cheng Yi" "DREAM of Red Mansions" introduction: Due to the urgent desire for public relations, the initial printing was not corrected in detail, and there were mistakes. This complex gathered the original, detailed review, change without error.--[[User:Wang Zhenlong|Wang Zhenlong]] ([[User talk:Wang Zhenlong|talk]]) 12:36, 22 November 2021 (UTC)

==王镇隆 Wáng Zhènlóng 英语语言文学（英美文学）男 202120081525==
惟阅者谅之。这就是说，高鹗续写后四十回并修订曹雪芹的前八十回时，“因急欲公诸同好”，未能像曹雪芹那样“批阅十载，增删五次”，而是匆促而成，在排印过程中又没有仔细校对，以致“纰缪”难免，因而立即加以修订再版，从而产生了“程乙本”。可见“程乙本”是对“程甲本”的“纰缪”加以修订的本子，自然胜于“程甲本”了。

Only those who read it will forgive it. That is to say, when Gao E continued to write the last 40 chapters and revised Cao Xueqin's first 80 chapters, "because he was anxious to be good to the public", he failed to "review for ten years, add and delete five times" as Cao Xueqin did.Hurriedly,he did not proofread carefully in the process of typesetting, so that "mistakes" were inevitable.Therefore, he immediately revised and reprinted it, resulting in "the version of Cheng Yi". It can be seen that "the version of Cheng Yi" is a book to revise the "mistakes" of "the version of Cheng Jia", which is naturally better than "the version of Cheng Jia".--[[User:Wang Zhenlong|Wang Zhenlong]] ([[User talk:Wang Zhenlong|talk]]) 02:57, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

Only readers will forgive it. That is to say, when Gao E continued to write the last 40 chapters and revised Cao Xueqin's first 80 chapters, he was anxious to share it with the public, so he failed to review for ten years, add and delete five times as Cao Xueqin did.He hurried to finish it, not proofreading carefully in the process of typesetting, so mistakes were inevitable. Therefore, \ he immediately revised and reprinted another verison, resulting in appearing "Cheng Yi (the second) Edition". It can be seen that " Cheng Yi" is a book to revise the "mistakes" of "Cheng Jia (the first) Edition", which is naturally better than "Cheng Jia".--[[User:Wei Yiwen|Wei Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Wei Yiwen|talk]]) 07:43, 13 November 2021 (UTC)

==卫怡雯 Wèi Yíwén 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081526==
然而由于出版商不加细较，以为初刊本更为可靠，以致在相当一段时间内，翻印的“程甲本”曾大行其道。直到1927年，胡适先生因亚东图书馆老板汪元放先生点校并出版过“程甲本”，便将自己珍藏的“程乙本”推荐给汪先生。汪先生便将“程乙本”与“程甲本”加以仔细对勘，并加上新式标点，予以出版。

However, the publisher did not go into details, and believed that the first edition was more reliable. So in a fairly long period, the translated and printed “Cheng Jia (the first) Edition” became popular. Until 1927, Mr. Hushi recommended his treasured collection of “Cheng Yi (the second) Edition” to the owner of Yadong Library, Mr. Wang Yuanfang after he heard that Mr. Wang had punctuated, proofead and published“Cheng Jia (the first) Edition”. Then Mr. Wang checked against another between “Cheng Jia” and “Cheng Yi” , added the new punctuation and published it.--[[User:Wei Yiwen|Wei Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Wei Yiwen|talk]]) 03:17, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

However, the publisher did not proofread carefully and believed that the first edition was more reliable. So in a fairly long period, the printed “Chengjia Edition” became popular. Until 1927, Mr. Hushi recommended his treasured collection of “Chengyi Edition” to Mr. Wang Yuanfang who was the owner of Yadong Library because Mr. Wang once proofread and published “Chengjia Edition”. Then Mr. Wang contrasted “Chengjia Edition” with “Chengyi Edition” in detail and decided to add the new-style punctuations to the latter and publish it.--[[User:Wei Chuxuan|Wei Chuxuan]] ([[User talk:Wei Chuxuan|talk]]) 11:00, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

==魏楚璇 Wèi Chǔxuán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081527==
胡适先生并为该书写了《重印乾隆壬子本〈红楼梦〉序》。他在《序》文中说：现在印出的程乙本，就是那“聚集各原本，详加校阅，改订无讹”的本子，可说是高鹗、程伟元合刻的定本。这个改本有许多改订修正之处，胜于程甲本。

Mr.Hushi wrote "A Preface for the Re-printed Qianlong Renzi Edition of ''A Dream in Red Mansions''" for this book. In the preface, he said that the newly-printed Chengyi edition which was revised carefully by referring to all kinds of original editions to make sure no incorrect information in it, was the final edition made by Gao E and Cheng Weiyuan. This edition had many corrections so it was better than the Chengjia edition. --[[User:Wei Chuxuan|Wei Chuxuan]] ([[User talk:Wei Chuxuan|talk]]) 08:47, 11 November 2021 (UTC)

Mr.Hushi has written ''A Preface for the Re-printed Qianlong Renzi Version of "''A Dream in Red Mansions''"'' for this book. In this preface, he said that the current printed Chengyi edition was the final edition made by Gao E and Cheng Weiyuan which was revised carefully by gathering all kinds of original editions to make sure no incorrect information was in it. This edition had many corrections so it was much better than the Chengjia edition.--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 06:58, 23 November 2021 (UTC)

==魏兆妍 Wèi Zhàoyán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081528==
但这个本子发行在后，程甲本已有人翻刻了；初本的一些矛盾错误仍旧留在现行各本里，虽经各家批注里指出，终没有人敢改正。胡适先生并举了三个例子，以证明“程乙本”胜于“程甲本”。由此可知，胡适先生不仅是第一个发现并公开指出“程乙本”胜于“程甲本”的人，而且推荐并贡献出了自己珍藏的“程乙本”初刊本，为“程乙本”后来的广泛流行起了决定性的作用。

But after the release of this edition, Cheng Jia edition has already been reprinted. Some contradictions and errors from the original edition still remained in the current edition. Although many literary masters has pointed out these mistakes in their annotations, no one eventually dared to correct them. And Mr. Hu Shi gave three examples to prove that Cheng Yi edition was better than Cheng Jia edition. So it can be seen that he was not only the first to discover and publicly pointed out this, but also recommended and contributed the original Cheng Yi edition of his own treasure, which played a decisive role in the wide popularity of this edition.--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 00:55, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

But after the release of this edition, Cheng Jia edition has already been reprinted. Some contradictions and errors of the original edition still remained in the current edition. Although many literary masters had pointed out these mistakes in their annotations, but no one eventually dared to correct them. And Mr. Hu Shi gave three examples to prove that Cheng Yi edition was better than Cheng Jia edition. So it can be seen that he was not only the first to discover and publicly pointed out this, but also recommended and contributed the original Cheng Yi edition of his own treasure, and that played a decisive role in the wide popularity of its edition.--[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 06:19, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==吴婧悦 Wú Jìngyuè 俄语语言文学女 202120081529==
汪原放先生也没有辜负胡适先生的重托，不仅出版了“程乙本”，而且对两个“程本”加以仔细对勘，并用增删改动文字的统计数字与具体例子（详见下文），进一步证明了“程乙本”优于“程甲本”。由于胡适先生的学术威望和汪原放先生点校的“程乙本”面世，尤其是“程乙本”确实胜于“程甲本”，故此后书商大多舍弃了“程甲本”，竞相刊印“程乙本”，“程乙本”几乎一统天下。这种局面一直持续到上世纪五六十年代。

Mr.Wang Yuanfang also lived up to the great trust of Mr.Hu Shi. He not only published "Cheng Yiben", but also carefully surveyed the two "Cheng Yiben", and changed the statistics and specific examples (see below for details), further proving that "Cheng Yiben" was better than "Cheng Jiaben". Because Mr.Hu Shi's academic prestige and Mr.Wang Yuanfang's "Cheng Yiben" were published, especially "Cheng Yiben" was indeed better than "Cheng Jiaben", so most booksellers abandoned "Cheng Jiaben" and competed to print "Cheng Yiben", " Cheng Yiben " almost unified the whole world. The situation has been continuing until the 1950s and 1960s.--[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 14:48, 6 November 2021 (UTC)
Mr. Wang Yuanfang also lived up to Mr. Hu Shi's great trust. He not only published "Cheng Yi Ben", but also carefully surveyed the two "Cheng Ben", and further proved that "Cheng Yi Ben" was better than "Cheng Jia Ben" with statistics and specific examples of adding, deleting and changing words (see below for details). Due to the academic prestige of Mr. Hu Shi and the appearance of "Cheng Yi Ben" ordered by Mr. Wang Yuanfang, especially "Cheng Yi Ben" is indeed better than "Cheng Jia Ben", most booksellers abandoned "Cheng Jia Ben" and competed to publish "Cheng Yi Ben" and "Cheng Yi Ben" almost dominates the world. This situation lasted until the 1950s and 1960s.--[[User:Wu Yinghong|Wu Yinghong]] ([[User talk:Wu Yinghong|talk]]) 13:31, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==吴映红 Wú Yìnghóng 日语语言文学女 202120081530==
然而到了八十年代以后，“程乙本”一统天下的局面却被打破了，各种版本的《红楼梦》纷纷涌现，其中多为拼凑本，即前八十回采用抄本，后四十回则多采用高鹗作废了的“程甲本”，从而造成了《红楼梦》版本的混乱现象。这种混乱现象使本来已经解决了的《红楼梦》版本问题又重新出现纷争，也使普通读者陷入了不知如何选择《红楼梦》的境地。
However, after the 1980s, the situation of "Cheng Yi Ben" dominating the world was broken, and various versions of a dream of Red Mansions emerged one after another, most of which were piecemeal copies, that is, the transcripts of the first 80 chapters were used, and the "Cheng Jia Ben" cancelled by Gao e was used in the last 40 chapters, resulting in the confusion of the version of a dream of Red Mansions. This chaotic phenomenon makes the original version of a dream of Red Mansions once again controversial, and makes ordinary readers fall into the situation of not knowing how to choose a dream of Red Mansions.

However, after the 1980s, the dominating situation of "Cheng Yi version"was broken, and various versions of The Dream of Red Mansions emerged one after another, most of which were cobbled together, where the first eighty editions used the codified version, while the last forty editions mostly used Gao E's cancelled Cheng Jia version, thus causing confusion in the version of a Dream of Red Mansions.This kind of confusion makes the issue of the edition of a Dream of Red Mansions reappear, and also makes ordinary readers have no idea how to choose a Dream of Red Mansions.--[[User:Xiao Yiyao|Xiao Yiyao]] ([[User talk:Xiao Yiyao|talk]]) 06:27, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==肖毅瑶 Xiāo Yìyáo 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081531==
钱锺书先生虽然不研究《红楼梦》，但对《红楼梦》版本的混乱现象却很不以为然。他在上世纪九十年代说过（大意）：《红楼梦》研究中的许多纠葛与纷争，大多源于版本问题。在同一问题上，张三根据这个版本，李四根据那个版本，公说公有理，婆说婆有理，一万年也说不清，实在无谓得很。

Although Qian zhongshu never study ''The Dream of Red Mansions'', he considers that the phenomenon of mess versions does not really matter.In the 1990s, he said that (roughly meaning)most of the disputes in the study of ''The Dream of Red Mansions'' resulted from the issue of versions. On the same issue, different people refer to different versions for their so-called reasonable purpose.Thus, the disputes can never be settled. And such a phenomenon is really meaningless.--[[User:Xiao Yiyao|Xiao Yiyao]] ([[User talk:Xiao Yiyao|talk]]) 06:23, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

Although Qian zhongshu never study ''The Dream of Red Mansions'', he considered disapprovingly that the phenomenon of chaos versions does not really matter.In the 1990s, he said that (a rough meaning)most of the disputes in the study of ''The Dream of Red Mansions'' resulted from the issue of versions. On the same issue, different people refer to different versions for their so-called reasonable purpose.Thus, the disputes can never be settled. And such a phenomenon is really meaningless.--[[User:Xie Jiafen|Xie Jiafen]] ([[User talk:Xie Jiafen|talk]]) 06:47, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==谢佳芬 Xiè Jiāfēn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081532==
这是《红楼梦》的悲剧，也是中国学界的悲剧。为了永久保存《红楼梦》这笔珍贵遗产，也为了给广大读者提供一个《红楼梦》的范本，必须从众多版本中确定一个最好的版本，而这个版本就是胡适先生推荐的“程乙本”。至于其他版本，则只供研究之用。

This is not only the tragedy of The Dream of the Red Chamber , but also the tragedy of Chinese academic circles. In order to permanently preserve the precious heritage of The Dream of the Red Chamber and provide readers with a model of The Dream of the Red Chamber, we must determine the best version from many versions, and this version is the "Cheng Yi version" recommended by Mr. Hu Shi. Other versions are only for research purposes only.--[[User:Xie Jiafen|Xie Jiafen]] ([[User talk:Xie Jiafen|talk]]) 14:00, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

This is not only a tragedy of Dream of the Red Chamber , but also a tragedy of Chinese academic circles. In order to permanently preserve the precious heritage of Dream of the Red Chamber and provide readers with a model of Dream of the Red Chamber, we must determine the best version from many versions, and this version is the "Cheng Yi version" recommended by Mr. Hu Shi. Other versions are only for research purposes only.--[[User:Xie Qinglin|Xie Qinglin]] ([[User talk:Xie Qinglin|talk]]) 11:15, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==谢庆琳 Xiè Qìnglín 俄语语言文学女 202120081533==
我完全赞成以上诸位先生的看法，毋须我再费笔墨，所以我在这里只是为他们的看法提供一些实例。首先，“程乙本”的前八十回由于经过了高鹗(也许还有程伟元)的大量修订，较之诸抄本大有改观，使之更加完善。具体来说，就是对众多异文加以筛选，去除讹误，择善而从，并加以必要的补阙、修改、删节和增饰。

I totally agree with the views of the above teachers, so I don't need to say more, so I will just provide some examples for their views here. First of all, the first eighty books of "Cheng Yi version" have been revised extensively by Gao Osprey (and perhaps Cheng Wei Yuan), which is a great improvement over the codices and makes it more perfect. Specifically, it is the screening of many different texts, the removal of errors, the selection of good, and the necessary additions, modifications, abridgments and additions.--[[User:Xie Qinglin|Xie Qinglin]] ([[User talk:Xie Qinglin|talk]]) 10:56, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

I totally agree with the opinions of you all, so I don't bother to say more. So I will just provide some examples for their views here. First of all, the first eightith chapters of "Cheng Yi's version" have been revised for many times by Gao Osprey (and perhaps Cheng Wei Yuan), which is an improvement over the codices and makes it more perfect. Specifically, it made a selection from many different texts, corrected errors, selected the good, and offered the necessary additions, modifications, removal and polishment.--[[User:Xiong Min|Xiong Min]] ([[User talk:Xiong Min|talk]]) 07:28, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==熊敏 Xióng Mǐn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081534==
试举六例如下：例一：原作第十七、十八两回合用一套回目，第十九回没有回目。高鹗将那套合用的回目归第十七回，而为第十八、十九两回补拟了回目。例二：原作第十八回写元妃省亲回府，“只见园中香烟缭绕，花彩缤纷，处处灯光相映，时时细乐声喧，说不尽太平景象，富贵风流”，下面却接着有这样一段：此时自己回想当初在大荒山中青埂峰下，那等凄凉寂寞。

Here are six examples. Firstly, the chapter 17 and 18 of the original work shared the same title and the 19th one didn't have have any. Gao-E merged the shared one into chapter 17 and rethought a title for chapter 18 and 19. Secondly, chapter 18 in the original one showed that Yuan concubine visited relatives, as "See nothing but scent lingering, flowers blossoming, lights glistening and bustle hustleing.WHat a stable and flourish society!" Here goes another saying: at that time I recalled the time when I in the foot of Dahuangshan Mountain, and I felt so lonely.

Here are six examples. Firstly, the chapter 17 and 18 of the original work shared the same title and the 19th one didn't have any. Gao'E merged the shared one into chapter 17 and rethought a title for chapter 18 and 19. Secondly, chapter 18 in the original one showed that Yuan concubine visited relatives, as "See nothing but scent lingering, flowers blossoming, lights glistening and bustle hustleing.WHat a stable and flourish society!" Here goes another saying: at that time I recalled the time when I in the foot of Dahuangshan Mountain, and I felt so lonely.--[[User:Xu Minyun|Xu Minyun]] ([[User talk:Xu Minyun|talk]]) 09:55, 14 November 2021 (UTC)

==徐敏赟 Xú Mǐnyūn 语言智能与跨文化传播研究男 202120081535==
若不亏癞僧、跛道二人携来到此，又安能得见这般世面？本欲作一篇《灯月赋》、《省亲颂》，以志今日之事，但又恐入了别书的俗套。按此时之景，即作一赋一赞，也不能得尽其妙；即不作赋、赞，其豪华富丽，观者诸公亦可想而知矣。

If LaiSeng and BoDao don't bring me here, how could I can see such elephant. I wanted to write an ''Ode to Lantern Moon'' or ''Ode to Visiting Relatives'' to commemorate today's event, but I was afraid to falling into the conventions of other books. The scene of this period, we can't get its wonderful in length even we write a praise. And if we don't write, the viewer also can imagine its luxurious richly.--[[User:Xu Minyun|Xu Minyun]] ([[User talk:Xu Minyun|talk]]) 11:26, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

If not the monk with scappy head and the lame Taoist priest bring me here, how could I can see such the world like this. I wanted to write an ''Ode to Lantern Moon'' or ''Ode to Visiting Relatives'' to commemorate today's event, but I was afraid to falling into the conventions of other books. In the scene of this period, we can't get the wonderfulness in length even we write a praise. And if we don't write, the viewer also can imagine its luxury and richness.--[[User:Yan Jing|Yan Jing]] ([[User talk:Yan Jing|talk]]) 02:18, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

==颜静 Yán Jìng 语言智能与跨文化传播研究女 202120081536==
所以倒是省了这工夫纸墨，且说正经的为是。本书前面已经交代得明明白白，大荒山青埂峰下的那块石头被一僧一道携入红尘后已幻化为口衔通灵宝玉的贾宝玉，而从这段话看，那块石头的化身却是贾元春，难道姐弟二人都是那块石头所化吗？如果说这段话的前大半截是写贾宝玉的心理活动，误安在了贾元春的头上，也还是说不通，因为不可能在描写贾元春省亲观感的文字当中无缘无故插入一段对贾宝玉的心理描写。

Therefore the time to write them is saved, and it is time to talk something serious. It has been clearly explained in the front of this book that the stone under the Loveroot Peak of the Great Wilderness Mountain has been transformed into Precious Jade Merchant with psychic jade in his mouth after being brought into the world by a monk and a Taoist priest. From this paragraph, however, the incarnation of that stone is First Spring Merchant. Are both the sister and brother transformed by that stone? If the first half of this paragraph is about Precious Jade Merchant's psychological activities, and is mistakenly thought as First Spring Merchant's, it still doesn't make sense. Because it is impossible to insert a psychological description of Precious Jade Merchant into the words describing First Spring Merchant's feelings about relatives for no reason.--[[User:Yan Jing|Yan Jing]] ([[User talk:Yan Jing|talk]]) 10:16, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

If the first half of this paragraph is about Precious Jade Merchant's psychological activities, which is mistakenly thought as First Spring Merchant's, it still doesn't make sense.
--[[User:Yan Lili|Yan Lili]] ([[User talk:Yan Lili|talk]]) 10:13, 13 November 2021 (UTC)

==颜莉莉 Yán Lìlì 国别女 202120081537==
尤为荒唐的是，从“观者诸公”以下文字，又突然变为作者的第三人称口气，更令人丈二金刚，摸不着头脑。如此语无伦次的拙劣文字，决非曹雪芹的原文，而是抄书者的误抄或窜文。“程乙本”将其全部删除，犹如割除了一个赘瘤，使行文变得合理而又通畅。

What is particularly absurd is that, from the following words "all the audience", and suddenly into the third person tone of the author,which is even more puzzling. Such incoherent poor text, not Cao Xueqin's original text, but the copy of the wrong copy or channelized text. "Cheng Yiben" deleted all of them, just like cutting out a superfluous tumor, so that the writing becomes reasonable and unobstructed.--[[User:Yan Lili|Yan Lili]] ([[User talk:Yan Lili|talk]]) 12:58, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==颜子涵 Yán Zǐhán 国别女 202120081538==
例三：原作第二十二回写荣国府作灯谜游戏，目的在于通过各人制作的灯谜，以暗示各自的性情、志向及将来结局，是全书的重要段落。大约因曹雪芹当时没有完全想好，故只写了贾母、贾政、元春、迎春、探春、惜春、宝钗的灯谜，而将宝玉、黛玉、湘云的灯谜暂缺，留待以后补写，不料曹雪芹突然去世，未及补写，致使原稿残缺。高鹗大胆地将原作宝钗的灯谜移作黛玉的灯谜，又增写了宝钗和宝玉的灯谜，我以为移得合理，增作也很精彩。

Example 3: the 22nd episode of the original work is that everyone plays lantern riddles in the Rong Mansion，The purpose is to hint their temperament, aspirations and future outcome through the lantern riddles made by each person，It is an important paragraph of the whole book. It may be that Cao Xueqin didn't think well at that time, so he only wrote the riddles of Jia's mother, Jia Zheng, Yuanchun, Yingchun, Tanchun, Xichun and Baochai, but didn't write the riddles of Baoyu, Daiyu and Xiangyun for the time being，and planned to fill them up later. Unexpectedly, Cao Xueqin died suddenly and didn't have time to make up, resulting in the mutilation of the original. Gao E boldly changed the lantern riddle of Baochai into that of Daiyu, and added the lantern riddles of Baochai and Baoyu. I think this change is very reasonable and the added part is also very wonderful.--[[User:Yan Zihan|Yan Zihan]] ([[User talk:Yan Zihan|talk]]) 01:31, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

Example 3: the 22nd chapter of the original work is that everyone plays lantern riddles in the Rong Mansion, The purpose is to hint their temperament, aspirations and future respectively through the lantern riddles made by each person，It is an important plot of the whole work.
Possibly because Cao Xueqin did not think well at that time, he only wrote the riddles of the Lady Dowager, Jia Zheng, Yuanchun, Yingchun, Tanchun, Xichun and Baochai, but didn’t write the riddles of Baoyu, Daiyu and Xiangyun for the time being，and planned to fill them up later. Unexpectedly, Cao Xueqin died suddenly and didn’t have time to make up, resulting in the mutilation of the original. Gao E boldly changed the lantern riddle of Baochai into that of Daiyu, and added the lantern riddles of Baochai and Baoyu. I think this change is very reasonable and the added part is also very wonderful.--[[User:Yang Jiaying|Yang Jiaying]] ([[User talk:Yang Jiaying|talk]]) 07:58, 13 November 2021 (UTC)

==阳佳颖 Yáng Jiāyǐng 国别女 202120081540==
但高鹗也有失误和疏漏：失误在于删掉或漏掉了原作惜春的灯谜，疏漏在于未给湘云补写灯谜。惜春的灯谜我已补入第二十二回（参见该回原文及其注释），以弥补高鹗的失误；而湘云的灯谜却只好仍阙，成为永远的遗憾。例四：原作第二十五回在写王熙凤被魇魔法弄得精神错乱时，插入一段对薛蟠的描写：别人慌张自不必讲，独有薛蟠更比诸人忙到十分：又恐薛姨妈被人挤倒，又恐薛宝钗被人瞧见，又恐香菱被人臊皮──知道贾珍等是在女人身上做功夫的，因此忙的不堪。

However, Gao E also made some mistakes and omissions: the mistake lies in deleting or missing the original lantern riddles made by Xichun, and the omission lies in not rewriting the lantern riddles for Xiang Yun. I have added the riddle of Xichun in Chapter 22 to make up for Gao E’s mistake; But Xiang Yun’s lantern riddles have yet to be unfilled, which becomes a permanent regret. Example 4: In chapter 25 of the original,When writing about Wang Xifeng being deranged by magic, a description of Xue Pan is inserted: The others, it goes without saying,were still more distraught. But of them all Xue Pan was the most frantic, being afraid that in the crush his mother might be knocked over, Baochai stared at, or Xiangling exposed to indignities -- for he knew what libertines Jia Zhen and the rest were.--[[User:Yang Jiaying|Yang Jiaying]] ([[User talk:Yang Jiaying|talk]]) 07:43, 13 November 2021 (UTC)

However, Gao E also made a mistake and had an oversight: the mistake lies in deleting or missing the original lantern riddles made by Xichun, and the omission lies in not rewriting the lantern riddles for Xiang Yun. I already added the riddle of Xichun in Chapter 22 to make up for Gao E’s mistake; But Xiang Yun’s lantern riddles have yet to be unfilled, which becomes an eternal regret. Example 4: In chapter 25 of the original,When writing about Wang Xifeng being deranged by magic, a description of Xue Pan is inserted: The others, it goes without saying,were still more distraught. But of them all Xue Pan was the most frantic, being afraid that in the crush his mother might be knocked over, Baochai stared at, or Xiangling exposed to indignities -- for he knew what libertines Jia Zhen and the rest were.--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 14:51, 13 November 2021 (UTC)

==杨爱江 Yáng Àijiāng 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081541==
忽一眼瞥见了林黛玉风流婉转，已酥倒在那里。这段话十分荒谬：其一，贾、薛两家为近亲，贾珍与薛宝钗是表兄妹，贾珍怎么敢对表妹起歹心呢？薛蟠岂非杞人忧天？其二，薛蟠虽然混账，与林黛玉也是表兄妹，况且见面的机会很多，薛蟠怎么会“一眼瞥见了林黛玉”就“酥倒在那里”呢？

Xue Pan's eye suddenly falling on Daiyu, he was so enchanted by her charms that he almost melted on the spot. This paragraph is very absurd: First, Jia and Xue are close relatives, and Jia Zhen and Xue Baochai are cousins. How dare Jia Zhen want to have a love affair with his cousin? Isn't Xue Pan entertained imaginary and groundless fear? Second, although Xue Pan is a jerk, Lin Daiyu is his cousin. Besides, there are many opportunities to meet Daiyu. How could Xue Pan “almost melted on the spot when his eye suddenly fell on Daiyu”? --[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 09:44, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

Xue pan suddenly caught a glimpse of Lin Daiyu, who was pretty and gentle, and collapsed there. This paragraph is very absurd: Firstly, Jia and Xue are close relatives, and Jia Zhen and Xue Baochai are cousins. How dare Jia Zhen want to have a love affair with his cousin? Isn't Xue Pan alarmist? Secondly, although Xue Pan is a jerk, Lin Daiyu is his cousin. Besides, there are many opportunities to meet Daiyu. How could Xue Pan “collapsed there because of a glimpse of Lin Daiyu”?--[[User:Yang Kun|Yang Kun]] ([[User talk:Yang Kun|talk]]) 14:15, 14 November 2021 (UTC)

==杨堃 Yáng Kūn 法语语言文学女 202120081542==
而脂批竟称赞道：“忙中写闲，真大手眼、大手笔。”这如果不是偶然失误，便只能说是不识好歹了。“程乙本”将其删除，倒可当得起“大手眼、大手笔”的评语。例五：原作第六十三回中用了一千多字的篇幅，大写贾宝玉、史湘云等人只是为了好玩，如何将芳官、葵官打扮成“小土番儿”，如何改称“犬戎名姓”。

However, the Zhi Yanzhai's critiques unexpectedly praised: "Snatch a little leisure from a busy writing , which is really big eyes and a big deal." If this is not an accidental mistake, it can only be said to be ungrateful. If "Cheng Yi version" deletes it, it can be regarded as a comment of "big eyes and a big deal". Example 5: in the sixty-third chapter of the original work, more than 1,000 words were used to capitalize the name of Jia Baoyu, Shi Xiangyun and others, which is just for fun, and to describe how to dress Fang Guan and Kui Guan as "Xiao Tu Fan er" and how to change "the surname and name of Quan Rong".--[[User:Yang Kun|Yang Kun]] ([[User talk:Yang Kun|talk]]) 14:21, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

However, critiques of Zhi Yanzhai(one of the earliest critics of "A Dream in Red Mansions" ) unexpectedly praised: "Snatch a little leisure from a busy writing , which is really weighty." If it is not an accidental mistake, it can only be said to be ungrateful. "Cheng Yi version" deletes it, thus it can be regarded as the comment of "weighty writings". Example 5: in the sixty-third chapter of the original work, more than 1,000 words were used to describe that how Precious Jade Merchant, Fragrant-cloud History and others dress Fang Guan and Kui Guan as "Xiao Tu Fan er" and how they change "the name of Quan Rong" just for fun.--[[User:Yang Liuqing|Yang Liuqing]] ([[User talk:Yang Liuqing|talk]]) 06:43, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==杨柳青 Yáng Liǔqīng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081543==
而且竟然让贾宝玉说出这样的话来：如今四海宾服，八方宁静，千载百载，不用武备。咱们虽一戏一笑，也该称颂，方不负坐享升平了。这种描写既十分无聊，又与贾宝玉的性格背道而驰，尤其侮辱了包括满族在内的少数民族，真可谓拙劣的文字，因此“程乙本”完全予以删除是绝对必要的。

What's more, in Zhi Yangzhai's version, Precious Jade Merchant said that"Nowadays, people within Four Seas were all submitted and social stability was achieved in all directions. Weapons were not needed in nearly thousands of years. Therefore, our laughs and teases also deserved extolling thus we lived up to the prosperity." This kind of descriptions were very boring and ran counter to the characteristics of Jia Baoyu, and they particularly insulted national minorities including Manchu, which were really bad writings. Thus, it's quite necessary for "Cheng Yi's version" to delete these words.--[[User:Yang Liuqing|Yang Liuqing]] ([[User talk:Yang Liuqing|talk]]) 07:05, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

What's more, in Zhi Yangzhai's version, Baoyu even said things like this:"Nowadays, people from all over the world bow to our emperor, and social stability's greatly achieved. No military preparation's needed in the days ahead. Therefore, our laughs and teases also deserved extolling thus we lived up to the prosperity." Such descriptions are boring and against Baoyu's characteristic, and also insulted national minorities including Manchu, which are truly awful writings. Thus, it's quite necessary for Cheng&Gao's second version to delete these words.--[[User:Ye Weijie|Ye Weijie]] ([[User talk:Ye Weijie|talk]]) 06:07, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

==叶维杰 Yè Wéijié 国别男 202120081544==
例六：原作第六十一回开头有一段写柳家的与小厮斗嘴的文字，既毫无意义，又有“几根×毛”、“×声浪嗓”的粗话，故“程乙本”删掉了百馀字也完全正确。像这样的例子不胜枚举，它们足可以证明，高鹗对前八十回的修订是完全必要和合理的，“程乙本”前八十回优于原作的事实是任何人也难以抹煞的。其次，再就两种“程本”而言，由于“程乙本”是“程甲本”的修订本，自然也就更加完善。

Example six: The descriptive words about the argument between Liu's and his servant in the chapter sixty one of the original version are quite meaningless, and vulgarism like "some x hairs","some nasty voices" are also included at the same time，that's why the Cheng&Gao's second version had correctly deleted hundreds of words of the original one. Such examples are numerous and are solid proofs to the necessity and justifiability of Gao E's revision of original former eighty chapters, and it's also undeniable that former eighty chapters in the Cheng&Gao's second version are better than ones in the original. Moreover, in terms of the two versions of Cheng&Gao's, the second version is obviously more perfect for it's revised on the base of the first one.--[[User:Ye Weijie|Ye Weijie]] ([[User talk:Ye Weijie|talk]]) 05:33, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

Example six: the original 61st back at the beginning of a paragraph to write the fighting words by Liu and his following boy, not only meaningless, but also "a few pubic hair", "obscene voice" of foul language, so "Cheng B book "deleted a few hundred words is also completely correct. Such examples are numerous, and they are sufficient to prove that the revision of the first eighty chapters by Gao Hu is completely necessary and reasonable, and the fact that the first eighty chapters of "Cheng B book" is better than the original is hard to be denied by anyone. Secondly, in terms of the two "Cheng books", since the "Cheng B book" is a revised version of the "Cheng A book", it is naturally more perfect.--[[User:Yi Yangfan|Yi Yangfan]] ([[User talk:Yi Yangfan|talk]]) 02:37, 12 November 2021 (UTC)Yi Yangfan

==易扬帆 Yì Yángfān 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081545==
关于这一点，最有力的证据是一组现成的统计数字。前面说过，汪原放先生于1927年曾将“程乙本”与“程甲本”加以对勘，并将两者的异文作了统计，其结果是：“程乙本”较之“程甲本”改动(包括增与改)了总共21506字，其中前八十回改动15537字，后四十回改动5969字。(见汪原放《重印乾隆壬子本〈红楼梦〉校读后记》)这些改动主要有三个方面：其一，是对“程甲本”中的“纰缪”文字加以改正。

About this point, the strongest evidence is a set of readily available statistics. As mentioned earlier, Mr. Wang Yuanfang in 1927 compared the "Cheng B book" with the "Cheng A book" and made statistics on the differences between the two texts, and the result was: "Cheng B book" compared with "Cheng A book" changes (including increase and change) a total of 21506 words, including the first eighty chapters changed 15537 words, the last forty chapters changed 5969 words. (See Wang Yuanfang "reprinted Qianlong nonzi book" after reading "Dream of the Red Chamber") These changes are mainly in three aspects: one, is the "Cheng A book" in the "error" text to correct.--[[User:Yi Yangfan|Yi Yangfan]] ([[User talk:Yi Yangfan|talk]]) 02:38, 12 November 2021 (UTC)Yi Yangfan

The strongest evidence for this is a set of available statistics. As mentioned earlier, Mr. Wang Yuanfang in 1927 compared the "Cheng B book" with the "Cheng A book" and made statistics on the differences between the two texts, and the result was: a total of 21506 words (including complements and modifications) were changed in "Cheng B book" compared with "Cheng A book", including 15537 words changed in the first eighty chapters, and 5969 words changed in the last forty chapters. (Refer to Wang Yuanfang "reprinted Qianlong nonzi book" after reading "Dream of the Red Chamber") These changes are mainly in three aspects: one, is the modification of the "error" text in Cheng A book.--[[User:Yin Huizhen|Yin Huizhen]] ([[User talk:Yin Huizhen|talk]]) 13:03, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

==殷慧珍 Yīn Huìzhēn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081546==
如第二回“冷子兴演说荣国府”中，“程甲本”对原作的如下一段文字未作改动：这政老爷的夫人王氏……第二胎生了一位小姐，生在大年初一，就奇了。不想次年又生了一位公子，说来更奇：一落胞胎，嘴里便衔下一块五彩晶莹的玉来，还有许多字迹。这位“小姐”就是贾元春(元妃)，这位“公子”就是贾宝玉。

For example, the "Leng Zixing's speech in Rong Mansion" in chapter 2, "Cheng Jia's translation version" did not change the following text of the original work: The wife of Lord Zheng Mrs Wang……it is magical that she gave birth to a girl on the first day of the lunar year. It is even more magical that she gave birth to a boy in the next year: he was born with a colorful and crystal jade in his mouth, and the jade was written by some scripts. The "lady" is First Spring Merchant (Yuan Concubine), while the "gentleman" is Precious Jade Merchant.--[[User:Yin Huizhen|Yin Huizhen]] ([[User talk:Yin Huizhen|talk]]) 09:23, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

For example, in the "Leng Zixing's speech in Rong Mansion" from chapter 2, the following text of the original work remained intact in "Cheng Jia(the first)edition": Mrs Wang, the wife of Lord Zheng …… gave birth to her second child, a girl, on the first day of the lunar year, which was magical enough. It was even more magical that she gave birth to a boy in the following year: when he was born, a colorful and crystal jade with many scripts on it was in his mouth. The "girl" is First Spring Merchant (Yuan Concubine), while the "boy" is Precious Jade Merchant.--[[User:Yin Meida|Yin Meida]] ([[User talk:Yin Meida|talk]]) 10:39, 11 November 2021 (UTC)

==殷美达 Yīn Měidá 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081547==
而这段文字显然与第十八回中的一段文字相矛盾：那宝玉未入学之先，三四岁时，已得元妃口传，教授了几本书，识了数千字在腹中：虽为姊弟，有如母子。
“有如母子”的贾元春和贾宝玉，不可能只差一岁，可见第二回那段文字有明显的“纰缪”。“程乙本”将“次年”改为“隔了十几年”，便合情合理了。

This paragraph obviously contradicts with the description in the eighteenth chapter: before Precious Jade,at the age of three or four, entered the school, he had been taught several books by Yuan Concubine(First Spring Merchant) by word of mouth and thus had known thousands of words in his mind. They are sister and brother in blood relation, but more like mother and son. Precious Jade Merchant and First Spring Merchant, "like mother and son",could not be only one year apart,so there is an obvious "mistake"in the paragraph from the second chapter. Therefore, it is reasonable to change "the following year" into "more than a decade after" in "Cheng Yi(the second) Edition".--[[User:Yin Meida|Yin Meida]] ([[User talk:Yin Meida|talk]]) 09:28, 11 November 2021 (UTC)

While this paragraph obviously contradicts with one in the eighteenth chapter: before Precious Jade, at the age of three or four, entered the school, he had been taught several books by Yuan Concubine(First Spring Merchant) by word of mouth and thus had learned thousands of words in his mind. They are elder sister and younger brother, but more like mother and son. Precious Jade Merchant and First Spring Merchant could not be only one year apart,so there is an obvious "mistake" in the paragraph of the second chapter. Therefore, it is reasonable to change "the following year" into "more than a decade after" in "Cheng Yi(the second) Edition".--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 01:53, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

==尹媛 Yǐn Yuán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081548==
其二，是将文言词语尽量改为白话或俗语，从而使《红楼梦》的语言更为通俗易懂。譬如：“若”改为“要”，“与”改为“给”，“亦”改为“也”，“此”改为“这”，“口”改为“嘴”，“何”改为“为什么”，“如何”改为“怎么”，“如此”改为“这么着”，“葳蕤”改为“委琐”，等等。其三，是增加了许多“儿”字，将词语加以“儿”化，从而使《红楼梦》语言的京味特点更加突出。

Secondly, classical words were changed into vernacular or colloquial language as far as possible so as to make the language of A Dream of Red Mansions more understandable. For instance: "ruo" was translated into "yao"(if), "yu" into "yao"(to), "yi" into "ye"(also), "ci" into "zhe"(this), "kou" into "zui"(mouth),"he" into "wei shen me"(why), "ru he" into "zen me"(how), "ru ci" into "zhe me zhao"(in this way), "weisui" into "weisuo"(obscene) and so on. Thirdly, lots of "er" were added into A Dream of Red Mansions, so that the Beijing flavor of the language in A Dream of Red Mansions is more distinct.--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 12:08, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==詹若萱 Zhān Ruòxuān 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081549==
关于这一点，几乎随处可见，因而不再举例。《红楼梦》是一部近百万字的巨著，要想完全揭示“程乙本”的版本优点，只能将它与其他版本一一对勘，并将异文一一列出。单凭以上的简单说明，只能是挂一漏万。

This point can be seen almost everywhere, so I will not give examples. “Dream of the Red Chamber” is a masterpiece of nearly one million words. If we want to fully reveal the merits of "Cheng Yi's translation version", we can only investigate it with other translation versions and list the differences one by one. The above simple explanation is still incomplete and full of omissions.--[[User:Zhan Ruoxuan|Zhan Ruoxuan]] ([[User talk:Zhan Ruoxuan|talk]]) 07:24, 10 November 2021 (UTC)
This point can be seen almost everywhere, so I don't want to give an example.--[[User:Zhang Qiuyi|Zhang Qiuyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Qiuyi|talk]]) 05:25, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

==张秋怡 Zhāng Qiūyí 亚非语言文学女 202120081550==
不过我可以向读者负责地保证：如果你是出于欣赏的目的阅读《红楼梦》，那么选择“程乙本”将是最明智的。三、校勘问题我们说“程乙本”为《红楼梦》的最佳版本，并不是说它完美无缺，也不是说其他版本一概不如“程乙本”，只是说它在总体上更胜一筹而已。
But I can responsibly assure readers that if you are reading a Dream of Red Mansions for enjoyment, cheng Yiben is the wisest choice. To say that Cheng Yiben is the best version of a Dream of Red Mansions does not mean that it is perfect, nor that all other versions are inferior to Cheng Yiben, but that it is superior in general.--[[User:Zhang Qiuyi|Zhang Qiuyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Qiuyi|talk]]) 05:23, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

But I can responsibly assure readers that if you are reading ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' for enjoyment, Cheng Yi version is the wisest choice. Three: Revision. To say that Cheng Yi version is the best version of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' does not mean that it is perfect, nor that all other versions are inferior to Cheng Yi version, but that it is superior in general.--[[User:Zhang Yang|Zhang Yang]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yang|talk]]) 13:42, 16 November 2021 (UTC)

==张扬 Zhāng Yáng 国别男 202120081551==
事实上，或因高鹗和程伟元的疏忽，或因排字工人的失误，致使“程乙本”仍存在不少“纰缪”。譬如：第八十六回说贾元春生于“甲申年正月丙寅”；至第九十五回则说：“是年甲寅年十二月十八日立春，元妃薨日是十二月十九日，已交卯年寅月，存年四十三岁。”“程甲本”和“程乙本”都是如此。

In fact, due to the negligence of Gao'e and Cheng Weiyuan, or the mistakes made by typesetters, there are still many "mistakes" in "Chengyi version". For example, the eighty-sixth chapter expounds that Jia Yuanchun was born in "Bingyin, the first month of the year Jiashen". To the 95th chapter it expounds that "In that year, the spring began on December 18th of the lunar calendar, Jiayin year, and the day consort Yuan died was on December 19, which was in the month of Yin and year of Mao. Hence consort Yuan died at the age of 43.", which are the same both in "Chengjia version" and "Chengyi version".--[[User:Zhang Yang|Zhang Yang]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yang|talk]]) 14:17, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

In fact, due to the negligence of Gao'e and Cheng Weiyuan, or the mistakes made by typesetters, there are still many "mistakes" in "Chengyi version". For example, the eighty-sixth chapter expounds that First Spring Merchant was born in "Bingyin, the first month of the year Jiashen". To the 95th chapter it expounds that "In that year, the spring began on December 18th of the lunar calendar, Jiayin year, and the day Princess Merchant died was on December 19, which was in the month of Yin and year of Mao. Hence consort Yuan died at the age of 43.", which are the same both in "Chengjia version" and "Chengyi version".

==张怡然 Zhāng Yírán 俄语语言文学女 202120081552==
而实际上前后存在明显矛盾：甲申年至甲寅年是三十年，按照当时以虚岁计算年龄的习惯，元妃享年应是三十一岁；即使因元妃薨于立春次日，算作乙卯年，也只有三十二岁。无论如何也不会是四十三岁。可见“程甲本”已错，而“程乙本”也没有订正。

In fact,there is clear contradiction:the years from JiaShen to JiaYin are thirty years, and according to the custom of calculating age in terms of nominal age at the time, Princess Merchant would have been thirty-one years old; even if the death of Princess Merchant took place on the day after the first day of spring, which is counted as the year yi Mao, she would have been only thirty-two years old. In any case, it would not have been forty-three years old. It is clear that the "Cheng Jia version" is wrong, and the "Cheng Yi version" has not been revised.

In fact,there is an obvious contradiction:the years from JiaShen to JiaYin are thirty years, and according to the custom of calculating age in terms of nominal age at the time, Princess Yuan would have been thirty-one years old; even if the death of Princess Yuan took place on the day after the first day of spring, which is counted as the year YiMao, she would have been only thirty-two years old. In any case, it would not have been forty-three years old. It is clear that the "Cheng Jia version" is wrong, and the "Cheng Yi version" has not been revised either.--[[User:Zhong Yifei|Zhong Yifei]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yifei|talk]]) 06:37, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==钟义菲 Zhōng Yìfēi 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081553==
这个明显的失误，早在1927年由汪原放校点、亚东图书馆出版的“程乙本”《红楼梦》已经改正，而上世纪八十年代以后出版的诸多号称经过了“精校”的“程甲本”和“程乙本”《红楼梦》，包括那些拼凑本，却依旧保留了这个失误，这不能不说是一种讽刺。其实“程乙本”的其他文字失误还有不少，并非像高鹗、程伟元所说“改订无讹”。“程乙本”既非十全十美，而我们要供献于读者的是一部普及本的《红楼梦》，因此有必要汲取其他版本的长处，使其尽量完美。

This obvious mistake was corrected in “Cheng Yi Version" （a version of "A Dream of Red Mansions"） checked by Wang Yuanfang and published by Yadong library as early as 1927. It is ironic that many "Cheng Jia Version" and "Cheng Yi Version" published after the 1980s, including those patchwork books, still retain this mistake. In fact, there are many other word mistakes in "Cheng Yi Version", which is not “absolutely right after revision” as Gao E and Cheng Weiyuan said. "Cheng Yi Version" is not perfect, and what we want to offer to readers is a popular version of “A Dream of Red Mansions.” Therefore, it is necessary to learn from the advantages of other versions to make it as perfect as possible.--[[User:Zhong Yifei|Zhong Yifei]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yifei|talk]]) 14:22, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

This obvious mistake was corrected in “Cheng Yiben" （a version of "a dream of Red Mansions"） checked by Wang Yuanfang and published by Yadong Library as early as 1927. It is ironic that many "Cheng Jiaben" and "Cheng Yiben", which claimed carefully checked and published after the 1980s , including those patchwork books, still retain this mistake. In fact, there are many other word mistakes in "Cheng Yiben", which is not “absolutely right after revision” as Gao E and Cheng Weiyuan said. "Cheng Yiben" is not perfect, and what we want to offer to readers is a widespread version of “a dream of Red Mansions.” Therefore, it is necessary to learn from the advantages of other versions to make it as perfect as possible.--[[User:Zhong Yulu|Zhong Yulu]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yulu|talk]]) 02:05, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==钟雨露 Zhōng Yǔlù 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081554==
为此，本书以“程乙本”(北京图书馆出版社影印本)为底本，以“程甲本”(北京图书馆出版社影印本)为主校本，并以下列版本为参校本：汪原放校勘“程乙本”(上海亚东图书馆刊本)、王希廉(雪香)评“程甲本”(清道光十二年刊本)、“梦稿本”“庚辰本”“己卯本”“甲戌本”(后四种均为上海古籍出版社影印本)。在以上八种版本中，前五种均为一百二十回全本，后三种均为前八十回的残存本。

For this purpose, this book uses “Cheng Yiben”(photocopy of Beijing Library Publishing House) as master copy, “Cheng Jiaben” as main collated edition, and the followings as references—Wang Yuanfang’s collation “Cheng Yiben”(Shanghai Yadong Library edition)、Wang Xilian’s “Cheng Jiaben” commentary(edition in the twelfth year of Qing Daoguang)、“Meng Gaoben”、“Geng Chenben”、“Ji Maoben”、and “Jia Xuben”(the last four all are photocopies of Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House). In the above eight editions, the first five are all complete editions of 120 chapters, and the last three are all incomplete editions of 80 chapters.--[[User:Zhong Yulu|Zhong Yulu]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yulu|talk]]) 01:43, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

For this purpose, this book uses “Cheng Yiben”(photocopy of Beijing Library Publishing House) as the master copy, “Cheng Jiaben” as the main collated edition, and the followings as references—Wang Yuanfang’s collation of “Cheng Yiben”(Shanghai Yadong Library edition)、Wang Xilian’s comments on “Cheng Jiaben” (edition in the twelfth year of Qing Daoguang)、“Meng Gaoben”、“Geng Chenben”、“Ji Maoben”、and “Jia Xuben”(the last four all are photocopies of Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House). In the above eight editions, the first five are all complete editions of 120 chapters, and the last three are all incomplete editions of 80 chapters.--[[User:Zhou Jiu|Zhou Jiu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Jiu|talk]]) 05:57, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==周玖 Zhōu Jiǔ 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081555==
我的校勘总原则是：既要尽量保持底本的原貌，又要保证全书的质量。具体来说则遵循以下几条：（一）底本与校本之间虽有异文，但底本基本可通者，即使校本文字更好，也不作改动。（二）底本中的各种错误(包括内容与文字的错误)、文字倒置、文理不通等，尽量用校本改正，若校本同样错误则径改。

My primary principle of collation is that: maintain the original meaning of master copy, and garantee the quality through the book. Specifically, abiding by the following advice: One, although there are differences between the master copy and the checked copy, the former whose meaning is basically faithful and smooth remains untouched, even though the checked copy is better. Two: various mistakes in master copy（including errors in contents and text），the inversion of words, unsmooth words and contents and so forth should be corrected based on master copy. But if mistakes are also existed in the master copy, then it should be corrected directly.--[[User:Zhou Jiu|Zhou Jiu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Jiu|talk]]) 12:43, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

My primary principle of collation is that: maintain the original meaning of master copy, and guarantee the book’s quality. To be more specific, following these advices: First, although there are differences between the master copy and the checked copy, the former whose meaning is basically faithful and smooth should be untouched, even though the checked copy is better. Second: various mistakes in master copy（including errors in contents and text), like the inversion of words, unsmooth words and contents and so forth should be corrected based on master copy. But if mistakes are also existed in the master copy, it should be corrected directly.--[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 06:46, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==周俊辉 Zhōu Jùnhuī 法语语言文学女 202120081556==
（三）底本和校本中的僻字、怪字、俗字，本来并无特别意义，毫无保留价值，只能为读者增加阅读障碍，因此径改为通用字。如“揌”和“”改为“塞”，“嘴”改为“努嘴”，“椅子”改为“拿椅子”，等等。（四）古人对别字多不在乎，故底本和校本中屡见不鲜，但在当今的读者看来却十分别扭，甚至可能被误解，因而酌情径改。

Three, the rare words, strange words, common words in the master copy and in the checked copy had no special meaning, and no reservation value, can only increase the reading barrier for readers. So they need to be changed to universal words. Such as "揌" changed to “塞", "嘴" changed to "努嘴", "椅子" changed to "拿椅子", etc. Four, the ancients didn’t care about the wrongly written characters, so it is common in the master copy and the checked copy. They seem very awkward for today's readers and may even be misunderstood. Therefore they should be appropriately modified.--[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 14:12, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

（3）Some characters in a copy for the record or for reproduction and in checked copy, which are not commonly used, or look strange, or are popular but irregular, have no special significance and no reserved value, only increasing the reading barrier for readers. Therefore, these characters are changed to universal characters. For example, "揌" are changed to "塞", "嘴" is changed to "努嘴", "椅子" is changed to "拿椅子" and so on.（4） The ancients didn't care much about the wrongly written characters, so they can be commonly seen in a copy for the record or for reproduction and in checked copy. However, when seeing these characters, today’s readers may feel awkward, and may even misunderstand their meanings. Thus they are supposed to be changed for appropriateness.--[[User:Zhou Qiao1|Zhou Qiao1]] ([[User talk:Zhou Qiao1|talk]]) 12:37, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==周巧 Zhōu Qiǎo 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081557==
如“必真”改为“逼真”，“奈烦”改为“耐烦”，“悔气”改为“晦气”，“渥”改为“焐”，“握”改为“捂”，等等。（五）有些字在古代汉语中可以通用（借用），在现代汉语中却严加区分。《红楼梦》也存在大量借用字，如果一一加以改动，不一定合适。

For example, "必真" is changed to "逼真", "奈烦" is changed to "耐烦", "悔气" is changed to "晦气", "渥" is changed to "握 ", "焐" is changed to "捂" and so on. Some words can be commonly used (borrowed) in ancient Chinese, While in modern Chinese they are strictly distinguished. There are also a large number of loanwords in the A Dream of Red Mansions, which may not be appropriate if changed one by one.--[[User:Zhou Qiao1|Zhou Qiao1]] ([[User talk:Zhou Qiao1|talk]]) 13:06, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

For instance, "必真" is changed to "逼真", "奈烦" is changed to "耐烦", "悔气" is changed to "晦气","渥" is changed to "握 ", "焐" is changed to "捂", etc. Wait. Some characters can be used (borrowed) in ancient Chinese, but they are strictly distinguished in modern Chinese. There are also a lot of borrowed words in "A Dream of Red Mansions". If you change them one by one, it may not be appropriate.--[[User:Zhou Qing|Zhou Qing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Qing|talk]]) 11:44, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

==周清 Zhōu Qīng 法语语言文学女 202120081558==
因此只有在以下两种情况之下才作改动：一是可能引起误解；二是同一词语而用字不同。如等同于数字“一”的“么”，极易与“什么”、“怎么”的“么”相混，故改为“幺”。又如表示时间的“一会”和“一回”混用，“一会儿”和“一回儿”混用，统一为“一会”和“一会儿”；表示位置的“旁”和“傍”混用，“旁边”和“傍边”混用，统一为“旁”和“旁边”；“赔礼”和“陪礼”混用，“赔罪”和“陪罪”混用，统一为“赔礼”和“赔罪”；等等。

Therefore, changes should only be made in the following two situations: one is that it may cause misunderstanding; the other is the same phrase but different words. For example, the "么" equivalent to the number "一" is easily confused with the "么" of "什么" and "怎么", so it is changed to "幺". Another example is the mixed use of "一会" and "一回" for time, and "一会儿" and "一回儿" are mixed together, unified into "一会" and "一会儿";"旁" and "傍" to indicate position are mixed together, "旁边" and "傍边" are mixed together, unified into "旁" and "旁边"; "赔礼" and "陪礼" are mixed together, and "赔罪" and "陪罪" are mixed together , Unified into "赔礼" and "赔罪"; and so on.

Therefore, changes should only be made in the following two situations: one is that it may cause misunderstanding; the other is the same phrase formed by different words. For example, the "么" equivalent to the number "一" is easily confused with the "么" of "什么" and "怎么", so it is changed to "幺". Another example is the mixed use of "一会" and "一回" for time, and in case that "一会儿" and "一回儿" are mixed together, they are unified into "一会" and "一会儿"respectively ;"旁" and "傍" to indicating position are mixed together,and "旁边" and "傍边" are mixed together, so they are unified into "旁" and "旁边"; "赔礼" and "陪礼" are mixed together, and "赔罪" and "陪罪" are mixed together , so they are unified into "赔礼" and "赔罪"etc.--[[User:Zhou Xiaoxue|Zhou Xiaoxue]] ([[User talk:Zhou Xiaoxue|talk]]) 09:49, 13 November 2021 (UTC)

==周小雪 Zhōu Xiǎoxuě 日语语言文学女 202120081559==
（六）本书采用简化汉字，为异体字的处理提供了方便，故一律按照简化汉字的规定处理。任何语言都在不断发展变化，故古今汉语有很大不同，以至于定字工作成为古籍整理中最为复杂的问题之一，很难做到尽善尽美。仅根据以上几条，只能是有助于减少读者的阅读障碍罢了。

(Six) Simplified Chinese characters are used in this book to provide convenience for the processing of variant characters. Therefore, they are processed in accordance with the provisions of simplified Chinese characters . Any language is constantly changing, so ancient and modern Chinese is very different. Therefore, deciding which word to use has become one of the most complex problems in the collection of ancient books, which is difficult to be perfect. Just according to the above, it can only help reduce the difficulties in their reading.--[[User:Zhou Xiaoxue|Zhou Xiaoxue]] ([[User talk:Zhou Xiaoxue|talk]]) 13:59, 8 November 2021 (UTC)

==朱素珍 Zhū Sùzhēn 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081561==
为了节省篇幅，一律不出校文。四、注释问题 “注释”亦称“注解”，最初是由于经书文字艰涩难懂，故对经书的字句加以解释；如果注文仍旧难懂或未尽其义，再对注文加以解释，则称“疏”。注文和疏文合称则谓之“注疏”。

==邹岳丽 Zōu Yuèlì 日语语言文学女 202120081562==
后来逐步扩大范围，对一切文献中的疑难字句加以解释，均称之为“注释”。由于中国历史悠久，古今汉语及名物变化巨大，致使后人读古籍的困难越来越大，因此对古籍的注释也就显得越来越有必要。《红楼梦》虽是一部旧白话小说，但它汲取了诗、词、曲、赋、歌、诔等各种精华，又涉及谜语、酒令、建筑、服饰、珍禽异兽、奇花异卉、神话传说、名人秀女、琴棋书画、医卜星相、风俗礼仪等多种知识，白话文言间用，成语典故成堆。

==Nadia 202011080004==
对于一般读者来说，所有这些都可能是阅读中的绊脚石。

==Mahzad Heydarian 玛莎 202021080004==
本注释的使命就是为读者清除这些绊脚石，使阅读畅通无阻。

This annotation is meant to remove the barriers in reading and make it easier to read.

==Mariam toure 2020GBJ002301==
因此凡是我认为可能影响读者阅读的地方，便予以注释，决不假装视而不见，决不避难就易。

==Rouabah Soumaya 202121080001==
为了节省篇幅，我仅举一例。第五十六回“敏探春兴利除宿弊，贤宝钗小惠全大体”中，有贾探春与薛宝钗谈论经济的一段话：
In order to save space, I will give just one example. In the fifty-sixth chapter, "Min Tanchun prospering the benefits and eliminating the disadvantages, Xian Baochai and Xiaohui are all in general", there is a passage between Jia Tanchun and Xue Baochai discussing the economy:

==Muhammad Numan 202121080002==
宝钗笑道：“真真膏粱纨袴之谈。你们虽是千金，原不知道这些事。
Baochai smiled and said: "It's really tempting to talk about it. Although you--[[User:Atta Ur Rahman|Atta Ur Rahman]] ([[User talk:Atta Ur Rahman|talk]]) 14:09, 6 November 2021 (UTC) are a daughter, you don't know these things.

==Muhammad Saqib Mehran 202121080004==
但只你们也都念过书，识过字的，竟没看见过朱夫子有一篇《不自弃文》么？”
But if you have all studied and read, haven't you seen Master Zhu's article "Don't Abandon Oneself"?

==Jawad Ahmad 202121080006==
探春笑道：“虽也看过，不过是勉人自励，虚比浮词，那里真是有的？”
Tanchun said and smile, "Although I have seen it, it's just a matter of encouraging others to encourage themselves. It's a meaningless word. Is there really something happen?"

==Nizam Uddin 202121080007==
宝钗道：“朱子都行了虚比浮词了？那句句都是有的。

==Öncü 202121080008==
你才办了两天事，就利欲熏心，把朱子都看虚浮了。
You have been working on it for two days only, and blinded by greed, you have made ZhuZi look vain.--[[User:HIKMET ONCU KADIOGLU|HIKMET ONCU KADIOGLU]] ([[User talk:HIKMET ONCU KADIOGLU|talk]]) 16:52, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

You have only been doing things for two days, then you desire for money and profit fascinated the heart, and you think Zhu Zi is Unrealistic. --[[User:AkiraJantarat|AkiraJantarat]] ([[User talk:AkiraJantarat|talk]]) 09:29, 8 November 2021 (UTC)Akira Jantarat

==Akira Jantarat 202121080009==
你再出去，见了那些利弊大事，越发连孔子也都看虚了呢！”

If you go to a larger world and see greater benefits or disadvantages, I am afraid you will be a little bit down on what Kongzi said.--[[User:AkiraJantarat|AkiraJantarat]] ([[User talk:AkiraJantarat|talk]]) 14:19, 6 November 2021 (UTC)Akira

If you go out again and see the pros and cons of major events, you will be even more deceptive!--[[User:Asep Budiman|Asep Budiman]] ([[User talk:Asep Budiman|talk]]) 07:50, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==Asep Budiman 202111080020==
探春笑道：“你这样一个通人，竟没看见《姬子》书？

Tan-tschun Smiled and said "you are such a familiar person, but have you read the "Ji Zi" book?--[[User:Asep Budiman|Asep Budiman]] ([[User talk:Asep Budiman|talk]]) 07:41, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

Tan-tschun smiled and said: "You are such a familiar person, but haven't you read the book "Ji Zi"? --[[User:EIMONKYAW|EIMONKYAW]] ([[User talk:EIMONKYAW|talk]]) 10:57, 7 November 2021 (UTC)Ei Mon Kyaw -Ei Mon Kyaw-[[User:EIMONKYAW|EIMONKYAW]] ([[User talk:EIMONKYAW|talk]]) 10:57, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==Ei Mon Kyaw 202111080021==
当日《姬子》有云：‘登利禄之场，处运筹之界者，穷尧舜之词，背孔孟之道。’”

On that day, "Jizi" said: ‘The field of Deng Lilu, those who are in the realm of management, are poor in the words of Yao and Shun, and recite the way of Confucius and Mencius. ’"
--[[User:EIMONKYAW|EIMONKYAW]] ([[User talk:EIMONKYAW|talk]]) 13:52, 6 November 2021 (UTC)EI MON KYAW
-EI MON KYAW-[[User:EIMONKYAW|EIMONKYAW]] ([[User talk:EIMONKYAW|talk]]) 13:52, 6 November 2021 (UTC)

There was a saying in ''Himeko'' that day: "Deng LiLu, and those who operate in this realm, steal the words of Yao and Shun, and memorize Confucianism."--[[User:Benjamin Wellsand|Benjamin Wellsand]] ([[User talk:Benjamin Wellsand|talk]]) 13:38, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==Benjamin Wellsand 202111080118==
宝钗笑道：“底下三句呢？”探春笑道：“如今断章取义，念出底下一句，我自己骂我自己不成？”

Bau-tschai smiled: "What about the next three sentences?" Tan-tschun smiled: "Now that I have read the next sentence out of context, can I blame myself for failing?"--[[User:Benjamin Wellsand|Benjamin Wellsand]] ([[User talk:Benjamin Wellsand|talk]]) 13:39, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

Translation: Bau-tschai smiled: "What about the next three sentences?" Tan-tschun smiled: "Now I take the next sentence out of context, and if I read the next sentence out of context, I can't blame myself?"--[[User:Atta Ur Rahman|Atta Ur Rahman]] ([[User talk:Atta Ur Rahman|talk]]) 11:20, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

==Atta Ur Rahman 202121080003==
在这段话中，提到了朱熹的《不自弃文》，还有《姬子》一书。

Translation: In this passage, Zhu Xi's "don't abandoned the text--[[User:Muhammad Numan|Muhammad Numan]] ([[User talk:Muhammad Numan|talk]]) 14:13, 6 November 2021 (UTC)--[[User:Muhammad Numan|Muhammad Numan]] ([[User talk:Muhammad Numan|talk]]) 14:13, 6 November 2021 (UTC)" and the book "Ji Zi" are mentioned.

==Zohaib Chand 202121080005==
我所看到的几个《红楼梦》注本，对《不自弃文》有所注释，而对《姬子》却避而不注。

20211215 homework

2021-12-29T06:33:50Z

Zhong Yifei: /* 钟义菲 Zhōng Yìfēi 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081553 */

20211229 homework

2021-12-29T06:15:42Z

Zhong Yifei: /* 钟义菲 Zhōng Yìfēi 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081553 */

20211222 homework

2021-12-26T10:12:24Z

Zhong Yifei: /* 张怡然 Zhāng Yírán 俄语语言文学女 202120081552 */

20211229 homework

2021-12-26T10:07:00Z

Zhong Yifei: /* 张怡然 Zhāng Yírán 俄语语言文学女 202120081552 */

20211229 homework

2021-12-25T10:10:17Z

Zhong Yifei: /* 钟义菲 Zhōng Yìfēi 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081553 */

20211222 homework

2021-12-19T12:30:18Z

Zhong Yifei: /* 钟义菲 Zhōng Yìfēi 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081553 */

20211222 homework

2021-12-19T12:29:14Z

Zhong Yifei: /* 钟义菲 Zhōng Yìfēi 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081553 */

Hist Trans EN 13

2021-12-13T13:05:03Z

Zhong Yifei: /* Chapter 13: The Chinese Translation History In Modern Age */

'''History of Translations'''

[[History_of_Translations|Overview Page of History of Translation]]

30 Chapters（0/30)

[[Hist_Trans_EN_1]] [[Hist_Trans_EN_2]] [[Hist_Trans_EN_3]] [[Hist_Trans_EN_4]] [[Hist_Trans_EN_5]] [[Hist_Trans_EN_6]] [[Hist_Trans_EN_7]] [[Hist_Trans_EN_8]] [[Hist_Trans_EN_9]] [[Hist_Trans_EN_10]] [[Hist_Trans_EN_11]] [[Hist_Trans_EN_12]] [[Hist_Trans_EN_13]] [[Hist_Trans_EN_14]] [[Hist_Trans_EN_15]] [[Hist_Trans_EN_16]] [[Hist_Trans_EN_17]] [[Hist_Trans_EN_18]] [[Hist_Trans_EN_19]] [[Hist_Trans_EN_20]] [[Hist_Trans_EN_21]] [[Hist_Trans_EN_22]] [[Hist_Trans_EN_23]] [[Hist_Trans_EN_24]] [[Hist_Trans_EN_25]] [[Hist_Trans_EN_26]] [[Hist_Trans_EN_27]] [[Hist_Trans_EN_28]] [[Hist_Trans_EN_29]] [[Hist_Trans_EN_30]] ...

[[Book_projects|Back to translation project overview]] [[DCG-To-Do|Zur To-Do-Liste]]

=Chapter 13: The Chinese Translation History In Modern Age=
钟义菲 Zhong Yifei，Hunan Normal University, China
==Abstract==
Since the middle of the 19th century, translation has gradually become a tool for people resolved to save the country from extinction. The spread of the large number of translation works has broadened the ways for the public, especially the intellectuals, to learn the west. In the meantime, it has also changed the social climate. The invasion of western civilization, translators' spontaneous development of translation activities and the passivity of national politics made Chinese society enter an important period of western learning translation, especially around the period of Opium War. The cause of translation in modern China coincided with the Chinese people's struggle against aggression. After the Opium War, China had to open the door. China had to end its isolation and began to face the outside world directly. However, the prolonged blockade made China lag behind the western world. Modern politics, economy, diplomacy and cultural activities are closely related to translation, which plays an indispensable role in history. The theme and source of the original translation often reflect the development trend of modern Chinese ideology and the direction of government policy. As for the nature and quantity of translation books in different periods, we can also see the motivation of translation books, the general trend of intellectual interests, and the impact of the dissemination in society. The time clue of this article is from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, briefly introducing the translation and the translator, emphasizing its emergence background and several important period of development, research and analysis of western culture reflected in translation works in modem Chinese history, the change of Chinese people’s thoughts in translation and the influence of modern translation on Chinese society. This paper is divided into three chapters. The first chapter introduces the emergence, importance and main characteristics of modern translation works, then reviews the emergence of modem translation works, emphasizes their importance, and briefly introduces representative translation works. The second chapter introduces the background of translation works and translation climax stages of western books, studies the main characteristics and development trend of translation in each period. The third chapter studies the influence and performance of modern translation on people's ideology and social life through the description in translation works. This paper focuses on the development of modern translation, the important role of translation in Chinese history, and the specific impact of translation on modern society.

==摘要==
自19世纪中叶以来，翻译逐渐成为人们决心拯救国家免遭灭绝的工具。大量翻译作品的传播拓宽了公众，尤其是知识分子学习西方的途径。与此同时，它也改变了社会气候。西方文明的入侵、译者翻译活动的自发发展以及国家政治的被动，使中国社会进入了西学翻译的重要时期，尤其是鸦片战争前后。近代中国的翻译事业与中国人民反抗侵略的斗争不谋而合。鸦片战争后，中国不得不打开大门。中国不得不结束孤立，开始直接面对外部世界。然而，长期封锁使中国落后于西方世界。现代政治、经济、外交和文化活动都与翻译密切相关，翻译在历史上起着不可或缺的作用。原文的主题和来源往往反映了中国现代意识形态的发展趋势和政府政策的方向。至于不同时期翻译书籍的性质和数量，我们还可以看到翻译书籍的动机、知识兴趣的总体趋势以及在社会上传播的影响。本文的时间线索是从鸦片战争到五四运动，简要介绍了翻译和译者，强调了其产生背景和几个重要的发展时期，研究和分析了中国近代翻译作品中反映的西方文化，中国人翻译思想的变化以及现代翻译对中国社会的影响。本文共分为三章。第一章介绍了现代翻译作品的产生、重要性和主要特征，然后回顾了现代翻译作品的产生，强调了现代翻译作品的重要性，并简要介绍了具有代表性的翻译作品。第二章介绍了翻译作品的背景和西方书籍翻译的高潮阶段，研究了各个时期翻译的主要特点和发展趋势。第三章通过对翻译作品的描写，研究现代翻译对人们思想和社会生活的影响和表现。本文着重论述了现代翻译的发展，翻译在中国历史上的重要作用，以及翻译对现代社会的具体影响。

==Key words==
Modern Translation，Translation，Social Life，Ideology

==Introduction==
Around the middle of the 19th century, The Western invasion brought new knowledge. The Westernization Movement sent a large number of international students to study abroad and translated a large number of books for military purposes.The Qing government decayed, and was tired of the invasion of foreign enemies, the war repeatedly failed. After the Sino-Japanese War in 1894, faced with internal and external troubles, far-sighted people knew that they could not rely on the Qing government, so they devoted themselves to writing novels. Many people accepted and spread Western culture through translating books. The importance of translation was recognized by the development of journalism, media, and provident men influenced by the Western culture at that time. In this social context, people have criticized the corruption of government through literature and translation.

Modern China began in the Opium War in 1840. It was a special period in Chinese history. During this period, the Chinese were attacked by foreign guns, as well as by foreign culture and foreign education. Especially after the Sino-Japanese War, the Chinese people were greatly shocked psychologically, and people began to realize that the West was more advanced than China in political, economic, cultural and other aspects, which was providing a great opportunity for the introduction of translation literature. Translators at that time also hoped to translate the western advanced scientific knowledge to the Chinese people so that they could broaden their horizons and innovate their ideas. During the Reform Movement of 1898, Liang Qichao advocated publicizing political ideas by translating foreign political novels to transform the society. He believed that the incredible power of novels was "enough to dominate people's psychology and could change the society of one generation." Based on the translation of the novel, Liang Qichao gave the novel new significance and mission. He put forward the idea of improving the novel, with the famous ones such as ''The Beauty Adventures'' and ''The Fifteen Little Heroes'', which promoted the process of novel revolution and the prosperity and development of the translating novels. Yan Fu translated works such as ''Heaven'' and Yuan Fu. His translation had a great influence at that time and was the most important enlightenment translation in China in the 20th century. In the translation of ''Heaven'', Yan Fu proposed three difficulties: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance. It was advocated by many literary writers at that time and used as the theoretical basis for their translation. The concept of "natural selection: the fittest to survive" conveyed in Yan Fu's Heaven woke people up from the dream of the heavenly world. There are more famous translation works such as Lin Shu’s ''The Lady of the Camellias'', Black slaves call for heaven record and so on. It had an important influence on the change of people's concept. People are not limited to the traditional concept of marriage and love, and the concept of freedom and equality gradually spread. Under the prevalence of translation works, traditional values, such as emphasizing agriculture and suppressing business, men being superior to women, gradually lost their status and were gradually replaced by new ideas. （A 1981:741）

The paper mainly includes three chapters: First, modern translation works and the overview of translators. Second, the background and climax of modern translation works. Third, the impact of modern translation on social life. In the modern Chinese literary circle, there was a wave of translation in western books, and the translation activities of foreign works were unprecedentedly prosperous.The emergence of a large number of translation works has also caused a large influx of foreign cultural ideas. Under the translation of domestic scholars, the translators not only conveyed the literary nature of foreign works, but also expressed their translation purpose through translation language and techniques, and had a huge impact on Chinese social life at that time. Academia research is more aimed at the overview of modern translation works and its prosperity, but little research on its impact on national social life. This paper analyzes the wide variety of materials and works to detail the influence of modern translation on social life. （Lian 2009:93）

==1. Modern Translation Work and Its Main Characteristics ==
===1.1 The Emergence of Translation Works and Their Importance===
The premise of the emergence of translation works is the introduction of western civilization. The spread of western culture in modern China can be traced back to the eve of the Opium War. The main translators are missionaries, who mainly introduce religious doctrine, and also bring western history and geography to China. They established schools, translated western books (such as the Bible), compiled magazines, wrote books and so on. It can be said that missionaries are the first wave of intermediaries communicating between Chinese and Western culture. Early missionaries in China, although for the purpose of conquest, tended to teach by words and deeds than coercion. However, considering China's closure at that time, the Chinese were not allowed to learn foreign languages. The missionaries have also made great efforts in communicating the Chinese and Western cultures. This also led to the introduction of western civilization at this stage and laid the foundation for the development of the modern translation and cultivated talents. The Opium War was an important period of western translation. The rise and fall of China is always closely related to the rise and fall of translation culture. As a special component of Chinese literature, the development of translation literature has always affected the process of Chinese literature and historical changes, especially the occurrence of modern Chinese translation literature, which has effectively promoted the transformation and development of Chinese literature and modern society. Modern translation, from its emergence to the development, is inseparable with China's social changes. Translation has promoted the change of people's ideas, enriched people's knowledge in many fields, and not only promoted the development of Chinese literature, but also played a certain positive role in the development of politics and Chinese society. （Guo 1979:126）

===1.2 Representative Works of Modern Translations and Their Main Categories===
The introduction of modern western literature made Lin Shu a famous literary translator. Many people will misunderstand ''The Lady of the Camellias'' as the first translation novel in modern China. But ''The Declaration'' has already begun to publish translation novels earlier. The first translation novel should be ''Xinxi Talk''. According to Zou Zhenhuan, the most expensive translation of the Bible was the first version to enter the palace, the "royal version" of the late Qing Dynasty. The first modern Japanese novel translated into Chinese was ''The Beauty Adventure'', translated by Liang Qichao, which opened the translation of the political novel in the late Qing Dynasty. At the same time, the Chinese translation books related to Japan was ''Ryukyu Geography''. Tan Ruqian thought it as “the first Chinese translation of Japanese documents”. After translation into Chinese, the most influential translation is Yan Fu’s ''Heaven'', Lin Shu’s ''The Lady of the Camellias'', and ''Black Slaves Call for Heaven'' record translated by Wei Yi and Lin Shu. The three works had a great influence on Chinese society in different aspects. Thai new history can represent part of the translation works since modern times. It is widely spread into China though it doesn’t achieve any effect in the West. The book is considered by western scholars as the most boring residual history and a third-rate world history. In China, it sold more than one million copies, which is the most popular reading book in the Restoration period. It can be said that the social influence in different historical stages and social backgrounds can be different. ''The Law of the Duke of Nations'' theoretically defeated the ignorant idea of the Qing government. In addition, there are translations about life which popularized scientific knowledge in China and played a good role in the abolition of feudal superstition. ''Foreign Cookery'' in Chinese was the earliest Chinese translation of a relatively systematic introduction of western cooking methods in the process of introducing western food culture in China. In the aspects of medicine, there were books such as ''Tessi’s Personal Theory'', ''Optical Disclosure and Cardiotherapy''. The first sociological monograph of full-text translation in modern China was translated by Zhang Taiyan, which had an important influence on the progress of social cognition.（Feng 2012: 234-235）

===1.3 Main Characteristics of Modern Translation Works===
One is catering to the taste and ethics of the Chinese readers in order to obtain a wider popularity. Influenced by the social background of the late Qing Dynasty, most people who learned from the West were limited to intellectuals and politicians. In order to make the translation get more attention, the translator chose more accepted literary works for translation. This to some extent leads to the lack of extensive translation categories. In Introduction to Translation, the second chapter "Translation of Catholic Scholars between the Ming and Qing Dynasties" discussed the Catholic doctrine translation and scientific translation between the Ming and Qing Dynasties, and pointed out that " at that time, translation sought more elegance, integrity and the willingness of Chinese officials and scholars to read. However, there are also some translators who try to keep the original meaning rather than deliberately satisfying the readers’ interests." On the other hand, it also confirms that the characteristics of translation was catering to readers at that time. （Zhang 2003:158）

The second is to use foreign novel translation as a tool for reform politics. After the failure of the Opium War, people with insight were eager to find good ways to save the country. The most direct and effective way is to learn western culture. In the process of learning western culture, the most convenient thing is to translate western works. However, hindered by language factors, the translation of monographs is far more difficult than the novels. Therefore, except for the few people who are proficient in foreign languages, most translators basically choose to take novels as the entry point to give personal political opinions and ideas to achieve the purpose of political improvement. Third, readers often take the translation of novels as a pastime, resulting in the flood of boring detective novels and romantic novels. Popular novels translations are enough while famous novels translations are rare. To cater to the market and earn publication costs, many translators translate foreign works for the purpose of making a profit. And after a few celebrities do not classify foreign translations, many translators will have a herd mentality. At the same time, due to the influence of domestic readers' literary taste, popular novels and simple literary works are more acceptable to them, so resulting in the flood of some novel categories. Fourth, the translation is not faithful. Influenced by traditional ideas, some phenomena in western works were not accepted by the Chinese at that time, and to avoid unnecessary trouble, the translator chose to omit part of the plot in the original, and could not completely express the original idea. In order to express his political position and views, the translator will fabricate the plot and comments not included in the original. For example, when Su Manshu translated ''Hugo's Bad World'', he invented a character called Lauder, using him to satirize the corrupt stupidity of the Qing government. Secondly, the translator will change the narrative perspective and structure of the original, which is largely influenced by the traditional Chinese narrative style. For example, Liang Qichao used the serial structure when translating ''The Beauty Adventure''.（Zhang 1934:42）

It is summarized as follows: excessive catering to readers and lack of independence; the monotonous type of translation with limitations; lack of translation proficiency and transmission of the idea; separation from the original work.

==2. The Rise Background and Climax of Modern Translation Works ==
===2.1 The Background of the Rise of Modern Translation===
After the Opium War, the Qing government successively signed the Nanjing Treaty and the Humen Treaty, which made insightful people attempt to save modern China from abyss of suffering. In the face of an unprecedented crisis, a group of people began to search for the way to save the country, and every individual has put all his strength into the efforts to save the nation in danger. Modern China is faced with a more powerful opponent in all aspects. People with insight realize that they must break through the current situation of self-isolation and learn from the outside world. Learning from the West and imitating the West became an important strategy of saving the nation at that time. Chinese society has constantly updated the old mechanism, trying to get rid of the original closed and rigid political dilemma, starting to find a new development direction, from the learning of western skills to the study of western political and economic system, ideology and culture. To learn from the West and seek self-improvement, translation is first serve as a bridge of communication. Domestic people with insight can bring western works to China by translating them. After the failure of the Second Opium War, China was forced to sign the Treaty of Beijing. The national crisis became more and more serious, the national crisis further strengthened the Chinese people's thought of self-improvement, and the understanding of the outside world became more and more urgent. At the same time, due to the current situation, foreign language communication and diplomatic intercourse have become very urgent. In this environment, translation became indispensable in this era.

===2.2 The Purpose of the Rise of Modern Translation===
The 19th century was a period of complex economic situation and chaotic political situation. At this time, the demand for formal translators increased. However, in this period, translation was very sophisticated and had a great influence on the control authority of the government and exchanges between Chinese and foreign countries. In the Treaty of Beijing, Britain and France sent documents that are written in English and French to China. But considering that there was almost no translation talent in China at that time, the two sides agreed to attach Chinese version. But if there was any dispute, both English and French characters should be the authority. Then the Qing government had to start training translation talents, and the first batch of foreign language schools were established accordingly. The original motivation of The School of Combined Learning was quite related to the signing of the Sino-British Treaty, and the British authorities attached a Chinese translation within three years, aiming to allow the Chinese government to cultivate a number of qualified translators during this period, so the establishment of The School of Combined Learning was established in 1861. It was the first official foreign language school in the late Qing Dynasty with the purpose of cultivating foreign language translation talents. Foreigners were the teachers, training specialized foreign language translators. In order to become rich and train soldiers, China must learn from advanced western science and technology. To learn from advanced western technology, it is bound to remove the language barriers in the process of learning. Zeng Guofan once mentioned that translation must occupy the fundamental strategic position of westernization cause. It is easy to see that the purpose of translation is to learn the advanced western technology more efficiently and to achieve the purpose of saving the nation. The process of modernizing Chinese literature is, in a sense, the process of Chinese literature learning from the West and seeking innovation and change under the impact of western culture. （Shi 1983:216）

===2.3 The Climax of Translation in the Western Book===
====2.3.1 From the Opium War to the Sino-Japanese War====
From the Opium War to the Sino-Japanese War, especially after the 1860s, with the rise of the westernization movement aimed at self-improvement and wealth, there was an upsurge in the translation of Western science and technology books. In the late Qing Dynasty, under the influence of opium smuggling, China and the UK exchanges are getting closer and closer. Until the Opium War broke out, the door of China was completely opened, and the Qing government had to face the outside world. Lin Zexu fought in the front line of the anti-smoking movement and the anti-British struggle from 1839 to 1840. He organized personnel to translate many books. In the monthly Macao, there are five volumes: on China, on tea, on smoking prohibition, on the use of military forces and on the feelings of foreigners in various countries. These materials are mainly translated from Guangzhou weekly, Guangzhou chronicle and etc. Lin Zexu never neglected to give up the work of organizing translation. Among Lin Zexu's translations, ''The Chronicles of Four Continents'' has the most far-reaching impact on Modern Chinese history. It is the first book in modern China to systematically introducing world geography and history. The translation of these books opened the eyes of the Chinese people and began to import Western learning in modern times, which is of great significance to the history of modern thought and culture. One of the most direct effects is that it has led to the emergence of a number of masters who compile and study foreign profiles. It indirectly led to the development of the style of study for practical use, and also had an important impact on the literary reform in history. Wei Yuan revised and supplemented ''The Records of the Four Continents''. This book not only retained the characteristics of the west, but also sublimated in combination with the domestic reality, added many notes and political comments, and put forward many political propositions represented by "learning from the foreigners and mastering their skills to control the foreigners", which gathered huge ripples in the ideological circles at that time, and even spread to Japan, It also had an impact on Japan's Meiji Restoration.However, at this time, the work of Lin Zexu and Wei Yuan only played the role of foresight and did not form a huge social situation. The development of translation still needs new forces to promote. At this time, the Westernization school played such a role. （Zou 2008:57-58）

The Westernization Movement took place after the second Opium War and before the Sino-Japanese war. During this period, the Qing government experienced the impact of two Opium Wars. Facing the strong ships and guns of Western powers, it was in a difficult situation at home and abroad, and felt a profound crisis never seen in history. The Westernization school, divided from the feudal landlord class, had a certain understanding of the world situation. They advocate learning from western capitalist countries. The main figures of the Westernization school were Zeng Guofan, Li Hongzhang and others. They held high positions in the Qing government. Compared with other ordinary officials, they were more deeply aware of the need to learn and introduce advanced military weapons and manufacturing technology from Western powers in order to maintain the ruling order of the feudal society and realize the stability of the regime of the Qing Dynasty. However, at that time, the Westernization school could only recognize the progress of Western skills and the strength of military strength. Their change Geng Chang's method was only limited to "learning from foreigners". Among them, the translation of foreign books became an important means to achieve the goal of learning from foreigners. （Wang 1987:23-24）

In 1862, due to the needs of diplomacy and Westernization Movement, Tongwen museum was established in Beijing to train translators. The Tongwen Library in Beijing regards translation and washing as an important activity. The Jiangnan manufacturing Bureau, founded in 1865, had a greater impact during this period. The two primary problems faced by Jiangnan manufacturing Bureau after its completion are technology and talents, and the key to solving these two problems is the translation of technical books. Therefore, it decided to "set up another school to learn translation", "it is planned to select intelligent disciples to study with the school when it is completed", "You don't have to fake a foreigner, you can also extend it and make it into a book." The books translated by the translators were mainly about natural science and applied technology, which played a positive role in introducing modern science and technology and promoting the development of productive forces, and became important teaching materials for people of insight at that time to understand the external world and update their knowledge structure. These books can be said to have cultivated the next batch of cultural newcomers, such as Kang Youwei, Liang Qichao, Zhang Taiyan and Cai Yuanpei and so on. （Zeng 1987:83）

During this period, the importance of translation has been paid some attention, and the government has begun to operate translation in an organized and planned way. At the same time, the translation activities of the church have also been strengthened. Missionaries played the role of cultural invaders in the process of foreign military aggression. At first, missionaries wanted to carry out cultural aggression in the sense of Christianity, but they were influenced by Chinese tradition The influence of culture was resisted by the Chinese people. So they turned to spread new western knowledge and Western civilization, set up institutions, run newspapers and translate books, and tried to open the gap of the Chinese people's thought, so as to achieve the purpose of cultural aggression control. But objectively speaking, they also played a role in spreading Western learning to a certain extent. The translation by foreign missionaries had a great impact on Chinese society. The Chinese people's own pure literary translation also began at this stage. However, the literary translation at this stage still lacks systematic theoretical guidance and positive social atmosphere.

====2.3.2 After the Sino-Japanese War====
After the Sino-Japanese War was defeated, the Westernization Movement was declared bankrupt, and China's current situation was at stake. People with lofty ideals learned from the failure of the Westernization Movement that reform is far from solving the problem. To make China embark on the road of independence, prosperity and strength, we must fundamentally learn from the West and change the feudal autocratic system. In order to comprehensively learn western learning, translation is the first thing at this time. Therefore, this is the moment The translation career of this period is very prosperous, which is very different from the translation characteristics of the previous era. First, the expansion of the field of translation. At this time, the focus of importing western learning turned to various fields of social science, and paid particular attention to the import of political and academic ideas. The eight famous works translated by Yan Fu were outstanding representatives of this period, which had a significant impact on the society of the Qing Dynasty. During this period, translation methods were widely used, that is, abridged translation and free translation of foreign works, which were understood by the translator At this time, a large number of social sciences have been introduced, which has greatly improved the ideological level of Chinese people and brought the political and cultural activities to a new stage. Secondly, the translation field has also been expanded. The previous translation work was limited to government-run institutions. After the Sino-Japanese War, the reformers stepped onto the historical stage, and the translation work has been included in the overall plan of the reform. The reformers created schools, ran newspapers and opened publishing houses, with the import of Western learning and the translation and introduction of Western books as the main activities. After the failure of the reform movement, the establishment of newspapers and publishing houses did not stop. At this time, China's translation industry began to gradually break away from the limited government-run and turn to the private sector, resulting in an unprecedented prosperity in the translation industry. In addition, the translation team has gradually expanded. The establishment of foreign language teaching has gradually increased the number of foreign students and personnel abroad. The emergence of more and more translation talents meets the development of the publishing industry and social needs at this time. More and more people who know foreign languages are engaged in translation. This period is also an era of a large number of translators. Not only Lin Shu and Yan Fu, but also Liang Qichao, Su Manshu, Zhou Guisheng, Wu Guangjian are all well-known. During this period, the level of translation was also greatly improved. In the early days, most of the translations were spoken by foreigners who knew a little Chinese, and then recorded and polished by Chinese. The level of translation was uneven. During this period, most translators were proficient in foreign languages, their Chinese level was also high, and the quality of translation improved greatly Great improvement.（Xiao 1984:23）

This stage is also a period of vigorous rise and unprecedented prosperity of novel translation. In the early modern times, novel translation was not paid much attention. The first foreign novel translated into China was translated by foreign missionaries and published by the church. It was ''The Pilgrim’s Progress'' by British writer John Buyan, and the translation was published in Xiamen in 1853. During this period, translation activities also had some defects. Due to the popularity of translation, although abridged translation and free translation made the translator more free to express his political ideas, it also caused the disadvantages of breaking away from the original works. The purpose of translation was not to introduce western literature, but to express the translator's own ideas as a political means. At the same time, translation theory was strongly advocated in this period and political utilitarianism have also been greatly strengthened.

====2.3.3 Marked by the Rise of the New Culture Movement====
After the revolution of 1911, people's political enthusiasm was obviously low. In terms of translation, few people paid attention to social, political and economic works, and the number of translated novels was significantly lower than that of creative novels. However, people's literary concept was gradually strengthened. During this period, many translators introduced foreign literature from a literary perspective, bringing a new atmosphere to the translation circle and the history of Chinese literature In the period of the new culture movement, the translator's political and literary ideas were significantly improved, which laid a good foundation for the third wave of Western Chinese book translation starting from the new culture movement.

During this period, first of all, the number of short stories was greatly increased. During this period, new translators preferred to translate short stories. For example, Hu Shi translated ''The Last Lesson'' and Zhou Zuoren also published several short translation novels in the magazine New youth. The short translation novels published during this period also included ''The Leisure Review of Customs'' translated by Lin Shu and Chen Jialin. At this stage, the translator chooses the original work carefully after fully understanding and studying the original author, and describes his own opinions and ideas in the preface and postscript. Unlike in the past, he arbitrarily cuts the original work to express his political ideas, most of them are serious and loyal to the original. During this period, script translation gradually prevailed, and poetry translation appeared a new atmosphere. German poetry began to receive attention, and vernacular poetry began to appear. A new generation of translation practitioners consciously linked the translation of foreign literature with the transformation of Chinese literature and the purpose of the new culture movement. Chinese literary translation and Chinese society have entered a new era. （Wang 1992:321-322）

==3. The Influence of Modern Translation on Social Ideas==
===3.1 Appearance of the Concept of Marriage===
The translation that made an important change in the concept of scholars in the late Qing Dynasty was ''The Legacy of the Camellia'' in Paris translated by Lin Shu. This book describes the ups and downs of the protagonist Mark fate and complex psychological feelings. After the Sino-Japanese War, Lin Shu joined the ranks of reformers. He took a more open attitude towards love, which made Lin's translated novels reflect some changes of the times to a certain extent, implying that modern marriage and love pay attention to color. In Lin Shu's concept, if women want to benefit from freedom of marriage, they must first receive good education, such as Qiu Zhilan as a chivalrous woman, the heroine Qiu Zhilan sneaked into the capital to avenge her father's murder. She met scholar LV Qiushi and fell in love at first sight. She took the initiative to give a keepsake while LV Qiushi was reading at night. Finally, with the help of the blind nun of Shuiyue nunnery, they got married. Qiu Zhilan pursued love independently and persevered, suggesting that women's sense of marriage and love had begun to change under the circumstances at that time, Or the wind of free marriage and love has gradually risen. In Lin Shu's translated novels, Lin Shu points out the rigidity of the orders of parents and the words of matchmakers. He also advocates that women should maintain the beauty of temperament. In Lin Shu, women generally can consciously control their emotions, maintain a certain degree of reserve and gentleness in their behavior, and never do things carelessly. To a certain extent, this reflects the love aesthetics and love trend of the society at that time.（Hu 1916:474）

In the past, the novels of talented women and beauties in ancient China were a special kind of art to express the love concept of the citizen class. In Chinese novels of talented women and beauties, most of the talented people in the books were portrayed as the images of handsome, talented, elegant and noble, and not in line with the times. Second, the highest ideal commonly pursued by scholars at that time was "wedding night, golden list." The happy ending of joys and sorrows can satisfy people's aesthetic taste in the past. In ''The Legacy of the Camellia Woman'' in Paris, It depicts the heroine, who is loyal to her feelings and has a sense of morality, left because of Yameng's career future and family happiness. This self-sacrifice combined with tragic color made the people who have seen the story of talented people and beautiful women for a long time with an unprecedented freshness, which provided a new type of love aesthetics for the people at that time. （Chen 1990:213）

There are also relevant translation works such as ''Better Return'' published during the Meiji period, which is called "the milestone of the theme novel describing women's consciousness in the Meiji period", which describes the content of women's resistance to the oppression of old morality and ethics, and the dramatic work ''Doll's House'', the heroine Nala breaks away from her originally happy family and realizes that she is a neglected individual value. Her home is just a doll's home. It can be inferred that Nora is not the only one. The concepts of marriage and love freedom and women's individual values conveyed in her works since modern times have gradually penetrated into the society, and people have begun to gradually recognize the importance of women’ s rights. （Yuan 1989:178-181）

During the May 4th movement, The Troubles of Young Witt was strongly favored by young Chinese readers at that time for its crazy love passion, very dreamy action, rebellious and independent thought of the society and the protagonist's individualistic thinking method. This book was once regarded as the "Bible" by young men and women at that time As a general cultural phenomenon, the love between Witt and Lvdi made the young people talk about the freedom of marriage and love at that time and take the sacred love between men and women as the ideal. Witt easily reminded people of the talents in the love story at that time. Witt's lovelorn was expressed through strong sadness, which was the best comfort and inspiration for the young people who were eager to escape from the feudal cage at that time. It was a landmark translation that influenced modern Chinese society at that time.（Shi 1989:245）

===3.2 The Emergence of the Concept of Freedom and Equality and the Changes and Manifestations of Social Values===
Feminism is also one of the concepts of freedom and equality. Among the reformers after the failure of the Sino Japanese War of 1894-1895, Lin Shu was one of the first to advocate feminism. This was also mentioned in the previous section when describing the concept of marriage and love. The rise of women's concept of freedom of marriage and love has gradually spread, which implies that women pay attention to their own rights. From the novels translated by Lin Shu, Lin Shu's admiration for women's courage to pursue their love or rights shows that Lin supports and advocates women's rights. Xinxi Gossip deals with the values of money and the concept of social class. The novel expounds the role of money in Europe, which is unheard of by Chinese scholars. For example, the third volume of the novel describes that the British set up marriage halls, that is, intermediaries such as today's marriage agencies, many people who come to the museum are losers, hoping to cheat into marrying rich families, it describes that many people go to parties, but are driven by money worship in an attempt to cheat them into marrying rich people. At the same time, it also describes that money can make an old woman get a young husband, and the young husband aims at the old woman's rich family wealth. In the eyes of the Chinese people at that time, this was not in line with the code of ethics and could not be accepted.（Lu 1981:56）

==Conclusion==
In the transition period of modern China, the social function of translation played an important role, and the subversion was the most prominent in the social function of translation. At that time, China had experienced a long period of inaction towards western culture and regardless of the political and economic state of locking the country, resulting in China's ignorance of the West. However, at this time, the western world has not stopped the translation and introduction of Chinese culture through various channels Understanding. Asymmetric information exchange and translation make China in a passive position when communicating with the West. With the continuous entry of western new ideas and translation into China, values are constantly challenged, and even some extreme culturists try to subvert traditional Chinese culture and social values. The current situation requires China to make progress, and the current situation also forces China to make progress. In this period of mixed internal and external relations and political chaos, translation, as a communication tool, has always led Chinese people of insight in the exploration of saving the nation from subjugation and strengthening the country. （Zhang 1966:5-7）

The changes of modern history and the prominence of modern cultural view are greatly influenced by the input of Western learning. In modern Chinese society under the shock of Western learning civilization, translation makes western learning smoothly enter the Chinese people's political world, cultural undertakings and social life, but the overall westernization is absolutely impossible. In modern times, although Chinese traditional Confucianism has been criticized, even as a cultural pioneer The activists threw the target of political opinions, but middle school can not be reduced. Middle school is also the spiritual belief of Chinese unity since modern times. Lin Shu has always stressed that the traditional ethics revealed by Confucian culture has some eternal value and universal significance. The real Western civilization does not let us abandon middle school and completely replace it with Western learning, but let middle school be a traditional culture The social atmosphere under the coverage is more civilized.

==Reference==
Amos, Flora Ross. (1920). Early Theories of Translation. New York: Columbia University Press.

Benjamin, Andrew. (1989). Translation and the Nature of Philosophy: A New Theory of Words. London and New York: Routledge.

Catford,J.C.(1965) A Linguistic Theory of Translation.New York: Oxford University Press.

Dolet, Etienne. (1540). How to Translate Well from One Language to Another. Robinson.

A Yin 阿英.阿英文集［M］.Collection of A Ying’s Books三联书店, Sanlian Bookstore 1981:741.

Chen Xulu 陈旭麓.陈旭麓学术文存［M］.Chen Xulu Academic Archives上海：上海人民出版社, Shanghai：Shanghai People’s Press 1990:213.

Feng Zhijie 冯志杰.中国近代翻译史 History of Modern Chinese Translation（late Qing dynasty）（晚清卷）[M].北京：九州出版社, Bejing：Kyushu Press 2012:234-235.

Guo Moruo郭沫若.少年时代［M］,The Youth Age 人民文学出版社,People’s Literature Press1979:126.

Hu Shi 胡适.论译书寄陈独秀.胡适学术文集新文学运动［M］.Hu Shi’s Academic anthology New Literature Movement 1916:474.

Lian Yantang 连燕堂.二十世纪翻译文学史[M].History of Translated Literature in the 20th Century 百花文化出版社, Baihua Culture Press 2009:93.

Lu Xun 鲁迅.中国小说史略［M］.A Brief History of Chinese Novels 北京：人民文学出版社,Beijing:People’s Literature Publishing House 1973:125-126.

Lu Xun 鲁迅.文化偏至论［M］On Cultural Deviation （《鲁迅全集》第一卷）.人民文学出版社，People’s Literature Press 1981:56.

Shi Meng 时萌.晚清小说［M］.Novels of the Late Qing Dynasty 上海：上海古籍出版社,Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Press 1989:245.

Shiteng Huixiu 实藤惠秀著，谭汝谦等译.《中国人留学日本史》History of Chinese People Studying in Japan［M］.三联书店, Sanlian Bookstore 1983:216.

Tan Sitong 谭嗣同.谭嗣同全集［M］.Complete Works of Tan Sitong北京：中华书局5 Beijing Zhonghua Book Company 1981.

Wang Xiangrong 汪向荣.中国的近代化与日本［M］.China’s Modernization and Japan湖南人民出版社,Hunan People’s Press1987:23-24.

Wang Lixing 王立兴.中国近代文学考论［M］.A Research on Modern Chinese Literature南京：南京大学出版社,Nanjing：Nanjing University Press1992:321-322.

Xiaotian Qiejin 小田切近著，山人译.日本的名作［M］.Japanese Masterpieces 福建人民出版社,Fujian People’s Press1984:23.

Yuan Jian 袁健，郑荣.晚清小说研究概说［M］.An Overview of Novels in Late Qing Dynasty 天津：天津教育出版社,Tianjin：Tianjin Education Press1989:178-181.

Zou Zhenhuan 邹振环.影响中国近代社会的一百种译作 One Hundred Translations Influential on Modern Chinese Society [M].江苏教育出版社，Jiangsu Education Press 2008: 57-58.

Zhang Hailin 张海林.近代中外文化交流史[M].History of Modern Sino-foreign Cultural Exchanges 南京：南京大学出版社, Nanjing University Press 2003:158.

Zhang Xingniang 张星娘.欧化东渐史［M］.History of Europeanization Spreading to the East 商务印书馆,Commercial Press1934:42.

Zhang Zhenyu 张振玉.译学概论［M］.Introduction to Translation 中台印刷厂,Zhongtai Press1966:5-7.

Zeng Guofan 曾国藩.轮船工竣并陈机器局情形疏.郑振铎编.晚清文选［M］,The Steamship Engineer and Machinery Bureau 上海书店, Shanghai Bookstore 1987影印本：83.

Written by--[[User:Zhong Yifei|Zhong Yifei]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yifei|talk]]) 13:50, 8 December 2021 (UTC)

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=Chapter 13: The Chinese Translation History In Modern Age=
钟义菲 Zhong Yifei，Hunan Normal University, China
==Abstract==
Since the middle of the 19th century, translation has gradually become a tool for people resolved to save the country from extinction. The spread of the large number of translation works has broadened the ways for the public, especially the intellectuals, to learn the west. In the meantime, it has also changed the social climate. The invasion of western civilization, translators' spontaneous development of translation activities and the passivity of national politics made Chinese society enter an important period of western learning translation, especially around the period of Opium War. The cause of translation in modern China coincided with the Chinese people's struggle against aggression. After the Opium War, China had to open the door. China had to end its isolation and began to face the outside world directly. However, the prolonged blockade made China lag behind the western world. Modern politics, economy, diplomacy and cultural activities are closely related to translation, which plays an indispensable role in history. The theme and source of the original translation often reflect the development trend of modern Chinese ideology and the direction of government policy. As for the nature and quantity of translation books in different periods, we can also see the motivation of translation books, the general trend of intellectual interests, and the impact of the dissemination in society. The time clue of this article is from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, briefly introducing the translation and the translator, emphasizing its emergence background and several important period of development, research and analysis of western culture reflected in translation works in modem Chinese history, the change of Chinese people’s thoughts in translation and the influence of modern translation on Chinese society. This paper is divided into three chapters. The first chapter introduces the emergence, importance and main characteristics of modern translation works, then reviews the emergence of modem translation works, emphasizes their importance, and briefly introduces representative translation works. The second chapter introduces the background of translation works and translation climax stages of western books, studies the main characteristics and development trend of translation in each period. The third chapter studies the influence and performance of modern translation on people's ideology and social life through the description in translation works. This paper focuses on the development of modern translation, the important role of translation in Chinese history, and the specific impact of translation on modern society.

==摘要==

==Key words==
Modern Translation，Translation，Social Life，Ideology

==Introduction==
Around the middle of the 19th century, The Western invasion brought new knowledge. The Westernization Movement sent a large number of international students to study abroad and translated a large number of books for military purposes.The Qing government decayed, and was tired of the invasion of foreign enemies, the war repeatedly failed. After the Sino-Japanese War in 1894, faced with internal and external troubles, far-sighted people knew that they could not rely on the Qing government, so they devoted themselves to writing novels. Many people accepted and spread Western culture through translating books. The importance of translation was recognized by the development of journalism, media, and provident men influenced by the Western culture at that time. In this social context, people have criticized the corruption of government through literature and translation.

Modern China began in the Opium War in 1840. It was a special period in Chinese history. During this period, the Chinese were attacked by foreign guns, as well as by foreign culture and foreign education. Especially after the Sino-Japanese War, the Chinese people were greatly shocked psychologically, and people began to realize that the West was more advanced than China in political, economic, cultural and other aspects, which was providing a great opportunity for the introduction of translation literature. Translators at that time also hoped to translate the western advanced scientific knowledge to the Chinese people so that they could broaden their horizons and innovate their ideas. During the Reform Movement of 1898, Liang Qichao advocated publicizing political ideas by translating foreign political novels to transform the society. He believed that the incredible power of novels was "enough to dominate people's psychology and could change the society of one generation." Based on the translation of the novel, Liang Qichao gave the novel new significance and mission. He put forward the idea of improving the novel, with the famous ones such as ''The Beauty Adventures'' and ''The Fifteen Little Heroes'', which promoted the process of novel revolution and the prosperity and development of the translating novels. Yan Fu translated works such as ''Heaven'' and Yuan Fu. His translation had a great influence at that time and was the most important enlightenment translation in China in the 20th century. In the translation of ''Heaven'', Yan Fu proposed three difficulties: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance. It was advocated by many literary writers at that time and used as the theoretical basis for their translation. The concept of "natural selection: the fittest to survive" conveyed in Yan Fu's Heaven woke people up from the dream of the heavenly world. There are more famous translation works such as Lin Shu’s ''The Lady of the Camellias'', Black slaves call for heaven record and so on. It had an important influence on the change of people's concept. People are not limited to the traditional concept of marriage and love, and the concept of freedom and equality gradually spread. Under the prevalence of translation works, traditional values, such as emphasizing agriculture and suppressing business, men being superior to women, gradually lost their status and were gradually replaced by new ideas. （A 1981:741）

The paper mainly includes three chapters: First, modern translation works and the overview of translators. Second, the background and climax of modern translation works. Third, the impact of modern translation on social life. In the modern Chinese literary circle, there was a wave of translation in western books, and the translation activities of foreign works were unprecedentedly prosperous.The emergence of a large number of translation works has also caused a large influx of foreign cultural ideas. Under the translation of domestic scholars, the translators not only conveyed the literary nature of foreign works, but also expressed their translation purpose through translation language and techniques, and had a huge impact on Chinese social life at that time. Academia research is more aimed at the overview of modern translation works and its prosperity, but little research on its impact on national social life. This paper analyzes the wide variety of materials and works to detail the influence of modern translation on social life. （Lian 2009:93）

==1. Modern Translation Work and Its Main Characteristics ==
===1.1 The Emergence of Translation Works and Their Importance===
The premise of the emergence of translation works is the introduction of western civilization. The spread of western culture in modern China can be traced back to the eve of the Opium War. The main translators are missionaries, who mainly introduce religious doctrine, and also bring western history and geography to China. They established schools, translated western books (such as the Bible), compiled magazines, wrote books and so on. It can be said that missionaries are the first wave of intermediaries communicating between Chinese and Western culture. Early missionaries in China, although for the purpose of conquest, tended to teach by words and deeds than coercion. However, considering China's closure at that time, the Chinese were not allowed to learn foreign languages. The missionaries have also made great efforts in communicating the Chinese and Western cultures. This also led to the introduction of western civilization at this stage and laid the foundation for the development of the modern translation and cultivated talents. The Opium War was an important period of western translation. The rise and fall of China is always closely related to the rise and fall of translation culture. As a special component of Chinese literature, the development of translation literature has always affected the process of Chinese literature and historical changes, especially the occurrence of modern Chinese translation literature, which has effectively promoted the transformation and development of Chinese literature and modern society. Modern translation, from its emergence to the development, is inseparable with China's social changes. Translation has promoted the change of people's ideas, enriched people's knowledge in many fields, and not only promoted the development of Chinese literature, but also played a certain positive role in the development of politics and Chinese society. （Guo 1979:126）

===1.2 Representative Works of Modern Translations and Their Main Categories===
The introduction of modern western literature made Lin Shu a famous literary translator. Many people will misunderstand ''The Lady of the Camellias'' as the first translation novel in modern China. But ''The Declaration'' has already begun to publish translation novels earlier. The first translation novel should be ''Xinxi Talk''. According to Zou Zhenhuan, the most expensive translation of the Bible was the first version to enter the palace, the "royal version" of the late Qing Dynasty. The first modern Japanese novel translated into Chinese was ''The Beauty Adventure'', translated by Liang Qichao, which opened the translation of the political novel in the late Qing Dynasty. At the same time, the Chinese translation books related to Japan was ''Ryukyu Geography''. Tan Ruqian thought it as “the first Chinese translation of Japanese documents”. After translation into Chinese, the most influential translation is Yan Fu’s ''Heaven'', Lin Shu’s ''The Lady of the Camellias'', and ''Black Slaves Call for Heaven'' record translated by Wei Yi and Lin Shu. The three works had a great influence on Chinese society in different aspects. Thai new history can represent part of the translation works since modern times. It is widely spread into China though it doesn’t achieve any effect in the West. The book is considered by western scholars as the most boring residual history and a third-rate world history. In China, it sold more than one million copies, which is the most popular reading book in the Restoration period. It can be said that the social influence in different historical stages and social backgrounds can be different. ''The Law of the Duke of Nations'' theoretically defeated the ignorant idea of the Qing government. In addition, there are translations about life which popularized scientific knowledge in China and played a good role in the abolition of feudal superstition. ''Foreign Cookery'' in Chinese was the earliest Chinese translation of a relatively systematic introduction of western cooking methods in the process of introducing western food culture in China. In the aspects of medicine, there were books such as ''Tessi’s Personal Theory'', ''Optical Disclosure and Cardiotherapy''. The first sociological monograph of full-text translation in modern China was translated by Zhang Taiyan, which had an important influence on the progress of social cognition.（Feng 2012: 234-235）

===1.3 Main Characteristics of Modern Translation Works===
One is catering to the taste and ethics of the Chinese readers in order to obtain a wider popularity. Influenced by the social background of the late Qing Dynasty, most people who learned from the West were limited to intellectuals and politicians. In order to make the translation get more attention, the translator chose more accepted literary works for translation. This to some extent leads to the lack of extensive translation categories. In Introduction to Translation, the second chapter "Translation of Catholic Scholars between the Ming and Qing Dynasties" discussed the Catholic doctrine translation and scientific translation between the Ming and Qing Dynasties, and pointed out that " at that time, translation sought more elegance, integrity and the willingness of Chinese officials and scholars to read. However, there are also some translators who try to keep the original meaning rather than deliberately satisfying the readers’ interests." On the other hand, it also confirms that the characteristics of translation was catering to readers at that time. （Zhang 2003:158）

The second is to use foreign novel translation as a tool for reform politics. After the failure of the Opium War, people with insight were eager to find good ways to save the country. The most direct and effective way is to learn western culture. In the process of learning western culture, the most convenient thing is to translate western works. However, hindered by language factors, the translation of monographs is far more difficult than the novels. Therefore, except for the few people who are proficient in foreign languages, most translators basically choose to take novels as the entry point to give personal political opinions and ideas to achieve the purpose of political improvement. Third, readers often take the translation of novels as a pastime, resulting in the flood of boring detective novels and romantic novels. Popular novels translations are enough while famous novels translations are rare. To cater to the market and earn publication costs, many translators translate foreign works for the purpose of making a profit. And after a few celebrities do not classify foreign translations, many translators will have a herd mentality. At the same time, due to the influence of domestic readers' literary taste, popular novels and simple literary works are more acceptable to them, so resulting in the flood of some novel categories. Fourth, the translation is not faithful. Influenced by traditional ideas, some phenomena in western works were not accepted by the Chinese at that time, and to avoid unnecessary trouble, the translator chose to omit part of the plot in the original, and could not completely express the original idea. In order to express his political position and views, the translator will fabricate the plot and comments not included in the original. For example, when Su Manshu translated ''Hugo's Bad World'', he invented a character called Lauder, using him to satirize the corrupt stupidity of the Qing government. Secondly, the translator will change the narrative perspective and structure of the original, which is largely influenced by the traditional Chinese narrative style. For example, Liang Qichao used the serial structure when translating ''The Beauty Adventure''.（Zhang 1934:42）

It is summarized as follows: excessive catering to readers and lack of independence; the monotonous type of translation with limitations; lack of translation proficiency and transmission of the idea; separation from the original work.

==2. The Rise Background and Climax of Modern Translation Works ==
===2.1 The Background of the Rise of Modern Translation===
After the Opium War, the Qing government successively signed the Nanjing Treaty and the Humen Treaty, which made insightful people attempt to save modern China from abyss of suffering. In the face of an unprecedented crisis, a group of people began to search for the way to save the country, and every individual has put all his strength into the efforts to save the nation in danger. Modern China is faced with a more powerful opponent in all aspects. People with insight realize that they must break through the current situation of self-isolation and learn from the outside world. Learning from the West and imitating the West became an important strategy of saving the nation at that time. Chinese society has constantly updated the old mechanism, trying to get rid of the original closed and rigid political dilemma, starting to find a new development direction, from the learning of western skills to the study of western political and economic system, ideology and culture. To learn from the West and seek self-improvement, translation is first serve as a bridge of communication. Domestic people with insight can bring western works to China by translating them. After the failure of the Second Opium War, China was forced to sign the Treaty of Beijing. The national crisis became more and more serious, the national crisis further strengthened the Chinese people's thought of self-improvement, and the understanding of the outside world became more and more urgent. At the same time, due to the current situation, foreign language communication and diplomatic intercourse have become very urgent. In this environment, translation became indispensable in this era.

===2.2 The Purpose of the Rise of Modern Translation===
The 19th century was a period of complex economic situation and chaotic political situation. At this time, the demand for formal translators increased. However, in this period, translation was very sophisticated and had a great influence on the control authority of the government and exchanges between Chinese and foreign countries. In the Treaty of Beijing, Britain and France sent documents that are written in English and French to China. But considering that there was almost no translation talent in China at that time, the two sides agreed to attach Chinese version. But if there was any dispute, both English and French characters should be the authority. Then the Qing government had to start training translation talents, and the first batch of foreign language schools were established accordingly. The original motivation of The School of Combined Learning was quite related to the signing of the Sino-British Treaty, and the British authorities attached a Chinese translation within three years, aiming to allow the Chinese government to cultivate a number of qualified translators during this period, so the establishment of The School of Combined Learning was established in 1861. It was the first official foreign language school in the late Qing Dynasty with the purpose of cultivating foreign language translation talents. Foreigners were the teachers, training specialized foreign language translators. In order to become rich and train soldiers, China must learn from advanced western science and technology. To learn from advanced western technology, it is bound to remove the language barriers in the process of learning. Zeng Guofan once mentioned that translation must occupy the fundamental strategic position of westernization cause. It is easy to see that the purpose of translation is to learn the advanced western technology more efficiently and to achieve the purpose of saving the nation. The process of modernizing Chinese literature is, in a sense, the process of Chinese literature learning from the West and seeking innovation and change under the impact of western culture. （Shi 1983:216）

===2.3 The Climax of Translation in the Western Book===
====2.3.1 From the Opium War to the Sino-Japanese War====
From the Opium War to the Sino-Japanese War, especially after the 1860s, with the rise of the westernization movement aimed at self-improvement and wealth, there was an upsurge in the translation of Western science and technology books. In the late Qing Dynasty, under the influence of opium smuggling, China and the UK exchanges are getting closer and closer. Until the Opium War broke out, the door of China was completely opened, and the Qing government had to face the outside world. Lin Zexu fought in the front line of the anti-smoking movement and the anti-British struggle from 1839 to 1840. He organized personnel to translate many books. In the monthly Macao, there are five volumes: on China, on tea, on smoking prohibition, on the use of military forces and on the feelings of foreigners in various countries. These materials are mainly translated from Guangzhou weekly, Guangzhou chronicle and etc. Lin Zexu never neglected to give up the work of organizing translation. Among Lin Zexu's translations, ''The Chronicles of Four Continents'' has the most far-reaching impact on Modern Chinese history. It is the first book in modern China to systematically introducing world geography and history. The translation of these books opened the eyes of the Chinese people and began to import Western learning in modern times, which is of great significance to the history of modern thought and culture. One of the most direct effects is that it has led to the emergence of a number of masters who compile and study foreign profiles. It indirectly led to the development of the style of study for practical use, and also had an important impact on the literary reform in history. Wei Yuan revised and supplemented ''The Records of the Four Continents''. This book not only retained the characteristics of the west, but also sublimated in combination with the domestic reality, added many notes and political comments, and put forward many political propositions represented by "learning from the foreigners and mastering their skills to control the foreigners", which gathered huge ripples in the ideological circles at that time, and even spread to Japan, It also had an impact on Japan's Meiji Restoration.However, at this time, the work of Lin Zexu and Wei Yuan only played the role of foresight and did not form a huge social situation. The development of translation still needs new forces to promote. At this time, the Westernization school played such a role. （Zou 2008:57-58）

The Westernization Movement took place after the second Opium War and before the Sino-Japanese war. During this period, the Qing government experienced the impact of two Opium Wars. Facing the strong ships and guns of Western powers, it was in a difficult situation at home and abroad, and felt a profound crisis never seen in history. The Westernization school, divided from the feudal landlord class, had a certain understanding of the world situation. They advocate learning from western capitalist countries. The main figures of the Westernization school were Zeng Guofan, Li Hongzhang and others. They held high positions in the Qing government. Compared with other ordinary officials, they were more deeply aware of the need to learn and introduce advanced military weapons and manufacturing technology from Western powers in order to maintain the ruling order of the feudal society and realize the stability of the regime of the Qing Dynasty. However, at that time, the Westernization school could only recognize the progress of Western skills and the strength of military strength. Their change Geng Chang's method was only limited to "learning from foreigners". Among them, the translation of foreign books became an important means to achieve the goal of learning from foreigners. （Wang 1987:23-24）

In 1862, due to the needs of diplomacy and Westernization Movement, Tongwen museum was established in Beijing to train translators. The Tongwen Library in Beijing regards translation and washing as an important activity. The Jiangnan manufacturing Bureau, founded in 1865, had a greater impact during this period. The two primary problems faced by Jiangnan manufacturing Bureau after its completion are technology and talents, and the key to solving these two problems is the translation of technical books. Therefore, it decided to "set up another school to learn translation", "it is planned to select intelligent disciples to study with the school when it is completed", "You don't have to fake a foreigner, you can also extend it and make it into a book." The books translated by the translators were mainly about natural science and applied technology, which played a positive role in introducing modern science and technology and promoting the development of productive forces, and became important teaching materials for people of insight at that time to understand the external world and update their knowledge structure. These books can be said to have cultivated the next batch of cultural newcomers, such as Kang Youwei, Liang Qichao, Zhang Taiyan and Cai Yuanpei and so on. （Zeng 1987:83）

During this period, the importance of translation has been paid some attention, and the government has begun to operate translation in an organized and planned way. At the same time, the translation activities of the church have also been strengthened. Missionaries played the role of cultural invaders in the process of foreign military aggression. At first, missionaries wanted to carry out cultural aggression in the sense of Christianity, but they were influenced by Chinese tradition The influence of culture was resisted by the Chinese people. So they turned to spread new western knowledge and Western civilization, set up institutions, run newspapers and translate books, and tried to open the gap of the Chinese people's thought, so as to achieve the purpose of cultural aggression control. But objectively speaking, they also played a role in spreading Western learning to a certain extent. The translation by foreign missionaries had a great impact on Chinese society. The Chinese people's own pure literary translation also began at this stage. However, the literary translation at this stage still lacks systematic theoretical guidance and positive social atmosphere.

====2.3.2 After the Sino-Japanese War====
After the Sino-Japanese War was defeated, the Westernization Movement was declared bankrupt, and China's current situation was at stake. People with lofty ideals learned from the failure of the Westernization Movement that reform is far from solving the problem. To make China embark on the road of independence, prosperity and strength, we must fundamentally learn from the West and change the feudal autocratic system. In order to comprehensively learn western learning, translation is the first thing at this time. Therefore, this is the moment The translation career of this period is very prosperous, which is very different from the translation characteristics of the previous era. First, the expansion of the field of translation. At this time, the focus of importing western learning turned to various fields of social science, and paid particular attention to the import of political and academic ideas. The eight famous works translated by Yan Fu were outstanding representatives of this period, which had a significant impact on the society of the Qing Dynasty. During this period, translation methods were widely used, that is, abridged translation and free translation of foreign works, which were understood by the translator At this time, a large number of social sciences have been introduced, which has greatly improved the ideological level of Chinese people and brought the political and cultural activities to a new stage. Secondly, the translation field has also been expanded. The previous translation work was limited to government-run institutions. After the Sino-Japanese War, the reformers stepped onto the historical stage, and the translation work has been included in the overall plan of the reform. The reformers created schools, ran newspapers and opened publishing houses, with the import of Western learning and the translation and introduction of Western books as the main activities. After the failure of the reform movement, the establishment of newspapers and publishing houses did not stop. At this time, China's translation industry began to gradually break away from the limited government-run and turn to the private sector, resulting in an unprecedented prosperity in the translation industry. In addition, the translation team has gradually expanded. The establishment of foreign language teaching has gradually increased the number of foreign students and personnel abroad. The emergence of more and more translation talents meets the development of the publishing industry and social needs at this time. More and more people who know foreign languages are engaged in translation. This period is also an era of a large number of translators. Not only Lin Shu and Yan Fu, but also Liang Qichao, Su Manshu, Zhou Guisheng, Wu Guangjian are all well-known. During this period, the level of translation was also greatly improved. In the early days, most of the translations were spoken by foreigners who knew a little Chinese, and then recorded and polished by Chinese. The level of translation was uneven. During this period, most translators were proficient in foreign languages, their Chinese level was also high, and the quality of translation improved greatly Great improvement.（Xiao 1984:23）

This stage is also a period of vigorous rise and unprecedented prosperity of novel translation. In the early modern times, novel translation was not paid much attention. The first foreign novel translated into China was translated by foreign missionaries and published by the church. It was ''The Pilgrim’s Progress'' by British writer John Buyan, and the translation was published in Xiamen in 1853. During this period, translation activities also had some defects. Due to the popularity of translation, although abridged translation and free translation made the translator more free to express his political ideas, it also caused the disadvantages of breaking away from the original works. The purpose of translation was not to introduce western literature, but to express the translator's own ideas as a political means. At the same time, translation theory was strongly advocated in this period and political utilitarianism have also been greatly strengthened.

====2.3.3 Marked by the Rise of the New Culture Movement====
After the revolution of 1911, people's political enthusiasm was obviously low. In terms of translation, few people paid attention to social, political and economic works, and the number of translated novels was significantly lower than that of creative novels. However, people's literary concept was gradually strengthened. During this period, many translators introduced foreign literature from a literary perspective, bringing a new atmosphere to the translation circle and the history of Chinese literature In the period of the new culture movement, the translator's political and literary ideas were significantly improved, which laid a good foundation for the third wave of Western Chinese book translation starting from the new culture movement.

During this period, first of all, the number of short stories was greatly increased. During this period, new translators preferred to translate short stories. For example, Hu Shi translated ''The Last Lesson'' and Zhou Zuoren also published several short translation novels in the magazine New youth. The short translation novels published during this period also included ''The Leisure Review of Customs'' translated by Lin Shu and Chen Jialin. At this stage, the translator chooses the original work carefully after fully understanding and studying the original author, and describes his own opinions and ideas in the preface and postscript. Unlike in the past, he arbitrarily cuts the original work to express his political ideas, most of them are serious and loyal to the original. During this period, script translation gradually prevailed, and poetry translation appeared a new atmosphere. German poetry began to receive attention, and vernacular poetry began to appear. A new generation of translation practitioners consciously linked the translation of foreign literature with the transformation of Chinese literature and the purpose of the new culture movement. Chinese literary translation and Chinese society have entered a new era. （Wang 1992:321-322）

==3. The Influence of Modern Translation on Social Ideas==
===3.1 Appearance of the Concept of Marriage===
The translation that made an important change in the concept of scholars in the late Qing Dynasty was ''The Legacy of the Camellia'' in Paris translated by Lin Shu. This book describes the ups and downs of the protagonist Mark fate and complex psychological feelings. After the Sino-Japanese War, Lin Shu joined the ranks of reformers. He took a more open attitude towards love, which made Lin's translated novels reflect some changes of the times to a certain extent, implying that modern marriage and love pay attention to color. In Lin Shu's concept, if women want to benefit from freedom of marriage, they must first receive good education, such as Qiu Zhilan as a chivalrous woman, the heroine Qiu Zhilan sneaked into the capital to avenge her father's murder. She met scholar LV Qiushi and fell in love at first sight. She took the initiative to give a keepsake while LV Qiushi was reading at night. Finally, with the help of the blind nun of Shuiyue nunnery, they got married. Qiu Zhilan pursued love independently and persevered, suggesting that women's sense of marriage and love had begun to change under the circumstances at that time, Or the wind of free marriage and love has gradually risen. In Lin Shu's translated novels, Lin Shu points out the rigidity of the orders of parents and the words of matchmakers. He also advocates that women should maintain the beauty of temperament. In Lin Shu, women generally can consciously control their emotions, maintain a certain degree of reserve and gentleness in their behavior, and never do things carelessly. To a certain extent, this reflects the love aesthetics and love trend of the society at that time.（Hu 1916:474）

In the past, the novels of talented women and beauties in ancient China were a special kind of art to express the love concept of the citizen class. In Chinese novels of talented women and beauties, most of the talented people in the books were portrayed as the images of handsome, talented, elegant and noble, and not in line with the times. Second, the highest ideal commonly pursued by scholars at that time was "wedding night, golden list." The happy ending of joys and sorrows can satisfy people's aesthetic taste in the past. In ''The Legacy of the Camellia Woman'' in Paris, It depicts the heroine, who is loyal to her feelings and has a sense of morality, left because of Yameng's career future and family happiness. This self-sacrifice combined with tragic color made the people who have seen the story of talented people and beautiful women for a long time with an unprecedented freshness, which provided a new type of love aesthetics for the people at that time. （Chen 1990:213）

There are also relevant translation works such as ''Better Return'' published during the Meiji period, which is called "the milestone of the theme novel describing women's consciousness in the Meiji period", which describes the content of women's resistance to the oppression of old morality and ethics, and the dramatic work ''Doll's House'', the heroine Nala breaks away from her originally happy family and realizes that she is a neglected individual value. Her home is just a doll's home. It can be inferred that Nora is not the only one. The concepts of marriage and love freedom and women's individual values conveyed in her works since modern times have gradually penetrated into the society, and people have begun to gradually recognize the importance of women’ s rights. （Yuan 1989:178-181）

During the May 4th movement, The Troubles of Young Witt was strongly favored by young Chinese readers at that time for its crazy love passion, very dreamy action, rebellious and independent thought of the society and the protagonist's individualistic thinking method. This book was once regarded as the "Bible" by young men and women at that time As a general cultural phenomenon, the love between Witt and Lvdi made the young people talk about the freedom of marriage and love at that time and take the sacred love between men and women as the ideal. Witt easily reminded people of the talents in the love story at that time. Witt's lovelorn was expressed through strong sadness, which was the best comfort and inspiration for the young people who were eager to escape from the feudal cage at that time. It was a landmark translation that influenced modern Chinese society at that time.（Shi 1989:245）

===3.2 The Emergence of the Concept of Freedom and Equality and the Changes and Manifestations of Social Values===
Feminism is also one of the concepts of freedom and equality. Among the reformers after the failure of the Sino Japanese War of 1894-1895, Lin Shu was one of the first to advocate feminism. This was also mentioned in the previous section when describing the concept of marriage and love. The rise of women's concept of freedom of marriage and love has gradually spread, which implies that women pay attention to their own rights. From the novels translated by Lin Shu, Lin Shu's admiration for women's courage to pursue their love or rights shows that Lin supports and advocates women's rights. Xinxi Gossip deals with the values of money and the concept of social class. The novel expounds the role of money in Europe, which is unheard of by Chinese scholars. For example, the third volume of the novel describes that the British set up marriage halls, that is, intermediaries such as today's marriage agencies, many people who come to the museum are losers, hoping to cheat into marrying rich families, it describes that many people go to parties, but are driven by money worship in an attempt to cheat them into marrying rich people. At the same time, it also describes that money can make an old woman get a young husband, and the young husband aims at the old woman's rich family wealth. In the eyes of the Chinese people at that time, this was not in line with the code of ethics and could not be accepted.（Lu 1981:56）

==Conclusion==
In the transition period of modern China, the social function of translation played an important role, and the subversion was the most prominent in the social function of translation. At that time, China had experienced a long period of inaction towards western culture and regardless of the political and economic state of locking the country, resulting in China's ignorance of the West. However, at this time, the western world has not stopped the translation and introduction of Chinese culture through various channels Understanding. Asymmetric information exchange and translation make China in a passive position when communicating with the West. With the continuous entry of western new ideas and translation into China, values are constantly challenged, and even some extreme culturists try to subvert traditional Chinese culture and social values. The current situation requires China to make progress, and the current situation also forces China to make progress. In this period of mixed internal and external relations and political chaos, translation, as a communication tool, has always led Chinese people of insight in the exploration of saving the nation from subjugation and strengthening the country. （Zhang 1966:5-7）

The changes of modern history and the prominence of modern cultural view are greatly influenced by the input of Western learning. In modern Chinese society under the shock of Western learning civilization, translation makes western learning smoothly enter the Chinese people's political world, cultural undertakings and social life, but the overall westernization is absolutely impossible. In modern times, although Chinese traditional Confucianism has been criticized, even as a cultural pioneer The activists threw the target of political opinions, but middle school can not be reduced. Middle school is also the spiritual belief of Chinese unity since modern times. Lin Shu has always stressed that the traditional ethics revealed by Confucian culture has some eternal value and universal significance. The real Western civilization does not let us abandon middle school and completely replace it with Western learning, but let middle school be a traditional culture The social atmosphere under the coverage is more civilized.

==Reference==
Amos, Flora Ross. (1920). Early Theories of Translation. New York: Columbia University Press.

Benjamin, Andrew. (1989). Translation and the Nature of Philosophy: A New Theory of Words. London and New York: Routledge.

Catford,J.C.(1965) A Linguistic Theory of Translation.New York: Oxford University Press.

Dolet, Etienne. (1540). How to Translate Well from One Language to Another. Robinson.

A Yin 阿英.阿英文集［M］.Collection of A Ying’s Books三联书店, Sanlian Bookstore 1981:741.

Chen Xulu 陈旭麓.陈旭麓学术文存［M］.Chen Xulu Academic Archives上海：上海人民出版社, Shanghai：Shanghai People’s Press 1990:213.

Feng Zhijie 冯志杰.中国近代翻译史 History of Modern Chinese Translation（late Qing dynasty）（晚清卷）[M].北京：九州出版社, Bejing：Kyushu Press 2012:234-235.

Guo Moruo郭沫若.少年时代［M］,The Youth Age 人民文学出版社,People’s Literature Press1979:126.

Hu Shi 胡适.论译书寄陈独秀.胡适学术文集新文学运动［M］.Hu Shi’s Academic anthology New Literature Movement 1916:474.

Lian Yantang 连燕堂.二十世纪翻译文学史[M].History of Translated Literature in the 20th Century 百花文化出版社, Baihua Culture Press 2009:93.

Lu Xun 鲁迅.中国小说史略［M］.A Brief History of Chinese Novels 北京：人民文学出版社,Beijing:People’s Literature Publishing House 1973:125-126.

Lu Xun 鲁迅.文化偏至论［M］On Cultural Deviation （《鲁迅全集》第一卷）.人民文学出版社，People’s Literature Press 1981:56.

Shi Meng 时萌.晚清小说［M］.Novels of the Late Qing Dynasty 上海：上海古籍出版社,Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Press 1989:245.

Shiteng Huixiu 实藤惠秀著，谭汝谦等译.《中国人留学日本史》History of Chinese People Studying in Japan［M］.三联书店, Sanlian Bookstore 1983:216.

Tan Sitong 谭嗣同.谭嗣同全集［M］.Complete Works of Tan Sitong北京：中华书局5 Beijing Zhonghua Book Company 1981.

Wang Xiangrong 汪向荣.中国的近代化与日本［M］.China’s Modernization and Japan湖南人民出版社,Hunan People’s Press1987:23-24.

Wang Lixing 王立兴.中国近代文学考论［M］.A Research on Modern Chinese Literature南京：南京大学出版社,Nanjing：Nanjing University Press1992:321-322.

Xiaotian Qiejin 小田切近著，山人译.日本的名作［M］.Japanese Masterpieces 福建人民出版社,Fujian People’s Press1984:23.

Yuan Jian 袁健，郑荣.晚清小说研究概说［M］.An Overview of Novels in Late Qing Dynasty 天津：天津教育出版社,Tianjin：Tianjin Education Press1989:178-181.

Zou Zhenhuan 邹振环.影响中国近代社会的一百种译作 One Hundred Translations Influential on Modern Chinese Society [M].江苏教育出版社，Jiangsu Education Press 2008: 57-58.

Zhang Hailin 张海林.近代中外文化交流史[M].History of Modern Sino-foreign Cultural Exchanges 南京：南京大学出版社, Nanjing University Press 2003:158.

Zhang Xingniang 张星娘.欧化东渐史［M］.History of Europeanization Spreading to the East 商务印书馆,Commercial Press1934:42.

Zhang Zhenyu 张振玉.译学概论［M］.Introduction to Translation 中台印刷厂,Zhongtai Press1966:5-7.

Zeng Guofan 曾国藩.轮船工竣并陈机器局情形疏.郑振铎编.晚清文选［M］,The Steamship Engineer and Machinery Bureau 上海书店, Shanghai Bookstore 1987影印本：83.

Written by--[[User:Zhong Yifei|Zhong Yifei]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yifei|talk]]) 13:50, 8 December 2021 (UTC)

History of Translations

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=Rouabah Soumaya: History of translation in the Middle Ages=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_2]]
== Abstract==
The history of translation is seen variously as examining the role of translation in historical episodes through decades or investigating the phenomenon or understanding of translation itself historically. These different historiographical perspectives involve potentially different research aims, approaches, concepts, methods and scholarly interlocutors. The paper focuses on this question of disciplinary commensurability in historical studies, and draws parallels between the history of translation and translation in the middle ages. Themes addressed include the bible translation as , established historiographical norms and alternative, interdisciplinary approaches. It is argued that both the history of translation started with the translation of the Bible in the early BC comes, towards a reflexive, transnational history that seeks productive modes of engagement with other historical disciplines. By bringing to the attention of translation scholars some of the key debates in the history of translation and by identifying commonalities, this paper hopes to present an overall view of translation in the middle ages with slight knowledge of Bible translation in the early centuries of the middle ages, which starts from th5 to the 15 century.

== Keywords==
History of Translation , Bible Translation, Translation in the Middle Ages
medieval translation, medieval translator, translation and culture

== Introduction ==
This paper aims at a general review of the history of translation studies and the prevalent approaches from antiquity to the present in the west, in the form of a historical survey in which key theoretical developments are taken into account, focusing on approaches that have been developed during the twentieth century. Without a doubt, It is James Holme's seminal paper "the name and nature of translation studies" that draws up a disciplinary map for translation studies and serves as a springboard for researchers with its binary division of Translation Studies into two branches: "pure" and "applied." Its growth as a discipline goes back to the 1980s. As time elapses, translation studies, by achieving a certain institutional authority and coalescing with many a resurging disciplines and trends as cultural studies, linguistics, literary theory and criticism, brings a renewed aspect to translation theory.

In addition, this paper argues that English medieval translation can be considered as part of a cultural project in that the medieval translator is concerned more with the role and the function of translation in the target culture. Medieval translation theory derives from the classical theories of translation, however, prefaces to translations indicate that medieval translator appropriates the classical translation theory and uses it to serve the cultural and ideological objectives of translation in the middle Ages.

Key words: medieval translation, medieval translator, translation and culture, translation theory.
The pioneering work of Jeannette Beer and Roger Ellis has decidedly promoted medieval translation as a significant area, and has established medieval translation as the work of culturally responsible, academically oriented people of learning.

1 Susan
* Assist. Prof. Dr., Hacettepe University, Department of English Language and Literature
1 The problematic situation of Medieval translation in the academia is discussed by Ruth Evans in "Translating
Past Cultures?" in The Medieval Translator /Vied. Roger Ellis and Ruth Evans, the University of Exeter Press,
Medieval Translation and Cultural Transformation

== Early History of Translation==
The word ‘translation’ comes from a Latin term which means, “To bring or carry across”. Another relevant term comes from the Ancient Greek word of ‘metaphrasis’ which means, “To speak across” and from this, the term ‘metaphrase’ was born, which means a “word-for-word translation”. These terms have been at the heart of theories relating to translation throughout history and have given insight into when and where translation have been used throughout the ages.

It is known that translation was carried out as early as the Mesopotamian era when the Sumerian poem, Gilgamesh, was translated into Asian languages. This dates back to around the second millennium BC. Other ancient translated works include those carried out by Buddhist monks who translated Indian documents into Chinese. In later periods, Ancient Greek texts were also translated by Roman poets and were adapted to create developed literary works for entertainment. It is known that translation services were utilised in Rome by Cicero and Horace and that these uses were continued through to the 17th century, where newer practices were developed.

The history of translation has been a topic that has long been debated by scholars and historians, though it is widely accepted that translation pre-dates the bible. The bible tells of different languages as well as giving insight to the interaction of speakers from different areas. The need for translation has been apparent since the earliest days of human interaction, whether it be for emotional, trade or survival purposes.

The demand for translation services has continued to develop and is now more vital than ever, with businesses acknowledging the inability to expand internationally or succeed in penetrating foreign markets without translating marketing material and business documents.

It is significant to review the history of translation in different languages. There are divisions of period made by scholars like George Steiner. According to Steiner, the history of translation is divided into four periods. Starting from the Roman translators Cicero and Horace to Alexander Fraser Tytler is the first period; the second period extends up to Valery and from Valery to 1960s becomes the third period and the fourth period 1960s onwards. The history of translation is stressed out from 3000 B.C. Rosetta Stone is considered the most ancient work of Translation belonged to the second century B.C. Livius Andronicus translated Homer’s Odyssey named Odusia into Latin in 240 B.C. All that survives is parts of 46 scattered lines from 17 books of the Greek 24-book epic. In some lines, he translates literally, though in others more freely. His translation of the Odyssey had a great historical importance. Before then, the Mesopotamians and Egyptians had translated judicial and religious texts, but no one had yet translated a literary work written in a foreign language until the Roman Empire. Livius’ translation made this fundamental Greek text accessible to Romans, and advanced literary culture in Latin. This project was one of the best examples of translation as artistic process. The work was to be enjoyed on its own, and Livius strove to preserve the artistic quality of original. Since there was no tradition of epic in Italy before him, Livius must have faced enormous problems. For example, he used archaizing forms to make his language more solemn and intense. Barnstone Willis. The Poetics of Translation: History, Theory and Practice. London: Yale University Press, 1993. Print. Bassnett, Susan and Lefevere, Andre (Eds.). Translation, History and Culture. London: Pinter, 1990. Print.

When we talk about the history of translation, we should think of the theories and names that e merged at its different periods. In fact, each era is characterized by specific changes in translation history, but these changes differ from one place to another. For example, the developments of translation in the western world are not the same as those in the Arab world, as each nation knew particular incidents that led to the birth of particular theories. So, what marked the western translation? .By Marouane Zakhir English translator University of Soultan Moulay Slimane, Morocco

== Translation in the Western World==
For centuries, people believed in the relation between translation and the story of the tower of Babel in the Book of Genesis. According to the Bible, the descendants of Noah decided, after the great flood, to settle down in a plain in the land of Shinar. There, they committed a great sin. Instead of setting up a society that fits God's will, they decided to challenge His authority and build a tower that could reach Heaven. However, this plan was not completed, as God, recognizing their wish, regained control over them through a linguistic stratagem. He caused them to speak different languages so as not to understand each other. Then, he scattered them all over the earth. After that incident, the number of languages increased through diversion, and people started to look for ways to communicate, hence the birth of translation (Abdessalam Benabdelali, 2006) (1).

Actually, with the birth of translation studies and the increase of research in the domain, people started to get away from this story of Babel, and they began to look for specific dates and figures that mark the periods of translation history.

Researchers mention that writings on translation go back to the Romans. Eric Jacobson claims that translating is a Roman invention (see McGuire: 1980) (2). Cicero and Horace (first century BC) were the first theorists who distinguished between word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Their comments on translation practice influenced the following generations of translation up to the twentieth century.

Another period that knew a changing step in translation development was marked by St Jerome (fourth century CE). "His approach to translating the Greek Septuagint Bible into Latin would affect later translations of the scriptures." (Munday, 2001) (3)

The first important translation in the West was that of the Septuagint, a collection of Jewish Scriptures translated into early Koine Greek in Alexandria between the 3rd and "1st centuries B C E The dispersed Jews had forgotten their ancestral language and Throughout the .middle Ages, /Latin was the lingua franca of the western learned world. -Wikipedia .org/wiki/

The 9th1century Alfred the Great, king of Wessex in England, was far ahead of his time in commissioning 'vernacular Anglo -Saxon translations of Bede’s Ecclesiastical History and Boethius « Consolation of Philosophy ) meanwhile, the Christian church frowned on even partial adaptations of St . Jerome ‘s Vulgate of CA 384 CE, the Latin Bible . -Wikipedia .org/wiki/

The broad historic trends in Western translation practice may be illustrated on the example of translation into the English language .

The first fine translations into English were made in the "the century by Geoffrey Chaucer, who adapted from the Italian of Giovanni Boccaccio in his own Knight's Tal e and Troilus and Criseyde ; began a translation of the French -language Roman de la Rose 7 and completed a translation of Boethius from the Latin . Chaucer bounded an English poetic tradition on adaptations and translations from those earlier established literary languages . -Wikipedia .org/wiki/

The first great English translation was the Wycliffe (CA 1382), which showed the weaknesses of an under developed English prose . only at the end of the "15th century did the great age to English prose translation begin with Thomas Malory ‘s "le Morte D arthur”- Ban adaptation of Arthurian romances so free that it can, in fact, hardly be called a true translation . The first great Tudor translations are, accordingly, the Tyndale new Testament ( 1525), which influenced the Authorized Version (1611), and Lord Berners version of jean Froissart’s Chronicles ( 1523- 25) . - Wikipedia .org/wiki/

== History of Translation in the Middle Ages==
In the history of Europe, the middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the Fifth to the late 15th centuries, similarly to the Post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and transitioned into the Renaissance and the Age of Discovery. The middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history: classical antiquity, the medieval period, and the modern period. The medieval period is itself subdivided into the Early, High, and Late Middle Ages.

This article is about medieval Europe. For a global history of the period between the 5th and 15th centuries, see Post-classical history. For other uses, see middle Ages (disambiguation).

"Medieval times" redirects here. For the dinner theatre, see Medieval Times.

Latin was the lingua franca of the Western learned world throughout the middle Ages, with few translations of Latin works into vernacular languages. In the 9th century, Alfred the Great, King of Wessex in England, was far ahead of his time in commissioning vernacular translations from Latin into English of Bede’s “Ecclesiastical History”and Boethius's “The Consolation of Philosophy”, which contributed to improve the underdeveloped English prose of that time.

It is argued that the knowledge and findings of Greek academics was developed and understood so widely thanks to the translation work of Arabic scholars. When the Greeks were conquered, Arabic scholars, who translated them and created their own versions of the scientific, entertainment and philosophical understandings took in their works. These Arabic versions were later translated into Latin, during the middle Ages, mostly throughout Spain and the resulting works provided the foundations of Renaissance academics.

Medieval times in human history – also referred to as the “Middles Ages” – was the time period that fell roughly between the fall of the Roman Empire in 476 CE and the 14th century. However, these years bear another moniker as well: the Dark Ages. There are valid reasons for that term. In the eyes of many historians, people during this age made little to no significant advancements that benefitted humankind. In addition, most notably, this was the period when the “Black Death” (the bubonic plague) killed an estimated 30 percent of the population of Europe.

However, the middle Ages were not completely “dark.” In fact, modern historians are taking a second look at this period with a more objective – and perhaps more generous – perspective. There is no doubt, for example, that religion flourished during this time. The Catholic Church came to prominence throughout Europe, and the rise of Islam was occurring simultaneously in the Middle East. It was there – particularly in urban centres such a Baghdad, Damascus and Cairo – that an extremely vibrant culture and intellectual society thrived.

The art of translation also made great strides during the middle Ages. Thanks to Alfred the Great (the king of England during the 9th century), The Consolation of Philosophy by Boethius and Ecclesiastical History by Bede were translated from Latin to English – a major feat that would have a great impact on the overall advancement of English prose during this period. Later, during the 12th and 13th centuries, the Toledo School of Translators (“Escuela de Traductores de Toledo”) worked on a wide variety of translations, including religious, scientific, philosophical and medical works. The original texts were created in Arabic, Hebrew and Greek, and all were translated into Castilian – and that formed the basis for the formation of the Spanish language. Also during the 13th century, English linguist Roger Bacon postulated the concept that a translator not only needed to be fully fluent in both the source and target languages of the work being translated, but also that a translator should be fully versed in the topic of the work to be translated – a tenet that still holds true in the language arts to this day.

One of the most notable translators during the middle Ages was also one of the most accomplished authors and poets – Geoffrey Chaucer. In fact, those historians who still maintain that the Dark Ages produced little to no significant contributions to humankind might do well to remember the works of Chaucer. In a lifetime that spanned some 60 years (from the 1340s until 1400), Chaucer earned the reputation as the “father of English literature.” However, that description only scratched the surface of Chaucer’s accomplishments. He was also a noted astronomer and philosopher, as well as a diplomat, bureaucrat and parliament member. Chaucer’s contributions to the language arts were no less significant; his use of Middle English (as opposed to Latin or French, which were the two most commonly used languages of the day) quite literally brought English into mainstream usage, as did his translations of numerous works from Italian, French and Latin into English.

It can truly be said that historians have given medieval times somewhat of a bad rap over the centuries. And while there’s no doubt that the accomplishments of linguists and others during the Middle Ages can’t come close to comparing with those of the Renaissance or later time periods, the contributions made during the “Dark Ages” should not be overlooked. In fact, from a linguistic point of view, this was an extremely crucial time. Not only were the basic principles of translation developed during the middle Ages, but also English itself began to take shape as a language of import for future years.

Studies on the theory and practice of medieval translation reveal therefore that the translation principles and the issues of translation theory in the Middle Ages derive from a long established tradition of translation theory developed by the classical authors. In practice, Roger Ellis states, medieval translation is heterogeneous; "every instance of practice that we may be tempted to erect into a principle has its answering opposite, sometimes in the same work (quoted in Evans, 1994: 27). Evidently, not only the critical approaches to translation in the Middle Ages but also theory and practice of translation of the period vary considerably. However, it seems that medieval translation utilises the translation and writing theories inherited from the classical authors to adopt a translational approach that recognises translation's vital role in the cultural transformation of the middle Ages. Page 96

This paper argues therefore that the medieval interest in translation can be considered as a cultural and political interest since the 1994. pp. 20-45. See Jeanette Beer, Medieval Translators and Their Craft.1989 and Roger Ellis (ed) assisted by Jocelyn Price, Stephen Medcalf and Peter Meredith. The Medieval Translator: The Theory and Practice of Translation in the Middle Ages: Papers Read at a Conference Held 20-23 August 1987 at the University of Wales Conference Centre, Gregynog //a//.Woodbridge, Suffolk: D.S. Brewer, 1989.

Rita Copeland, Rhetoric, Hermeneutics, and Translation in the Middle Ages: Academic Traditions and
Vernacular Texts. Cambridge, 1991. See particularly A. J. Minnis and A. B. Scots (eds) Medieval Literary
Theory and Criticism c.l 100-1375 The Commentary Tradition. Oxford, 1988.

Translations of the period are introduced as potential projects for cultural transformation. The formative role of translation in the middle Ages can be observed in medieval culture's awareness of the significance of cultural interaction. Medieval culture is a highly bookish culture, which contributed to the development of a vigorous translation activity in the Middle Ages. The recognition of the authority of the books seems to have led to the utilisation of the potential in translation for cultural education and transformation. As there was little or no difference between translation and original composition in the Middle Ages, translation was often considered in association with the pragmatic function of the book (Barratt, 1992:13-14).

In Geoffrey Chaucer's The Prologue to the Legend of Good Women, the fictional dialogue concerning the translations of the narrator provides an instructive interaction concerning translation activity as an integral part of cultural re-construction in the middle Ages.

The god of Love presents two works of Chaucer, the Troilus and Criseyde and the Romance of the Rose, as translations and questions the narrator's motives in choosing to translate works undermining the doctrine of Love (322-335). This fictional questioning introduces, in fact, the main attitude to translation in the middle Ages as it recognises the transformative role of translation on the target audience as an important issue the medieval translator recognises and aims at as the ultimate target of translation. Similarly, the narrator in Chaucer's Prologue to the Legend of Good Women argues that he wanted to teach the reader the true conduct in love through the experience of the lovers in the books he translated (471-474).

The translator in this fictional debate introduces the main objective of translation as making the works of foreign languages available to the linguistically disadvantaged audience for their cultural improvement. This rather pragmatic translational paradigm, moreover, introduces another important issue of medieval translation addressed by theoretical tradition of translation in the middle Ages. In fact, the translator accused of mistranslation in Chaucer's Prologue to the Legend of Good Women is also a writer, his accuser does not make a distinction between his role as a translator and his role as a writer.3 many of the medieval translators were also writers, and translation and interpretation were considered as important strategies in medieval composition. Moreover, most of the medieval translation activity from Latin into the vernacular involved a transfer of the past works into the vernacular by re-writing.
As Douglas Kelly argues, "such re-writing is 'translation' as literary invention, using pre-
existent source material. It is a variety of translation study « (1997: 48). Medieval reception of the translation theory of the classical antiquity as a principle governing creative activity led to a special sense of translation, that is, translation as "an 3 See the Prologue to the Legend of Good Women, lines 322-35 and 362-370. 97

".. And other bokes took me ...To reed upon ": Medieval Translation and Cultural Transformation 'unfaithful' yet artful interpretation or reinterpretation"(Kelly, 1997: 55), or "secondary translation" to put it in Copeland's words.

Identifying the important status of translation in the Middle Ages as a branch of writing reveals that the Middle Ages was not totally oblivious to the legacy of rhetorical and hermeneutic traditions of the classical antiquity. More importantly, it testifies to the significant function translation is given in the cultural transformation. As stated above, a theoretical understanding of translation in the middle Ages was largely dependent on the classical ideas of translation. Rita Copeland argues for the necessity of recognising the medieval awareness of the classical tradition as the strong theoretical foundation of Medieval translation.

3.1 Translation in middle Ages (The Philological Perspective)

Middle Ages epoch roughly represents the time between late fifth century and the fifteenth century A.D.in Europe. Middle Ages, however, continue until the advent of European Colonialism (about eighteenth century) in the 'Oriental' and African countries. With the spread of Christianity, translation takes a new role of disseminating the word of God. How to translate the divine words faithfully was a serious issue because of dogmatic and political concerns. “St. Jerome claims that he follows sense for sense approach rather than word for word approach when translating the New Testament in AD 384.”18 Since the aim of the divine text is to provide understanding and guidance, it seems logical to follow sense for sense approach. Thence, there is a possibility of intentional or unintentional change of meaning and the context; for these reasons, some scholars emphasize on the word for word translation approach. The first translation of the complete Bible into English was the Wycliffe Bible is which was produced between 1380 and 1384; “Wycliffe believes man should have direct contact with God and thus the Bible should be translated into language that man can understand, i.e. in the vernacular. Purvey believes translator should translate “after sentence (meaning),” not only after words. Martin Luther says, “... the meaning and subject matter must be considered, not the grammar, for the grammar should not rule over the meaning;”19 Criticism on sense for sense was widespread because it minimized the power of the church authorities, “while literal translation was bound up with the Bible and other religious and philosophical works, says Jeremy Monday; non-literal or non-accepted translation came to be seen and used as a weapon against the Church.”20“In the Western Europe this word-for-word versus sense-for-sense debate continued in one form or another until the twentieth century. The centrality of Bible to translation also explains the enduring theoretical questions about accuracy and fidelity to fixed source.”21 In the eighth and ninth century A.D., a large number of translations from Greek into Arabic gave rise to Arabic learning. “Scholars from Syria, a part of the Roman Empire (during 64B.C.-636A.D) came to Baghdad and translated Greek works of Physician Hippocrates (460-360 B.C.), philosophers Plato (427-327 B.C.) and Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) into Arabic during the eighth and ninth century A.D. Baghdad continued to be a centre of translations of Greek classics into Arabic even in the twentieth century A.D.”22 The dominance of religion is prominent in the Translation Era of Middle Ages. In this era, both the trends of Antiquity period can be seen in action, yet emphasis is again on the sense for sense approach.

3.2 Translation In the middle Ages between the 12th and the 15 centuries;

In the 12th and 13th centuries, the Toledo School of Translators (Escuela de Traductores de Toledo) became a meeting point for European scholars who — attracted by the high wages they were offered — came and settled down in Toledo, Spain, to translate major philosophical, religious, scientific and medical works from Arabic, Greek and Hebrew into Latin and Castilian. Toledo was a city of libraries offering a number of manuscripts, and one of the few places in medieval Europe where a Christian could be exposed to Arabic language and culture.

The Toledo School of Translators went through two distinct periods. Archbishop Raymond de Toledo, who advocated the translation of philosophical and religious works, led the first period (in the 12th century) mainly from classical Arabic into Latin. These Latin translations helped advance European Scholasticism, and thus European science and culture. King Alfonso X of Castile himself led the second period (in the 13th century). On top of philosophical and religious works, the scholars also translated scientific and medical works. Castilian — instead of Latin — became the final language, thus resulting in establishing the foundations of the modern Spanish language.

The translations of works on different sciences (astronomy, astrology, algebra, medicine) acted as a magnet for numerous scholars, who came from all over Europe to Toledo to learn first-hand about the contents of all those Arab, Greek and Hebrew works, before going back home to disseminate the acquired knowledge in European universities. While some Toledo translations of physical and cosmological works were accepted in most European universities in the early 1200s, the works of Aristotle and Arab philosophers were often banned, for example at the Sorbonne University in Paris.

Roger Bacon was a 13th-century English scholar heralded for his early exposition of a “universal grammar” (the concept that the ability to learn grammar is hard-wired into the brain). He was the first linguist to assess that a translator should know well both the source language and the target language to produce a good translation, and that the translator should be well versed in the discipline of the work he was translating. According to legend, after finding out that few translators did, Roger Bacon decided to do away with translation and translators altogether. However, his decision did not last long. He relied on many Toledo translations from Arabic into Latin to make major contributions in the fields of optics, astronomy, natural sciences, chemistry and mathematics.

Geoffrey Chaucer produced the first fine translations into English in the 14th century. Chaucer translated the “Roman de la Rose” from French, and Boethius’s works from Latin. He also adapted some works of the Italian humanist Giovanni Boccaccio to produce his own “Knight’s Tale” and “Troilus and Criseyde” (c.1385) in English. Chaucer is regarded as the founder of an English poetic tradition based on translations and adaptations of literary works in languages that were more “established” than English was at the time, beginning with Latin and Italian. The finest religious translation of that time was the “Wycliffe’s Bible” (1382-84), named after John Wycliffe, an English theologian who translated the Bible from Latin to English.

In the 15th century : Byzantine scholar Gemistus Pletho’s trip to Florence, Italy, pioneered the revival of Greek learning in Western Europe. Gemistus Pletho reintroduced Plato’s thought during the 1438-39 Council of Florence, in a failed attempt to reconcile the East-West schism (a 11th-century schism between the Eastern Orthodox and Catholic churches). During this Council, Pletho met Cosimo de Medici, the politician ruling Florence and a great patron of learning and the arts, and influenced him to found a Platonic Academy. Led by the Italian scholar and translator Marsilio Ficino, the Platonic Academy took over the translation into Latin of all Plato’s works, the “Enneads” of Plotinus and other Neo-Platonist works. Marsilio Ficino’s work — and Erasmus’ Latin edition of the New Testament — led to a new attitude to translation. For the first time, readers demanded rigor of rendering, as philosophical and religious beliefs depended on the exact words of Plato and Jesus (and Aristotle and others).

The great age of English prose translation began in the late 15th century with Thomas Malory’s “Le Morte d’Arthur” (1485), a free translation/adaptation of Arthurian romances about the legendary King Arthur, as well as Guinevere, Lancelot, Merlin and the Knights of the Round Table. Thomas Malory “interpreted” existing French and English stories about these figures while adding original material, e.g. the “Gareth” story about one of the Knights of the Round Table.4

== An Overview of Bible Translations in The Middle Ages==
The most significant turn in the history of translation came with the Bible translations. The efforts of translating the Bible from its original languages into over 2,000 others have spanned more than two millennia. Partial translation of the Bible into languages of English people can be stressed back to the end of the seventh century, including translations into Old English and Middle English. Over 450 versions have been created overtime.
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Bible translations in the Middle Ages discussions are in contrast to Late Antiquity, when the Bibles available to most Christians were in the local vernacular. In a process seen in many other religions, as languages changed, and in Western Europe, languages with no tradition of being written down became dominant, the prevailing vernacular translations remained in place, despite gradually becoming sacred languages, incomprehensible to the majority of the population in many places. In Western Europe, the Latin Vulgate, itself originally a translation into the vernacular, was the standard text of the Bible, and full or partial translations into a vernacular language were uncommon until the Late Middle Ages and the Early Modern Period. A page from the luxury illuminated manuscript Wenceslas Bible, a German translation of the 1390s.[1] From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia

During the Migration Period Christianity spread to various peoples who had not been part of the old Roman Empire, and whose languages had yet no written form, or only a very simple one, like runes. Typically, the Church itself was the first to attempt to capture these languages in written form, and Bible translations are often the oldest surviving texts in these newly written-down languages. Meanwhile, Latin was evolving into new distinct regional forms, the early versions of the Romance languages, for which new translations eventually became necessary. However, the Vulgate remained the authoritative text, used universally in the West for scholarship and the liturgy since the early development of the Romance languages had not come to full fruition, matching its continued use for other purposes such as religious literature and most secular books and documents. In the early middle Ages, anyone who could read at all could often read Latin, even in Anglo-Saxon England, where writing in the vernacular (Old English) was more common than elsewhere. A number of pre-reformation Old English Bible translations survive, as do many instances of glosses in the vernacular, especially in the Gospels and the Psalms.[4] Over time, biblical translations and adaptations were produced both within and outside the church, some as personal copies for religious or lay nobility, and others for liturgical or pedagogical purposes.[5][6] From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia

The Bible was translated into various languages in late antiquity; the most important of these translations are those in the Syriac dialect of Aramaic (including the Peshitta and the Diatessaron gospel harmony), the Ge'ez language of Ethiopia, and, in Western Europe, Latin. The earliest Latin translations are collectively known as the Vetus Latina, but in the late fourth century, Jerome re-translated the Hebrew and Greek texts into the normal vernacular Latin of his day, in a version known as the Vulgate (Biblia vulgata) (meaning "common version", in the sense of "popular"). Jerome's translation gradually replaced most of the older Latin texts, and gradually ceased to be a vernacular version as the Latin language developed and divided. The earliest surviving complete manuscript of the entire Latin Bible is the Codex Amiatinus, produced in eighth century England at the double monastery of Wearmouth-Jarrow. By the end of late, antiquity the Bible was therefore available and used in all the major written languages then spoken by Christians. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia

== Conclusion ==
The history of translation studies and the resurgence and genesis of the approaches to this emerging discipline was marked by the first century (BCE) commentator Cicero and then St. Jerome whose word-for-word and sense-for-sense approaches to translation was a springboard for other approaches and trends to thrive. From the medieval ages until now, each decade was marked by a dominant concept such as translatability, equivalence etc. Whilst before the twentieth century translation was an element of language learning, the study of the field developed into an academic discipline only in the second half of the twentieth century, when this field achieved a certain institutional authority and developed as a distinct discipline. As this discipline moved towards the present, the level of sophistication and inventiveness did in fact soared and new concepts, methods, and research projects were developed which interacted with this discipline. The brief review here, albeit incomplete, reflects the current fragmentation of the field into subspecialties, some empirically oriented, some hermeneutic and literary and some influenced by various forms of linguistics and cultural studies which have culminated in productive syntheses. In short, translation studies is now a field which brings together approaches from a wide language and cultural studies, that for its own use, modifies them and develops new models specific to its own requirements.
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doi:10.4304/tpls.2.1.77-85

== References ==

1 - https//www.tandfonline.com//

2- Susan * Assist. Prof. Dr., Hacettepe University, Department of English Language and Literature
1 The problematic situation of Medieval translation in the academia is discussed by Ruth Evans in "Translating
Past Cultures?" in The Medieval Translator /Vied. Roger Ellis and Ruth Evans, the University of Exeter Press,
Medieval Translation and Cultural Transformation .

3- Barnstone Willis. The Poetics of Translation: History, Theory and Practice. London: Yale University Press, 1993. Print. Bassnett, Susan and Lefevere, Andre (Eds.). Translation, History and Culture. London: Pinter, 1990. Print.
4-Early history of translation .By Marouane Zakhir English translator University of Soultan Moulay Slimane, Morocco
5- -Wikipedia .org/wiki/
6- This article is about medieval Europe. For a global history of the period between the 5th and 15th centuries, see Post-classical history. For other uses, see middle Ages (disambiguation) "Medieval times" redirects here. For the dinner theatre, see Medieval Times
7- the 1994. pp. 20-45. See Jeanette Beer, Medieval Translators and Their Craft.1989 and Roger Ellis
(ed) assisted by Jocelyn Price, Stephen Medcalf and Peter Meredith. The Medieval Translator: The Theory
and Practice of Translation in the Middle Ages: Papers Read at a Conference Held 20-23 August 1987 at
the University of Wales Conference Centre, Gregynog //a//.Woodbridge, Suffolk: D.S. Brewer, 1989.
^ Rita Copeland, Rhetoric, Hermeneutics, and Translation in the Middle Ages: Academic Traditions and
Vernacular Texts. Cambridge, 1991. See particularly A. J. Minnis and A. B. Scots (eds) Medieval Literary
Theory and Criticism c.l 100-1375 The Commentary Tradition. Oxford, 1988.

8-- Prologue to the Legend of Good Women, lines 322-35 and 362-370. 97 ".. And other bokes took me ...To reed upon ": Medieval Translation and Cultural Transformation 'unfaithful' yet artful interpretation or reinterpretation"(Kelly, 1997: 55), or "secondary translation" to put it in Copeland's words.

9 -SSN 1799-2591 Theory and Practice in Language Studies, Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 77-85, January 2012 © 2012 ACADEMY PUBLISHER Manufactured in Finland.
doi:10.4304/tpls.2.1.77-85

10 - A page from the luxury illuminated manuscript Wenceslas Bible, a German translation of the 1390s.[1] From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia

11 - From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia

12- SSN 1799-2591 Theory and Practice in Language Studies, Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 77-85, January 2012 © 2012 ACADEMY PUBLISHER Manufactured in Finland. doi:10.4304/tpls.2.1.77-85

=李习长 History of Modern and Contemporary Chinese Translation=
“中国现当代翻译史”
Li Xichang, 李习长, Hunan Normal University, China
== Abstract==
The development of Chinese translation has a long history. Throughout the whole translation history, Chinese translation can be divided into four stages from the origin of translation, that is, the introduction of Buddhist scripture translation. They are ancient translation history, modern translation history, modern translation history and contemporary translation history. This paper will mainly summarize the modern and contemporary translation history, mainly from the three dimensions of translation history, theory and the representatives of translators in each period. In the contemporary era of rapid development, only when translation researchers have a clear understanding of translation history can they make outstanding contributions to the rapid development of translation.

== Key words==
translation history, representatives, modern, contemporary

== Introduction==
The fourth translation climax from the May 4th movement to the founding of new China has formed a unique translation theory system in China through the exploration and practice of countless predecessors. This stage is an extremely important period in China's translation history. It is a period of unprecedented development and magnificent development of translation cause. It is also a period of great development and debate of Chinese translation theory.
As the beginning of modern Chinese translation, the May 4th Movement gave birth to a group of outstanding translators, who mostly took literature as the theme, so the literary translation of this period reached the most brilliant moment in history. After the founding of new China, the history of Chinese translation has entered the contemporary period. The proletarian culture in this period is the most outstanding. Translators focus on political literature and literary translation, and focus on foreign translation, so that the west can understand Chinese culture and expand their horizons.

== History of Modern Chinese Translation ==
During this period, driven by the new culture movement and the May 4th movement, the new literature movement was in full swing, giving birth to many literary schools and literary associations, as well as translation ideas representing different literary positions. The role of translation in serving society, politics and the people was becoming more and more obvious. This period gave birth to many famous translators, such as Lu Xun, Yan Fu, Lin Shu and so on. Their emergence enriched the translation content of this period.

2.1 Lu Xun's translation thoughts
In 1919, with the rise of the May 4th New Culture Movement, many translators tried to absorb nutrition from foreign literature in order to achieve the purpose of transforming literature and society. Lu Xun is one of them. Lu Xun chose the road of literature out of the consideration of national crisis. He hoped that translation could arouse people's revolutionary enthusiasm, promote new literature and transform old literature.

In the 33 years from 1903 to 1936, Lu Xun's translation activities can be divided into three periods: early, middle and late. Lu Xun's early translation activities focused on the translation and introduction of scientific novels and political novels, mainly free translation, and the translation was mostly deleted and modified. With the change of translation thought, Lu Xun's translation activities gradually turned to the introduction of literary works of weak and small countries, and the translation strategy gradually changed from free translation to literal translation. In the later stage, Lu Xun focused on translating and introducing foreign revolutionary literary works and introducing foreign literary thoughts and policies to the Chinese people, and his literal translation and even "hard translation" translation strategy was further consolidated.

2.1.1 Lu Xun's early translation thoughts
In 1903, Lu Xun published the work sad dust by Victor Hugo, a French writer, which is considered to be the beginning of Lu Xun's translation career. In October 1903, Lu Xun translated Jules Verne's scientific novel "journey to the moon", and also translated "underground travel" in the same year. Subsequently, Lu Xun translated the world history, the scientific fantasy novel Arctic adventure and the two chapters of the theory of world evolution and the principle of element cycle in the new interpretation of physics. Unfortunately, these translations were not published or preserved. In the spring of 1905, Lu Xun translated the American Louis tolen's scientific fantasy novel "the art of making man", which was published in the fourth and fifth issues of women's world in Shanghai. A careful analysis of these works translated by Lu Xun shows that Lu Xun's translation materials in this period mainly include political novels and science fiction. In 1907, Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren jointly translated the novel "lost history of the Red Star", which should be originally named "desire of the world", which was co authored by haggard and Andrew LAN. This book was mainly translated by Zhou Zuoren. Lu Xun translated 16 poems, which were published by the Shanghai Commercial Press in December.

In short, Lu Xun's early translation was deeply influenced by the famous Yan Fu and Lin Shu at that time. However, without the early imitation translation, there will be no outstanding translation achievements in the future.

2.1.2 Lu Xun's mid-term translation thoughts
From 1909 to 1926, Lu Xun's translation thought gradually matured. The translation and introduction of foreign literature in many fields, levels, schools and channels is a major feature of Lu Xun's translation activities in this period.

In 1909, the collection of foreign novels was published. The translation was completed by Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren. The position of the collection of foreign novels in the history of Chinese translation and modern Chinese literature can not be ignored. It is a milestone translation event, which has a far-reaching impact on China's later literary creation and translation.

In 1919, Lu Xun translated the dream of a young man, during which his thought also changed deeply and complex. In 1920, with the help and support of Qi Shoushan, Lu Xun translated the worker Sui huiluefu. He began to cry out for the profound problem of "national character" and vigorously revealed it in his works, so as to attract people's attention and achieve the purpose of rescue. This kind of grief and anger that hates iron but does not become steel is in line with the ideal of the author alzhiba Suifu. During this period, Lu Xun paid more attention to Japanese literature and translated and introduced the collection of modern Japanese novels. In this collection, Lu Xun has translated 11 works of six people, including hanging scroll by his favorite writer Natsume Soseki, Mr. kleika, game by Mori ouwai and the tower of silence, with the young man by takero shimajima of the white birch school, the death of ah Mo, the last of Sanpu youweimen by Kikuchi Kuan of the new trend of thought, words of revenge and Ryunosuke Akutagawa Nose, Luo Shengmen, and night in the canyon by Jiangkou Huan are the works of famous masters of various schools in the Meiji era.

Lu Xun selected a wide variety of translation materials during this period, which created a precedent for translating and introducing the literature of "weak and small countries" to Chinese readers. In terms of translation style, he still adopted simple classical Chinese, but he has begun to use "alienation" At that time, Lu Xun's literary creation was closely accompanied by literary translation, and his literary creation was deeply inspired and influenced by literary translation.

2.1.3 Lu Xun's later translation thoughts
After 1927, Lu Xun ushered in the most brilliant period of his life. Whether in literary translation practice or literary translation theory, Lu Xun's achievements are the most prominent stage.

Lu Xun translated and introduced four works of literary theory of the former Soviet Union: 1. Lunacharski's work on art, which was translated in April 1929 and published by Shanghai Dajiang bookstore in June; 2. Lunacharski's collection of literary papers, literature and criticism, which was first published by Shanghai Shuimo bookstore in October, has six main texts On the task of Marxist literary criticism, the death of Tolstoy and young Europa, today's art and tomorrow's art, Soviet state and art, how art happens, Tolstoy and max; 3. In June 1929, Lu Xun spent four months translating Plekhanov's Marxist theory of Art (also known as art theory) In July, 1930, the first edition was published by Shanghai Guanghua book company; in April, 1929, the resolution of the Soviet government on the Communist Party's literary and artistic policy and the relevant meeting minutes, Soviet Russian literary and artistic policy (also known as literary and artistic Policy), the first edition was published by Shanghai Shuimo bookstore in June, 1930. In addition, Lu Xun also participated in the compilation of the small series of literary and artistic theories and the series of scientific theories of art.

During this period, Lu Xun's translations were different from the martial works of the first period and the works of resistance and cry of weak countries in Eastern Europe in the mid-term, but more focused on the translation of literary policies and artistic works. From literary revolution to revolutionary literature, it was precisely because of these debates that Lu Xun really firmly turned to the translation and introduction of revolutionary literary works. At the same time, through his own understanding of Soviet Russian literature The translation and understanding of theoretical works word by word, coupled with his personal experience of the revolution of 1911, Yuan Shikai becoming emperor and the second revolution, Lu Xun's thinking and insight on revolution, literature and art and life are more profound.

Lu Xun's translation thought is formed through continuous reflection and exploration. Dominated by the fundamental purpose of ideological enlightenment and political salvation, Lu Xun began his translation process. His choice of translated texts reflects his sense of social responsibility as a translator and his special pursuit of cultural values.
Lu Xun's translation emphasizes literal translation, focusing on "faith" and "better believe than smooth". He advocates hard translation and maintains the "foreign style" and "exotic" of the translation , for Lu Xun at that time, literal translation was not only a problem of translation and language construction, but also meant the construction of ideas and ideas, the introduction of new ideas and ideas, and the transformation of Chinese values and world outlook.

Lu Xun's choice caused an uproar in the intellectual circles at that time. Liang Shiqiu, a famous scholar at that time, also sarcastically said that he was "dead translation" and "hard translation". Lu Xun's articles sometimes read sentence patterns, and even the order of sentences is rarely reversed.

2.2 On Yan Fu's translation style
Yan Fu is one of the outstanding translators in modern China. His translation theory of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" has experienced the test of history and practice, and plays an important role in the history of Chinese translation.

2.2.1 Imitating the language structure of the pre Qin Dynasty
Yan Fu tried his best to use the pre-Qin morphology and syntax in his translation. In addition to imitation, the ready-made sentences of various schools of thought will also be borrowed by him as a part of the translation.

Yan Fu tried his best to imitate the morphology and syntax of the Pre-Qin Dynasty in western translation. An important feature of the pre-Qin Chinese morphology is the flexible use of parts of speech. According to his understanding and Research on the polysemy of a word in the pre-Qin classical Chinese, it is found that it can be extended at will. Therefore, in his translation language, the use of the characteristics of the pre-Qin morphology has made many parts of speech flexible use successful Application.

Another feature of Yan Fu's translated language is that some phrases have evolved through sentences. If you remove the "Zhi" in such phrases, you will find that the sentences will be complete. Yan Fu also imitated the language of the Pre-Qin Dynasty and used parallelism and dual sentences many times. The "four books and Five Classics" of the Pre-Qin Dynasty There are many parallelism and antithesis sentences in his translation. He uses parallelism and antithesis sentences in his translation. For example, "it's easy to work for the actual measurement of the other, but it's difficult to work for the pursuit of this." (four words of group studies · criticism of fools first) Yan Fu's parallelism and antithesis sentences did not continue the Han Dynasty, which only paid attention to the beauty of form and ignored the form of parallel prose with ideological content, but imitated the sentences of the Pre-Qin Dynasty. According to the needs of reaching the purpose, they were naturally paired without any trace of carving.

2.2.2 Deeply influenced by Buddhist scriptures and historical records
Yan Fu has always respected the Buddhist sutra translator kumarosh. In Tianyan Lun · examples of translation, he respected kumarosh as "master Shi". Therefore, kumarosh also had a great impact on Yan Fu. Yan Fu's translation language also imitated the historical records There are a large number of case language in the translation of the stylistic model of Yan Fu. Case language refers to the explanation and textual research made by the writer on the content of the article. The case language of Yan Fu's various translations totals about 170000 words, accounting for one tenth of the whole text of his translation. Yan Fu expresses his views and attitudes in the comments through a large number of case language, interpretation and analysis, so as to achieve his purpose of publicity and enlightenment.

2.2.3 Inheriting the "elegant and clean" characteristics of Tongcheng school's ancient prose
Tongcheng school is the mainstream prose school in Yan Fu's life era. Yan Fu is deeply influenced by it. Tongcheng school advocates elegant and clean style. The proposal of "elegant and clean" theory has created a simple, strict and elegant style, which is deeply respected by Yan Fu. Tongcheng school calls it "elegant and clean", which refers to "standardization and purity of language", "concise and concise materials and concise style", "Simplicity and natural brilliance of style". The words "elegance" and "cleanliness" can also be seen in Yan Fu's translation remarks. Yan Fu's proposal of "elegance" as a part of the translation standard is largely influenced by the "elegance" proposition of Tongcheng sages.

In short, Yan Fu's translated language adheres to the "elegant" style of Tongcheng ancient prose. Its translation is civilized, with elegant morphology and syntax, short and concise sentences, concise and fresh between the lines. It reads cadently, catchy and delicious.

==History of contemporary Chinese translation==
After the founding of new China, China's translation industry flourished rapidly. The practice of Chinese translation and foreign translation organized by the government was in full swing. There were a large number of excellent translators active on the cultural front, such as Yang Xianyi, Fu Lei, Qian Zhongshu, ye Junjian, Xu Yuanchong and Yang Bi. They not only had rich translation practice, but also had solid theoretical knowledge, It has made great contributions to the cultural construction of new China and promoted the all-round development of socialist economy, politics and culture.

3.1 Xu Yuanchong's translation thoughts
Professor Xu Yuanchong of Peking University is a famous translation theorist in China and the only expert in English French rhyme translation of Chinese poetry. He was nominated as a candidate for the Nobel Prize for literature in 1999, won the lifelong achievement award of translation culture of China Translation Association in 2010, and became the first "northern lights" of the International Federation of translators in 2014 The Asian translator of the outstanding literary translation award was also rated as the person of the year of "light of China" in 2015. Xu Yuanchong has worked tirelessly in the field of translation theory and practice all his life with indomitable and excellence craftsman spirit, and has put forward several important translation ideas and theories.

3.1.1 Translation practicality and practicability
The "practical function" of translation is reflected in that translation theory and translation research are always closely related to social reality and its development. They have obvious characteristics of the times, reflect the social and humanistic characteristics of the time, and express the humanistic spirit and cultural requirements of the times. Xu Yuanchong's translation theory and Practice deeply reflect the "practical function" He proposed that the philosophical basis for the creation of Chinese school literary translation theory is that practical theory comes from practice and is tested by practice. Practice is the only standard for testing truth.

3.1.2 Inheritance and innovation of translation
Xu Yuanchong innovated on the basis of inheriting Chinese traditional philosophy and aesthetics, put forward new ideas that conform to the development of the times, and put these ideas into translation practice to test and revise them repeatedly, so as to form a new translation theory. Therefore, inheritance and innovation are another important feature of Xu Yuanchong's Translation theory. Xu Yuanchong's combining the Chinese classical philosophy and the aesthetic thought is summarized as "the literary translation theory of the Chinese school, which gives them significance in the context of the new era, innovates theory in inheriting tradition and carries forward Chinese culture in theoretical innovation.

3.1.3 Translation foresight and Vanguard
As early as the early 1980s, when domestic translation studies were still focusing on the summary of translation practice and thinking about the level of translation language, Xu Yuanchong pointed out prospectively that the responsibility of Chinese translators and the mission of translation were to instill part of the blood of foreign culture into Chinese culture and part of the blood of Chinese culture into world culture. Xu Yuanchong regarded Chinese translation theory as "a cultural dream of China" to "enter the advanced ranks of world culture and make the development of world culture more brilliant". It points out the tasks and missions of cultural translators in the new era, and this is the best interpretation and response of “Chinese Dream” proposed by the chairman Xi given by the older generation of translationg wokers.

Xu Yuanchong's criterion for translating Chinese poetry is the "Three Beauties" theory put forward by himself, that is, he believes that the translated poetry should pay attention to the "Three Beauties", namely the beauty of meaning, sound and form. The basis of three beauties is three similarities: meaning similarity, sound similarity and shape similarity.

Iconicity is to convey the content of the original text, and can not be misinterpreted, omitted or translated more, but iconicity does not necessarily convey the beauty of the original text. To convey the beauty of meaning, we can choose wonderful words that are similar to the original meaning, borrow the words loved by British and American poets, and express the beauty of meaning of the original text with the help of sound beauty and shape beauty. Phonological beauty means that poetry should have rhythm, rhyme, smooth and pleasant to hear. Translators can choose rhymes similar to the original with the help of the metrical rules loved by British and American poets, and can also express phonological beauty with the help of double tone, rhyme, repetition, antithesis and other methods. However, the transmission of sound beauty is often difficult to achieve, and it is not even necessary to achieve sound similarity. The beauty of form mainly has two aspects: neat antithesis and the length of sentences. It is best to be similar in shape, or at least be generally neat. Among the three beauties, the beauty of meaning is the first, the beauty of sound is the second, and the beauty of form is the third. On the premise of conveying the beauty of the original meaning, the translator should convey the beauty of sound as much as possible, and on this basis, he should convey the beauty of form as much as possible, and strive to achieve the three beauties. If you can't do it, first of all, you can not require shape similarity or sound similarity, but in any case, you should convey the beauty of meaning and sound of the original text as much as possible.

3.2 Qian Zhongshu's translation thoughts
Qian Zhongshu, born in Wuxi, Jiangsu Province, is a famous modern Chinese writer, literary researcher and translator. He has an in-depth study of translation theory and loves the cause of translation. Mr. Qian Zhongshu is known as the "cultural Kunlun", which shows his profound knowledge. Mr. Qian has covered a wide range, including philosophy, anthropology, psychology, aesthetics, history and linguistics. Qian Zhongshu graduated from the Foreign Language Department of Tsinghua University, but he has been engaged in the study of Chinese literature for a long time. Representative works include Tan Yi Lu and Guan Zhi Bian, both of which are created in classical Chinese. In addition, there are selected notes of Song poetry. This work interprets the poetry of the Song Dynasty from a new perspective. In his works, many famous words and sentences of Chinese and Western scholars are usually quoted, and the corresponding foreign original texts are attached.

In Lin Shu's translation, Qian Zhongshu pointed out: "the highest standard of literary translation is'localization '. Transforming works from one country's language into another country's language can not reveal the traces of hard thinking due to differences in language habits, but also completely preserve the original flavor, which can be regarded as' realm of change." The core of 'realm of change' is localization, There are two kinds of translation: one is the realization of the highest ideal in literary translation, which is the goal pursued by a large number of translators represented by Qian Zhongshu; The second is the incomplete "assimilation". That is, the translator's translation practice.

However, Qian Zhongshu's "Huajing" theory has been misunderstood by many scholars for many years. Qian Zhongshu once pointed out that the translation should be faithful to the original, so that the translation does not read like the translation. In other words, the work will never read like what has been translated. This attitude makes many scholars think that the "transformation" of Qian Zhongshu's "realm" is actually equivalent to "faith". However, according to Qian Zhongshu, "Hua" and "faith" cannot be equated, but "Hua" is based on "faith" to achieve the goal of "beauty". In other words, "Hua" is a further accomplishment of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", and a transcendence of translation skills.

In his 1963 translation of Lin Shu, Qian Zhongshu wrote: "(incarnation) translation is compared with the reincarnation of the original work, the body changes, and the soul remains the same. In other words, the translation should be faithful to the original work, but it does not read like the translation, because the work will never read like the translation in the original text". Mr. Qian's lifelong commitment to "modernization" has roughly two meanings. First, the translation should change its form and conform to the grammatical rules of the target language. According to Xunzi's definition, translation is a process of change. In this process, some things will flow away, but sometimes we have to do so in order to make the translated results coherent and authentic. Qian Zhongshu also said that "there is always distortion and distortion in the translation". Therefore, the translation of "Huajing" is a departure from the mechanical literal translation in the past. It is better to "lose this" than to "change". The second is that "complete and complete 'transformation' is an impossible ideal". As the - first point says, "Hua" is an elusive and flexible concept. In other words, the translator can create the "realm" according to the habits of the original text and the target language, and translate the so-called perfect translation.

In his article "Lin Shu's translation", Qian Zhongshu put forward the circle of ancient Chinese characters, "Wai, translation also. From the" mouth "and" sound ", those who lead birds have been called" Yang "since the birth of birds". Using the meaning of this Chinese character, Qian Zhongshu summed up that translation should lead to "inducement", avoid "error" and seek "transformation". Qian Zhongshu regards "transformation" as the highest ideal of translation.

First, the reasons for the emergence of "error" and analyze the manifestations of "error". With regard to "e", Ji Jin wrote in his monograph Qian Zhongshu and modern Western Learning: "there are always distortions and distortions in the translation, which violate or do not fit the original text in meaning or tone. That is" e "(9175). The causes of" e "are caused by many factors. Qian Zhongshu, combined with his translation practice for many years, summarizes two reasons:

First of all, there are differences in characters between countries. In particular, China's character system is completely different from European languages. Newmark once said that the inevitable loss of capital comes from the differences between the two languages, both in terms of characteristics (Language) and social variants (Language) In terms of context, there are different lexical, grammatical and phonological differences. It is also different for many objects and abstract concepts. 1017. Translation is a process of transforming words with defects. Qian Zhongshu's goal is to "get through" and "be inseparable" It is also an impossible translation standard.

As like as two peas, there is a certain difference between the translator's own ability and his original work. What's wrong with the production is also hard to avoid. Because the translator (subject to his own cultural level and his own experience) can not understand the original works exactly as the author did at that time, it's easy to understand why many books (including classic books). It has been translated several times.

Second, the necessity of "inducement" and the analysis of its manifestation
Translation is a bridge connecting the cultural and cultural exchanges between the two countries. The function of "SEDUCTION" is to seduce, which is vividly compared to "matchmaker". Goethe once compared translation to "obscene professional matchmaker". This "matchmaker" acquaints and attracts people from different language backgrounds.

Qian Zhongshu said, "I increased my interest in learning foreign languages by reading Lin Shu's translation" [7] 500. It can be seen that Lin Shu's translation is
After the May 4th movement, Chinese modern and contemporary writers, such as Lu Xun, Zhu Ziqing and Mao Dun, all mentioned the guidance and influence of Lin Shu's translation on them. The climax of translation also drives social development and broadens the horizons of Chinese people, which is the necessity of "inducement".

== Modern and contemporary Chinese translation history from the perspective of social translatology ==
Social translatology originated in the West. In 1972, James Holmes, a Dutch American scholar, published the name and nature of translation studies. When discussing function oriented descriptive translation studies (DTS), he stressed that once the emergence and influence of the translated text in when, where, under what circumstances have become the academic focus, he has entered the field of studying translation activities from the perspective of sociology. Holmes further pointed out that emphasizing the important role of translation in social culture means the birth of the concept of translation sociology, or more accurately, social translation studies.

Sociology mainly focuses on the interactive relationship between agent structures, and practice is the intermediary between the two. Accordingly, social translatology focuses on the interactive relationship between the translator's actors and the social structure, and translation practice is the intermediary between the two. This chapter mainly discusses the history of modern and contemporary Chinese translation from the perspective of social translatology.

4.1 Modern Chinese translation history from the perspective of social translatology
During this period, the Communist Party of China was born, the Communist Manifesto was widely translated and spread, and the socialist thought was introduced into China and gradually rooted in the hearts of the people. The Chinese left-wing writers represented by Lu Xun do not hesitate to advocate "hard translation", mainly to convey the proletarian revolutionary theory, advocate humanism and promote the revolutionary theory, hoping to lay the foundation for the proletarian revolutionary literature through translation. At that time, a large number of excellent foreign literary works and literary theories, especially the literary works of the invaded weak and small nationalities, as well as some revolutionary theory works translated by Lu Xun, were translated into China. Through translation activities, the translator's social recognition is improved, the treasure house of Chinese literature is enriched, and it also provides a powerful ideological weapon for the proletarian revolution.

4.2 contemporary Chinese translation history from the perspective of social translatology
After the founding of new China, China's translation industry flourished. During this period, excellent translators such as Fu Lei, Qian Zhongshu and Xu Yuanchong produced a large number of translation works, which made great contributions to the cultural construction of new China.

As the dividing line of modern and contemporary Chinese translation history, the social background before and after the "Cultural Revolution" is very different. Since the general tone of the whole society is to wait for prosperity and start from scratch, the social function of translation practice is mainly to learn from socialist countries, and pay attention to the introduction of Marxist Leninist works to serve the country's political, economic and cultural construction. Mao Zedong, Zhou Enlai and other revolutionaries of the older generation attach great importance to translation, actively promote the compilation of Marxist Leninist classics and the introduction of foreign excellent literary works, advocate the guiding position of dialectical materialism and historical materialism in translation, and pay attention to the use of philosophical methodology to analyze problems. After the "Cultural Revolution", China soon entered the period of reform and opening up. With the rapid economic development, the translation industry also flourished, making great contributions to China's political, economic and cultural construction.

== Conclusion==
This paper mainly introduces the translation thoughts of famous translators Lu Xun, Yan Fu and Xu Yuanchong to reflect the development characteristics of modern and contemporary translation history in China. It can be seen that the thoughts of translators of various generations have their own advantages and have played a great leading role in the development of translation theory and practice in various periods, At the same time, the theory of output in these periods can be used for reference and learning for future translation learners, and has a far-reaching impact.

China's translation history has a history of more than 2000 years. We should sum up experience from the cultural heritage accumulated in 2000 years, develop our translation cause, and introduce more and better foreign scientific, technological and cultural achievements Accelerate the pace of China's construction. At the same time, we should also introduce China's excellent culture to the world with the help of translation, so that China can go to the world and the world can understand China.

== References==
[1] Jiang Zhigang, Zhan Yajie. Chinese translation history from the perspective of social translatology [J]. National translation, 2021 (04): 88-96
[2] Wang Yamin. Research on Yan Fu's translation style and strategy [J]. Journal of Civil Aviation Flight College of China, 2018,29 (01): 55-58
[3] Gan Lu, Luo Xianfeng. Three dimensions of the evolution of Lu Xun's translation thought [J]. Shanghai translation, 2019 (05): 78-83 + 95
[4] Jiang Yan. Xu Yuanchong. Characteristics of translation theory and practice [J]. Journal of Lanzhou Institute of technology, 2021,28 (02): 119-123
[5] Wang linli. Four translation climaxes in Chinese history and the development of Chinese translation theory [J]. Journal of insurance vocational college, 2007 (05): 94-96
[6] Jiang Zhigang, Zhan Yajie. Chinese translation history from the perspective of social translatology [J]. National translation, 2021 (04): 88-96. Doi: 10.13742/j.cnki.cn11-5684/h.2021.04.011

Written by- Li Xichang

=黄柱梁 The Translation of Buddihist Sutra in Chinese Translation History=
== Abstract==
'''Abstract:''' the translation of Buddhist Sutra is a major event in the history of Chinese translation. The introduction of Buddhism and the translation of Buddhist Sutra have not only had a great impact on ancient Chinese society, but also promoted the cultural exchange between China and India. Firstly, starting from the history of Buddhist Sutra Translation in China, this paper focuses on the contributions of several famous translators to Buddhist Sutra translation; Then it analyzes the “translation field” of Buddhist scripture translation; Finally, it analyzes the impact of Buddhist Sutra translation on Chinese culture and cultural exchanges.

== Key words==
'''Key words:''' Buddhist Sutra translation, “translation field”, cultural exchange

== Introduction==
'''I. Introduction'''
Buddhism is one of the three major religions in the world. It was founded by Sakyamuni in ancient India in the 6th century BC. Soon after the establishment of Buddhism, it began to spread abroad. With its spread, some Buddhist ideas and works also spread abroad. Buddhist Sutra is the abbreviation of “Buddhist Classics”. Buddhist Classics: collectively; Tibetan Sutra, commonly known as; Buddhist Sutra, also known as the Da Zang Sutra, is generally composed of Sutra, Law and Theory. “Sutra” refers to the Dharma script personally said by Sakyamuni and integrated by his disciples, “Law” refers to the commandments formulated by the Buddha for his disciples, and “Theory” refers to the experience gained by the disciples of the Buddha after learning the Sutra. For Buddhists, the status of Buddhist scriptures is equivalent to the influence of the Bible on Christians. In China, Buddhism was introduced from the Silk Road at the end of the Western Han Dynasty. With the introduction of Buddhism, Buddhist scripture translation activities also began. According to the data cited in Pei Songzhi's note in the annals of the Three Kingdoms, “in the first year of emperor AI's Yuanshou's life in the past Han Dynasty, the doctor's disciple Jinglu was dictated the Sutra of the floating slaughter by Yicun, the envoy of King Dayue.” in the first year of emperor AI's Yuanshou's life in the Han Dynasty, that is, in 2 BC, that is, China began the translation of Buddhist scriptures more than 2000 years ago. Liang Qichao cited the general record of magic weapon exploration in the Yuan Dynasty to record that from the tenth year of Yongping in the later Han Dynasty (AD 67) to the Song Dynasty, the translation only lasted until the early year of Zhenghe (AD 1111), 194 translators participated in the translation of Buddhist scriptures, 1335 scriptures and 5396 volumes. There are 3673 Tibetan sutras and continued Tibetan sutras carved in Japan, including 15682 volumes, excluding those added to the Dazheng Tibetan Sutra, and 150 volumes of the complete book of Buddhism in Japan. Hu Shi believes that there are more than 3000 Buddhist scriptures and more than 15000 volumes preserved, including the annotations and commentaries made by the Chinese people. When Buddhism first entered China, it was incompatible with Confucianism. In order to cater to China's Confucianism and Taoism culture, the word “Buddhism and Taoism” was used in the translation of Buddhism. In the Eastern Han Dynasty, Buddhism spread by relying on the Taoism popular in China at that time. During the Three Kingdoms period in the late Han Dynasty, Buddhism began to attach itself to metaphysics. From the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the southern and Northern Dynasties, the translation of Buddhist scriptures changed from individual translation to collective translation, from private translation to official translation, and there was a translation field organization. In the Wei and Jin Dynasties, Buddhism, metaphysics and Neo Confucianism were complementary and integrated with each other. The Sui Dynasty to the middle of the Tang Dynasty was the heyday of Buddhist scripture translation. During this period, kumarosh, Zhendi, Xuanzang and Bukong were known as the “four translators”. Buddhism in the Tang Dynasty has developed into Chinese Buddhism. After the late Tang Dynasty, Buddhism gradually declined in India, and there were no large-scale Buddhist scripture translation activities in China after the song and Yuan Dynasties.

The first Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures appeared in the middle of the 2nd century (some researchers believe it was A.D. 70). Few Buddhist missionaries who came to China in the first century A.D. were proficient in Chinese, and few Chinese knew Sanskrit at that time. Therefore, the Chinese translation of early Buddhist Scriptures was completed by many people: foreign monks recited scriptures, usually with the participation of interpreters, first produced a rather rough translation, and then modified and polished by Chinese assistants. This process made Buddhism sinicized from the very beginning of its introduction into China, and was therefore rapidly absorbed and assimilated by Chinese culture. This form of collective translation has lasted for nearly nine centuries, sometimes with a large number of participants, but the vast translation work can usually be sponsored by the ruling class. Due to the change of time span and the number of translators involved, translation methods and means are often not fixed, and with the passage of time, the cultural and linguistic background of translators will also change. Despite all kinds of obstacles, Chinese Buddhist believers are still committed to the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which has preserved many lost scriptures. It is worth mentioning that some Chinese versions are closer to the original Sanskrit texts than the later Sanskrit texts of India and Nepal. Buddhist missionary translation not only played a constructive role in the spread of Buddhism in the Far East, but also contributed to the establishment of literary languages in various countries and had a great impact on Asian culture. The translation of Buddhist scriptures from Sanskrit to Chinese can be roughly divided into three stages: the late Eastern Han Dynasty and the Three Kingdoms period (AD 148-265), the Dong Jin Dynasty, Xi Jin Dynasty and the Northern and Southern Dynasties (AD 265-589) and the Sui, Tang and Northern Song Dynasties (AD 589-1100).

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== Conclusion==
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=王镇隆 The Brief History of Bible's Chinese Translation=
== Abstract==
== Key Words==
== The Overall Introduction of Bible Translation==
“Bible” translation has a pivotal position in the history of Western translation. From the beginning of the era to today, the translation of the “Bible” has never stopped. The range of languages involved, the number of translations, and the frequency of use of translations,etc., are unmatched by the translation of any other work. A birds-eye view of the history of “Bible” translation has the following important milestones: the first is the “Seventy Sons Greek Text” before the Era, the second is the “Popular Latin Text Bible” from the 4th to 5th centuries, and the later the national languages of the early Middle Ages. The ancient texts (such as Old German, Old French translations), modern texts since the 16th century Reformation Movement (such as the Lutheran version of Germany, the King James version, etc.) and various modern texts. All these translations have made indelible contributions to the spread and development of Christianity in the West, as well as the prosperity and development of the languages and cultures of various nations.

The “Bible” is the holy book of Christianity, including the “Old Testament” and “New Testament.” The Old Testament was written in BC. It is a classic of Judaism. It was inherited by Christianity from Judaism. The original text was in Hebrew. The New Testament was written in the second half of the first to second centuries, and the original text is in Greek. Throughout human history, language translation is almost as old as the language itself. Therefore, from the beginning of the era to today, the translation of the “Bible” has never stopped. The range of languages involved, the number of translations, and the frequency of use of the translations, etc., are unmatched by the translation of any other work. The translation of the "Bible" is mainly to spread the doctrine, so that people are influenced and accepted by the views. According to the “New Testament Acts” Chapter Two, Section One: The saints gathered on Pentecost, and they were all filled with the Holy Spirit, and spoke the words of other countries according to the eloquence given by the Holy Spirit. However, the translation at that time was mainly “interprete” or “interpretation.” Among them, St. Paul himself is a multilingual believer. He preached in Jerusalem, Athens and Rome in Hebrew, Greek and Italian respectively. The Bible was first translated from Hebrew into Greek, then into Latin, and then into Romanian, Portuguese, Spanish, Italian, and Walloon (wal-lon), German, French, Romance languages. English was then translated into various languages in the world, and the translations of its various texts were repeatedly revised by experts in the translation of the classics, which lasted more than ten centuries.

In the history of the translation of the Bible, it has gone through several milestone stages: the first is the “Seventy Sons Greek Text” before the era, the second is the “Popular Latin Text Bible” from the 4th to 5th centuries, and later it is the national languages of the early Middle Ages. Ancient texts (such as Old German, Old French translations), modern texts since the 16th century Reformation Movement (such as Luther, Casio Dorobin in Spain, King James Version in English, Nikon in Russia) and All kinds of modern texts (such as “American Standard Text” in English, “New English Bible” and “English Today”, etc.). “The Bible Old Testament” is the first important and earliest translation in ancient times in the West, and it was translated into Greek. The Old Testament was originally the official classic of Judaism, originally in Hebrew. The Jews have been scattered around for a long time and drifted overseas. Over time, they have forgotten the language of their ancestors and spoke foreign languages such as Arabic and Greek. Among them, Greek speakers accounted for the majority. In ancient times, the city of Alexandria in Egypt was the cultural and trade center of the eastern Mediterranean. The Jews living here accounted for two-fifths of the city’s total population. In the third century BC, in order to meet the increasingly urgent needs of these Greek-speaking Jews, the church decided to translate the Hebrew text of the Old Testament into a Greek text. In the second century BC, an unknown Jew once wrote an epistle article, which was later named “Letter of Aristeas” (“Letter of Aristeas”), which records that in the third century BC, Jerusalem At the request of Egyptian King Ptolemy II Feiradelphis (308-246 BC), Bishop Elizar sent translators to Alexandria to undertake the translation of the Old Testament. In this way, according to Ptolemy II's will, between 285 and 249 BC, 72 “noble” Jewish scholars gathered in the Library of Alexandria, Egypt, to perform this translation. According to legend, the 72 scholars came from 12 different Israeli tribes, with 6 from each tribe. After they came to the Library of Alexandria, they worked in pairs in 36 locations and translated them into 36 translations that were very similar to each other. Finally, 72 translators gathered together to compare and check the 36 translation manuscripts, and reached a consensus on the wording of the final version, and called it the “Seventy Son Text” or “Seventy Magi Translation”, that is, “Septuagint” (“Septuagint”), has since opened a precedent for collective translation in the history of translation. Soon after the translation of the “Seventy Sons”, the priests held a joint meeting with the Jewish leaders and pointed out: “This translation is well translated, pious, and very accurate.

Therefore, it must be kept as it is and cannot be changed.” We also regarded it as the classic translation. In fact, this Greek translation became the “second original”, and sometimes even replaced the Hebrew text and ascended to the throne of the “first original”. Many of the translations of the Bible in languages such as ancient Latin, Slavic, and Arabic are not based on the original Hebrew but on the Greek translation.

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== Conclusion==
== References==

== 叶维杰 Medieval Arabic Translation Movement=
== Abstract==
The Medieval Arabic Translation Movement(The Harakah al—Tarjamah) is also called the Translation Movement. It was a large-scale organized academic activity carried out by the Arab Empire in the Middle Ages to translate and introduce ancient Greek and Eastern scientific and cultural classics. The Abbasid Caliphate implemented a diversified and inclusive cultural policy, vigorously advocated and sponsored the translation of academic classics from ancient Greece, Rome, Persia, India and other countries into Arabic to absorb advanced cultural heritage. The Arabic translation movement preserved the natural sciences and humanities in ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and played an extremely important role in promoting the cultural revival of European political and cultural conditions in the late Middle Ages. The Hundred-Year Arab Translation Movement lasted for more than two hundred years, spanning the vast regions of Asia, Africa, and Europe, and blending ancient Eastern and Western cultures such as Persia, India, Greece, Rome, and Arabia. There are not many translation activities in the history of world civilization. Analyzing its causes, processes, results, and impacts is of great academic value for studying the phased development of human civilization and the commonality of human wisdom, and it is also of great help to deeply understand the Arab Islamic philosophy and culture.

== Key words==
Harakah al—Tarjamah, translation movement, Western culture, Islam

== Introduction==
After the establishment of the Arab Abbasid dynasty, Baghdad became the capital. At the beginning of the dynasty, political stability and economic prosperity heralded the arrival of a cultural climax. The golden age of Arab culture in the Middle Ages began with the translation movement. It can be divided into three main stages: the first stage, from the second monarch Mansour (reigned from 754 to 775) to the fifth monarch Harun Rashid (reigned from 786 to 809). Mainly translate astronomy and medical books; the second stage, from the seventh monarch Maimon (reigned from 813 to 833) to 913, the heyday of translation lasted for a hundred years, mainly translating philosophy, logic, and mathematics , Simultaneous translation of chemistry, animals, plants and other works; the third stage, after 913, is the continuation of the translation movement. In this translation movement advocated, initiated, and cared by the Caliph, a large number of famous translators of different nationalities have produced brilliant achievements and fruitful results. They have translated hundreds of various Greek books, such as Socrates, Plato, Various works of sages such as Aristotle have been translated into Arabic. The translation movement involves almost all scientific fields. The translators also translated books on astronomy, chemistry, agriculture, history, geography, legends, fables, stories, etc. of Persia, India and other peoples. On the basis of translation and introduction, starting from the 9th century, the Arabs began the stages of digestion, absorption, integration, development, and innovation, and achieved great results in various fields. This movement preserved ancient European academic materials and had a direct and significant impact on the European Renaissance movement. F. Engels has spoken highly of this. The Arabic translation movement and Buddhist scripture translation movement in the Middle Ages are two great wonders in the history of human civilization, which have strongly promoted the progress and development of human civilization.

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== References==

=李怡 Brief history of French translation =
== Abstract==
The purpose of this article is to make a brief introduction to the translation history of France. The history of French translation began in the Middle Ages: with the development of Christianity and nationalism, the royal family hired translators to translate the Bible. The Renaissance in the 16th century, as well as economic and educational development, increased the demand for reading and writing, thus promoting the development of translation, most of the translated works are classical works. Then two religious films appeared in France: Jansenists and Jesuit, which had a great influence on the translation schools of that time. During the Enlightenment in the 18th century, France was deeply influenced by Britain, so most of the works in this period were British progressive thoughts and literature. The Industrial Revolution in the second half of the 18th century increased French scientific and technological translation. With the progress of the French Revolution, French translators are more inclined to the economic and political and judicial fields. After the Second World War, the translation industry in France recovered and developed vigorously. France even set up ESIT（École Supérieure d'Interprètes et de Traducteurs）to train senior translators. In the 20th century, there appeared many translation theorists in France, which promoted the professionalization of translation.
== Key words==
Renaissance, French translation, contemporary, French Revolution
== Introduction==
As a developed country in the west, France has a very long translation history. Translators and translation theories emerge in endlessly, which can not be ignored in the history of translation. At the same time, with the development of globalization, translation theories in various countries learn from and integrate with each other. Among them, French translation theory also plays a very important role. Therefore, it is necessary to comb the history of French translation and study the translators of relevant times and their relevant theories.
==1.Medieval French translation based on Bible Translation==
In the middle ages, translation in various countries was deeply influenced by religion, especially the translation of the Bible, which greatly promoted the development of translation. In France, the royal family specially hired translators to translate various Latin and Greek works for the imperial court. The most prominent court interpreter was Nicholas Oresme of the Charles V Dynasty. Aristotle's works translated by him in 1377 had a great impact on the French translation and philosophy circles at that time. Jean de Vigne translated the Latin Bible in French in 1340. In addition, Jean de malkaraume, J argyropylos and others translated the works of Virgil, Ovid, Aristotle, Plato and contemporary writers at the same time.
==2.Renaissance: the development of French translation==
The Renaissance is the development period of French translation theory. The main representatives are Dolet and Jacques Amyot, especially the former. In the 16th century, there was an upsurge of translation in France. During this period, the focus of translation shifted from religious translation such as the Bible to classical literature translation. Religious translation abides by the translation principle of "word to word" . Its purpose is to follow the will of God and avoid blasphemy. This is irrefutable, so there are not many translation theories to speak of. However, as a new genre, the translation of literary works is different from the previous religious translation. Translators face many new problems, so translation theory came into being. Dolet and amyot are the most prominent representatives of translation theory in this period. They are both translators and translation theorists, and the latter wins especially by translation. Both their translation theories come from translation practice, so they are persuasive. Dolet is famous for his "five principles of translation". "Five principles of translation" comes from his paper on how to translate well published in 1540 ,La manière de bien traduire d’une langue à l’autre. 1. the translator must fully understand the content of the translated work; 2.The translator must be familiar with the target language and the target language; 3.The translator must avoid word by word translation; 4.The translator must adopt the popular language form; 5.The translator must select words and adjust word order to make the translation produce the effect of appropriate tone. These five principles involve the criterion of "faithfulness" in translation, the translator's bilingual ability, translation methods, style and style of translation. Amyot is one of the greatest translators in the history of French translation. He is known as the "king of translation". His translation has had a great impact on that time and future generations. He follows two principles in Translation: 1. The translator must understand the original text and make great efforts in the translation of content; 2.The translation must be simple and natural without any decoration. The first involves the standard of faithfulness in translation, and the second involves the style of translation. These two principles are similar to the first and fifth of Dolet's five translation principles.
==3.The 17th century: the climax of French translation and various translation schools==
After the Renaissance, classicism deeply influenced France. In the translation circle at that time, people were engaged in the translation of classical works on a large scale. Translation has launched a magnificent "dispute between ancient and modern" around the translation methods of classical works. Some translators pay more attention to the past than the present: they pay attention to the imitation of words with sentences, and praise the so-called accurate translation method. Some translators prefer to use the opposite translation method.
In the 17th century, the most famous French translator was Perrot d’Ablancourt,, His translation is sophisticated and elegant, both meaningful and beautiful, and easy to understand. There are no words that need to be explained in order to clarify the meaning in the translation, and there are no annoying cliches. Therefore, he has a great reputation for a long time. His characteristic is to take an original work and grasp the main idea. No matter what the original style is, as long as the translation is literary and readable and can make contemporary readers love and welcome, he will do whatever he can to add or delete the content at any cost, and modify it if he can, regardless of the accuracy of the translation. At that time, this literary and beautiful translation method attracted many followers, but it was also criticized by many people as "beautiful but unfaithful".By the end of the 17th century, those who advocated free translation were overwhelmingly in favor, while those who really advocated accurate translation were few and far between. The earliest theorist to advocate accurate translation was Bachet de Méziriac in the mid-17th century. In December 1635, he published an essay entitled "on translation" at the French academy, stating that translators must observe three principles :1.do not stuff the original work with personal goods; 2.The original work shall not be abridged; 3.No alteration may be made detrimental to the original intention.
As one of the most influential translators in France in the 17th century, Daniel Huet, worshipped classical literature and clearly advocated accurate translation. He criticized both post-modern translators and unfaithful translators abranguel. He believes that the best translation method is: the translator first closely follows the original author's meaning; Secondly, if possible, stick to his words; Finally, try to reproduce his character as much as possible; The translator must carefully study the character of the original author, not delete, weaken, add and expand, and faithfully make it complete as the original. His translation principles are: the only goal of translation is to be accurate. Only by accurately imitating the original in language can it be possible to accurately convey the original author's meaning; The translator has no right to choose words or change word order arbitrarily, because "Deviation" from the original text will lead to deviation from the original meaning. His translation theory has been praised by many people, but due to the lack of practice, his theory is not attractive to translators.
In the 17th century, there were also two representatives from inaccurate translation to accurate translation,François Maucroix and Jacques de Tourreil.
François Maucroix is regarded by contemporary and later critics as one of the most outstanding French translators in the 17th century and the first person to translate demesne in the 17th century. In addition to demesne, he also translated the works of Plato and others. Maucroix received the education of the Jesuit Church in his early years, was greatly influenced by the Jesuit Church, loved debating literature, and paid attention to ingenious expression and beautiful language style.
His early translations were inaccurate in content, style or written expression. He liked to modernize ancient terms and expressions. In 1685, his style changed, and his translation became more accurate, which seemed to have completely corrected the defects of procrastination and weakness in his early translation. The reason can be seen from his letters with Boileau in the last decade of the 17th century. He regarded Boileau not only as the most important representative of classical literature, but also as an authority on translation theory. Therefore, he always sent the translation to Boileau for revision. Boileau read the manuscript carefully, criticized some paragraphs and put forward better translation methods. In his reply, Maucroix said that Poirot's criticism of some of his inaccurate translations was pertinent, and his opinions on the revision were also very good. He admitted that the inaccurate translation was a mistake and must be completely corrected. He finally realized that translators must adhere to the principle of accurate translation if they want to become real classicists.
Jacques de Tourreil also experienced a change from inaccurate translation to accurate translation, which is reflected in his translation of three different versions of Demosthenes. In 1691, he published his first translation, which was influenced by the education of the Jesuit and paid attention to elegant style rather than accurate content. Tourreil processed the original work in the most ingenious way to modernize the ancients. After the translation was published, it was immediately severely criticized by Racine. After being criticized, Tourreil published a revised version in 1710, but the revised version actually only made detailed changes to the original translation, and the guiding principle of translation remains unchanged, that is, we must "make the characteristics of the original work conform to the characteristics of our nation". The new translation has received various comments. On the one hand, the ancient school refers to Tourreil 's attempt to impose new ideas on Demosthenes, believing that he not only did not beautify the original work, but distorted and vilified the original work. On the other hand, the present school believes that Tourreil's unfaithful translation of the original is better than the original, which is worth applauding. Tourreil himself is an ancient school. Naturally, he doesn't appreciate the present school's praise and thinks that this praise is "the most severe criticism to the translator". After that, he revised the translation for the third time, which is very different from the first two versions. It was not only a rare and accurate translation at that time, but also extremely beautiful. The translator translates in strict accordance with the original work, neither adding or subtracting nor making changes. By this time Tourreil had fundamentally changed his point of view.
Discussing the history of French translation from the 17th century to the 18th century is bound to involve the influence of Jesuit and Jansenists. The main reason is that the people engaged in education at that time were members of these two schools. They had direct or indirect contact with each translation school through their own translation practice and teaching.
The Jesuit believes that classical literature is worth studying and learning only in the aspect that it provides moral education or guides people how to learn eloquence. The excavation of classical works is not because their contents are of great value, but because of their beautiful forms. Teachers believe that the purpose of teaching is not so much to enable students to obtain substantive knowledge as to enable them to obtain formal learning identity.
The works translated by Jesuit teachers or students generally have an obvious sign, that is, they do not pay much attention to the spiritual essence of the original work, but only pay attention to the expression of the original thought and the beauty of the translation style. In order to achieve this, translators often sacrifice the content, even misinterpret the original meaning, and religiously turn classical literary works. Therefore, the origin of inaccurate translation in the 17th century is often influenced by Jesuit thought.
Jansenists is the second school that directly or indirectly affects translation principles. They believe that once students can read and write, they should read these translations in order to obtain basic knowledge about the original author and facilitate more and better reading of the original works in the future. In the early days, the views of the janssenian translators and the Jesuit translators were basically the same. Later, the translators of Jansenists believed that the practice of style for style in translation was also dangerous. However, towards the middle of the 17th century, their views changed and they believed that the style of ancient Greek and Latin writers, especially the style of ancient Greek writers, was worth learning. They really appreciate classical works more than the Jesuits. They admit that the language style of the ancients is superior to that of the present, but the present enjoys more inspiration from God, so the present surpasses the ancients in terms of thought and morality. In this way, no matter from which perspective, their views are completely consistent with those of ancient school. But the translation of Jansenists is far less elegant and beautiful than that of the Jesuits.
==4.The decline of French translation in the 18th century and the translator Charles Batteux==
In the 18th century, France was not as powerful as in the 16th and 17th centuries, nor was it culturally complacent. So she began to look at other countries' literature, first of all England. For example, the novels of the contemporary British sentimentalist writer Richard Were translated into French, which had a great influence on the development of French sentimentalist literature. In particular, the Chinese culture, which had been introduced to Europe for a long time, became more active in France in the 18th century. Although the number of translations is large, the quality is often not high.
Charles Batteux was one of the most important translators in France in the 18th century. He was one of the most influential literary and translation theorists in France and the whole Europe in the 18th century. He edited and published a variety of translation books, translated aristoteles, Horace and many other classical works of ancient Greece and Rome, wrote Principes de Litterature, Cours de Belles-Lettres and other works. Batteux elaborated his thoughts and views on translation in The Principles of Treatise. His original views and excellent exposition made this book an important milestone in the development of translation theory in the 18th century.
The fifth part of Principes de Litterature deals with translation problems.The theory of Charles Batteux obviously has the characteristics of philosophers, linguists, philology and translation. In other words, Charles Batteux discusses the principles of translation mainly from the perspective of general linguistic skills, rather than literary creation. He proposed the following 12 rules for dealing with word order in translation: 1. We must not alter the order of what the original says, either as fact or inference. 2. We should also preserve the order of ideas in the original text. 3. No matter how long the original sentence is, it should be kept intact in the translation, for a sentence is a thought in which the different elements are related to each other, and their correlation constitutes a kind of harmony. 4.All the conjunctions in the original text should be preserved. It is these conjunctions, so to speak, that hold the sentence elements together. 5. All adverbs should be placed either before or after the verb, depending on the harmony and momentum of the sentence. 6.Symmetrical sentences should be translated into symmetrical sentences. 7. Colorful ideas should be expressed in as much space as possible in the translation so as to maintain the same brilliance. 8. Rhetorical devices and forms of speech used to express ideas must be preserved in the translation. 9. We must translate short and pithy sayings that people like, or translate them into words that are natural and can be used as proverbs. 10. Interpretation is incorrect and incomplete because it is no longer a translation but a commentary. However, if there is no other way to convey the meaning of the original text, the translator has no choice but to use interpretation. 11. For the sake of meaning, we must abandon all forms of expression in order to make ourselves intelligible; Abandon emotion in exchange for a lively translation; Give up harmony for the pleasure of translation. 12. The idea of the original text can be expressed in different forms, combined or broken up by the words used to express it, and expressed by verbs, adjectives, nouns and adverbs, as long as its essence remains unchanged.
==5.The revival of French translation in the 19th century and its rich translators==
Another high tide of French translation came in the 19th century, when a large number of English, German, Italian, Spanish and Latin literary works were translated, such as Shakespeare, Milton, Byron, Shelley in England, Goethe and Schiller in Germany, Dante in Italy, and Spanish folk songs. The most prominent remains the translation of Shakespeare's works. If the 18th century was Shakespeare's Silver age in France, the 19th was the golden age. In the 19th century, people not only worshiped Shakespeare's works, but also worshipped him, and Shakespeare fever spread throughout France. From 1800 to 1910, at least eight different translations of Shakespeare's complete works were produced in France, of which francois-Victor Hugo is the best. Hugo's father was Victor Hugo, a great writer. With Hugo's assistance and cooperation, the complete works of Shakespeare were translated between 1859 and 1867. This translation has faithfully retained the unique rhythm of the play, so it has been praised by critics as the second milestone in the history of French translation of Shakespeare's plays, even more important than Letourne's famous translation in the late 18th century.
Famous French translators in the 19th century included Francoise-René de Chateaubriand, Gérard de Nerval, and Charles Baudelaire. Chateaubriand is another epoch-making translator in France after Amio. His translation is faithful and beautiful. His literal translation of Milton's Paradise Lost is one of the outstanding French translations with its melodious and poetic tone. Nerval is best known for his translation of Goethe's Faust in prose style. In 1830 Goethe saw Nerval's translation and praised it as better than his original. Baudelaire, another famous poet of this period, was one of the earliest French translators of American literature and the first translator of Allan Poe. For 13 years from 1852 to 1865, he wrote, translated and commented on the complete works of Allan Poe. Baudelaire found what he was pursuing in Allan Poe's works, and believed that he and the author were in the same spirit, so that the translation could be in touch with the author. The translation was smooth and natural, just like the French creation, and was listed as an excellent classic of French prose.
==6.The specialization of French translation in the 20th century and the maturity of translation theory==
The 20th century has been the heyday of French translation theory. The characteristics of French translation in this period are: since the end of the Second World War, due to practical needs, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological aspects of the translation boom, its momentum even more than literary translation, thus forming a major content of the development of modern western translation; The study of translation theory is unprecedented and has produced translation theorists who have an important influence on the history of translation in the world. Before the First World War, the two countries used the language of power in business transactions, and French, which was considered the language of diplomacy at international conferences and other diplomatic occasions, did not have much problem in translation. However, after the end of the First World War, French lost its dominance, and English rose to take the lead with French, forming a situation in which French and English were used together. The Paris Peace Conference of 1919 was the beginning of this situation. Later, the European Union has 24 official languages, which means that translation has become an indispensable part of daily work, whether it is communication between countries in other regions or between western countries. With the increase of cooperation between countries, the need for translators is increasing. To meet this need, a number of schools specializing in training translators have been set up. One of the most prominent is ESIT（École Supérieure d'Interprètes et de Traducteurs）.
ESIT was founded in 1957, set up the department of Oral translation and pen translation, initially only opened several European languages, since 1972 added Chinese, now a total of English, Chinese, Russian, Arabic, French, German, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Danish, Swedish, Icelandic and other languages translation courses. Later, on the basis of the original two departments, the School added a department of Translation Studies, specializing in the study of language and translation theory, with the right to confer doctoral degrees. After graduation, most of the students apply for translation departments of international institutions, and some graduates apply for the work license of free translators to relevant institutions of various countries in order to work freely and not apply for the work license of free translators to international institutions. Over the years, ESIT has trained a number of senior translators for the foreign affairs departments of the United Nations, the European Community (EU) and western countries.
Another characteristic of modern French translation is that French translators are organized in large numbers, setting up various translation associations and establishing various translation publications. Each association has its own purpose and purpose to carry out its work effectively. There are two major translation associations in France: the Association of French Translators and the Association of French Literary Translators. The Association of French Literary Translators was founded in 1973 as a splinter from the Association of Translators. Its entry requirements are the most stringent of any of its kind. Only highly qualified translators are eligible to join. Applicants must have at least one translation, which is carefully reviewed against the original work by a special selection committee. The aims of the association are :1.to improve the quality of French literature and literary translation publications; 2.To protect the rights and interests of members in respect of copyright, remuneration and working conditions of translated works; 3.Do not participate in any political activities. Since its establishment, the association has held many lectures and lectures, and its members have published many articles on translation in such authoritative publications as le Monde and New Literature. Through this series of business activities, it has become the most distinctive and vocal translation organization in France.
In the first half of the 20th century, the French translation theorist J.Marouzeau is worth a book. He is a professor at the University of Paris and editor in chief of Année Philologique. In 1931, he published a pamphlet called La Traduction du Latin. The theory is as follows:1.Translation is, first of all, a skill. Maruzzo does not deny that translation is an art and a science, and that it is more of a skill. To master it, we mainly rely on rich practical experience, solid language knowledge and flexible translation methods. 2.In order to reach as many readers as possible, the translator's primary task, like linguists, educators and exegetists, is to reveal to the reader what the source text is, not what it covers. 3.The purpose of using a dictionary is not to translate, but to understand. It is a puzzling view, but it is not hard to discern the truth in it. He points out that translators must learn to use dictionaries, but must first understand what problems they are using them to solve. Latin, for example, is very different from French, he said. Latin words are not related to each other, and there is no strict word order, which must be added to a French translation to make the translation smooth. Dictionaries don't help in this respect. They define a particular word in inverse proportion to its simplicity, thus leaving the translator in a difficult position to choose between many different translations. Therefore, the main purpose of using a dictionary is not to find ready-made words, but to understand the meaning of the original text, to explain the text of the original text, and then produce a translation on this basis. At the same time, Marouzeau points out that words from different sources must be interpreted differently. 4.Translation is not guesswork. This is especially important. When encountering difficulties, the translator must carefully consider and avoid any "preconceived ideas", because in translation, the first thought of meaning or expression is often not the most correct or best. 5.Translation must be in living language. This was a popular idea in England in the 17th and 18th centuries. Marouzeau said that to translate Latin into French, if you need to introduce an old expression, you have to turn to a living language so that the translation is alive. That is to say, the translator must ask: if the original author were alive today and writing in French, how would he express the same thing? But Marouzeau also points out that this is not a generalization, and that for some passages, especially those of Ovid, "a bit of antiquity is most appropriate in French translation".
The following is an introduction to Georges Mounin, a famous French translation theorist in the second half of the 20th century. He devoted his life to the teaching and research of linguistics and translation theory with outstanding achievements. He is regarded as the founder and most important representative of linguistic theory in contemporary French translation studies. Major theoretical works include Le belles infidèles , Les problèmes théorique de la traduction, La machine à traduire: Histoire des problèmes linguistiques, Linguistique et traduction, Semiotic praxis, etc. Among them, Les problèmes théorique de la traduction is the most praised by contemporary Western translation theorists. As mentioned above, this book uses the basic theories and methods of modern linguistics to explain translation, and sets up the first clear-cut flag of linguistic school in the field of Translation studies in France.
The core idea of Mounin 's book is that he thinks translation belongs to linguistics, so it should be studied, understood and explained by means of modern linguistics. To establish an effective translation theory, it has to for translation and the translation of basic problems related to make a scientific understanding of these problems include the nature of translation, translation and the meaning of vocabulary, grammatical structure, the relationship between translation and the objective world, the world's image), the relationship between translation and language universals and language features, the relationship between the processing of language features in translation, and so on. Mounin 's discussion of translation theory revolves around these questions.
What exactly is a translation? What kind of discipline should translation studies belong to and what kind of methods should be adopted? And so on. Such problems have always been the most concerned by translation researchers but have not been properly explained. Mounin believes that translation is a special and universal language activity, which naturally belongs to the scope of linguistics research, and the research results of language science can be applied to the study of translation problems. Mounin admit that the translation of poetry, the literature such as drama, movies, many factors other than language and paralanguage does play an important role, but the basis of translation activity is mainly to the original and the translation of linguistic analysis, and applied linguistics is more than any other skilled experience can provide accurate and reliable. Of course, from another point of view, especially from the perspective of the development of translation studies as an independent discipline since the 1980s, the practice of classifying translation studies as linguistics has been outdated. However, even if translatology is regarded as an independent discipline, its independence is only relative. Since translation (interlingual and intralingual translation) necessarily involves language, translation studies should not and cannot be completely free from the influence of linguistics at any time. In this sense, Mounin's view of linguistic translation has always been positive.
Since the 1970s and 1980s, the interpretive school represented by Seleskovitch or the Paris School has emerged in the field of Translation studies in France and become the most remarkable and French characteristic in the post-modern period, thus forming the second major feature of the development of contemporary French translation theory. It should be said that this school does not negate the basic idea of the school of linguistics to study linguistic phenomena, but only opposes the pure linguistic orientation of the school of linguistics and focuses on the research method of form. Interpretive theory holds that translation is a linguistic act, but it requires the participation of extralinguistic knowledge. Whether it is diachronic linguistics in the 19th century, synchronic descriptive linguistics and contrastive structural linguistics in the 20th century, or the later transformational generative grammar theory, it ignores the pragmatic context as the main component of language communication, so it cannot reasonably explain translation problems. Based on practice, the theory of interpretation studies translation as a linguistic act, and interprets and conveys the meaning of language from linguistic factors, cultural factors, and extralinguistic factors, so as to give a scientific and reasonable explanation to the reality of translation.
An important feature of interpretive translation theory is to reveal the essence of translation as communicative behavior from practice. Interpretivism holds that translation is a kind of linguistic act, which, like language use, must be supported by non-linguistic knowledge. However, as an act, the object of translation is not language, but meaning, which is the communicative meaning of the text. The output of meaning requires the combination of nonverbal thoughts and signs, and the reception of meaning requires the conscious behavior of the addressee. The arrangement of words is only a means of meaning formation for the originator of words. The understanding and grasp of meaning need to get rid of the original language form. The acquisition of meaning is instantaneous, not staged. Meaning is not the sum of words, but an organic whole, and the comprehension of meaning is completed at the level of discourse.
According to the interpretive theory, language and thought are separated in the translation of translators. Language and thought are not exactly the same thing, but there is a constant two-way communication between them. Thought waves can be transformed into language, and language can be transformed into thought waves. Human knowledge and experience do not reside in the brain in the form of words.
Interpretive theory also holds that understanding requires the participation of cognitive knowledge; The process of comprehension is the process of interpretation. Interpretation is the prerequisite of translation, and translation cannot be carried out without interpretation. Translation, on the other hand, is interpretation. Interpretive translation is a translation of meaning equivalence, which is established between texts. If a translation is to be successful, it is necessary to seek the overall meaning equivalence between the source text and the target text, and the meaning equivalence needs to achieve cognitive and emotional equivalence. Translators use their own abilities to organically combine the cognitive content and emotional content of the source text into an indivisible whole, and then successfully express it. Only in this way can the equivalence of meaning be achieved, which is the essence of the interpretive theory.
The interpretive theory also focuses on fidelity. The translator cannot interpret at will, and his interpretation and understanding can only be faithful to the actual content of the speaker. Although the interpreter interprets in his own words, he conveys the meaning of the speaker and imitates the speaker's style. The interpreter should understand the overall style of the speech, and tend to be consistent with the speaker, should be as far as possible to get rid of the constraints of words, in order to accurately reflect the original style.
== Conclusion==
There may be many deficiencies and omissions in the simple combing of French translation history, but as a powerful and long-standing western developed country, France's translation process and theory have great research and reference significance for China and the world. The world is still developing, so is translation. With the development of modern science and technology, people explore translation more deeply, and new theories are constantly put forward. Therefore, we should seize the trend of the times, base ourselves on China, look at the world and seriously study these excellent theories.
== References==
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[2]谭载喜.西方翻译简史.商务印书馆,2004
[3]许均,袁筱一.当代法国翻译理论.湖北教育出版社,2001
[4]柳鸣九,郑克鲁,张英伦.法国文学史,人民文学出版社,1979
[5]谢天振.中西翻译简史,外语教育与研究出版社,2009

=李新星A Comparative Study on The Translation history of Modern Chinese and Korean Literature under the Background of "Western Learning" (1894~1949) =
==Abstract==
The spreading of Western learning to the east is an extensive and far-reaching influence of modern Western culture on eastern civilization, which started from translation as a means of cultural communication.Scholars in China and Korea have always recognized the influence of the eastward spread of Western learning on the development of translation in their countries.However, most studies on modern and contemporary translation take the country as the boundary and rarely talk about the comparison and exchange between the two countries.In fact, although there are some individual differences between Chinese and Korean translation in modern times due to different national conditions, there are also many similarities and connections worthy of attention and research.From the perspective of translation history, this paper will explore the history of literary translation in China and Korea under the trend of western learning to the east, compare the commonness and individuality of the two countries' literary translation practices, explore the historical information behind the translation practices, and finally achieve the purpose of restoring the history of cultural (literary) exchanges between the two countries.

The spreading of western culture to the East was an extensive and far-reaching influence of modern Western culture on Eastern civilization, resulted from translation as a means of cultural communication.Scholars in China and Korea had always recognized the influence of the eastward spread of Western learning on the development of translation in their countries. However, most studies on modern and contemporary translation take the country as the boundary and rarely talk about the comparison and exchange between the two countries.In fact, regardless of some individual differences between Chinese and Korean translation in modern times due to different national conditions, there are also many similarities and connections worthy of attention and research.From the perspective of translation history, this paper will explore the history of literary translation in China and Korea under the trend of western learning to the East, compare the commonness and individuality of the two countries' literary translation practices, dig out the historical information behind the practices, and finally achieve the purpose of restoring the history of cultural exchanges between the two.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 07:23, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

==Key words==
History of literary translation；“Western Learning”;China;Korea

==摘要==
西学东渐是近代西方文化对东方文明的一次广泛而深远的影响，而这影响首先是从作为文化交流的手段———翻译开始的。一直以来，中韩两国学者都认同西学东渐对本国翻译发展的影响，但现有的研究在探讨近现代翻译时大多以本国为界，很少谈及两国比较和交流。而实际上，虽然因为国情不同，中国与朝鲜半岛的近现代翻译存在一定的个体差异，但同时也有很多相似点和联系点值得关注和研究。本文将从翻译史视角出发，窥探西学东渐时代潮流下中韩两国文学翻译史的面貌，比较两国文学翻译实践的共性和个性，发掘翻译实践背后的历史信息，最终达到还原两国文化 (文学) 交流史的目的。

==关键词==
文学翻译史；“西学东渐”；中国；朝鲜（韩国）

==1.Introduction==
The spreading of Western learning to the east is an extensive and far-reaching influence of modern Western culture on Eastern civilization.Late 19th century to early 20th century,When the West had modernized and gradually replaced the East as the world's dominant power,The three East Asian countries ( China, Japan and Korea), which had been sleeping for a long time, were gradually awakened and embarked on the "journey" of modernization.Among them, In order to achieve a rich country and a strong army, Japan left Asia and entered Europe,Take the lead in taking a series of measures to actively learn from the West and introduce advanced ideas and culture.The main measure is to develop the translation of western literature.Under the influence of such a large environment, the translation of overseas literature in China and the Korean Peninsula has also set off a boom.It can be said that the influence of the eastward spreading of Western learning on the modernization of East Asia began with translation as a means of cultural exchange.
Some scholars have pointed out that in the process of modernization in East Asia represented by Japan,Translation plays an important role.Without translation, East Asia would not have been able to open the door to modernization.This is also true in modern China and the Korean Peninsula.It can be said that after entering the modern society, the cultural exchanges between the two countries were continued through translation --"A history of translation is not only a history of cultural exchange, but also a history of the dissemination of ideas".As we all know, the study of translation history is a "basic project" in the construction of translation discipline.Behrman, a famous translator and translation theorist, once pointed out that "the composition of translation history is the first task of modern translation theory, and self-reflection is the establishment of itself" .The history of literary translation is an important part of the study of translation history and an indispensable factor in the investigation of a country's literature and even the whole cultural background in a particular period.
In view of the above analysis, the author believes that in order to have a macro and in-depth understanding of the cultural exchanges between China and Korea in modern times.It is necessary for us to make a comparative study of literary translation between the two countries during this period (1894 ~ 1949).Writers believe that only by putting literary translation activities into a larger social and historical context can we have a clearer understanding of the translation practices of the two countries at that time.Therefore, from the perspective of translation history, this paper will explore the history of literary translation in China and Korea under the trend of western learning to the east, compare the commonness and individuality of the two countries'literary translation practices, explore the historical information behind the translation practices, and finally achieve the purpose of restoring the history of cultural (literary) exchanges between the two countries.

The spreading of Western learning to the east exerted an extensive and far-reaching influence on Eastern civilization.In the late 19th century to early 20th century,when the West had modernized and gradually replaced the East as the world's dominant power,the three East Asian countries (China,Japan and Korea),which had been sleeping for a long time, were gradually awakened and embarked on the "journey" of modernization. In order to attain prosperity, Japan left Asia and entered Europe, taking a series of measures to actively learn from the West and introduce advanced ideas and culture through the media of translation.Under the influence of such a univerasl situation, the translation of overseas literature in China and the Korean Peninsula had also set off a boom.It could be said that the influence of the eastward spreading of western learning on the modernization of East Asia began with translation as a means of cultural exchange.
Some scholars have pointed out that translation plays an important role in the process of modernization in East Asia represented by Japan.Without translation,East Asia would not have been able to open the door to modernization.This is also true in modern China and the Korean Peninsula.It can be said that after entering the modern society, the cultural exchanges between the two countries were continued through translation --"A history of translation is not only a history of cultural exchange, but also a history of the dissemination of ideas".As we all know, the study of translation history is a "basic project" in the construction of translation discipline.Behrman, a famous translator and translation theorist, once pointed out that "the composition of translation history is the first task of modern translation theory, and self-reflection is the establishment of itself".The history of literary translation is an important part of the study of translation history and an indispensable factor in the investigation of a country's literature and even the whole cultural background in a particular period.
In view of the above analysis, the author believes that in order to have a macro and in-depth understanding of the cultural exchanges between China and Korea in modern times.It is necessary for us to make a comparative study of literary translation between the two countries from 1894 to 1949. Only by putting literary translation activities into a larger social and historical context can we have a clearer understanding of the translation practices of the two countries at that time.Therefore, from the perspective of translation history, this paper will explore the history of literary translation in China and Korea under the trend of western learning to the East, compare the commonness and individuality of the two countries' literary translation practices, explore the historical information behind the practices, and finally achieve the purpose of restoring the history of cultural (literary) exchanges between the two countries.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

==2. The origin and development of modern translation in both countries ==
After being opened to the outside world, western civilization flooded in. China and North Korea, which had been pursuing the policy of "closing the door to the outside world", began to "open their eyes to the world".From the government to the people, there has been an upsurge in the introduction of advanced Western civilization.Translation plays an important, even decisive role in this process.
====2.1The historical evolution of Modern Translation in China====
As is known to all, Among the three East Asian countries, China is the first to pay attention to the West and understand and learn the West through translation.In the 1860s, after the Westernization Movement, a climax of modern Chinese translation began slowly.Strictly speaking, this translation period can be further divided into two stages, namely, with the Sino-Japanese War of 1894 as the dividing line, the early stage was the translation period dominated by westernization school, and the later stage was the translation period dominated by reformists.If the translation during the Westernization Movement was the primary stage of modern Western learning translation in China, there were still many problems, then the translation activities led by reformists such as Kang Youwei, Liang Qichao and Yan Fu had a greater development in terms of scale, significance and function.From the perspective of translation history, they set up translation institutes and translated western books widely(Especially those that had a great influence on Meiji Restoration in Japan.)Training translation talents, etc.Its scale, breadth of subjects, quantity and quality are unmatched by translation in the Westernization period.It should be noted that since the 1880s, China's interest in learning from the West has shifted from science to politics, education system and so on.In the late Qing Dynasty and early period, literary works gradually became the main object of translation activities.In the minds of the Vixinists represented by Liang Qichao, novels have become the most appropriate tool for political reform, popular enlightenment and the modernization of the country.Thus, beginning in the late 19th and early 20th centuries,Foreign literature has been widely translated into China, and communication channels include not only modern media such as newspapers and magazines, but also single-line books and large-scale translation literature series, which have also produced a series of arguments and discussions on translation methods and techniques.Modern Chinese translation has also entered a new period, that is, from the Ming and Qing period of scientific and technological translation as the mainstream gradually to culture / literature / literary translation as the core of the translation activities period.Overall, the translation of modern foreign literature in China from the end of the 19th century to the period 1949 can be broken down into the following three stages.
The first stage was from the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China to the May 4th Movement in 1919.In December 1898, Liang Qichao translated The Japanese political novel The Adventure of The Beautiful Woman in Qingyi Daily. In 1900, Zhou translated one of the most influential works in Japanese political fiction, Yano Ryuki's "On The Classics of America".Since then, many Japanese political novels have been translated and introduced to China.After a more concentrated translation of political novels, other genres, such as history, science and the popular detective novels, have also been introduced.After 1907, a variety of modern literary magazines sprang up, and a large number of translated novels were published in these magazines in serial form, among which the serialized translated novels in magazines such as "Novel Forest" and "New Novel Cluster" even occupied absolute space, forming the first climax of foreign novel translation.However, it should be emphasized that the translation of literary works in this period was still in the exploratory stage,Although there are a large number of works, there are problems in the selection of works, translation skills and strategies.
The second period is 1916 to 1936. This period can be further subdivided into the May Fourth Movement period and the Left Coalition Period.With the development of the New literature movement, Chinese literary translation has entered the most glorious period in the history of translation.Compared with the late Qing Dynasty, literary translation in this period was larger in scale, higher in quantity and quality, and its influence was unprecedented.It is worth emphasizing that almost all the heavyweights in the history of modern Chinese literature have participated in the translation and introduction.In addition to translation works, they also introduced various literary and artistic thoughts, and actively explored and discussed translation methods and theories.Especially with their active advocacy and hard work, The translation industry in China has been closely integrated with the struggle against imperialism and feudalism.It completely changed the chaotic and unprincipled state of translation circles before the May 4th Movement.In addition, it was from this time that China's translation of Soviet/Russian literature gradually reached its peak.It can be said that the mainstream of Chinese literature translation in the 1930s was Marxist literary trend of thought and progressive literature (especially Soviet/Russian literature).Of course, in addition to Russian/Soviet literature, this period has translated the literature of Britain, The United States, Japan, France, Germany and southeast Northern Europe and Asia.
The third period is from 1937 to 1949. After the war of Resistance against Japan broke out.The translation community, like the rest of the country, has concentrated all its efforts on the cause of saving the nation from extinction and striving for liberation.Therefore, the pace of development of Translation in China slowed down during this period.In spite of this, Chinese writers and translators have overcome various difficulties and translated and published many excellent foreign literary works.During this period, there was a wide range of translations, ranging from western European classical literature to war literature at that time, and even ancient Greek literature and Jewish literature.In terms of genres, there are novels, poems, plays, prose and even some academic works on literary history.A number of famous translators in the history of Chinese translation literature, such as Zhu Shenghao, Ge Baoquan, Fu Lei, Liang Shiqiu, Lin Yutang and so on, are active in literary translation.Of course, the biggest characteristic of this period was the translation of the Soviet Union and other countries anti-fascist war works, in particular, the establishment of the revolutionary translation group "Times Press", published the revolutionary translation publication "Soviet Literature", a large number of Soviet literary and artistic works.

====2.2 The situation of modern and contemporary Translation on the Korean Peninsula and the Influence of China==
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From the end of the 19th century, western civilization began to flow into East Asia on a large scale, and Korea was further plunged into the situation of internal troubles and foreign aggression. Faced with the complicated situation at home and abroad, the enlightened intellectuals of Korea further realized that translating Western books was an important task at that time. As early as 1886, The "Seoul Weekly" published by Powen Bureau had a column specially emphasizing the importance of translation, and proposed to establish a special translation agency to translate foreign books. And six years later, another important newspaper of the day 《Huangcheng News 》also commented, stressing that translation is an important means to enrich the country and strengthen the army and realize modern civilization. We call for the establishment of specialized translation institutions under the guidance of the government "to strengthen the guidance and management of translation. On behalf of this, not only all kinds of news media actively propagated, but also some intellectuals at that time called for the realization of civilization and the prosperity of the country and the strength of the army by translating overseas literature and learning advanced western experience. As a result, the Korean Peninsula at that time set off a boom in the translation of overseas works, especially literary works. Of course, as in China, one of the preconditions for translating Western books in the Korean Peninsula was the development of modern media, which provided a platform for the dissemination of written works at that time. After the 1895-1895 revolution, modern schools were established one after another, and special language schools were set up, which played a positive role in understanding overseas and spreading Western culture, and reserved talents for the translation and introduction of foreign literature.
Generally speaking, the history of translation of foreign works on the Korean Peninsula from 1895 to 1949 can be divided into the following five stages: Patriotic enlightenment period (1895-1910), translation literature awakening period (1911-1919), translation into the proper period (1920-1935), dark Period (1936-1945), Regeneration period (1945 ~1949). We can refer to Kim Byung-chul's Studies on the History of Modern Korean Translation Literature, the earliest and only work on the history of modern Korean Translation literature. However, it is worth noting that Kim Byung-chul's pioneering work has carefully combed and studied the translation history of modern Korean literature from both macro and micro perspectives. However, there is no introduction to the translation of Chinese and Japanese literature. In fact, in the whole modern and modern period, although the communication between China and South Korea seems not as active and close as that in ancient times, the spiritual, political and cultural ties that have connected the two countries for thousands of years have not disappeared overnight. This point can be seen from the early stage of The History of Korean translated literature with China as the medium of translation activities and the late continuous translation of Modern Chinese literature.
The first stage (1895-1910) is the period of patriotic enlightenment，The main function of translation in this period was "enlightenment of civilization, independence, social and political enlightenment", and the translation activities inevitably had obvious purpose and utility. The patriotic enlighteners represented by Xuan CAI, Zhang Zhiyuan, Shen Caihao and Zhou Shijing received Chinese education from childhood and were deeply influenced by Confucian culture. Most of the works translated from The Korean Peninsula during this period were biographies of great men, history of the war, history of independence and geographical history. Almost all the translated works are from Chinese and Japanese versions. According to statistics, there were about 37 separate editions of such works translated in the Korean Peninsula before 1910, among which 16 were based on Chinese translations, not including those published in newspapers and magazines. In particular, it is worth emphasizing the important works in the early history of Korean literature, such as The History of The Fall of Vietnam, the Biography of the Three Masters of the Founding of Italy, and so on.The Biography of the Patriotic Lady was introduced to the Korean Peninsula based on the Chinese version. In addition, the Japanese Ryoki Yano's Korean single version of The Book On The Nation and the United States (1908, Translated by Hyun Gonglian) was based on zhou Kui's Chinese version in 1907. It is also highly likely that The first western literary work to be officially translated into Korea, Robin Sun Crusoe (1908, translated by Kim Chan), was translated into Chinese. In a word, China's influence cannot be ignored in the history of translated literature during the Korean civilization period.
The second stage (1910 ~ 1919) is called "the Awakening period of Translated literature". The translation activities of this period did have many characteristics different from those of the previous period. For example, many translations clearly identify the original author and translator; There appeared some literary magazines that paid attention to translation, such as Youth, New Star, Youth, Light of Learning and New Wenjie.“Three Lights", and "Tai Xi Literature and Art News" founded in 1918 with the main purpose of translating foreign literary works; At the beginning, it was consciously emphasized that translation should be based on the original text rather than through a third language. Translation methods also began to emphasize the separation from the earlier simple emphasis on the transmission of content translation, summary translation, abbreviated translation, etc. It puts forward the importance of respecting the original text and being faithful to the original text, and actively practices it. Kim Il and other important figures in the history of Korean translation literature have officially started their translation activities. And so on. All these indicate that the translation activities on the Korean Peninsula have "awakened" and are ready for further progress on the right track.
Generally speaking, since 1908, when Juvenile was first published，The Translated literature of the Korean Peninsula further broke away from the original utilitarian and purist nature and began to enter the era of "pure literature and art" translation. Since then, a great deal of Western literature has been translated into The Korean peninsula, and the quality of translation in this period is significantly higher than that of the Patriotic Enlightenment period. In addition to new novelists such as Lee Sang-hyup, Lee Hae-jo and Ahn Guk-seon, the translators also include famous figures in the history of literature such as Choi Nam-seon, Hong Myung-hee and Lee Kwang-soo, as well as some publishers and media workers. It is worth noting that some scholars believe that literary exchanges between China and Korea ended after Japan annexed the Korean Peninsula in 1910. This view is obviously somewhat arbitrary. According to incomplete statistics, at least 20 Chinese translations were introduced to the Korean Peninsula through the medium of Chinese translations, although the translation activities based on Chinese translations were not as active as in the Enlightenment period. These works include not only reprints of Chinese vernacular novels in Ming and Qing Dynasties, but also western novels based on Chinese translations. Among these Chinese translations of western novels, 8 are from the large western literature translation series "Shuobo Congshu", which was planned and published by the Shanghai Commercial Press in 1903. Choi Chan-sik, a famous writer of new novels at the time, recalled that recalled that he began writing a new novel after translating a book in the "Shaobo Series" published in Shanghai, China. These data show that even at a time when Japan's control over the Korean Peninsula was increasing, China's translation and media activities still have a certain influence on Korean intellectuals. In other words, under the new historical conditions, the cultural exchanges between the two countries are still struggling to continue in a new form.
The third stage (1920-1935) marked the beginning of joseon's translation literature. According to Kim byung-chul's statistics, at least 600 foreign literary works have been translated to the Korean Peninsula in various forms since the 1920s, Genres include fiction, poetry, drama, essays, fairy tales, and some literary criticism, Countries involved Britain, the United States, Germany, France, Russia, India and so on. Of course, this statistic does not include the translation of Chinese literature. In fact, after the 1920s, one of the biggest changes in the history of Sino-Korean translation was the movement that was then in China and the new literary works began to be translated and introduced to the Korean Peninsula. According to incomplete statistics, about 30 kinds of modern Chinese literary works including novels were translated and translated in the Korean Peninsula during the colonial period (In addition to the only collection of Chinese Short Stories during the colonial period), 16 plays, 41 poems, 3 essays, 1 fairy tale, etc., and more than a dozen literary criticism. If we add the Chinese classical literature translated in this period, we can say that after 1920, the translation of Chinese literature in the Korean Peninsula is relatively comprehensive and continuous, which should not be excluded from the history of Korean translated literature.
The fourth stage (1936-1945) was a dark period for the entire Korean Peninsula. In terms of translated literature, Japan has strengthened its control over public opinion and media by strengthening its policy of suppressing national language, The flood of Japanese books, coupled with the growing economic collapse on the Korean peninsula, has put pressure on the publishing industry and reduced the number of magazines, Access to foreign books has also been blocked, resulting in a huge blow to translation activities on the Korean Peninsula. This was the darkest period in the history of Translated literature on the Korean Peninsula. Although there were sporadic translations of Chinese literary works, they only catered to the political needs of the Japanese colonial government and chose some works that were irrelevant to politics and even covered up and beautified its militarist ambitions. In 1940, for example, Three Thousand Miles magazine ran a special collection of "New Chinese literature,"The content of the works is either daily life, love or traditional art, which has nothing to do with politics, and the original translations are entirely dependent on Japanese translations. The content of the works is either daily life, love or traditional art, which has nothing to do with politics, and the original translations are entirely dependent on Japanese translations.
In the fifth stage (1945-1949), the Korean Peninsula was finally liberated from Japanese colonial rule. The country was in ruins and all walks of life seemed to be full of hope, but at the same time, it was in a sudden chaos. At this time, translation has gradually entered the recovery period. From the point of view of countries, the United States and the Soviet Union were the most translated works, which obviously reflected the political situation and ideology at that time. However, the translation and study of modern Chinese literature also ushered in a brief bright period. Many researchers from academic schools joined the ranks of translation, and the translation of their works also moved toward specialization and systematization, with the emergence of selected Modern Chinese Short Stories (1946), Short Stories of Lu Xun (1946), Selected Modern Chinese Poems (1947) and other individual editions. He even published the history of Modern Chinese Literature (1949), the first book of Chinese studies in Korea. Compared with the colonial period, translation at this time was no longer subject to many restrictions, and further got rid of the early enlightenment and utilitarian color in nature. It began to attempt to approach modern Chinese literary works from the perspective of aesthetics and pure literature and carried out systematic and professional research. Translators seem to want to make up for the many regrets of the colonial period and are eager to translate and study modern Chinese literature in an all-round way. Unfortunately, this boom came to an abrupt end after the outbreak of the war in 1950, and The cause of Chinese literary translation fell into recession again.

==3. Differences and Similarities in the translation history of Modern Chinese and Korean literature==
Differences and similarities in the translation history of Modern Chinese and Korean literature
As is known to all, since the 1970s, translation studies have achieved a "cultural" shift, and the scope of research has expanded from the purely linguistic category to the non-linguistic category of culture, ideology, power relations, politics and so on.The literariness and thinking of literary works determine that literary translation has the dual orientation of ideology and poetics.Therefore, the study of literary translation should be connected with the socio-historical background and the poetic background so as to analyze and explain the important translation phenomena in depth.Throughout the history of modern literary translation in China and South Korea, we will find that the biggest similarity is that the "cultural political practice" (Venuti) of translation has always been controlled by ideology.Under the environment of western learning spreading eastward, one of the main social ideologies in East Asia was"Modern transformation".As an important means of modernization transformation, translation not only has an impact on the political and economic development of China and Korea, but also plays an important role in the two countries' acceptance of Western civilization, dissemination of new knowledge, formation of new culture, and the development of their own language and literature.In the process of sorting out the translation history of modern Chinese and Korean literature, we can clearly find that there are many similarities and intersections, and of course there are individual differences.Whether similarities or differences arise, some of them are related to the social ideology of the two countries, and some are related to the influence of the translator's personal ideology.It can be said that ideology permeates all aspects of modern translation in both countries, especially the change and development of social ideology plays a significant role in the evolution of translation.Below, this paper will compare and analyze the similarities and differences of literary translation between the two countries from several aspects.
(1) The nature and motivation of translation
In terms of the nature of translation, the modern translation activities in China and South Korea have obvious utilitarian, effective and political characteristics.Before the formal launch of literary translation, China had gone through a long stage of translating and introducing western scientific and technological books for the purpose of learning from the West, strengthening industrial development and achieving a prosperous country and a strong army.After the failure of the Reform movement of 1898, the development of Chinese foreign literature translation was in fact based on the translation of novels.One of the reasons is that Liang Qichao, the leader of the Reformists, put forward the slogan of "novel revolution" and advocated the translation of political novels, blowing the horn of literary translation. At the same time, a group of literary translators represented by Lin Shu actively engaged in translation practice, which also promoted the development of literary translation at that time.At that time, the purpose of literary translation was also to enlightening the people, reforming the society and giving play to the unique role of literary thought in shaping the "consciousness of the world".After the May 4th Movement, political demands still played a leading role in the selection of translators despite literary factors.On the other hand, the Korean Peninsula, because of the late opening of port and the depth of the country's internal troubles and foreign aggression, had no time to translate western literature as China and Japan did in terms of promoting industrial development and enriching the country and strengthening its armed forces.For them, translation is first of all a means of understanding the outside world, and its direct purpose is to get rid of the control of foreign forces and achieve independence.Therefore, the modern translation of the Korean Peninsula did not go through the stage of large-scale scientific translation, but from the very beginning, a part of social science translation and a large number of literary translation, including political novels, biographies of great men and so on.In particular, the translation of literary works has always occupied an important position in the modern translation of the Korean Peninsula.It is worth mentioning that liang Qichao had a great influence on literary translation during the Period of Korean Civilization.It was under his influence that a large number of political novels were translated and introduced to the Korean Peninsula, and played an important role in the transformation of thoughts and concepts in the Korean Peninsula in the modern period and the emergence and development of modern literature.Of course, after entering the period of colonial rule, the Translation of the Korean Peninsula became more colonial,In many ways, it is more influenced and restricted by Japan. Although there is also the pursuit of literature, the final translation inevitably has a strong political nature.In a word, the translation activities in the first half of the 20th century in both countries are determined by both literary factors and social ideology, but in the final analysis, the latter always plays a dominant role.Due to the special historical environment and similar fate, translation in both countries has strong utilitarian, utility and political characteristics to a large extent, which are the manifestation of the "manipulation" of translation by the ideological form.
(2) The source of the translation
There is no doubt that in all stages of modern translation history, the sources of translated works in the two countries are closely related to Japan, but there are differences in the specific range of sources and degree of dependence on Japan.In fact, before the late Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western scientific and technological books translated in China were basically based on the original Western language.In the translation period dominated by the Reformists, due to the vigorous development of Japanese translation and the characteristics of easy learning and understanding of Japanese, Liang Qichao and Kang Youwei advocated the translation of foreign works from Japanese. It was not until then that A large number of Japanese translations were carried out in China.
After the May 4th Movement, Translation in China flourished, with translators of various languages appearing in large numbers and many intellectuals participating in translation activities.At this time, the original versions of Chinese translations are also varied, including Japanese and English versions, and many are directly translated from the original.On the other hand, due to the influence of history, during the whole period of the Korean Peninsula, the translation of foreign books mainly consisted of Japanese and Chinese versions, and few of them were directly translated from the original.After entering the period of colonial rule, due to Japan's rule and influence on the Korean Peninsula in various fields, there were fewer and fewer translation cases based on The Chinese version, and the Japanese version took the dominant position.However, due to the increasing number of intellectuals focusing on Western language and literature (such as the emergence of the "Overseas Literature School" in 1926), the call for translation based on the original text became stronger and stronger.After all, most of the Korean intellectuals of the "overseas literary school" studied in Japan,Therefore, although they put forward the slogan of "translation from the original text", their translation activities are still directly or indirectly influenced by the Japanese knowledge system.In short, if the modern times of East Asia are "modern times of translation", as a bridge of translation in East Asia, Japanese translation is based on the original text or English.In China, there are both literal translation of the original text and retranslation of English and Japanese versions. On the other hand, Korean translation sources are a little bit unitary, basically retranslating some Chinese and most Japanese versions.However, from another point of view, the translation path of the Korean Peninsula at that time was the most complicated among the three countries, which could be the path of "Japanese → Korean", "Western → Chinese → Korean" or even "Western → Japanese → Chinese → Korean".
At that time, many Korean intellectuals were fluent in both Chinese and Japanese, so it was difficult to refer to only one source in the translation process.For example, The book On The Classics and The United States (1908), marked with the "translation" of Xuan Gonglian, was published with reference to both the Japanese and Chinese versions.Kim Kyo-je, a famous writer of new novels in the early modern period, translated or reprinted 11 novels at least four were translated to the Korean Peninsula through the path of "Western → Chinese → Korean";While Li Haichao translated Iron World (1908), the translation path is "Western → Japanese → Chinese → Korean" .
In Korea at that time, this kind of double, triple or even multiple retranslation is very common. For this reason, the modern Korean Peninsula is also called "retranslated modern times" by scholars.
(3) Topic selection and content of the translated work
Corresponding to the nature, motivation and characteristics of translation, there are not only similarities and intersecting points, but also their own characteristics in the topic selection of translated works.For example, the pilgrim's Progress, a religious novel by English novelist John Bunyan (1628-1688), was among the first western literary works translated in both countries.
This fact reflects the important role of western missionaries in the translation history of the two countries.Aesop's Fables is also one of the earliest and most frequently translated western literary works in both countries.Aesop's Fables was translated many times in both countries and included in the textbooks of the time as a children's book.After entering the modern and contemporary period, both countries highly respected historical and biographical works and political novels, and had a period of concentrated translation.For example, political novels such as "A Journey with the Wind", "Jingguo Meiyu" and "Iron World" have been translated into Chinese and English respectively.In addition, many historical and biographical works (especially the history of subjugations) were translated into The Korean Peninsula through Chinese media at that time, such as The Founding of Switzerland and Fifteen Little Heroes. As well as liang Qichao's writings or translations of the hundred Days' Coup, The History of the Fall of Vietnam, the biography of the three Heroes of the Founding of Italia, The biography of Madame Roland, and the biography of Hungarian patriot Gasus, etc.History books such as A New History of Tai Xi, a Brief History of Russia, A War in the Middle East and modern History of Egypt were also translated from Chinese versions. In the whole period of civilization, the Korean Peninsula concentrated on the translation of history, biographical works and political novels, although there is no lack of Japanese influence, but obviously The Influence of China can not be ignored.Due to reasons such as politics, current affairs and the market, the two countries in politics, history and biography of before and after the translation in the first decade of the 20th century gradually into the low tide, and other types of novels, such as science fiction, detective novels, western pure literary fiction and gradually be translated a lot, at the same time, poetry translation have greater development.It is worth mentioning that translation in both countries reached a new climax after the late decade of the first decade of the 20th century.In terms of the number and diversity of genres, China is far more diverse than The Korean Peninsula, but there are some interesting intersections in the literary translation topics of the two countries, such as Shakespeare, Hardy, Stevenson and Conan Doyle in The UK, Tolstoy, Gorky and Chekov in Russia, Tagore in India,Norway's Ibsen and other works have had a great influence in both countries.It is worth mentioning that there are obvious differences between the two countries in the topic selection of translated works as follows. The first is the translation of Japanese literature
The problem. As we all know, Japanese literature plays a very important role in the history of Chinese translation of foreign literature in the 20th century.On the Korean Peninsula, although the influence of Japanese literature is beyond doubt, and the translation of Japanese literature in the first half of the 20th century can be said to run through the whole modern translation activities of the Korean Peninsula, but the translation of Japanese literature in the Korean Peninsula itself is very few.
The reasons are mainly related to the special political and historical background of the Korean Peninsula and the control and infiltration of Japanese language in the Korean Peninsula after entering the colonial period, as well as the role of national emotional factors.Secondly, the translation and introduction of the other side's literature. In the first half of the 20th century, the literature of the two countries was not the main target of translation in each other's country, but this does not mean that there is no overlap between them. On the whole, the Korean Peninsula paid more and deeper attention to Chinese literature than China did to Korean literature during this period.After entering the modern society, under the extremely complicated and difficult cultural environment, the Korean Peninsula continued to translate Chinese vernacular novels and some classical poems in the Ming and Qing dynasties, and at the same time carried out a relatively concentrated translation of Liang Qichao, the pioneer of Chinese novel revolution. However, what is more noteworthy is his continuous translation and introduction of New Chinese literature, which started in the second half of the 1910s.Due to the special historical and geographical relationship, Korea is the first country in the world to notice China's new cultural movement except Japan. At that time, many magazines and newspapers on the Korean Peninsula introduced and reported the New Chinese literature. Some Korean intellectuals had deep feelings about the innovative atmosphere in The Chinese literary circle and hoped to provide necessary reference for the improvement and innovation of their own literature through the translation and introduction of The new Chinese literature.In a word, during the Period of Japanese rule, the Translation and introduction of modern Chinese literature in The Korean Peninsula was quite comprehensive, and many famous writers and works in the history of Chinese literature were involved in the topic selection, which played an important role in the study of Chinese literature in Korea. On the contrary, China's translation of Korean literature at that time was very limited, mainly due to the concern of "weak and weak ethnic literature", and also influenced by the war ideology of anti-japanese and national salvation, nationalism. However, in the huge history of modern Chinese literature translation, the translation of Korean literature is just a drop in the ocean and has not received enough attention. All in all, the depth and breadth of the translation of each other's works is extremely unbalanced.
(4) The translator's main body, translation strategies and methods
There are also similarities between the two countries on the subject of translators in the history of modern translation literature. In the early stage of translation activities, western missionaries played a great role. Later, famous intellectuals, social activists and literary scholars of the two countries realized the importance of translation, actively participated in translation activities, and became the leading leaders of modern translation in the two countries.For example, yan Fu, Liang Qichao and Lin Shu were active translators in early China, while xuan CAI, Pu Yinzhi, Shen Caihao and other famous scholars, thinkers and social activists led the translation during the Korean Peninsula's enlightenment period. After entering the decade of the 20th century, the translation of the two countries gradually entered the climax.Many Chinese writers, including Lu Xun, Guo Moruo and Zhou Zuoren, actively translated while writing. Choi Nam-sun and Lee Kwang-soo, leaders of Korean literature in the first decade of the 20th century, also actively translated their works.In addition, famous writers of new novels such as Lee Hae-jo, Ahn Guk-seon, and Choi Chan-sik were motivated and motivated by translation activities. With the development of translation, a number of specialized literary translators have emerged in both countries. In addition, some new women at that time also participated in the translation, such as Bing Xin from China and Kim Myung-soon from Korea.In terms of translation strategies or ways, early modern translation system is far from mature, highly standard translation way, utilitarian purpose, color thick, many translators from themselves and the needs of the audience, or excerpts and delete any reduction of the original (AD, Jane), or add their own opinions and comments in the process of translation, the tai shang ganying pian), Or in the form of translation only summarize the general idea (synopsis), for example, liang Qichao and Cui Nanshan's translation to a large extent are abridged, synopsis or translation.Generally speaking, the forms and methods of translation at that time were characterized by diversity and hybridity, which were similar in China and Korea. The reason is related to the mainstream ideology of the translation leaders who hoped to enlighten the people, enrich the country and strengthen the army through translation as soon as possible.
(5) Disputes on "Literary translation"
After literary translation gradually got on the right track and became the mainstream of translation works in the two countries, translators in the two countries gained further insights on the application, methods and techniques of translation and gradually began to express their own views on translation, whose discussions cover all aspects of translation. Such as translation methods, translation skills, translation and the status of translators, the role of translation. The opinions of different translators are bound to be different. Therefore, in the modern and contemporary period, both China and South Korea had debates on translation (literary translation). The focus and theme of the debate are similar, such as "translatable or untranslatable", "literal translation versus free translation" and so on.It is well known that in the history of modern Chinese translation, especially in the May Fourth Movement period, many writers began their literary career by translating foreign literature, and most of them published discussions on translation. The differences between different translators and groups have led to several famous debates in the history of Chinese translation. For example, lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren proposed Literal translation and related debates are typical examples. In addition, in the history of modern Chinese translation, there are also debates on "translated names", "translatable or not translatable literary works", translation methods such as mistranlation, hard translation and dead translation, and translation paths such as literal translation or retranslation.The 1920s was a period when the history of modern and contemporary translation in Korea was on the right track. Many newspapers and magazines published discussions on translation and related debates. In the history of modern translation on the Korean Peninsula, one of the most famous disputes about translation is the dispute between Jin Yi and Liang Zhudong about "literal translation" and "free translation" in poetry translation. Liang zhudong believes that poetry is untranslatable and should be literal compared with free translation. Jin Yi believes that although poetry is untranslatable, if translators exert their own subjective initiative, it can completely improve the value of translated poetry and even become a new creation. However, it is interesting that although Liang zhudong praised the method of "literal translation", he criticized the "overseas literature school" that focused on foreign literature at that time for being too rigid in the way of literal translation, and believed that "literal translation" should be organically combined with "free translation".In fact, the debate between literal translation and free translation, or "domestication" and "foreignization", is closely related to ideology.
The debate between translators in the two countries over these issues is actually carried out at the ideological level. According to venuti, a famous translation theorist of deconstruction school, the choice of translation strategy is determined by ideology.
(6) The influence of translation on the languages and literature of the two countries
In fact, the greatest influence of modern literary translation on China and South Korea is reflected in the development of characters and literature. First of all, translation must be carried out with language as the carrier. Under normal circumstances, the translated language is naturally the lingua franca of a country and a nation, but for China and South Korea in the late 19th and 20th centuries, a common problem emerged in the process of translation in terms of language carrier: At that time, both countries had two parallel language systems, which coincided with the social and cultural transition, so language translation became a very interesting topic.As we all know, in the late 19th century and the early 20th century, There were two languages in China: Classical Chinese and vernacular Chinese. Vernacular Chinese was still in the ascendant, while classical Chinese still played an important role in written and literary translation. Of course, the classical Chinese at this time refers to the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China common "shallow classical Chinese", it is different from the past obscure ancient prose, but in classical Chinese mixed with common sayings, is a kind of literary language between ancient Classical Chinese and vernacular.For example, Lin Shu, a great modern translator, translated foreign literature in classical Chinese. His translation was not only welcomed by readers at that time, but also had a great influence on many famous Chinese intellectuals. In the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China, there were both classical Chinese and vernacular Chinese translations, and the classical Chinese translations were more than the vernacular ones, but basically the two languages co-existed peacefully. In the process of translation, the needs of the audience should be considered. The same translator can translate in both vernacular and classical Chinese. The same foreign novel may have both classical and vernacular translations.It was not until after the New Culture Movement that the vernacular style gradually occupied the main position in written language. After the 1920s, the translated works in China were mainly in vernacular. For the development of modern Chinese vernacular, it can be said that the impact of translation is extremely far-reaching. Chinese vernacular can be divided into "traditional vernacular" and "modern vernacular".The traditional vernacular is based on a Dream of Red Mansions.
The vernacular of China represented by such vernacular classics as Water Margin, which is not influenced by western language. The "modern vernacular" is based on the traditional vernacular, influenced by oral and ancient prose and with the color of European, that is, the May 4th Movement advocated vernacular, namely the so-called European vernacular.It is worth noting that this Kind of European vernacular was actually created by western missionaries in China at that time, and the tool of missionaries to create European vernacular is translation. In order to spread religion and western culture smoothly, they translated a large number of Western books, including holy books, and consciously chose words and styles more suitable for ordinary people to read in the process of translation, which was the prototype of vernacular Chinese vigorously advocated by the May Fourth Movement.Similar to the situation in China, the Korean Peninsula in the late 19th and early 20th centuries also had two basic styles, namely, the mixed style of Chinese and Chinese and the pure Style of Chinese. It was only after the 1894-1895 Revolution that the Korean Peninsula's national language began to be widely used. It takes time for any language style to emerge and mature, and the Korean Peninsula's "pure Korean style" is no exception,In 1921, Korean language researchers formed the Korean Language Research Society under the influence of the Zhou Dynasty, which served as an opportunity for the further establishment of the modern Korean language. Before this, mixed Chinese and Korean language played an important role in the written language of the Korean Peninsula for a long time.In fact, the so-called mixed Chinese characters are based on Chinese characters, sometimes using Korean characters. The difference is that some mark Korean characters on Chinese characters, and some do not even mark Korean characters, but only Chinese characters. There is another special case, that is, the pure Chinese style with Korean auxiliary words and endings, such as the "hanging out Chinese style" used by Shen Caihao in the translation of the Biography of the Three Heroes of the Foundation of Itri.It is worth mentioning that it was also western missionaries who initially carried out translation activities in Korean. In order to preach, they carried out translation activities mainly aimed at the "Bible" in the Korean Peninsula, using the Korean language, which was not popular and was not valued by the Korean intellectuals at that time. The purpose of using The Korean language was to make the translated holy book easier for more ordinary people to accept. Kim Byeong-cheol holds that it is the translation of sacred books in the native Korean language that gave birth to the main form of modern literature on the Korean Peninsula, namely the "new novel", and thus promoted the "unity of language and language" and the emergence of modern literature in Korea.In general, the influence of translation on the development of Chinese and Korean characters and literature is far more than that. It can be said that the expansion of sentence structure, the change of style, the enrichment of vocabulary, the improvement of expressive force and the perfection of grammar system of the two languages are all inseparable from translation. In a word, translation has played an indispensable role in the unification of language and language in the history of Chinese and English literature. In addition to its role in language, translation also has a profound influence on the development of modern literature in both countries. As is known to all, the translation and introduction of a large number of foreign novels not only brought strong shock and impact to the literary circles of the two countries at that time, but also provided a lot of reference for the realization of the literary transformation of the two countries.It can be said that in the process of the collision, integration and evolution of eastern and western literature, literary translation plays a decisive external role in the transformation of Chinese and Korean literature from classical form to modern form, and has a great impact on the literary concept, literary type, narrative mode and expression mode. In this regard, researchers in China and South Korea have given positive descriptions.
==4. conclusion==
There are many similarities between China and South Korea in modern times. Under the environment of western learning spreading to the east, both of them were knocked out of the country by the West, suffered the invasion of western powers and Japan successively, and passively started the journey of modernization. Under the circumstance of deepening national crisis of domestic and foreign invasion, the enlightened intellectuals of the two countries have carried out the exploration of saving the nation from extinction, and translation is an important means for them to achieve this goal. To be specific, the historical context of the spreading of Western learning from the end of the 19th century endowed the two countries with unique historical characteristics. Due to the similarity of historical, cultural and political background and mainstream ideology, the translation of modern and contemporary literature in the two countries also presents many similarities and even intersecting points. As analyzed above, the most obvious common point in the modern translation history of China and Korea is ideology Influence throughout. For China and Korea at that time, one of the mainstream ideologies was "modernization transformation", and translation was the driving force for the modernization transformation process of the two countries. Therefore, utilitarianism and purposefulness run through the development of modern translation in both countries. In addition to the mainstream social ideology, the translator's personal ideology also has a great influence on literary translation in both countries.For example, the early translation phenomenon led by Western missionaries and the later translation activities led by intellectuals of the two countries were all carried out by translators for their personal purposes under the influence of the general environment at that time. It can be said that it is because of the influence of the subliminal form of the western learning spreading to the east that the modern and modern translations of the two countries show many similarities or similarities. Comparing the literary translation of the two countries in terms of specific content, we can find many similarities in details. For example, western missionaries played an important role at the beginning. After entering the 20th century, the translation of both countries was deeply influenced by Japan. The translation groups of the two countries were the best intellectuals and representatives of the new culture at that time. When they translated foreign works, they also carried out various discussions and even debates about translation. Translation activities have broadened the horizons of the people of the two countries and enriched their languages, literature and even culture.

It is worth mentioning that cultural exchanges between the two countries have also been continued through translation. Of course, due to the differences in specific situations, there are some differences in literary translation between the two countries while showing common features. The author believes that the biggest difference lies in the scale of translation. To be specific, from the number of translated works and translators, the discussion and construction of translation theories, the importance attached to translation, and the influence and status of translation in the history of national literature, Chinese modern translation is obviously higher. The main reason is that the translation environment and background of the two countries at that time are different, that is, the difference between complete colonies and semi-colonies. Although the Qing Dynasty fell under the background of the competition of western powers, China did not completely become a colony of any power, so it was relatively free and independent in political and cultural development. However, because Korea was annexed and ruled by Japan, it was difficult to develop modernization independently. The whole society was highly dependent on Japan, and it was also greatly restricted and influenced by Japan in terms of ideology. Translation activities were no exception.

As mentioned above, the purpose of the author's comparative study of Chinese and Korean contemporary literature translation is to restore the contemporary and contemporary literary exchanges between the two countries, and at the same time to provide necessary background for the mutual translation and introduction of the contemporary and contemporary literature of the two countries. However, the study of Chinese and Korean modern literature translation is a polyphonic and polysemy subject with a very wide range of coverage. Due to the limited space and author's ability, this paper only generalizes and arranges the subject from a macro perspective, and many details are not developed in depth. Translated works by the capacity of, for example, the sources of the related works and so on, for more exist in the two countries pay fork points to explore, in the evaluation of literature translation of words between the two countries and the specific influence of literature, especially under the background of their literary translation between the two countries the properties and significance of literary translation, etc, if you can carry out further discussion and exploration of the content, The research results will be more rich and three-dimensional.

There were many similarities between China and South Korea in modern times. Under the environment of western learning spreading to the East, both of them were knocked out of the country by the West, suffered the invasion of western powers and Japan successively, and passively started the journey of modernization. Under the circumstance of deepening national crisis of domestic and foreign invasion, the enlightened intellectuals of the two countries had carried out the exploration of saving the nation from extinction.Translation was an important means for them to achieve this goal. To be specific, the historical context of the spreading of Western learning from the end of the 19th century endowed the two countries with unique historical characteristics. Due to the similarity of historical, cultural and political background and mainstream ideology, the translation of literature in the two countries also presented many similarities and even intersecting points. As analyzed above, the most obvious common point was ideology influence. For China and Korea at that time, one of the mainstream ideologies was "modernization transformation",for which translation was the driving force. Therefore, utilitarianism and purposefulness ran through the development of modern translation in both countries. In addition to the mainstream social ideology, the translator's personal ideology also has a great influence on literary translation in both countries.For example,the early translation phenomenon led by Western missionaries and the later translation activities led by intellectuals of the two countries were all carried out by translators for their personal purposes under the influence of the general environment at that time. Without doubt, the influence of the subliminal form of the western learning spreading to the east constituted similarities between the two countries.Comparing the literary translation of the two countries in terms of specific content,we found many similarities in details. For example, western missionaries played an important role at the beginning. After entering the 20th century, the translation of both countries was deeply influenced by Japan. The translation groups of the two countries were the best intellectuals and representatives of the new culture at that time. When they translated foreign works, they also carried out various discussions and even debates about translation. Translation activities had broadened the horizons of the people and enriched their languages, literature and even culture.

It is worth mentioning that cultural exchanges between the two countries have also been continued through translation. Of course, due to the differences in specific situations, there are some differences in literary translation between the two countries while showing common features. The author believes that the biggest difference lies in the scale of translation. To be specific, from the number of translated works and translators, the discussion and construction of translation theories, the importance attached to translation to the influence and status of translation in the history of national literature, Chinese modern translation was obviously higher. The main reason was that the translation environment and background of the two countries at that time were different, that is, the difference between complete colonies and semi-colonies. Although the Qing dynasty fell under the background of the competition of western powers, China did not completely become a colony of any power, so it was relatively free and independent in political and cultural development. However, because Korea was annexed and ruled by Japan, it was difficult to develop modernization independently. The whole society was highly dependent on Japan, and it was also greatly restricted and influenced by Japan in terms of ideology. Translation activities were no exception.

As mentioned above, the purpose of the author's comparative study of Chinese and Korean contemporary literature translation is to restore the literary exchanges between the two countries, and at the same time to provide necessary background for the two countries. However, the study of Chinese and Korean modern literature translation is a polyphonic and polysemy subject with a very wide range of coverage. Due to the limited space and author's ability, this paper only generalized and arranged the subject from a macro perspective, and many details were not developed in depth, such as the sources of the related works,the evaluation of literature translation of words, the properties and significance of literary translation and so on. This paper will be more rich and three-dimensional with further discussion and exploration of the content.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 07:59, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

==References==
*金秉哲[韩]: 《韩国近代翻译文学史研究》，首尔: 乙酉文化社，1975。130-160页
*金鹤哲: 《1949 年以前韩国文学汉译和意识形态因素》，《中国比较文学》2009 年第 4 期，第 66 页。
*金旭东[韩]: 《翻译与韩国的近代》，首尔: 小明出版社，2010，第25~28页。
*王秉钦、王颉: 《20世纪中国翻译思想史》，南开大学出版社，2004，第31页。
*许钧: 《面向中西交流的翻译史研究》，《解放军外国语学院学报》2014 年第 5 期，第 140 页。
*许钧、袁筱一编著《当代法国翻译理论》，南京大学出版社，1998，第 128 页。
*朱一凡: 《翻译与现代汉语的变迁 ( 1905 ~ 1936) 》，外语教学与研究出版社，2011，第 72 页。

=刘沛婷 Western Translation history in Renaissance)=
==Abstract==
The Renaissance is not only an important period in the history of literature and technology, but also a turning point in the history of western translation. During this period, the translation of religious and literary works gradually flourished, and translators constantly put forward new translation concepts and tried translation practices.The soaring of national consciousness and national languages contributed to the characteristic ideas of translation in the Renaissance. Especially France, Britain and Germany had made outstanding contributions to the evolution and progress of the entire translation history during this period.This chapter is to have a brief introduction to the translation history in Renaissance, conduct a detailed explaination from the three countries of France, Britan and Germany respectively and illustrate some representative translators and translation theories with the hope to show the magnificent translation achievements in Renaisance and the evolvement of human translation history.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 06:19, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

==Key words==
Translation history; renaissance; France; Britain; Germany

==Introduction==

The period from around the fourteenth until the mid-seventeenth century has conventionally been designated as the Renaissance,referring to the rediscovery and revitalization of the literature, art and science of ancient Greece and Rome. The term was devised by Italian humanists who sought to reaffirm their own continuity with the classical humanist heritage after an interlude of Middle Ages (Habib 2011：79).It was a great revolution in intellect and culture. It is also “the greatest progressive revolution that mankind has so far experienced, a time which called for giants and produced giants” (Engels 1972：445).Renaissance takes spreading humanism thought as one of the main forms of expression, involving all aspects of the cultural field, including the ancient Greek, Roman works and contemporary European works. In the process of studying and reviving classical culture, as well as developing and spreading new ideas, translation obviously plays an important role. The magnificent Renaissance itself included and depended on an unprecedented scale of translation activities. Therefore, it marks not only a great development in literature, art and science, but also an important milestone in the history of translation.

Originated in Italy in the 15th century, and in the 16th century Renaissance swept Europe, (especially Western European countries) and gradually formed a climax. At that time, western society was filled with a spirit of seeking and conquering the objective world. When this spirit was reflected in the translation field, translators were full of ambition and spared no effort to constantly discover new literary styles, excavate new cultural heritages and transplant new ideas to their motherland. Many translators translated classic works related to politics, philosophy, social system, literature and art of past glorious countries into their national languages as reference for the development of their own countries. All achievements in translation were compared to "trophies" in literature and knowledge. Next, we are to have a review on translations history of France, Britain and Germany, three major Western European countries in the high tide of Renaissance.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 06:24, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

==1.History of Translation in France==

In France, during this period, the wind of restoring ancient styles began to prevail, ancient languages were valued, and ancient writers were respected. A large number of literary works of Italian humanists, such as Dante, Petrarch and Boccaccio, were introduced to France, which opened people's eyes and promoted the development of French humanist movement. Therefore, the focus of translation in France shifted from religious works to Italian classical literature works. The increasingly translation activities constituted a climax of translation history in France.Translators generally believed that translating literary works was much more difficult than translating religious works. Although translation began to reach a new climax, most of the translations were the "by-products" of literary creation, with low quality and little influence. However, in the climax of translation in France in the 16th century, there were two outstanding contributors , one is Jacques Amyot and the other is Etienne Dolet.(Tan Zaixi,2000:21)

Jacques Amyot was considered the king of translation in France. His first translation, Heliodoros’ ''Aethiopica'', was completed in 1547. Later, he translated Diodorus Siculus’s ''Bibliotheca Historica'' and, in 1559 he translated Ploutarchos’s ''Vies des Hommes illustrus'', which was Amyot’s most famous work. Amyot advocated translators’ thorough understanding of the original text and plain expressions without embellishment. He emphasized the unity of content and form, free translation and literal translation. In his translation, he borrowed words from Greek and Latin and simultaneously created a large number of words in politics, philosophy, science, literature, music and so on. He fused common people language and academic language, and therefore formed an independent style of translation and greatly enriched the French vocabulary. At that time, the French language is still in a state of confusion, Amyot and other humanists made tremendous contributions to unify the French national language.

Another great man in translation history of France was Etienne Dolet. As a famous translation theorist, Dolet advocated targeted texts’ faithfulness to the original work, which is the fundamental and indispensable principle in translation. Dolet believed that an excellent translator must be proficient in both source language and target language. He was aware of the weakness of word-by-word translation and emphasized that the translation should be consistent with the original text in style through various rhetorical devices. Ballard,a French translation theorist, argued that dolet’ translation principles constituted the rudiment of the French translation theory. What he proposed was the universal principles for translation.(Xu Jun and Yuan Xiaoyi,1998:284)

Jacques Amyot set an example for the following translation works in France in the 16th century; Etienne Dolet’s translation theories were of great significance and were the first systematic principles of translation, which were ahead of those of Germany and Britain and advanced translation studies into a higher level. Thanks to their efforts, France had earned a place in translation history during Renaissance period.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 06:25, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

==2. History of Translation in Britain==

In Britain, the Renaissance came later than in the main countries of continental Europe, but Britain gradually kept up with others countries. During this period, the British capitalist economy developed rapidly, productivity improved greatly, and the country became increasingly prosperous , which has laid a solid material foundation for the development of literature and translation. Especially since Elizabeth came to the throne in the mid-16th century by the early 17th century, translation was flourishing. On the one hand, religious translation is in the ascendant, on the other hand, a great deal of literature from Greece, Rome and other contemporary countries was translated into English, which made English translation activities in this period one of the peaks of translation activities in Europe and even the world. Literary translation ranged from history and philosophy to poetry and drama, with the occurrence of a large number of excellent translators,who introduced ancient ingenuity to Britain, offering serious lessons not only to the Queen and politicians, but also plots and materials for dramatists and readers with the purpose of serving their country. At that time, many translators were not scholars, they were not bound by any strict translation theory, they could translate what they had at their own will. Many translations are not directly from the original texts, but from the translations or even the translation of the translation. Therefore, the scope and quantity of translation are unprecedented in Britain.In the aspect of religious translation, the translator was also influenced by humanism and the Reformation, a new understanding of the Bible arose, as well as a new attitude and a new way of dealing with the translation of the Bible. People advocated accurate translation in religious works, while for literature, the unbridled freedom of traditional translation methods persisted throughout the Elizabethan era.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 07:15, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

====2.1 Translation of Douglas and Cheke====

Gavin Douglas (1475-1522), a famous Scottish poet and translator, published his translation of Virgil’s epic Poem ''The Aeneid'' in the early 16th century. He began his preface with a eulogy of Virgil and then launched into a serious critique of the overly liberal medieval translation. He criticized Caxton's French translation as unfaithful, as far from Virgil's original work, and "as different from the devil as st. Austin" (Amos,1920:129). Douglass did not translate word by word, but freely translated. He said that if translator encountered difficult words, sentences, rhymes, one had to deviate from the original text. Douglass had added new content and new meaning to translation principles, and thus had a certain value.

Towards the middle of the 16th century, an important figure in translation was John Cheke (1514-1557). He was a humanist and supporter of the Reformation, as well as a polyglot authority on Greek at the time and served as Principal Regent Chair Professor at Cambridge university. As a result of his popularity, Cambridge became one of the academic centers in Britain, and its students were well versed in translation and language studies.Cheke was a tireless translator,who had translated many Greek works and the Bible. Characteristically, he used only pure English words or words of Saxon origin in any case, and did not adopt any foreign words. He thought the English language was rich enough without borrowing foreign words. Because of his insist on pure English words and expressions in his translation, he sometimes had to use vulgar, old and remote words, so that the style of his translation was sometimes forced and stiff.
Cheke's theory had a great influence on contemporary translators. Many other translators often mentioned Cheke's translation views in their own translations. At that time, the main criterion for evaluating a translated work was whether it was authentic and easy to be understood by compatriots. At the same time, the study of foreign grammar and contrastive vocabulary also appeared in language studies. The translator aimed to turn the translation into a textbook for students of language and translation to imitate. Some translators also use word-for-word translation to provide guidance to students. Abraham Fleming, for example, translated Virgil's Poems "according to grammatical rules." He "used plain and understandable words so as to accommodate those who are slow in comprehension, since the translator's aim is to use straightforward language structures to ease the difficulties of those whose grammatical concepts are vague, rather than to devise ways to satisfy the desires of grander humanists" (Amos,1920:109).--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 07:16, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

====2.2 Translation from Thomas North to Georga Chapman====

However, in the translation of classical masterpieces, translators tended to shift from one extreme to another. In order to avoid word-for-word translation, translators adopted excessively free translation, which was not only for the expression of words but also for the treatment of the substance of the content. Nicholas Udall(1505-1556) created the first British comedy ''Ralph Roister Doister''. In 1542 he translated Erasmus's ''Book of Proverbs'', and later presided over Erasmus's Latin translation, including the Gospel of Luke, which was published in 1548. In the preface to the translation of the ''New Testament'', he discussed various issues related to translation: the treatment of translators, the expansion of English vocabulary, the treatment of sentence structure of the translation, Erasmus's style and the stylistic characteristics of different authors. In his opinion, translation should not follow rigid rules. He advocated the use of liberal translation without deviation from the original meaning, and the translation should be readable and understandable to the general readers.

The most famous translation work of the whole Elizabethan period was the English version of ''The live of the Noble Grecians and Romans'' by translator Thomas North (1535-1601).He studied at Cambridge University in his early years, and later worked in London, where he met many translation lovers and gradually became interested in translation. In 1557 he translated ''Diall of Princes'' from a French translation and later he translated an oriental allegory from an Italian translated version in 1601. ''The live of the Noble Grecians and Romans'' was translated in 1579. This translation was not from the original Greek version, but from Amyot's French translation. However, it was still considered as an excellent epoch-making translation. North did not express any unique views on translation, but he was famous for his excellent translation in the western translation circle with three main characteristics:(1)because it is not from the original Greek, the style of the translation is different from Plutarch's style; The original text is elegant while his translation is plain. (2) North's style is also different from that of Amio in the French translation, which he used as a model. He not only changes the wording of the French translation, but also its spirit. Like Amio's French translation, North's is another masterpiece based on Plutarch's original subject. (3) Though he knew little of the classical language, North was a master of The English language, and his translations were so simple and fluent, so elegant and idiomatic, that readers might have taken them for the original if they had not read the plot (Tan Zaixi, 2004:76) . North's translation was praised by Shakespeare, who drew his inspirations from this translated works and cited its expressions, which can be considered a terrific contribution of translation to literature. The prose style adopted by ''The live of the Noble Grecians and Romans'' is novel and elegant, neither rigid nor grotesque, and hence it has become an enduring model in the history of English translation.

Philemon Holland (1552-1637) was the most outstanding English translator of the 16th century, whose works outnumbered those of his contemporaries. He had been a surgeon and headmaster of Coventry General School. He was a learned translator and scholar, fluent in Greek and Latin, proficient in ancient writing and proverbs, as well as rhetoric. His classical works were not translated but directly from the Original Greek and Latin texts, and the subject matter was also varied. He translated Livy's Romane Historie in 1600 and Pliny's Natural Historie in 1601, Plutarch's Moralia in 1603, and translated Zitonius's The Historie of The Twelve Caesars in 1606. Hollander is better known in British translation circles than North or Florio, known as the Elizabethan "translator general" who truly understood "the secret of translation." Holland's translation has two main characteristics :(1) translation must serve the reality; (2) Translation must be stylistic. In the preface to his translation of Natural History, he emphasized, "the practicality of the content of the translation, which should be suitable not only for learned people, but also for the uncivilized peasants in the countryside and for the industrious craftsmen in the cities” (Amos,1920:86) . Hollander was particular about the style of his translation. Like other translators of his time, he used a slow prose style, and the translation was always longer than the original. In his translation he tried to be authentic, not foreign. He does not use artificial language, but popular style. Like Cheke before him, he also preferred archaic words to foreign ones out of love for the language of his own country. What’s more, he believed that the style of the original work must be reflected in the translation, and that different works must adopt different styles without adding differences. Hollander had left behind more than just translations, but a series of works with distinctive stylistic characteristics that could withstand even the rigors of modern stylist analysis and provide the modern reader with great pleasure.

Georga Chapman (1559-1634) was another outstanding translator, whose greatest contribution is that his translations serve as a bridge between the 16th and 17th centuries. He spent his early years as a student at Oxford University before writing poetry and plays. But it was mainly his translations that made him famous in the literary world. He translated the first seven books of the Iliad in 1598, completed the epic in 1611, and the Odyssey in 1616. The translator's profound attainments and outstanding achievements made his translation a literary masterpiece of the time. Chapman adopted two different styles to translate the same poetic style of the original work, that is, he translated Iliad in sonnet and Odyssey in heroic couplet. In contrast, the former is more appropriate and decent than the latter. In his translation, Chapman made extensive use of mythological dictionaries, referred to early reviews of Homer's work. However, both in content and style, the translation is not completely consistent with the original work. It has transformed the characters in the poem, and added elements of moral preaching to the value of wisdom and the expression and restraint of feelings. Chapman is unblemished as a translator. As a poet, however, he was blameless. His translation has achieved great success mainly because of his extraordinary creative ability as a poet and superb ability to control language.
Chapman also made some contributions to the theoretical issues of translation. In the preface of his translation, he clearly put forward the principles guiding the translation of poetry, thus filling some gaps in translation theory in the 16th century, especially in the later period. In principle, he was against too much strictness as well as too much freedom. He said, "I despise the translators for being trapped in the mire of word-for-word translation, losing the living soul of their native language and blackening the original author with stiff language. At the same time, I abhors the use of complicated language to express the meaning” (Amos,1920:130) . Of all that he opposed, the first was word for word translation,which was considered the most unnatural and absurd. According to the views of translation theories such as Horace, who had insight and a prudent attitude that the translator should not follow the original number of words and word order, but follow its material composition and sentences, carefully weigh sentences, and then use the most appropriate expressions and form to express and decorate the translation. Chapman believed that word-by-word translation was a common fault of translators, and even he himself was inevitable. But those mistakes could be overcome. Although the expression of meaning and language style of Greek and English are different, the translator could compare the translation with the original text in meaning and style as long as he carefully identified, understood the spirit of the original text and had a thorough understanding of its grammar and vocabulary and thus approximately achieved "formal correspondence" (Catford,1965:32). Chapman's theory was carried on by many translators of the 17th and 18th centuries. This was obviously because he opposed both extremes, and it was easier to argue for a compromise.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 06:45, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

====2.3 Translation of Tyndale and Fulke====

In the 16th century, the translation of the English Bible also flourished. Since the introduction of ethnic translation in the Middle Ages, the Bible had been increasingly read. It had the same appeal for all classes of people, which prompted translators to combine the accuracy required by scholars with the intelligibility required by ordinary people, thus promoting the overall development of translation art and theory. In this respect, religious translation in England in the 16th century was more effective than literary translation. Tyndale and Fulke were the main representatives of bible translation.

William Tyndale (1494-1536) was an erudite humanist and protestant reformist. In 1523, his translation of the New Testament from Greek from a Protestant standpoint was opposed and persecuted by the English church authorities and was not allowed to be published. He fled to Germany in 1524 and, after many twists and turns, had his translation first published in 1525. In 1526, he smuggled the translation back to England against the will of the Church, trying to spread Protestant ideas through the new translation of the Bible and convert The English people to Protestants. The church authorities immediately took measures to lay siege. The Bishop of London claimed to have found 2,000 errors in Tyndale's translation. Thomas More, a famous humanist, attacked his translation very unkindly, and the priests bought all the copies they could get and burned them to prevent their proliferation. Uncompromising, Tyndale continued to translate the Bible in his own way: he translated the first book of the Old Testament in 1530, completed The Book of Jonah in 1531, and published the revised New Testament in 1534. The church authorities had no choice but to burn Tyndale in 1536 for heresy.
Tyndale's translation, however, had not disappeared but was republished after Tyndale's martyrdom and became increasingly influential, serving as the main reference version and as the model for all English translations for centuries to come. The greatest achievement of Tyndale's translation is that it takes into account the needs of academe, conciseness and literariness, and integrates these three elements into the style of English translation of the Bible. Tyndale paid special attention to the popularity of the translation, trying to use the authentic English vocabulary and ordinary narrative expressions of vivid and specific expressions, which makes his text simple and natural without being pedantic.(Tan Zaixi,2004:80)

If Tyndale made a special contribution to the practical translation of the Bible in the 16th century, then it was William Fulke (1538-1589)who made the greatest achievements in the theoretical study of bible translation. Fulke was a scholar of The Bible with humanistic thoughts. Without translating the Bible completely, he had great views on translation theory. In 1589 he published a book entitled in Defence of the Sincere and True Translation of the Holy Scriptures into the English Tongue. It must be pointed out that Fulke did not systematically discuss the universal principles of translation as Dolet did. Instead, he only talked about the facts and refuted Gregory Martin's views, and expounded the theoretical issues in a rather chaotic manner. To sum up, there were mainly two aspects as follows:
(1)Translation can have nothing to do with faith. Fulke, influenced by Erasmus's linguistic approach, disagreed with Martin's assertion of theological authority over scientific scholarship. Translators, he believed, must be fluent in many languages so that they could make accurate judgments about the teachings of the saints without blindly following them. The power of a translator lies in his solid linguistic ability, not in his belief in God. He said, The translator cannot be called an unfaithful heretic as long as the translation conforms to the language and meaning of the original text, even if the motive is not good (Amos,1920:71). Fulke never accepted Martin's strict translation formulas, nor did he submit to unproven authoritative theories, even from the leaders of his own faction. Fulke’s point of view is obviously a challenge to the theological authority of Augustine with its purpose to liberate the Bible translation from the narrow theological tradition and win the right for ordinary people to translate and interpret the Bible.
(2)The Translation of the Bible must respect linguistic habits. If the translator has difficulty in understanding the original text, he/she should turn to the language habits of ancient non-religious writers, while one encounters difficulties in diction, translator should refer to the language habits of contemporary secular writers and the general public. Fulke added: "We are not lords dictating the way people speak. If we were, we would teach them how to use language better. Since we cannot change the way people speak, we have to follow Aristotle's instructions and use the language of ordinary people."(Amos,1920:72) Therefore, religious usage should give way to common usage if it is in conflict with common usage. In translation, words and expressions that are most easily understood must be used so that those who do not know their etymological meaning can understand them. At the same time, if words have been misused over a long period of time, with meanings that do not correspond to the original meaning of the words, or have been misused to increase the ambiguity of the words, the translator should not follow blindly, but should look to the root and choose the words according to their original meaning, that is, according to the meaning used in the time when the Bible was written. In translating the Bible into English, Fulke did not advocate excessive borrowing of foreign words but tapping the expressive potential of English itself and paying attention to the use of expressions in line with English habits. Fulke acknowledged that English had a small vocabulary compared with older languages, but argued that this could not be compensated for by making up words, but by using Old English words again.
Clearly, some of Mr Fulke's views are limited and conservative. Many of the foreign words he objects to have been adopted as part of the English vocabulary. But many of his criticisms of Martin are convincing, and his work has been generally praised by the translators of the Bible. Some of his observations on language are so incisive that they are still of great reference value to the study of modern English.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 07:17, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

==3.History of Translation in Germany==

In Germany, the national self-consciousness was further strengthened, and the trend of mechanical imitation of Latin gradually disappeared in the 15th century.

====3.1 Dominant Ideas in German Translation====

Linguists realized the unique style and expressive ability of German, and hence shifted the focus of translation from the original language to the target language. Free translation took the place of word-to-word translation and occupied the dominant position. The only reason for translators to object literal translation is its convenience for readers to understand word-by-word translation.
Gradually, scholars recognized that Hebrew, Greek, and Latin all have distinct features, especially in terms of idiomatic expressions. Similarly, since German is an independent language, it also has its own unique expressions that cannot be translated word by word into other languages, nor can expressions in other languages be translated word by word into German. Based an an understanding of the nature and differences of languages as well as a growing sense of nationality and desire to develop the national language, more and more historians and scholars have begun to use German idiomatic expressions rather than imitate Latin.
Against the background of this trend of thought, the free translators gradually changed their inferiority in the debates with the literal translators in the 15th century, and rightly put forward another profound reason against literal translation: German is an independent language with its own rules that must be respected; German has its own language style, which cannot be destroyed by imitation of other languages. This was the dominant idea in German translation throughout the 16th century.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 07:17, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

====3.2 Translation of Reuchlin, Erasmus and Luther====

Johannes Reuchlin(1455-1522) aroused great academic interest in Hebrew. In 1515, he wrote Epistolae Obscurorum Virorum, exposing the narrow-mouthing ignorance of the scholars and monks, which led to a fierce debate between the reformers and conservatives in the church. At the same time, he was also very knowledgeable about translation theory. He mainly translated two works, ''Batrachom Yomachia'' (1510) and ''Septem Psalmos Poenitentiales'' (1512), using word-for-word translation. This contradicts his own remarks about translation.
However, its actual content and general principles could not be compared to those of the literal translation school in the 15th century. The literatrists of the 15th century only emphasized the imitation of certain rhetorical forms of the text, while Reuchlin understood the value of rhythm and the difference between the text and the translation. He believed that the form of the original was so closely integrated with the original that it could not be preserved in the target language. Just like Homer's works alive only in Greek, it would detract from the aesthetic value of literature when translated into any other language. The purpose of literal translation was not to ask the translator to imitate the style of the original text, but to make readers pay attention to the style of the original text and appreciate its literary value.(Tan Zaixi,2004:56)

Another outstanding representatives of a new approach to literary study and new insights into translation theory in the 16th century was Desiderius Erasmus (1466-1536), who was born in a priest's family in Rotterdam, Netherlands. His early education was influenced by The Canon of Augustine. After studying in Paris, he lived successively in Britain, Germany, Italy and Switzerland, accepting humanism and opposing scholasticism. He was knowledgeable, good at language studies, and had profound attainments in Greek and Latin literature, especially his incisive treatises on literature and style.
Erasmus advocated that the original work must be respected. Before Erasmus, the Translation of the Bible in Various European countries was in a state of confusion. Erasmus bitterly pointed out that the translation and commentary of the Bible must be faithful to the original text, because no translation can fully translate the "language of God" as the Bible itself. Early theologians did not understand Hebrew or Greek and could not understand the original text of the Bible, so the truth of the Bible was covered up, distorted, or ossified into dogma. To uncover this truth, we must go back to the source. It is truth, not authority, that should be respected. What’s more, he claimed that translator must have a rich knowledge of language. He believed that to interpret the ''New Testament'' correctly it was necessary to learn ancient Greek; Anyone who wished to pursue theological studies must first be able to read the classics and learn Greek semantics, meanings, and rhetoric. Also, he realized the great importance of style in translation and attached great importance to readers’ requirements. There is no doubt that Erasmus' translation theory is the result of his humanistic thought, his mastery of multiple languages as well as his appreciation of literary styles. His translation principles and methods have exerted great influence on both contemporary and later translators.

Martin Luther (149-146) was the founder of the European Religious Reform movement and the Protestant Church reformer. Luther translated the Bible, known as “the first bible of common people” in the history by using the people's language, which played a great role in unifying the German language and laid a foundation for the formation and development of modern German.
He also proposed that translation should adopt common people language and only appropriate free translation can bring the original enlightening thoughts of Bible into light. (Luther,1530:124) Grammatical correction and semantic coherence were of great value during translation. Translation was so challenging that it requires collective wisdom and repeatedly revisions.
Luther had also put forward seven rules for translation: the word order of the original text can be changed; modal particles can be used reasonably; necessary conjunctions can be added; words in the original text that do not have an equivalent can be omitted; phrases can be used to translate individual words; figurative usage and non-figurative usage can be changed flexibly; the accuracy of variant forms and explanations should be strengthened. Although Luther’s translation practice received a great deal of criticism, his translation of Bible his was considered to be the earliest written language in German and opened a new era in the development of modern German (Xie Tianzhen,2009:23). It endowed him with the highest reputation and the most profound influence in Germany.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 07:04, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

==Conclusion==
It could be seen from the above sections that one of the biggest characteristics of Western translation during the Renaissance was the parallel and independent development of the translation of western European national languages. The use of Latin, though still having some market, was a tributary in both writing and translation. Before the Renaissance, especially before the middle ages, when we talked about western translation, we mostly meant translation in Latin. Since the Renaissance, with the gradual formation and consolidation of national states and the development of national languages, western translation had turned to national languages,especially French, English and German.The translation activities in the Renaissance period were basically devoid of disciplinary consciousness, and the theories were fragmentary and unsystematic. Most of the authors were translation practitioners, and most of the theories were empirical(Pan Wenguo 2002:23). Thanks to the translators in these three countries who were devoted themselves to the study of translation principles and the transmission of classic works, their consistant and pain-staking efforts had pushed the translation theory to anew level and left countlessly valueable translated works.Therefore, the Renaissance could be said to be a turning point in the history of western translation. In short, the Renaissance marks that the translation of national languages has been firmly on the historical stage, and that translation practice and theory have broken away from the dark Middle Ages.It also laid a solid foundation for the contemporary translation.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 07:14, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

==References==
*Amos, Flora Ross. (1920). Early Theories of Translation. New York: Columbia University Press.
*Benjamin, Andrew. (1989). Translation and the Nature of Philosophy: A New Theory of Words. London and New York: Routledge.
*Catford,J.C.(1965) A Linguistic Theory of Translation.New York: Oxford University Press.
*Dolet, Etienne. (1540). How to Translate Well from One Language to Another. Robinson.
*Frederick Engels. (1883) The Dialects of Nature. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
*Luther, Martin. (1530). Sendbrief vom Dolmetschen. Stoerig.
*M.A.R. Habib. (2011) Literary Criticism from Plato to the Present: An Introduction. New Jersey: Wiley-Blackwell Publishing.
*Munday, Jeremy. (2001). Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. London and New York: Routledge.
*Pan Wenguo 潘文国.(2002) 当代西方的翻译学研究[Contemporary Translation Studies in the West].中国翻译[Chinese Translation Journal] 31-34.
*Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2000). 翻译学[Translation Studies]. Wuhan: Hubei Educational Press 湖北教育出版社.
*Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004).西方翻译简史[A Short History of Translation in the West]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.
*Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2003). 翻译研究新视野[New Perspective for Translation Studies]. Qingdao: Qingdao Publishing 青岛出版社.
*Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2009).中西翻译简史[A Brief History of Translation in China and the West].Beijing:Foreign Language Teachinng and Research Press 北京外语教学与研究出版社.
*Xu Jun, Yuan Xiaoyi 许钧，袁筱一. (1998). 当代法国翻译理论[Contemporary Translation Thoery in France]. Nanjing: Nanjing University 南京大学.

=刘薇 Contemporary American Translation History)=

Liu Wei 刘薇 Hunan Normal University, China

==Abstract==
The United States is an important part of the "West", so when we talk about the conception of "West", it is impossible not to include the United States.Therefore, this chapter combs the development of contemporary American translation by introducing a series of theories of American Translators.

==Key words==
translation theory of American, Eugene Nida,Robert Boogrand.

==Introduction==

In the field of translation studies, the situation in the United States is very special.Since the history of the United States itself is not long, we can not expect to talk about "ancient American translation theory", "medieval American translation theory", or even "modern American translation theory".American translation theory is mainly the "contemporary translation theory", which is developed after World War II (Guo Jianzhong, [introduction]: 2).Although the development of American translation theory is relatively short, there are still many influential translation theorists, such as Eugene Nida, Robert Boogrand, Andre Leverville, Lawrence Venudi, Edwin Gentzler and so on. They are constantly innovating and developing new theories in the field of translation.

==Chapter1 Characteristics of the local American translation theory ==

The development of contemporary American translation theory has three main characteristics: first, it inherits the tradition of European translation theory in terms of overall research methods;Second, the early studies were mostly influenced by the schools of American structural linguistics;Third, there is a tendency to catch up in research results.These characteristics are discussed one by one below.

On the first point, the inheritance of European tradition in the overall research method of American translation theory is due to its unique language and cultural tradition.As an integral part of the whole culture, translation culture naturally presents the basic characteristics of the development of the whole culture.Since the American culture with English as the national language is mainly inherited from European culture, the development of American translation culture, as an integral part of American culture, also inherits European translation culture.Especially in the early stage of the development of American translation theory, many influential people engaged in translation studies were immigrants from Europe or descendants of recent European immigrants.

Take Thorman as an example: his translation theory work the art of translation published in 1901 is one of the earliest published works in the field of American translation theory, but the contents and discussion methods involved in the book have no obvious "American characteristics".On the contrary, it is more like a work belonging to Europe, especially the British translation tradition. Even the examples in the book are similar to the European, especially the British translation tradition.

The second characteristic of the tradition of American translation theory is that the early studies were greatly influenced by the schools of American structural linguistics, which can be said to be a more distinctive "American characteristic" in American translation studies.

American linguistic studies are at the forefront of the West in many aspects. There have been many linguistic schools, such as human language school, structuralism school, transformational generative school and so on. All kinds of schools have also had various direct or indirect effects on American translation studies.

The representative of American structuralist language school is Bloomfield. He adopts the method of behaviorism and believes that everything about language can be studied scientifically and objectively.He put forward a behaviorist semantic analysis method, which holds that meaning is the relationship between stimulus and language response.In 1950s, Chomsky's transformational generative theory replaced Bloomfield's theory and occupied the dominant position in American linguistics theory and occupied the dominant position in American linguistics.The influence of Chomsky's theory on translation studies mainly lies in his discussion of surface structure and deep structure.The concept of "deep" has led to large-scale semantic research. Because semantics is closely related to translation research, Chomsky's theory has promoted the development of translation theory in the United States and even the whole west.

Therefore, under the influence of various linguistic theories, many people try to put forward new translation concepts and research methods. These people can be collectively referred to as the structural School of American translation theory.Among them, the main characters include Wojilin, Bolinger, Katz, Quinn and Eugene Nida.

Take Wojilin as an example. He is a human linguist.His greatest contribution is to put forward a multi-step translation method (also known as step-by-step translation method).The biggest advantage of his multi-step translation method is that the steps are clear, flexible and easy to master.

Using Chomsky's transformational generative theory, Boringer puts forward a concept of structural translation as opposed to lexical translation.Based on structural linguistics, Katz makes a profound analysis of the translatability of language and the philosophical problems in language and translation.Based on the discussion of strange language, Quinn expounds some basic problems of translation from the perspective of philosophy, which has aroused great repercussions in the field of western translation theory.

The third characteristic of the development of American translation theory is that it has a tendency to catch up with others in research results.One of the most prominent scholars is Eugene Nida. Although he is an outstanding linguist, his views on "translation is science", "translation is communication", "translation must pay attention to reader response" and other aspects are an innovation and breakthrough to the previous views. In addition, after Eugene Nida, many scholars have put forward many new views because of their existence,It was only after World War II that American translation theory continued to catch up.
Therefore, we will focus on him in the next chapter.

==Chapter2 Eugene Nida's translation theory==

Eugene Albert Nida (1914 -) was born in Oklahoma City in the south central United States. He graduated from the University of California, Los Angeles in 1936. In 1943, he worked in Bloomfield and fries (Charles fries received his doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous scholars. As the leading translation theory figure in contemporary America, Nida has also engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology and communication engineering. Before his retirement in the 1980s, he worked in the Translation Department of the American Holy Bible Association and served as the executive secretary of the translation department for a long time. He is mainly engaged in the Bible Organization of translation and revision of translations and the Bible Training and theoretical guidance for translators. He is proficient in many languages and has investigated and studied more than 100 languages, especially some small languages in Africa and Latin America. In 1968, he served as the president of the American language society. Although he does not take teaching as his career, he has extremely rich experience in Translation training and lecturing. In addition to a long-term part-time job, he speaks linguistics in the famous American summer In addition to teaching linguistics and translation courses in the Institute, he also served as a guest lecturer and professor in many American universities. He was often invited to give short-term lectures in Europe, Latin America, Africa and Asia, and won several honorary doctorates. In order to recognize his contribution to translation research, especially in the field of Bible translation research, the American Bible Association named the Institute after him in 2001 In particular, Nida has deep feelings for China. Since 1982, he has been invited to give lectures in China more than ten times, and has maintained close academic contacts and exchanges with many schools and academic colleagues in China for a long time.

Nida is a prolific language and translation theorist. From 1945 to 2004, he published more than 200 articles and more than 40 works (including works cooperated and edited with others). Among them, there are more than 20 works on language and translation theory, and a collection of papers has been published.

His research achievements include "Toward a Science of Translating" published in 1964, "The Theory and Practice of Translation" Co authored with Charles Taber in 1969, "Com ponential Analysis of Meaning " published in 1975 and "language structure and Translation" . Nida's anthology "Language Structure and Translation : Essays by Eugene A. Nida，ed. by Anwar S. Dil" , "From One Language to Another" , co authored with de warrd in 1986, "The Sociolinguistics of Interlingual Communication" , published in 1996 and published in 2001 "Language and Culture :Contertsin Translating" 。

Throughout Nida's translation thought, we can divide it into three main development stages: the linguistic stage with obvious American structuralism in the early stage, the stage of translation science and translation communication in the middle stage, and the stage of social semiotics.

The first major stage is the linguistic stage, from 1943 when he wrote his doctoral thesis "a summary of English syntax" to 1959 when he published "principles of translation from biblical translation".At this stage, he tries to clarify the structural nature of language through the description of syntax, morphology and language translation.In his early days, he was greatly influenced by American structuralist Bloomfield and human linguist Sapir, and paid attention to the collection and analysis of language materials in language research.Through the opportunity to visit and contact different languages all over the world, many examples of speech differences are collected.However, he does not regard speech differences as insurmountable obstacles between languages, but as different phenomena of the same essence.

The second development stage of Nida's translation thought is the stage of translation science and translation communication. It took 10 years from the publication of "principles of translation from biblical translation" in 1959 to the publication of "translation theory and practice" in 1969.The research achievements at this stage have played a key role in establishing Nida's authoritative position in the whole western translation theory circle.
By summarizing this main development period, the main contents of the following five aspects can be summarized:

（一）Translation science.Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill, but also a science.The so-called science here means that translation problems can be handled by "scientific approaches to language structure, semantic analysis and information theory", that is, a linguistic and descriptive method can be adopted to explain the translation process.If the principles and procedures of translation seem to be normative, it is only because they are generally considered to be the most useful in a specific scope of translation.Nida's view that "translation is science" has had great repercussions in the field of western linguistics and translation theory.

（二） Translation communication theory. Nida applies communication theory and information theory to translation studies and holds that translation is communication. After World War II, not only advertisers, politicians and businessmen attached great importance to the intelligibility of language, but also scholars, writers, editors, publishers and translators realized that any information would be worthless if it could not play a communicative role. Therefore, to judge whether a translation is successful, we must first see whether it can be immediately understood by the recipient and whether it can play a role in the communication of ideas, information and feelings. Therefore, in the field of translation research, various names and statements such as "communicative translation", "functional translation" and related "equal response theory", "equal effect theory", "equal role theory" and "equal power theory" have sprung up one after another. Nida's "translation is communication" and his "reader response theory" and "dynamic equivalence" discussed below“ "Functional equivalence" has become an important representative of the communicative school in the field of western translation studies.

Nida's theory of "translation is communication" is based on the theory of language commonality. Nida, like Jacobson, believes that all languages in the world have the same expression ability, which can enable native speakers of the language to express ideas, describe the world and carry out social communication. His argument is based on the same "identity" For example, in countries with relatively developed productive forces, many scientific and technological words will appear in their languages, while in countries with less developed or very low productive forces, there may be a lack of scientific and technological words in their languages. However, this does not mean that the latter has the same expressive ability as the former, but only shows that people have different requirements for languages in different languages, It is not because the language cannot produce scientific and technological vocabulary, but because the speakers of the language do not have or temporarily do not have the requirement to use scientific and technological vocabulary. Once there is such a requirement, there will be corresponding vocabulary in the language, or "native" scientific and technological vocabulary, or "foreign" vocabulary transplanted from foreign words. In short, the expression efficiency of various languages is the same.

Nida believes that the primary task of translation is to make it clear to the readers at a glance after reading the translation. That is to say, the translation should be fluent and natural, and the readers can understand it without the knowledge of the cultural background of the source language. This requires that rigid foreign words should be used as little as possible in translation, and expressions belonging to the receiving language should be used as much as possible. For example, in a Sudanese language, for If the expression "repent and reform" is translated directly, it will make people feel at a loss, and it should be translated into the local familiar "spitting on the ground in front of someone". For example, in the language without "Snow", white as snow may be puzzling, but it should be said "white as frost" or "white as egret hair" Another example is that in the ancient West, the habit of people meeting and greeting each other was "sacred kiss", but now it should become "very warm handshake".

In a sense, the theory of translation communication is not only one of the main symbols of Nida's second development stage of translation thought, but also one of the biggest characteristics of his whole ideological system.Especially after the publication of translation theory and practice, Nida's translation communication theory has had a great impact on the western translation circles, including those in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union.

（三） Dynamic equivalence theory.The so-called dynamic equivalence translation is actually translation under the guidance of translation communication theory. Specifically, it refers to "reproducing the source language information with the closest (original) natural equivalence in the receiving language from semantics to style".In this definition, there are three key points: one is "nature", which means that the translation cannot have a translation cavity;The second is "close", which refers to selecting the translation with the closest meaning to the original text on the basis of "nature";The third is "equivalence", which is the core.Both "nature" and "close" serve to find equivalents.

（四） Translation function theory.From the perspective of sociolinguistics and language communicative function, Nida believes that translation must serve the reader.To judge whether a translation is correct or not, we must take the reader's response as the criterion.If the response of the target readers is basically the same as that of the original readers, the translation can be considered successful.

（五） Four step model.This refers to the translation process.Nida puts forward that the process of translation is: analysis, transfer (transfer the meaning obtained from the analysis from the source language to the receiving language), reorganization (reorganize the translation according to the rules of the receiving language), and inspection (detect the target text against the source text).Among these four steps, "analysis" is the most complex and key, which is the focus of Nida's translation research.The focus of the analysis is semantics. He distinguishes four parts of speech from the perspective of semantics: object words, activity words, abstract words and relational words.In semantic analysis, he introduced three methods: linear analysis, hierarchical analysis and component analysis.In the specific analysis of semantics, he focuses on grammatical meaning, referential meaning and connotative meaning (or emotional meaning and associative meaning).These distinction theories are of great significance to understand his translation thought.

Nida's research achievements in the 1980s can be regarded as the third stage of translation thought.He has made a series of modifications and supplements to his translation theory.He did not completely abandon the theory of the original communicative school, but further developed on the original basis and incorporated the useful elements of the original theory into a new model, which is the social semiotics model in the third development stage translation thought.

Compared with previous works, Eugene Nida has the following four changes and developments in from one language to another: first, based on the translation theory of social semiotics, he emphasizes that everything in the text has meaning, including speech form, so form cannot be easily sacrificed.That is to say, form is also meaningful. Sacrificing form means sacrificing meaning.Secondly, it points out that the rhetorical features of language play an important role in language communication, so we must pay attention to these features in translation.Third, the theory of "dynamic equivalence" is no longer used, but replaced by "functional equivalence", which is intended to make the meaning of the term clearer and easier to understand.Fourth, instead of using the distinction of grammatical meaning, referential meaning and associative meaning, meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, and all kinds of meaning are divided into referential meaning and associative meaning.From the whole historical process of the development of translation theory, it should be said that these changes are basically positive.

Of course, his theory and works are not perfect.First, his theory focuses too much on solving the problems of communicative and intelligibility of translation, so its scope of application is limited.It is natural to emphasize the intelligibility of the translation in the field of Bible translation, but if the intelligibility of the translation is always put in the first place in the translation of secular literary works, it will inevitably lead to the simplification and even non literariness of the translated language.

Second, he no longer completely negates "formal correspondence", but believes that the expression form of the original text cannot be broken at will in translation.In order to expand the scope of application of his theory, he also added rhetoric.However, despite his amendments, he failed to elaborate more deeply on his new views.

Thirdly, Eugene Nida once put forward the proposition that "translation is science", and then basically abandoned this proposition.Whether he put forward or gave up, he did not put forward sufficient and convincing arguments, which can not be said to be a major defect.

Of course, Nida's theory and works are not perfect. Firstly, his theory focuses too much on solving the problems of communicative and intelligibility of translation, so its scope of application is limited. It is natural to emphasize the intelligibility of the translation in the field of Bible translation, but if the intelligibility of the translation is always put in the first place in the translation of secular literary works, it will inevitably lead to the simplification and even non literariness of the translated language. Newmark, a British translation theorist, once pointed out: "if we delete all the metaphors in the Bible that Doneda believes readers cannot understand, it will inevitably lead to a large loss of meaning." . an important feature of literary works is that they use more metaphorical and novel language. The author's real intention may have to taste and capture between the lines. If all the metaphorical images in the original work are deleted and all the associative meanings are clearly stated, the result will be that the translation is easy to understand, but it is dull and can't reach To the purpose of literature. In recent years, Nida has become more and more aware of this, and has constantly revised and improved some of his past views. For example, he later no longer focused on the intelligibility of the translation, but advocated a "three nature principle", that is, the principle of paying equal attention to comprehensibility, readability and acceptability. In addition, he no longer completely denied "formal correspondence" In order to expand the scope of application of his theory, he especially added rhetoric. However, despite Nida's amendments, he failed to make a more profound exposition of his new views; he was only aware of the existence of the problem rather than successfully solving the relevant problems Besides, Nida once put forward the proposition that "translation is science", and then basically gave up this proposition. Whether he put forward or gave up, he did not put forward sufficient and convincing arguments, which is a major defect.

Of course, flaws do not hide the jade. Looking at Nida's lifelong contributions, he is one of the most outstanding theoretical figures in the field of contemporary translation studies in the United States and even the whole west. The historical theory of the development of western translation theory should give him a heavy pen.

==Chapter3 Robert Boogrand's translation theory==

Since the 1970s, more voices outside the structural language school and the communicative school have gradually emerged in the field of translation studies in the United States, especially the voice of discourse linguistics theory and discourse analysis represented by Robert Boogrand.
Boogrand teaches in the English Department of the University of Florida and is engaged in the study of literary discourse rhetoric and grammatical structure.In 1978, he published a book called "elements of translation theory of poetry"), which was listed as one of the Translation Studies Series edited by Holmes and attracted extensive attention.

Boogrand's view is: 1. The unit of translation is not a single word or sentence, but the whole text.2. Translation is a process of interaction among authors, translators and readers.3. What is worth studying is not the characteristics of the article itself, but the skills of language use reflected in these characteristics.

After the publication of the above translation theory works guided by the thought of discourse linguistics in 1978, Boogrand continued to engage in the research of language and translation along the same line, and more than ten relevant works (including Works CO authored and co edited with others) have been published successively, mainly including discourse, discourse and process: multidisciplinary discourse science exploration Linguistic Theory: Discourse of basic works, introduction to discourse linguistics, language discourse, Western and Middle East translation Boogrand has always expounded language and translation from the perspective of discourse linguistics, thus establishing his important position as the leader of discourse linguistics in the field of British and American translation studies. Boogrand's contribution as one of the pioneers of discourse analysis and discourse linguistics in translation studies is very important and worthy of full recognition.

==Chapter4 Andre Lefevere's translation theory==

With the development of the times, translation studies in the United States, like other parts of the west, have been continuously improved in theoretical depth. By the 1990s, the focus of theorists' discussion on translation has gradually separated from the previous specific translation processes and methods, and turned more to the fundamental nature of translation, translation and ideology, translation and culture. This chapter introduces Andre Leverville's translation theory.
Andre Leverville, a professor of translation and comparative literature at the University of Texas at Austin, originally from Belgium, is a very important theoretical figure in the field of Contemporary Western comparative literature and translation research. We can discuss his main ideas from the following two aspects.

(一)The cultural turn in translation studies. It is a common feature of all cultural schools to turn the focus of translation studies from the language structure and language form correspondence that language schools are most concerned about to the meaning and function of the target text and the source text in their respective cultural systems. He believes that any literature must survive in a certain social and cultural environment, and its meaning and value Value, as well as its interpretation and acceptance, will always be affected and restricted by a series of interrelated and mutually referenced factors, including both internal and external factors of literature. Therefore, as far as translation research is concerned, the goal of the research is far from limited to exploring the equivalence or equivalence of the two texts in language forms, but to explore at the same time.Study various cultural issues directly or indirectly related to translation activities.

（二） The concept of manipulation in translation. When talking about and describing the basic characteristics of the cultural school, we often can not do without using the word "manipulation". Here, "manipulation"It is not emotional, but a special term representing the concept of neutrality. According to the translation operation of Andre Leverville and others, the core meaning is that in the process of processing the source text and generating the target text, the translator has the right and will rewrite the text in order to achieve a certain purpose. Andre Leverville believes that translation is a reflection of the image of the text.Other literary forms such as literary criticism, biography, literary history, drama, film, fiction and so on are also the rewriting of the text image, and rewriting is the manipulation of the text.

（三） Obviously, the manipulative rewriting in Lefevere and his cultural school theory is not simply equivalent to "Rewriting" in the general sense, because in his view, all translation is rewriting, even the "most faithful"Translation is also a form of rewriting. As a translation manipulator, this rewriting or manipulation should be regarded as a cultural necessity in essence. In the process of translation, the translator is bound to be affected and restricted by various social and cultural factors. In addition to considering all the characteristics related to the source text, such as the original author's intention, the context of the source text and so on, the more important thing is toIt is necessary to consider a series of factors related to the target or receiving culture, such as the purpose of translation, the function of the target text, the expectations and reactions of readers, the requirements of clients and sponsors, and the review of the publishing and distribution organization of the work. The existence of these factors and the degree of constraints imposed by the translator on them vary from person to person constitute the inevitable "manipulation" condition of the translator on the text.
For "manipulation" in this sense, we can not judge it by moral value words such as "legitimate" or "improper", but only by the "appropriateness" criteria such as whether the target text has achieved the purpose of translation, whether it meets the expectations of the audience, and whether it can be accepted by the accepted culture.

==Chapter5 Lawrence Venudi's translation theory==

It is precisely because the cultural school or manipulation school, and even the polysystem school, in translation studies have established a relationship with the theory of domestication and Foreignization in translation, that a new group of scholars and viewpoints have emerged. In the field of American translation studies, Lawrence Wenudi is the most vocal theoretical figure on the issues of "domestication" and "Foreignization".
As an English professor at Temple University in Philadelphia, winudi is one of the most active and influential figures in the field of American translation theory since the 1990s. Winudi belongs to the deconstruction school in translation studies, that is, what genzler calls the "post structuralism school"In his works on translation studies, Venuti advocates that literary translation should not aim at eliminating alien features, but should try to show cultural differences in the target text.

Venuti's main view is that it is wrong to require the translator to be invisible in translation; the translator should not be invisible in the translation, but should be visible. That is to say, translation should adopt the principle and strategy of "alienation" to keep the translation exotic and exotic, and read like the translation, rather than "domestication"So that the translation can be transformed completely in accordance with the ideology and creative norms of the target culture. It doesn't read like foreign works, but the original of the target language.

However, translation has never been carried out in an unaffected way. Foreignization translation and domestication translation are actually the products of translation activities affected. From the perspective of translation ethics, it is difficult to assert which is good or which is bad, because translation reality shows that the two play irreplaceable roles in the target language and culture and complete their respective missions.Therefore, the two kinds of translation will always coexist and complement each other.

==Chapter6 Edwin Gensler's translation theory==

Edwin Genzler is the director of the translation center of Amherst University of Massachusetts, doctor of comparative literature and professor of translation. His famous translation work is contemporary translation theory published in 1993 and reprinted in 2001.

Genzler's contribution to translation theory is mainly reflected in the following three aspects:
First, it comprehensively combs the contemporary western translation theories, so as to clarify people's understanding of various western translation theory schools since World War II, and thus arouse the research interest in all kinds of contemporary western translation theories in the field of translation studies (including China's Translation Studies).In contemporary translation theory, Genzler studies translation from different perspectives such as scientific theory, polysystem theory and deconstruction. By exploring the "political reality" outside translation (literary translation practice), he outlines the outline of contemporary western translation research and guides readers to rethink a series of theoretical issues such as the definition and classification of translation.

Secondly, on the basis of comprehensively and systematically combing various contemporary western translation thoughts and theories, Genzler puts forward a multi-channel cooperative translation research view of "fair treatment of all systems".He believes that contemporary translation theory, like literary theory, originates from structuralist theory.All these structuralist or post structuralist theories have been confined to their respective academic circles for a long time.Various schools have very special requirements for the terms used in this system, and the terms are limited;Their pursuit of "correctness" or "objectivity" of theory tends to be one-sided, and they all try to gain universal recognition in the academic circles at the expense of other perspectives.The result is only the continuous conflict between theories, but there is no due cooperation and exchange between theories, which leads to the marginalization of academic research.

Thirdly, Genzler puts forward a post structuralist interpretation model of the essence of translation.In translation, post structuralism and power, he analyzes the deconstruction (post structuralism) thoughts of Derrida, Spivak and others, as well as the translation thoughts of translation theorists such as Wenudi, Levin and Robinson under the influence of their deconstruction thoughts, and points out that the new translation interpretation model can no longer follow the past tradition and simply define translation as"The transformation from a single language to another single language", but it should be regarded as the transformation between a multicultural form environment and another equally multicultural form environment.

==Conclusion==

In addition to the above-mentioned important theoretical figures in the field of contemporary American translation studies, many others, such as Roberto Tradu, Daniel Shaw, Burton Raphael and so on, have also made achievements in translation theory. However, due to space constraints, they cannot be discussed in detail here.

Generally speaking, due to the historical origin and the influence of the subject's immigrant culture, the initial development of American translation studies depends on the inheritance and promotion of the tradition of European translation theory. With the evolution of the times, American translation studies catch up with each other in many aspects with rapid development and fruitful achievements, and walk in the forefront of western translation studies, becoming the driving force of contemporary western translation theory. On an important force for forward development.

==reference==

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谭载喜. (2000).《翻译学》武汉:湖北教育出版社.p227-267.

谭载喜. (2003).《再论翻译学》.武汉:湖北教育出版社.p100-150.

谢天振. (2003).《翻译研究新视野》.青岛:青岛出版社,p250-269.

中国对外翻译出版公司（编).(1983).《翻译理论与翻译技巧论文集》.北京:中国对外翻译出版公司.p60-80.

中国对外翻译出版公司（编).(1983).《国外翻译理论评介文集》.北京:中国对外翻译出版公司.

中国翻译工作者协会（编).1984.《翻译研究论文集》.北京:外语教学与研究出版社.p39-48.

Lefevere·André. (1975).Translating Poetry :Seven Strategies and a Blueprint. Assen andAmsterdam: van Gorcum,p22-29.

Lefevere·André. (1977).Translating Literature : The German Tradition from Luther to Rosenzweig. Assenand Amsterdam: van Gorcum,p25-48.

Lefevere·André. (1980). "Translating literature/Translated literature - The state of the art". In Zuber (ed.).p153-161.

Newmark·Peter. （1978）.“The theory and the craft of translation". In V. Kinsella ( ed.).Language Teach-ing and Linguistics :Surve ys.Carmbridge. p79-100.

Newmark·Peter. （1981）. A p proaches to Translation.Oxford and London: Pergamon Press.Reprint in 1988.New York:Prentice Hall International.2001年上海外语教育出版社出版影印版,p67-89.

Nida·Eugene.（1964）. Toward a Science of Translating Leiden:E.J. Brill、 Reprint in 2003.------ 1975a.Componential Analysis of Meaning . The Hague:Mouton,p34-78.
Nida·Eugene.（1975）b.Language Structure and Translation :Essa ys by Eugene A. Nida ed. by AnwarS. Di!. Stanford:Stanford University Press,p18-45.

Nida·Eugene.（1996）.The Sociolinguistics of Interlingual Communication. Brussels:Editions du Hazard,p37-45.

Katz·Jerrold J. （1966）.The Philosophy of Language. New York:Harper and Row,p26-45.

Katz·Jerrold J. （1978）. "Effability and translation" . In Guenthner and Guenthner-Reutter (eds.).191-234.Katz，Jerrold J. and J. A. Fodor. 1963. "The structure of a semantic theory". Language 39.p170-210.

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--[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 16:11, 8 December 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

=周俊辉 Translation of Science and Technology in Late Qing Dynasty and Early Republic of China=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_11]]
==Abstract==
With the rapid development of all walks of life in contemporary China, there is a huge demand for professional scientific and technological translation talents in the Chinese translation market, but there is still a gap between professional translators supply and demand in various fields. In the long history of modern Chinese translation, there are three translation climaxes. Western translation in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China was the third climax in the history of Chinese translation, and its scientific and technological translation activities, with its great influence and achievements, added numerous bright spots and scenery to the history of Chinese translation. Its achievements deserve to be ccelebrated. It still has reference value and learning significance for modern scientific and technological translation. It is of great significance to discuss the characteristics of scientific and technological translation in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China to attach importance to scientific and technological translation and its related academic and practical construction. This paper will mainly analyze the third translation climax, that is, science and technology translation activities in the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of china, to examine its reference significance for translators in the field of contemporary science and technology.

==Keywords==
The translations of science and technology; Chinese translation; organizations of scientific translation; May 4th Movement period; organization

==Introduction==
Like other countries, the translations of science and technology in China begins with interaction with foreign nations. There is no doubt that there are a large number of technical translation activities in the exchanges between China and foreign countries in the political, economic and cultural fields, which is difficult to verify. The translations of Chinese scientific literature began as a parasitic translation of religious literature. As Christian missionaries entered China, Western science and technology began to enter China. Although the missionaries brought the latest scientific and technological knowledge to the Chinese doctors from the end of the Ming Dynasty to the early Qing Dynasty, the strict restrictions were stressed on the dissemination of religious culture in China. Therefore, there were not many Chinese intellectuals who could realized the achievements of Western geography, and the common person was unaffected by the new ideas from across the Atlantic and sticked to the original traditional ideas.It was not until the late Qing Dynasty and early period of the Republic of China that western scientific knowledge was widely disseminated in China, and had a widespread influence on Chinese intellectuals. Chinese intellectuals nourished advanced ideas in the late Qing Dynasty played a leading role in the translations of scientific and technological literature.

== The Motivation of Translation from the End of the Qing Dynasty to the Early Period of the Republic of China==
At the end of the 17th century, many disciplines of western natural science separated from natural philosophy and set up independent branch. By the 19th century, various humanities gradually established its own system. Chinese society was declining and corrupt in the 19th century. only a few people with keen eyes, such as Lin Zexu, Wei Yuan and others, began to notice the advantages of Western learning in their contact with westerners. But they still basically didn’t regard Western learning as an academic culture as important as Chinese learning. Wei Yuan's famous saying "learning merits from the foreign to conquer the foreign" can illustrate this point. The failure of the Opium War and the signing of a series of unequal treaties aroused the strong desire of some advanced-minded officials to know the world and thus acquire advanced science and technology in the West. They hope to learn from the West to achieve the goal of "Reform". The failure of the Opium War also prompted the Qing government to launch “Self-Strengthening Movement” in the 1860s, which also led to the re-introduction of Western science and technology to China. As the intercourse with the West deepened, many Chinese officials and intellectuals began to face up to Western studies and regarded it as academic ideas equivalent to Chinese learning, and began to explore the method that western knowledge could be integrated into Chinese learning to help China become rich and powerful. Zhang's "Chinese learning do noumenon, Western learning do use" has become the most typical viewpoint of late fresh intellectuals. “But this group of intellectuals is mainly concerned with the Western advanced weapons and related equipment manufacturing and transportation and other technical fields.”(Xiong Yuezhi 1994:46-48) They think that Western studies are superior to Chinese learning in terms of objects and institutions, but they are still inferior to China in basic ideological and moral aspects, so they do not feel it necessary to learn the academic ideas from the West. After the Sino-Japanese War, because China was faced with the fate of the country's destruction, many people of insight began to actively and comprehensively learn from the West. It emerged a group of world-minded thinkers, like Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei, Tan Sitong and so on. They learned a great deal of natural knowledge and social sciences from the West, and they also urged political reform. During this period, a great deal of Western knowledge was introduced into China, which had a very wide impact. Many people also study Western studies by translating Western books written by the Japanese.

From the Opium War of 1840 to the eve of the May 4th Movement in 1918, China became a semi-colonial and semi-feudal society step by step, and the Chinese of this period faced a situation of "survival problems". “When people ended the dream of ‘China is the most powerful country in the world’ and realized the strength of European countries”(Xiong Yuezhi 1994:46-48), they began to seek the reasons why European countries became strong. “Chinese's attitude towards Western science presents a process from exclusion to acceptance and finally welcome, as well as a process of Chinese proactive pursuit of the ‘making the country rich and at the same time maintain its military power’.” (Xiong Yuezhi 2000:47) Hence a large-scale Western translation began to produce. If we explain that the scientific and technological translation from the end of the Ming dynasty to the beginning of the Qing Dynasty is only an invasion of Western culture, and that China is passive as the main recipient, then the Western translation from the end of the Qing Dynasty to the early period of the Republic of China is entirely a spontaneous and active act. The motivation of the latter translation is more urgent and the purpose is more clear than the previous one. This urgency determines that Western translation in the duration, in the number of translation works, in the number of people involved in translation activities are much superior to the previous scientific and technological translation.

== Object of Translation from the Late Qing Dynasty to the Early Republic of China ==

====Overview of Translation’s Object====
“The scientific and technological translations of the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty were all cooperative translations of foreign missionaries and Chinese doctors”(Du Zezong 1949:11), because Chinese intellectuals at that time knew almost no Western language, and the Chinese language proficiency of missionaries was generally not high. So at that time, the translation of science and technology was basically dictated by the foreign, and written by Chinese intellectuals. “But in this process, ‘missionary instruments play a leading role, Chinese are always in a passive and secondary position.’ Whether it is ‘written’ or ‘polished’ by Chinese, it’s ‘must be examined by western scholar’”(Lan Hongjun 2010:93-94). The translation of Euclid's ''Elements'' is an example: the original book contains 15 volumes, Matteo Ricci and Xu Guangqi worked together for 6 volumes. Xu Guangqi want to finish the remaining volumes, but Ricci believes that the first six volumes’ translation has achieved the purpose of scientific mission, then refused to continue to translate. It can be seen that whether it is translation material selection or translation methods, Chinese have no right to choose by themselves.

In the western translation of the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China, only several translation teams were in the form of cooperation between Westerners and Chinese, like the School of Combined learning organized by Lin Zexu and later founded by the Foreign Affairs School, and the Translation Hall of Jiangnan Manufacturing General Administration. After the Sino-Japanese War, more and more Chinese learned about Western studies, and international students became the backbone of the translation industry. “The representative figures of the Reformists, who advocate ‘improving China with Western studies’, are active figures in the translation circles of this period, and they believe that the fundamental of the reform lies in ‘enlightening the people's intelligence’, and the main way is to introduce and disseminate Western studies widely.”(Ni Qinhe 1988:13-14) For this purpose, bilingual translators choose their own translation of books that they consider to be beneficial to the public, and choose the appropriate translation method according to the characteristics of the target audience. For example, the Reformists explicitly declared that translated books "take political knowledge first and art translate second". Therefore, the focus of translation in this period shifted from natural science and applied science to humanities and social sciences. The translated books cover every sphere including politics, sociology, philosophy, economics, law, education and history. Another feature of translation in this period is the introductory translation of Western literature. The famous translators Yan Fu, Liang Qichao and Lin Shu all regarded literary translation as a means of educating the people and improving politics and economy of China. The popular novels introduced are more easily accepted by the general public than the more specialized works of the humanities, thus they can spread Western culture more widely in China.

In the second half of the 19th century, in order to enrich the country, a wave of learning and translating Western scientific and technological knowledge was set off in the late Qing Dynast. Under the efforts of Hua Hengfang, Xu Tao, Li Shanlan, Zhao Yuanyi and a Englander, John Fryer, a number of western modern science and technology books have been translated and published. Hua Hengfang plays an important role, the books of which he has participated in the translation and proofreading are ''A Treatise on Coast Defence'', ''Algebra'', ''Principles of Geology'', ''Deremetal-lica'' and other 17 kinds. He also introduced systematically knowledge of mathematics (including algebra, triangle, exponential calculus and probability), geology, geo-literature and other fields. John Fryer was born in Hyde, England, and worked in China for more than 20 years, translating 138 kinds of science and technology, including applied science, land and sea military science and technology, as well as historical and other social sciences, which played a positive role in the development of science and technology and social reform in China at the end of the 19th century.

At the beginning of the 20th century, the scientific and technological translation activities can be summarized as follows: 1. The translation of science textbooks not only help to implement large-scale scientific education, but also have a great impact on China's social culture. 2. The translation of evolution has dealt a great blow to the stereotype "heaven change not, likewise the Way changeth not"(Yang Jindin 1996:830). New ideas of evolution have been widely disseminated. 3. The translation of works in logic and scientific experimentation contributed to the mature development and application of methodological scientific concepts in the ideological circles at that time. Its representative figures are Yan Fu, Liang Qichao, Du Yaquan, as well as Jiangnan General Administration of Manufacturing Translation Museum, School of Combined Learning, Christian Literature Society for China and other translation agencies. With this scientific and technological translation activity, a large number of words entered into China greatly enriched the Chinese language which was regarded as a cultural carrier, and changed the Chinese's knowledge structure and social concepts. Chinese traditional Confucian culture is also influenced by it, absorbing many advanced western cultures and ideas, which has contributed to the germination of scientific culture in Chinese society.

====Object of Translation Activities after the May 4th Movement====
The May 4th New Culture Movement advocated science and democracy. After the May 4th Movement, Chinese translation activities entered a new historical period. In order to introduce western science and technology and textbooks to Chinese people, many progressive intellectuals and overseas students, with the enthusiasm of "science to save the country", actively participated in the translation of foreign new science and new ideas. The quality of scientific books translated by talents who are fluent in foreign languages and have a solid foundation of professional knowledge of the subject has been greatly improved compared with previous translations of relevant books. For example, Ma Junwu (1881-1940), a doctor of engineering who returned from studying in Japan in 1901, translated and published a series of scientific works such as ''The History of Natural Creation'' and the ''Mystery of the Universe'' by E. Haecke (1834-1919). His translation of Charles Robert Darwin's ''The Origin of Species'' (1809-1882) was a best-seller and was reprinted 12 times in 16 years.

The Government of the Republic of China also followed the old rules of the Qing Dynasty and established the National Compilation and Translation Library under the Ministry of Education of the Beijing government in 1920. At the same time, the government also set up a book compilation agency. After that, “the Nanjing Nationalist government rebuilt and expanded the National Compilation and Translation Library under the Graduate School and the Ministry of Education.” (Li Nanqiu 1999:42)The tasks of the Library included translating and publishing scientific books, compiling textbooks for higher and secondary education, compiling the translation of scientific terms and terms, and compiling dictionaries of various disciplines. But overall, the government-sponsored translation agency's publications account for only a small proportion of the total number of translated books published.

At that time, Chinese scholars established a number of early scientific societies, which played an active role in the translation of foreign scientific books, the unification of translation names and the compilation of disciplinary dictionaries. For example, the Chinese Medical Association, founded in Shanghai in February 1915, held its first conference in the second year for its establishment. The responsibility of the nominating division of the sub-body formed by the resolution of the conference is to participate in the examination of scientific translations. From 1916 to 1926, the Medical Association was represented at the annual conferences of the Medical Terminology Review Committee (changed to scientific Terminology after 1919), Anatomy, chemistry, medicine, bacteriology, pathology, parasitology, biochemistry, organic chemistry, pharmacology, surgery, physiology, internal medicine, pharmacology, etc. Chinese Science Society was founded by Zhao Yuanren, Ren Hongjun and Hu Mingfu in October 1915. At the beginning of the establishment of the society, it clearly declared that it would create a foundation for examining and approving translated names. In the sixth chapter "Administrative organs" of the ''General Chapter of the Chinese Science Society'', there is also a "book translation department". The ministry "manages translated books" and "has a minister in charge of translated books". There was a symposium on nouns in 1916, the results of which were published in the society's monthly ''Science''. Later, the ministry attended the noun examination meeting held by Jiangsu Education Association and Chinese Medical Association for many times. The Science Society organized many translations activities of books and papers, and ''Science'' published many scientific translations. The efforts of these civil academic societies to unify the translation of scientific names have attracted the attention of the government. The Kuomintang government changed the Ministry of Education into a graduate school in 1927, and in the following year, the preparatory Committee for the Unification of Graduate School translation names was established. Later, with the joint efforts of civil academic groups and government departments, a series of work on the unification of the translation of scientific nouns was carried out, which has done a lot of work for the unification of Chinese translation names.

At the beginning of the founding of new China, China mainly relied on the former Soviet Union to introduce various advanced scientific and technological information. Under the planned economy system, a large number of Spanish translators quickly changed to Russian translators, and many scientific research and higher education personnel actively joined the group of amateur translators. At the same time, many national and local publishing houses also actively engaged in the translation and publication of Russian scientific materials. A large number of Russian translated materials played an important role in scientific research, education and economic construction at that time. Publications such as ''Translation Bulletin'', ''Russian Teaching and Translation'' and ''Research on Russian Teaching'' have become important publishing fields of Research on Russian translation methods.

== Pioneers and Important Organizations of Scientific Translation==

====Pioneers====
Lin Zexu (1785--1850), an official of Fujian Province, was appointed as imperial envoy to go to Guangdong to ban smoking with great success in 1838. In order to grasp enemys' information, he set up a special translation institution to organizing timely the translation of Western books and newspapers, and actively collecting the information of Western society. Lin Zexu publicly destroyed opium confiscated from British, American and other merchants in June 1839, while actively preparing for the sea defense, repeatedly fighting back against the armed provocations of the British army. During his time as Governor, great attention was paid to collecting information on a wide range of Chinese and foreign warships and absorbing foreign technology in order to strengthen the navy. He was tightly guarded in the southern sea During the Opium War, which force the British to go north. “Lin Zexu advocated ‘surpass foreigners by learning from them’ on the issue of foreign aggression, demanding resistance to aggression, and does not exclude learning from the west's strengths.”(Ma Zuyi 1998:53)During the smoking ban, Lin Zexu wanted to know about the global situation, so he had people translate ''The Encyclopedia of Geography'' and pro-polish it personally. This book, briefly introducing to Chinese in late Qing dynasty the geographies, histories and political status of the four continents in the world, is the first complete and systematic geography book in modern China. But ''The Encyclopedia of Geography'' can not be published for various reasons at that time. According to the relevant scholars, the book introduced the world's five continents including more than 30 countries geography and history, rich in content, which is the most complete and the most innovative book. Many of the contents of this works were cited by Wei Yuan's ''Records and Maps of the World''.

Wei Yuan (1794-1856) is a good friend of Lin Zexu, who, like Lin Zexu, advocates pragmatism. He finished 50 volumes of the first draft of ''Records and Maps of the World'' in 1843, which introduced a large number of foreign natural, geographical, economic, scientific, cultural and other materials, including ''The Encyclopedia of Geography'' compiled by Lin Zexu. “Information on foreign ship-making, mine warfare, telescopes, firearms and mines was added and the length of the book was expanded to 60 volumes in 1847. It was compiled and revised to add information on democracies in capitalist countries such as the United States and Turkey, and published in 100 volumes in 1852.”(Zou Zhenhuan 2007:349) When launching the Modernization Movement, Kang Youwei used ''Records and Maps of the World'' as the basic material for teaching Western studies. Then this book gradually attracted people's attention.

Xu Jishe (1795-1893) was also a patriotic official who paid attention to the collection of foreign translations during the Opium War. Referring to the collection of foreign historical books (including translated books), he recorded the dictation of foreign books by foreigners, and completed the first draft of ''Geography of the World'', the first Chinese a comprehensive introduction to world geography in 1844. Many patriotic people who sought truth from the West, such as Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao at the end of the Qing Dynasty, learned about the world through this book.

Although Lin Zexu, Wei Yuan and Xu Jishe didn’t understand foreign languages, they attached importance to and organized the translation of foreign materials earlier, and contributed to the understanding of the outside world by their contemporary at that time. They were also pioneers in the translation of scientific literature at the end of the Qing Dynasty, and had a great impact on China's modern history.

==== Translation and Publishing Institution Established by Westernizationists ====
At the end of the Qing Dynasty, advocates of the westernization mouvement, such as Li Hongzhang, Zeng Guofan, Zuo Zongtang, Zhang Zhidong, etc., actively promoted the creation of modern schools and modern military industry, and established a number of translation and publishing institutions. The Sino-British Treaty of Tianjin was renewed in 1858 to provide that "subsequent English instruments were written in English". In order not to be fooled into dealing with foreigners who appeared as victors, the Chinese government had to find ways to reserve its own translation talents, establishing the Jingshi Tongwen Guan in Beijing in 1862 to train foreign language talents, and appointing Xu Jishe the general manager purser of this institution. An English-language department was opened in the same year, and an additional Russian and French department was established in the following year, each with 10 students. The government of Qing dynasty set up a science museum to organize students to study arithmetic and astronomy in 1866. The Buwen (German) department was added in 1872, and the East (Japanese) department was added in 1895. These foreign language department have invited foreign teachers to give courses with better conditions for textbooks and materials. Textbooks cover many aspects, including chemistry, medicine, grammatology, geography, agriculture, military law, dictionaries, poetry and history. In the field of foreign language teaching, in addition to the use of the above-mentioned original textbooks, there are some teaching materials in the courses were translated and compiled by the Chinese teachers. The general teacher of the Jingshi Tongwen Guan, Ding Yuliang, organized teachers and excellent students to translate Western books beginning in 1874. The number of books have been compiled and published by the Jingshi Tongwen Guan has not yet been able to make accurate statistics, and its translations include Chinese and Western books, manuscripts of scientific and technological publications, diplomatic documents of the Prime Minister's affairs in various countries, telegrams and so on. The first translators in the history of China have been trained in Tongwen Guan.

In 1863, Li Hongzhang applied to his superiors to imitate the Jing Shi Tongwen Guan in Beijing to open the wide dialect school in Shanghai, originally named "Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages and Characters", later fixed "Tongwen Guan of learning foreign languages", referred to as "Shanghai Tongwen Guan", then changed its name in 1867 to "Shanghai Wide Dialect School." “Students also take foreign languages as their major course, and take historical and natural sciences as their minor course.” (Li Nanqiu 1996:96) Many excellent translators have been cultivated in Shanghai Wide Dialect school. In 1864, Guangzhou imitated Shanghai Wide Dialect School and also set up a institution of foreign languages and characters, called Guangdong Tongwen Guan or Guangzhou Tongwen Guan. Although the institutions in Beijing, Shanghai and Guangdong were established in different time and they are independent mutually, they possess the obvious common ground at the aspect of , purpose for founding, teaching methods, curriculum settings, employment of the teachers and student selection. At the same time as the Tongwen Guan cultivate foreign language talents, it has also been translated a large number of western scientific works of higher quality.

Zeng Guofan founded Jiangnan Machine Manufacturing Bureau in Shanghai in 1865, which recruited talents and gradually developed into a large-scale factory group engaged in military production. “For the needs of factory production and manufacturing, xu Shou (1818-1884) and Hua Hengfang (1833-1902) founded the Translation institution in 1867, and presided over the translation and publication of a large number of scientific and technological books.”(Li Yashu, Li Nanqiu 2000:106-107) Xu Shou participated in the systematic translation of books on general chemistry, inorganic chemistry, organic chemistry, analytical chemistry, chemical quantitative analysis and chemical qualitative analysis, and promoted the diffusion of Western chemistry knowledge, which is recognized as “the enlightenment of modern chemistry in China”(Du Shiran 1982:251). Hua Hengfang’s translated books cover a wide range of subjects, because he like mathematics since childhood, his translation focus mainly on mathematics. His translation of the ''Microcomputer Traceability'' introduced the new knowledge of mathematics calculus, ''Decisive Mathematics'' for the first time introduced to the Chinese people the knowledge of probability theory. Through the translation of books, he improved his level of mathematical research, become a well-known mathematician and scientific and technological literature translator at the end of the Qing Dynasty. Zhao Yuanyi (1840-1902) is another outstanding translator of Jiangnan Manufacturing Bureau Translation Museum. Knowledgeable, he widely translated Western books, especially good at translating Western modern medical books, such as ''The Law of Internal Medicine'', ''Western Medicine Denton'', ''Confucian Medicine'', ''General Theories of Medicine'' and so on. The quantity and quality of the medical books he translated were among the best at that time.

At the end of the Qing Dynasty, many translation institutions were set up in Beijing, Shanghai and Fujian, such as the Military Engineering Secondary School (Shanghai, 1869), the Strong School Of Books (Beijing, 1895), the Nanyang Institute of Public Studies (Shanghai, 1895), the Agricultural Society (Shanghai, 1896), and the Translation Association (1897), Shanghai), Jingshi University Hall Translation Museum (Beijing, 1901), Jiang chu Compilation Bureau (1901, Wuchang), Business Press Library Compilation Institute (1905, Beijing) and Fujian Ship Administration School ( 1866, Fuzhou). These translation agencies have translated and published a large number of scientific and technical documents and textbooks.

====Compilation and Publishing Organization of Foreign Missionaries in China====
A number of translation and publishing institutions were also founded by Christian missionary who came to China in the late Qing Dynasty, which, although serving missionary activities, objectively translated a number of Western natural science books. One of the earliest was founded in 1843, the Mohai Library. It is not very large that the number of western modern science books translated and published by Mohai Library. These books introduced the knowledge of Western modern calculus, astronomy, botany, symbolic algebra, mechanics and optics to our country earlier.

In addition to western missionaries, there are also some Chinese scholars, such as Wang Tao, Li Shanlan, Zhang Fuxuan and so on. Among them, Li Shanlan (1811-1882) was a famous mathematician in the Qing Dynasty and a pioneer of modern Chinese science. He has known mathematics since he was a child, and he learned ''Elements'' at the age of 15. During his stay in Shanghai in 1852, he met Alexander Wylie, an Englishman, and others, discussed Chinese and Western scholarship with them, and collaborated with Vera Toure on the last nine volumes of ''Element'', which were translated in 1856 and published the following year, culminating in Xu Guangqi's unfinished business. He has also collaborated with Westerners on a variety of scientific books, including ''Botany'', ''About Sky'', ''Algebra'', ''Generation Micro-Accumulation'', etc.

Since then, a number of Christians have set up printing and publishing institutions. Such as the American-Chinese Library was set up by the American Presbyterian in Shanghai in 1860, which printed and published science and technology books. “In 1875, the British missionary John Fryer opened The Chinese Scientific BookDepot in Shanghai.” (Sun Shangsun 1996:124-125) In addition to selling scientific instruments and foreign books, he translated independently and printed a variety of science books, including the most famous books "knowledge series", which covering mining, geosciences, astronomy, geography, animals, plants, mathematics, acoustics, mechanics, hydrology, optics, chemistry and Western history, humanities and social etiquette and other aspects.

Church Hospital Guangzhou Boji Hospital also has an attached translation agency. In order to compile teaching materials for the attached South China Medical School, Boji Hospital has compiled and published a large number of medical books since 1859, such as "The Pox Book", "Western Medicine", "Cutting Book", "Phlegmonosis", "Chemical Primary Order", "Internal Medicine", "Ten Chapters of Physical Use", "Western Medical Encyclopedia" and dozens of other books, early dissemination of Western medical knowledge. Its attached medical school for our country to train a batch of early Western medical talent.

Foreign missionaries held a conference in Shanghai and decided to create a school textbook committee in 1877, later known as the Puzzle Book Club, to publish textbooks for church schools in many cities in China, especially coastal ports, and to compile and publish 104 textbooks in the 10 years from 1877 to 1886. At that time, China's own profane schools also used these textbooks, which promoted the development of modern modern schools in the late Qing Dynasty.

In addition, the more influential translation and publishing institutions are the British, American, German and other countries composed of missionaries of the Broad Society, the agency to translate and publish a variety of social science books mainly. Foreign missionaries set up these translation and publishing institutions of course for the purpose of missionary and colonial, but objectively they still introduced a lot of advanced Western scientific knowledge to China at that time.

==Conclusion==

Throughout China's translation achievements of science and technology , it seems that we go with the tide. Though occasionally we have some own views, the science that we are now in contact with is the view of Westerners. This can also provides some enlightenment from our modern education: it seems we have been western and internationalised, in fact, remain in a lack of the influence of the technology in the Chinese intrinsic culture. For quite a long time, we regard scientific translation as a pure translation in oral to express meaning. It demands a strictly functional equivalence. Translators were completely anonymous, absolutely invisible. Translation of science and technology with a great sanctity and authority, there have been a domestic famous scholar was opposed to the view that translation should have the artistry. In fact, scholarship is a matter, academic education is another matter. In academic research, our ancients were earnest and sincere in educating people by virtue. To put it in modern terms, it means to cultivate EQ as well as IQ of people. But throughout our education, we are producing a lot of people with high IQ but low EQ.“The translators of modern science and technology are generally invisible for fear of revealing any ‘translation traces’.”(Wang Hongzhi 2000:38) Although this can also be regarded as rigorous scholarship, but in view of the international development trend, scientific and technological literary style also began to pay attention to a certain artistic and aesthetic value. A technical article of literary or aesthetic value will continue to live on even when the technology described has become obsolete. “For scientific and technological translation, the same is true, if we want to make our translation vitality for a long time, we must also emphasize artistic and aesthetic value.”(Tan Suqin 2008:61)

The translation of science and technology in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China adopted the mode of mutual cooperation between Chinese scholar-officials and missionaries in China, among which the more famous ones were William Elias and John Fryer from England and Li Shanlan and Xu Shou from China. After the Opium War, the Translation institute of Jiangnan General Bureau of Manufacturing, The Jingshi Tongwen Guan, and the Guanghui Society all produced many cooperative translations. This model can be used for reference by many single-handed and independent workers in the field of scientific and technological translation. Scientific translation itself requires the translator to have a deep knowledge of English and Chinese, as well as professional knowledge of science and technology, which is multidisciplinary. If a translator should possess these abilities at the same time and be able to complete the translation work well, it is self-evident that it is difficult. And if it is given to those who have these abilities separately, they will do their best and take their responsibilities together, and their efficiency and quality will be improved a lot.

In the history of Chinese translation, the 20th century was a climax period with many translation activities. There is no other period that can be compared with the number of translated works, the wide range of subjects covered, and the great influence on Chinese society. In particular, the tide of translation at the beginning of the century is even more brilliant. It can be said that the large-scale multi-disciplinary translation activities in the new century have begun at this time, and its important position at the beginning can not be underestimated.

==References==

Ma Zuyi马祖毅(1998), 《中国翻译简史——“ 五四”以前部分》[Brief History of Chinese Translation Before the May 4th Movement] . Beijing ForElgn Language Education Press.中国对外翻译出版公司.1998:53.

Du Shiran杜石然(1982).《中国科学技术史稿》[Chinese Science and Technology History]. 中国科技出版社Beijing Science and Technology Press,1982:251.

Xu Zezong徐泽宗(1949).《明清耶稣会士译著提要》[Summary of Translations by Jesuits in Ming and Qing Dynasties]. 中华书局Beijing Social Sciences, 1949:11.

Lan Hongjun蓝红军(2010).《明末清初传教士科技翻译的主体性特点》[Subjectivity of Missionary Scientific Translation in late Ming and early Qing Dynasties].江苏科技大学学报Journal of Jiangsu University of Science and Technology，2010(1) : 93-94.

Xiong Yuezhi熊月之(2000).《晚清社会对西学的认知程度》[The Cognition of Western Learning in the Late Qing Dynasty]. 北京大学出版社Peking University Press.2000:47.

Wang Hongzhi王宏志(2000).《翻译与创作——中国近代翻译小说论》[Translation and Creation on Modern Translated Novels in China].北京大学出版社Peking University Press，2000:38.

Sun Shangyang孙尚杨(1996).《基督教与明末儒学》[Christianity and Confucianism in the late Ming Dynasty]. 东方出版社China Eastern Press,1996:124-125.

Ni Qinhe倪庆饩(1988).《晚清翻译概略》[Overview of Late Qing Dynasty Translation].历史教学History Education Press，1988(12) :13-14.

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Yang Jindin杨金鼎(1996).《晚清对西方科技的翻译》[Translation of Western Science and Technology in Late Qing Dynasty].《中国古籍出版社》Chinese Ancient Books Press，1996:830.

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Zou Zhenhuan邹振环(2007)，《影响国人的〈四国志〉》[Influence of Records and Maps of the World for Chinese].湖南教育出版社Hunan Education Press，2007:349.

=周玖Translation of Science and Technology in Ancient China=

周玖 Zhou Jiu Hunan Normal University，China

==Abstract==
Scientific and technological translation activities in China have a history of more than a thousand years. In the early period of translation of Buddhist scriptures, the astronomy, calendar and medicine of ancient India attached to Buddhist scriptures and the astronomy and mathematics of Arabia attached to Islam in the Sui and Tang dynasties constituted the first scientific and technological translation activities in China. With the arrival of Christian missionaries in China, Western science and technology was introduced into China. This paper will introduce the scientific and technological translations before the 16th century, the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, and the scientific and technological translation activities of the missionaries Matteo Ricci, Xu Guangqi. The impact of latter-day Western science on China's technological development and the significance of ancient Chinese scientific and technological books to human development will be discussed through the technological and cultural exchanges between China and other countries.
==Key words==
Scientific and technological translation; scientific and technological exchange; influence
==Introduction==
Translation activities in China have a very early origin, as far back as the pre-Qin period, when the customs and languages of various tribes were different and the need for interaction led to the emergence of translation. Mr. Ji Xianlin once graphically pointed out that translation plays an important role in the process of cultural exchange: "If we take a river as an analogy, the long river of Chinese culture is full of water at times, but never dries up. The reason is that new water is injected.... The panacea for the longevity of Chinese culture is translation." Looking back at the history of translation today, there were about four times when it greatly contributed to the renewal of Chinese culture: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the late Eastern Han Dynasty to the early Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Western studies in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, and the translation since the reform and opening up. The first two translation climaxes were closely related to the introduction of Buddhism and Catholicism respectively, in which the spread of religion played an important role as a catalyst, and can be said to be the unique translation period in the history of Chinese translation.
The Silk Road, as a channel of communication between the East and the West, played a significant role in contributing to the first two translation climaxes. Since the Silk Road was established by Zhang Qian in the Western Han Dynasty, this busy land route has become an important link between the East and the West, carrying not only precious goods from foreign lands, but also spreading culture and art. It was also through this road that Buddhism was introduced to China during the two Han dynasties. With the further opening of the Maritime Silk Road, China became more closely connected to the world, and 1000 years later Western missionaries landed from the southeast coast of China and formally introduced Catholicism to China. From this point of view, the Silk Road, as a major transportation route, was closely related to the introduction of two exotic religions. It is thanks to the tide of cultural interchange brought by the Silk Road that translation in China underwent the process of transmutation from initial awakening to budding and then maturity. This paper will introduce the scientific and technological translation before the 16th century and the late Ming and early Qing dynasties to recreate the history of ancient scientific and technological translation in China. Secondly, this paper selects Matteo Ricci and Xu Guangqi of the Ming Dynasty as representative figures of ancient scientific and technological translation and analyzes the importance of their translation activities to the development of science and technology in China and Western countries.
== Scientific and Technical Translations Before the Sixteenth Century==
The translation of scientific literature in ancient China began in the end of Han Dynasty, when foreign monks translated some ancient Indian literature on medicine, astronomy and arithmetic along with the Buddhist scriptures. However, unlike the collective translation method adopted in the translation of Buddhist sutras, the translation of these scientific literature was often done by the translating monks alone, and the contents translated were fragmentary and were subsidiary or by-products of the translation of Buddhist sutras rather than systematic introduction. According to some historical books and scattered records of Buddhist books, there were astronomical and calendrical books translated from ancient India in about the 2nd century AD. An Shigao, the originator of the translation of our Buddhist scriptures, is the earliest verifiable translator of astronomical and arithmetical texts. According to Dao An's ''Catalogue of the Comprehensive Scriptures'', An Shigao's translation of the ārdūlakar·nāvadāna is the earliest translation of astronomy, which introduces the knowledge of astronomy in ancient India. His translation of Brahman's Algorithm is one of the earliest translations of mathematical works in China.

During the Wei-Jin North-South Period, Dharmarajiva translated the Brahmana Astronomy Sutra. In 541 A.D., Upas translated ''Mahāratna kūṭasūtra'', which recorded the ancient Indian fractions. In 508 A.D., the monk Renamati translated Nāgārjuna bodhisattva, which is an ancient Indian pharmacological text. During the Sui and Tang dynasties, China's foreign exchanges were more frequent than ever before, and scientific and technological translations were more prosperous than in previous dynasties. The invention of engraving and printing in the 9th century A.D. also facilitated the production and dissemination of various texts. In 718 A.D, Gautama Siddhartha, an astronomer who came to China from India, translated the ancient Indian ''Jiuzhi Calendar'', which introduced the ancient Indian algorithm characters, calendar degrees, the calculation of cumulative sun and small remainder, the position and movement of the sun and the moon, and the projection of solar and lunar eclipses, etc. It faithfully reflected the characteristics of Indian mathematical astronomy. It was included in the ''Kaiyuan Zhizhi'' (Vol. 104) and has been preserved to this day. The ancient Chinese numerals that appeared in China during the Song Dynasty were obviously influenced by the ancient Indian algorithmic symbols introduced in the ''Jiuzhi Calendar''. This period also saw the translation of the ''Sutra'' by the Sanskrit monk Bukong, who came to China. Some translations of medical books were translated continuously during the Sui and Tang dynasties. Although these medical books have been scattered, Indian medicine undoubtedly influenced the medical texts of the Tang Dynasty, such as ''Wai-tai-mi-yao'', ''Prescriptions Worth a Thousand Pieces of Gold for Emergencies'', and Sun Simiao's ''Qianjin Yifang'', which all contain many Indian medical components. In particular, ancient Indian ophthalmology was at the world's leading level at that time. There are many records of ancient Indian doctors treating eye diseases in Tang Dynasty literature, and even the poems of literati and bachelors have traces of ancient Indian ophthalmology treatment, such as the poem of the famous poet Liu Yuxi, "Presented to the Brahmin Monk, an Eye Doctor", which describes the scene of suffering from cataract."

The interaction between the Arab world and China became more and more frequent after the Tang Dynasty. In addition to the exchange of materials in trade and commerce, the influence of cultural exchanges was more profound, and Arab knowledge of astronomy, calendars and medicine was gradually introduced to China. The introduction of Arab religious books to China began in 632 AD. According to the historical records of the Tang Dynasty, in 651 A.D., Arabia sent an ambassador to China for the first time. Arabic medical prescriptions and medicines were already recorded in the medical dictionaries of the Tang Dynasty. Arab non-religious books first came to China during the reign of Emperor Song Renzong (1023-1063). At the beginning of the Song Dynasty, the ''Yingtian Calendar'', which was compiled by the scholar Ma Yize and submitted by the Chinese official Wang Dune, who presided over the compilation, was based on the Arabic astronomical calculation data and attracted Arabic astronomical knowledge, using the Arabic calculation methods of solar and lunar eclipses and the five stars' travel degrees, and dividing each night into five shifts, which is said to be the beginning of the Chinese method of changing points. Our rule during the Yuan dynasty spanned Eurasia, and Genghis Khan's three western expeditions strengthened the scientific exchange between China and Arabia, after which the number of people who knew Arabic on Chinese territory increased dramatically, and the original language of Chinese scientific translations gradually changed from Sanskrit to Persian, which was used in the eastern part of Arabia at that time. It was in the 13th century that Arab non-religious books were introduced to China on a large scale. A number of Arab astronomers worked in the official institution of the Yuan dynasty, the Sitiantai (established in 1260). One of them, the astronomer Jamal al-Din, prepared the almanac based on the Arabic calendar, which was adopted by the Yuan government for 14 years and was later used as the basis for the chronological calendar prepared by the Chinese scholar Guo Shoujing. Zamaradin also made various astronomical instruments and brought the latest achievements of astronomy in the Arab world at that time, which was the first time that the knowledge of Arab "for the sphere" was introduced to China. The use of Arabic numerals in mathematics by the Chinese also began in the Yuan Dynasty. In terms of medicine, the rulers of the Yuan Dynasty organized the Arab doctors who were recaptured in the conquest to set up the "Hui Hui Medicine Institute", and at the end of the Yuan Dynasty, they also translated 36 volumes of "Hui Hui Medicine", which was engraved in the early Ming Dynasty. From the surviving remnants, this is a complete, comprehensive medical encyclopedia. In the early years of the Ming Dynasty, Zhu Yuanzhang, the founder of the Ming Dynasty, summoned the Arab scholars who used to work in the Yuan Dynasty's Tienmin, and issued an edict to translate Arab books, including the Ming translation of the Tienmin and the Hui Hui Calendar.

== Science and Technology translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties==
In the middle of the sixteenth century, the feudal society of Ming Dynasty turned from prosperity to decline. “The old agrarian culture was under attack; capitalism began to sprout; a new breed of industrialists and businessmen emerged. The citizen class represented the emerging power, demanding self-expression and eager for reform”. Some intellectuals began to reflect on traditional culture and were eager to understand the outside world. While the Reformation emerging in Europe seized most of the territory of Catholicism in Europe, so they began to expand their power to the East. In order to spread their religion, the Western missionaries tried hard to study Chinese culture and adopted culturally applicable strategies in the translation process, with flexible and reader-oriented translation methods. In terms of ideology and culture, they conformed to Chinese culture with Western culture and allowed the scholars to absorb Western culture without degrading Chinese culture, emphasizing the complementarity and consistency of Chinese and Western cultures to ensure that the Chinese could accept Western ideas and knowledge smoothly. Translation was a bridge for mutual communication between China and the West, and the late Ming and early Qing dynasties were characterized by scientific and technical translations, the second climax in the history of translation in China. (Wang, 2013:49-51)

According to statistics, "From 1582 to 1773, a total of 352 Western works were translated into China, including 71 in astronomy and 20 in mathematics”. When the Italian missionary Matteo Ricci first came to China in 1582, he found it difficult to preach in China because of the deep-rooted traditional thinking. The first president of the Jesuits in China, Matteo Ricci discovered the status and influence of the scholarly class in Chinese society and began to study the ancient Chinese scriptures and make friends with officials in order to facilitate travel to China and the construction of churches. In 1584, he hung up a map of the world in his church and named it ''Great Universal Geographic Map'' for public viewing. This was the first time that geography, a modern Western science, was introduced to China. In about 1605, Xu Guangqi wrote ''The Explanation of Great Universal Geographic Map'', which was the first work of the Chinese to spread Western science. When the subjects of the great kingdom of heaven discovered that this great country actually occupied only a small part of the earth, you can imagine how much they were shocked. The Chinese scholars, such as Xu Guangqi and Li Zhizao, believed that translation could broaden the horizons of the nation. Therefore, it was necessary to introduce advanced Western science and technology into China, and they worked together with Western missionaries to translate and co-edit some works on natural sciences, and later on, many works on philosophical principles, scientific ideas and religious beliefs. (Zhao, 1998:33-37 )

The translation of the first scientific work is Ricci's dictation, Xu Guangqi's ''Euclid's Elements'' 6 volumes, which opened the climax of China's first scientific and technological translation. The book was completed at the beginning of the thirty-five-year calendar (1607) and was immediately imprinted. Mathematics is a basic science, because geometry is lacking in ancient Chinese arithmetic. Therefore it was first translated into Chinese. Xu Guangqi and others translated and studied Western scientific and technological works, participated in the compilation of the ''Chongzheng Almanac'', and produced astronomical instruments such as the armillary sphere, telescope and so on. In 41 years (1613), Li Zhizao edited the arithmetic book, which he had studied and translated with Ricci, into the book ''Tongwen Suanzhi''. Thus, Western science has been integrated with ancient Chinese science from the very beginning of its introduction.

In 1622, the German missionary Tang Ruowang, an expert in astronomy and almanac, arrived in China and worked with Xu Guangqi to set up an early cooperative variant of the "Calendar Bureau" in China. "But then Yang Tingjun and others called on the court to set up a more formal translation sentence, but due to the death of the Wanli Emperor and the tightening of the border war. The ambitious plan to systematically translate 7,000 Western scientific works afterwards also came to naught". But Xu Guangqi still organized a considerable number of Western calendar books through his work on calendar revision. In 1626, Tang Ruowang wrote The Theory of Telescope, introducing the optical principles, functions, production methods and usage of telescopes. Under the oral transmission of Deng Yuxuan, Wang Zheng wrote the book Yuanxi Qiqi Tushuo, which was the first mechanics book in China. The book describes the specific gravity, center of gravity bar and other methods and their usage. He also made some simple machines by himself. Xiong Sanbao translated the book Biao Dushuo, which described the theory of astronomy and the principles of measuring the twenty-four solar terms from a table. The missionaries Pang Di and Ejuelo wrote and drew ''The Theory of Overseas Map'' and ''Great Universal Geographic Map''，which supplemented the introduction of geography. Long Huamin wrote ''Earthquake Interpretation'', which describes the modern earthquake doctrine such as causes, grades, scope, size and time, and omens of earthquakes. Dictated by Tang Ruowang and written by Jiao Castellan, the book ''Huogong lveyao'' was translated, which contains the methods of casting, mounting and using artillery, as well as the methods of manufacturing bullets and mines. The work of transmitting the Western calendar began in 1629-the second year of Chongzhen. In 1635, the famous ''Chongzhen Calendar'', which is about 1.8 million words, was completed. (Li, 2012: 88-90)

Soon after the introduction of this technological knowledge into China, the Ming Dynasty fell. In 1645, Tang Ruowang revised and added to the ''Chongzhen Calendar'' and presented it to the Qing court as the New Western Calendar. During the reign of Shunzhi, the missionary Mu Ni Ge taught the Na's logarithm, which was not long produced in the West. During the Kangxi period, Xue Fengzuo, who studied with Mu Ni Ge, compiled a book called ''Lixue Huitong'', which included astronomy, arithmetic, physics and medicine. In addition, the missionary Nan Huairen made six kinds of astronomical measuring instruments and left behind the book ''Lingtai YiXiang ZhiTu'' to introduce the method of making them. The Kangxi Emperor also personally presided over the compilation of the ''Essence of Mathematics'', and organized and led missionary Bai Jin and others to conduct the mapping of the whole country together with the relevant personnel in China, and compiled the ''Huangyu Quantu''. (Xie, 2009:114)

This culmination of scientific and technological translations has promoted the development of science and technology in China. The introduction of this advanced Western knowledge opened the eyes of the Chinese and gave us a more correct and clear understanding of the world. The introduction of these advanced technologies also promoted the production and improvement of advanced scientific instruments. The climax of scientific and technological translation in this period opened up new ways for everyone to learn Western knowledge and promoted the progress and development of traditional Chinese technology and society as a whole. What’s more, this surge in scientific and technological translation also had a positive effect on the development of Chinese industrial civilization. These translated scientific and technological books broadened the Chinese people's horizons and enhanced their ability to transform society and nature, enabling them to create more efficient material and spiritual wealth and thus improve the material, spiritual and living standards of the people. These translations spread the ideas of materialism and dialectics, profoundly combating the ruling ideology of idealism of the time and further liberating the productive forces. The scientific and technological translations of this period not only injected fresh blood into the then dead China, but also laid the foundation and played a positive bridging role for the industrial revolution in later China.

== Matteo Ricci==

In the middle of the sixteenth century, the feudal society of the Ming Dynasty turned from prosperity to decline, and since the climax of the Northern Song Dynasty, the field of science and technology stagnated, which was the beginning of the sprouting of capitalism. In 1582, Matteo Ricci came to Macau with a Portuguese caravan, where he diligently studied the Chinese language and learned about Chinese customs, state systems and political organizations. In the eyes of the Chinese, China was the only country in the world worthy of praise: “As far as the greatness of the country, the advancement of its political system and its academic fame were concerned, the Chinese regarded all other nations not only as barbarians, but even as irrational animals. There is no other king, dynasty or culture in the world that is worth boasting about in the eyes of the Chinese” (He 1983:181) The Western missionaries, in their efforts to spread their religion, studied Chinese culture and adopted culturally applicable strategies in the translation process, which was flexible and reader-centered. “In terms of ideology and culture, they conformed to Chinese culture with Western culture and allowed the scholars to absorb Western culture without degrading Chinese culture, emphasizing the complementarity and consistency of Chinese and Western cultures to ensure that the Chinese could accept Western ideas and knowledge smoothly”(Xiong 1994:16).

The year 2021 marks the 420th anniversary of the settlement of the late Ming Jesuit Ricci in Beijing. He then managed to gain a foothold in the capital, establishing a church, "legitimizing Catholicism in China," and "pioneering the history of combining Chinese and Western translation and introduction of Western scientific and technical literature, as well as being the first to translate the Four Books: ''The Great Learning'', ''The Doctrine of the Mean'', ''The Confucian Analects'' and ''The Works of Mencius into Latin'', opening the way for the introduction of Chinese texts to the West. He was also the first to translate the Four Books into Latin, which was the first time that Chinese texts were introduced to the West. In the history of cultural exchange between China and the West, this is an event of great significance. Since entering China, Matteo Ricci adopted the strategy of attaching to Confucianism and complementing Confucianism, hoping to convert China to Jesus Christ through the adaptation of Catholicism to traditional Chinese culture. Ricci's friendly and tolerant attitude toward Confucianism made the spread of Catholicism at that time a success, and he himself won the eyes of some of the great scholars. “Ricci wrote a hundred aphorisms in Chinese about friendship from the Western philosophers he had read, had them embellished by Wang Kentang, and had them printed in Nanchang in 1595 under the title "On Friendship" and presented to the dignitaries of the time. This book contains the treatises on friendship from ''Plato's Rutgers'', ''Aristotle's Ethics'', ''Cicero's On Friendship'', ''Montaigne's Essays'', and ''Plutarch's Moral Theory''”(Xie 2009:115). Some of them were also authored by Ricci himself. He maintained a friendly, tolerant and sincere attitude toward traditional Chinese culture and the Chinese people, and was therefore respected by some Confucian students as "Li Zi" or "Western Confucian", and many people were happy to make friends with him. In the following decade, Matteo Ricci laid the foundation for the spread of Christianity in China and objectively promoted a deep cultural dialogue and scientific and technological exchange between China and the West. Ricci's success was largely based on the "academic missionary" and "dumb missionary" methods, i.e., the translation and compilation of Western scientific and technical works and theological works to expand his influence and achieve the missionary purpose. The Western translation of the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, which began with Matteo Ricci, was the second high point in the history of translation in China. Although the impact of this translation on Chinese culture could not be compared with the translation of Buddhist scriptures, Chinese people learned directly from it for the first time about European scientific and technological knowledge such as mathematics, calendars, geography and arms manufacturing. This scientific and technological knowledge, especially the modern world concept, opened the eyes of some of the scholars, and the Western scientific thinking method began to influence our academia from both logical reasoning and empirical investigation. Matteo Ricci is the most influential figure in the history of cultural exchange between China and the West. Ricci is credited with pioneering the development of modern Western science and Catholicism in China. Ricci's map of the world, ''Great Universal Geographic Map'', was engraved in 12 different editions from 1584 to the end of the Ming Dynasty. In order to illustrate the concept of the map, Matteo Ricci especially applied the cone projection to draw the equatorial north and south hemispheres on the map, indicating the circle of the earth, the north and south poles, the length of day and night north and south of the equator, and the five belts. The names of the five continents: Europa, Lemuria (Africa), Asia, North and South Asia, Murica, and Murray Mecca. He marked out more than thirty countries in Europe, and introduced North and South America, and made field measurements with modern scientific methods and instruments, and drew the latitude and longitude of eight cities in China: Beijing, Nanjing, Datong, Guangzhou, Hangzhou, Xi'an Taiyuan, Jinan. The concept of the five continents, the doctrine of the circle of the earth, and the division of the zones have all made important contributions to Chinese geography. Many of the translations of the names of countries and places on the five continents are still in use today. In addition, there are more than twenty Chinese works of Matteo Ricci, among which thirteen are included in the Siku Quanshu,and six in The History of Ming Dynasty. What’s more, there are also a number of series of books or individual collections in which Matteo Ricci's writings are collected, and he himself has been called "the first foreigner from whom Chinese people could learn from his Chinese writings”. Mr. Hushi also affirmed that "in the last three hundred years, Chinese thought and learning have all tended to be scientific in their precision and nuance .... All of them were influenced by Matteo Ricci's arrival in China". Mr. Fanghao also believed that "Matteo Ricci was the first person who bridged Chinese and Western cultures in the Ming Dynasty". Of course, Matteo Ricci's subjective intention was to preach, and what he imported was mainly Greek science, which was far from modern scientific theories and methods. But for the Chinese scholars, who lacked an axiomatic, systematic and symbolic scientific system, these scientific theories did have a liberating significance. Moreover, "when missionaries such as Matteo Ricci used science as a missionary tool, they not only aroused the interest of some of the scholars in Western science, but also to some extent satisfied the needs of some scholars and even the emperor. It was this relationship between the need and the wanted that made possible the peaceful dialogue between Chinese and Western civilizations, mediated by the missionaries and the scholars”（Cheng 2002:70-74).

== Xu Guangqi==
Xu Guangqi was an official in the late Ming Dynasty, a member of the scholarly class. This position gave Xu Guangqi early access to Western missionaries and to Western technology in the context of national development. Seeing that his country was in decline, that the gap between the East and the West was great, and that the "Heavenly Kingdom" was only an illusion, Xu Guangqi tried to revitalize his country by translating Western learning. He translated and compiled a series of Western academic works in many fields, including astronomy, mathematics, and water conservation. Wu Jin considers Xu Guangqi to be the first scientist to accept Western scientific knowledge and introduce it to the Chinese, and to be the pioneer and founder of Chinese science and technology. In 1593, Xu Guangqi, who was an official, began to communicate with missionaries, and his love for science and technology, coupled with his sense of crisis and national salvation after the contrast between the East and the West, actively cooperated with Matteo Ricci, who used "academic missionary", and they each took what they needed and began to translate and compile academic works. The two men began to translate and compile scholarly works.

The second culmination of translation in China shifted from Buddhist scripture translation to scientific and technical translation. At the end of the Ming Dynasty, Xu Guangqi's cooperation with the missionaries became an important driving force for this climax. According to ''A Brief History of Chinese and Western Translation'' edited by Xie Tianzhen, the works that Xu Guangqi translated and compiled with the missionaries mainly include: 1) ''Elements'' , in 1604, Xu Guangqi contacted Matteo Ricci and studied ''Elements'' with him, and the first six volumes were translated in 1607. The first six volumes were translated in 1607. Thus, Western geometry began to spread in China and became famous for centuries. 2) ''Water Conservation and Irrigation Methods'' in the West , which was translated by Xu Guangqi and Xiong Sanbao in 1612, mainly introduced Western water engineering and machinery. 3) ''Chongzhen Calendar'', as early as the beginning of the 17th century, knowledgeable people wrote to request the revision of the calendar, and it was not until 1629 that Emperor Chongzhen decreed that Xu Guangqi and Li Zhizao and other knowledgeable people were ordered to revise the calendar and compile the astronomical calendar.

Xu Guangqi had a far-sighted and strategic mind. As a proponent of Western learning in the late Ming Dynasty, Xu Guangqi's translation activities were inseparable from Catholicism. From his first acquaintance with Catholics in Shaozhou in 1595, he was formally baptized as a Catholic eight years later in 1603. It was during the exchange with Matteo Ricci and others that Xu Guangqi gradually learned about the basic situation of university education in the West and further realized the fundamental place of mathematics and science. So in the selection of the content of the translation, determined the Western mathematical and scientific classics as the first choice for translation. He believed that the Western mathematical theory was rigorous and had a certain logical system, which seemed to be useless but was actually the basis of all uses. Ancient China was an agricultural civilization, and when agriculture flourished, the country flourished. From Li Bing's construction of Dujiangyan, we can see the importance of agricultural water conservancy to the country and to the people. Xu Guangqi's strategic vision of translation went beyond the study and debate on the mere textual "translation techniques" of Buddhist scriptures translation, such as the "text-quality controversy" of the time. “Xu Guangqi's translations of Elements and The Celiang Fayi saved traditional Chinese mathematics, which was on the verge of extinction, and the people's attention and research on mathematics facilitated the transformation of China from classical to modern mathematics”(Li 2021:60-64). The social function of translation was highlighted in this culmination of translation, and Kong Deliang argues that "although it was not fully realized due to the time constraints, it became a turning point in the history of Chinese translation” (Kong 2015:76-80).

In the midst of China's social transformation and the tide of Western learning, Xu Guangqi was involved in the translation and proofreading of Western scientific and technical books. He selectively filtered, absorbed, borrowed, digested and integrated Western learning to add fresh and heterogeneous elements to the ancient Chinese culture, in order to maintain the vitality of the local culture and promote the modern transformation of Chinese society in political, economic and cultural aspects. His translation statements are the grass-roots threads in the interpretation of the history of Chinese translation and thought, and they have been the pulse of Chinese thought since modern times. Xu Guangqi of the late Ming Dynasty was "the first person of distinction to expand the scope of translation from religion and literature to the field of natural science and technology", and he had "outstanding philosophical thinking ability", but unfortunately he did not "elaborate the theory of translation from a philosophical height" (Chen, F. K. 2010:55).

== Conlusion==
Before the sixteenth century, China had the most frequent cultural exchanges with Arabia and India. While promoting the spread of Buddhism in China, it also promoted the progress of astronomy, calendar and medicine in ancient China, and laid a solid foundation for the development of science and technology in ancient China. The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties pushed forward the development of modern science and technology in China, introduced advanced Western instruments, and set off a wave of learning Western science and technology for China. At the same time, the scientific and technological translations in the late Qing and early Ming dynasties also transformed the way of thinking and values of Chinese people, making China modernize its ideology. The missionary Matteo Ricci brought advanced Western science and technology to China, opening up the eyes of the Chinese people and promoting the development of traditional Chinese science and technology. The attention to and translation of traditional Chinese texts, triggered by the ancient Chinese scholar Xu Guangqi, went far beyond the confines of East Asia and created a craze for admiration in Western European countries as well, reflecting to a certain extent the breakthrough and growth of China's translation business.
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=钟雨露Western Translation History in the Old Ages=

钟雨露 Zhong Yulu, Hunan Normal University, China

==Abstract ==
Many translation historians believe that translation is an extremely ancient activity, no matter in the West or the East. However, the history of translation has long been neglected in the field of research. Translation researchers tend to focus on the study of translation techniques and theories while neglecting the study of the history of translation. The western translation history has a long history of more than two thousand years from ancient times, which has experienced the Old Ages, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance and the Modern times. As we all know, when we know something, we often need to go back to its origin. Western translation history can be traced back to the third century BC, which opened the prelude of the history of western translation. This paper will study the western translation history in the Old Ages to help readers have a deep understanding of the history of translation and translation itself.

Many translation historians believe that translation is an extremely ancient activity, no matter in the West or the East. However, the history of translation has long been neglected in the field of research. Translation researchers tend to focus on the study of translation techniques and theories while neglecting the study of the history of translation. The western translation history has a long history of more than two thousand years from ancient times, which has experienced the Old Ages, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance and the Modern times. As we all know, when we know something, we often need to go back to its origin. Western translation history can be traced back to the third century BC, which opened the prelude of the history of western translation. This paper will study the western translation history in the Old Ages to help readers have a deep understanding of the history of translation and translation itself. Corrected by--[[User:Zhong Yifei|Zhong Yifei]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yifei|talk]]) 12:12, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

==Key words==
Western translation history; the Old Ages; Andronicus; the Bible translation

==Introduction==
Throughout human history, language translation has been almost as old as language itself. The relationship between the two primitive tribes, from antagonism to amity, all depends on the exchange of ideas, mutual understanding and translation. ''The Genesis'' describes that Greece and Persia signed the Treaty of Cary Aas in 449 BC, and the ancient Roman Empire recruited German soldiers for its army. All these activities relied on interpreters. Similarly in China, for example, Confucius traveled various kingdoms where spoke different languages, so he also needed to rely on interpreters to communicate with others. However, there is no record of who these interpreters were, or historians have yet to discover them. The same is true in the West. Therefore, to discuss the history of translation, we can only start from the period of historical records. (Xie, 2009: 57)

In Europe, the history of translation can date back to the third century BC. In a broad sense, the earliest translation in the West is ''Septuagint'', translated by 72 Jewish scholars in Alexandria of Egypt around the third century BC. Strictly speaking, the first translation in the West is Andronicus’ Latin translation of Homer’s epics ''Odyssey'' around the middle of the third century BC. No matter the former or the latter one, they are both invented in the third century BC, that is the time of Livius Andronicus（the first Roman translator）. Before discussing this point, we must briefly review the historical background at that time.

In the 6th century BC, Rome entered the slave society from the primitive commune and established the Roman Republic. With the development of productivity, the Roman Republic grew. The rulers began to expand outwards for their own benefit. By the third century BC, Rome, with its increasing military force, first conquered the entire Italian peninsula. And after four Macedonian Wars, Rome controlled the whole of Greece. Thus, Rome replaced Greece's dominant position in the Mediterranean area in politics, economy as well as military, and became a powerful empire.

Rome and Greece are geographically adjacent to each other. Some Greeks had long been immigrated to the territory of Rome. Later, Rome conquered the Greece, so it was able to contact with the Greek culture directly. Since Greece had a splendid culture heritage, the Romans began to translate the Greek books on a large scale from the third century BC. And also in this time, the written records of translation appeared. Livius Andronicus, Gnaeus Naevius, and Quintus Ennius, considered the three founders of Roman literature, all translated or adapted Homer's epics and the Greek plays of Aischulos, Sophokles, and Euripides in Latin. The Romans inherited the Greek culture through translation and imitation. They did not inherit it simply, but carried it forward, and formed their own unique culture. Roman culture was formed by absorbing the cultural achievements of different regions on the basis of the economic and political relations of that time. This is the first large-scale translation activity in Europe and the whole Western history. Some translation activities in Europe probably existed long before that. However, from the existing written records, the history of western translation has just opened its first chapter. (Xu, 2006: 363)

Throughout human history, language translation has been almost as old as language itself. The relationship between the two primitive tribes, from antagonism to amity, all depends on the exchange of ideas, mutual understanding and translation. ''The Genesis'' describes that Greece and Persia signed the Treaty of Cary Aas in 449 BC, and the ancient Roman Empire recruited German soldiers for its army. All these activities relied on interpreters. Similarly in China, for example, Confucius traveled various kingdoms where spoke different languages, so he also needed to rely on interpreters to communicate with others. However, there is no record of who these interpreters were, or historians have yet to discover them. The same is true in the West. Therefore, to discuss the history of translation, we can only start from the period of historical records. (Xie, 2009: 57)

In Europe, the history of translation can date back to the third century BC. In a broad sense, the earliest translation in the West is ''Septuagint'', translated by 72 Jewish scholars in Alexandria of Egypt around the third century BC. Strictly speaking, the first translation in the West is Andronicus’ Latin translation of Homer’s epics ''Odyssey'' around the middle of the third century BC. No matter the former or the latter one, they are both invented in the third century BC, that is the time of Livius Andronicus（the first Roman translator）. Before discussing this point, we must briefly review the historical background at that time. In the 6th century BC, Rome entered the slave society from the primitive commune and established the Roman Republic. With the development of productivity, the Roman Republic grew. The rulers began to expand outwards for their own benefit. By the third century BC, Rome, with its increasing military force, first conquered the entire Italian peninsula. And after four Macedonian Wars, Rome controlled the whole of Greece. Thus, Rome replaced Greece's dominant position in the Mediterranean area in politics, economy as well as military, and became a powerful empire.

Rome and Greece are geographically adjacent to each other. Some Greeks had long been immigrated to the territory of Rome. Later, Rome conquered the Greece, so it was able to contact with the Greek culture directly. Since Greece had a splendid culture heritage, the Romans began to translate the Greek books on a large scale from the third century BC. And also in this time, the written records of translation appeared. Livius Andronicus, Gnaeus Naevius, and Quintus Ennius, considered the three founders of Roman literature, all translated or adapted Homer's epics and the Greek plays of Aischulos, Sophokles, and Euripides in Latin. The Romans inherited the Greek culture through translation and imitation. They did not inherit it simply, but carried it forward, and formed their own unique culture. Roman culture was formed by absorbing the cultural achievements of different regions on the basis of the economic and political relations of that time. This is the first large-scale translation activity in Europe and the whole Western history. Some translation activities in Europe probably existed long before that. However, from the existing written records, the history of western translation has just opened its first chapter. (Xu, 2006: 363) Corrected by--[[User:Zhong Yifei|Zhong Yifei]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yifei|talk]]) 12:14, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

==The Latin Translation of the Ancient Greek Classics==
From the above historical background, it can be seen that the translation activities in early Rome were the translation of ancient Greek classics. These translation activities continued until the fall of the Roman Empire in the fifth century AD. The whole process can be divided into two major stages, namely the Roman Republic stage and the Roman Empire stage. The translation objects during the Roman Republic mainly focused on dramas and epics, which formed the cultural translation tradition in the history of western translation. In the Roman Empire, the translation objects were mostly philosophy and religion, which later formed the tradition of the Bible translation in the history of western translation. It is worth mentioning that the translation ideas of the Roman Empire later became the source of the entire history of western translation thoughts, and the Romans were also considered to be the inventors of western translation theories. (Bassett, 2004: 57)
===Livius Andronicus(284?BC—204BC)===
In the translation activities of the early Romans, Greek drama was undoubtedly their most concern. The native Roman drama was an improvisational comedy, which was not as complete and rich as Greek drama in terms of language, performance and costume. Therefore, Greek drama, as a new form of entertainment, attracted Roman soldiers who came to Greece because of war and writers who made a living by writing from the 4th to the 3rd century BC. They soon introduced this novel form of entertainment to Rome, while writers translated Greek plays into Latin. In fact, it was not a translation, but an extremely liberal adaptation. The main purpose of it was not to produce accurate translation for academic study, but for performance and entertainment, so a large number of deletions and additions were inevitable in translation. (Lefevere, 2006: 15)

Among these early translators, the first to be mentioned is Livius Andronicus. He was the earliest translator of Rome and was known as “the father of Roman poetry”. Andronicus was born in the Greek colony of Taranto(a port city of southeast Italy today) around 284 BC. He was enslaved by the Romans, who captured the city around 272 BC. He was later set free and became his master's tutor, teaching Latin and Greek. One of the great difficulties he encountered in teaching was that there were no books available to teach Latin. To facilitate his teaching, he began to translate some books. Around 250 BC, he translated some fragments of Homer's ''Odyssey'' into Latin in Saturnian verse, a free-flowing translation that had long served as a textbook. Although the translation is of little literary value, it is the first Latin poem and the first literary work to be translated into Latin in the history of Roman literature. In addition, Andronicus introduced a new literary genre -- epic for Roman literature through his adaptation and translation works. One of the major features of the translation of ''Odyssey'' is that when translating the names of Greek gods, Andronicus did not use transliteration, but directly replaced the corresponding Greek gods with Roman gods. For example, the Greek god Zeus was translated into Jupiter, the Roman god; The Greek Cronos was translated into Saturns, the Roman god of agriculture; the Greek Muses was translated into Camenae, etc. Andronicus’ translation, though not accepted by modern translators, promoted the integration of Roman gods with Greek gods and played a positive role in enriching Roman culture.In addition, Andronicus also translated and adapted Greek plays. He translated and adapted nine tragedies by the major Greek writers Aischulos, Sophokles and Euripides, such as ''Agamemnon'', ''Oedipus the King'' and ''Medea''. And he translated and adapted three comedies, all of which were written by Menandros. (Tan, 2004: 16)

From the literary perspective, Andronicus’ translations, such as those of ''Odyssey'', are crude. However, his contribution was not in the translation itself, but that he was the first to introduce ancient Greek epics and plays to Roman society and to adapt Greek verse and rhyme to the Latin language. Through the efforts of him and many other contemporary and subsequent translators, the style of the ancient Greek dramas had a profound influence on the later European dramas.

=== Gnaeus Naevius(270 BC—200? BC)===
In the era of Andronicus, translation activities had gradually developed. The great movement of people caused by the Roman conquests led to an increase in the number of polyglots. And people had a growing interest in Greek culture. Many poets and playwrights also engaged in extensive translation of Greek works. The chief translators after Andronicus were Gnaeus Naevius and Quintus Ennius. The two men were basically contemporaries of Andronicus and enjoyed equal popularity with him in ancient Latin poetry and dramatic achievements. Some people refer to them as “the three founding fathers of ancient Roman literature creation and translation.”

Gnaeus Naevius was born in the Campania of present-day Italy. He lived at a time when Rome was actively expanding outward. When he was young, he served in the Roman army and fought in the first Punic War. As a writer with democratic leanings, he was imprisoned for his scathing attacks on the Roman authorities. After his release from prison, he continued to criticize the current government and was eventually expelled from Rome. Naevius first began writing and performing plays in 235 BC. He loved drama and translated 30 comedies and 6 tragedies in his lifetime. His works were not mere imitations of Greek classics, but a mixture of translation, creation and adaptation. His contribution to Roman literature is to nationalize Roman comedy. (Luo, 2007: 279)

In his translation, adaptation and composition of comedies, he mostly adopted the form of Greek comedy, but inserted many pure Roman characteristics. In addition, he wrote historical plays on the basis of real Roman events. He was the originator of Roman historical plays. His most important literary achievement is epic writing. His 7-volume epic ''Punic War'' describes the first Punic War in Greek poetic style, making a bold attempt to establish the tradition of Roman national epic. His epic, ''Punic War'', which was based on his own experiences of the wars between the Romans and the Carthaginians of North Africa, interspersed with historical events and myths. It was the first Roman epic, and it had a big influence on Virgil in writing ''Aeneid''. From the fragments of his works that have survived, we can see that the writing and translation style of Naevius is concise, and is clearly better than that of Andronicus. (Jiang, 2006: 108–109)

=== Quintus Ennius(239? BC–169 BC)===
Comparing with Naevius' translation of comedy and historical play writing, Ennius' contribution to ancient Roman literature lies in his creation of ancient Roman tragedy. He was born in 239 BC in Calabria of Italy. Although it was not a Greek settlement, it was heavily influenced by Greece because of its geographical location. So Ennius grew up in Greek culture from an early age. The biographer Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus (2nd century AD) called him “half Greek”. He mastered three languages: the first one was Oscan, the dialect of his hometown; the second one was Greek, which he had learned at school; and the last one was Latin, which he had learned while serving in the Roman army during the Second Punic War. In the literary activities during Ennius' life, the most important work which also brought him the greatest reputation was the epic ''Histories''. But his contribution in translation was also very important. Ennius mostly translated Greek tragedies, and he tried to translate the works of all three major Greek tragic writers. Through translation, he transplanted a Greek rhyme to Rome, and made a reform of the composition of Latin poetry. In addition, Ennius himself wrote at least six tragedies, the most famous of which was ''Iphigenia'', which was comparable to the works of Euripides. “His psychological description is profound and meticulous”, so he is known as “the father of Roman literature”. (Jiang, 2006: 280)

In conclusion, Andronicus, Naevius and Ennius, together with other contemporary writers and translators, passed on the Greek literary heritage to the later generations through translation and adaptation. Their literary and translation activities also played an important role in enriching the Roman culture and developing its literature.

== The Origin of Western Translation Thought==
Although the practice of translation was quite popular in the early period, no one paid much attention to the research on translation theories and methods before Cicero. The main purpose of translation was to introduce Greek culture so that Roman readers or audiences could be entertained by these translated or adapted works and plays. As for translation theory, even if there were some broken ideas, they were only used to counter critics and defend translation works.
=== Marcus Tullius Cicero(106 BC—43 BC)===
Cicero was an orator, politician and philosopher of the late Roman Republic and one of the most influential figures in ancient Rome. He was born in Epino, a small city near Rome. When he was young, he studied law, literature and philosophy in Rome and Athens. And later he served as a consul of the Roman Republic. In the political crisis of the late Roman Republic, he advocated republicanism and supported Octavius. In this way, he offended Mark Antony and was killed by him. He was not only a famous orator, statesman, philosopher and rhetorician in Roman history, but also a prolific translator. Cicero translated a great deal of Greek literature, politics and philosophy. For instance, Homer's ''Odyssey'', Plato's ''Timaeus'' and ''Protagoras''. Cicero's literary achievements made a great contribution to the development of Latin language. He was a famous literary figure in Rome at that time, with a magnificent oratory and fluent prose that set the literary style of Latin language.

Cicero not only translated many Greek classics, but also created many terms and Latin words that are still used today. While expounding rhetoric ideas, he gradually formed his own translation thoughts. His exposition of translation thoughts mainly focuses on two works: ''De Oratore'' (55 B.C.) and ''De Optima Genera Oratorio'' (46 B.C.). His main translation ideas are as follows:
First of all, Cicero made a clear distinction between “interpreter” and “orator” (what we later call literal translation and free translation). He was opposed to the “word-for-word” translation method. He believed that translation was not an imitation of the original text. The translator should not be an interpreter of the original text, but an orator delivering a speech to the audience:
“I translate not as an interpreter, but as an orator, keeping the same ideas and forms and using a language that conforms to our expressive habits. In this process, I think it is not necessary to translate word for word, but to preserve the overall style and power of the language.”
It was clear that Cicero saw a fundamental difference between the interpreter and the orator. The former does not have the ability to control language and can only use the “word-for-word” translation method. It focuses on the conversion of words and only conveys the literal meaning of the original text, rather than the thoughts of the orator. The latter pays attention to the retention of the overall style of language. It can effectively reproduce the thought and motivation of the orator, and can deliver rich emotions in public speeches. Secondly, Cicero put forward the concept of “competitive imitation” when translating ancient Greek literature. It means that literary translation should not only need literary talent, but also be more literary than the original one. Cicero demanded that translation should be a transmission of meaning, not a literal rewriting. But at the same time, at the lexical level, Cicero was very particular about the accurate translation of ancient Greek philosophical concepts. Thirdly, he also held that words and meanings are functionally inseparable, which is a universal language phenomenon. Since rhetoric devices are based on the natural connection between words and meanings, rhetoric devices of various languages have something in common with each other. This shows that translation can achieve stylistic equivalence. (Cicero, 2007:9)

Cicero's view can be summarized as follows: literal translation should be avoided, and the innermost thing of words -- meaning should be preserved in translation. To some extent, Cicero greatly developed translation theory, and his translation thoughts exerted a great influence on later translators and translation theorists, which occupied an important position in the history of translation. While discussing early translation theories, the British translation theorist Susan Bassnett have suggested: “Cicero and Horace’s translation thoughts have a significant impact on later translators. Their translation thoughts are produced in the discussion about two important responsibilities of poets: one is the common human responsibility to obtain and transmit wisdom; the other is the special art of creating and shaping poetry.” (Bassnett, 2004: 48)

=== Quintus Horatius Flaccus (65 BC—8 BC)===
Horace became another representative translation thinker after Cicero. Horace was a famous poet, critic and translator in the early Roman Empire. Influenced by Cicero, he also believed that literal translation must be avoided and flexible translation method should be adopted. His treatise on translation theory was mainly seen in ''Ars Poetica''. This was a letter to a Roman nobleman and his son. Combined with the status of Roman literature and art at that time, the principles of poetry and drama were put forward in this letter. His translation thoughts are as follows: Firstly, Horace believed that translators should adopt flexible translation method and reject literal translation method. He put forward the concept of “fidusinterpres” (it means faithful translation). However, the object of Horace's “fidusinterpres” is not the text, but the “customer”, and of course only the customer or reader of Horace's time. “A faithful translator/interpreter should be trusted by others. He needs to finish the task on time and achieve the satisfaction of both parties. To do this, he, as an interpreter, negotiates between clients by using two different languages. In the case of a translator, he negotiates between the customer and the two languages. Negotiation is the key, it is opposed to traditional reciprocal loyalty.” That is to say, translators and interpreters sometimes have to be “not very” faithful in order to avoid failure in negotiations if they want to do business. Horace proposed flexible translation and emphasized loyalty to the “customer”, the ultimate guide to translation. The “customer” in Horace's translation model is actually what we called “context” later, and the translation principle of "faithful translation for customers" has been developed into "translation according to context" for later generations. Secondly, Horace also proposed the concept of “privileged language”. In Horace's time, Latin was the privileged language. He asked translators to prefer the privileged language, Latin, which meant that foreign languages would be assimilated in translation. This was also a reflection of Horace's translation thought that tended to be “naturalized”, but his concept was also controversial and opposed by Schleiermacher. He emphasized that “faithful translation” should retain the national characteristics of the source culture, and his translation thought tended to be close to "foreignization". The two translation thoughts are opposite, and their respective focuses are also the topic of the early discussion of “domestication” and “foreignization”. Thirdly, he thinks the native language can be enriched by translation of loanwords. If the thing you want to express is very profound and must be expressed by new words, you can create new words to some degree. It not only can meet the needs of writing and translating, but also can enrich the language of the motherland. (Horace, 1981:79)

Horace's view on translation has exerted a great influence on later generations. His statement in ''Ars Poetica'' “a translator who is faithful to the original text will not translate word by word” is often quoted by later generations and used by free translators to criticize dead and direct translators. His idea of “enriching Latin through translation” is of great significance and influences many translators after the Renaissance.

=== Marcus Fabius Quintilianus (35?– 95?)===
Quintilian was another famous figure who advocated flexible translation after Cicero and Horace. Quintilian was born in 35 AD in a small town of Galaguris in the upper reaches of the Ebro River in northern Spain. He was an orator and educator during the Roman Empire. His thoughts on translation were concentrated in his book ''De institutione oratoria''. Although this book primarily concerned with Quintilian's educational ideas, it made important observations on the subject of translation. He noted differences in vocabulary, rhetoric between Greek and Latin, but he did not think such differences would lead to untranslatability. In his opinion, no matter how different languages and cultures are, there are various ways to express the same thought and emotion. Although translation cannot achieve the same effect as the original work, it can approach the original work through various means. In addition, he also proposed that translation should struggle with the original work. He said: “As for translation, I mean not only free translation, but also the struggle and competition with the original text in expressing the same meaning.” That is to say, translation is also a kind of creation, which must be comparable with the original work and even strive to surpass it. (Robinson, 1997:20)

It is not hard to find that the above three ancient scholars’ translation views have some similarities. They all oppose literal translation and advocate creative free translation. To talk about the early western translation theories, we should first clarify a fact— in the special context of ancient Rome, individual translators or translation theorists represented by Cicero did not talk about translation exclusively, but instead regarded translation as an exercise in rhetoric education and literary creation. Translation serves speech and literary creation and does not have the value of independent existence. In spite of this, their translation thoughts are of great significance, which create the first literary school in the history of western translation and form a distinctive tradition in the later development of translation theory.

== Early Bible Translation And St. Jerome As Well As St. Augustine==
Bible translation plays an important role in the history of western translation. From the ancient times to the present day, the translation of the Bible has never stopped. The range of languages, the number of translations and the frequency of use of the translations are unmatched by the translations of any other works. From the macro view of the Bible translation history, it has the following several important milestones: the first is ''The Septuagint''; then followed by ''Vulgate'' of four to five centuries; later there are different language versions in the early Middle Ages(such as Martin Luther’s version in Germany, the King James Bible in Britain, etc.) and various modern versions. All these translations have made indelible contributions to the spread and development of Christianity in the West, as well as to the flourishing of national languages and cultures.
=== ''The Septuagint''===
The first important translation of the Bible in the West was the Greek version of the Old Testament. The Old Testament was the official text of Judaism, and it was first written in Hebrew. Because the Jews were scattered and drifted abroad for a long time, they gradually forgot the language of their ancestors. So they used Arabic and Greek and other foreign languages, among which Greek speakers accounted for the majority. In ancient times, the Alexandria of Egypt was a cultural and trading center in the eastern Mediterranean region, where Jews accounted for two-fifths of the city’s total population. In the third century BC, the church decided to translate the Hebrew text of the Old Testament into Greek to meet the increasingly urgent religious needs of these Greek-speaking Jews. According to Ptolemy II’s will, 72 Jewish scholars gathered at the Library of Alexandria in Egypt between 285 and 249 BC to translate the Bible. According to legend, the 72 scholars came from 12 different Israeli tribes, each with six members. When they arrived at the Library of Alexandria, they worked in pairs in 36 different places and produced 36 very similar translations. In the end, 72 translators got together to check the 36 translations, and chose the final version, which they called ''The Septuagint''.

The translation of ''The Septuagint'' has two main characteristics. First of all, it is not an individual achievement, but the result of many people’s cooperation, which opens the history of collective cooperation in translation. A great advantage of collective translation is that it can guarantee the accuracy of the translation. Secondly, the 72 translators are not Greek, they are Jews in Jerusalem. Although Greek has become their daily language, they are not in Greece and the non-Greek language environment undoubtedly also has a great influence on them, which leads to affect the quality of translation. In addition, the foothold of their translation is that translation must be accurate. So, some words in translation are old and some sentences are translated straightly, even unlike Greek. However, far from being dismissed as eccentric, ''The Septuagint'' holds a special place in the history of translation. Later translations of the Old Testament in different languages such as Latin, Coptic (an ancient Egyptian language) and Ethiopian are based on it.

=== St. Jerome (347–420)===
In the late period of the Roman Empire, the ruling class intensified the use of Christianity in order to save the Empire from collapse. In this way, religious translation naturally received more attention and got greater development. It can be said that religious translation at this stage constituted the second climax in the history of western translation. During this period, the more influential figures in the field of translation were St. Jerome and St. Augustine.

St. Jerome was one of the four leading theologians of the early Western Christian Church and was considered the most learned of the Roman priests. He loved Latin literature and had a great interest in Greek religious culture. He praised highly the ideas of the Greek theologian Origenes. He translated 14 of his sermons. But Jerome was best known for his translation of the Bible, ''Vulgate''. It was a great success. It ended the confusion of Latin translations of the Bible and gave Latin readers the first “standard” translation of the Bible, which later became the only text recognized by the Roman Catholic Church. To some extent, it even replaced the Hebrew and Greek ones and became the basis for many later translators in European countries to translate the Bible. (Delisle, 1995: 101)

Jerome was not only an excellent translator, but also an outstanding translation theorist. In hundreds of prefaces and letters, Jerome set forth his mature thoughts on translation. During his lifetime, he had put forward some contradictory views on literal translation and free translation. In his early years, he advocated free translation. He cited some examples to support his point of view. For instance, he cited John Mark’s handling of translation. There was a paragraph in ''The Gospel of Mark'' that told the story of Jesus evoking a little girl who was ill. The original Hebrew phrase was “Ali that kumi” (little girl, get up), but John Mark translated it into Greek as “little girl, I tell you, get up.” Jerome thought that Mark had understood the tone of the command in Jesus’ words, and that it was all right to translate it literally rather than originally. It can be seen that Jerome realized that different languages are different from each other in terms of diction style, expression habit, syntax and so on. So it was not suitable to adopt the “word for word” translation method, but should adopt free translation following the principle of flexibility. But in the later years, in ''The Letter to Pammachius'', Jerome made clear the differences in translation between religious and non-religious texts. “I will freely confess that I have never translated Greek word for word, but meaning for meaning, except the Bible where word order is divine and mysterious.” Therefore, he believed that in literary translation, translators could and should adopt an easy-to-understand style to convey the meaning of the original text. In religious translation, free translation was not always adopted, but literal translation should be mainly adopted. It can be seen that his later viewpoint was a revision and an enrichment of his earlier viewpoint. Finally, he regarded the relationship between literal translation and free translation as a “complementary” relationship. He admitted that he sometimes adopted free translation and sometimes literal translation. And in some cases, he would integrate the two methods to pursue a better translation. (Jerome, 2007: 25–26)

Jerome’s translation principles and methods have exerted a great influence on later translation theories and practices, especially in the translation of the Bible during the Middle Ages. Many of his theories, such as “style is an inseparable part of content”, have been inherited and developed.

=== St. Augustine (354–430)===
Augustine was a Christian theologian and philosopher in the Roman Empire. Augustine was born in Thagaste, a small town in the Numidian mountains of North Africa. At that time, the city was part of the Roman Empire. Thagaste was originally a closed and monocultural town. But during the Roman Empire, a large number of immigrants poured in, making Thagaste gradually developed into a multi-ethnic and multi-cultural city. Augustine's father was a public servant in Thagaste. His family did not have much property and his father was keen on public charity, so he enjoyed a certain social status. However, his father was lazy, bad-tempered and had constant scandals. This had a great impact on Augustine’s growth and his attitude towards life. His mother was a devout Christian. She often induced Augustine to understand Christianity and even believe in Christianity, which was closely related to Augustine’s later philosophical achievements and even his eventual conversion to Christianity. The good educational environment in Rome laid a solid foundation for Augustine’s education. He studied Greek and Roman literature. His famous works were ''De Civitate Dei'', ''Confessiones'' and ''De doctrina christiana''.

Augustine played a very important role in the history of western translation. His discussion on translation was mainly found in his book ''De doctrina christiana''. Augustine explained his views on some aspects of translation. When talking about translation, Augustine recognized that translation was not always a “dictation”, but that there were also the transcendent wisdom of God, the personal understanding and interpretation of man in it. Augustine once wrote: “the Bible, as a remedy for the terrible disease of the human will, was originally written in the same language so that it might spread throughout the world. But later it was translated into various languages, a remedy known to all nations. One studied it to find out the will of the minds of those authors, and through them to find the will of God.” This shows that although the language of the translations varies, the will of God is eternal and unchangeable. A careful study and proper understanding of the different translations of the Bible will surely lead to hearing the call of God. Such an exposition of the translation has been taken out of the linguistic dimension and is filled with theological discourse, which is metaphysical. That is, although Augustine affirms the value of translation, what is actually implied is the wisdom of God that is transcendent over translation and language. The Bible is not to be read to understand the will of its author, but to understand the wisdom of God through the text. The original, the translation, and the wisdom of God must be viewed separately, and the translation is only a proven way of understanding God’s will. (Augustine, 2004: 47)

He was also the first to propose that the translation style (plain, elegant and solemn) depends on the requirements of the readers. In his opinion, the translation of enlightenment texts needs simple style; a text glorifying God needs elegance; exhortation and guidance texts require dignified style. His comments played an important role in the later generations and had a profound influence on translation studies. Therefore, he was regarded as the founder of the linguistic school in the history of western translation.

==Conclusion==
From the heyday of the Roman Empire to the fall of the Roman Empire, translation had gone through more than 700 years, during which there had been two major stages of the development of translation. In the first stage, it was mainly the Romans who translated Greek classics on a large scale, especially Homer's epics and plays. Translation activities in this stage promoted the emergence and development of Roman literature and played an important role as a bridge for later European countries to inherit ancient Greek culture. The second stage was the large-scale religious translation stage, which was the translation of the Bible and other theological works. At this stage, religious translation surpassed secular literary translation and gradually became the mainstream of western translation.

The earliest studies on translation theories and methods in the West can also be traced back to this period. Although some translation theories are sporadic, scattered and not systematic, they have a lot of insights on translation and have influenced subsequent translation theories. For example, Cicero explicitly put forward the problem of literal translation and free translation. Writers and translators began to discuss about this problem, and later formed the school of free translation represented by Cicero and Horace as well as the school of literal translation represented by Augustine and the school of both free translation and literal translation represented by Jerome. With the decline of the Roman Empire, western translation gradually turned into a low tide and transferred to the Middle Ages.

In addition to the historical study of ancient western translation, this thesis also aims to make readers understand the importance of translation history. Translation itself is a cross-cultural communication activity, reducing or even dredging communication barriers between different languages and regions. The development of translation activities can accelerate and promote the development of human civilization. Translation history is indispensable in translation studies. It is the testimony of the origin of translation activities and the record of their development. People should pay attention to the study of the history of translation and constantly explore its implications. The research results of translation history can provide a clear direction for translation studies and promote the further development of translation activities.

From the heyday of the Roman Empire to the fall of the Roman Empire, translation had gone through more than 700 years, during which there had been two major stages of the development of translation. In the first stage, it was mainly the Romans who translated Greek classics on a large scale, especially Homer's epics and plays. Translation activities in this stage promoted the emergence and development of Roman literature and played an important role as a bridge for later European countries to inherit ancient Greek culture. The second stage was the large-scale religious translation stage, which was the translation of the Bible and other theological works. At this stage, religious translation surpassed secular literary translation and gradually became the mainstream of western translation. The earliest studies on translation theories and methods in the West can also be traced back to this period. Although some translation theories are sporadic, scattered and not systematic, they have a lot of insights on translation and have influenced subsequent translation theories. For example, Cicero explicitly put forward the problem of literal translation and free translation. Writers and translators began to discuss about this problem, and later formed the school of free translation represented by Cicero and Horace as well as the school of literal translation represented by Augustine and the school of both free translation and literal translation represented by Jerome. With the decline of the Roman Empire, western translation gradually turned into a low tide and transferred to the Middle Ages. In addition to the historical study of ancient western translation, this thesis also aims to make readers understand the importance of translation history. Translation itself is a cross-cultural communication activity, reducing or even dredging communication barriers between different languages and regions. The development of translation activities can accelerate and promote the development of human civilization. Translation history is indispensable in translation studies. It is the testimony of the origin of translation activities and the record of their development. People should pay attention to the study of the history of translation and constantly explore its implications. The research results of translation history can provide a clear direction for translation studies and promote the further development of translation activities. Corrected by--[[User:Zhong Yifei|Zhong Yifei]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yifei|talk]]) 12:20, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

==References==
Augustine 奥古斯丁:《论基督教教义》''De doctrina christiana'', 石敏敏译 translated by Shi Minmin，中国社会科学出版社 China Social Sciences Press，2004，p.47。

Luo Niansheng 罗念生，《论古典文学》''On Classical Literature''，上海人民出版社 Shanghai People’s Publishing House，2007，p.279。

Editorial committee of ''A Journey to World’s Civilization''《世界文明之旅》编委会，《古罗马文明读本》''On Ancient Rome’s Civilization''，中国档案出版社 China Archives Press，2006，p.108。

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜，《西方翻译简史》''A Short History of Translation in the West''，商务印书馆 Beijing: The Commercial Press，2004，p.16。

Liao Qiyi 廖七一，当代西方翻译理论探索[M] Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory，译林出版社 Yilin Press，2000，p. 2.

Xu Haishan 许海山，《古罗马简史》''A Short History of Ancient Rome''，中国言实出版社 Yanshi Press，2006，p.363。

Bassnett, Susan. ''Translation Studies'' [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, p. 57.

Cicero. 2007. The best kind of orator[C]//D. Robinson. ''Western Translation Theory: from Herodotus to Nietzsche'', Beijing: FLTRP: 7-10.

Horace. ''English Literary Studies'' [M]. University of Victoria, 1981, p.79.

Jerome. ''Letter to Pammachius''. In Robinson, Douglas. ''Western Translation Theory: from Herodotus to Nietzsche''. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2007, p.25.

Robinson, Douglas. ''Western Translation Theory from Herodotus to Nietzsche''. Manchester: St. Jerome, 1997, p.20.

Xie Tianzheng 谢天振．中西翻译简史［M］A brief history of Chinese and Western Translation．北京:外语教学与研究出版社 Beijing: foreign language teaching and Research Press, 2009, p.57.

Delisle, Jean, & Judith Woodsworth. Eds. ''Translators Through History''. John Benjamins Publishing Company. 1995, p. 101.

Lefevere, André. ''Translation/ History/ Culture: A Sourcebook''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2006, p.15.

=钟义菲: The Chinese Translation History in Mordern Age=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_13]]

=魏楚璇: Western translation history in the Modern and Contemporary Ages=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_14]]

=Mahzad Heydarian: Where Persian Language Meets Translation=

This paper is a journey to the history of Persian language and the presence of translation into/from Persian in different historical eras. Translation has been influenced by many social and intercultural factors throughout history; in this paper, its functions from ancient Persia to the contemporary era will be surveyed.

Key Words: Translation history, Persian language, Arabic influence, Medieval era

Persian Language, known as the language of great literary works by Hafez, Khayyam, Rumi and many other classical and modern poets and writers, has always been an interesting subject to study. Looking for its roots and origins and how it is changing and developing has been the interest of many linguists around the world. Like other important languages, Persian has developed and gradually changed in different eras in history. It seems that writings on translation history suffer from severe shortcomings. What is overlooked by the researchers of Persian translation history is to clarify the distinction between oral and written translation. These two have proved to be completely different subjects while they have been mixed when the writers judge its ups and downs in a specific period of time. Moreover, in the relatively limited knowledge of Persian translation history, the thematic classification of translations (e.g. literary, scientific, etc.) have not been considered.

Another common but important deficiency of such historiography is the lack of scientific consideration of the source and target texts, based on advances in the study of translation during the past three decades. The socio-cultural aspects of translation have rarely been surveyed, nor has the linguistic process of evolution of Persian historically been studied. Despite the importance of such inquiries, in most studies done by the Persian writers we could rarely find traces of identifying the direction of source and target texts, let alone contemplating the process and product as two imperative factors in any study of translation. Abdolhossein Azarang, whose history of translation comes with these problems admits that none of available historical books, including his, could be mentioned as a survey without offering at least a set of simple comparisons between the source and target texts in each era (Azarang, “Tarikhe” 9).

To our knowledge Persian has gone through three main changes over the years: starting from Old Persian, in transformed into Middle Persian, also known as Pahlavi, and was finally modernized into contemporary Persian—which is in use today in Iran, Afghanistan and parts of Central Asia. Persian is a branch of the Indo-European languages. As Ahmad Karimi-Hakkak (493) mentions “Over a millennium this language has been the primary means of daily discourse as well as the language of science, art and literature on the Iranian plateau.” He indicates that “Old Persian was brought into Iranian plateau in the second millennium BC by Eurasian steppes. In time, it became the language of the Achamenians (559-339 BC), a dynasty of kings who established the largest, most powerful empire in the ancient world” (493).

Among the encyclopedic references, Britannica has put forward a good remark for the root and divisions of Middle Persian with more detailed information. It mentions that:
Middle Persian is known in three forms, not entirely homogeneous—inscriptional Middle Persian, Pahlavi (often more precisely called Book Pahlavi), and Manichaean Middle Persian. The Middle Persian form belongs to the period 300 BCE to 950 CE and was, like Old Persian, the language of southwestern Iran. In the northeast and northwest the language spoken was Parthian, which is known from inscriptions and from Manichaean texts. There are no significant linguistic differences in the Parthian of these two sources. Most Parthian belongs to the first three centuries CE.

Nonetheless, the Middle Persian script was abandoned in favor of the Arabic script and led to many new linguistic alterations in Persian. According to Karimi-Hakkak “The new script was far simpler and more advanced. In addition, where the Arabic script lacked essentially Persian consonants these were added to it. In short, the adoption of the Arabic script for Persian did not give rise to ruptures as significant as certain modernist reformers have assumed it did” (494). Therefore, the start of the most significant change in the Persian language dates back to the seventh century when Islam started to take over the Iranian plateau. This led Persian to find many new scopes. By adopting the Arabic alphabet, Persian became even stronger and further blossomed into many classical literary works in the following centuries.

Among the encyclopedic references, Britannica has put forward a good remark for the root and divisions of Middle Persian with more detailed information. It mentions that: Middle Persian is known in three forms, not entirely homogeneous—inscriptional Middle Persian, Pahlavi (often more precisely called Book Pahlavi), and Manichaean Middle Persian. The Middle Persian form belongs to the period 300 BCE to 950 CE and was, like Old Persian, the language of southwestern Iran. In the northeast and northwest the language spoken was Parthian, which is known from inscriptions and from Manichaean texts. There are no significant linguistic differences in the Parthian of these two sources. Most Parthian belongs to the first three centuries CE.

Nonetheless, the Middle Persian script was abandoned in favor of the Arabic script and led to many new linguistic alterations in Persian. According to Karimi-Hakkak “The new script was far simpler and more advanced. In addition, where the Arabic script lacked essentially Persian consonants these were added to it. In short, the adoption of the Arabic script for Persian did not give rise to ruptures as significant as certain modernist reformers have assumed it did” (494). Therefore, the start of the most significant change in the Persian language dates back to the seventh century when Islam started to take over the Iranian plateau. This led Persian to find many new scopes. By adopting the Arabic alphabet, Persian became even stronger and further blossomed into many classical literary works in the following centuries.

The need for translation soon of course rose in a language like Persian spoken by large populations and used by different dynasties. Persian language had remained consistent and independent by asking the translation firstly and more importantly from Arabic. The language itself has neither been replaced by any other languages nor substantially changed during the centuries. That is why a Persian speaker today can effortlessly understand and enjoy the language of Hafez or Rudaki, the famous poets who lived in the 14th and 9th centuries, respectively.

The need for translation soon of course rose in a language like Persian spoken by large populations and used by different dynasties. Persian language had remained consistent and independent by asking the translation firstly and more importantly from Arabic. The language itself has neither been replaced by any other languages nor substantially changed during the centuries. That is why a Persian speaker today can effortlessly understand and enjoy the language of Hafez or Rudaki, the famous poets who lived in the 14th and 9th centuries, respectively.

The traces of written translation in different periods of the history of Persian language have mostly been based on the king’s demands or special order by one of the influential people in the royal court, mostly for their immediate political needs. This history, before the last century, has was interwoven with political, sometimes military and less commonly scientific texts. Therefore, individual or freelance translators who had been engaged in translation of literary works, or the Persian scientists who were keen to translate texts into Persian are absent in many historical periods. Azarang (15), studying the history of Safavid dynasty (1501–1736), in which Iran had lot of communications with Europe, has associated this strange phenomenon to the lack of concern and interest for learning and evolving in Persian travelers or dispatched students who commute to western countries. He believes that Iran missed a unique opportunity to use the scientific benefits for fundamental changes during Safavid dynasty, which was concurrent with the scientific and industrial transformations of Europe. As we will see, the attempts for translating texts for Iranian users were mostly confined to translation into Arabic instead of Persian as the main language of the whole plateau in post-Islamic era. The new movement of translating texts from different subjects into Persian was seen some 100 years after Safavid kings, during mid-Qajar era (1795–1925).

In this article a historical investigation of Persian translation is presented based on what is available in collecting books and articles, mostly based on four important references: Karimi-Hakkak’s article in Encyclopedia of Translation Studies (1998), Daeratol’ma’aref-e Bozorg-e Eslami (2008), Behrouz Karoubi’s important article (2017), and Azarang’s detailed chronological event book (2015). The study has been divided into five sections based on the five historical periods: Ancient Persia, Medieval Persian, The Mongol Era, Post-Mongol Era, and the Modern Period. This is more or less the same division done by Karimi-Hakkak, as the main resource of this article, but with a specific extension. This investigation refers primarily to translation into Persian and some comparatively rare cases of translation from Persian into the other languages, will exclusively be dealt with.

Ancient Persia (Before 651)
Karimi-Hakkak (493) mentions that “Translation into Persian has a long and eventful history; it has played an important part in the evolution of Iranian and Iranate civilizations throughout Western Asia and beyond.” We see the first traces of translation in medieval Persia, in which close contact and interface between Arabic and Persian occurred. He claims that “The Achamenian empire was multilingual, and many of its documents were written not only in various language of the empire, but in Babylonian and Elamite as well. Still our information about specific translation activities among these languages is too sketchy to allow any in-depth discussion of trends and patterns.” Later on, only with the formation of the Sasanian dynasty in Persia (AD 224–652) and the rise of Middle Persian the first authentic historical information about intercultural exchange could be found.

Behistun Inscription as the unique masterpiece in Achamenian’s era is an exclusive phenomenon in the history of translation of the world; Azarang argues that it is one of the most important translated texts in that era as well as one of the examples of precise translation. Translation of Behistun inscribed stone seems to be done by a number of trusted linguists who probably checked the texts’ conformity more than once. This translation shows that a precise translation accompanied by artistic delicacies on the stones had reached a very good level in that time (35).

Scholarship suggests that Old Persian was transmitted orally, as we have no written records from that time. There is Avesta, a religious book in what scholars have termed Avestan, a language closely related to Old Persian. Even though it was committed to writing in the fourth century AD, Avesta contains some Zoroastrian hymns thought to be in older Iranian languages” (qtd. in Karimi-Hakkak 493).

=Akira Jantarat： History of Chinese-Thai literature Translation in 19th century=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_17]]

=Jawad Ahmad; History of Translation=

[[Hist_Trans_EN_18]]

=Bible Translation in Christian History=
Benjamin Wellsand, Hunan Normal University, China
[[Hist_Trans_EN_18]]

==Abstract==
The history of Christianity is rich in translations. Why is this the case? What is the motivation behind all this translation effort? The present work will explain the rationale behind the perceived need for translation. It will describe the multicultural context that aided the church in communicating in a heart language. An awkward struggle in the Middle Ages will leave the future of the church in question. What created this polar shift in the West from the church's original course bearings? How and why did the church recover? What remains of centuries of Christian diligence to get the Word into the words of the other? Through historical events, life experiences of translators, and the tales that live on in the translations themselves will answer these questions and encourage the reader to enter the exciting and vast history of Bible translation.

==Key Words==
Aramaic language—refers to the Semitic dialect of a Middle Eastern people written in a Phoenician alphabet and first appearing in the 11th century B.C.E and growing to the peak of prominence in the 8th century B.C.E.

Free Translation—a translator’s decision to avoid as many target audience misunderstandings as possible due to linguistic and cultural differences with the source text’s culture

Functional or Dynamic Translation—a translator’s decision to focus more attention on communicating the meaning of the source text with concern for the target text

Grassroots theology—the lived experience of the church that then develops into a theological framework

Greek language—refers to that Greek developed in the 4th century B.C.E. and utilized by the Greco-Roman Empire

Heart language—the native language of a person from which the deepest emotional meanings are expressed

Hebrew language—refers to the ancient Jewish dialect spoken between the 10th century B.C.E. and the 4th century C.E.

Literal Translation—a translator’s decision to focus attention primarily on what the source text says

Septuagint—the Greek translations of the Hebrew Old Testament

Vernacular language—an expression or mode of expression that is a part of everyday communication and not yet in written form

==Introduction==
Translation of the biblical text has been a practice of the Christian church since its very origin. The founding of the church during the Jewish festival of Pentecost, as recorded in the Bible itself, involved Jesus’ disciples communicating the gospel message in the language of Parthians, Medes, Mesopotamians, and Egyptians, among others. (cf. Acts 2.7-11) The final vision of the multitude of the saved in heaven are described as a “people of God from every tribe and language and people and nation." (Rev. 5.9) The New Testament, although authored by primarily Hebrew-speaking Jews, was first written in the lingua franca, koine Greek, of the day. Whereas Buddhists and Muslims identify their sacred texts and faiths inseparably from the original languages of Sanskrit, Pali and Arabic, the Christian faith has sought to translate the biblical texts immediately and directly into the vernacular language of the people to accelerate its global spread.

On a historical basis, the Christian faith has been criticized regarding colonialism and the destruction of cultures. One such case occurred in the sixteenth-century with the Japanese. Giant ships (in comparison to the Japanese) came to dock on the island from Portugal. Many transactions were made between the Portuguese traders and the local Japanese damaiyo. When trade agreements went south, as it did in the case of Portugal and Japan, the Portuguese missionaries were associated with the politics and kicked out of the country. They were ousted under the accusations of encouraging Japanese to eat horses and cows, misleading people through science and medicine, and trading Japanese slaves. (Doughill 2012: l. 1064) Although the missionaries had done no such things, they were targeted along with the Portuguese government for these criminal acts.

There are cases where the colonial form of the church has not come to intentionally destroy but has assumed cultural superiority and inadvertently added to the host culture their own country of origin’s cultural forms. Late 19th century missionaries to Africa felt that the Western-style structure of a dwelling was an indicator of modern progress. In 1879, the magistrate of Gatberg declared:

It is not only that the requirement of modesty necessitates the providing of some sort of clothing, however simple; but Christian morality desires also a dwelling corresponding to human dignity, decency, and purity. Building plays an important part in the mission. First the missionary builds a simple small house for himself, to which he soon adds a school and a church. Generally, he must himself superintend this work; often enough, indeed, he must execute it with his own hand, and it stands him in good stead to have been a tradesman at home. But he induces the natives also to help him, and much patience as it requires on his part, he undertakes to instruct them. Gradually his word and his example produce their effect, and the converts from heathenism begin to build new and more decent dwellings for themselves. (Warneck 1888: 80)

There is no denying that the church has struggled to decontextualize the faith from their home culture and properly contextualize it into the host culture. This has led to the host culture’s Christianity looking eerily similar to the missionary’s, at best, or a faith that forever remains foreign to the host culture, at worst. Yet, as Lamin Sanneh notes, Christian missionaries have often played a key role in the preservation of cultures:

The translation enterprise had two major steps. One was the creation of a vernacular alphabet for societies that lacked a literary tradition. The other step was to shake the existing literary tradition free of its esoteric, elitist predilection by recasting it as a popular medium. Both steps stimulated an indigenous response and encouraged the discovery of local resources for the appropriation of Christianity. (Sanneh 1987: 333)

The translation of the biblical text into another language is not simply a greater convenience to the reader in the target culture but accomplishes far more as language extends much deeper than a mere form of communication.

Benjamin L. Whorf’s theory of linguistic relativity holds that language influences thought and not thought that influences language. For him, “linguistics is essentially the quest of meaning." (Carroll 1956: 73) George C. Lichtenberg, another pioneer of linguistics, is famously quoted as saying, “Our false philosophy is incorporated in our whole language; we cannot talk, so to say, without talking incorrectly. We do not consider that speaking, irrespective of its content, presents a philosophy." (Loewenberg 1943-44: 102) Richard D. Lewis illustrated this point with an interaction between himself, an Englishman, and a former Zulu chief who received a doctorate in philology at Oxford as they discussed the color green. As the Zulu pointed to a leaf in the sun, a leaf in the shade, a wet leaf in the sun and one in the shade, bush leaves, leaves in the wind, rivers, pools, tree trunks, and crocodiles, all to which Lewis responded with a single answer: green. Yet his Zulu friend had reached thirty-nine different terms for green with no trouble at all (Lewis 2006, 9). Paul G. Hiebert writes, “We examine the language to discover the categories the people use in their thinking." (Hiebert 2008: 90)

Christians, like Hiebert, recognize that true conversion of a person’s mind can only happen if it takes place on three levels of the individual: belief, behavior, and worldview. “Too often conversion takes place at the surface levels of behavior and beliefs; but if worldviews are not transformed, the gospel is interpreted in terms of pagan worldviews, and the result is Christo-paganism." (Hiebert 2008: 69) And, since worldview is linked to language, it goes without saying that the biblical text and Christian terminology must be placed in the language of the people in order for one to be truly Christian within their culture.

Grassroots theology is a term coined by Simon Chan. While it is true that theology is something that is viewed as coming down from God in the Christian faith, theology cannot be totally divorced from what happens on the physical earth among humanity. The idea behind grassroots theology is that theology takes place within the community of the faithful and will necessarily carry cultural characteristics of the host culture. The African context finds a great deal of suffering through poverty and illness and filial concerns extend to deceased ancestors. This has led African Christians to recognize Jesus as the Healer who can bring help for those suffering from disease. They will point to Messianic prophecies like, “the eyes of the blind shall be opened, and the ears of the deaf unstopped; then shall the lame man leap like a deer, and the tongue of the mute sing for joy." (Isa. 35.5-6) They also find him to be the fulfillment for their need of an ancestral role as a mediator between the earthly and spiritual realms. They draw attention to Paul’s letter to Timothy, “For there is one God, and there is one mediator between God and men, the man Christ Jesus." (1 Tim. 2.5) The same can be said of Latin Americans attraction to the Holy Spirit and those giftings associated with him and South Asia’s attention to fear-power aspects of the gospel message coming from a culture steeped in animism and folk religions.

Randy Dignan has learned from his own bilingual experience “that language isn’t understood only by the mind. Language can also be heard with the heart." (Dignan 2020: 13) The term heart language holds to the conviction that, while one can read and communicate in a second language, when in the most intimate and troubling circumstances an individual will automatically revert to his or her native tongue. This is since our native form of speech is not only natural but the language in which we communicate most deeply and freely. When the Japanese Christian, Shusaku Endo, reflected on the 250 years of suffering that the church in Japan had to endure and how the church was forced to recant their faith publicly and remove all religious symbols, he reverted to his native language to express his spiritual thoughts. The Japanese character chin (meaning silence) stood as a symbol as one “looks starkly into the darkness, but [creates] characters and language that somehow inexplicably move beyond” that darkness." (Fujimura 2016: 74) What in Shusaku Endo’s mind best describes the Japanese Christian’s experience of suffering? Chin. When speaking of things closest to us, humans, all of us, speak from the language closest to our heart—our native one.

The early church set the pattern as it was birthed within a multilingual context and immediately entered translation efforts. Colonialism remains a constant threat as one culture takes the Christian faith into another foreign cultural context. Conversion is defined by the church as an experience that involves an individual who possesses a former way of life modeled after a specific pattern of behavior and a particular spiritual influence and then that way of life is abruptly interrupted and overturned by an encounter with Jesus. (cf. Eph. 2.1-7) That experience involves a love for God with all of one’s heart, soul, mind, and strength. (cf. Mk. 12.30) What reaches to the depths of heart and soul is one’s language that reaches to worldview levels. Christianity is a faith that is intended to engulf the entire person from head to toe and from belief to action. The development of a grassroots theology involves the heart language of the people and has historically manifested the capacity to preserve cultures. This is a work on the history of translation in the church.

[1] Papias’ writings are only available to us through the records kept by Eusebius. In these records, there are two extant quotes regarding authorship of the gospels. In regard to the gospel of Matthew, he writes, “Matthew composed the gospel in the Hebrew dialect and each translated them as best he could.” The early church understood this to mean that Matthew had originally written his gospel in Hebrew and it was soon after translated into Greek. However, scholars, such as D. A. Carson and Douglas J. Moo, have brought the validity of this interpretation of Papias’ statement into question. (See 2005: 161-162)

==1. The Early Church And Translation==
The early church was a multicultural and multilingual group of people. The church had its start within Jerusalem during a Jewish festival known as Pentecost. It was during this festival that Jews would converge within the city from the Jewish diaspora that had been created through centuries of occupation and exile. The Jews living among foreign lands had taken on the culture and languages of their captors and captive neighbors. When they came back to worship at the centralized Jerusalem Temple in 30 C.E., there was a complex and diverse representation of culture and a need for the Hebrew speakers to communicate in the languages of the diaspora.

As noted above, Greek had long been the lingua franca by this time and translation of the church’s sacred text had already taken place. What is known as the Septuagint (LXX) was the Greek version(s) of the Hebrew Old Testament. Rather than referencing a specific translation, since there is no single identifiable text, the LXX is, in the words of Emanuel Tov, “the nature of the individual translation units” and “the nature of the Greek Scripture as a whole (p3).” The fictitious origins of the title Septuagint come from the tale of 70 translators who were said to have gathered in Alexandria during the reign of Ptolemy II and the translation was miraculously accomplished within seventy-two days. Despite the fictitious tale of its beginning and the difficulty in identifying exactly what the Septuagint text contains, there is no doubt that the translations existed, and that Jesus’s apostles utilized them regularly in their writing of the New Testament text.

The New Testament does not qualify as a written translation of a Hebrew text, but it is a written Greek text that is translated from Jewish thought. The Jewish concepts of Temple, Levitical priesthood, Messiah, animal sacrifice, along with many other Old Testament imagery and thought are written down in Greek. It is interesting that there are assumptions made by biblical scholars that, since the biblical writers were writing in Greek, they must have been borrowing from Greek thought to communicate to a Greek audience. A common example can be found in the beginning of the gospel of John and its use of word (or logos). The text reads, “In the beginning was the Word and the Word was with God, and the Word was God." (Jn. 1.1) Many find the apostle John borrowing from Platonic philosophy and following in the footsteps of Hellenistic, Jewish philosopher, Philo who connected Greek Sophia (or Wisdom) with the logos, which was the knowledge, reason, and consciousness of the God of the Old Testament that assisted humans in life.

Despite the face value validity of this being a moment of contextualization by the apostle John of Hebrew concepts into Greek thought, there may be a more reasonable explanation. Ronald A. Nash points out that it makes more sense to take logos not back to Greek philosophy primarily but to Hebrew thought in Genesis 1, since the writers had Jewish minds. In every activity of creation, as it is recorded in the Hebrew Old Testament, God is described as one who speaks all things into existence. “And God said, ‘Let there be light.'" (Gen. 1.3) It is the word of God that brought all of creation into existence. John takes the Hebrew thought regarding the spoken beginning of the cosmos and uses the Greek term logos as a title for Jesus to connect him with the origins of creation for the New Testament Greek audience.

Regardless of how thoughts were communicated in translation, the fact remains that the early church was diligent from the start to ensure the biblical text made it into the hands of every people group encountered in their own language. The earliest translation of the Greek New Testament was either Syriac or Coptic. The Coptic version was translated by Egyptians of the north-western province in the third century. Today, there are five or six different identifiable Syriac versions that arise out of more than 350 extant manuscripts and the Peshitta is the earliest known translation following the LXX. By 200 C.E. there was an estimated seven translations, thirteen by the sixth century, and fifty-seven by the nineteenth century. In 2020, the Bible has been translated in whole into 704 languages, New Testament-only translations in 1,551 languages, and partial translations in another 1,160.

[2] See D. Butler Pratt. 1907. “The Gospel of John from the Standpoint of Greek Tragedy.” The Biblical World. 30 (6): 448-459. The University of Chicago Press. and Ronald Williamson. 1970. Philo and the Epistle to the Hebrews. Leiden: E. J. Brill.

==2. Motivation and Opposition to Translation in the Middle Ages==
Emperor Diocletian had divided the Roman Empire into two sectors: the predominantly Latin-speaking western and the majority Greek-speaking eastern territories. Later in history with the weakening of the Roman Empire and a diversity of Germanic tribes occupying the west, the Eastern empire of Byzantium (led by a conviction as the rightful heirs of the Roman Empire) desired to reunite the former glory of Rome and, under the rule of Emperor Justinian I, successfully expanded its imperial authority from east to most of the former Roman western territory. There developed between Rome in the west and Constantinople in the east a politically driven religious rivalry after an alliance of the Frankish king, Pepin the Younger and the bishop of Rome. The political divide between the Franks and the Byzantines persisted to the point of the creation of two different leaders of the church, the Roman pope in the west and the Constantinian patriarch in the east. The Great Schism began in 1054 C.E. when the Byzantine patriarch Michael I Celarius sent a letter to the Roman bishop of Trani to debate the use of unleavened rather than leavened bread in the context of corporate worship with the claim of unleavened bread as a Jewish and not a Christian practice. The conflict was referred to the western capital city of Rome where pope Leo refused to make any concessions regarding the issue.

In 1079 C.E. a letter was written by Vratislaus I, duke of Bohemia, requesting the pope of Rome allow his monks to do officiate in Slavonic recitations. Pope Gregory VII responded:

Know that we can by no means favorably answer this your petition. For it is clear to those who reflect often upon it, that not without reason has it pleased Almighty God that holy scripture should be a secret in certain places, lest, if it were plainly apparent to all men, perchance it would be little esteemed and be subject to disrespect; or it might be falsely understood by those of mediocre learning, and lead to error … we forbid what you have so imprudently demanded of the authority of St. Peter, and we command you to resist this vain rashness with all your might, to the honor of Almighty God. (Deansely 1920: 24)

One wonders if the recent signs of a schism and concern over who held church authority, either the patriarch or the pope, did not significantly influence such a verdict. In this case, it was likely not so much a concern over the misuse of the biblical text as it was a deterrent of Greek and Slavic influence from the eastern church having a hold on western adherents to the Christian faith.

Vernacular translations did exist for royalty in nearly all European countries, such as those produced for John II of France or Charles V of Rome. Vernacular translations that were free adaptations, paraphrases, or rhymed verse were allowed among the laity for single books or portions of the Bible because such “a work was considered safer than the literal translation of the sacred text.” (Deansely 1920, 19) The fact that the Waldensians were early proponents of vernacular translation and viewed as a heretical group in the Roman church did not help the cause. This ascetic sect held that vows of apostolic poverty led to spiritual perfection. A native German and founder of the Waldensians, Peter Waldo, was a man with the will and financial means to have the New Testament translated into Franco-Provençal by a cleric from Lyon. The sect was not as keen on the Old Testament and so there was no completed translation work. The Lollards, or followers of Wycliffe, were viewed with theological suspicion by the church in Rome as well. John Wycliffe, an English philosopher and University of Oxford professor, believed that God was sovereign over all and that all men were on an equal footing under his reign and were not in submission to any other mediatory ecclesiastical power. Margaret Deansely claims that this “also led logically to the demand for a translated Bible” from the Latin vulgate to English. (Deansley 1920: 227) If everyone was under God and the divine mandate, then it is only fitting that each person be given that text in an understandable linguistic form. Wycliffe used the existence of translations among the nobility as a basis for a request for translations available to commoners.

In 1412, the English archbishop Thomas Arundel wrote to pope John XXII charging that Wycliffe had “fill[ed] up the measure of his malice, he devised the expedient of a new translation of the scriptures into the mother tongue.” (Deansely 1920: 238) His Constitutions that were authored against Wycliffe post-humously and against the existing Lollard community, according to Shannon McSheffrey, “were probably responsible for a freeze on English translations of scripture” with only one surviving license for an English Bible in the fifteenth century, the Lollard translation remained the “most widely circulated of vernacular manuscripts.” (McSheffrey 2005: 63) Margaret Aston found that, despite the church in Rome’s crackdown on vernacular translation, the Lollards cause continued to influence the Reformers through their written publications. Martin Luther utilized the Commentarius in Apocalypsin ante Centum Annos æditus, Robert Redman produced a work heavily dependent on The Lanterne of light, and William Thynne’s The Plowman’s Tale has its source in an original fourteenth-century Lollard poem. The fires for vernacular translation had been rekindled in the church of the west. Jacob van Liesveldt published a Dutch translation in 1526; Jacques Lefèvre d’Étaples completed the French Antwerp Bible in 1530; Luther’s German translation emerged in 1534; Maximus of Gallipoli printed a Greek translation of the New Testament in 1638; a completed Hungarian Bible immerged in 1590; Giovanni Diodati translated the Bible into Italian in 1607; João Ferreira d'Almeida printed a Portuguese New Testament in 1681; in 1550 a full translation arrived in Denmark; and Luther’s version of the New Testament was reprinted in part in the Swyzerdeutsch dialect by 1525. In 1953, Wycliffe Bible Translators was founded and currently has a global alliance of over 100 organizations that serve in Bible translation movements and language communities around the world and has been a part of vernacular translation in more than 700 languages.

==3. Defining Forms of Biblical Translation==
In translation of the biblical text, the best possible translation scenario is one that comes from the original Hebrew-Aramaic Old Testament (including the later LXX translations) and Greek New Testament languages. There are Bible versions that are translated based on previous translations, but this is not ideal as it removes the translators from the linguistic source context. Ancient Greek has single words with multiple meanings, like bar in English that can refer to an establishment that serves alcohol and a metal object or hua in Chinese that can be read either as a verb or a noun. This can lead to inconsistencies in translation. For example, the Chinese Union Version (CUV), which is the most used Chinese version, translates the Greek word aletheia as chengshi (or honesty). John uses aletheia nineteen times in the Gospel of John and only once in John 16.7 does the word carry the meaning of honesty. It is clear in this passage that the meaning is honesty as it is a description of how Jesus speaks with his disciples. A single word in one language can also carry more information than in another. The Greek word hamartánein (or sin) in 1 John 1.9 is a present active verb for sin. The JMSJ Chinese version adds jixu (or continue) which is a word not found in Greek, but best expresses the original meaning with the addition of a word not found in the source text.

When translation issues arise like the latter example given above, there are translator decisions that must be made on how to best translate a source text’s meaning into the target text. There are translators who make the decision to stay as close to the source language as possible. This is known as a literal translation of the source text. Leland Ryken states that a literal translation approach is concerned more with “what the original text says [than] what it means.” (Ryken 2009, l. 323) This may lead to a translator sacrificing ease of the recipient audience’s understanding for the sake of an aim to stay faithful to the text. However, there are cases where literal translation has worked best. Toshikazu Foley notes how the Chinese Union Version takes a literal approach in Philippians 1.8 when it translates the Greek word splagknois (or the most inward parts of a man where emotions are felt) as xinchang (or heart-intestines). This phrase carries the meaning of someone with a “good heart” or “merciful and kind.” While Today’s Chinese Version (TCV) takes a more dynamic approach and follows Today’s English Version’s (TEV) translation as heart. In this instance, what the Greek text says and what it means can transfer to the Chinese text.

Continuing with the Philippians 1.8 scenario, the Greek word splagknois (or the most inward parts of a man where emotions are felt) cannot be directly translated into English in the same way that it can with the Chinese term xinchang (or heart-intestines). For an English translator to take a literal translation approach and simply make a direct translation as “I long after you all in the bowels of Jesus Christ,” it would lead to a great misunderstanding by the English audience. The TEV translator has made the decision to surrender a literal translation out of concern for the target audience. This is known as a dynamic or functional equivalence translation. Ryken gives the following description: “Functional equivalence seeks something in the receptor language that produces the same effect (and therefore allegedly serves the same function) as the original statement, no matter how far removed the new statement might be from the original.” (Ryken 2009: l. 263)

There are varying degrees of helpfulness when a translator is forced to move into the realm of dynamic equivalence. A comparison of two translation results from 2 Timothy 2.3 can be used to illustrate. The Chinese Union Version reads, “You want to suffer with me, like a good soldier of Christ Jesus.” While the Today’s Chinese Version reads, “As a loyal soldier of Christ Jesus, you have to share in the suffering.” In the surrounding context, Paul has just explained his own suffering in chapter one and speaks intimately of Timothy as his son in chapter two and expects Timothy to propagate his message further. The CUV follows the context more closely as Timothy follows in the ministry of his spiritual “father” before him and, as he shares Paul’s message, will also share in his sufferings.

Those translators that are very target text oriented in avoidance of difficult language and cultural differences, can leave the realm of translation and enter that of interpretation. To pursue Ryken’s description further, the free translation approach is primarily concerned with what the text means in its communication. The Concise Bible (JMSJ) takes great liberty in its translation of 1 Corinthians 1.23. Where the Chinese New Version translates, “We preach the crucified Christ; a stumbling block to the Jews and stupidity to the foreigner”, the JMSJ reads:

“But all we proclaim is the Christ who was nailed to the cross to atone for people's sin. Jews hate this kind of message [, because their hope is in a political, military leader leading them to break free from Roman rule, and not the crucified Jesus]. People of other races think this kind of message is very foolish [, because they don't believe Jesus becoming sin and dying on a cross for people is Savior and Lord.]”

A non-native speaker could examine the Chinese New Version and JMSJ and recognize just by the stark contrast in Chinese character counts between the two versions that the JMSJ has gone to great lengths to communicate the meaning of the source text to its Chinese target audience.

==Conclusion==
The Christian church was birthed in a multilingual environment that was the result of seemingly endless years of exile which the superior kingdoms of Babylon, Assyria, Medo-Persia, Greece, and Rome forced upon the Jewish population. The Christians believe, in the pen of the apostle Paul, “we know that for those who love God all things work together for good, for those who are called according to his purpose.” (Rom. 8.28) The kingdoms aggressively destroyed and pillaged and uprooted families, friends, and neighbors from their promised land and decimated the Temple. The Jews were left without a king, a name, and, from all outward appearances, a God. Yet this landless state of a people, that commonly struggled with ethnocentrism, propelled them into a crash course with foreign language studies. Genesis 31.47; Jeremiah 10.11; Ezra 4.8-6.18; 7.12-26; and Daniel 2.4-7.28 are all portions of the Old Testament that were not written in Hebrew, but in Aramaic. Aramaic was the official language used circa 700-200 B.C.E. and remnants of its widespread usage were found in parts of Babylon, Egypt, Palestine, Arabia, Assyria, and other ancient regions. The LXX translations quoted in the New Testament also attest to the Greco-Roman occupation and the Jews ability to adapt to their surrounding cultures. When the Holy Spirit descends with tongues of fire, the followers of Jesus tongues are alight with the diversity mirroring the surrounding effects of a melting pot of cultural diversity. The first Christians (primarily Jewish) were already equipped to communicate the gospel message of Jesus on a worldview level in the heart language of their former oppressors.

The cultures that interacted, and at points even dominated the Palestinian culture, were the first ones to experience the early church’s fervent cross-cultural evangelistic efforts through the means of translation. Peter J. Williams gives this historical comment: “The oldest records in Syriac are pagan or secular, but from the mid-second century onward, the influence of Christianity could be felt in Syriac-speaking culture, and from the fourth century, this influence dominated literary output.” (Williams 2013: 143) The most notable of these early Christian texts is Tatian’s Diatessaron (the earliest known harmony of the four Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke and John) around 170 C.E. Philip Jenkins lists Syria among the Near Eastern places of origin where, “during the first few centuries [Christianity] had its greatest centers, its most prestigious churches and monasteries.” (Jenkins 2008: l. 47) It was the theological struggles of this church that led to the early articulation of key doctrines, like the hypostatic union of Christ that sets forth the relationship between his divine and human natures.

The utilization of koine Greek pressed the church outward with a global missional front. One that, as previously noted, preserves the languages of outlying and isolated cultures and plants the Christian faith firmly in the local cultural context to ensure its perseverance. Before the writings of the New Testament are even completed, the church is already seen in transition from a primarily Jewish body to a predominantly Greek one. The apostle Paul queried the apostle Peter, both of Jewish descent, “If you, though a Jew, live like a Gentile and not like a Jew, how can you force the Gentiles to live like Jews?” (Gal. 2.14) And the church in its infancy is described in the midst of a racial dilemma: “Now in these days when the disciples were increasing in number, a complaint by the Hellenists arose against the Hebrews because their widows were being neglected in the daily distribution.” (Acts 6.1) These were not signs of stagnation but were natural growing pains of a church that was oriented outward. Although the church seems to struggle or lose its focus from time to time, overall, it has been at the forefront of linguistic translation and has made the Bible the most popular and well-read text in all the world for centuries.

==References==
Aston, Margaret. 1964. “Lollardy and the Reformation: Survival or Revival.” in History. 49 (166): 149-170. Hoboken: Wiley.

Carroll, John B., ed. 1956. ''Language, Thought, and Reality: Selected Writings of Benjamin Lee Whorf''. Cambridge: MIT Press.

Carson, D. A. & Douglas J. Moo. 2005. ''An Introduction to the New Testament''. Grand Rapids: Zondervan.

Chan, Simon. 2014. ''Grassroots Asian Theology: Thinking the Faith from the Ground Up''. Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press.

CUV Bible (Heheben). 2006. Hong Kong: Hong Kong Bible Society.

Deansely, Margaret. 1920. ''The Lollard Bible and Other Medieval Biblical Versions''. Cambridge: University Press.

Dignan, Randy. 2020. ''Heart Language: Let’s Communicate Like Jesus and Change the World!'' Daphne: River Birch Press.

Doughill, John. 2012. ''In Search of Japan’s Hidden Christians: A Story of Suppression, Secrecy, and Survival''. Rutland: Tuttle Publishing.

ESV Study Bible. 2008. Wheaton: Crossway Books.

Foley, Toshikazu. 2009. ''Biblical Translation in Chinese and Greek: Verbal Aspect in Theory and Practice''. Leiden: Brill.

Fujimura, Makoto. 2016. ''Silence and Beauty: Hidden Faith Born of Suffering''. Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press.

Hiebert, Paul G. 2008. ''Transforming Worldviews: An Anthropological Understanding of How People Change''. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic.

Jenkins, Philip. 2008. ''The Lost History of Christianity: The Thousand-Year Golden Age of the Church in the Middle East, Africa, and Asia—and How It Died''. New York: HarperCollins.

JMSJ Bible (Jianmingshengjing). 2012. Taipei: Taipei Daoshen Publishing House.

Lewis, Richard D. 2010. ''When Cultures Collide: Leading Across Cultures''. 3rd ed. Boston: Hachette Book Group.

Loewenberg, Richard D. “An Eighteenth Century Pioness of Semantics.” ETC: A Review of General Semantics. 1 (2): 99-104. Institute of General Semantics.

McSheffrey, Shannon. 2005. “Heresy, Orthodoxy and English Vernacular Religion 1480-1525.” Past & Present. 186 (1): 47-80. Oxford University Press.

Nash, Ronald A. 2003. ''The Gospel and the Greeks: Did the New Testament Borrow from Pagan Thought?'' Phillipsburg: P & R Publishing.

Ryken, Leland. 2009. ''Understanding English Bible Translation: The Case for an Essentially Literal Approach''. Wheaton: Crossway.

Sanneh, Lamin. 1987. “Christian Missions and the Western Guilt Complex.” The Christian Century. 104 (11): 331-334. The Christian Century Foundation.

TCV Bible (Xiandaizhongwenyiben). 1979. Hong Kong: Hong Kong Bible Society.

TEV Bible. 1976. New York: American Bible Society.

Tov, Emanuel. 2010. “Reflections on the Septuagint with Special Attention Paid to the Post-Pentateuchal Translations,” in ''Die Septuaginta – Texte, Theologien, Einflusse'', ed. Wolfgang Kraus and Martin Karrer, 3–22. Tubingen: Mohr Siebeck.

Warneck, Gustav. 1888. ''Modern Missions and Culture: Their Mutual Relations''. Edinburgh: James Gemmell.

Williams, Peter J. 2013. “The Syriac Versions of the New Testament,” in ''The Text of the New Testament in Contemporary Research'', eds. Bart D. Ehrman and Michael W. Holmes, 143-166. Leiden: Brill.

History of Translations

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=Rouabah Soumaya: History of translation in the Middle Ages=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_2]]
== Abstract==
The history of translation is seen variously as examining the role of translation in historical episodes through decades or investigating the phenomenon or understanding of translation itself historically. These different historiographical perspectives involve potentially different research aims, approaches, concepts, methods and scholarly interlocutors. The paper focuses on this question of disciplinary commensurability in historical studies, and draws parallels between the history of translation and translation in the middle ages. Themes addressed include the bible translation as , established historiographical norms and alternative, interdisciplinary approaches. It is argued that both the history of translation started with the translation of the Bible in the early BC comes, towards a reflexive, transnational history that seeks productive modes of engagement with other historical disciplines. By bringing to the attention of translation scholars some of the key debates in the history of translation and by identifying commonalities, this paper hopes to present an overall view of translation in the middle ages with slight knowledge of Bible translation in the early centuries of the middle ages, which starts from th5 to the 15 century.

== Keywords==
History of Translation , Bible Translation, Translation in the Middle Ages
medieval translation, medieval translator, translation and culture

== Introduction ==
This paper aims at a general review of the history of translation studies and the prevalent approaches from antiquity to the present in the west, in the form of a historical survey in which key theoretical developments are taken into account, focusing on approaches that have been developed during the twentieth century. Without a doubt, It is James Holme's seminal paper "the name and nature of translation studies" that draws up a disciplinary map for translation studies and serves as a springboard for researchers with its binary division of Translation Studies into two branches: "pure" and "applied." Its growth as a discipline goes back to the 1980s. As time elapses, translation studies, by achieving a certain institutional authority and coalescing with many a resurging disciplines and trends as cultural studies, linguistics, literary theory and criticism, brings a renewed aspect to translation theory.

In addition, this paper argues that English medieval translation can be considered as part of a cultural project in that the medieval translator is concerned more with the role and the function of translation in the target culture. Medieval translation theory derives from the classical theories of translation, however, prefaces to translations indicate that medieval translator appropriates the classical translation theory and uses it to serve the cultural and ideological objectives of translation in the middle Ages.

Key words: medieval translation, medieval translator, translation and culture, translation theory.
The pioneering work of Jeannette Beer and Roger Ellis has decidedly promoted medieval translation as a significant area, and has established medieval translation as the work of culturally responsible, academically oriented people of learning.

1 Susan
* Assist. Prof. Dr., Hacettepe University, Department of English Language and Literature
1 The problematic situation of Medieval translation in the academia is discussed by Ruth Evans in "Translating
Past Cultures?" in The Medieval Translator /Vied. Roger Ellis and Ruth Evans, the University of Exeter Press,
Medieval Translation and Cultural Transformation

== Early History of Translation==
The word ‘translation’ comes from a Latin term which means, “To bring or carry across”. Another relevant term comes from the Ancient Greek word of ‘metaphrasis’ which means, “To speak across” and from this, the term ‘metaphrase’ was born, which means a “word-for-word translation”. These terms have been at the heart of theories relating to translation throughout history and have given insight into when and where translation have been used throughout the ages.

It is known that translation was carried out as early as the Mesopotamian era when the Sumerian poem, Gilgamesh, was translated into Asian languages. This dates back to around the second millennium BC. Other ancient translated works include those carried out by Buddhist monks who translated Indian documents into Chinese. In later periods, Ancient Greek texts were also translated by Roman poets and were adapted to create developed literary works for entertainment. It is known that translation services were utilised in Rome by Cicero and Horace and that these uses were continued through to the 17th century, where newer practices were developed.

The history of translation has been a topic that has long been debated by scholars and historians, though it is widely accepted that translation pre-dates the bible. The bible tells of different languages as well as giving insight to the interaction of speakers from different areas. The need for translation has been apparent since the earliest days of human interaction, whether it be for emotional, trade or survival purposes.

The demand for translation services has continued to develop and is now more vital than ever, with businesses acknowledging the inability to expand internationally or succeed in penetrating foreign markets without translating marketing material and business documents.

It is significant to review the history of translation in different languages. There are divisions of period made by scholars like George Steiner. According to Steiner, the history of translation is divided into four periods. Starting from the Roman translators Cicero and Horace to Alexander Fraser Tytler is the first period; the second period extends up to Valery and from Valery to 1960s becomes the third period and the fourth period 1960s onwards. The history of translation is stressed out from 3000 B.C. Rosetta Stone is considered the most ancient work of Translation belonged to the second century B.C. Livius Andronicus translated Homer’s Odyssey named Odusia into Latin in 240 B.C. All that survives is parts of 46 scattered lines from 17 books of the Greek 24-book epic. In some lines, he translates literally, though in others more freely. His translation of the Odyssey had a great historical importance. Before then, the Mesopotamians and Egyptians had translated judicial and religious texts, but no one had yet translated a literary work written in a foreign language until the Roman Empire. Livius’ translation made this fundamental Greek text accessible to Romans, and advanced literary culture in Latin. This project was one of the best examples of translation as artistic process. The work was to be enjoyed on its own, and Livius strove to preserve the artistic quality of original. Since there was no tradition of epic in Italy before him, Livius must have faced enormous problems. For example, he used archaizing forms to make his language more solemn and intense. Barnstone Willis. The Poetics of Translation: History, Theory and Practice. London: Yale University Press, 1993. Print. Bassnett, Susan and Lefevere, Andre (Eds.). Translation, History and Culture. London: Pinter, 1990. Print.

When we talk about the history of translation, we should think of the theories and names that e merged at its different periods. In fact, each era is characterized by specific changes in translation history, but these changes differ from one place to another. For example, the developments of translation in the western world are not the same as those in the Arab world, as each nation knew particular incidents that led to the birth of particular theories. So, what marked the western translation? .By Marouane Zakhir English translator University of Soultan Moulay Slimane, Morocco

== Translation in the Western World==
For centuries, people believed in the relation between translation and the story of the tower of Babel in the Book of Genesis. According to the Bible, the descendants of Noah decided, after the great flood, to settle down in a plain in the land of Shinar. There, they committed a great sin. Instead of setting up a society that fits God's will, they decided to challenge His authority and build a tower that could reach Heaven. However, this plan was not completed, as God, recognizing their wish, regained control over them through a linguistic stratagem. He caused them to speak different languages so as not to understand each other. Then, he scattered them all over the earth. After that incident, the number of languages increased through diversion, and people started to look for ways to communicate, hence the birth of translation (Abdessalam Benabdelali, 2006) (1).

Actually, with the birth of translation studies and the increase of research in the domain, people started to get away from this story of Babel, and they began to look for specific dates and figures that mark the periods of translation history.

Researchers mention that writings on translation go back to the Romans. Eric Jacobson claims that translating is a Roman invention (see McGuire: 1980) (2). Cicero and Horace (first century BC) were the first theorists who distinguished between word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Their comments on translation practice influenced the following generations of translation up to the twentieth century.

Another period that knew a changing step in translation development was marked by St Jerome (fourth century CE). "His approach to translating the Greek Septuagint Bible into Latin would affect later translations of the scriptures." (Munday, 2001) (3)

The first important translation in the West was that of the Septuagint, a collection of Jewish Scriptures translated into early Koine Greek in Alexandria between the 3rd and "1st centuries B C E The dispersed Jews had forgotten their ancestral language and Throughout the .middle Ages, /Latin was the lingua franca of the western learned world. -Wikipedia .org/wiki/

The 9th1century Alfred the Great, king of Wessex in England, was far ahead of his time in commissioning 'vernacular Anglo -Saxon translations of Bede’s Ecclesiastical History and Boethius « Consolation of Philosophy ) meanwhile, the Christian church frowned on even partial adaptations of St . Jerome ‘s Vulgate of CA 384 CE, the Latin Bible . -Wikipedia .org/wiki/

The broad historic trends in Western translation practice may be illustrated on the example of translation into the English language .

The first fine translations into English were made in the "the century by Geoffrey Chaucer, who adapted from the Italian of Giovanni Boccaccio in his own Knight's Tal e and Troilus and Criseyde ; began a translation of the French -language Roman de la Rose 7 and completed a translation of Boethius from the Latin . Chaucer bounded an English poetic tradition on adaptations and translations from those earlier established literary languages . -Wikipedia .org/wiki/

The first great English translation was the Wycliffe (CA 1382), which showed the weaknesses of an under developed English prose . only at the end of the "15th century did the great age to English prose translation begin with Thomas Malory ‘s "le Morte D arthur”- Ban adaptation of Arthurian romances so free that it can, in fact, hardly be called a true translation . The first great Tudor translations are, accordingly, the Tyndale new Testament ( 1525), which influenced the Authorized Version (1611), and Lord Berners version of jean Froissart’s Chronicles ( 1523- 25) . - Wikipedia .org/wiki/

== History of Translation in the Middle Ages==
In the history of Europe, the middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the Fifth to the late 15th centuries, similarly to the Post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and transitioned into the Renaissance and the Age of Discovery. The middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history: classical antiquity, the medieval period, and the modern period. The medieval period is itself subdivided into the Early, High, and Late Middle Ages.

This article is about medieval Europe. For a global history of the period between the 5th and 15th centuries, see Post-classical history. For other uses, see middle Ages (disambiguation).

"Medieval times" redirects here. For the dinner theatre, see Medieval Times.

Latin was the lingua franca of the Western learned world throughout the middle Ages, with few translations of Latin works into vernacular languages. In the 9th century, Alfred the Great, King of Wessex in England, was far ahead of his time in commissioning vernacular translations from Latin into English of Bede’s “Ecclesiastical History”and Boethius's “The Consolation of Philosophy”, which contributed to improve the underdeveloped English prose of that time.

It is argued that the knowledge and findings of Greek academics was developed and understood so widely thanks to the translation work of Arabic scholars. When the Greeks were conquered, Arabic scholars, who translated them and created their own versions of the scientific, entertainment and philosophical understandings took in their works. These Arabic versions were later translated into Latin, during the middle Ages, mostly throughout Spain and the resulting works provided the foundations of Renaissance academics.

Medieval times in human history – also referred to as the “Middles Ages” – was the time period that fell roughly between the fall of the Roman Empire in 476 CE and the 14th century. However, these years bear another moniker as well: the Dark Ages. There are valid reasons for that term. In the eyes of many historians, people during this age made little to no significant advancements that benefitted humankind. In addition, most notably, this was the period when the “Black Death” (the bubonic plague) killed an estimated 30 percent of the population of Europe.

However, the middle Ages were not completely “dark.” In fact, modern historians are taking a second look at this period with a more objective – and perhaps more generous – perspective. There is no doubt, for example, that religion flourished during this time. The Catholic Church came to prominence throughout Europe, and the rise of Islam was occurring simultaneously in the Middle East. It was there – particularly in urban centres such a Baghdad, Damascus and Cairo – that an extremely vibrant culture and intellectual society thrived.

The art of translation also made great strides during the middle Ages. Thanks to Alfred the Great (the king of England during the 9th century), The Consolation of Philosophy by Boethius and Ecclesiastical History by Bede were translated from Latin to English – a major feat that would have a great impact on the overall advancement of English prose during this period. Later, during the 12th and 13th centuries, the Toledo School of Translators (“Escuela de Traductores de Toledo”) worked on a wide variety of translations, including religious, scientific, philosophical and medical works. The original texts were created in Arabic, Hebrew and Greek, and all were translated into Castilian – and that formed the basis for the formation of the Spanish language. Also during the 13th century, English linguist Roger Bacon postulated the concept that a translator not only needed to be fully fluent in both the source and target languages of the work being translated, but also that a translator should be fully versed in the topic of the work to be translated – a tenet that still holds true in the language arts to this day.

One of the most notable translators during the middle Ages was also one of the most accomplished authors and poets – Geoffrey Chaucer. In fact, those historians who still maintain that the Dark Ages produced little to no significant contributions to humankind might do well to remember the works of Chaucer. In a lifetime that spanned some 60 years (from the 1340s until 1400), Chaucer earned the reputation as the “father of English literature.” However, that description only scratched the surface of Chaucer’s accomplishments. He was also a noted astronomer and philosopher, as well as a diplomat, bureaucrat and parliament member. Chaucer’s contributions to the language arts were no less significant; his use of Middle English (as opposed to Latin or French, which were the two most commonly used languages of the day) quite literally brought English into mainstream usage, as did his translations of numerous works from Italian, French and Latin into English.

It can truly be said that historians have given medieval times somewhat of a bad rap over the centuries. And while there’s no doubt that the accomplishments of linguists and others during the Middle Ages can’t come close to comparing with those of the Renaissance or later time periods, the contributions made during the “Dark Ages” should not be overlooked. In fact, from a linguistic point of view, this was an extremely crucial time. Not only were the basic principles of translation developed during the middle Ages, but also English itself began to take shape as a language of import for future years.

Studies on the theory and practice of medieval translation reveal therefore that the translation principles and the issues of translation theory in the Middle Ages derive from a long established tradition of translation theory developed by the classical authors. In practice, Roger Ellis states, medieval translation is heterogeneous; "every instance of practice that we may be tempted to erect into a principle has its answering opposite, sometimes in the same work (quoted in Evans, 1994: 27). Evidently, not only the critical approaches to translation in the Middle Ages but also theory and practice of translation of the period vary considerably. However, it seems that medieval translation utilises the translation and writing theories inherited from the classical authors to adopt a translational approach that recognises translation's vital role in the cultural transformation of the middle Ages. Page 96

This paper argues therefore that the medieval interest in translation can be considered as a cultural and political interest since the 1994. pp. 20-45. See Jeanette Beer, Medieval Translators and Their Craft.1989 and Roger Ellis (ed) assisted by Jocelyn Price, Stephen Medcalf and Peter Meredith. The Medieval Translator: The Theory and Practice of Translation in the Middle Ages: Papers Read at a Conference Held 20-23 August 1987 at the University of Wales Conference Centre, Gregynog //a//.Woodbridge, Suffolk: D.S. Brewer, 1989.

Rita Copeland, Rhetoric, Hermeneutics, and Translation in the Middle Ages: Academic Traditions and
Vernacular Texts. Cambridge, 1991. See particularly A. J. Minnis and A. B. Scots (eds) Medieval Literary
Theory and Criticism c.l 100-1375 The Commentary Tradition. Oxford, 1988.

Translations of the period are introduced as potential projects for cultural transformation. The formative role of translation in the middle Ages can be observed in medieval culture's awareness of the significance of cultural interaction. Medieval culture is a highly bookish culture, which contributed to the development of a vigorous translation activity in the Middle Ages. The recognition of the authority of the books seems to have led to the utilisation of the potential in translation for cultural education and transformation. As there was little or no difference between translation and original composition in the Middle Ages, translation was often considered in association with the pragmatic function of the book (Barratt, 1992:13-14).

In Geoffrey Chaucer's The Prologue to the Legend of Good Women, the fictional dialogue concerning the translations of the narrator provides an instructive interaction concerning translation activity as an integral part of cultural re-construction in the middle Ages.

The god of Love presents two works of Chaucer, the Troilus and Criseyde and the Romance of the Rose, as translations and questions the narrator's motives in choosing to translate works undermining the doctrine of Love (322-335). This fictional questioning introduces, in fact, the main attitude to translation in the middle Ages as it recognises the transformative role of translation on the target audience as an important issue the medieval translator recognises and aims at as the ultimate target of translation. Similarly, the narrator in Chaucer's Prologue to the Legend of Good Women argues that he wanted to teach the reader the true conduct in love through the experience of the lovers in the books he translated (471-474).

The translator in this fictional debate introduces the main objective of translation as making the works of foreign languages available to the linguistically disadvantaged audience for their cultural improvement. This rather pragmatic translational paradigm, moreover, introduces another important issue of medieval translation addressed by theoretical tradition of translation in the middle Ages. In fact, the translator accused of mistranslation in Chaucer's Prologue to the Legend of Good Women is also a writer, his accuser does not make a distinction between his role as a translator and his role as a writer.3 many of the medieval translators were also writers, and translation and interpretation were considered as important strategies in medieval composition. Moreover, most of the medieval translation activity from Latin into the vernacular involved a transfer of the past works into the vernacular by re-writing.
As Douglas Kelly argues, "such re-writing is 'translation' as literary invention, using pre-
existent source material. It is a variety of translation study « (1997: 48). Medieval reception of the translation theory of the classical antiquity as a principle governing creative activity led to a special sense of translation, that is, translation as "an 3 See the Prologue to the Legend of Good Women, lines 322-35 and 362-370. 97

".. And other bokes took me ...To reed upon ": Medieval Translation and Cultural Transformation 'unfaithful' yet artful interpretation or reinterpretation"(Kelly, 1997: 55), or "secondary translation" to put it in Copeland's words.

Identifying the important status of translation in the Middle Ages as a branch of writing reveals that the Middle Ages was not totally oblivious to the legacy of rhetorical and hermeneutic traditions of the classical antiquity. More importantly, it testifies to the significant function translation is given in the cultural transformation. As stated above, a theoretical understanding of translation in the middle Ages was largely dependent on the classical ideas of translation. Rita Copeland argues for the necessity of recognising the medieval awareness of the classical tradition as the strong theoretical foundation of Medieval translation.

3.1 Translation in middle Ages (The Philological Perspective)

Middle Ages epoch roughly represents the time between late fifth century and the fifteenth century A.D.in Europe. Middle Ages, however, continue until the advent of European Colonialism (about eighteenth century) in the 'Oriental' and African countries. With the spread of Christianity, translation takes a new role of disseminating the word of God. How to translate the divine words faithfully was a serious issue because of dogmatic and political concerns. “St. Jerome claims that he follows sense for sense approach rather than word for word approach when translating the New Testament in AD 384.”18 Since the aim of the divine text is to provide understanding and guidance, it seems logical to follow sense for sense approach. Thence, there is a possibility of intentional or unintentional change of meaning and the context; for these reasons, some scholars emphasize on the word for word translation approach. The first translation of the complete Bible into English was the Wycliffe Bible is which was produced between 1380 and 1384; “Wycliffe believes man should have direct contact with God and thus the Bible should be translated into language that man can understand, i.e. in the vernacular. Purvey believes translator should translate “after sentence (meaning),” not only after words. Martin Luther says, “... the meaning and subject matter must be considered, not the grammar, for the grammar should not rule over the meaning;”19 Criticism on sense for sense was widespread because it minimized the power of the church authorities, “while literal translation was bound up with the Bible and other religious and philosophical works, says Jeremy Monday; non-literal or non-accepted translation came to be seen and used as a weapon against the Church.”20“In the Western Europe this word-for-word versus sense-for-sense debate continued in one form or another until the twentieth century. The centrality of Bible to translation also explains the enduring theoretical questions about accuracy and fidelity to fixed source.”21 In the eighth and ninth century A.D., a large number of translations from Greek into Arabic gave rise to Arabic learning. “Scholars from Syria, a part of the Roman Empire (during 64B.C.-636A.D) came to Baghdad and translated Greek works of Physician Hippocrates (460-360 B.C.), philosophers Plato (427-327 B.C.) and Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) into Arabic during the eighth and ninth century A.D. Baghdad continued to be a centre of translations of Greek classics into Arabic even in the twentieth century A.D.”22 The dominance of religion is prominent in the Translation Era of Middle Ages. In this era, both the trends of Antiquity period can be seen in action, yet emphasis is again on the sense for sense approach.

3.2 Translation In the middle Ages between the 12th and the 15 centuries;

In the 12th and 13th centuries, the Toledo School of Translators (Escuela de Traductores de Toledo) became a meeting point for European scholars who — attracted by the high wages they were offered — came and settled down in Toledo, Spain, to translate major philosophical, religious, scientific and medical works from Arabic, Greek and Hebrew into Latin and Castilian. Toledo was a city of libraries offering a number of manuscripts, and one of the few places in medieval Europe where a Christian could be exposed to Arabic language and culture.

The Toledo School of Translators went through two distinct periods. Archbishop Raymond de Toledo, who advocated the translation of philosophical and religious works, led the first period (in the 12th century) mainly from classical Arabic into Latin. These Latin translations helped advance European Scholasticism, and thus European science and culture. King Alfonso X of Castile himself led the second period (in the 13th century). On top of philosophical and religious works, the scholars also translated scientific and medical works. Castilian — instead of Latin — became the final language, thus resulting in establishing the foundations of the modern Spanish language.

The translations of works on different sciences (astronomy, astrology, algebra, medicine) acted as a magnet for numerous scholars, who came from all over Europe to Toledo to learn first-hand about the contents of all those Arab, Greek and Hebrew works, before going back home to disseminate the acquired knowledge in European universities. While some Toledo translations of physical and cosmological works were accepted in most European universities in the early 1200s, the works of Aristotle and Arab philosophers were often banned, for example at the Sorbonne University in Paris.

Roger Bacon was a 13th-century English scholar heralded for his early exposition of a “universal grammar” (the concept that the ability to learn grammar is hard-wired into the brain). He was the first linguist to assess that a translator should know well both the source language and the target language to produce a good translation, and that the translator should be well versed in the discipline of the work he was translating. According to legend, after finding out that few translators did, Roger Bacon decided to do away with translation and translators altogether. However, his decision did not last long. He relied on many Toledo translations from Arabic into Latin to make major contributions in the fields of optics, astronomy, natural sciences, chemistry and mathematics.

Geoffrey Chaucer produced the first fine translations into English in the 14th century. Chaucer translated the “Roman de la Rose” from French, and Boethius’s works from Latin. He also adapted some works of the Italian humanist Giovanni Boccaccio to produce his own “Knight’s Tale” and “Troilus and Criseyde” (c.1385) in English. Chaucer is regarded as the founder of an English poetic tradition based on translations and adaptations of literary works in languages that were more “established” than English was at the time, beginning with Latin and Italian. The finest religious translation of that time was the “Wycliffe’s Bible” (1382-84), named after John Wycliffe, an English theologian who translated the Bible from Latin to English.

In the 15th century : Byzantine scholar Gemistus Pletho’s trip to Florence, Italy, pioneered the revival of Greek learning in Western Europe. Gemistus Pletho reintroduced Plato’s thought during the 1438-39 Council of Florence, in a failed attempt to reconcile the East-West schism (a 11th-century schism between the Eastern Orthodox and Catholic churches). During this Council, Pletho met Cosimo de Medici, the politician ruling Florence and a great patron of learning and the arts, and influenced him to found a Platonic Academy. Led by the Italian scholar and translator Marsilio Ficino, the Platonic Academy took over the translation into Latin of all Plato’s works, the “Enneads” of Plotinus and other Neo-Platonist works. Marsilio Ficino’s work — and Erasmus’ Latin edition of the New Testament — led to a new attitude to translation. For the first time, readers demanded rigor of rendering, as philosophical and religious beliefs depended on the exact words of Plato and Jesus (and Aristotle and others).

The great age of English prose translation began in the late 15th century with Thomas Malory’s “Le Morte d’Arthur” (1485), a free translation/adaptation of Arthurian romances about the legendary King Arthur, as well as Guinevere, Lancelot, Merlin and the Knights of the Round Table. Thomas Malory “interpreted” existing French and English stories about these figures while adding original material, e.g. the “Gareth” story about one of the Knights of the Round Table.4

== An Overview of Bible Translations in The Middle Ages==
The most significant turn in the history of translation came with the Bible translations. The efforts of translating the Bible from its original languages into over 2,000 others have spanned more than two millennia. Partial translation of the Bible into languages of English people can be stressed back to the end of the seventh century, including translations into Old English and Middle English. Over 450 versions have been created overtime.
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Bible translations in the Middle Ages discussions are in contrast to Late Antiquity, when the Bibles available to most Christians were in the local vernacular. In a process seen in many other religions, as languages changed, and in Western Europe, languages with no tradition of being written down became dominant, the prevailing vernacular translations remained in place, despite gradually becoming sacred languages, incomprehensible to the majority of the population in many places. In Western Europe, the Latin Vulgate, itself originally a translation into the vernacular, was the standard text of the Bible, and full or partial translations into a vernacular language were uncommon until the Late Middle Ages and the Early Modern Period. A page from the luxury illuminated manuscript Wenceslas Bible, a German translation of the 1390s.[1] From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia

During the Migration Period Christianity spread to various peoples who had not been part of the old Roman Empire, and whose languages had yet no written form, or only a very simple one, like runes. Typically, the Church itself was the first to attempt to capture these languages in written form, and Bible translations are often the oldest surviving texts in these newly written-down languages. Meanwhile, Latin was evolving into new distinct regional forms, the early versions of the Romance languages, for which new translations eventually became necessary. However, the Vulgate remained the authoritative text, used universally in the West for scholarship and the liturgy since the early development of the Romance languages had not come to full fruition, matching its continued use for other purposes such as religious literature and most secular books and documents. In the early middle Ages, anyone who could read at all could often read Latin, even in Anglo-Saxon England, where writing in the vernacular (Old English) was more common than elsewhere. A number of pre-reformation Old English Bible translations survive, as do many instances of glosses in the vernacular, especially in the Gospels and the Psalms.[4] Over time, biblical translations and adaptations were produced both within and outside the church, some as personal copies for religious or lay nobility, and others for liturgical or pedagogical purposes.[5][6] From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia

The Bible was translated into various languages in late antiquity; the most important of these translations are those in the Syriac dialect of Aramaic (including the Peshitta and the Diatessaron gospel harmony), the Ge'ez language of Ethiopia, and, in Western Europe, Latin. The earliest Latin translations are collectively known as the Vetus Latina, but in the late fourth century, Jerome re-translated the Hebrew and Greek texts into the normal vernacular Latin of his day, in a version known as the Vulgate (Biblia vulgata) (meaning "common version", in the sense of "popular"). Jerome's translation gradually replaced most of the older Latin texts, and gradually ceased to be a vernacular version as the Latin language developed and divided. The earliest surviving complete manuscript of the entire Latin Bible is the Codex Amiatinus, produced in eighth century England at the double monastery of Wearmouth-Jarrow. By the end of late, antiquity the Bible was therefore available and used in all the major written languages then spoken by Christians. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia

== Conclusion ==
The history of translation studies and the resurgence and genesis of the approaches to this emerging discipline was marked by the first century (BCE) commentator Cicero and then St. Jerome whose word-for-word and sense-for-sense approaches to translation was a springboard for other approaches and trends to thrive. From the medieval ages until now, each decade was marked by a dominant concept such as translatability, equivalence etc. Whilst before the twentieth century translation was an element of language learning, the study of the field developed into an academic discipline only in the second half of the twentieth century, when this field achieved a certain institutional authority and developed as a distinct discipline. As this discipline moved towards the present, the level of sophistication and inventiveness did in fact soared and new concepts, methods, and research projects were developed which interacted with this discipline. The brief review here, albeit incomplete, reflects the current fragmentation of the field into subspecialties, some empirically oriented, some hermeneutic and literary and some influenced by various forms of linguistics and cultural studies which have culminated in productive syntheses. In short, translation studies is now a field which brings together approaches from a wide language and cultural studies, that for its own use, modifies them and develops new models specific to its own requirements.
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== References ==

1 - https//www.tandfonline.com//

2- Susan * Assist. Prof. Dr., Hacettepe University, Department of English Language and Literature
1 The problematic situation of Medieval translation in the academia is discussed by Ruth Evans in "Translating
Past Cultures?" in The Medieval Translator /Vied. Roger Ellis and Ruth Evans, the University of Exeter Press,
Medieval Translation and Cultural Transformation .

3- Barnstone Willis. The Poetics of Translation: History, Theory and Practice. London: Yale University Press, 1993. Print. Bassnett, Susan and Lefevere, Andre (Eds.). Translation, History and Culture. London: Pinter, 1990. Print.
4-Early history of translation .By Marouane Zakhir English translator University of Soultan Moulay Slimane, Morocco
5- -Wikipedia .org/wiki/
6- This article is about medieval Europe. For a global history of the period between the 5th and 15th centuries, see Post-classical history. For other uses, see middle Ages (disambiguation) "Medieval times" redirects here. For the dinner theatre, see Medieval Times
7- the 1994. pp. 20-45. See Jeanette Beer, Medieval Translators and Their Craft.1989 and Roger Ellis
(ed) assisted by Jocelyn Price, Stephen Medcalf and Peter Meredith. The Medieval Translator: The Theory
and Practice of Translation in the Middle Ages: Papers Read at a Conference Held 20-23 August 1987 at
the University of Wales Conference Centre, Gregynog //a//.Woodbridge, Suffolk: D.S. Brewer, 1989.
^ Rita Copeland, Rhetoric, Hermeneutics, and Translation in the Middle Ages: Academic Traditions and
Vernacular Texts. Cambridge, 1991. See particularly A. J. Minnis and A. B. Scots (eds) Medieval Literary
Theory and Criticism c.l 100-1375 The Commentary Tradition. Oxford, 1988.

8-- Prologue to the Legend of Good Women, lines 322-35 and 362-370. 97 ".. And other bokes took me ...To reed upon ": Medieval Translation and Cultural Transformation 'unfaithful' yet artful interpretation or reinterpretation"(Kelly, 1997: 55), or "secondary translation" to put it in Copeland's words.

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10 - A page from the luxury illuminated manuscript Wenceslas Bible, a German translation of the 1390s.[1] From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia

11 - From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia

12- SSN 1799-2591 Theory and Practice in Language Studies, Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 77-85, January 2012 © 2012 ACADEMY PUBLISHER Manufactured in Finland. doi:10.4304/tpls.2.1.77-85

=李习长 History of Modern and Contemporary Chinese Translation=
“中国现当代翻译史”
Li Xichang, 李习长, Hunan Normal University, China
== Abstract==
The development of Chinese translation has a long history. Throughout the whole translation history, Chinese translation can be divided into four stages from the origin of translation, that is, the introduction of Buddhist scripture translation. They are ancient translation history, modern translation history, modern translation history and contemporary translation history. This paper will mainly summarize the modern and contemporary translation history, mainly from the three dimensions of translation history, theory and the representatives of translators in each period. In the contemporary era of rapid development, only when translation researchers have a clear understanding of translation history can they make outstanding contributions to the rapid development of translation.

== Key words==
translation history, representatives, modern, contemporary

== Introduction==
The fourth translation climax from the May 4th movement to the founding of new China has formed a unique translation theory system in China through the exploration and practice of countless predecessors. This stage is an extremely important period in China's translation history. It is a period of unprecedented development and magnificent development of translation cause. It is also a period of great development and debate of Chinese translation theory.
As the beginning of modern Chinese translation, the May 4th Movement gave birth to a group of outstanding translators, who mostly took literature as the theme, so the literary translation of this period reached the most brilliant moment in history. After the founding of new China, the history of Chinese translation has entered the contemporary period. The proletarian culture in this period is the most outstanding. Translators focus on political literature and literary translation, and focus on foreign translation, so that the west can understand Chinese culture and expand their horizons.

== History of Modern Chinese Translation ==
During this period, driven by the new culture movement and the May 4th movement, the new literature movement was in full swing, giving birth to many literary schools and literary associations, as well as translation ideas representing different literary positions. The role of translation in serving society, politics and the people was becoming more and more obvious. This period gave birth to many famous translators, such as Lu Xun, Yan Fu, Lin Shu and so on. Their emergence enriched the translation content of this period.

2.1 Lu Xun's translation thoughts
In 1919, with the rise of the May 4th New Culture Movement, many translators tried to absorb nutrition from foreign literature in order to achieve the purpose of transforming literature and society. Lu Xun is one of them. Lu Xun chose the road of literature out of the consideration of national crisis. He hoped that translation could arouse people's revolutionary enthusiasm, promote new literature and transform old literature.

In the 33 years from 1903 to 1936, Lu Xun's translation activities can be divided into three periods: early, middle and late. Lu Xun's early translation activities focused on the translation and introduction of scientific novels and political novels, mainly free translation, and the translation was mostly deleted and modified. With the change of translation thought, Lu Xun's translation activities gradually turned to the introduction of literary works of weak and small countries, and the translation strategy gradually changed from free translation to literal translation. In the later stage, Lu Xun focused on translating and introducing foreign revolutionary literary works and introducing foreign literary thoughts and policies to the Chinese people, and his literal translation and even "hard translation" translation strategy was further consolidated.

2.1.1 Lu Xun's early translation thoughts
In 1903, Lu Xun published the work sad dust by Victor Hugo, a French writer, which is considered to be the beginning of Lu Xun's translation career. In October 1903, Lu Xun translated Jules Verne's scientific novel "journey to the moon", and also translated "underground travel" in the same year. Subsequently, Lu Xun translated the world history, the scientific fantasy novel Arctic adventure and the two chapters of the theory of world evolution and the principle of element cycle in the new interpretation of physics. Unfortunately, these translations were not published or preserved. In the spring of 1905, Lu Xun translated the American Louis tolen's scientific fantasy novel "the art of making man", which was published in the fourth and fifth issues of women's world in Shanghai. A careful analysis of these works translated by Lu Xun shows that Lu Xun's translation materials in this period mainly include political novels and science fiction. In 1907, Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren jointly translated the novel "lost history of the Red Star", which should be originally named "desire of the world", which was co authored by haggard and Andrew LAN. This book was mainly translated by Zhou Zuoren. Lu Xun translated 16 poems, which were published by the Shanghai Commercial Press in December.

In short, Lu Xun's early translation was deeply influenced by the famous Yan Fu and Lin Shu at that time. However, without the early imitation translation, there will be no outstanding translation achievements in the future.

2.1.2 Lu Xun's mid-term translation thoughts
From 1909 to 1926, Lu Xun's translation thought gradually matured. The translation and introduction of foreign literature in many fields, levels, schools and channels is a major feature of Lu Xun's translation activities in this period.

In 1909, the collection of foreign novels was published. The translation was completed by Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren. The position of the collection of foreign novels in the history of Chinese translation and modern Chinese literature can not be ignored. It is a milestone translation event, which has a far-reaching impact on China's later literary creation and translation.

In 1919, Lu Xun translated the dream of a young man, during which his thought also changed deeply and complex. In 1920, with the help and support of Qi Shoushan, Lu Xun translated the worker Sui huiluefu. He began to cry out for the profound problem of "national character" and vigorously revealed it in his works, so as to attract people's attention and achieve the purpose of rescue. This kind of grief and anger that hates iron but does not become steel is in line with the ideal of the author alzhiba Suifu. During this period, Lu Xun paid more attention to Japanese literature and translated and introduced the collection of modern Japanese novels. In this collection, Lu Xun has translated 11 works of six people, including hanging scroll by his favorite writer Natsume Soseki, Mr. kleika, game by Mori ouwai and the tower of silence, with the young man by takero shimajima of the white birch school, the death of ah Mo, the last of Sanpu youweimen by Kikuchi Kuan of the new trend of thought, words of revenge and Ryunosuke Akutagawa Nose, Luo Shengmen, and night in the canyon by Jiangkou Huan are the works of famous masters of various schools in the Meiji era.

Lu Xun selected a wide variety of translation materials during this period, which created a precedent for translating and introducing the literature of "weak and small countries" to Chinese readers. In terms of translation style, he still adopted simple classical Chinese, but he has begun to use "alienation" At that time, Lu Xun's literary creation was closely accompanied by literary translation, and his literary creation was deeply inspired and influenced by literary translation.

2.1.3 Lu Xun's later translation thoughts
After 1927, Lu Xun ushered in the most brilliant period of his life. Whether in literary translation practice or literary translation theory, Lu Xun's achievements are the most prominent stage.

Lu Xun translated and introduced four works of literary theory of the former Soviet Union: 1. Lunacharski's work on art, which was translated in April 1929 and published by Shanghai Dajiang bookstore in June; 2. Lunacharski's collection of literary papers, literature and criticism, which was first published by Shanghai Shuimo bookstore in October, has six main texts On the task of Marxist literary criticism, the death of Tolstoy and young Europa, today's art and tomorrow's art, Soviet state and art, how art happens, Tolstoy and max; 3. In June 1929, Lu Xun spent four months translating Plekhanov's Marxist theory of Art (also known as art theory) In July, 1930, the first edition was published by Shanghai Guanghua book company; in April, 1929, the resolution of the Soviet government on the Communist Party's literary and artistic policy and the relevant meeting minutes, Soviet Russian literary and artistic policy (also known as literary and artistic Policy), the first edition was published by Shanghai Shuimo bookstore in June, 1930. In addition, Lu Xun also participated in the compilation of the small series of literary and artistic theories and the series of scientific theories of art.

During this period, Lu Xun's translations were different from the martial works of the first period and the works of resistance and cry of weak countries in Eastern Europe in the mid-term, but more focused on the translation of literary policies and artistic works. From literary revolution to revolutionary literature, it was precisely because of these debates that Lu Xun really firmly turned to the translation and introduction of revolutionary literary works. At the same time, through his own understanding of Soviet Russian literature The translation and understanding of theoretical works word by word, coupled with his personal experience of the revolution of 1911, Yuan Shikai becoming emperor and the second revolution, Lu Xun's thinking and insight on revolution, literature and art and life are more profound.

Lu Xun's translation thought is formed through continuous reflection and exploration. Dominated by the fundamental purpose of ideological enlightenment and political salvation, Lu Xun began his translation process. His choice of translated texts reflects his sense of social responsibility as a translator and his special pursuit of cultural values.
Lu Xun's translation emphasizes literal translation, focusing on "faith" and "better believe than smooth". He advocates hard translation and maintains the "foreign style" and "exotic" of the translation , for Lu Xun at that time, literal translation was not only a problem of translation and language construction, but also meant the construction of ideas and ideas, the introduction of new ideas and ideas, and the transformation of Chinese values and world outlook.

Lu Xun's choice caused an uproar in the intellectual circles at that time. Liang Shiqiu, a famous scholar at that time, also sarcastically said that he was "dead translation" and "hard translation". Lu Xun's articles sometimes read sentence patterns, and even the order of sentences is rarely reversed.

2.2 On Yan Fu's translation style
Yan Fu is one of the outstanding translators in modern China. His translation theory of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" has experienced the test of history and practice, and plays an important role in the history of Chinese translation.

2.2.1 Imitating the language structure of the pre Qin Dynasty
Yan Fu tried his best to use the pre-Qin morphology and syntax in his translation. In addition to imitation, the ready-made sentences of various schools of thought will also be borrowed by him as a part of the translation.

Yan Fu tried his best to imitate the morphology and syntax of the Pre-Qin Dynasty in western translation. An important feature of the pre-Qin Chinese morphology is the flexible use of parts of speech. According to his understanding and Research on the polysemy of a word in the pre-Qin classical Chinese, it is found that it can be extended at will. Therefore, in his translation language, the use of the characteristics of the pre-Qin morphology has made many parts of speech flexible use successful Application.

Another feature of Yan Fu's translated language is that some phrases have evolved through sentences. If you remove the "Zhi" in such phrases, you will find that the sentences will be complete. Yan Fu also imitated the language of the Pre-Qin Dynasty and used parallelism and dual sentences many times. The "four books and Five Classics" of the Pre-Qin Dynasty There are many parallelism and antithesis sentences in his translation. He uses parallelism and antithesis sentences in his translation. For example, "it's easy to work for the actual measurement of the other, but it's difficult to work for the pursuit of this." (four words of group studies · criticism of fools first) Yan Fu's parallelism and antithesis sentences did not continue the Han Dynasty, which only paid attention to the beauty of form and ignored the form of parallel prose with ideological content, but imitated the sentences of the Pre-Qin Dynasty. According to the needs of reaching the purpose, they were naturally paired without any trace of carving.

2.2.2 Deeply influenced by Buddhist scriptures and historical records
Yan Fu has always respected the Buddhist sutra translator kumarosh. In Tianyan Lun · examples of translation, he respected kumarosh as "master Shi". Therefore, kumarosh also had a great impact on Yan Fu. Yan Fu's translation language also imitated the historical records There are a large number of case language in the translation of the stylistic model of Yan Fu. Case language refers to the explanation and textual research made by the writer on the content of the article. The case language of Yan Fu's various translations totals about 170000 words, accounting for one tenth of the whole text of his translation. Yan Fu expresses his views and attitudes in the comments through a large number of case language, interpretation and analysis, so as to achieve his purpose of publicity and enlightenment.

2.2.3 Inheriting the "elegant and clean" characteristics of Tongcheng school's ancient prose
Tongcheng school is the mainstream prose school in Yan Fu's life era. Yan Fu is deeply influenced by it. Tongcheng school advocates elegant and clean style. The proposal of "elegant and clean" theory has created a simple, strict and elegant style, which is deeply respected by Yan Fu. Tongcheng school calls it "elegant and clean", which refers to "standardization and purity of language", "concise and concise materials and concise style", "Simplicity and natural brilliance of style". The words "elegance" and "cleanliness" can also be seen in Yan Fu's translation remarks. Yan Fu's proposal of "elegance" as a part of the translation standard is largely influenced by the "elegance" proposition of Tongcheng sages.

In short, Yan Fu's translated language adheres to the "elegant" style of Tongcheng ancient prose. Its translation is civilized, with elegant morphology and syntax, short and concise sentences, concise and fresh between the lines. It reads cadently, catchy and delicious.

==History of contemporary Chinese translation==
After the founding of new China, China's translation industry flourished rapidly. The practice of Chinese translation and foreign translation organized by the government was in full swing. There were a large number of excellent translators active on the cultural front, such as Yang Xianyi, Fu Lei, Qian Zhongshu, ye Junjian, Xu Yuanchong and Yang Bi. They not only had rich translation practice, but also had solid theoretical knowledge, It has made great contributions to the cultural construction of new China and promoted the all-round development of socialist economy, politics and culture.

3.1 Xu Yuanchong's translation thoughts
Professor Xu Yuanchong of Peking University is a famous translation theorist in China and the only expert in English French rhyme translation of Chinese poetry. He was nominated as a candidate for the Nobel Prize for literature in 1999, won the lifelong achievement award of translation culture of China Translation Association in 2010, and became the first "northern lights" of the International Federation of translators in 2014 The Asian translator of the outstanding literary translation award was also rated as the person of the year of "light of China" in 2015. Xu Yuanchong has worked tirelessly in the field of translation theory and practice all his life with indomitable and excellence craftsman spirit, and has put forward several important translation ideas and theories.

3.1.1 Translation practicality and practicability
The "practical function" of translation is reflected in that translation theory and translation research are always closely related to social reality and its development. They have obvious characteristics of the times, reflect the social and humanistic characteristics of the time, and express the humanistic spirit and cultural requirements of the times. Xu Yuanchong's translation theory and Practice deeply reflect the "practical function" He proposed that the philosophical basis for the creation of Chinese school literary translation theory is that practical theory comes from practice and is tested by practice. Practice is the only standard for testing truth.

3.1.2 Inheritance and innovation of translation
Xu Yuanchong innovated on the basis of inheriting Chinese traditional philosophy and aesthetics, put forward new ideas that conform to the development of the times, and put these ideas into translation practice to test and revise them repeatedly, so as to form a new translation theory. Therefore, inheritance and innovation are another important feature of Xu Yuanchong's Translation theory. Xu Yuanchong's combining the Chinese classical philosophy and the aesthetic thought is summarized as "the literary translation theory of the Chinese school, which gives them significance in the context of the new era, innovates theory in inheriting tradition and carries forward Chinese culture in theoretical innovation.

3.1.3 Translation foresight and Vanguard
As early as the early 1980s, when domestic translation studies were still focusing on the summary of translation practice and thinking about the level of translation language, Xu Yuanchong pointed out prospectively that the responsibility of Chinese translators and the mission of translation were to instill part of the blood of foreign culture into Chinese culture and part of the blood of Chinese culture into world culture. Xu Yuanchong regarded Chinese translation theory as "a cultural dream of China" to "enter the advanced ranks of world culture and make the development of world culture more brilliant". It points out the tasks and missions of cultural translators in the new era, and this is the best interpretation and response of “Chinese Dream” proposed by the chairman Xi given by the older generation of translationg wokers.

Xu Yuanchong's criterion for translating Chinese poetry is the "Three Beauties" theory put forward by himself, that is, he believes that the translated poetry should pay attention to the "Three Beauties", namely the beauty of meaning, sound and form. The basis of three beauties is three similarities: meaning similarity, sound similarity and shape similarity.

Iconicity is to convey the content of the original text, and can not be misinterpreted, omitted or translated more, but iconicity does not necessarily convey the beauty of the original text. To convey the beauty of meaning, we can choose wonderful words that are similar to the original meaning, borrow the words loved by British and American poets, and express the beauty of meaning of the original text with the help of sound beauty and shape beauty. Phonological beauty means that poetry should have rhythm, rhyme, smooth and pleasant to hear. Translators can choose rhymes similar to the original with the help of the metrical rules loved by British and American poets, and can also express phonological beauty with the help of double tone, rhyme, repetition, antithesis and other methods. However, the transmission of sound beauty is often difficult to achieve, and it is not even necessary to achieve sound similarity. The beauty of form mainly has two aspects: neat antithesis and the length of sentences. It is best to be similar in shape, or at least be generally neat. Among the three beauties, the beauty of meaning is the first, the beauty of sound is the second, and the beauty of form is the third. On the premise of conveying the beauty of the original meaning, the translator should convey the beauty of sound as much as possible, and on this basis, he should convey the beauty of form as much as possible, and strive to achieve the three beauties. If you can't do it, first of all, you can not require shape similarity or sound similarity, but in any case, you should convey the beauty of meaning and sound of the original text as much as possible.

3.2 Qian Zhongshu's translation thoughts
Qian Zhongshu, born in Wuxi, Jiangsu Province, is a famous modern Chinese writer, literary researcher and translator. He has an in-depth study of translation theory and loves the cause of translation. Mr. Qian Zhongshu is known as the "cultural Kunlun", which shows his profound knowledge. Mr. Qian has covered a wide range, including philosophy, anthropology, psychology, aesthetics, history and linguistics. Qian Zhongshu graduated from the Foreign Language Department of Tsinghua University, but he has been engaged in the study of Chinese literature for a long time. Representative works include Tan Yi Lu and Guan Zhi Bian, both of which are created in classical Chinese. In addition, there are selected notes of Song poetry. This work interprets the poetry of the Song Dynasty from a new perspective. In his works, many famous words and sentences of Chinese and Western scholars are usually quoted, and the corresponding foreign original texts are attached.

In Lin Shu's translation, Qian Zhongshu pointed out: "the highest standard of literary translation is'localization '. Transforming works from one country's language into another country's language can not reveal the traces of hard thinking due to differences in language habits, but also completely preserve the original flavor, which can be regarded as' realm of change." The core of 'realm of change' is localization, There are two kinds of translation: one is the realization of the highest ideal in literary translation, which is the goal pursued by a large number of translators represented by Qian Zhongshu; The second is the incomplete "assimilation". That is, the translator's translation practice.

However, Qian Zhongshu's "Huajing" theory has been misunderstood by many scholars for many years. Qian Zhongshu once pointed out that the translation should be faithful to the original, so that the translation does not read like the translation. In other words, the work will never read like what has been translated. This attitude makes many scholars think that the "transformation" of Qian Zhongshu's "realm" is actually equivalent to "faith". However, according to Qian Zhongshu, "Hua" and "faith" cannot be equated, but "Hua" is based on "faith" to achieve the goal of "beauty". In other words, "Hua" is a further accomplishment of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", and a transcendence of translation skills.

In his 1963 translation of Lin Shu, Qian Zhongshu wrote: "(incarnation) translation is compared with the reincarnation of the original work, the body changes, and the soul remains the same. In other words, the translation should be faithful to the original work, but it does not read like the translation, because the work will never read like the translation in the original text". Mr. Qian's lifelong commitment to "modernization" has roughly two meanings. First, the translation should change its form and conform to the grammatical rules of the target language. According to Xunzi's definition, translation is a process of change. In this process, some things will flow away, but sometimes we have to do so in order to make the translated results coherent and authentic. Qian Zhongshu also said that "there is always distortion and distortion in the translation". Therefore, the translation of "Huajing" is a departure from the mechanical literal translation in the past. It is better to "lose this" than to "change". The second is that "complete and complete 'transformation' is an impossible ideal". As the - first point says, "Hua" is an elusive and flexible concept. In other words, the translator can create the "realm" according to the habits of the original text and the target language, and translate the so-called perfect translation.

In his article "Lin Shu's translation", Qian Zhongshu put forward the circle of ancient Chinese characters, "Wai, translation also. From the" mouth "and" sound ", those who lead birds have been called" Yang "since the birth of birds". Using the meaning of this Chinese character, Qian Zhongshu summed up that translation should lead to "inducement", avoid "error" and seek "transformation". Qian Zhongshu regards "transformation" as the highest ideal of translation.

First, the reasons for the emergence of "error" and analyze the manifestations of "error". With regard to "e", Ji Jin wrote in his monograph Qian Zhongshu and modern Western Learning: "there are always distortions and distortions in the translation, which violate or do not fit the original text in meaning or tone. That is" e "(9175). The causes of" e "are caused by many factors. Qian Zhongshu, combined with his translation practice for many years, summarizes two reasons:

First of all, there are differences in characters between countries. In particular, China's character system is completely different from European languages. Newmark once said that the inevitable loss of capital comes from the differences between the two languages, both in terms of characteristics (Language) and social variants (Language) In terms of context, there are different lexical, grammatical and phonological differences. It is also different for many objects and abstract concepts. 1017. Translation is a process of transforming words with defects. Qian Zhongshu's goal is to "get through" and "be inseparable" It is also an impossible translation standard.

As like as two peas, there is a certain difference between the translator's own ability and his original work. What's wrong with the production is also hard to avoid. Because the translator (subject to his own cultural level and his own experience) can not understand the original works exactly as the author did at that time, it's easy to understand why many books (including classic books). It has been translated several times.

Second, the necessity of "inducement" and the analysis of its manifestation
Translation is a bridge connecting the cultural and cultural exchanges between the two countries. The function of "SEDUCTION" is to seduce, which is vividly compared to "matchmaker". Goethe once compared translation to "obscene professional matchmaker". This "matchmaker" acquaints and attracts people from different language backgrounds.

Qian Zhongshu said, "I increased my interest in learning foreign languages by reading Lin Shu's translation" [7] 500. It can be seen that Lin Shu's translation is
After the May 4th movement, Chinese modern and contemporary writers, such as Lu Xun, Zhu Ziqing and Mao Dun, all mentioned the guidance and influence of Lin Shu's translation on them. The climax of translation also drives social development and broadens the horizons of Chinese people, which is the necessity of "inducement".

== Modern and contemporary Chinese translation history from the perspective of social translatology ==
Social translatology originated in the West. In 1972, James Holmes, a Dutch American scholar, published the name and nature of translation studies. When discussing function oriented descriptive translation studies (DTS), he stressed that once the emergence and influence of the translated text in when, where, under what circumstances have become the academic focus, he has entered the field of studying translation activities from the perspective of sociology. Holmes further pointed out that emphasizing the important role of translation in social culture means the birth of the concept of translation sociology, or more accurately, social translation studies.

Sociology mainly focuses on the interactive relationship between agent structures, and practice is the intermediary between the two. Accordingly, social translatology focuses on the interactive relationship between the translator's actors and the social structure, and translation practice is the intermediary between the two. This chapter mainly discusses the history of modern and contemporary Chinese translation from the perspective of social translatology.

4.1 Modern Chinese translation history from the perspective of social translatology
During this period, the Communist Party of China was born, the Communist Manifesto was widely translated and spread, and the socialist thought was introduced into China and gradually rooted in the hearts of the people. The Chinese left-wing writers represented by Lu Xun do not hesitate to advocate "hard translation", mainly to convey the proletarian revolutionary theory, advocate humanism and promote the revolutionary theory, hoping to lay the foundation for the proletarian revolutionary literature through translation. At that time, a large number of excellent foreign literary works and literary theories, especially the literary works of the invaded weak and small nationalities, as well as some revolutionary theory works translated by Lu Xun, were translated into China. Through translation activities, the translator's social recognition is improved, the treasure house of Chinese literature is enriched, and it also provides a powerful ideological weapon for the proletarian revolution.

4.2 contemporary Chinese translation history from the perspective of social translatology
After the founding of new China, China's translation industry flourished. During this period, excellent translators such as Fu Lei, Qian Zhongshu and Xu Yuanchong produced a large number of translation works, which made great contributions to the cultural construction of new China.

As the dividing line of modern and contemporary Chinese translation history, the social background before and after the "Cultural Revolution" is very different. Since the general tone of the whole society is to wait for prosperity and start from scratch, the social function of translation practice is mainly to learn from socialist countries, and pay attention to the introduction of Marxist Leninist works to serve the country's political, economic and cultural construction. Mao Zedong, Zhou Enlai and other revolutionaries of the older generation attach great importance to translation, actively promote the compilation of Marxist Leninist classics and the introduction of foreign excellent literary works, advocate the guiding position of dialectical materialism and historical materialism in translation, and pay attention to the use of philosophical methodology to analyze problems. After the "Cultural Revolution", China soon entered the period of reform and opening up. With the rapid economic development, the translation industry also flourished, making great contributions to China's political, economic and cultural construction.

== Conclusion==
This paper mainly introduces the translation thoughts of famous translators Lu Xun, Yan Fu and Xu Yuanchong to reflect the development characteristics of modern and contemporary translation history in China. It can be seen that the thoughts of translators of various generations have their own advantages and have played a great leading role in the development of translation theory and practice in various periods, At the same time, the theory of output in these periods can be used for reference and learning for future translation learners, and has a far-reaching impact.

China's translation history has a history of more than 2000 years. We should sum up experience from the cultural heritage accumulated in 2000 years, develop our translation cause, and introduce more and better foreign scientific, technological and cultural achievements Accelerate the pace of China's construction. At the same time, we should also introduce China's excellent culture to the world with the help of translation, so that China can go to the world and the world can understand China.

== References==
[1] Jiang Zhigang, Zhan Yajie. Chinese translation history from the perspective of social translatology [J]. National translation, 2021 (04): 88-96
[2] Wang Yamin. Research on Yan Fu's translation style and strategy [J]. Journal of Civil Aviation Flight College of China, 2018,29 (01): 55-58
[3] Gan Lu, Luo Xianfeng. Three dimensions of the evolution of Lu Xun's translation thought [J]. Shanghai translation, 2019 (05): 78-83 + 95
[4] Jiang Yan. Xu Yuanchong. Characteristics of translation theory and practice [J]. Journal of Lanzhou Institute of technology, 2021,28 (02): 119-123
[5] Wang linli. Four translation climaxes in Chinese history and the development of Chinese translation theory [J]. Journal of insurance vocational college, 2007 (05): 94-96
[6] Jiang Zhigang, Zhan Yajie. Chinese translation history from the perspective of social translatology [J]. National translation, 2021 (04): 88-96. Doi: 10.13742/j.cnki.cn11-5684/h.2021.04.011

Written by- Li Xichang

=黄柱梁 The Translation of Buddihist Sutra in Chinese Translation History=
== Abstract==
'''Abstract:''' the translation of Buddhist Sutra is a major event in the history of Chinese translation. The introduction of Buddhism and the translation of Buddhist Sutra have not only had a great impact on ancient Chinese society, but also promoted the cultural exchange between China and India. Firstly, starting from the history of Buddhist Sutra Translation in China, this paper focuses on the contributions of several famous translators to Buddhist Sutra translation; Then it analyzes the “translation field” of Buddhist scripture translation; Finally, it analyzes the impact of Buddhist Sutra translation on Chinese culture and cultural exchanges.

== Key words==
'''Key words:''' Buddhist Sutra translation, “translation field”, cultural exchange

== Introduction==
'''I. Introduction'''
Buddhism is one of the three major religions in the world. It was founded by Sakyamuni in ancient India in the 6th century BC. Soon after the establishment of Buddhism, it began to spread abroad. With its spread, some Buddhist ideas and works also spread abroad. Buddhist Sutra is the abbreviation of “Buddhist Classics”. Buddhist Classics: collectively; Tibetan Sutra, commonly known as; Buddhist Sutra, also known as the Da Zang Sutra, is generally composed of Sutra, Law and Theory. “Sutra” refers to the Dharma script personally said by Sakyamuni and integrated by his disciples, “Law” refers to the commandments formulated by the Buddha for his disciples, and “Theory” refers to the experience gained by the disciples of the Buddha after learning the Sutra. For Buddhists, the status of Buddhist scriptures is equivalent to the influence of the Bible on Christians. In China, Buddhism was introduced from the Silk Road at the end of the Western Han Dynasty. With the introduction of Buddhism, Buddhist scripture translation activities also began. According to the data cited in Pei Songzhi's note in the annals of the Three Kingdoms, “in the first year of emperor AI's Yuanshou's life in the past Han Dynasty, the doctor's disciple Jinglu was dictated the Sutra of the floating slaughter by Yicun, the envoy of King Dayue.” in the first year of emperor AI's Yuanshou's life in the Han Dynasty, that is, in 2 BC, that is, China began the translation of Buddhist scriptures more than 2000 years ago. Liang Qichao cited the general record of magic weapon exploration in the Yuan Dynasty to record that from the tenth year of Yongping in the later Han Dynasty (AD 67) to the Song Dynasty, the translation only lasted until the early year of Zhenghe (AD 1111), 194 translators participated in the translation of Buddhist scriptures, 1335 scriptures and 5396 volumes. There are 3673 Tibetan sutras and continued Tibetan sutras carved in Japan, including 15682 volumes, excluding those added to the Dazheng Tibetan Sutra, and 150 volumes of the complete book of Buddhism in Japan. Hu Shi believes that there are more than 3000 Buddhist scriptures and more than 15000 volumes preserved, including the annotations and commentaries made by the Chinese people. When Buddhism first entered China, it was incompatible with Confucianism. In order to cater to China's Confucianism and Taoism culture, the word “Buddhism and Taoism” was used in the translation of Buddhism. In the Eastern Han Dynasty, Buddhism spread by relying on the Taoism popular in China at that time. During the Three Kingdoms period in the late Han Dynasty, Buddhism began to attach itself to metaphysics. From the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the southern and Northern Dynasties, the translation of Buddhist scriptures changed from individual translation to collective translation, from private translation to official translation, and there was a translation field organization. In the Wei and Jin Dynasties, Buddhism, metaphysics and Neo Confucianism were complementary and integrated with each other. The Sui Dynasty to the middle of the Tang Dynasty was the heyday of Buddhist scripture translation. During this period, kumarosh, Zhendi, Xuanzang and Bukong were known as the “four translators”. Buddhism in the Tang Dynasty has developed into Chinese Buddhism. After the late Tang Dynasty, Buddhism gradually declined in India, and there were no large-scale Buddhist scripture translation activities in China after the song and Yuan Dynasties.

The first Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures appeared in the middle of the 2nd century (some researchers believe it was A.D. 70). Few Buddhist missionaries who came to China in the first century A.D. were proficient in Chinese, and few Chinese knew Sanskrit at that time. Therefore, the Chinese translation of early Buddhist Scriptures was completed by many people: foreign monks recited scriptures, usually with the participation of interpreters, first produced a rather rough translation, and then modified and polished by Chinese assistants. This process made Buddhism sinicized from the very beginning of its introduction into China, and was therefore rapidly absorbed and assimilated by Chinese culture. This form of collective translation has lasted for nearly nine centuries, sometimes with a large number of participants, but the vast translation work can usually be sponsored by the ruling class. Due to the change of time span and the number of translators involved, translation methods and means are often not fixed, and with the passage of time, the cultural and linguistic background of translators will also change. Despite all kinds of obstacles, Chinese Buddhist believers are still committed to the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which has preserved many lost scriptures. It is worth mentioning that some Chinese versions are closer to the original Sanskrit texts than the later Sanskrit texts of India and Nepal. Buddhist missionary translation not only played a constructive role in the spread of Buddhism in the Far East, but also contributed to the establishment of literary languages in various countries and had a great impact on Asian culture. The translation of Buddhist scriptures from Sanskrit to Chinese can be roughly divided into three stages: the late Eastern Han Dynasty and the Three Kingdoms period (AD 148-265), the Dong Jin Dynasty, Xi Jin Dynasty and the Northern and Southern Dynasties (AD 265-589) and the Sui, Tang and Northern Song Dynasties (AD 589-1100).

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== Conclusion==
== References==

=王镇隆 The Brief History of Bible's Chinese Translation=
== Abstract==
== Key Words==
== The Overall Introduction of Bible Translation==
“Bible” translation has a pivotal position in the history of Western translation. From the beginning of the era to today, the translation of the “Bible” has never stopped. The range of languages involved, the number of translations, and the frequency of use of translations,etc., are unmatched by the translation of any other work. A birds-eye view of the history of “Bible” translation has the following important milestones: the first is the “Seventy Sons Greek Text” before the Era, the second is the “Popular Latin Text Bible” from the 4th to 5th centuries, and the later the national languages of the early Middle Ages. The ancient texts (such as Old German, Old French translations), modern texts since the 16th century Reformation Movement (such as the Lutheran version of Germany, the King James version, etc.) and various modern texts. All these translations have made indelible contributions to the spread and development of Christianity in the West, as well as the prosperity and development of the languages and cultures of various nations.

The “Bible” is the holy book of Christianity, including the “Old Testament” and “New Testament.” The Old Testament was written in BC. It is a classic of Judaism. It was inherited by Christianity from Judaism. The original text was in Hebrew. The New Testament was written in the second half of the first to second centuries, and the original text is in Greek. Throughout human history, language translation is almost as old as the language itself. Therefore, from the beginning of the era to today, the translation of the “Bible” has never stopped. The range of languages involved, the number of translations, and the frequency of use of the translations, etc., are unmatched by the translation of any other work. The translation of the "Bible" is mainly to spread the doctrine, so that people are influenced and accepted by the views. According to the “New Testament Acts” Chapter Two, Section One: The saints gathered on Pentecost, and they were all filled with the Holy Spirit, and spoke the words of other countries according to the eloquence given by the Holy Spirit. However, the translation at that time was mainly “interprete” or “interpretation.” Among them, St. Paul himself is a multilingual believer. He preached in Jerusalem, Athens and Rome in Hebrew, Greek and Italian respectively. The Bible was first translated from Hebrew into Greek, then into Latin, and then into Romanian, Portuguese, Spanish, Italian, and Walloon (wal-lon), German, French, Romance languages. English was then translated into various languages in the world, and the translations of its various texts were repeatedly revised by experts in the translation of the classics, which lasted more than ten centuries.

In the history of the translation of the Bible, it has gone through several milestone stages: the first is the “Seventy Sons Greek Text” before the era, the second is the “Popular Latin Text Bible” from the 4th to 5th centuries, and later it is the national languages of the early Middle Ages. Ancient texts (such as Old German, Old French translations), modern texts since the 16th century Reformation Movement (such as Luther, Casio Dorobin in Spain, King James Version in English, Nikon in Russia) and All kinds of modern texts (such as “American Standard Text” in English, “New English Bible” and “English Today”, etc.). “The Bible Old Testament” is the first important and earliest translation in ancient times in the West, and it was translated into Greek. The Old Testament was originally the official classic of Judaism, originally in Hebrew. The Jews have been scattered around for a long time and drifted overseas. Over time, they have forgotten the language of their ancestors and spoke foreign languages such as Arabic and Greek. Among them, Greek speakers accounted for the majority. In ancient times, the city of Alexandria in Egypt was the cultural and trade center of the eastern Mediterranean. The Jews living here accounted for two-fifths of the city’s total population. In the third century BC, in order to meet the increasingly urgent needs of these Greek-speaking Jews, the church decided to translate the Hebrew text of the Old Testament into a Greek text. In the second century BC, an unknown Jew once wrote an epistle article, which was later named “Letter of Aristeas” (“Letter of Aristeas”), which records that in the third century BC, Jerusalem At the request of Egyptian King Ptolemy II Feiradelphis (308-246 BC), Bishop Elizar sent translators to Alexandria to undertake the translation of the Old Testament. In this way, according to Ptolemy II's will, between 285 and 249 BC, 72 “noble” Jewish scholars gathered in the Library of Alexandria, Egypt, to perform this translation. According to legend, the 72 scholars came from 12 different Israeli tribes, with 6 from each tribe. After they came to the Library of Alexandria, they worked in pairs in 36 locations and translated them into 36 translations that were very similar to each other. Finally, 72 translators gathered together to compare and check the 36 translation manuscripts, and reached a consensus on the wording of the final version, and called it the “Seventy Son Text” or “Seventy Magi Translation”, that is, “Septuagint” (“Septuagint”), has since opened a precedent for collective translation in the history of translation. Soon after the translation of the “Seventy Sons”, the priests held a joint meeting with the Jewish leaders and pointed out: “This translation is well translated, pious, and very accurate.

Therefore, it must be kept as it is and cannot be changed.” We also regarded it as the classic translation. In fact, this Greek translation became the “second original”, and sometimes even replaced the Hebrew text and ascended to the throne of the “first original”. Many of the translations of the Bible in languages such as ancient Latin, Slavic, and Arabic are not based on the original Hebrew but on the Greek translation.

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== Conclusion==
== References==

== 叶维杰 Medieval Arabic Translation Movement=
== Abstract==
The Medieval Arabic Translation Movement(The Harakah al—Tarjamah) is also called the Translation Movement. It was a large-scale organized academic activity carried out by the Arab Empire in the Middle Ages to translate and introduce ancient Greek and Eastern scientific and cultural classics. The Abbasid Caliphate implemented a diversified and inclusive cultural policy, vigorously advocated and sponsored the translation of academic classics from ancient Greece, Rome, Persia, India and other countries into Arabic to absorb advanced cultural heritage. The Arabic translation movement preserved the natural sciences and humanities in ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and played an extremely important role in promoting the cultural revival of European political and cultural conditions in the late Middle Ages. The Hundred-Year Arab Translation Movement lasted for more than two hundred years, spanning the vast regions of Asia, Africa, and Europe, and blending ancient Eastern and Western cultures such as Persia, India, Greece, Rome, and Arabia. There are not many translation activities in the history of world civilization. Analyzing its causes, processes, results, and impacts is of great academic value for studying the phased development of human civilization and the commonality of human wisdom, and it is also of great help to deeply understand the Arab Islamic philosophy and culture.

== Key words==
Harakah al—Tarjamah, translation movement, Western culture, Islam

== Introduction==
After the establishment of the Arab Abbasid dynasty, Baghdad became the capital. At the beginning of the dynasty, political stability and economic prosperity heralded the arrival of a cultural climax. The golden age of Arab culture in the Middle Ages began with the translation movement. It can be divided into three main stages: the first stage, from the second monarch Mansour (reigned from 754 to 775) to the fifth monarch Harun Rashid (reigned from 786 to 809). Mainly translate astronomy and medical books; the second stage, from the seventh monarch Maimon (reigned from 813 to 833) to 913, the heyday of translation lasted for a hundred years, mainly translating philosophy, logic, and mathematics , Simultaneous translation of chemistry, animals, plants and other works; the third stage, after 913, is the continuation of the translation movement. In this translation movement advocated, initiated, and cared by the Caliph, a large number of famous translators of different nationalities have produced brilliant achievements and fruitful results. They have translated hundreds of various Greek books, such as Socrates, Plato, Various works of sages such as Aristotle have been translated into Arabic. The translation movement involves almost all scientific fields. The translators also translated books on astronomy, chemistry, agriculture, history, geography, legends, fables, stories, etc. of Persia, India and other peoples. On the basis of translation and introduction, starting from the 9th century, the Arabs began the stages of digestion, absorption, integration, development, and innovation, and achieved great results in various fields. This movement preserved ancient European academic materials and had a direct and significant impact on the European Renaissance movement. F. Engels has spoken highly of this. The Arabic translation movement and Buddhist scripture translation movement in the Middle Ages are two great wonders in the history of human civilization, which have strongly promoted the progress and development of human civilization.

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== References==

=李怡 Brief history of French translation =
== Abstract==
The purpose of this article is to make a brief introduction to the translation history of France. The history of French translation began in the Middle Ages: with the development of Christianity and nationalism, the royal family hired translators to translate the Bible. The Renaissance in the 16th century, as well as economic and educational development, increased the demand for reading and writing, thus promoting the development of translation, most of the translated works are classical works. Then two religious films appeared in France: Jansenists and Jesuit, which had a great influence on the translation schools of that time. During the Enlightenment in the 18th century, France was deeply influenced by Britain, so most of the works in this period were British progressive thoughts and literature. The Industrial Revolution in the second half of the 18th century increased French scientific and technological translation. With the progress of the French Revolution, French translators are more inclined to the economic and political and judicial fields. After the Second World War, the translation industry in France recovered and developed vigorously. France even set up ESIT（École Supérieure d'Interprètes et de Traducteurs）to train senior translators. In the 20th century, there appeared many translation theorists in France, which promoted the professionalization of translation.
== Key words==
Renaissance, French translation, contemporary, French Revolution
== Introduction==
As a developed country in the west, France has a very long translation history. Translators and translation theories emerge in endlessly, which can not be ignored in the history of translation. At the same time, with the development of globalization, translation theories in various countries learn from and integrate with each other. Among them, French translation theory also plays a very important role. Therefore, it is necessary to comb the history of French translation and study the translators of relevant times and their relevant theories.
==1.Medieval French translation based on Bible Translation==
In the middle ages, translation in various countries was deeply influenced by religion, especially the translation of the Bible, which greatly promoted the development of translation. In France, the royal family specially hired translators to translate various Latin and Greek works for the imperial court. The most prominent court interpreter was Nicholas Oresme of the Charles V Dynasty. Aristotle's works translated by him in 1377 had a great impact on the French translation and philosophy circles at that time. Jean de Vigne translated the Latin Bible in French in 1340. In addition, Jean de malkaraume, J argyropylos and others translated the works of Virgil, Ovid, Aristotle, Plato and contemporary writers at the same time.
==2.Renaissance: the development of French translation==
The Renaissance is the development period of French translation theory. The main representatives are Dolet and Jacques Amyot, especially the former. In the 16th century, there was an upsurge of translation in France. During this period, the focus of translation shifted from religious translation such as the Bible to classical literature translation. Religious translation abides by the translation principle of "word to word" . Its purpose is to follow the will of God and avoid blasphemy. This is irrefutable, so there are not many translation theories to speak of. However, as a new genre, the translation of literary works is different from the previous religious translation. Translators face many new problems, so translation theory came into being. Dolet and amyot are the most prominent representatives of translation theory in this period. They are both translators and translation theorists, and the latter wins especially by translation. Both their translation theories come from translation practice, so they are persuasive. Dolet is famous for his "five principles of translation". "Five principles of translation" comes from his paper on how to translate well published in 1540 ,La manière de bien traduire d’une langue à l’autre. 1. the translator must fully understand the content of the translated work; 2.The translator must be familiar with the target language and the target language; 3.The translator must avoid word by word translation; 4.The translator must adopt the popular language form; 5.The translator must select words and adjust word order to make the translation produce the effect of appropriate tone. These five principles involve the criterion of "faithfulness" in translation, the translator's bilingual ability, translation methods, style and style of translation. Amyot is one of the greatest translators in the history of French translation. He is known as the "king of translation". His translation has had a great impact on that time and future generations. He follows two principles in Translation: 1. The translator must understand the original text and make great efforts in the translation of content; 2.The translation must be simple and natural without any decoration. The first involves the standard of faithfulness in translation, and the second involves the style of translation. These two principles are similar to the first and fifth of Dolet's five translation principles.
==3.The 17th century: the climax of French translation and various translation schools==
After the Renaissance, classicism deeply influenced France. In the translation circle at that time, people were engaged in the translation of classical works on a large scale. Translation has launched a magnificent "dispute between ancient and modern" around the translation methods of classical works. Some translators pay more attention to the past than the present: they pay attention to the imitation of words with sentences, and praise the so-called accurate translation method. Some translators prefer to use the opposite translation method.
In the 17th century, the most famous French translator was Perrot d’Ablancourt,, His translation is sophisticated and elegant, both meaningful and beautiful, and easy to understand. There are no words that need to be explained in order to clarify the meaning in the translation, and there are no annoying cliches. Therefore, he has a great reputation for a long time. His characteristic is to take an original work and grasp the main idea. No matter what the original style is, as long as the translation is literary and readable and can make contemporary readers love and welcome, he will do whatever he can to add or delete the content at any cost, and modify it if he can, regardless of the accuracy of the translation. At that time, this literary and beautiful translation method attracted many followers, but it was also criticized by many people as "beautiful but unfaithful".By the end of the 17th century, those who advocated free translation were overwhelmingly in favor, while those who really advocated accurate translation were few and far between. The earliest theorist to advocate accurate translation was Bachet de Méziriac in the mid-17th century. In December 1635, he published an essay entitled "on translation" at the French academy, stating that translators must observe three principles :1.do not stuff the original work with personal goods; 2.The original work shall not be abridged; 3.No alteration may be made detrimental to the original intention.
As one of the most influential translators in France in the 17th century, Daniel Huet, worshipped classical literature and clearly advocated accurate translation. He criticized both post-modern translators and unfaithful translators abranguel. He believes that the best translation method is: the translator first closely follows the original author's meaning; Secondly, if possible, stick to his words; Finally, try to reproduce his character as much as possible; The translator must carefully study the character of the original author, not delete, weaken, add and expand, and faithfully make it complete as the original. His translation principles are: the only goal of translation is to be accurate. Only by accurately imitating the original in language can it be possible to accurately convey the original author's meaning; The translator has no right to choose words or change word order arbitrarily, because "Deviation" from the original text will lead to deviation from the original meaning. His translation theory has been praised by many people, but due to the lack of practice, his theory is not attractive to translators.
In the 17th century, there were also two representatives from inaccurate translation to accurate translation,François Maucroix and Jacques de Tourreil.
François Maucroix is regarded by contemporary and later critics as one of the most outstanding French translators in the 17th century and the first person to translate demesne in the 17th century. In addition to demesne, he also translated the works of Plato and others. Maucroix received the education of the Jesuit Church in his early years, was greatly influenced by the Jesuit Church, loved debating literature, and paid attention to ingenious expression and beautiful language style.
His early translations were inaccurate in content, style or written expression. He liked to modernize ancient terms and expressions. In 1685, his style changed, and his translation became more accurate, which seemed to have completely corrected the defects of procrastination and weakness in his early translation. The reason can be seen from his letters with Boileau in the last decade of the 17th century. He regarded Boileau not only as the most important representative of classical literature, but also as an authority on translation theory. Therefore, he always sent the translation to Boileau for revision. Boileau read the manuscript carefully, criticized some paragraphs and put forward better translation methods. In his reply, Maucroix said that Poirot's criticism of some of his inaccurate translations was pertinent, and his opinions on the revision were also very good. He admitted that the inaccurate translation was a mistake and must be completely corrected. He finally realized that translators must adhere to the principle of accurate translation if they want to become real classicists.
Jacques de Tourreil also experienced a change from inaccurate translation to accurate translation, which is reflected in his translation of three different versions of Demosthenes. In 1691, he published his first translation, which was influenced by the education of the Jesuit and paid attention to elegant style rather than accurate content. Tourreil processed the original work in the most ingenious way to modernize the ancients. After the translation was published, it was immediately severely criticized by Racine. After being criticized, Tourreil published a revised version in 1710, but the revised version actually only made detailed changes to the original translation, and the guiding principle of translation remains unchanged, that is, we must "make the characteristics of the original work conform to the characteristics of our nation". The new translation has received various comments. On the one hand, the ancient school refers to Tourreil 's attempt to impose new ideas on Demosthenes, believing that he not only did not beautify the original work, but distorted and vilified the original work. On the other hand, the present school believes that Tourreil's unfaithful translation of the original is better than the original, which is worth applauding. Tourreil himself is an ancient school. Naturally, he doesn't appreciate the present school's praise and thinks that this praise is "the most severe criticism to the translator". After that, he revised the translation for the third time, which is very different from the first two versions. It was not only a rare and accurate translation at that time, but also extremely beautiful. The translator translates in strict accordance with the original work, neither adding or subtracting nor making changes. By this time Tourreil had fundamentally changed his point of view.
Discussing the history of French translation from the 17th century to the 18th century is bound to involve the influence of Jesuit and Jansenists. The main reason is that the people engaged in education at that time were members of these two schools. They had direct or indirect contact with each translation school through their own translation practice and teaching.
The Jesuit believes that classical literature is worth studying and learning only in the aspect that it provides moral education or guides people how to learn eloquence. The excavation of classical works is not because their contents are of great value, but because of their beautiful forms. Teachers believe that the purpose of teaching is not so much to enable students to obtain substantive knowledge as to enable them to obtain formal learning identity.
The works translated by Jesuit teachers or students generally have an obvious sign, that is, they do not pay much attention to the spiritual essence of the original work, but only pay attention to the expression of the original thought and the beauty of the translation style. In order to achieve this, translators often sacrifice the content, even misinterpret the original meaning, and religiously turn classical literary works. Therefore, the origin of inaccurate translation in the 17th century is often influenced by Jesuit thought.
Jansenists is the second school that directly or indirectly affects translation principles. They believe that once students can read and write, they should read these translations in order to obtain basic knowledge about the original author and facilitate more and better reading of the original works in the future. In the early days, the views of the janssenian translators and the Jesuit translators were basically the same. Later, the translators of Jansenists believed that the practice of style for style in translation was also dangerous. However, towards the middle of the 17th century, their views changed and they believed that the style of ancient Greek and Latin writers, especially the style of ancient Greek writers, was worth learning. They really appreciate classical works more than the Jesuits. They admit that the language style of the ancients is superior to that of the present, but the present enjoys more inspiration from God, so the present surpasses the ancients in terms of thought and morality. In this way, no matter from which perspective, their views are completely consistent with those of ancient school. But the translation of Jansenists is far less elegant and beautiful than that of the Jesuits.
==4.The decline of French translation in the 18th century and the translator Charles Batteux==
In the 18th century, France was not as powerful as in the 16th and 17th centuries, nor was it culturally complacent. So she began to look at other countries' literature, first of all England. For example, the novels of the contemporary British sentimentalist writer Richard Were translated into French, which had a great influence on the development of French sentimentalist literature. In particular, the Chinese culture, which had been introduced to Europe for a long time, became more active in France in the 18th century. Although the number of translations is large, the quality is often not high.
Charles Batteux was one of the most important translators in France in the 18th century. He was one of the most influential literary and translation theorists in France and the whole Europe in the 18th century. He edited and published a variety of translation books, translated aristoteles, Horace and many other classical works of ancient Greece and Rome, wrote Principes de Litterature, Cours de Belles-Lettres and other works. Batteux elaborated his thoughts and views on translation in The Principles of Treatise. His original views and excellent exposition made this book an important milestone in the development of translation theory in the 18th century.
The fifth part of Principes de Litterature deals with translation problems.The theory of Charles Batteux obviously has the characteristics of philosophers, linguists, philology and translation. In other words, Charles Batteux discusses the principles of translation mainly from the perspective of general linguistic skills, rather than literary creation. He proposed the following 12 rules for dealing with word order in translation: 1. We must not alter the order of what the original says, either as fact or inference. 2. We should also preserve the order of ideas in the original text. 3. No matter how long the original sentence is, it should be kept intact in the translation, for a sentence is a thought in which the different elements are related to each other, and their correlation constitutes a kind of harmony. 4.All the conjunctions in the original text should be preserved. It is these conjunctions, so to speak, that hold the sentence elements together. 5. All adverbs should be placed either before or after the verb, depending on the harmony and momentum of the sentence. 6.Symmetrical sentences should be translated into symmetrical sentences. 7. Colorful ideas should be expressed in as much space as possible in the translation so as to maintain the same brilliance. 8. Rhetorical devices and forms of speech used to express ideas must be preserved in the translation. 9. We must translate short and pithy sayings that people like, or translate them into words that are natural and can be used as proverbs. 10. Interpretation is incorrect and incomplete because it is no longer a translation but a commentary. However, if there is no other way to convey the meaning of the original text, the translator has no choice but to use interpretation. 11. For the sake of meaning, we must abandon all forms of expression in order to make ourselves intelligible; Abandon emotion in exchange for a lively translation; Give up harmony for the pleasure of translation. 12. The idea of the original text can be expressed in different forms, combined or broken up by the words used to express it, and expressed by verbs, adjectives, nouns and adverbs, as long as its essence remains unchanged.
==5.The revival of French translation in the 19th century and its rich translators==
Another high tide of French translation came in the 19th century, when a large number of English, German, Italian, Spanish and Latin literary works were translated, such as Shakespeare, Milton, Byron, Shelley in England, Goethe and Schiller in Germany, Dante in Italy, and Spanish folk songs. The most prominent remains the translation of Shakespeare's works. If the 18th century was Shakespeare's Silver age in France, the 19th was the golden age. In the 19th century, people not only worshiped Shakespeare's works, but also worshipped him, and Shakespeare fever spread throughout France. From 1800 to 1910, at least eight different translations of Shakespeare's complete works were produced in France, of which francois-Victor Hugo is the best. Hugo's father was Victor Hugo, a great writer. With Hugo's assistance and cooperation, the complete works of Shakespeare were translated between 1859 and 1867. This translation has faithfully retained the unique rhythm of the play, so it has been praised by critics as the second milestone in the history of French translation of Shakespeare's plays, even more important than Letourne's famous translation in the late 18th century.
Famous French translators in the 19th century included Francoise-René de Chateaubriand, Gérard de Nerval, and Charles Baudelaire. Chateaubriand is another epoch-making translator in France after Amio. His translation is faithful and beautiful. His literal translation of Milton's Paradise Lost is one of the outstanding French translations with its melodious and poetic tone. Nerval is best known for his translation of Goethe's Faust in prose style. In 1830 Goethe saw Nerval's translation and praised it as better than his original. Baudelaire, another famous poet of this period, was one of the earliest French translators of American literature and the first translator of Allan Poe. For 13 years from 1852 to 1865, he wrote, translated and commented on the complete works of Allan Poe. Baudelaire found what he was pursuing in Allan Poe's works, and believed that he and the author were in the same spirit, so that the translation could be in touch with the author. The translation was smooth and natural, just like the French creation, and was listed as an excellent classic of French prose.
==6.The specialization of French translation in the 20th century and the maturity of translation theory==
The 20th century has been the heyday of French translation theory. The characteristics of French translation in this period are: since the end of the Second World War, due to practical needs, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological aspects of the translation boom, its momentum even more than literary translation, thus forming a major content of the development of modern western translation; The study of translation theory is unprecedented and has produced translation theorists who have an important influence on the history of translation in the world. Before the First World War, the two countries used the language of power in business transactions, and French, which was considered the language of diplomacy at international conferences and other diplomatic occasions, did not have much problem in translation. However, after the end of the First World War, French lost its dominance, and English rose to take the lead with French, forming a situation in which French and English were used together. The Paris Peace Conference of 1919 was the beginning of this situation. Later, the European Union has 24 official languages, which means that translation has become an indispensable part of daily work, whether it is communication between countries in other regions or between western countries. With the increase of cooperation between countries, the need for translators is increasing. To meet this need, a number of schools specializing in training translators have been set up. One of the most prominent is ESIT（École Supérieure d'Interprètes et de Traducteurs）.
ESIT was founded in 1957, set up the department of Oral translation and pen translation, initially only opened several European languages, since 1972 added Chinese, now a total of English, Chinese, Russian, Arabic, French, German, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Danish, Swedish, Icelandic and other languages translation courses. Later, on the basis of the original two departments, the School added a department of Translation Studies, specializing in the study of language and translation theory, with the right to confer doctoral degrees. After graduation, most of the students apply for translation departments of international institutions, and some graduates apply for the work license of free translators to relevant institutions of various countries in order to work freely and not apply for the work license of free translators to international institutions. Over the years, ESIT has trained a number of senior translators for the foreign affairs departments of the United Nations, the European Community (EU) and western countries.
Another characteristic of modern French translation is that French translators are organized in large numbers, setting up various translation associations and establishing various translation publications. Each association has its own purpose and purpose to carry out its work effectively. There are two major translation associations in France: the Association of French Translators and the Association of French Literary Translators. The Association of French Literary Translators was founded in 1973 as a splinter from the Association of Translators. Its entry requirements are the most stringent of any of its kind. Only highly qualified translators are eligible to join. Applicants must have at least one translation, which is carefully reviewed against the original work by a special selection committee. The aims of the association are :1.to improve the quality of French literature and literary translation publications; 2.To protect the rights and interests of members in respect of copyright, remuneration and working conditions of translated works; 3.Do not participate in any political activities. Since its establishment, the association has held many lectures and lectures, and its members have published many articles on translation in such authoritative publications as le Monde and New Literature. Through this series of business activities, it has become the most distinctive and vocal translation organization in France.
In the first half of the 20th century, the French translation theorist J.Marouzeau is worth a book. He is a professor at the University of Paris and editor in chief of Année Philologique. In 1931, he published a pamphlet called La Traduction du Latin. The theory is as follows:1.Translation is, first of all, a skill. Maruzzo does not deny that translation is an art and a science, and that it is more of a skill. To master it, we mainly rely on rich practical experience, solid language knowledge and flexible translation methods. 2.In order to reach as many readers as possible, the translator's primary task, like linguists, educators and exegetists, is to reveal to the reader what the source text is, not what it covers. 3.The purpose of using a dictionary is not to translate, but to understand. It is a puzzling view, but it is not hard to discern the truth in it. He points out that translators must learn to use dictionaries, but must first understand what problems they are using them to solve. Latin, for example, is very different from French, he said. Latin words are not related to each other, and there is no strict word order, which must be added to a French translation to make the translation smooth. Dictionaries don't help in this respect. They define a particular word in inverse proportion to its simplicity, thus leaving the translator in a difficult position to choose between many different translations. Therefore, the main purpose of using a dictionary is not to find ready-made words, but to understand the meaning of the original text, to explain the text of the original text, and then produce a translation on this basis. At the same time, Marouzeau points out that words from different sources must be interpreted differently. 4.Translation is not guesswork. This is especially important. When encountering difficulties, the translator must carefully consider and avoid any "preconceived ideas", because in translation, the first thought of meaning or expression is often not the most correct or best. 5.Translation must be in living language. This was a popular idea in England in the 17th and 18th centuries. Marouzeau said that to translate Latin into French, if you need to introduce an old expression, you have to turn to a living language so that the translation is alive. That is to say, the translator must ask: if the original author were alive today and writing in French, how would he express the same thing? But Marouzeau also points out that this is not a generalization, and that for some passages, especially those of Ovid, "a bit of antiquity is most appropriate in French translation".
The following is an introduction to Georges Mounin, a famous French translation theorist in the second half of the 20th century. He devoted his life to the teaching and research of linguistics and translation theory with outstanding achievements. He is regarded as the founder and most important representative of linguistic theory in contemporary French translation studies. Major theoretical works include Le belles infidèles , Les problèmes théorique de la traduction, La machine à traduire: Histoire des problèmes linguistiques, Linguistique et traduction, Semiotic praxis, etc. Among them, Les problèmes théorique de la traduction is the most praised by contemporary Western translation theorists. As mentioned above, this book uses the basic theories and methods of modern linguistics to explain translation, and sets up the first clear-cut flag of linguistic school in the field of Translation studies in France.
The core idea of Mounin 's book is that he thinks translation belongs to linguistics, so it should be studied, understood and explained by means of modern linguistics. To establish an effective translation theory, it has to for translation and the translation of basic problems related to make a scientific understanding of these problems include the nature of translation, translation and the meaning of vocabulary, grammatical structure, the relationship between translation and the objective world, the world's image), the relationship between translation and language universals and language features, the relationship between the processing of language features in translation, and so on. Mounin 's discussion of translation theory revolves around these questions.
What exactly is a translation? What kind of discipline should translation studies belong to and what kind of methods should be adopted? And so on. Such problems have always been the most concerned by translation researchers but have not been properly explained. Mounin believes that translation is a special and universal language activity, which naturally belongs to the scope of linguistics research, and the research results of language science can be applied to the study of translation problems. Mounin admit that the translation of poetry, the literature such as drama, movies, many factors other than language and paralanguage does play an important role, but the basis of translation activity is mainly to the original and the translation of linguistic analysis, and applied linguistics is more than any other skilled experience can provide accurate and reliable. Of course, from another point of view, especially from the perspective of the development of translation studies as an independent discipline since the 1980s, the practice of classifying translation studies as linguistics has been outdated. However, even if translatology is regarded as an independent discipline, its independence is only relative. Since translation (interlingual and intralingual translation) necessarily involves language, translation studies should not and cannot be completely free from the influence of linguistics at any time. In this sense, Mounin's view of linguistic translation has always been positive.
Since the 1970s and 1980s, the interpretive school represented by Seleskovitch or the Paris School has emerged in the field of Translation studies in France and become the most remarkable and French characteristic in the post-modern period, thus forming the second major feature of the development of contemporary French translation theory. It should be said that this school does not negate the basic idea of the school of linguistics to study linguistic phenomena, but only opposes the pure linguistic orientation of the school of linguistics and focuses on the research method of form. Interpretive theory holds that translation is a linguistic act, but it requires the participation of extralinguistic knowledge. Whether it is diachronic linguistics in the 19th century, synchronic descriptive linguistics and contrastive structural linguistics in the 20th century, or the later transformational generative grammar theory, it ignores the pragmatic context as the main component of language communication, so it cannot reasonably explain translation problems. Based on practice, the theory of interpretation studies translation as a linguistic act, and interprets and conveys the meaning of language from linguistic factors, cultural factors, and extralinguistic factors, so as to give a scientific and reasonable explanation to the reality of translation.
An important feature of interpretive translation theory is to reveal the essence of translation as communicative behavior from practice. Interpretivism holds that translation is a kind of linguistic act, which, like language use, must be supported by non-linguistic knowledge. However, as an act, the object of translation is not language, but meaning, which is the communicative meaning of the text. The output of meaning requires the combination of nonverbal thoughts and signs, and the reception of meaning requires the conscious behavior of the addressee. The arrangement of words is only a means of meaning formation for the originator of words. The understanding and grasp of meaning need to get rid of the original language form. The acquisition of meaning is instantaneous, not staged. Meaning is not the sum of words, but an organic whole, and the comprehension of meaning is completed at the level of discourse.
According to the interpretive theory, language and thought are separated in the translation of translators. Language and thought are not exactly the same thing, but there is a constant two-way communication between them. Thought waves can be transformed into language, and language can be transformed into thought waves. Human knowledge and experience do not reside in the brain in the form of words.
Interpretive theory also holds that understanding requires the participation of cognitive knowledge; The process of comprehension is the process of interpretation. Interpretation is the prerequisite of translation, and translation cannot be carried out without interpretation. Translation, on the other hand, is interpretation. Interpretive translation is a translation of meaning equivalence, which is established between texts. If a translation is to be successful, it is necessary to seek the overall meaning equivalence between the source text and the target text, and the meaning equivalence needs to achieve cognitive and emotional equivalence. Translators use their own abilities to organically combine the cognitive content and emotional content of the source text into an indivisible whole, and then successfully express it. Only in this way can the equivalence of meaning be achieved, which is the essence of the interpretive theory.
The interpretive theory also focuses on fidelity. The translator cannot interpret at will, and his interpretation and understanding can only be faithful to the actual content of the speaker. Although the interpreter interprets in his own words, he conveys the meaning of the speaker and imitates the speaker's style. The interpreter should understand the overall style of the speech, and tend to be consistent with the speaker, should be as far as possible to get rid of the constraints of words, in order to accurately reflect the original style.
== Conclusion==
There may be many deficiencies and omissions in the simple combing of French translation history, but as a powerful and long-standing western developed country, France's translation process and theory have great research and reference significance for China and the world. The world is still developing, so is translation. With the development of modern science and technology, people explore translation more deeply, and new theories are constantly put forward. Therefore, we should seize the trend of the times, base ourselves on China, look at the world and seriously study these excellent theories.
== References==
[1]陈顺意.法国翻译理论源流.法国研究,2014
[2]谭载喜.西方翻译简史.商务印书馆,2004
[3]许均,袁筱一.当代法国翻译理论.湖北教育出版社,2001
[4]柳鸣九,郑克鲁,张英伦.法国文学史,人民文学出版社,1979
[5]谢天振.中西翻译简史,外语教育与研究出版社,2009

=李新星A Comparative Study on The Translation history of Modern Chinese and Korean Literature under the Background of "Western Learning" (1894~1949) =
==Abstract==
The spreading of Western learning to the east is an extensive and far-reaching influence of modern Western culture on eastern civilization, which started from translation as a means of cultural communication.Scholars in China and Korea have always recognized the influence of the eastward spread of Western learning on the development of translation in their countries.However, most studies on modern and contemporary translation take the country as the boundary and rarely talk about the comparison and exchange between the two countries.In fact, although there are some individual differences between Chinese and Korean translation in modern times due to different national conditions, there are also many similarities and connections worthy of attention and research.From the perspective of translation history, this paper will explore the history of literary translation in China and Korea under the trend of western learning to the east, compare the commonness and individuality of the two countries' literary translation practices, explore the historical information behind the translation practices, and finally achieve the purpose of restoring the history of cultural (literary) exchanges between the two countries.

The spreading of western culture to the East was an extensive and far-reaching influence of modern Western culture on Eastern civilization, resulted from translation as a means of cultural communication.Scholars in China and Korea had always recognized the influence of the eastward spread of Western learning on the development of translation in their countries. However, most studies on modern and contemporary translation take the country as the boundary and rarely talk about the comparison and exchange between the two countries.In fact, regardless of some individual differences between Chinese and Korean translation in modern times due to different national conditions, there are also many similarities and connections worthy of attention and research.From the perspective of translation history, this paper will explore the history of literary translation in China and Korea under the trend of western learning to the East, compare the commonness and individuality of the two countries' literary translation practices, dig out the historical information behind the practices, and finally achieve the purpose of restoring the history of cultural exchanges between the two.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 07:23, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

==Key words==
History of literary translation；“Western Learning”;China;Korea

==摘要==
西学东渐是近代西方文化对东方文明的一次广泛而深远的影响，而这影响首先是从作为文化交流的手段———翻译开始的。一直以来，中韩两国学者都认同西学东渐对本国翻译发展的影响，但现有的研究在探讨近现代翻译时大多以本国为界，很少谈及两国比较和交流。而实际上，虽然因为国情不同，中国与朝鲜半岛的近现代翻译存在一定的个体差异，但同时也有很多相似点和联系点值得关注和研究。本文将从翻译史视角出发，窥探西学东渐时代潮流下中韩两国文学翻译史的面貌，比较两国文学翻译实践的共性和个性，发掘翻译实践背后的历史信息，最终达到还原两国文化 (文学) 交流史的目的。

==关键词==
文学翻译史；“西学东渐”；中国；朝鲜（韩国）

==1.Introduction==
The spreading of Western learning to the east is an extensive and far-reaching influence of modern Western culture on Eastern civilization.Late 19th century to early 20th century,When the West had modernized and gradually replaced the East as the world's dominant power,The three East Asian countries ( China, Japan and Korea), which had been sleeping for a long time, were gradually awakened and embarked on the "journey" of modernization.Among them, In order to achieve a rich country and a strong army, Japan left Asia and entered Europe,Take the lead in taking a series of measures to actively learn from the West and introduce advanced ideas and culture.The main measure is to develop the translation of western literature.Under the influence of such a large environment, the translation of overseas literature in China and the Korean Peninsula has also set off a boom.It can be said that the influence of the eastward spreading of Western learning on the modernization of East Asia began with translation as a means of cultural exchange.
Some scholars have pointed out that in the process of modernization in East Asia represented by Japan,Translation plays an important role.Without translation, East Asia would not have been able to open the door to modernization.This is also true in modern China and the Korean Peninsula.It can be said that after entering the modern society, the cultural exchanges between the two countries were continued through translation --"A history of translation is not only a history of cultural exchange, but also a history of the dissemination of ideas".As we all know, the study of translation history is a "basic project" in the construction of translation discipline.Behrman, a famous translator and translation theorist, once pointed out that "the composition of translation history is the first task of modern translation theory, and self-reflection is the establishment of itself" .The history of literary translation is an important part of the study of translation history and an indispensable factor in the investigation of a country's literature and even the whole cultural background in a particular period.
In view of the above analysis, the author believes that in order to have a macro and in-depth understanding of the cultural exchanges between China and Korea in modern times.It is necessary for us to make a comparative study of literary translation between the two countries during this period (1894 ~ 1949).Writers believe that only by putting literary translation activities into a larger social and historical context can we have a clearer understanding of the translation practices of the two countries at that time.Therefore, from the perspective of translation history, this paper will explore the history of literary translation in China and Korea under the trend of western learning to the east, compare the commonness and individuality of the two countries'literary translation practices, explore the historical information behind the translation practices, and finally achieve the purpose of restoring the history of cultural (literary) exchanges between the two countries.

The spreading of Western learning to the east exerted an extensive and far-reaching influence on Eastern civilization.In the late 19th century to early 20th century,when the West had modernized and gradually replaced the East as the world's dominant power,the three East Asian countries (China,Japan and Korea),which had been sleeping for a long time, were gradually awakened and embarked on the "journey" of modernization. In order to attain prosperity, Japan left Asia and entered Europe, taking a series of measures to actively learn from the West and introduce advanced ideas and culture through the media of translation.Under the influence of such a univerasl situation, the translation of overseas literature in China and the Korean Peninsula had also set off a boom.It could be said that the influence of the eastward spreading of western learning on the modernization of East Asia began with translation as a means of cultural exchange.
Some scholars have pointed out that translation plays an important role in the process of modernization in East Asia represented by Japan.Without translation,East Asia would not have been able to open the door to modernization.This is also true in modern China and the Korean Peninsula.It can be said that after entering the modern society, the cultural exchanges between the two countries were continued through translation --"A history of translation is not only a history of cultural exchange, but also a history of the dissemination of ideas".As we all know, the study of translation history is a "basic project" in the construction of translation discipline.Behrman, a famous translator and translation theorist, once pointed out that "the composition of translation history is the first task of modern translation theory, and self-reflection is the establishment of itself".The history of literary translation is an important part of the study of translation history and an indispensable factor in the investigation of a country's literature and even the whole cultural background in a particular period.
In view of the above analysis, the author believes that in order to have a macro and in-depth understanding of the cultural exchanges between China and Korea in modern times.It is necessary for us to make a comparative study of literary translation between the two countries from 1894 to 1949. Only by putting literary translation activities into a larger social and historical context can we have a clearer understanding of the translation practices of the two countries at that time.Therefore, from the perspective of translation history, this paper will explore the history of literary translation in China and Korea under the trend of western learning to the East, compare the commonness and individuality of the two countries' literary translation practices, explore the historical information behind the practices, and finally achieve the purpose of restoring the history of cultural (literary) exchanges between the two countries.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

==2. The origin and development of modern translation in both countries ==
After being opened to the outside world, western civilization flooded in. China and North Korea, which had been pursuing the policy of "closing the door to the outside world", began to "open their eyes to the world".From the government to the people, there has been an upsurge in the introduction of advanced Western civilization.Translation plays an important, even decisive role in this process.
====2.1The historical evolution of Modern Translation in China====
As is known to all, Among the three East Asian countries, China is the first to pay attention to the West and understand and learn the West through translation.In the 1860s, after the Westernization Movement, a climax of modern Chinese translation began slowly.Strictly speaking, this translation period can be further divided into two stages, namely, with the Sino-Japanese War of 1894 as the dividing line, the early stage was the translation period dominated by westernization school, and the later stage was the translation period dominated by reformists.If the translation during the Westernization Movement was the primary stage of modern Western learning translation in China, there were still many problems, then the translation activities led by reformists such as Kang Youwei, Liang Qichao and Yan Fu had a greater development in terms of scale, significance and function.From the perspective of translation history, they set up translation institutes and translated western books widely(Especially those that had a great influence on Meiji Restoration in Japan.)Training translation talents, etc.Its scale, breadth of subjects, quantity and quality are unmatched by translation in the Westernization period.It should be noted that since the 1880s, China's interest in learning from the West has shifted from science to politics, education system and so on.In the late Qing Dynasty and early period, literary works gradually became the main object of translation activities.In the minds of the Vixinists represented by Liang Qichao, novels have become the most appropriate tool for political reform, popular enlightenment and the modernization of the country.Thus, beginning in the late 19th and early 20th centuries,Foreign literature has been widely translated into China, and communication channels include not only modern media such as newspapers and magazines, but also single-line books and large-scale translation literature series, which have also produced a series of arguments and discussions on translation methods and techniques.Modern Chinese translation has also entered a new period, that is, from the Ming and Qing period of scientific and technological translation as the mainstream gradually to culture / literature / literary translation as the core of the translation activities period.Overall, the translation of modern foreign literature in China from the end of the 19th century to the period 1949 can be broken down into the following three stages.
The first stage was from the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China to the May 4th Movement in 1919.In December 1898, Liang Qichao translated The Japanese political novel The Adventure of The Beautiful Woman in Qingyi Daily. In 1900, Zhou translated one of the most influential works in Japanese political fiction, Yano Ryuki's "On The Classics of America".Since then, many Japanese political novels have been translated and introduced to China.After a more concentrated translation of political novels, other genres, such as history, science and the popular detective novels, have also been introduced.After 1907, a variety of modern literary magazines sprang up, and a large number of translated novels were published in these magazines in serial form, among which the serialized translated novels in magazines such as "Novel Forest" and "New Novel Cluster" even occupied absolute space, forming the first climax of foreign novel translation.However, it should be emphasized that the translation of literary works in this period was still in the exploratory stage,Although there are a large number of works, there are problems in the selection of works, translation skills and strategies.
The second period is 1916 to 1936. This period can be further subdivided into the May Fourth Movement period and the Left Coalition Period.With the development of the New literature movement, Chinese literary translation has entered the most glorious period in the history of translation.Compared with the late Qing Dynasty, literary translation in this period was larger in scale, higher in quantity and quality, and its influence was unprecedented.It is worth emphasizing that almost all the heavyweights in the history of modern Chinese literature have participated in the translation and introduction.In addition to translation works, they also introduced various literary and artistic thoughts, and actively explored and discussed translation methods and theories.Especially with their active advocacy and hard work, The translation industry in China has been closely integrated with the struggle against imperialism and feudalism.It completely changed the chaotic and unprincipled state of translation circles before the May 4th Movement.In addition, it was from this time that China's translation of Soviet/Russian literature gradually reached its peak.It can be said that the mainstream of Chinese literature translation in the 1930s was Marxist literary trend of thought and progressive literature (especially Soviet/Russian literature).Of course, in addition to Russian/Soviet literature, this period has translated the literature of Britain, The United States, Japan, France, Germany and southeast Northern Europe and Asia.
The third period is from 1937 to 1949. After the war of Resistance against Japan broke out.The translation community, like the rest of the country, has concentrated all its efforts on the cause of saving the nation from extinction and striving for liberation.Therefore, the pace of development of Translation in China slowed down during this period.In spite of this, Chinese writers and translators have overcome various difficulties and translated and published many excellent foreign literary works.During this period, there was a wide range of translations, ranging from western European classical literature to war literature at that time, and even ancient Greek literature and Jewish literature.In terms of genres, there are novels, poems, plays, prose and even some academic works on literary history.A number of famous translators in the history of Chinese translation literature, such as Zhu Shenghao, Ge Baoquan, Fu Lei, Liang Shiqiu, Lin Yutang and so on, are active in literary translation.Of course, the biggest characteristic of this period was the translation of the Soviet Union and other countries anti-fascist war works, in particular, the establishment of the revolutionary translation group "Times Press", published the revolutionary translation publication "Soviet Literature", a large number of Soviet literary and artistic works.

====2.2 The situation of modern and contemporary Translation on the Korean Peninsula and the Influence of China==
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From the end of the 19th century, western civilization began to flow into East Asia on a large scale, and Korea was further plunged into the situation of internal troubles and foreign aggression. Faced with the complicated situation at home and abroad, the enlightened intellectuals of Korea further realized that translating Western books was an important task at that time. As early as 1886, The "Seoul Weekly" published by Powen Bureau had a column specially emphasizing the importance of translation, and proposed to establish a special translation agency to translate foreign books. And six years later, another important newspaper of the day 《Huangcheng News 》also commented, stressing that translation is an important means to enrich the country and strengthen the army and realize modern civilization. We call for the establishment of specialized translation institutions under the guidance of the government "to strengthen the guidance and management of translation. On behalf of this, not only all kinds of news media actively propagated, but also some intellectuals at that time called for the realization of civilization and the prosperity of the country and the strength of the army by translating overseas literature and learning advanced western experience. As a result, the Korean Peninsula at that time set off a boom in the translation of overseas works, especially literary works. Of course, as in China, one of the preconditions for translating Western books in the Korean Peninsula was the development of modern media, which provided a platform for the dissemination of written works at that time. After the 1895-1895 revolution, modern schools were established one after another, and special language schools were set up, which played a positive role in understanding overseas and spreading Western culture, and reserved talents for the translation and introduction of foreign literature.
Generally speaking, the history of translation of foreign works on the Korean Peninsula from 1895 to 1949 can be divided into the following five stages: Patriotic enlightenment period (1895-1910), translation literature awakening period (1911-1919), translation into the proper period (1920-1935), dark Period (1936-1945), Regeneration period (1945 ~1949). We can refer to Kim Byung-chul's Studies on the History of Modern Korean Translation Literature, the earliest and only work on the history of modern Korean Translation literature. However, it is worth noting that Kim Byung-chul's pioneering work has carefully combed and studied the translation history of modern Korean literature from both macro and micro perspectives. However, there is no introduction to the translation of Chinese and Japanese literature. In fact, in the whole modern and modern period, although the communication between China and South Korea seems not as active and close as that in ancient times, the spiritual, political and cultural ties that have connected the two countries for thousands of years have not disappeared overnight. This point can be seen from the early stage of The History of Korean translated literature with China as the medium of translation activities and the late continuous translation of Modern Chinese literature.
The first stage (1895-1910) is the period of patriotic enlightenment，The main function of translation in this period was "enlightenment of civilization, independence, social and political enlightenment", and the translation activities inevitably had obvious purpose and utility. The patriotic enlighteners represented by Xuan CAI, Zhang Zhiyuan, Shen Caihao and Zhou Shijing received Chinese education from childhood and were deeply influenced by Confucian culture. Most of the works translated from The Korean Peninsula during this period were biographies of great men, history of the war, history of independence and geographical history. Almost all the translated works are from Chinese and Japanese versions. According to statistics, there were about 37 separate editions of such works translated in the Korean Peninsula before 1910, among which 16 were based on Chinese translations, not including those published in newspapers and magazines. In particular, it is worth emphasizing the important works in the early history of Korean literature, such as The History of The Fall of Vietnam, the Biography of the Three Masters of the Founding of Italy, and so on.The Biography of the Patriotic Lady was introduced to the Korean Peninsula based on the Chinese version. In addition, the Japanese Ryoki Yano's Korean single version of The Book On The Nation and the United States (1908, Translated by Hyun Gonglian) was based on zhou Kui's Chinese version in 1907. It is also highly likely that The first western literary work to be officially translated into Korea, Robin Sun Crusoe (1908, translated by Kim Chan), was translated into Chinese. In a word, China's influence cannot be ignored in the history of translated literature during the Korean civilization period.
The second stage (1910 ~ 1919) is called "the Awakening period of Translated literature". The translation activities of this period did have many characteristics different from those of the previous period. For example, many translations clearly identify the original author and translator; There appeared some literary magazines that paid attention to translation, such as Youth, New Star, Youth, Light of Learning and New Wenjie.“Three Lights", and "Tai Xi Literature and Art News" founded in 1918 with the main purpose of translating foreign literary works; At the beginning, it was consciously emphasized that translation should be based on the original text rather than through a third language. Translation methods also began to emphasize the separation from the earlier simple emphasis on the transmission of content translation, summary translation, abbreviated translation, etc. It puts forward the importance of respecting the original text and being faithful to the original text, and actively practices it. Kim Il and other important figures in the history of Korean translation literature have officially started their translation activities. And so on. All these indicate that the translation activities on the Korean Peninsula have "awakened" and are ready for further progress on the right track.
Generally speaking, since 1908, when Juvenile was first published，The Translated literature of the Korean Peninsula further broke away from the original utilitarian and purist nature and began to enter the era of "pure literature and art" translation. Since then, a great deal of Western literature has been translated into The Korean peninsula, and the quality of translation in this period is significantly higher than that of the Patriotic Enlightenment period. In addition to new novelists such as Lee Sang-hyup, Lee Hae-jo and Ahn Guk-seon, the translators also include famous figures in the history of literature such as Choi Nam-seon, Hong Myung-hee and Lee Kwang-soo, as well as some publishers and media workers. It is worth noting that some scholars believe that literary exchanges between China and Korea ended after Japan annexed the Korean Peninsula in 1910. This view is obviously somewhat arbitrary. According to incomplete statistics, at least 20 Chinese translations were introduced to the Korean Peninsula through the medium of Chinese translations, although the translation activities based on Chinese translations were not as active as in the Enlightenment period. These works include not only reprints of Chinese vernacular novels in Ming and Qing Dynasties, but also western novels based on Chinese translations. Among these Chinese translations of western novels, 8 are from the large western literature translation series "Shuobo Congshu", which was planned and published by the Shanghai Commercial Press in 1903. Choi Chan-sik, a famous writer of new novels at the time, recalled that recalled that he began writing a new novel after translating a book in the "Shaobo Series" published in Shanghai, China. These data show that even at a time when Japan's control over the Korean Peninsula was increasing, China's translation and media activities still have a certain influence on Korean intellectuals. In other words, under the new historical conditions, the cultural exchanges between the two countries are still struggling to continue in a new form.
The third stage (1920-1935) marked the beginning of joseon's translation literature. According to Kim byung-chul's statistics, at least 600 foreign literary works have been translated to the Korean Peninsula in various forms since the 1920s, Genres include fiction, poetry, drama, essays, fairy tales, and some literary criticism, Countries involved Britain, the United States, Germany, France, Russia, India and so on. Of course, this statistic does not include the translation of Chinese literature. In fact, after the 1920s, one of the biggest changes in the history of Sino-Korean translation was the movement that was then in China and the new literary works began to be translated and introduced to the Korean Peninsula. According to incomplete statistics, about 30 kinds of modern Chinese literary works including novels were translated and translated in the Korean Peninsula during the colonial period (In addition to the only collection of Chinese Short Stories during the colonial period), 16 plays, 41 poems, 3 essays, 1 fairy tale, etc., and more than a dozen literary criticism. If we add the Chinese classical literature translated in this period, we can say that after 1920, the translation of Chinese literature in the Korean Peninsula is relatively comprehensive and continuous, which should not be excluded from the history of Korean translated literature.
The fourth stage (1936-1945) was a dark period for the entire Korean Peninsula. In terms of translated literature, Japan has strengthened its control over public opinion and media by strengthening its policy of suppressing national language, The flood of Japanese books, coupled with the growing economic collapse on the Korean peninsula, has put pressure on the publishing industry and reduced the number of magazines, Access to foreign books has also been blocked, resulting in a huge blow to translation activities on the Korean Peninsula. This was the darkest period in the history of Translated literature on the Korean Peninsula. Although there were sporadic translations of Chinese literary works, they only catered to the political needs of the Japanese colonial government and chose some works that were irrelevant to politics and even covered up and beautified its militarist ambitions. In 1940, for example, Three Thousand Miles magazine ran a special collection of "New Chinese literature,"The content of the works is either daily life, love or traditional art, which has nothing to do with politics, and the original translations are entirely dependent on Japanese translations. The content of the works is either daily life, love or traditional art, which has nothing to do with politics, and the original translations are entirely dependent on Japanese translations.
In the fifth stage (1945-1949), the Korean Peninsula was finally liberated from Japanese colonial rule. The country was in ruins and all walks of life seemed to be full of hope, but at the same time, it was in a sudden chaos. At this time, translation has gradually entered the recovery period. From the point of view of countries, the United States and the Soviet Union were the most translated works, which obviously reflected the political situation and ideology at that time. However, the translation and study of modern Chinese literature also ushered in a brief bright period. Many researchers from academic schools joined the ranks of translation, and the translation of their works also moved toward specialization and systematization, with the emergence of selected Modern Chinese Short Stories (1946), Short Stories of Lu Xun (1946), Selected Modern Chinese Poems (1947) and other individual editions. He even published the history of Modern Chinese Literature (1949), the first book of Chinese studies in Korea. Compared with the colonial period, translation at this time was no longer subject to many restrictions, and further got rid of the early enlightenment and utilitarian color in nature. It began to attempt to approach modern Chinese literary works from the perspective of aesthetics and pure literature and carried out systematic and professional research. Translators seem to want to make up for the many regrets of the colonial period and are eager to translate and study modern Chinese literature in an all-round way. Unfortunately, this boom came to an abrupt end after the outbreak of the war in 1950, and The cause of Chinese literary translation fell into recession again.

==3. Differences and Similarities in the translation history of Modern Chinese and Korean literature==
Differences and similarities in the translation history of Modern Chinese and Korean literature
As is known to all, since the 1970s, translation studies have achieved a "cultural" shift, and the scope of research has expanded from the purely linguistic category to the non-linguistic category of culture, ideology, power relations, politics and so on.The literariness and thinking of literary works determine that literary translation has the dual orientation of ideology and poetics.Therefore, the study of literary translation should be connected with the socio-historical background and the poetic background so as to analyze and explain the important translation phenomena in depth.Throughout the history of modern literary translation in China and South Korea, we will find that the biggest similarity is that the "cultural political practice" (Venuti) of translation has always been controlled by ideology.Under the environment of western learning spreading eastward, one of the main social ideologies in East Asia was"Modern transformation".As an important means of modernization transformation, translation not only has an impact on the political and economic development of China and Korea, but also plays an important role in the two countries' acceptance of Western civilization, dissemination of new knowledge, formation of new culture, and the development of their own language and literature.In the process of sorting out the translation history of modern Chinese and Korean literature, we can clearly find that there are many similarities and intersections, and of course there are individual differences.Whether similarities or differences arise, some of them are related to the social ideology of the two countries, and some are related to the influence of the translator's personal ideology.It can be said that ideology permeates all aspects of modern translation in both countries, especially the change and development of social ideology plays a significant role in the evolution of translation.Below, this paper will compare and analyze the similarities and differences of literary translation between the two countries from several aspects.
(1) The nature and motivation of translation
In terms of the nature of translation, the modern translation activities in China and South Korea have obvious utilitarian, effective and political characteristics.Before the formal launch of literary translation, China had gone through a long stage of translating and introducing western scientific and technological books for the purpose of learning from the West, strengthening industrial development and achieving a prosperous country and a strong army.After the failure of the Reform movement of 1898, the development of Chinese foreign literature translation was in fact based on the translation of novels.One of the reasons is that Liang Qichao, the leader of the Reformists, put forward the slogan of "novel revolution" and advocated the translation of political novels, blowing the horn of literary translation. At the same time, a group of literary translators represented by Lin Shu actively engaged in translation practice, which also promoted the development of literary translation at that time.At that time, the purpose of literary translation was also to enlightening the people, reforming the society and giving play to the unique role of literary thought in shaping the "consciousness of the world".After the May 4th Movement, political demands still played a leading role in the selection of translators despite literary factors.On the other hand, the Korean Peninsula, because of the late opening of port and the depth of the country's internal troubles and foreign aggression, had no time to translate western literature as China and Japan did in terms of promoting industrial development and enriching the country and strengthening its armed forces.For them, translation is first of all a means of understanding the outside world, and its direct purpose is to get rid of the control of foreign forces and achieve independence.Therefore, the modern translation of the Korean Peninsula did not go through the stage of large-scale scientific translation, but from the very beginning, a part of social science translation and a large number of literary translation, including political novels, biographies of great men and so on.In particular, the translation of literary works has always occupied an important position in the modern translation of the Korean Peninsula.It is worth mentioning that liang Qichao had a great influence on literary translation during the Period of Korean Civilization.It was under his influence that a large number of political novels were translated and introduced to the Korean Peninsula, and played an important role in the transformation of thoughts and concepts in the Korean Peninsula in the modern period and the emergence and development of modern literature.Of course, after entering the period of colonial rule, the Translation of the Korean Peninsula became more colonial,In many ways, it is more influenced and restricted by Japan. Although there is also the pursuit of literature, the final translation inevitably has a strong political nature.In a word, the translation activities in the first half of the 20th century in both countries are determined by both literary factors and social ideology, but in the final analysis, the latter always plays a dominant role.Due to the special historical environment and similar fate, translation in both countries has strong utilitarian, utility and political characteristics to a large extent, which are the manifestation of the "manipulation" of translation by the ideological form.
(2) The source of the translation
There is no doubt that in all stages of modern translation history, the sources of translated works in the two countries are closely related to Japan, but there are differences in the specific range of sources and degree of dependence on Japan.In fact, before the late Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western scientific and technological books translated in China were basically based on the original Western language.In the translation period dominated by the Reformists, due to the vigorous development of Japanese translation and the characteristics of easy learning and understanding of Japanese, Liang Qichao and Kang Youwei advocated the translation of foreign works from Japanese. It was not until then that A large number of Japanese translations were carried out in China.
After the May 4th Movement, Translation in China flourished, with translators of various languages appearing in large numbers and many intellectuals participating in translation activities.At this time, the original versions of Chinese translations are also varied, including Japanese and English versions, and many are directly translated from the original.On the other hand, due to the influence of history, during the whole period of the Korean Peninsula, the translation of foreign books mainly consisted of Japanese and Chinese versions, and few of them were directly translated from the original.After entering the period of colonial rule, due to Japan's rule and influence on the Korean Peninsula in various fields, there were fewer and fewer translation cases based on The Chinese version, and the Japanese version took the dominant position.However, due to the increasing number of intellectuals focusing on Western language and literature (such as the emergence of the "Overseas Literature School" in 1926), the call for translation based on the original text became stronger and stronger.After all, most of the Korean intellectuals of the "overseas literary school" studied in Japan,Therefore, although they put forward the slogan of "translation from the original text", their translation activities are still directly or indirectly influenced by the Japanese knowledge system.In short, if the modern times of East Asia are "modern times of translation", as a bridge of translation in East Asia, Japanese translation is based on the original text or English.In China, there are both literal translation of the original text and retranslation of English and Japanese versions. On the other hand, Korean translation sources are a little bit unitary, basically retranslating some Chinese and most Japanese versions.However, from another point of view, the translation path of the Korean Peninsula at that time was the most complicated among the three countries, which could be the path of "Japanese → Korean", "Western → Chinese → Korean" or even "Western → Japanese → Chinese → Korean".
At that time, many Korean intellectuals were fluent in both Chinese and Japanese, so it was difficult to refer to only one source in the translation process.For example, The book On The Classics and The United States (1908), marked with the "translation" of Xuan Gonglian, was published with reference to both the Japanese and Chinese versions.Kim Kyo-je, a famous writer of new novels in the early modern period, translated or reprinted 11 novels at least four were translated to the Korean Peninsula through the path of "Western → Chinese → Korean";While Li Haichao translated Iron World (1908), the translation path is "Western → Japanese → Chinese → Korean" .
In Korea at that time, this kind of double, triple or even multiple retranslation is very common. For this reason, the modern Korean Peninsula is also called "retranslated modern times" by scholars.
(3) Topic selection and content of the translated work
Corresponding to the nature, motivation and characteristics of translation, there are not only similarities and intersecting points, but also their own characteristics in the topic selection of translated works.For example, the pilgrim's Progress, a religious novel by English novelist John Bunyan (1628-1688), was among the first western literary works translated in both countries.
This fact reflects the important role of western missionaries in the translation history of the two countries.Aesop's Fables is also one of the earliest and most frequently translated western literary works in both countries.Aesop's Fables was translated many times in both countries and included in the textbooks of the time as a children's book.After entering the modern and contemporary period, both countries highly respected historical and biographical works and political novels, and had a period of concentrated translation.For example, political novels such as "A Journey with the Wind", "Jingguo Meiyu" and "Iron World" have been translated into Chinese and English respectively.In addition, many historical and biographical works (especially the history of subjugations) were translated into The Korean Peninsula through Chinese media at that time, such as The Founding of Switzerland and Fifteen Little Heroes. As well as liang Qichao's writings or translations of the hundred Days' Coup, The History of the Fall of Vietnam, the biography of the three Heroes of the Founding of Italia, The biography of Madame Roland, and the biography of Hungarian patriot Gasus, etc.History books such as A New History of Tai Xi, a Brief History of Russia, A War in the Middle East and modern History of Egypt were also translated from Chinese versions. In the whole period of civilization, the Korean Peninsula concentrated on the translation of history, biographical works and political novels, although there is no lack of Japanese influence, but obviously The Influence of China can not be ignored.Due to reasons such as politics, current affairs and the market, the two countries in politics, history and biography of before and after the translation in the first decade of the 20th century gradually into the low tide, and other types of novels, such as science fiction, detective novels, western pure literary fiction and gradually be translated a lot, at the same time, poetry translation have greater development.It is worth mentioning that translation in both countries reached a new climax after the late decade of the first decade of the 20th century.In terms of the number and diversity of genres, China is far more diverse than The Korean Peninsula, but there are some interesting intersections in the literary translation topics of the two countries, such as Shakespeare, Hardy, Stevenson and Conan Doyle in The UK, Tolstoy, Gorky and Chekov in Russia, Tagore in India,Norway's Ibsen and other works have had a great influence in both countries.It is worth mentioning that there are obvious differences between the two countries in the topic selection of translated works as follows. The first is the translation of Japanese literature
The problem. As we all know, Japanese literature plays a very important role in the history of Chinese translation of foreign literature in the 20th century.On the Korean Peninsula, although the influence of Japanese literature is beyond doubt, and the translation of Japanese literature in the first half of the 20th century can be said to run through the whole modern translation activities of the Korean Peninsula, but the translation of Japanese literature in the Korean Peninsula itself is very few.
The reasons are mainly related to the special political and historical background of the Korean Peninsula and the control and infiltration of Japanese language in the Korean Peninsula after entering the colonial period, as well as the role of national emotional factors.Secondly, the translation and introduction of the other side's literature. In the first half of the 20th century, the literature of the two countries was not the main target of translation in each other's country, but this does not mean that there is no overlap between them. On the whole, the Korean Peninsula paid more and deeper attention to Chinese literature than China did to Korean literature during this period.After entering the modern society, under the extremely complicated and difficult cultural environment, the Korean Peninsula continued to translate Chinese vernacular novels and some classical poems in the Ming and Qing dynasties, and at the same time carried out a relatively concentrated translation of Liang Qichao, the pioneer of Chinese novel revolution. However, what is more noteworthy is his continuous translation and introduction of New Chinese literature, which started in the second half of the 1910s.Due to the special historical and geographical relationship, Korea is the first country in the world to notice China's new cultural movement except Japan. At that time, many magazines and newspapers on the Korean Peninsula introduced and reported the New Chinese literature. Some Korean intellectuals had deep feelings about the innovative atmosphere in The Chinese literary circle and hoped to provide necessary reference for the improvement and innovation of their own literature through the translation and introduction of The new Chinese literature.In a word, during the Period of Japanese rule, the Translation and introduction of modern Chinese literature in The Korean Peninsula was quite comprehensive, and many famous writers and works in the history of Chinese literature were involved in the topic selection, which played an important role in the study of Chinese literature in Korea. On the contrary, China's translation of Korean literature at that time was very limited, mainly due to the concern of "weak and weak ethnic literature", and also influenced by the war ideology of anti-japanese and national salvation, nationalism. However, in the huge history of modern Chinese literature translation, the translation of Korean literature is just a drop in the ocean and has not received enough attention. All in all, the depth and breadth of the translation of each other's works is extremely unbalanced.
(4) The translator's main body, translation strategies and methods
There are also similarities between the two countries on the subject of translators in the history of modern translation literature. In the early stage of translation activities, western missionaries played a great role. Later, famous intellectuals, social activists and literary scholars of the two countries realized the importance of translation, actively participated in translation activities, and became the leading leaders of modern translation in the two countries.For example, yan Fu, Liang Qichao and Lin Shu were active translators in early China, while xuan CAI, Pu Yinzhi, Shen Caihao and other famous scholars, thinkers and social activists led the translation during the Korean Peninsula's enlightenment period. After entering the decade of the 20th century, the translation of the two countries gradually entered the climax.Many Chinese writers, including Lu Xun, Guo Moruo and Zhou Zuoren, actively translated while writing. Choi Nam-sun and Lee Kwang-soo, leaders of Korean literature in the first decade of the 20th century, also actively translated their works.In addition, famous writers of new novels such as Lee Hae-jo, Ahn Guk-seon, and Choi Chan-sik were motivated and motivated by translation activities. With the development of translation, a number of specialized literary translators have emerged in both countries. In addition, some new women at that time also participated in the translation, such as Bing Xin from China and Kim Myung-soon from Korea.In terms of translation strategies or ways, early modern translation system is far from mature, highly standard translation way, utilitarian purpose, color thick, many translators from themselves and the needs of the audience, or excerpts and delete any reduction of the original (AD, Jane), or add their own opinions and comments in the process of translation, the tai shang ganying pian), Or in the form of translation only summarize the general idea (synopsis), for example, liang Qichao and Cui Nanshan's translation to a large extent are abridged, synopsis or translation.Generally speaking, the forms and methods of translation at that time were characterized by diversity and hybridity, which were similar in China and Korea. The reason is related to the mainstream ideology of the translation leaders who hoped to enlighten the people, enrich the country and strengthen the army through translation as soon as possible.
(5) Disputes on "Literary translation"
After literary translation gradually got on the right track and became the mainstream of translation works in the two countries, translators in the two countries gained further insights on the application, methods and techniques of translation and gradually began to express their own views on translation, whose discussions cover all aspects of translation. Such as translation methods, translation skills, translation and the status of translators, the role of translation. The opinions of different translators are bound to be different. Therefore, in the modern and contemporary period, both China and South Korea had debates on translation (literary translation). The focus and theme of the debate are similar, such as "translatable or untranslatable", "literal translation versus free translation" and so on.It is well known that in the history of modern Chinese translation, especially in the May Fourth Movement period, many writers began their literary career by translating foreign literature, and most of them published discussions on translation. The differences between different translators and groups have led to several famous debates in the history of Chinese translation. For example, lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren proposed Literal translation and related debates are typical examples. In addition, in the history of modern Chinese translation, there are also debates on "translated names", "translatable or not translatable literary works", translation methods such as mistranlation, hard translation and dead translation, and translation paths such as literal translation or retranslation.The 1920s was a period when the history of modern and contemporary translation in Korea was on the right track. Many newspapers and magazines published discussions on translation and related debates. In the history of modern translation on the Korean Peninsula, one of the most famous disputes about translation is the dispute between Jin Yi and Liang Zhudong about "literal translation" and "free translation" in poetry translation. Liang zhudong believes that poetry is untranslatable and should be literal compared with free translation. Jin Yi believes that although poetry is untranslatable, if translators exert their own subjective initiative, it can completely improve the value of translated poetry and even become a new creation. However, it is interesting that although Liang zhudong praised the method of "literal translation", he criticized the "overseas literature school" that focused on foreign literature at that time for being too rigid in the way of literal translation, and believed that "literal translation" should be organically combined with "free translation".In fact, the debate between literal translation and free translation, or "domestication" and "foreignization", is closely related to ideology.
The debate between translators in the two countries over these issues is actually carried out at the ideological level. According to venuti, a famous translation theorist of deconstruction school, the choice of translation strategy is determined by ideology.
(6) The influence of translation on the languages and literature of the two countries
In fact, the greatest influence of modern literary translation on China and South Korea is reflected in the development of characters and literature. First of all, translation must be carried out with language as the carrier. Under normal circumstances, the translated language is naturally the lingua franca of a country and a nation, but for China and South Korea in the late 19th and 20th centuries, a common problem emerged in the process of translation in terms of language carrier: At that time, both countries had two parallel language systems, which coincided with the social and cultural transition, so language translation became a very interesting topic.As we all know, in the late 19th century and the early 20th century, There were two languages in China: Classical Chinese and vernacular Chinese. Vernacular Chinese was still in the ascendant, while classical Chinese still played an important role in written and literary translation. Of course, the classical Chinese at this time refers to the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China common "shallow classical Chinese", it is different from the past obscure ancient prose, but in classical Chinese mixed with common sayings, is a kind of literary language between ancient Classical Chinese and vernacular.For example, Lin Shu, a great modern translator, translated foreign literature in classical Chinese. His translation was not only welcomed by readers at that time, but also had a great influence on many famous Chinese intellectuals. In the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China, there were both classical Chinese and vernacular Chinese translations, and the classical Chinese translations were more than the vernacular ones, but basically the two languages co-existed peacefully. In the process of translation, the needs of the audience should be considered. The same translator can translate in both vernacular and classical Chinese. The same foreign novel may have both classical and vernacular translations.It was not until after the New Culture Movement that the vernacular style gradually occupied the main position in written language. After the 1920s, the translated works in China were mainly in vernacular. For the development of modern Chinese vernacular, it can be said that the impact of translation is extremely far-reaching. Chinese vernacular can be divided into "traditional vernacular" and "modern vernacular".The traditional vernacular is based on a Dream of Red Mansions.
The vernacular of China represented by such vernacular classics as Water Margin, which is not influenced by western language. The "modern vernacular" is based on the traditional vernacular, influenced by oral and ancient prose and with the color of European, that is, the May 4th Movement advocated vernacular, namely the so-called European vernacular.It is worth noting that this Kind of European vernacular was actually created by western missionaries in China at that time, and the tool of missionaries to create European vernacular is translation. In order to spread religion and western culture smoothly, they translated a large number of Western books, including holy books, and consciously chose words and styles more suitable for ordinary people to read in the process of translation, which was the prototype of vernacular Chinese vigorously advocated by the May Fourth Movement.Similar to the situation in China, the Korean Peninsula in the late 19th and early 20th centuries also had two basic styles, namely, the mixed style of Chinese and Chinese and the pure Style of Chinese. It was only after the 1894-1895 Revolution that the Korean Peninsula's national language began to be widely used. It takes time for any language style to emerge and mature, and the Korean Peninsula's "pure Korean style" is no exception,In 1921, Korean language researchers formed the Korean Language Research Society under the influence of the Zhou Dynasty, which served as an opportunity for the further establishment of the modern Korean language. Before this, mixed Chinese and Korean language played an important role in the written language of the Korean Peninsula for a long time.In fact, the so-called mixed Chinese characters are based on Chinese characters, sometimes using Korean characters. The difference is that some mark Korean characters on Chinese characters, and some do not even mark Korean characters, but only Chinese characters. There is another special case, that is, the pure Chinese style with Korean auxiliary words and endings, such as the "hanging out Chinese style" used by Shen Caihao in the translation of the Biography of the Three Heroes of the Foundation of Itri.It is worth mentioning that it was also western missionaries who initially carried out translation activities in Korean. In order to preach, they carried out translation activities mainly aimed at the "Bible" in the Korean Peninsula, using the Korean language, which was not popular and was not valued by the Korean intellectuals at that time. The purpose of using The Korean language was to make the translated holy book easier for more ordinary people to accept. Kim Byeong-cheol holds that it is the translation of sacred books in the native Korean language that gave birth to the main form of modern literature on the Korean Peninsula, namely the "new novel", and thus promoted the "unity of language and language" and the emergence of modern literature in Korea.In general, the influence of translation on the development of Chinese and Korean characters and literature is far more than that. It can be said that the expansion of sentence structure, the change of style, the enrichment of vocabulary, the improvement of expressive force and the perfection of grammar system of the two languages are all inseparable from translation. In a word, translation has played an indispensable role in the unification of language and language in the history of Chinese and English literature. In addition to its role in language, translation also has a profound influence on the development of modern literature in both countries. As is known to all, the translation and introduction of a large number of foreign novels not only brought strong shock and impact to the literary circles of the two countries at that time, but also provided a lot of reference for the realization of the literary transformation of the two countries.It can be said that in the process of the collision, integration and evolution of eastern and western literature, literary translation plays a decisive external role in the transformation of Chinese and Korean literature from classical form to modern form, and has a great impact on the literary concept, literary type, narrative mode and expression mode. In this regard, researchers in China and South Korea have given positive descriptions.
==4. conclusion==
There are many similarities between China and South Korea in modern times. Under the environment of western learning spreading to the east, both of them were knocked out of the country by the West, suffered the invasion of western powers and Japan successively, and passively started the journey of modernization. Under the circumstance of deepening national crisis of domestic and foreign invasion, the enlightened intellectuals of the two countries have carried out the exploration of saving the nation from extinction, and translation is an important means for them to achieve this goal. To be specific, the historical context of the spreading of Western learning from the end of the 19th century endowed the two countries with unique historical characteristics. Due to the similarity of historical, cultural and political background and mainstream ideology, the translation of modern and contemporary literature in the two countries also presents many similarities and even intersecting points. As analyzed above, the most obvious common point in the modern translation history of China and Korea is ideology Influence throughout. For China and Korea at that time, one of the mainstream ideologies was "modernization transformation", and translation was the driving force for the modernization transformation process of the two countries. Therefore, utilitarianism and purposefulness run through the development of modern translation in both countries. In addition to the mainstream social ideology, the translator's personal ideology also has a great influence on literary translation in both countries.For example, the early translation phenomenon led by Western missionaries and the later translation activities led by intellectuals of the two countries were all carried out by translators for their personal purposes under the influence of the general environment at that time. It can be said that it is because of the influence of the subliminal form of the western learning spreading to the east that the modern and modern translations of the two countries show many similarities or similarities. Comparing the literary translation of the two countries in terms of specific content, we can find many similarities in details. For example, western missionaries played an important role at the beginning. After entering the 20th century, the translation of both countries was deeply influenced by Japan. The translation groups of the two countries were the best intellectuals and representatives of the new culture at that time. When they translated foreign works, they also carried out various discussions and even debates about translation. Translation activities have broadened the horizons of the people of the two countries and enriched their languages, literature and even culture.

It is worth mentioning that cultural exchanges between the two countries have also been continued through translation. Of course, due to the differences in specific situations, there are some differences in literary translation between the two countries while showing common features. The author believes that the biggest difference lies in the scale of translation. To be specific, from the number of translated works and translators, the discussion and construction of translation theories, the importance attached to translation, and the influence and status of translation in the history of national literature, Chinese modern translation is obviously higher. The main reason is that the translation environment and background of the two countries at that time are different, that is, the difference between complete colonies and semi-colonies. Although the Qing Dynasty fell under the background of the competition of western powers, China did not completely become a colony of any power, so it was relatively free and independent in political and cultural development. However, because Korea was annexed and ruled by Japan, it was difficult to develop modernization independently. The whole society was highly dependent on Japan, and it was also greatly restricted and influenced by Japan in terms of ideology. Translation activities were no exception.

As mentioned above, the purpose of the author's comparative study of Chinese and Korean contemporary literature translation is to restore the contemporary and contemporary literary exchanges between the two countries, and at the same time to provide necessary background for the mutual translation and introduction of the contemporary and contemporary literature of the two countries. However, the study of Chinese and Korean modern literature translation is a polyphonic and polysemy subject with a very wide range of coverage. Due to the limited space and author's ability, this paper only generalizes and arranges the subject from a macro perspective, and many details are not developed in depth. Translated works by the capacity of, for example, the sources of the related works and so on, for more exist in the two countries pay fork points to explore, in the evaluation of literature translation of words between the two countries and the specific influence of literature, especially under the background of their literary translation between the two countries the properties and significance of literary translation, etc, if you can carry out further discussion and exploration of the content, The research results will be more rich and three-dimensional.

There were many similarities between China and South Korea in modern times. Under the environment of western learning spreading to the East, both of them were knocked out of the country by the West, suffered the invasion of western powers and Japan successively, and passively started the journey of modernization. Under the circumstance of deepening national crisis of domestic and foreign invasion, the enlightened intellectuals of the two countries had carried out the exploration of saving the nation from extinction.Translation was an important means for them to achieve this goal. To be specific, the historical context of the spreading of Western learning from the end of the 19th century endowed the two countries with unique historical characteristics. Due to the similarity of historical, cultural and political background and mainstream ideology, the translation of literature in the two countries also presented many similarities and even intersecting points. As analyzed above, the most obvious common point was ideology influence. For China and Korea at that time, one of the mainstream ideologies was "modernization transformation",for which translation was the driving force. Therefore, utilitarianism and purposefulness ran through the development of modern translation in both countries. In addition to the mainstream social ideology, the translator's personal ideology also has a great influence on literary translation in both countries.For example,the early translation phenomenon led by Western missionaries and the later translation activities led by intellectuals of the two countries were all carried out by translators for their personal purposes under the influence of the general environment at that time. Without doubt, the influence of the subliminal form of the western learning spreading to the east constituted similarities between the two countries.Comparing the literary translation of the two countries in terms of specific content,we found many similarities in details. For example, western missionaries played an important role at the beginning. After entering the 20th century, the translation of both countries was deeply influenced by Japan. The translation groups of the two countries were the best intellectuals and representatives of the new culture at that time. When they translated foreign works, they also carried out various discussions and even debates about translation. Translation activities had broadened the horizons of the people and enriched their languages, literature and even culture.

It is worth mentioning that cultural exchanges between the two countries have also been continued through translation. Of course, due to the differences in specific situations, there are some differences in literary translation between the two countries while showing common features. The author believes that the biggest difference lies in the scale of translation. To be specific, from the number of translated works and translators, the discussion and construction of translation theories, the importance attached to translation to the influence and status of translation in the history of national literature, Chinese modern translation was obviously higher. The main reason was that the translation environment and background of the two countries at that time were different, that is, the difference between complete colonies and semi-colonies. Although the Qing dynasty fell under the background of the competition of western powers, China did not completely become a colony of any power, so it was relatively free and independent in political and cultural development. However, because Korea was annexed and ruled by Japan, it was difficult to develop modernization independently. The whole society was highly dependent on Japan, and it was also greatly restricted and influenced by Japan in terms of ideology. Translation activities were no exception.

As mentioned above, the purpose of the author's comparative study of Chinese and Korean contemporary literature translation is to restore the literary exchanges between the two countries, and at the same time to provide necessary background for the two countries. However, the study of Chinese and Korean modern literature translation is a polyphonic and polysemy subject with a very wide range of coverage. Due to the limited space and author's ability, this paper only generalized and arranged the subject from a macro perspective, and many details were not developed in depth, such as the sources of the related works,the evaluation of literature translation of words, the properties and significance of literary translation and so on. This paper will be more rich and three-dimensional with further discussion and exploration of the content.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 07:59, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

==References==
*金秉哲[韩]: 《韩国近代翻译文学史研究》，首尔: 乙酉文化社，1975。130-160页
*金鹤哲: 《1949 年以前韩国文学汉译和意识形态因素》，《中国比较文学》2009 年第 4 期，第 66 页。
*金旭东[韩]: 《翻译与韩国的近代》，首尔: 小明出版社，2010，第25~28页。
*王秉钦、王颉: 《20世纪中国翻译思想史》，南开大学出版社，2004，第31页。
*许钧: 《面向中西交流的翻译史研究》，《解放军外国语学院学报》2014 年第 5 期，第 140 页。
*许钧、袁筱一编著《当代法国翻译理论》，南京大学出版社，1998，第 128 页。
*朱一凡: 《翻译与现代汉语的变迁 ( 1905 ~ 1936) 》，外语教学与研究出版社，2011，第 72 页。

=刘沛婷 Western Translation history in Renaissance)=
==Abstract==
The Renaissance is not only an important period in the history of literature and technology, but also a turning point in the history of western translation. During this period, the translation of religious and literary works gradually flourished, and translators constantly put forward new translation concepts and tried translation practices.The soaring of national consciousness and national languages contributed to the characteristic ideas of translation in the Renaissance. Especially France, Britain and Germany had made outstanding contributions to the evolution and progress of the entire translation history during this period.This chapter is to have a brief introduction to the translation history in Renaissance, conduct a detailed explaination from the three countries of France, Britan and Germany respectively and illustrate some representative translators and translation theories with the hope to show the magnificent translation achievements in Renaisance and the evolvement of human translation history.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 06:19, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

==Key words==
Translation history; renaissance; France; Britain; Germany

==Introduction==

The period from around the fourteenth until the mid-seventeenth century has conventionally been designated as the Renaissance,referring to the rediscovery and revitalization of the literature, art and science of ancient Greece and Rome. The term was devised by Italian humanists who sought to reaffirm their own continuity with the classical humanist heritage after an interlude of Middle Ages (Habib 2011：79).It was a great revolution in intellect and culture. It is also “the greatest progressive revolution that mankind has so far experienced, a time which called for giants and produced giants” (Engels 1972：445).Renaissance takes spreading humanism thought as one of the main forms of expression, involving all aspects of the cultural field, including the ancient Greek, Roman works and contemporary European works. In the process of studying and reviving classical culture, as well as developing and spreading new ideas, translation obviously plays an important role. The magnificent Renaissance itself included and depended on an unprecedented scale of translation activities. Therefore, it marks not only a great development in literature, art and science, but also an important milestone in the history of translation.

Originated in Italy in the 15th century, and in the 16th century Renaissance swept Europe, (especially Western European countries) and gradually formed a climax. At that time, western society was filled with a spirit of seeking and conquering the objective world. When this spirit was reflected in the translation field, translators were full of ambition and spared no effort to constantly discover new literary styles, excavate new cultural heritages and transplant new ideas to their motherland. Many translators translated classic works related to politics, philosophy, social system, literature and art of past glorious countries into their national languages as reference for the development of their own countries. All achievements in translation were compared to "trophies" in literature and knowledge. Next, we are to have a review on translations history of France, Britain and Germany, three major Western European countries in the high tide of Renaissance.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 06:24, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

==1.History of Translation in France==

In France, during this period, the wind of restoring ancient styles began to prevail, ancient languages were valued, and ancient writers were respected. A large number of literary works of Italian humanists, such as Dante, Petrarch and Boccaccio, were introduced to France, which opened people's eyes and promoted the development of French humanist movement. Therefore, the focus of translation in France shifted from religious works to Italian classical literature works. The increasingly translation activities constituted a climax of translation history in France.Translators generally believed that translating literary works was much more difficult than translating religious works. Although translation began to reach a new climax, most of the translations were the "by-products" of literary creation, with low quality and little influence. However, in the climax of translation in France in the 16th century, there were two outstanding contributors , one is Jacques Amyot and the other is Etienne Dolet.(Tan Zaixi,2000:21)

Jacques Amyot was considered the king of translation in France. His first translation, Heliodoros’ ''Aethiopica'', was completed in 1547. Later, he translated Diodorus Siculus’s ''Bibliotheca Historica'' and, in 1559 he translated Ploutarchos’s ''Vies des Hommes illustrus'', which was Amyot’s most famous work. Amyot advocated translators’ thorough understanding of the original text and plain expressions without embellishment. He emphasized the unity of content and form, free translation and literal translation. In his translation, he borrowed words from Greek and Latin and simultaneously created a large number of words in politics, philosophy, science, literature, music and so on. He fused common people language and academic language, and therefore formed an independent style of translation and greatly enriched the French vocabulary. At that time, the French language is still in a state of confusion, Amyot and other humanists made tremendous contributions to unify the French national language.

Another great man in translation history of France was Etienne Dolet. As a famous translation theorist, Dolet advocated targeted texts’ faithfulness to the original work, which is the fundamental and indispensable principle in translation. Dolet believed that an excellent translator must be proficient in both source language and target language. He was aware of the weakness of word-by-word translation and emphasized that the translation should be consistent with the original text in style through various rhetorical devices. Ballard,a French translation theorist, argued that dolet’ translation principles constituted the rudiment of the French translation theory. What he proposed was the universal principles for translation.(Xu Jun and Yuan Xiaoyi,1998:284)

Jacques Amyot set an example for the following translation works in France in the 16th century; Etienne Dolet’s translation theories were of great significance and were the first systematic principles of translation, which were ahead of those of Germany and Britain and advanced translation studies into a higher level. Thanks to their efforts, France had earned a place in translation history during Renaissance period.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 06:25, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

==2. History of Translation in Britain==

In Britain, the Renaissance came later than in the main countries of continental Europe, but Britain gradually kept up with others countries. During this period, the British capitalist economy developed rapidly, productivity improved greatly, and the country became increasingly prosperous , which has laid a solid material foundation for the development of literature and translation. Especially since Elizabeth came to the throne in the mid-16th century by the early 17th century, translation was flourishing. On the one hand, religious translation is in the ascendant, on the other hand, a great deal of literature from Greece, Rome and other contemporary countries was translated into English, which made English translation activities in this period one of the peaks of translation activities in Europe and even the world. Literary translation ranged from history and philosophy to poetry and drama, with the occurrence of a large number of excellent translators,who introduced ancient ingenuity to Britain, offering serious lessons not only to the Queen and politicians, but also plots and materials for dramatists and readers with the purpose of serving their country. At that time, many translators were not scholars, they were not bound by any strict translation theory, they could translate what they had at their own will. Many translations are not directly from the original texts, but from the translations or even the translation of the translation. Therefore, the scope and quantity of translation are unprecedented in Britain.In the aspect of religious translation, the translator was also influenced by humanism and the Reformation, a new understanding of the Bible arose, as well as a new attitude and a new way of dealing with the translation of the Bible. People advocated accurate translation in religious works, while for literature, the unbridled freedom of traditional translation methods persisted throughout the Elizabethan era.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 07:15, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

====2.1 Translation of Douglas and Cheke====

Gavin Douglas (1475-1522), a famous Scottish poet and translator, published his translation of Virgil’s epic Poem ''The Aeneid'' in the early 16th century. He began his preface with a eulogy of Virgil and then launched into a serious critique of the overly liberal medieval translation. He criticized Caxton's French translation as unfaithful, as far from Virgil's original work, and "as different from the devil as st. Austin" (Amos,1920:129). Douglass did not translate word by word, but freely translated. He said that if translator encountered difficult words, sentences, rhymes, one had to deviate from the original text. Douglass had added new content and new meaning to translation principles, and thus had a certain value.

Towards the middle of the 16th century, an important figure in translation was John Cheke (1514-1557). He was a humanist and supporter of the Reformation, as well as a polyglot authority on Greek at the time and served as Principal Regent Chair Professor at Cambridge university. As a result of his popularity, Cambridge became one of the academic centers in Britain, and its students were well versed in translation and language studies.Cheke was a tireless translator,who had translated many Greek works and the Bible. Characteristically, he used only pure English words or words of Saxon origin in any case, and did not adopt any foreign words. He thought the English language was rich enough without borrowing foreign words. Because of his insist on pure English words and expressions in his translation, he sometimes had to use vulgar, old and remote words, so that the style of his translation was sometimes forced and stiff.
Cheke's theory had a great influence on contemporary translators. Many other translators often mentioned Cheke's translation views in their own translations. At that time, the main criterion for evaluating a translated work was whether it was authentic and easy to be understood by compatriots. At the same time, the study of foreign grammar and contrastive vocabulary also appeared in language studies. The translator aimed to turn the translation into a textbook for students of language and translation to imitate. Some translators also use word-for-word translation to provide guidance to students. Abraham Fleming, for example, translated Virgil's Poems "according to grammatical rules." He "used plain and understandable words so as to accommodate those who are slow in comprehension, since the translator's aim is to use straightforward language structures to ease the difficulties of those whose grammatical concepts are vague, rather than to devise ways to satisfy the desires of grander humanists" (Amos,1920:109).--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 07:16, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

====2.2 Translation from Thomas North to Georga Chapman====

However, in the translation of classical masterpieces, translators tended to shift from one extreme to another. In order to avoid word-for-word translation, translators adopted excessively free translation, which was not only for the expression of words but also for the treatment of the substance of the content. Nicholas Udall(1505-1556) created the first British comedy ''Ralph Roister Doister''. In 1542 he translated Erasmus's ''Book of Proverbs'', and later presided over Erasmus's Latin translation, including the Gospel of Luke, which was published in 1548. In the preface to the translation of the ''New Testament'', he discussed various issues related to translation: the treatment of translators, the expansion of English vocabulary, the treatment of sentence structure of the translation, Erasmus's style and the stylistic characteristics of different authors. In his opinion, translation should not follow rigid rules. He advocated the use of liberal translation without deviation from the original meaning, and the translation should be readable and understandable to the general readers.

The most famous translation work of the whole Elizabethan period was the English version of ''The live of the Noble Grecians and Romans'' by translator Thomas North (1535-1601).He studied at Cambridge University in his early years, and later worked in London, where he met many translation lovers and gradually became interested in translation. In 1557 he translated ''Diall of Princes'' from a French translation and later he translated an oriental allegory from an Italian translated version in 1601. ''The live of the Noble Grecians and Romans'' was translated in 1579. This translation was not from the original Greek version, but from Amyot's French translation. However, it was still considered as an excellent epoch-making translation. North did not express any unique views on translation, but he was famous for his excellent translation in the western translation circle with three main characteristics:(1)because it is not from the original Greek, the style of the translation is different from Plutarch's style; The original text is elegant while his translation is plain. (2) North's style is also different from that of Amio in the French translation, which he used as a model. He not only changes the wording of the French translation, but also its spirit. Like Amio's French translation, North's is another masterpiece based on Plutarch's original subject. (3) Though he knew little of the classical language, North was a master of The English language, and his translations were so simple and fluent, so elegant and idiomatic, that readers might have taken them for the original if they had not read the plot (Tan Zaixi, 2004:76) . North's translation was praised by Shakespeare, who drew his inspirations from this translated works and cited its expressions, which can be considered a terrific contribution of translation to literature. The prose style adopted by ''The live of the Noble Grecians and Romans'' is novel and elegant, neither rigid nor grotesque, and hence it has become an enduring model in the history of English translation.

Philemon Holland (1552-1637) was the most outstanding English translator of the 16th century, whose works outnumbered those of his contemporaries. He had been a surgeon and headmaster of Coventry General School. He was a learned translator and scholar, fluent in Greek and Latin, proficient in ancient writing and proverbs, as well as rhetoric. His classical works were not translated but directly from the Original Greek and Latin texts, and the subject matter was also varied. He translated Livy's Romane Historie in 1600 and Pliny's Natural Historie in 1601, Plutarch's Moralia in 1603, and translated Zitonius's The Historie of The Twelve Caesars in 1606. Hollander is better known in British translation circles than North or Florio, known as the Elizabethan "translator general" who truly understood "the secret of translation." Holland's translation has two main characteristics :(1) translation must serve the reality; (2) Translation must be stylistic. In the preface to his translation of Natural History, he emphasized, "the practicality of the content of the translation, which should be suitable not only for learned people, but also for the uncivilized peasants in the countryside and for the industrious craftsmen in the cities” (Amos,1920:86) . Hollander was particular about the style of his translation. Like other translators of his time, he used a slow prose style, and the translation was always longer than the original. In his translation he tried to be authentic, not foreign. He does not use artificial language, but popular style. Like Cheke before him, he also preferred archaic words to foreign ones out of love for the language of his own country. What’s more, he believed that the style of the original work must be reflected in the translation, and that different works must adopt different styles without adding differences. Hollander had left behind more than just translations, but a series of works with distinctive stylistic characteristics that could withstand even the rigors of modern stylist analysis and provide the modern reader with great pleasure.

Georga Chapman (1559-1634) was another outstanding translator, whose greatest contribution is that his translations serve as a bridge between the 16th and 17th centuries. He spent his early years as a student at Oxford University before writing poetry and plays. But it was mainly his translations that made him famous in the literary world. He translated the first seven books of the Iliad in 1598, completed the epic in 1611, and the Odyssey in 1616. The translator's profound attainments and outstanding achievements made his translation a literary masterpiece of the time. Chapman adopted two different styles to translate the same poetic style of the original work, that is, he translated Iliad in sonnet and Odyssey in heroic couplet. In contrast, the former is more appropriate and decent than the latter. In his translation, Chapman made extensive use of mythological dictionaries, referred to early reviews of Homer's work. However, both in content and style, the translation is not completely consistent with the original work. It has transformed the characters in the poem, and added elements of moral preaching to the value of wisdom and the expression and restraint of feelings. Chapman is unblemished as a translator. As a poet, however, he was blameless. His translation has achieved great success mainly because of his extraordinary creative ability as a poet and superb ability to control language.
Chapman also made some contributions to the theoretical issues of translation. In the preface of his translation, he clearly put forward the principles guiding the translation of poetry, thus filling some gaps in translation theory in the 16th century, especially in the later period. In principle, he was against too much strictness as well as too much freedom. He said, "I despise the translators for being trapped in the mire of word-for-word translation, losing the living soul of their native language and blackening the original author with stiff language. At the same time, I abhors the use of complicated language to express the meaning” (Amos,1920:130) . Of all that he opposed, the first was word for word translation,which was considered the most unnatural and absurd. According to the views of translation theories such as Horace, who had insight and a prudent attitude that the translator should not follow the original number of words and word order, but follow its material composition and sentences, carefully weigh sentences, and then use the most appropriate expressions and form to express and decorate the translation. Chapman believed that word-by-word translation was a common fault of translators, and even he himself was inevitable. But those mistakes could be overcome. Although the expression of meaning and language style of Greek and English are different, the translator could compare the translation with the original text in meaning and style as long as he carefully identified, understood the spirit of the original text and had a thorough understanding of its grammar and vocabulary and thus approximately achieved "formal correspondence" (Catford,1965:32). Chapman's theory was carried on by many translators of the 17th and 18th centuries. This was obviously because he opposed both extremes, and it was easier to argue for a compromise.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 06:45, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

====2.3 Translation of Tyndale and Fulke====

In the 16th century, the translation of the English Bible also flourished. Since the introduction of ethnic translation in the Middle Ages, the Bible had been increasingly read. It had the same appeal for all classes of people, which prompted translators to combine the accuracy required by scholars with the intelligibility required by ordinary people, thus promoting the overall development of translation art and theory. In this respect, religious translation in England in the 16th century was more effective than literary translation. Tyndale and Fulke were the main representatives of bible translation.

William Tyndale (1494-1536) was an erudite humanist and protestant reformist. In 1523, his translation of the New Testament from Greek from a Protestant standpoint was opposed and persecuted by the English church authorities and was not allowed to be published. He fled to Germany in 1524 and, after many twists and turns, had his translation first published in 1525. In 1526, he smuggled the translation back to England against the will of the Church, trying to spread Protestant ideas through the new translation of the Bible and convert The English people to Protestants. The church authorities immediately took measures to lay siege. The Bishop of London claimed to have found 2,000 errors in Tyndale's translation. Thomas More, a famous humanist, attacked his translation very unkindly, and the priests bought all the copies they could get and burned them to prevent their proliferation. Uncompromising, Tyndale continued to translate the Bible in his own way: he translated the first book of the Old Testament in 1530, completed The Book of Jonah in 1531, and published the revised New Testament in 1534. The church authorities had no choice but to burn Tyndale in 1536 for heresy.
Tyndale's translation, however, had not disappeared but was republished after Tyndale's martyrdom and became increasingly influential, serving as the main reference version and as the model for all English translations for centuries to come. The greatest achievement of Tyndale's translation is that it takes into account the needs of academe, conciseness and literariness, and integrates these three elements into the style of English translation of the Bible. Tyndale paid special attention to the popularity of the translation, trying to use the authentic English vocabulary and ordinary narrative expressions of vivid and specific expressions, which makes his text simple and natural without being pedantic.

If Tyndale made a special contribution to the practical translation of the Bible in the 16th century, then it was William Fulke (1538-1589)who made the greatest achievements in the theoretical study of bible translation. Fulke was a scholar of The Bible with humanistic thoughts. Without translating the Bible completely, he had great views on translation theory. In 1589 he published a book entitled in Defence of the Sincere and True Translation of the Holy Scriptures into the English Tongue. It must be pointed out that Fulke did not systematically discuss the universal principles of translation as Dolet did. Instead, he only talked about the facts and refuted Gregory Martin's views, and expounded the theoretical issues in a rather chaotic manner. To sum up, there were mainly two aspects as follows:
(1)Translation can have nothing to do with faith. Fulke, influenced by Erasmus's linguistic approach, disagreed with Martin's assertion of theological authority over scientific scholarship. Translators, he believed, must be fluent in many languages so that they could make accurate judgments about the teachings of the saints without blindly following them. The power of a translator lies in his solid linguistic ability, not in his belief in God. He said, The translator cannot be called an unfaithful heretic as long as the translation conforms to the language and meaning of the original text, even if the motive is not good. (Amos 1920:71) Fulke never accepted Martin's strict translation formulas, nor did he submit to unproven authoritative theories, even from the leaders of his own faction. Fulke’s point of view is obviously a challenge to the theological authority of Augustine with its purpose to liberate the Bible translation from the narrow theological tradition and win the right for ordinary people to translate and interpret the Bible.
(2)The Translation of the Bible must respect linguistic habits. If the translator has difficulty in understanding the original text, he/she should turn to the language habits of ancient non-religious writers, while one encounters difficulties in diction, translator should refer to the language habits of contemporary secular writers and the general public. Fulke added: "We are not lords dictating the way people speak. If we were, we would teach them how to use language better. Since we cannot change the way people speak, we have to follow Aristotle's instructions and use the language of ordinary people."(Amos 1920:72) Therefore, religious usage should give way to common usage if it is in conflict with common usage. In translation, words and expressions that are most easily understood must be used so that those who do not know their etymological meaning can understand them. At the same time, if words have been misused over a long period of time, with meanings that do not correspond to the original meaning of the words, or have been misused to increase the ambiguity of the words, the translator should not follow blindly, but should look to the root and choose the words according to their original meaning, that is, according to the meaning used in the time when the Bible was written. In translating the Bible into English, Fulke did not advocate excessive borrowing of foreign words but tapping the expressive potential of English itself and paying attention to the use of expressions in line with English habits. Fulke acknowledged that English had a small vocabulary compared with older languages, but argued that this could not be compensated for by making up words, but by using Old English words again.
Clearly, some of Mr Fulke's views are limited and conservative. Many of the foreign words he objects to have been adopted as part of the English vocabulary. But many of his criticisms of Martin are convincing, and his work has been generally praised by the translators of the Bible. Some of his observations on language are so incisive that they are still of great reference value to the study of modern English.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 07:17, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

==3.History of Translation in Germany==

In Germany, the national self-consciousness was further strengthened, and the trend of mechanical imitation of Latin gradually disappeared in the 15th century.

====3.1 Dominant Ideas in German Translation====

Linguists realized the unique style and expressive ability of German, and hence shifted the focus of translation from the original language to the target language. Free translation took the place of word-to-word translation and occupied the dominant position. The only reason for translators to object literal translation is its convenience for readers to understand word-by-word translation.
Gradually, scholars recognized that Hebrew, Greek, and Latin all have distinct features, especially in terms of idiomatic expressions. Similarly, since German is an independent language, it also has its own unique expressions that cannot be translated word by word into other languages, nor can expressions in other languages be translated word by word into German. Based an an understanding of the nature and differences of languages as well as a growing sense of nationality and desire to develop the national language, more and more historians and scholars have begun to use German idiomatic expressions rather than imitate Latin.
Against the background of this trend of thought, the free translators gradually changed their inferiority in the debates with the literal translators in the 15th century, and rightly put forward another profound reason against literal translation: German is an independent language with its own rules that must be respected; German has its own language style, which cannot be destroyed by imitation of other languages. This was the dominant idea in German translation throughout the 16th century.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 07:17, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

====3.2 Translation of Reuchlin, Erasmus and Luther====

Johannes Reuchlin(1455-1522) aroused great academic interest in Hebrew. In 1515, he wrote Epistolae Obscurorum Virorum, exposing the narrow-mouthing ignorance of the scholars and monks, which led to a fierce debate between the reformers and conservatives in the church. At the same time, he was also very knowledgeable about translation theory. He mainly translated two works, ''Batrachom Yomachia'' (1510) and ''Septem Psalmos Poenitentiales'' (1512), using word-for-word translation. This contradicts his own remarks about translation.
However, its actual content and general principles could not be compared to those of the literal translation school in the 15th century. The literatrists of the 15th century only emphasized the imitation of certain rhetorical forms of the text, while Reuchlin understood the value of rhythm and the difference between the text and the translation. He believed that the form of the original was so closely integrated with the original that it could not be preserved in the target language. Just like Homer's works alive only in Greek, it would detract from the aesthetic value of literature when translated into any other language. The purpose of literal translation was not to ask the translator to imitate the style of the original text, but to make readers pay attention to the style of the original text and appreciate its literary value.

Another outstanding representatives of a new approach to literary study and new insights into translation theory in the 16th century was Desiderius Erasmus (1466-1536), who was born in a priest's family in Rotterdam, Netherlands. His early education was influenced by The Canon of Augustine. After studying in Paris, he lived successively in Britain, Germany, Italy and Switzerland, accepting humanism and opposing scholasticism. He was knowledgeable, good at language studies, and had profound attainments in Greek and Latin literature, especially his incisive treatises on literature and style.
Erasmus advocated that the original work must be respected. Before Erasmus, the Translation of the Bible in Various European countries was in a state of confusion. Erasmus bitterly pointed out that the translation and commentary of the Bible must be faithful to the original text, because no translation can fully translate the "language of God" as the Bible itself. Early theologians did not understand Hebrew or Greek and could not understand the original text of the Bible, so the truth of the Bible was covered up, distorted, or ossified into dogma. To uncover this truth, we must go back to the source. It is truth, not authority, that should be respected. What’s more, he claimed that translator must have a rich knowledge of language. He believed that to interpret the ''New Testament'' correctly it was necessary to learn ancient Greek; Anyone who wished to pursue theological studies must first be able to read the classics and learn Greek semantics, meanings, and rhetoric. Also, he realized the great importance of style in translation and attached great importance to readers’ requirements. There is no doubt that Erasmus' translation theory is the result of his humanistic thought, his mastery of multiple languages as well as his appreciation of literary styles. His translation principles and methods have exerted great influence on both contemporary and later translators.

Martin Luther (149-146) was the founder of the European Religious Reform movement and the Protestant Church reformer. Luther translated the Bible, known as “the first bible of common people” in the history by using the people's language, which played a great role in unifying the German language and laid a foundation for the formation and development of modern German.
He also proposed that translation should adopt common people language and only appropriate free translation can bring the original enlightening thoughts of Bible into light. Grammatical correction and semantic coherence were of great value during translation. Translation was so challenging that it requires collective wisdom and repeatedly revisions.
Luther had also put forward seven rules for translation: the word order of the original text can be changed; modal particles can be used reasonably; necessary conjunctions can be added; words in the original text that do not have an equivalent can be omitted; phrases can be used to translate individual words; figurative usage and non-figurative usage can be changed flexibly; the accuracy of variant forms and explanations should be strengthened. Although Luther’s translation practice received a great deal of criticism, his translation of Bible his was considered to be the earliest written language in German and opened a new era in the development of modern German(Xie Tianzhen 2009:23).It endowed him with the highest reputation and the most profound influence in Germany.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 07:04, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

==Conclusion==
It could be seen from the above sections that one of the biggest characteristics of Western translation during the Renaissance was the parallel and independent development of the translation of western European national languages. The use of Latin, though still having some market, was a tributary in both writing and translation. Before the Renaissance, especially before the middle ages, when we talked about western translation, we mostly meant translation in Latin. Since the Renaissance, with the gradual formation and consolidation of national states and the development of national languages, western translation had turned to national languages,especially French, English and German.The translation activities in the Renaissance period were basically devoid of disciplinary consciousness, and the theories were fragmentary and unsystematic. Most of the authors were translation practitioners, and most of the theories were empirical(Pan Wenguo 2002:23). Thanks to the translators in these three countries who were devoted themselves to the study of translation principles and the transmission of classic works, their consistant and pain-staking efforts had pushed the translation theory to anew level and left countlessly valueable translated works.Therefore, the Renaissance could be said to be a turning point in the history of western translation. In short, the Renaissance marks that the translation of national languages has been firmly on the historical stage, and that translation practice and theory have broken away from the dark Middle Ages.It also laid a solid foundation for the contemporary translation.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 07:14, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

==References==
*Amos, Flora Ross. (1920). Early Theories of Translation. New York: Columbia University Press.
*Benjamin, Andrew. (1989). Translation and the Nature of Philosophy: A New Theory of Words. London and New York: Routledge.
*Catford,J.C.(1965) A Linguistic Theory of Translation.New York: Oxford University Press.
*Dolet, Etienne. (1540). How to Translate Well from One Language to Another. Robinson.
*Frederick Engels. (1883) The Dialects of Nature. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
*Luther, Martin. (1530). Sendbrief vom Dolmetschen. Stoerig.
*M.A.R. Habib. (2011) Literary Criticism from Plato to the Present: An Introduction. New Jersey: Wiley-Blackwell Publishing.
*Munday, Jeremy. (2001). Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. London and New York: Routledge.
*Pan Wenguo 潘文国.(2002) 当代西方的翻译学研究[Contemporary Translation Studies in the West].中国翻译[Chinese Translation Journal] 31-34.
*Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2000). 翻译学[Translation Studies]. Wuhan: Hubei Educational Press 湖北教育出版社.
*Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004).西方翻译简史[A Short History of Translation in the West]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.
*Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2003). 翻译研究新视野[New Perspective for Translation Studies]. Qingdao: Qingdao Publishing 青岛出版社.
*Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2009).中西翻译简史[A Brief History of Translation in China and the West].Beijing:Foreign Language Teachinng and Research Press 北京外语教学与研究出版社.
*Xu Jun, Yuan Xiaoyi 许钧，袁筱一. (1998). 当代法国翻译理论[Contemporary Translation Thoery in France]. Nanjing: Nanjing University 南京大学.

=刘薇 Contemporary American Translation History)=

Liu Wei 刘薇 Hunan Normal University, China

==Abstract==
The United States is an important part of the "West", so when we talk about the conception of "West", it is impossible not to include the United States.Therefore, this chapter combs the development of contemporary American translation by introducing a series of theories of American Translators.

==Key words==
translation theory of American, Eugene Nida,Robert Boogrand.

==Introduction==

In the field of translation studies, the situation in the United States is very special.Since the history of the United States itself is not long, we can not expect to talk about "ancient American translation theory", "medieval American translation theory", or even "modern American translation theory".American translation theory is mainly the "contemporary translation theory", which is developed after World War II (Guo Jianzhong, [introduction]: 2).Although the development of American translation theory is relatively short, there are still many influential translation theorists, such as Eugene Nida, Robert Boogrand, Andre Leverville, Lawrence Venudi, Edwin Gentzler and so on. They are constantly innovating and developing new theories in the field of translation.

==Chapter1 Characteristics of the local American translation theory ==

The development of contemporary American translation theory has three main characteristics: first, it inherits the tradition of European translation theory in terms of overall research methods;Second, the early studies were mostly influenced by the schools of American structural linguistics;Third, there is a tendency to catch up in research results.These characteristics are discussed one by one below.

On the first point, the inheritance of European tradition in the overall research method of American translation theory is due to its unique language and cultural tradition.As an integral part of the whole culture, translation culture naturally presents the basic characteristics of the development of the whole culture.Since the American culture with English as the national language is mainly inherited from European culture, the development of American translation culture, as an integral part of American culture, also inherits European translation culture.Especially in the early stage of the development of American translation theory, many influential people engaged in translation studies were immigrants from Europe or descendants of recent European immigrants.

Take Thorman as an example: his translation theory work the art of translation published in 1901 is one of the earliest published works in the field of American translation theory, but the contents and discussion methods involved in the book have no obvious "American characteristics".On the contrary, it is more like a work belonging to Europe, especially the British translation tradition. Even the examples in the book are similar to the European, especially the British translation tradition.

The second characteristic of the tradition of American translation theory is that the early studies were greatly influenced by the schools of American structural linguistics, which can be said to be a more distinctive "American characteristic" in American translation studies.

American linguistic studies are at the forefront of the West in many aspects. There have been many linguistic schools, such as human language school, structuralism school, transformational generative school and so on. All kinds of schools have also had various direct or indirect effects on American translation studies.

The representative of American structuralist language school is Bloomfield. He adopts the method of behaviorism and believes that everything about language can be studied scientifically and objectively.He put forward a behaviorist semantic analysis method, which holds that meaning is the relationship between stimulus and language response.In 1950s, Chomsky's transformational generative theory replaced Bloomfield's theory and occupied the dominant position in American linguistics theory and occupied the dominant position in American linguistics.The influence of Chomsky's theory on translation studies mainly lies in his discussion of surface structure and deep structure.The concept of "deep" has led to large-scale semantic research. Because semantics is closely related to translation research, Chomsky's theory has promoted the development of translation theory in the United States and even the whole west.

Therefore, under the influence of various linguistic theories, many people try to put forward new translation concepts and research methods. These people can be collectively referred to as the structural School of American translation theory.Among them, the main characters include Wojilin, Bolinger, Katz, Quinn and Eugene Nida.

Take Wojilin as an example. He is a human linguist.His greatest contribution is to put forward a multi-step translation method (also known as step-by-step translation method).The biggest advantage of his multi-step translation method is that the steps are clear, flexible and easy to master.

Using Chomsky's transformational generative theory, Boringer puts forward a concept of structural translation as opposed to lexical translation.Based on structural linguistics, Katz makes a profound analysis of the translatability of language and the philosophical problems in language and translation.Based on the discussion of strange language, Quinn expounds some basic problems of translation from the perspective of philosophy, which has aroused great repercussions in the field of western translation theory.

The third characteristic of the development of American translation theory is that it has a tendency to catch up with others in research results.One of the most prominent scholars is Eugene Nida. Although he is an outstanding linguist, his views on "translation is science", "translation is communication", "translation must pay attention to reader response" and other aspects are an innovation and breakthrough to the previous views. In addition, after Eugene Nida, many scholars have put forward many new views because of their existence,It was only after World War II that American translation theory continued to catch up.
Therefore, we will focus on him in the next chapter.

==Chapter2 Eugene Nida's translation theory==

Eugene Albert Nida (1914 -) was born in Oklahoma City in the south central United States. He graduated from the University of California, Los Angeles in 1936. In 1943, he worked in Bloomfield and fries (Charles fries received his doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous scholars. As the leading translation theory figure in contemporary America, Nida has also engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology and communication engineering. Before his retirement in the 1980s, he worked in the Translation Department of the American Holy Bible Association and served as the executive secretary of the translation department for a long time. He is mainly engaged in the Bible Organization of translation and revision of translations and the Bible Training and theoretical guidance for translators. He is proficient in many languages and has investigated and studied more than 100 languages, especially some small languages in Africa and Latin America. In 1968, he served as the president of the American language society. Although he does not take teaching as his career, he has extremely rich experience in Translation training and lecturing. In addition to a long-term part-time job, he speaks linguistics in the famous American summer In addition to teaching linguistics and translation courses in the Institute, he also served as a guest lecturer and professor in many American universities. He was often invited to give short-term lectures in Europe, Latin America, Africa and Asia, and won several honorary doctorates. In order to recognize his contribution to translation research, especially in the field of Bible translation research, the American Bible Association named the Institute after him in 2001 In particular, Nida has deep feelings for China. Since 1982, he has been invited to give lectures in China more than ten times, and has maintained close academic contacts and exchanges with many schools and academic colleagues in China for a long time.

Nida is a prolific language and translation theorist. From 1945 to 2004, he published more than 200 articles and more than 40 works (including works cooperated and edited with others). Among them, there are more than 20 works on language and translation theory, and a collection of papers has been published.

His research achievements include "Toward a Science of Translating" published in 1964, "The Theory and Practice of Translation" Co authored with Charles Taber in 1969, "Com ponential Analysis of Meaning " published in 1975 and "language structure and Translation" . Nida's anthology "Language Structure and Translation : Essays by Eugene A. Nida，ed. by Anwar S. Dil" , "From One Language to Another" , co authored with de warrd in 1986, "The Sociolinguistics of Interlingual Communication" , published in 1996 and published in 2001 "Language and Culture :Contertsin Translating" 。

Throughout Nida's translation thought, we can divide it into three main development stages: the linguistic stage with obvious American structuralism in the early stage, the stage of translation science and translation communication in the middle stage, and the stage of social semiotics.

The first major stage is the linguistic stage, from 1943 when he wrote his doctoral thesis "a summary of English syntax" to 1959 when he published "principles of translation from biblical translation".At this stage, he tries to clarify the structural nature of language through the description of syntax, morphology and language translation.In his early days, he was greatly influenced by American structuralist Bloomfield and human linguist Sapir, and paid attention to the collection and analysis of language materials in language research.Through the opportunity to visit and contact different languages all over the world, many examples of speech differences are collected.However, he does not regard speech differences as insurmountable obstacles between languages, but as different phenomena of the same essence.

The second development stage of Nida's translation thought is the stage of translation science and translation communication. It took 10 years from the publication of "principles of translation from biblical translation" in 1959 to the publication of "translation theory and practice" in 1969.The research achievements at this stage have played a key role in establishing Nida's authoritative position in the whole western translation theory circle.
By summarizing this main development period, the main contents of the following five aspects can be summarized:

（一）Translation science.Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill, but also a science.The so-called science here means that translation problems can be handled by "scientific approaches to language structure, semantic analysis and information theory", that is, a linguistic and descriptive method can be adopted to explain the translation process.If the principles and procedures of translation seem to be normative, it is only because they are generally considered to be the most useful in a specific scope of translation.Nida's view that "translation is science" has had great repercussions in the field of western linguistics and translation theory.

（二） Translation communication theory. Nida applies communication theory and information theory to translation studies and holds that translation is communication. After World War II, not only advertisers, politicians and businessmen attached great importance to the intelligibility of language, but also scholars, writers, editors, publishers and translators realized that any information would be worthless if it could not play a communicative role. Therefore, to judge whether a translation is successful, we must first see whether it can be immediately understood by the recipient and whether it can play a role in the communication of ideas, information and feelings. Therefore, in the field of translation research, various names and statements such as "communicative translation", "functional translation" and related "equal response theory", "equal effect theory", "equal role theory" and "equal power theory" have sprung up one after another. Nida's "translation is communication" and his "reader response theory" and "dynamic equivalence" discussed below“ "Functional equivalence" has become an important representative of the communicative school in the field of western translation studies.

Nida's theory of "translation is communication" is based on the theory of language commonality. Nida, like Jacobson, believes that all languages in the world have the same expression ability, which can enable native speakers of the language to express ideas, describe the world and carry out social communication. His argument is based on the same "identity" For example, in countries with relatively developed productive forces, many scientific and technological words will appear in their languages, while in countries with less developed or very low productive forces, there may be a lack of scientific and technological words in their languages. However, this does not mean that the latter has the same expressive ability as the former, but only shows that people have different requirements for languages in different languages, It is not because the language cannot produce scientific and technological vocabulary, but because the speakers of the language do not have or temporarily do not have the requirement to use scientific and technological vocabulary. Once there is such a requirement, there will be corresponding vocabulary in the language, or "native" scientific and technological vocabulary, or "foreign" vocabulary transplanted from foreign words. In short, the expression efficiency of various languages is the same.

Nida believes that the primary task of translation is to make it clear to the readers at a glance after reading the translation. That is to say, the translation should be fluent and natural, and the readers can understand it without the knowledge of the cultural background of the source language. This requires that rigid foreign words should be used as little as possible in translation, and expressions belonging to the receiving language should be used as much as possible. For example, in a Sudanese language, for If the expression "repent and reform" is translated directly, it will make people feel at a loss, and it should be translated into the local familiar "spitting on the ground in front of someone". For example, in the language without "Snow", white as snow may be puzzling, but it should be said "white as frost" or "white as egret hair" Another example is that in the ancient West, the habit of people meeting and greeting each other was "sacred kiss", but now it should become "very warm handshake".

In a sense, the theory of translation communication is not only one of the main symbols of Nida's second development stage of translation thought, but also one of the biggest characteristics of his whole ideological system.Especially after the publication of translation theory and practice, Nida's translation communication theory has had a great impact on the western translation circles, including those in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union.

（三） Dynamic equivalence theory.The so-called dynamic equivalence translation is actually translation under the guidance of translation communication theory. Specifically, it refers to "reproducing the source language information with the closest (original) natural equivalence in the receiving language from semantics to style".In this definition, there are three key points: one is "nature", which means that the translation cannot have a translation cavity;The second is "close", which refers to selecting the translation with the closest meaning to the original text on the basis of "nature";The third is "equivalence", which is the core.Both "nature" and "close" serve to find equivalents.

（四） Translation function theory.From the perspective of sociolinguistics and language communicative function, Nida believes that translation must serve the reader.To judge whether a translation is correct or not, we must take the reader's response as the criterion.If the response of the target readers is basically the same as that of the original readers, the translation can be considered successful.

（五） Four step model.This refers to the translation process.Nida puts forward that the process of translation is: analysis, transfer (transfer the meaning obtained from the analysis from the source language to the receiving language), reorganization (reorganize the translation according to the rules of the receiving language), and inspection (detect the target text against the source text).Among these four steps, "analysis" is the most complex and key, which is the focus of Nida's translation research.The focus of the analysis is semantics. He distinguishes four parts of speech from the perspective of semantics: object words, activity words, abstract words and relational words.In semantic analysis, he introduced three methods: linear analysis, hierarchical analysis and component analysis.In the specific analysis of semantics, he focuses on grammatical meaning, referential meaning and connotative meaning (or emotional meaning and associative meaning).These distinction theories are of great significance to understand his translation thought.

Nida's research achievements in the 1980s can be regarded as the third stage of translation thought.He has made a series of modifications and supplements to his translation theory.He did not completely abandon the theory of the original communicative school, but further developed on the original basis and incorporated the useful elements of the original theory into a new model, which is the social semiotics model in the third development stage translation thought.

Compared with previous works, Eugene Nida has the following four changes and developments in from one language to another: first, based on the translation theory of social semiotics, he emphasizes that everything in the text has meaning, including speech form, so form cannot be easily sacrificed.That is to say, form is also meaningful. Sacrificing form means sacrificing meaning.Secondly, it points out that the rhetorical features of language play an important role in language communication, so we must pay attention to these features in translation.Third, the theory of "dynamic equivalence" is no longer used, but replaced by "functional equivalence", which is intended to make the meaning of the term clearer and easier to understand.Fourth, instead of using the distinction of grammatical meaning, referential meaning and associative meaning, meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, and all kinds of meaning are divided into referential meaning and associative meaning.From the whole historical process of the development of translation theory, it should be said that these changes are basically positive.

Of course, his theory and works are not perfect.First, his theory focuses too much on solving the problems of communicative and intelligibility of translation, so its scope of application is limited.It is natural to emphasize the intelligibility of the translation in the field of Bible translation, but if the intelligibility of the translation is always put in the first place in the translation of secular literary works, it will inevitably lead to the simplification and even non literariness of the translated language.

Second, he no longer completely negates "formal correspondence", but believes that the expression form of the original text cannot be broken at will in translation.In order to expand the scope of application of his theory, he also added rhetoric.However, despite his amendments, he failed to elaborate more deeply on his new views.

Thirdly, Eugene Nida once put forward the proposition that "translation is science", and then basically abandoned this proposition.Whether he put forward or gave up, he did not put forward sufficient and convincing arguments, which can not be said to be a major defect.

Of course, Nida's theory and works are not perfect. Firstly, his theory focuses too much on solving the problems of communicative and intelligibility of translation, so its scope of application is limited. It is natural to emphasize the intelligibility of the translation in the field of Bible translation, but if the intelligibility of the translation is always put in the first place in the translation of secular literary works, it will inevitably lead to the simplification and even non literariness of the translated language. Newmark, a British translation theorist, once pointed out: "if we delete all the metaphors in the Bible that Doneda believes readers cannot understand, it will inevitably lead to a large loss of meaning." . an important feature of literary works is that they use more metaphorical and novel language. The author's real intention may have to taste and capture between the lines. If all the metaphorical images in the original work are deleted and all the associative meanings are clearly stated, the result will be that the translation is easy to understand, but it is dull and can't reach To the purpose of literature. In recent years, Nida has become more and more aware of this, and has constantly revised and improved some of his past views. For example, he later no longer focused on the intelligibility of the translation, but advocated a "three nature principle", that is, the principle of paying equal attention to comprehensibility, readability and acceptability. In addition, he no longer completely denied "formal correspondence" In order to expand the scope of application of his theory, he especially added rhetoric. However, despite Nida's amendments, he failed to make a more profound exposition of his new views; he was only aware of the existence of the problem rather than successfully solving the relevant problems Besides, Nida once put forward the proposition that "translation is science", and then basically gave up this proposition. Whether he put forward or gave up, he did not put forward sufficient and convincing arguments, which is a major defect.

Of course, flaws do not hide the jade. Looking at Nida's lifelong contributions, he is one of the most outstanding theoretical figures in the field of contemporary translation studies in the United States and even the whole west. The historical theory of the development of western translation theory should give him a heavy pen.

==Chapter3 Robert Boogrand's translation theory==

Since the 1970s, more voices outside the structural language school and the communicative school have gradually emerged in the field of translation studies in the United States, especially the voice of discourse linguistics theory and discourse analysis represented by Robert Boogrand.
Boogrand teaches in the English Department of the University of Florida and is engaged in the study of literary discourse rhetoric and grammatical structure.In 1978, he published a book called "elements of translation theory of poetry"), which was listed as one of the Translation Studies Series edited by Holmes and attracted extensive attention.

Boogrand's view is: 1. The unit of translation is not a single word or sentence, but the whole text.2. Translation is a process of interaction among authors, translators and readers.3. What is worth studying is not the characteristics of the article itself, but the skills of language use reflected in these characteristics.

After the publication of the above translation theory works guided by the thought of discourse linguistics in 1978, Boogrand continued to engage in the research of language and translation along the same line, and more than ten relevant works (including Works CO authored and co edited with others) have been published successively, mainly including discourse, discourse and process: multidisciplinary discourse science exploration Linguistic Theory: Discourse of basic works, introduction to discourse linguistics, language discourse, Western and Middle East translation Boogrand has always expounded language and translation from the perspective of discourse linguistics, thus establishing his important position as the leader of discourse linguistics in the field of British and American translation studies. Boogrand's contribution as one of the pioneers of discourse analysis and discourse linguistics in translation studies is very important and worthy of full recognition.

==Chapter4 Andre Lefevere's translation theory==

With the development of the times, translation studies in the United States, like other parts of the west, have been continuously improved in theoretical depth. By the 1990s, the focus of theorists' discussion on translation has gradually separated from the previous specific translation processes and methods, and turned more to the fundamental nature of translation, translation and ideology, translation and culture. This chapter introduces Andre Leverville's translation theory.
Andre Leverville, a professor of translation and comparative literature at the University of Texas at Austin, originally from Belgium, is a very important theoretical figure in the field of Contemporary Western comparative literature and translation research. We can discuss his main ideas from the following two aspects.

(一)The cultural turn in translation studies. It is a common feature of all cultural schools to turn the focus of translation studies from the language structure and language form correspondence that language schools are most concerned about to the meaning and function of the target text and the source text in their respective cultural systems. He believes that any literature must survive in a certain social and cultural environment, and its meaning and value Value, as well as its interpretation and acceptance, will always be affected and restricted by a series of interrelated and mutually referenced factors, including both internal and external factors of literature. Therefore, as far as translation research is concerned, the goal of the research is far from limited to exploring the equivalence or equivalence of the two texts in language forms, but to explore at the same time.Study various cultural issues directly or indirectly related to translation activities.

（二） The concept of manipulation in translation. When talking about and describing the basic characteristics of the cultural school, we often can not do without using the word "manipulation". Here, "manipulation"It is not emotional, but a special term representing the concept of neutrality. According to the translation operation of Andre Leverville and others, the core meaning is that in the process of processing the source text and generating the target text, the translator has the right and will rewrite the text in order to achieve a certain purpose. Andre Leverville believes that translation is a reflection of the image of the text.Other literary forms such as literary criticism, biography, literary history, drama, film, fiction and so on are also the rewriting of the text image, and rewriting is the manipulation of the text.

（三） Obviously, the manipulative rewriting in Lefevere and his cultural school theory is not simply equivalent to "Rewriting" in the general sense, because in his view, all translation is rewriting, even the "most faithful"Translation is also a form of rewriting. As a translation manipulator, this rewriting or manipulation should be regarded as a cultural necessity in essence. In the process of translation, the translator is bound to be affected and restricted by various social and cultural factors. In addition to considering all the characteristics related to the source text, such as the original author's intention, the context of the source text and so on, the more important thing is toIt is necessary to consider a series of factors related to the target or receiving culture, such as the purpose of translation, the function of the target text, the expectations and reactions of readers, the requirements of clients and sponsors, and the review of the publishing and distribution organization of the work. The existence of these factors and the degree of constraints imposed by the translator on them vary from person to person constitute the inevitable "manipulation" condition of the translator on the text.
For "manipulation" in this sense, we can not judge it by moral value words such as "legitimate" or "improper", but only by the "appropriateness" criteria such as whether the target text has achieved the purpose of translation, whether it meets the expectations of the audience, and whether it can be accepted by the accepted culture.

==Chapter5 Lawrence Venudi's translation theory==

It is precisely because the cultural school or manipulation school, and even the polysystem school, in translation studies have established a relationship with the theory of domestication and Foreignization in translation, that a new group of scholars and viewpoints have emerged. In the field of American translation studies, Lawrence Wenudi is the most vocal theoretical figure on the issues of "domestication" and "Foreignization".
As an English professor at Temple University in Philadelphia, winudi is one of the most active and influential figures in the field of American translation theory since the 1990s. Winudi belongs to the deconstruction school in translation studies, that is, what genzler calls the "post structuralism school"In his works on translation studies, Venuti advocates that literary translation should not aim at eliminating alien features, but should try to show cultural differences in the target text.

Venuti's main view is that it is wrong to require the translator to be invisible in translation; the translator should not be invisible in the translation, but should be visible. That is to say, translation should adopt the principle and strategy of "alienation" to keep the translation exotic and exotic, and read like the translation, rather than "domestication"So that the translation can be transformed completely in accordance with the ideology and creative norms of the target culture. It doesn't read like foreign works, but the original of the target language.

However, translation has never been carried out in an unaffected way. Foreignization translation and domestication translation are actually the products of translation activities affected. From the perspective of translation ethics, it is difficult to assert which is good or which is bad, because translation reality shows that the two play irreplaceable roles in the target language and culture and complete their respective missions.Therefore, the two kinds of translation will always coexist and complement each other.

==Chapter6 Edwin Gensler's translation theory==

Edwin Genzler is the director of the translation center of Amherst University of Massachusetts, doctor of comparative literature and professor of translation. His famous translation work is contemporary translation theory published in 1993 and reprinted in 2001.

Genzler's contribution to translation theory is mainly reflected in the following three aspects:
First, it comprehensively combs the contemporary western translation theories, so as to clarify people's understanding of various western translation theory schools since World War II, and thus arouse the research interest in all kinds of contemporary western translation theories in the field of translation studies (including China's Translation Studies).In contemporary translation theory, Genzler studies translation from different perspectives such as scientific theory, polysystem theory and deconstruction. By exploring the "political reality" outside translation (literary translation practice), he outlines the outline of contemporary western translation research and guides readers to rethink a series of theoretical issues such as the definition and classification of translation.

Secondly, on the basis of comprehensively and systematically combing various contemporary western translation thoughts and theories, Genzler puts forward a multi-channel cooperative translation research view of "fair treatment of all systems".He believes that contemporary translation theory, like literary theory, originates from structuralist theory.All these structuralist or post structuralist theories have been confined to their respective academic circles for a long time.Various schools have very special requirements for the terms used in this system, and the terms are limited;Their pursuit of "correctness" or "objectivity" of theory tends to be one-sided, and they all try to gain universal recognition in the academic circles at the expense of other perspectives.The result is only the continuous conflict between theories, but there is no due cooperation and exchange between theories, which leads to the marginalization of academic research.

Thirdly, Genzler puts forward a post structuralist interpretation model of the essence of translation.In translation, post structuralism and power, he analyzes the deconstruction (post structuralism) thoughts of Derrida, Spivak and others, as well as the translation thoughts of translation theorists such as Wenudi, Levin and Robinson under the influence of their deconstruction thoughts, and points out that the new translation interpretation model can no longer follow the past tradition and simply define translation as"The transformation from a single language to another single language", but it should be regarded as the transformation between a multicultural form environment and another equally multicultural form environment.

==Conclusion==

In addition to the above-mentioned important theoretical figures in the field of contemporary American translation studies, many others, such as Roberto Tradu, Daniel Shaw, Burton Raphael and so on, have also made achievements in translation theory. However, due to space constraints, they cannot be discussed in detail here.

Generally speaking, due to the historical origin and the influence of the subject's immigrant culture, the initial development of American translation studies depends on the inheritance and promotion of the tradition of European translation theory. With the evolution of the times, American translation studies catch up with each other in many aspects with rapid development and fruitful achievements, and walk in the forefront of western translation studies, becoming the driving force of contemporary western translation theory. On an important force for forward development.

==reference==

谭载喜. (1999).《新编奈达论翻译》.北京:中国对外翻译出版公司.p22-44.

谭载喜. (2000).《翻译学》武汉:湖北教育出版社.p227-267.

谭载喜. (2003).《再论翻译学》.武汉:湖北教育出版社.p100-150.

谢天振. (2003).《翻译研究新视野》.青岛:青岛出版社,p250-269.

中国对外翻译出版公司（编).(1983).《翻译理论与翻译技巧论文集》.北京:中国对外翻译出版公司.p60-80.

中国对外翻译出版公司（编).(1983).《国外翻译理论评介文集》.北京:中国对外翻译出版公司.

中国翻译工作者协会（编).1984.《翻译研究论文集》.北京:外语教学与研究出版社.p39-48.

Lefevere·André. (1975).Translating Poetry :Seven Strategies and a Blueprint. Assen andAmsterdam: van Gorcum,p22-29.

Lefevere·André. (1977).Translating Literature : The German Tradition from Luther to Rosenzweig. Assenand Amsterdam: van Gorcum,p25-48.

Lefevere·André. (1980). "Translating literature/Translated literature - The state of the art". In Zuber (ed.).p153-161.

Newmark·Peter. （1978）.“The theory and the craft of translation". In V. Kinsella ( ed.).Language Teach-ing and Linguistics :Surve ys.Carmbridge. p79-100.

Newmark·Peter. （1981）. A p proaches to Translation.Oxford and London: Pergamon Press.Reprint in 1988.New York:Prentice Hall International.2001年上海外语教育出版社出版影印版,p67-89.

Nida·Eugene.（1964）. Toward a Science of Translating Leiden:E.J. Brill、 Reprint in 2003.------ 1975a.Componential Analysis of Meaning . The Hague:Mouton,p34-78.
Nida·Eugene.（1975）b.Language Structure and Translation :Essa ys by Eugene A. Nida ed. by AnwarS. Di!. Stanford:Stanford University Press,p18-45.

Nida·Eugene.（1996）.The Sociolinguistics of Interlingual Communication. Brussels:Editions du Hazard,p37-45.

Katz·Jerrold J. （1966）.The Philosophy of Language. New York:Harper and Row,p26-45.

Katz·Jerrold J. （1978）. "Effability and translation" . In Guenthner and Guenthner-Reutter (eds.).191-234.Katz，Jerrold J. and J. A. Fodor. 1963. "The structure of a semantic theory". Language 39.p170-210.

Pound，E. 1917. "Notes on Elizabethan classicists" . In T. S. Eliot (ed.).p227-249.

--[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 16:11, 8 December 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

=周俊辉 Translation of Science and Technology in Late Qing Dynasty and Early Republic of China=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_11]]
==Abstract==
With the rapid development of all walks of life in contemporary China, there is a huge demand for professional scientific and technological translation talents in the Chinese translation market, but there is still a gap between professional translators supply and demand in various fields. In the long history of modern Chinese translation, there are three translation climaxes. Western translation in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China was the third climax in the history of Chinese translation, and its scientific and technological translation activities, with its great influence and achievements, added numerous bright spots and scenery to the history of Chinese translation. Its achievements deserve to be ccelebrated. It still has reference value and learning significance for modern scientific and technological translation. It is of great significance to discuss the characteristics of scientific and technological translation in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China to attach importance to scientific and technological translation and its related academic and practical construction. This paper will mainly analyze the third translation climax, that is, science and technology translation activities in the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of china, to examine its reference significance for translators in the field of contemporary science and technology.

==Keywords==
The translations of science and technology; Chinese translation; organizations of scientific translation; May 4th Movement period; organization

==Introduction==
Like other countries, the translations of science and technology in China begins with interaction with foreign nations. There is no doubt that there are a large number of technical translation activities in the exchanges between China and foreign countries in the political, economic and cultural fields, which is difficult to verify. The translations of Chinese scientific literature began as a parasitic translation of religious literature. As Christian missionaries entered China, Western science and technology began to enter China. Although the missionaries brought the latest scientific and technological knowledge to the Chinese doctors from the end of the Ming Dynasty to the early Qing Dynasty, the strict restrictions were stressed on the dissemination of religious culture in China. Therefore, there were not many Chinese intellectuals who could realized the achievements of Western geography, and the common person was unaffected by the new ideas from across the Atlantic and sticked to the original traditional ideas.It was not until the late Qing Dynasty and early period of the Republic of China that western scientific knowledge was widely disseminated in China, and had a widespread influence on Chinese intellectuals. Chinese intellectuals nourished advanced ideas in the late Qing Dynasty played a leading role in the translations of scientific and technological literature.

== The Motivation of Translation from the End of the Qing Dynasty to the Early Period of the Republic of China==
At the end of the 17th century, many disciplines of western natural science separated from natural philosophy and set up independent branch. By the 19th century, various humanities gradually established its own system. Chinese society was declining and corrupt in the 19th century. only a few people with keen eyes, such as Lin Zexu, Wei Yuan and others, began to notice the advantages of Western learning in their contact with westerners. But they still basically didn’t regard Western learning as an academic culture as important as Chinese learning. Wei Yuan's famous saying "learning merits from the foreign to conquer the foreign" can illustrate this point. The failure of the Opium War and the signing of a series of unequal treaties aroused the strong desire of some advanced-minded officials to know the world and thus acquire advanced science and technology in the West. They hope to learn from the West to achieve the goal of "Reform". The failure of the Opium War also prompted the Qing government to launch “Self-Strengthening Movement” in the 1860s, which also led to the re-introduction of Western science and technology to China. As the intercourse with the West deepened, many Chinese officials and intellectuals began to face up to Western studies and regarded it as academic ideas equivalent to Chinese learning, and began to explore the method that western knowledge could be integrated into Chinese learning to help China become rich and powerful. Zhang's "Chinese learning do noumenon, Western learning do use" has become the most typical viewpoint of late fresh intellectuals. “But this group of intellectuals is mainly concerned with the Western advanced weapons and related equipment manufacturing and transportation and other technical fields.”(Xiong Yuezhi 1994:46-48) They think that Western studies are superior to Chinese learning in terms of objects and institutions, but they are still inferior to China in basic ideological and moral aspects, so they do not feel it necessary to learn the academic ideas from the West. After the Sino-Japanese War, because China was faced with the fate of the country's destruction, many people of insight began to actively and comprehensively learn from the West. It emerged a group of world-minded thinkers, like Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei, Tan Sitong and so on. They learned a great deal of natural knowledge and social sciences from the West, and they also urged political reform. During this period, a great deal of Western knowledge was introduced into China, which had a very wide impact. Many people also study Western studies by translating Western books written by the Japanese.

From the Opium War of 1840 to the eve of the May 4th Movement in 1918, China became a semi-colonial and semi-feudal society step by step, and the Chinese of this period faced a situation of "survival problems". “When people ended the dream of ‘China is the most powerful country in the world’ and realized the strength of European countries”(Xiong Yuezhi 1994:46-48), they began to seek the reasons why European countries became strong. “Chinese's attitude towards Western science presents a process from exclusion to acceptance and finally welcome, as well as a process of Chinese proactive pursuit of the ‘making the country rich and at the same time maintain its military power’.” (Xiong Yuezhi 2000:47) Hence a large-scale Western translation began to produce. If we explain that the scientific and technological translation from the end of the Ming dynasty to the beginning of the Qing Dynasty is only an invasion of Western culture, and that China is passive as the main recipient, then the Western translation from the end of the Qing Dynasty to the early period of the Republic of China is entirely a spontaneous and active act. The motivation of the latter translation is more urgent and the purpose is more clear than the previous one. This urgency determines that Western translation in the duration, in the number of translation works, in the number of people involved in translation activities are much superior to the previous scientific and technological translation.

== Object of Translation from the Late Qing Dynasty to the Early Republic of China ==

====Overview of Translation’s Object====
“The scientific and technological translations of the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty were all cooperative translations of foreign missionaries and Chinese doctors”(Du Zezong 1949:11), because Chinese intellectuals at that time knew almost no Western language, and the Chinese language proficiency of missionaries was generally not high. So at that time, the translation of science and technology was basically dictated by the foreign, and written by Chinese intellectuals. “But in this process, ‘missionary instruments play a leading role, Chinese are always in a passive and secondary position.’ Whether it is ‘written’ or ‘polished’ by Chinese, it’s ‘must be examined by western scholar’”(Lan Hongjun 2010:93-94). The translation of Euclid's ''Elements'' is an example: the original book contains 15 volumes, Matteo Ricci and Xu Guangqi worked together for 6 volumes. Xu Guangqi want to finish the remaining volumes, but Ricci believes that the first six volumes’ translation has achieved the purpose of scientific mission, then refused to continue to translate. It can be seen that whether it is translation material selection or translation methods, Chinese have no right to choose by themselves.

In the western translation of the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China, only several translation teams were in the form of cooperation between Westerners and Chinese, like the School of Combined learning organized by Lin Zexu and later founded by the Foreign Affairs School, and the Translation Hall of Jiangnan Manufacturing General Administration. After the Sino-Japanese War, more and more Chinese learned about Western studies, and international students became the backbone of the translation industry. “The representative figures of the Reformists, who advocate ‘improving China with Western studies’, are active figures in the translation circles of this period, and they believe that the fundamental of the reform lies in ‘enlightening the people's intelligence’, and the main way is to introduce and disseminate Western studies widely.”(Ni Qinhe 1988:13-14) For this purpose, bilingual translators choose their own translation of books that they consider to be beneficial to the public, and choose the appropriate translation method according to the characteristics of the target audience. For example, the Reformists explicitly declared that translated books "take political knowledge first and art translate second". Therefore, the focus of translation in this period shifted from natural science and applied science to humanities and social sciences. The translated books cover every sphere including politics, sociology, philosophy, economics, law, education and history. Another feature of translation in this period is the introductory translation of Western literature. The famous translators Yan Fu, Liang Qichao and Lin Shu all regarded literary translation as a means of educating the people and improving politics and economy of China. The popular novels introduced are more easily accepted by the general public than the more specialized works of the humanities, thus they can spread Western culture more widely in China.

In the second half of the 19th century, in order to enrich the country, a wave of learning and translating Western scientific and technological knowledge was set off in the late Qing Dynast. Under the efforts of Hua Hengfang, Xu Tao, Li Shanlan, Zhao Yuanyi and a Englander, John Fryer, a number of western modern science and technology books have been translated and published. Hua Hengfang plays an important role, the books of which he has participated in the translation and proofreading are ''A Treatise on Coast Defence'', ''Algebra'', ''Principles of Geology'', ''Deremetal-lica'' and other 17 kinds. He also introduced systematically knowledge of mathematics (including algebra, triangle, exponential calculus and probability), geology, geo-literature and other fields. John Fryer was born in Hyde, England, and worked in China for more than 20 years, translating 138 kinds of science and technology, including applied science, land and sea military science and technology, as well as historical and other social sciences, which played a positive role in the development of science and technology and social reform in China at the end of the 19th century.

At the beginning of the 20th century, the scientific and technological translation activities can be summarized as follows: 1. The translation of science textbooks not only help to implement large-scale scientific education, but also have a great impact on China's social culture. 2. The translation of evolution has dealt a great blow to the stereotype "heaven change not, likewise the Way changeth not"(Yang Jindin 1996:830). New ideas of evolution have been widely disseminated. 3. The translation of works in logic and scientific experimentation contributed to the mature development and application of methodological scientific concepts in the ideological circles at that time. Its representative figures are Yan Fu, Liang Qichao, Du Yaquan, as well as Jiangnan General Administration of Manufacturing Translation Museum, School of Combined Learning, Christian Literature Society for China and other translation agencies. With this scientific and technological translation activity, a large number of words entered into China greatly enriched the Chinese language which was regarded as a cultural carrier, and changed the Chinese's knowledge structure and social concepts. Chinese traditional Confucian culture is also influenced by it, absorbing many advanced western cultures and ideas, which has contributed to the germination of scientific culture in Chinese society.

====Object of Translation Activities after the May 4th Movement====
The May 4th New Culture Movement advocated science and democracy. After the May 4th Movement, Chinese translation activities entered a new historical period. In order to introduce western science and technology and textbooks to Chinese people, many progressive intellectuals and overseas students, with the enthusiasm of "science to save the country", actively participated in the translation of foreign new science and new ideas. The quality of scientific books translated by talents who are fluent in foreign languages and have a solid foundation of professional knowledge of the subject has been greatly improved compared with previous translations of relevant books. For example, Ma Junwu (1881-1940), a doctor of engineering who returned from studying in Japan in 1901, translated and published a series of scientific works such as ''The History of Natural Creation'' and the ''Mystery of the Universe'' by E. Haecke (1834-1919). His translation of Charles Robert Darwin's ''The Origin of Species'' (1809-1882) was a best-seller and was reprinted 12 times in 16 years.

The Government of the Republic of China also followed the old rules of the Qing Dynasty and established the National Compilation and Translation Library under the Ministry of Education of the Beijing government in 1920. At the same time, the government also set up a book compilation agency. After that, “the Nanjing Nationalist government rebuilt and expanded the National Compilation and Translation Library under the Graduate School and the Ministry of Education.” (Li Nanqiu 1999:42)The tasks of the Library included translating and publishing scientific books, compiling textbooks for higher and secondary education, compiling the translation of scientific terms and terms, and compiling dictionaries of various disciplines. But overall, the government-sponsored translation agency's publications account for only a small proportion of the total number of translated books published.

At that time, Chinese scholars established a number of early scientific societies, which played an active role in the translation of foreign scientific books, the unification of translation names and the compilation of disciplinary dictionaries. For example, the Chinese Medical Association, founded in Shanghai in February 1915, held its first conference in the second year for its establishment. The responsibility of the nominating division of the sub-body formed by the resolution of the conference is to participate in the examination of scientific translations. From 1916 to 1926, the Medical Association was represented at the annual conferences of the Medical Terminology Review Committee (changed to scientific Terminology after 1919), Anatomy, chemistry, medicine, bacteriology, pathology, parasitology, biochemistry, organic chemistry, pharmacology, surgery, physiology, internal medicine, pharmacology, etc. Chinese Science Society was founded by Zhao Yuanren, Ren Hongjun and Hu Mingfu in October 1915. At the beginning of the establishment of the society, it clearly declared that it would create a foundation for examining and approving translated names. In the sixth chapter "Administrative organs" of the ''General Chapter of the Chinese Science Society'', there is also a "book translation department". The ministry "manages translated books" and "has a minister in charge of translated books". There was a symposium on nouns in 1916, the results of which were published in the society's monthly ''Science''. Later, the ministry attended the noun examination meeting held by Jiangsu Education Association and Chinese Medical Association for many times. The Science Society organized many translations activities of books and papers, and ''Science'' published many scientific translations. The efforts of these civil academic societies to unify the translation of scientific names have attracted the attention of the government. The Kuomintang government changed the Ministry of Education into a graduate school in 1927, and in the following year, the preparatory Committee for the Unification of Graduate School translation names was established. Later, with the joint efforts of civil academic groups and government departments, a series of work on the unification of the translation of scientific nouns was carried out, which has done a lot of work for the unification of Chinese translation names.

At the beginning of the founding of new China, China mainly relied on the former Soviet Union to introduce various advanced scientific and technological information. Under the planned economy system, a large number of Spanish translators quickly changed to Russian translators, and many scientific research and higher education personnel actively joined the group of amateur translators. At the same time, many national and local publishing houses also actively engaged in the translation and publication of Russian scientific materials. A large number of Russian translated materials played an important role in scientific research, education and economic construction at that time. Publications such as ''Translation Bulletin'', ''Russian Teaching and Translation'' and ''Research on Russian Teaching'' have become important publishing fields of Research on Russian translation methods.

== Pioneers and Important Organizations of Scientific Translation==

====Pioneers====
Lin Zexu (1785--1850), an official of Fujian Province, was appointed as imperial envoy to go to Guangdong to ban smoking with great success in 1838. In order to grasp enemys' information, he set up a special translation institution to organizing timely the translation of Western books and newspapers, and actively collecting the information of Western society. Lin Zexu publicly destroyed opium confiscated from British, American and other merchants in June 1839, while actively preparing for the sea defense, repeatedly fighting back against the armed provocations of the British army. During his time as Governor, great attention was paid to collecting information on a wide range of Chinese and foreign warships and absorbing foreign technology in order to strengthen the navy. He was tightly guarded in the southern sea During the Opium War, which force the British to go north. “Lin Zexu advocated ‘surpass foreigners by learning from them’ on the issue of foreign aggression, demanding resistance to aggression, and does not exclude learning from the west's strengths.”(Ma Zuyi 1998:53)During the smoking ban, Lin Zexu wanted to know about the global situation, so he had people translate ''The Encyclopedia of Geography'' and pro-polish it personally. This book, briefly introducing to Chinese in late Qing dynasty the geographies, histories and political status of the four continents in the world, is the first complete and systematic geography book in modern China. But ''The Encyclopedia of Geography'' can not be published for various reasons at that time. According to the relevant scholars, the book introduced the world's five continents including more than 30 countries geography and history, rich in content, which is the most complete and the most innovative book. Many of the contents of this works were cited by Wei Yuan's ''Records and Maps of the World''.

Wei Yuan (1794-1856) is a good friend of Lin Zexu, who, like Lin Zexu, advocates pragmatism. He finished 50 volumes of the first draft of ''Records and Maps of the World'' in 1843, which introduced a large number of foreign natural, geographical, economic, scientific, cultural and other materials, including ''The Encyclopedia of Geography'' compiled by Lin Zexu. “Information on foreign ship-making, mine warfare, telescopes, firearms and mines was added and the length of the book was expanded to 60 volumes in 1847. It was compiled and revised to add information on democracies in capitalist countries such as the United States and Turkey, and published in 100 volumes in 1852.”(Zou Zhenhuan 2007:349) When launching the Modernization Movement, Kang Youwei used ''Records and Maps of the World'' as the basic material for teaching Western studies. Then this book gradually attracted people's attention.

Xu Jishe (1795-1893) was also a patriotic official who paid attention to the collection of foreign translations during the Opium War. Referring to the collection of foreign historical books (including translated books), he recorded the dictation of foreign books by foreigners, and completed the first draft of ''Geography of the World'', the first Chinese a comprehensive introduction to world geography in 1844. Many patriotic people who sought truth from the West, such as Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao at the end of the Qing Dynasty, learned about the world through this book.

Although Lin Zexu, Wei Yuan and Xu Jishe didn’t understand foreign languages, they attached importance to and organized the translation of foreign materials earlier, and contributed to the understanding of the outside world by their contemporary at that time. They were also pioneers in the translation of scientific literature at the end of the Qing Dynasty, and had a great impact on China's modern history.

==== Translation and Publishing Institution Established by Westernizationists ====
At the end of the Qing Dynasty, advocates of the westernization mouvement, such as Li Hongzhang, Zeng Guofan, Zuo Zongtang, Zhang Zhidong, etc., actively promoted the creation of modern schools and modern military industry, and established a number of translation and publishing institutions. The Sino-British Treaty of Tianjin was renewed in 1858 to provide that "subsequent English instruments were written in English". In order not to be fooled into dealing with foreigners who appeared as victors, the Chinese government had to find ways to reserve its own translation talents, establishing the Jingshi Tongwen Guan in Beijing in 1862 to train foreign language talents, and appointing Xu Jishe the general manager purser of this institution. An English-language department was opened in the same year, and an additional Russian and French department was established in the following year, each with 10 students. The government of Qing dynasty set up a science museum to organize students to study arithmetic and astronomy in 1866. The Buwen (German) department was added in 1872, and the East (Japanese) department was added in 1895. These foreign language department have invited foreign teachers to give courses with better conditions for textbooks and materials. Textbooks cover many aspects, including chemistry, medicine, grammatology, geography, agriculture, military law, dictionaries, poetry and history. In the field of foreign language teaching, in addition to the use of the above-mentioned original textbooks, there are some teaching materials in the courses were translated and compiled by the Chinese teachers. The general teacher of the Jingshi Tongwen Guan, Ding Yuliang, organized teachers and excellent students to translate Western books beginning in 1874. The number of books have been compiled and published by the Jingshi Tongwen Guan has not yet been able to make accurate statistics, and its translations include Chinese and Western books, manuscripts of scientific and technological publications, diplomatic documents of the Prime Minister's affairs in various countries, telegrams and so on. The first translators in the history of China have been trained in Tongwen Guan.

In 1863, Li Hongzhang applied to his superiors to imitate the Jing Shi Tongwen Guan in Beijing to open the wide dialect school in Shanghai, originally named "Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages and Characters", later fixed "Tongwen Guan of learning foreign languages", referred to as "Shanghai Tongwen Guan", then changed its name in 1867 to "Shanghai Wide Dialect School." “Students also take foreign languages as their major course, and take historical and natural sciences as their minor course.” (Li Nanqiu 1996:96) Many excellent translators have been cultivated in Shanghai Wide Dialect school. In 1864, Guangzhou imitated Shanghai Wide Dialect School and also set up a institution of foreign languages and characters, called Guangdong Tongwen Guan or Guangzhou Tongwen Guan. Although the institutions in Beijing, Shanghai and Guangdong were established in different time and they are independent mutually, they possess the obvious common ground at the aspect of , purpose for founding, teaching methods, curriculum settings, employment of the teachers and student selection. At the same time as the Tongwen Guan cultivate foreign language talents, it has also been translated a large number of western scientific works of higher quality.

Zeng Guofan founded Jiangnan Machine Manufacturing Bureau in Shanghai in 1865, which recruited talents and gradually developed into a large-scale factory group engaged in military production. “For the needs of factory production and manufacturing, xu Shou (1818-1884) and Hua Hengfang (1833-1902) founded the Translation institution in 1867, and presided over the translation and publication of a large number of scientific and technological books.”(Li Yashu, Li Nanqiu 2000:106-107) Xu Shou participated in the systematic translation of books on general chemistry, inorganic chemistry, organic chemistry, analytical chemistry, chemical quantitative analysis and chemical qualitative analysis, and promoted the diffusion of Western chemistry knowledge, which is recognized as “the enlightenment of modern chemistry in China”(Du Shiran 1982:251). Hua Hengfang’s translated books cover a wide range of subjects, because he like mathematics since childhood, his translation focus mainly on mathematics. His translation of the ''Microcomputer Traceability'' introduced the new knowledge of mathematics calculus, ''Decisive Mathematics'' for the first time introduced to the Chinese people the knowledge of probability theory. Through the translation of books, he improved his level of mathematical research, become a well-known mathematician and scientific and technological literature translator at the end of the Qing Dynasty. Zhao Yuanyi (1840-1902) is another outstanding translator of Jiangnan Manufacturing Bureau Translation Museum. Knowledgeable, he widely translated Western books, especially good at translating Western modern medical books, such as ''The Law of Internal Medicine'', ''Western Medicine Denton'', ''Confucian Medicine'', ''General Theories of Medicine'' and so on. The quantity and quality of the medical books he translated were among the best at that time.

At the end of the Qing Dynasty, many translation institutions were set up in Beijing, Shanghai and Fujian, such as the Military Engineering Secondary School (Shanghai, 1869), the Strong School Of Books (Beijing, 1895), the Nanyang Institute of Public Studies (Shanghai, 1895), the Agricultural Society (Shanghai, 1896), and the Translation Association (1897), Shanghai), Jingshi University Hall Translation Museum (Beijing, 1901), Jiang chu Compilation Bureau (1901, Wuchang), Business Press Library Compilation Institute (1905, Beijing) and Fujian Ship Administration School ( 1866, Fuzhou). These translation agencies have translated and published a large number of scientific and technical documents and textbooks.

====Compilation and Publishing Organization of Foreign Missionaries in China====
A number of translation and publishing institutions were also founded by Christian missionary who came to China in the late Qing Dynasty, which, although serving missionary activities, objectively translated a number of Western natural science books. One of the earliest was founded in 1843, the Mohai Library. It is not very large that the number of western modern science books translated and published by Mohai Library. These books introduced the knowledge of Western modern calculus, astronomy, botany, symbolic algebra, mechanics and optics to our country earlier.

In addition to western missionaries, there are also some Chinese scholars, such as Wang Tao, Li Shanlan, Zhang Fuxuan and so on. Among them, Li Shanlan (1811-1882) was a famous mathematician in the Qing Dynasty and a pioneer of modern Chinese science. He has known mathematics since he was a child, and he learned ''Elements'' at the age of 15. During his stay in Shanghai in 1852, he met Alexander Wylie, an Englishman, and others, discussed Chinese and Western scholarship with them, and collaborated with Vera Toure on the last nine volumes of ''Element'', which were translated in 1856 and published the following year, culminating in Xu Guangqi's unfinished business. He has also collaborated with Westerners on a variety of scientific books, including ''Botany'', ''About Sky'', ''Algebra'', ''Generation Micro-Accumulation'', etc.

Since then, a number of Christians have set up printing and publishing institutions. Such as the American-Chinese Library was set up by the American Presbyterian in Shanghai in 1860, which printed and published science and technology books. “In 1875, the British missionary John Fryer opened The Chinese Scientific BookDepot in Shanghai.” (Sun Shangsun 1996:124-125) In addition to selling scientific instruments and foreign books, he translated independently and printed a variety of science books, including the most famous books "knowledge series", which covering mining, geosciences, astronomy, geography, animals, plants, mathematics, acoustics, mechanics, hydrology, optics, chemistry and Western history, humanities and social etiquette and other aspects.

Church Hospital Guangzhou Boji Hospital also has an attached translation agency. In order to compile teaching materials for the attached South China Medical School, Boji Hospital has compiled and published a large number of medical books since 1859, such as "The Pox Book", "Western Medicine", "Cutting Book", "Phlegmonosis", "Chemical Primary Order", "Internal Medicine", "Ten Chapters of Physical Use", "Western Medical Encyclopedia" and dozens of other books, early dissemination of Western medical knowledge. Its attached medical school for our country to train a batch of early Western medical talent.

Foreign missionaries held a conference in Shanghai and decided to create a school textbook committee in 1877, later known as the Puzzle Book Club, to publish textbooks for church schools in many cities in China, especially coastal ports, and to compile and publish 104 textbooks in the 10 years from 1877 to 1886. At that time, China's own profane schools also used these textbooks, which promoted the development of modern modern schools in the late Qing Dynasty.

In addition, the more influential translation and publishing institutions are the British, American, German and other countries composed of missionaries of the Broad Society, the agency to translate and publish a variety of social science books mainly. Foreign missionaries set up these translation and publishing institutions of course for the purpose of missionary and colonial, but objectively they still introduced a lot of advanced Western scientific knowledge to China at that time.

==Conclusion==

Throughout China's translation achievements of science and technology , it seems that we go with the tide. Though occasionally we have some own views, the science that we are now in contact with is the view of Westerners. This can also provides some enlightenment from our modern education: it seems we have been western and internationalised, in fact, remain in a lack of the influence of the technology in the Chinese intrinsic culture. For quite a long time, we regard scientific translation as a pure translation in oral to express meaning. It demands a strictly functional equivalence. Translators were completely anonymous, absolutely invisible. Translation of science and technology with a great sanctity and authority, there have been a domestic famous scholar was opposed to the view that translation should have the artistry. In fact, scholarship is a matter, academic education is another matter. In academic research, our ancients were earnest and sincere in educating people by virtue. To put it in modern terms, it means to cultivate EQ as well as IQ of people. But throughout our education, we are producing a lot of people with high IQ but low EQ.“The translators of modern science and technology are generally invisible for fear of revealing any ‘translation traces’.”(Wang Hongzhi 2000:38) Although this can also be regarded as rigorous scholarship, but in view of the international development trend, scientific and technological literary style also began to pay attention to a certain artistic and aesthetic value. A technical article of literary or aesthetic value will continue to live on even when the technology described has become obsolete. “For scientific and technological translation, the same is true, if we want to make our translation vitality for a long time, we must also emphasize artistic and aesthetic value.”(Tan Suqin 2008:61)

The translation of science and technology in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China adopted the mode of mutual cooperation between Chinese scholar-officials and missionaries in China, among which the more famous ones were William Elias and John Fryer from England and Li Shanlan and Xu Shou from China. After the Opium War, the Translation institute of Jiangnan General Bureau of Manufacturing, The Jingshi Tongwen Guan, and the Guanghui Society all produced many cooperative translations. This model can be used for reference by many single-handed and independent workers in the field of scientific and technological translation. Scientific translation itself requires the translator to have a deep knowledge of English and Chinese, as well as professional knowledge of science and technology, which is multidisciplinary. If a translator should possess these abilities at the same time and be able to complete the translation work well, it is self-evident that it is difficult. And if it is given to those who have these abilities separately, they will do their best and take their responsibilities together, and their efficiency and quality will be improved a lot.

In the history of Chinese translation, the 20th century was a climax period with many translation activities. There is no other period that can be compared with the number of translated works, the wide range of subjects covered, and the great influence on Chinese society. In particular, the tide of translation at the beginning of the century is even more brilliant. It can be said that the large-scale multi-disciplinary translation activities in the new century have begun at this time, and its important position at the beginning can not be underestimated.

==References==

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Lan Hongjun蓝红军(2010).《明末清初传教士科技翻译的主体性特点》[Subjectivity of Missionary Scientific Translation in late Ming and early Qing Dynasties].江苏科技大学学报Journal of Jiangsu University of Science and Technology，2010(1) : 93-94.

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=周玖Translation of Science and Technology in Ancient China=

周玖 Zhou Jiu Hunan Normal University，China

==Abstract==
Scientific and technological translation activities in China have a history of more than a thousand years. In the early period of translation of Buddhist scriptures, the astronomy, calendar and medicine of ancient India attached to Buddhist scriptures and the astronomy and mathematics of Arabia attached to Islam in the Sui and Tang dynasties constituted the first scientific and technological translation activities in China. With the arrival of Christian missionaries in China, Western science and technology was introduced into China. This paper will introduce the scientific and technological translations before the 16th century, the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, and the scientific and technological translation activities of the missionaries Matteo Ricci, Xu Guangqi. The impact of latter-day Western science on China's technological development and the significance of ancient Chinese scientific and technological books to human development will be discussed through the technological and cultural exchanges between China and other countries.
==Key words==
Scientific and technological translation; scientific and technological exchange; influence
==Introduction==
Translation activities in China have a very early origin, as far back as the pre-Qin period, when the customs and languages of various tribes were different and the need for interaction led to the emergence of translation. Mr. Ji Xianlin once graphically pointed out that translation plays an important role in the process of cultural exchange: "If we take a river as an analogy, the long river of Chinese culture is full of water at times, but never dries up. The reason is that new water is injected.... The panacea for the longevity of Chinese culture is translation." Looking back at the history of translation today, there were about four times when it greatly contributed to the renewal of Chinese culture: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the late Eastern Han Dynasty to the early Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Western studies in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, and the translation since the reform and opening up. The first two translation climaxes were closely related to the introduction of Buddhism and Catholicism respectively, in which the spread of religion played an important role as a catalyst, and can be said to be the unique translation period in the history of Chinese translation.
The Silk Road, as a channel of communication between the East and the West, played a significant role in contributing to the first two translation climaxes. Since the Silk Road was established by Zhang Qian in the Western Han Dynasty, this busy land route has become an important link between the East and the West, carrying not only precious goods from foreign lands, but also spreading culture and art. It was also through this road that Buddhism was introduced to China during the two Han dynasties. With the further opening of the Maritime Silk Road, China became more closely connected to the world, and 1000 years later Western missionaries landed from the southeast coast of China and formally introduced Catholicism to China. From this point of view, the Silk Road, as a major transportation route, was closely related to the introduction of two exotic religions. It is thanks to the tide of cultural interchange brought by the Silk Road that translation in China underwent the process of transmutation from initial awakening to budding and then maturity. This paper will introduce the scientific and technological translation before the 16th century and the late Ming and early Qing dynasties to recreate the history of ancient scientific and technological translation in China. Secondly, this paper selects Matteo Ricci and Xu Guangqi of the Ming Dynasty as representative figures of ancient scientific and technological translation and analyzes the importance of their translation activities to the development of science and technology in China and Western countries.
== Scientific and Technical Translations Before the Sixteenth Century==
The translation of scientific literature in ancient China began in the end of Han Dynasty, when foreign monks translated some ancient Indian literature on medicine, astronomy and arithmetic along with the Buddhist scriptures. However, unlike the collective translation method adopted in the translation of Buddhist sutras, the translation of these scientific literature was often done by the translating monks alone, and the contents translated were fragmentary and were subsidiary or by-products of the translation of Buddhist sutras rather than systematic introduction. According to some historical books and scattered records of Buddhist books, there were astronomical and calendrical books translated from ancient India in about the 2nd century AD. An Shigao, the originator of the translation of our Buddhist scriptures, is the earliest verifiable translator of astronomical and arithmetical texts. According to Dao An's ''Catalogue of the Comprehensive Scriptures'', An Shigao's translation of the ārdūlakar·nāvadāna is the earliest translation of astronomy, which introduces the knowledge of astronomy in ancient India. His translation of Brahman's Algorithm is one of the earliest translations of mathematical works in China.

During the Wei-Jin North-South Period, Dharmarajiva translated the Brahmana Astronomy Sutra. In 541 A.D., Upas translated ''Mahāratna kūṭasūtra'', which recorded the ancient Indian fractions. In 508 A.D., the monk Renamati translated Nāgārjuna bodhisattva, which is an ancient Indian pharmacological text. During the Sui and Tang dynasties, China's foreign exchanges were more frequent than ever before, and scientific and technological translations were more prosperous than in previous dynasties. The invention of engraving and printing in the 9th century A.D. also facilitated the production and dissemination of various texts. In 718 A.D, Gautama Siddhartha, an astronomer who came to China from India, translated the ancient Indian ''Jiuzhi Calendar'', which introduced the ancient Indian algorithm characters, calendar degrees, the calculation of cumulative sun and small remainder, the position and movement of the sun and the moon, and the projection of solar and lunar eclipses, etc. It faithfully reflected the characteristics of Indian mathematical astronomy. It was included in the ''Kaiyuan Zhizhi'' (Vol. 104) and has been preserved to this day. The ancient Chinese numerals that appeared in China during the Song Dynasty were obviously influenced by the ancient Indian algorithmic symbols introduced in the ''Jiuzhi Calendar''. This period also saw the translation of the ''Sutra'' by the Sanskrit monk Bukong, who came to China. Some translations of medical books were translated continuously during the Sui and Tang dynasties. Although these medical books have been scattered, Indian medicine undoubtedly influenced the medical texts of the Tang Dynasty, such as ''Wai-tai-mi-yao'', ''Prescriptions Worth a Thousand Pieces of Gold for Emergencies'', and Sun Simiao's ''Qianjin Yifang'', which all contain many Indian medical components. In particular, ancient Indian ophthalmology was at the world's leading level at that time. There are many records of ancient Indian doctors treating eye diseases in Tang Dynasty literature, and even the poems of literati and bachelors have traces of ancient Indian ophthalmology treatment, such as the poem of the famous poet Liu Yuxi, "Presented to the Brahmin Monk, an Eye Doctor", which describes the scene of suffering from cataract."

The interaction between the Arab world and China became more and more frequent after the Tang Dynasty. In addition to the exchange of materials in trade and commerce, the influence of cultural exchanges was more profound, and Arab knowledge of astronomy, calendars and medicine was gradually introduced to China. The introduction of Arab religious books to China began in 632 AD. According to the historical records of the Tang Dynasty, in 651 A.D., Arabia sent an ambassador to China for the first time. Arabic medical prescriptions and medicines were already recorded in the medical dictionaries of the Tang Dynasty. Arab non-religious books first came to China during the reign of Emperor Song Renzong (1023-1063). At the beginning of the Song Dynasty, the ''Yingtian Calendar'', which was compiled by the scholar Ma Yize and submitted by the Chinese official Wang Dune, who presided over the compilation, was based on the Arabic astronomical calculation data and attracted Arabic astronomical knowledge, using the Arabic calculation methods of solar and lunar eclipses and the five stars' travel degrees, and dividing each night into five shifts, which is said to be the beginning of the Chinese method of changing points. Our rule during the Yuan dynasty spanned Eurasia, and Genghis Khan's three western expeditions strengthened the scientific exchange between China and Arabia, after which the number of people who knew Arabic on Chinese territory increased dramatically, and the original language of Chinese scientific translations gradually changed from Sanskrit to Persian, which was used in the eastern part of Arabia at that time. It was in the 13th century that Arab non-religious books were introduced to China on a large scale. A number of Arab astronomers worked in the official institution of the Yuan dynasty, the Sitiantai (established in 1260). One of them, the astronomer Jamal al-Din, prepared the almanac based on the Arabic calendar, which was adopted by the Yuan government for 14 years and was later used as the basis for the chronological calendar prepared by the Chinese scholar Guo Shoujing. Zamaradin also made various astronomical instruments and brought the latest achievements of astronomy in the Arab world at that time, which was the first time that the knowledge of Arab "for the sphere" was introduced to China. The use of Arabic numerals in mathematics by the Chinese also began in the Yuan Dynasty. In terms of medicine, the rulers of the Yuan Dynasty organized the Arab doctors who were recaptured in the conquest to set up the "Hui Hui Medicine Institute", and at the end of the Yuan Dynasty, they also translated 36 volumes of "Hui Hui Medicine", which was engraved in the early Ming Dynasty. From the surviving remnants, this is a complete, comprehensive medical encyclopedia. In the early years of the Ming Dynasty, Zhu Yuanzhang, the founder of the Ming Dynasty, summoned the Arab scholars who used to work in the Yuan Dynasty's Tienmin, and issued an edict to translate Arab books, including the Ming translation of the Tienmin and the Hui Hui Calendar.

== Science and Technology translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties==
In the middle of the sixteenth century, the feudal society of Ming Dynasty turned from prosperity to decline. “The old agrarian culture was under attack; capitalism began to sprout; a new breed of industrialists and businessmen emerged. The citizen class represented the emerging power, demanding self-expression and eager for reform”. Some intellectuals began to reflect on traditional culture and were eager to understand the outside world. While the Reformation emerging in Europe seized most of the territory of Catholicism in Europe, so they began to expand their power to the East. In order to spread their religion, the Western missionaries tried hard to study Chinese culture and adopted culturally applicable strategies in the translation process, with flexible and reader-oriented translation methods. In terms of ideology and culture, they conformed to Chinese culture with Western culture and allowed the scholars to absorb Western culture without degrading Chinese culture, emphasizing the complementarity and consistency of Chinese and Western cultures to ensure that the Chinese could accept Western ideas and knowledge smoothly. Translation was a bridge for mutual communication between China and the West, and the late Ming and early Qing dynasties were characterized by scientific and technical translations, the second climax in the history of translation in China. (Wang, 2013:49-51)

According to statistics, "From 1582 to 1773, a total of 352 Western works were translated into China, including 71 in astronomy and 20 in mathematics”. When the Italian missionary Matteo Ricci first came to China in 1582, he found it difficult to preach in China because of the deep-rooted traditional thinking. The first president of the Jesuits in China, Matteo Ricci discovered the status and influence of the scholarly class in Chinese society and began to study the ancient Chinese scriptures and make friends with officials in order to facilitate travel to China and the construction of churches. In 1584, he hung up a map of the world in his church and named it ''Great Universal Geographic Map'' for public viewing. This was the first time that geography, a modern Western science, was introduced to China. In about 1605, Xu Guangqi wrote ''The Explanation of Great Universal Geographic Map'', which was the first work of the Chinese to spread Western science. When the subjects of the great kingdom of heaven discovered that this great country actually occupied only a small part of the earth, you can imagine how much they were shocked. The Chinese scholars, such as Xu Guangqi and Li Zhizao, believed that translation could broaden the horizons of the nation. Therefore, it was necessary to introduce advanced Western science and technology into China, and they worked together with Western missionaries to translate and co-edit some works on natural sciences, and later on, many works on philosophical principles, scientific ideas and religious beliefs. (Zhao, 1998:33-37 )

The translation of the first scientific work is Ricci's dictation, Xu Guangqi's ''Euclid's Elements'' 6 volumes, which opened the climax of China's first scientific and technological translation. The book was completed at the beginning of the thirty-five-year calendar (1607) and was immediately imprinted. Mathematics is a basic science, because geometry is lacking in ancient Chinese arithmetic. Therefore it was first translated into Chinese. Xu Guangqi and others translated and studied Western scientific and technological works, participated in the compilation of the ''Chongzheng Almanac'', and produced astronomical instruments such as the armillary sphere, telescope and so on. In 41 years (1613), Li Zhizao edited the arithmetic book, which he had studied and translated with Ricci, into the book ''Tongwen Suanzhi''. Thus, Western science has been integrated with ancient Chinese science from the very beginning of its introduction.

In 1622, the German missionary Tang Ruowang, an expert in astronomy and almanac, arrived in China and worked with Xu Guangqi to set up an early cooperative variant of the "Calendar Bureau" in China. "But then Yang Tingjun and others called on the court to set up a more formal translation sentence, but due to the death of the Wanli Emperor and the tightening of the border war. The ambitious plan to systematically translate 7,000 Western scientific works afterwards also came to naught". But Xu Guangqi still organized a considerable number of Western calendar books through his work on calendar revision. In 1626, Tang Ruowang wrote The Theory of Telescope, introducing the optical principles, functions, production methods and usage of telescopes. Under the oral transmission of Deng Yuxuan, Wang Zheng wrote the book Yuanxi Qiqi Tushuo, which was the first mechanics book in China. The book describes the specific gravity, center of gravity bar and other methods and their usage. He also made some simple machines by himself. Xiong Sanbao translated the book Biao Dushuo, which described the theory of astronomy and the principles of measuring the twenty-four solar terms from a table. The missionaries Pang Di and Ejuelo wrote and drew ''The Theory of Overseas Map'' and ''Great Universal Geographic Map''，which supplemented the introduction of geography. Long Huamin wrote ''Earthquake Interpretation'', which describes the modern earthquake doctrine such as causes, grades, scope, size and time, and omens of earthquakes. Dictated by Tang Ruowang and written by Jiao Castellan, the book ''Huogong lveyao'' was translated, which contains the methods of casting, mounting and using artillery, as well as the methods of manufacturing bullets and mines. The work of transmitting the Western calendar began in 1629-the second year of Chongzhen. In 1635, the famous ''Chongzhen Calendar'', which is about 1.8 million words, was completed. (Li, 2012: 88-90)

Soon after the introduction of this technological knowledge into China, the Ming Dynasty fell. In 1645, Tang Ruowang revised and added to the ''Chongzhen Calendar'' and presented it to the Qing court as the New Western Calendar. During the reign of Shunzhi, the missionary Mu Ni Ge taught the Na's logarithm, which was not long produced in the West. During the Kangxi period, Xue Fengzuo, who studied with Mu Ni Ge, compiled a book called ''Lixue Huitong'', which included astronomy, arithmetic, physics and medicine. In addition, the missionary Nan Huairen made six kinds of astronomical measuring instruments and left behind the book ''Lingtai YiXiang ZhiTu'' to introduce the method of making them. The Kangxi Emperor also personally presided over the compilation of the ''Essence of Mathematics'', and organized and led missionary Bai Jin and others to conduct the mapping of the whole country together with the relevant personnel in China, and compiled the ''Huangyu Quantu''. (Xie, 2009:114)

This culmination of scientific and technological translations has promoted the development of science and technology in China. The introduction of this advanced Western knowledge opened the eyes of the Chinese and gave us a more correct and clear understanding of the world. The introduction of these advanced technologies also promoted the production and improvement of advanced scientific instruments. The climax of scientific and technological translation in this period opened up new ways for everyone to learn Western knowledge and promoted the progress and development of traditional Chinese technology and society as a whole. What’s more, this surge in scientific and technological translation also had a positive effect on the development of Chinese industrial civilization. These translated scientific and technological books broadened the Chinese people's horizons and enhanced their ability to transform society and nature, enabling them to create more efficient material and spiritual wealth and thus improve the material, spiritual and living standards of the people. These translations spread the ideas of materialism and dialectics, profoundly combating the ruling ideology of idealism of the time and further liberating the productive forces. The scientific and technological translations of this period not only injected fresh blood into the then dead China, but also laid the foundation and played a positive bridging role for the industrial revolution in later China.

== Matteo Ricci==

In the middle of the sixteenth century, the feudal society of the Ming Dynasty turned from prosperity to decline, and since the climax of the Northern Song Dynasty, the field of science and technology stagnated, which was the beginning of the sprouting of capitalism. In 1582, Matteo Ricci came to Macau with a Portuguese caravan, where he diligently studied the Chinese language and learned about Chinese customs, state systems and political organizations. In the eyes of the Chinese, China was the only country in the world worthy of praise: “As far as the greatness of the country, the advancement of its political system and its academic fame were concerned, the Chinese regarded all other nations not only as barbarians, but even as irrational animals. There is no other king, dynasty or culture in the world that is worth boasting about in the eyes of the Chinese” (He 1983:181) The Western missionaries, in their efforts to spread their religion, studied Chinese culture and adopted culturally applicable strategies in the translation process, which was flexible and reader-centered. “In terms of ideology and culture, they conformed to Chinese culture with Western culture and allowed the scholars to absorb Western culture without degrading Chinese culture, emphasizing the complementarity and consistency of Chinese and Western cultures to ensure that the Chinese could accept Western ideas and knowledge smoothly”(Xiong 1994:16).

The year 2021 marks the 420th anniversary of the settlement of the late Ming Jesuit Ricci in Beijing. He then managed to gain a foothold in the capital, establishing a church, "legitimizing Catholicism in China," and "pioneering the history of combining Chinese and Western translation and introduction of Western scientific and technical literature, as well as being the first to translate the Four Books: ''The Great Learning'', ''The Doctrine of the Mean'', ''The Confucian Analects'' and ''The Works of Mencius into Latin'', opening the way for the introduction of Chinese texts to the West. He was also the first to translate the Four Books into Latin, which was the first time that Chinese texts were introduced to the West. In the history of cultural exchange between China and the West, this is an event of great significance. Since entering China, Matteo Ricci adopted the strategy of attaching to Confucianism and complementing Confucianism, hoping to convert China to Jesus Christ through the adaptation of Catholicism to traditional Chinese culture. Ricci's friendly and tolerant attitude toward Confucianism made the spread of Catholicism at that time a success, and he himself won the eyes of some of the great scholars. “Ricci wrote a hundred aphorisms in Chinese about friendship from the Western philosophers he had read, had them embellished by Wang Kentang, and had them printed in Nanchang in 1595 under the title "On Friendship" and presented to the dignitaries of the time. This book contains the treatises on friendship from ''Plato's Rutgers'', ''Aristotle's Ethics'', ''Cicero's On Friendship'', ''Montaigne's Essays'', and ''Plutarch's Moral Theory''”(Xie 2009:115). Some of them were also authored by Ricci himself. He maintained a friendly, tolerant and sincere attitude toward traditional Chinese culture and the Chinese people, and was therefore respected by some Confucian students as "Li Zi" or "Western Confucian", and many people were happy to make friends with him. In the following decade, Matteo Ricci laid the foundation for the spread of Christianity in China and objectively promoted a deep cultural dialogue and scientific and technological exchange between China and the West. Ricci's success was largely based on the "academic missionary" and "dumb missionary" methods, i.e., the translation and compilation of Western scientific and technical works and theological works to expand his influence and achieve the missionary purpose. The Western translation of the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, which began with Matteo Ricci, was the second high point in the history of translation in China. Although the impact of this translation on Chinese culture could not be compared with the translation of Buddhist scriptures, Chinese people learned directly from it for the first time about European scientific and technological knowledge such as mathematics, calendars, geography and arms manufacturing. This scientific and technological knowledge, especially the modern world concept, opened the eyes of some of the scholars, and the Western scientific thinking method began to influence our academia from both logical reasoning and empirical investigation. Matteo Ricci is the most influential figure in the history of cultural exchange between China and the West. Ricci is credited with pioneering the development of modern Western science and Catholicism in China. Ricci's map of the world, ''Great Universal Geographic Map'', was engraved in 12 different editions from 1584 to the end of the Ming Dynasty. In order to illustrate the concept of the map, Matteo Ricci especially applied the cone projection to draw the equatorial north and south hemispheres on the map, indicating the circle of the earth, the north and south poles, the length of day and night north and south of the equator, and the five belts. The names of the five continents: Europa, Lemuria (Africa), Asia, North and South Asia, Murica, and Murray Mecca. He marked out more than thirty countries in Europe, and introduced North and South America, and made field measurements with modern scientific methods and instruments, and drew the latitude and longitude of eight cities in China: Beijing, Nanjing, Datong, Guangzhou, Hangzhou, Xi'an Taiyuan, Jinan. The concept of the five continents, the doctrine of the circle of the earth, and the division of the zones have all made important contributions to Chinese geography. Many of the translations of the names of countries and places on the five continents are still in use today. In addition, there are more than twenty Chinese works of Matteo Ricci, among which thirteen are included in the Siku Quanshu,and six in The History of Ming Dynasty. What’s more, there are also a number of series of books or individual collections in which Matteo Ricci's writings are collected, and he himself has been called "the first foreigner from whom Chinese people could learn from his Chinese writings”. Mr. Hushi also affirmed that "in the last three hundred years, Chinese thought and learning have all tended to be scientific in their precision and nuance .... All of them were influenced by Matteo Ricci's arrival in China". Mr. Fanghao also believed that "Matteo Ricci was the first person who bridged Chinese and Western cultures in the Ming Dynasty". Of course, Matteo Ricci's subjective intention was to preach, and what he imported was mainly Greek science, which was far from modern scientific theories and methods. But for the Chinese scholars, who lacked an axiomatic, systematic and symbolic scientific system, these scientific theories did have a liberating significance. Moreover, "when missionaries such as Matteo Ricci used science as a missionary tool, they not only aroused the interest of some of the scholars in Western science, but also to some extent satisfied the needs of some scholars and even the emperor. It was this relationship between the need and the wanted that made possible the peaceful dialogue between Chinese and Western civilizations, mediated by the missionaries and the scholars”（Cheng 2002:70-74).

== Xu Guangqi==
Xu Guangqi was an official in the late Ming Dynasty, a member of the scholarly class. This position gave Xu Guangqi early access to Western missionaries and to Western technology in the context of national development. Seeing that his country was in decline, that the gap between the East and the West was great, and that the "Heavenly Kingdom" was only an illusion, Xu Guangqi tried to revitalize his country by translating Western learning. He translated and compiled a series of Western academic works in many fields, including astronomy, mathematics, and water conservation. Wu Jin considers Xu Guangqi to be the first scientist to accept Western scientific knowledge and introduce it to the Chinese, and to be the pioneer and founder of Chinese science and technology. In 1593, Xu Guangqi, who was an official, began to communicate with missionaries, and his love for science and technology, coupled with his sense of crisis and national salvation after the contrast between the East and the West, actively cooperated with Matteo Ricci, who used "academic missionary", and they each took what they needed and began to translate and compile academic works. The two men began to translate and compile scholarly works.

The second culmination of translation in China shifted from Buddhist scripture translation to scientific and technical translation. At the end of the Ming Dynasty, Xu Guangqi's cooperation with the missionaries became an important driving force for this climax. According to ''A Brief History of Chinese and Western Translation'' edited by Xie Tianzhen, the works that Xu Guangqi translated and compiled with the missionaries mainly include: 1) ''Elements'' , in 1604, Xu Guangqi contacted Matteo Ricci and studied ''Elements'' with him, and the first six volumes were translated in 1607. The first six volumes were translated in 1607. Thus, Western geometry began to spread in China and became famous for centuries. 2) ''Water Conservation and Irrigation Methods'' in the West , which was translated by Xu Guangqi and Xiong Sanbao in 1612, mainly introduced Western water engineering and machinery. 3) ''Chongzhen Calendar'', as early as the beginning of the 17th century, knowledgeable people wrote to request the revision of the calendar, and it was not until 1629 that Emperor Chongzhen decreed that Xu Guangqi and Li Zhizao and other knowledgeable people were ordered to revise the calendar and compile the astronomical calendar.

Xu Guangqi had a far-sighted and strategic mind. As a proponent of Western learning in the late Ming Dynasty, Xu Guangqi's translation activities were inseparable from Catholicism. From his first acquaintance with Catholics in Shaozhou in 1595, he was formally baptized as a Catholic eight years later in 1603. It was during the exchange with Matteo Ricci and others that Xu Guangqi gradually learned about the basic situation of university education in the West and further realized the fundamental place of mathematics and science. So in the selection of the content of the translation, determined the Western mathematical and scientific classics as the first choice for translation. He believed that the Western mathematical theory was rigorous and had a certain logical system, which seemed to be useless but was actually the basis of all uses. Ancient China was an agricultural civilization, and when agriculture flourished, the country flourished. From Li Bing's construction of Dujiangyan, we can see the importance of agricultural water conservancy to the country and to the people. Xu Guangqi's strategic vision of translation went beyond the study and debate on the mere textual "translation techniques" of Buddhist scriptures translation, such as the "text-quality controversy" of the time. “Xu Guangqi's translations of Elements and The Celiang Fayi saved traditional Chinese mathematics, which was on the verge of extinction, and the people's attention and research on mathematics facilitated the transformation of China from classical to modern mathematics”(Li 2021:60-64). The social function of translation was highlighted in this culmination of translation, and Kong Deliang argues that "although it was not fully realized due to the time constraints, it became a turning point in the history of Chinese translation” (Kong 2015:76-80).

In the midst of China's social transformation and the tide of Western learning, Xu Guangqi was involved in the translation and proofreading of Western scientific and technical books. He selectively filtered, absorbed, borrowed, digested and integrated Western learning to add fresh and heterogeneous elements to the ancient Chinese culture, in order to maintain the vitality of the local culture and promote the modern transformation of Chinese society in political, economic and cultural aspects. His translation statements are the grass-roots threads in the interpretation of the history of Chinese translation and thought, and they have been the pulse of Chinese thought since modern times. Xu Guangqi of the late Ming Dynasty was "the first person of distinction to expand the scope of translation from religion and literature to the field of natural science and technology", and he had "outstanding philosophical thinking ability", but unfortunately he did not "elaborate the theory of translation from a philosophical height" (Chen, F. K. 2010:55).

== Conlusion==
Before the sixteenth century, China had the most frequent cultural exchanges with Arabia and India. While promoting the spread of Buddhism in China, it also promoted the progress of astronomy, calendar and medicine in ancient China, and laid a solid foundation for the development of science and technology in ancient China. The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties pushed forward the development of modern science and technology in China, introduced advanced Western instruments, and set off a wave of learning Western science and technology for China. At the same time, the scientific and technological translations in the late Qing and early Ming dynasties also transformed the way of thinking and values of Chinese people, making China modernize its ideology. The missionary Matteo Ricci brought advanced Western science and technology to China, opening up the eyes of the Chinese people and promoting the development of traditional Chinese science and technology. The attention to and translation of traditional Chinese texts, triggered by the ancient Chinese scholar Xu Guangqi, went far beyond the confines of East Asia and created a craze for admiration in Western European countries as well, reflecting to a certain extent the breakthrough and growth of China's translation business.
==References==
Cheng Deng陈登(2002). [从西学翻译看利玛窦对中国文化的影响] The Influence of Matteo Ricci on Chinese Culture in the Light of Western Translation, 湖南大学学报(社会科学[1]版) Journal of Hunan University (Social Sciences [1] Edition)

Cheng Fukang陈福康(2010). [中国译学史] History of Chinese Translation, 上海：上海人民出版社 Shang Hai: Shanghai People's Publishing House

Kong Deliang孔德亮(2015).[徐光启科技翻译的启示] The Inspiration of Xu Guangqi's Scientific and Technical Translation.中国石油大学学报（社会科学版）Journal of China University of Petroleum (Social Science Edition)

Li Shucang李书仓(2012).[试论明末清初科技翻译的基本特征] On the Basic Characteristics of Scientific and Technological Translation in the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties. 山东女子学院学报Journal of Shandong Women's College

Li Tenglong李腾龙(2021).[明清科技翻译之思想史意义发微——兼论徐光启和傅兰雅的翻译思想] The significance of the Ming and Qing dynasties' Scientific and Technological Translations in the History of Ideas: A Discussion of the Translation Ideas of Xu Guangqi and Fu Lanya.上海翻译Shanghai Translation

Matteo Ricci, Giannini金阁尼, 利玛窦(1983).[利玛窦中国札记] Ricci's China Journal中华书局China Bookstore

Ma Zuyi马祖毅(2006).[中国翻译词典序言] Preface to the Chinese Translation Dictionary 武汉：湖北教育出版社Wuhan: Hubei Education Publishing House

Wang Jihui王吉会(2013).[特殊历史条件下开启的明末清初科技翻译高潮] The Climax of Scientific and Technological Translation in the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties under Special Historical Conditions中国科技翻译Chinese Scientific Translation

[Xie Tianzheng谢天振(2009).[中西翻译简史] A Brief History of Chinese and Western Translation北京：外语教学与研究出版社 Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press

[Xiong Yuezhi雄月之(1994). [西学东渐与晚清社会] Western Learning and Late Qing Society上海：上海人民出版社 Shanghai: Shanghai People's Publishing House

Xue Xinxin薛欣欣(2020).[汉代严佛调和明代徐光启的翻译比较研究] A Comparative Study of Translations by Yan Fotiao in the Han Dynasty and Xu Guangqi in the Ming Dynasty民族翻译 Ethnic Translation

Zhao Wenli赵文利(1998).[明末清初西方传教士来华与中国翻译] Western Missionaries to China and Chinese Translation in the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties. 中国科技翻译Chinese Scientific Translation

=钟雨露Western Translation History in the Old Ages=

钟雨露 Zhong Yulu, Hunan Normal University, China

==Abstract ==
Many translation historians believe that translation is an extremely ancient activity, no matter in the West or the East. However, the history of translation has long been neglected in the field of research. Translation researchers tend to focus on the study of translation techniques and theories while neglecting the study of the history of translation. The western translation history has a long history of more than two thousand years from ancient times, which has experienced the Old Ages, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance and the Modern times. As we all know, when we know something, we often need to go back to its origin. Western translation history can be traced back to the third century BC, which opened the prelude of the history of western translation. This paper will study the western translation history in the Old Ages to help readers have a deep understanding of the history of translation and translation itself.

Many translation historians believe that translation is an extremely ancient activity, no matter in the West or the East. However, the history of translation has long been neglected in the field of research. Translation researchers tend to focus on the study of translation techniques and theories while neglecting the study of the history of translation. The western translation history has a long history of more than two thousand years from ancient times, which has experienced the Old Ages, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance and the Modern times. As we all know, when we know something, we often need to go back to its origin. Western translation history can be traced back to the third century BC, which opened the prelude of the history of western translation. This paper will study the western translation history in the Old Ages to help readers have a deep understanding of the history of translation and translation itself. Corrected by--[[User:Zhong Yifei|Zhong Yifei]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yifei|talk]]) 12:12, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

==Key words==
Western translation history; the Old Ages; Andronicus; the Bible translation

==Introduction==
Throughout human history, language translation has been almost as old as language itself. The relationship between the two primitive tribes, from antagonism to amity, all depends on the exchange of ideas, mutual understanding and translation. ''The Genesis'' describes that Greece and Persia signed the Treaty of Cary Aas in 449 BC, and the ancient Roman Empire recruited German soldiers for its army. All these activities relied on interpreters. Similarly in China, for example, Confucius traveled various kingdoms where spoke different languages, so he also needed to rely on interpreters to communicate with others. However, there is no record of who these interpreters were, or historians have yet to discover them. The same is true in the West. Therefore, to discuss the history of translation, we can only start from the period of historical records. (Xie, 2009: 57)

In Europe, the history of translation can date back to the third century BC. In a broad sense, the earliest translation in the West is ''Septuagint'', translated by 72 Jewish scholars in Alexandria of Egypt around the third century BC. Strictly speaking, the first translation in the West is Andronicus’ Latin translation of Homer’s epics ''Odyssey'' around the middle of the third century BC. No matter the former or the latter one, they are both invented in the third century BC, that is the time of Livius Andronicus（the first Roman translator）. Before discussing this point, we must briefly review the historical background at that time.

In the 6th century BC, Rome entered the slave society from the primitive commune and established the Roman Republic. With the development of productivity, the Roman Republic grew. The rulers began to expand outwards for their own benefit. By the third century BC, Rome, with its increasing military force, first conquered the entire Italian peninsula. And after four Macedonian Wars, Rome controlled the whole of Greece. Thus, Rome replaced Greece's dominant position in the Mediterranean area in politics, economy as well as military, and became a powerful empire.

Rome and Greece are geographically adjacent to each other. Some Greeks had long been immigrated to the territory of Rome. Later, Rome conquered the Greece, so it was able to contact with the Greek culture directly. Since Greece had a splendid culture heritage, the Romans began to translate the Greek books on a large scale from the third century BC. And also in this time, the written records of translation appeared. Livius Andronicus, Gnaeus Naevius, and Quintus Ennius, considered the three founders of Roman literature, all translated or adapted Homer's epics and the Greek plays of Aischulos, Sophokles, and Euripides in Latin. The Romans inherited the Greek culture through translation and imitation. They did not inherit it simply, but carried it forward, and formed their own unique culture. Roman culture was formed by absorbing the cultural achievements of different regions on the basis of the economic and political relations of that time. This is the first large-scale translation activity in Europe and the whole Western history. Some translation activities in Europe probably existed long before that. However, from the existing written records, the history of western translation has just opened its first chapter. (Xu, 2006: 363)

Throughout human history, language translation has been almost as old as language itself. The relationship between the two primitive tribes, from antagonism to amity, all depends on the exchange of ideas, mutual understanding and translation. ''The Genesis'' describes that Greece and Persia signed the Treaty of Cary Aas in 449 BC, and the ancient Roman Empire recruited German soldiers for its army. All these activities relied on interpreters. Similarly in China, for example, Confucius traveled various kingdoms where spoke different languages, so he also needed to rely on interpreters to communicate with others. However, there is no record of who these interpreters were, or historians have yet to discover them. The same is true in the West. Therefore, to discuss the history of translation, we can only start from the period of historical records. (Xie, 2009: 57)

In Europe, the history of translation can date back to the third century BC. In a broad sense, the earliest translation in the West is ''Septuagint'', translated by 72 Jewish scholars in Alexandria of Egypt around the third century BC. Strictly speaking, the first translation in the West is Andronicus’ Latin translation of Homer’s epics ''Odyssey'' around the middle of the third century BC. No matter the former or the latter one, they are both invented in the third century BC, that is the time of Livius Andronicus（the first Roman translator）. Before discussing this point, we must briefly review the historical background at that time. In the 6th century BC, Rome entered the slave society from the primitive commune and established the Roman Republic. With the development of productivity, the Roman Republic grew. The rulers began to expand outwards for their own benefit. By the third century BC, Rome, with its increasing military force, first conquered the entire Italian peninsula. And after four Macedonian Wars, Rome controlled the whole of Greece. Thus, Rome replaced Greece's dominant position in the Mediterranean area in politics, economy as well as military, and became a powerful empire.

Rome and Greece are geographically adjacent to each other. Some Greeks had long been immigrated to the territory of Rome. Later, Rome conquered the Greece, so it was able to contact with the Greek culture directly. Since Greece had a splendid culture heritage, the Romans began to translate the Greek books on a large scale from the third century BC. And also in this time, the written records of translation appeared. Livius Andronicus, Gnaeus Naevius, and Quintus Ennius, considered the three founders of Roman literature, all translated or adapted Homer's epics and the Greek plays of Aischulos, Sophokles, and Euripides in Latin. The Romans inherited the Greek culture through translation and imitation. They did not inherit it simply, but carried it forward, and formed their own unique culture. Roman culture was formed by absorbing the cultural achievements of different regions on the basis of the economic and political relations of that time. This is the first large-scale translation activity in Europe and the whole Western history. Some translation activities in Europe probably existed long before that. However, from the existing written records, the history of western translation has just opened its first chapter. (Xu, 2006: 363) Corrected by--[[User:Zhong Yifei|Zhong Yifei]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yifei|talk]]) 12:14, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

==The Latin Translation of the Ancient Greek Classics==
From the above historical background, it can be seen that the translation activities in early Rome were the translation of ancient Greek classics. These translation activities continued until the fall of the Roman Empire in the fifth century AD. The whole process can be divided into two major stages, namely the Roman Republic stage and the Roman Empire stage. The translation objects during the Roman Republic mainly focused on dramas and epics, which formed the cultural translation tradition in the history of western translation. In the Roman Empire, the translation objects were mostly philosophy and religion, which later formed the tradition of the Bible translation in the history of western translation. It is worth mentioning that the translation ideas of the Roman Empire later became the source of the entire history of western translation thoughts, and the Romans were also considered to be the inventors of western translation theories. (Bassett, 2004: 57)
===Livius Andronicus(284?BC—204BC)===
In the translation activities of the early Romans, Greek drama was undoubtedly their most concern. The native Roman drama was an improvisational comedy, which was not as complete and rich as Greek drama in terms of language, performance and costume. Therefore, Greek drama, as a new form of entertainment, attracted Roman soldiers who came to Greece because of war and writers who made a living by writing from the 4th to the 3rd century BC. They soon introduced this novel form of entertainment to Rome, while writers translated Greek plays into Latin. In fact, it was not a translation, but an extremely liberal adaptation. The main purpose of it was not to produce accurate translation for academic study, but for performance and entertainment, so a large number of deletions and additions were inevitable in translation. (Lefevere, 2006: 15)

Among these early translators, the first to be mentioned is Livius Andronicus. He was the earliest translator of Rome and was known as “the father of Roman poetry”. Andronicus was born in the Greek colony of Taranto(a port city of southeast Italy today) around 284 BC. He was enslaved by the Romans, who captured the city around 272 BC. He was later set free and became his master's tutor, teaching Latin and Greek. One of the great difficulties he encountered in teaching was that there were no books available to teach Latin. To facilitate his teaching, he began to translate some books. Around 250 BC, he translated some fragments of Homer's ''Odyssey'' into Latin in Saturnian verse, a free-flowing translation that had long served as a textbook. Although the translation is of little literary value, it is the first Latin poem and the first literary work to be translated into Latin in the history of Roman literature. In addition, Andronicus introduced a new literary genre -- epic for Roman literature through his adaptation and translation works. One of the major features of the translation of ''Odyssey'' is that when translating the names of Greek gods, Andronicus did not use transliteration, but directly replaced the corresponding Greek gods with Roman gods. For example, the Greek god Zeus was translated into Jupiter, the Roman god; The Greek Cronos was translated into Saturns, the Roman god of agriculture; the Greek Muses was translated into Camenae, etc. Andronicus’ translation, though not accepted by modern translators, promoted the integration of Roman gods with Greek gods and played a positive role in enriching Roman culture.In addition, Andronicus also translated and adapted Greek plays. He translated and adapted nine tragedies by the major Greek writers Aischulos, Sophokles and Euripides, such as ''Agamemnon'', ''Oedipus the King'' and ''Medea''. And he translated and adapted three comedies, all of which were written by Menandros. (Tan, 2004: 16)

From the literary perspective, Andronicus’ translations, such as those of ''Odyssey'', are crude. However, his contribution was not in the translation itself, but that he was the first to introduce ancient Greek epics and plays to Roman society and to adapt Greek verse and rhyme to the Latin language. Through the efforts of him and many other contemporary and subsequent translators, the style of the ancient Greek dramas had a profound influence on the later European dramas.

=== Gnaeus Naevius(270 BC—200? BC)===
In the era of Andronicus, translation activities had gradually developed. The great movement of people caused by the Roman conquests led to an increase in the number of polyglots. And people had a growing interest in Greek culture. Many poets and playwrights also engaged in extensive translation of Greek works. The chief translators after Andronicus were Gnaeus Naevius and Quintus Ennius. The two men were basically contemporaries of Andronicus and enjoyed equal popularity with him in ancient Latin poetry and dramatic achievements. Some people refer to them as “the three founding fathers of ancient Roman literature creation and translation.”

Gnaeus Naevius was born in the Campania of present-day Italy. He lived at a time when Rome was actively expanding outward. When he was young, he served in the Roman army and fought in the first Punic War. As a writer with democratic leanings, he was imprisoned for his scathing attacks on the Roman authorities. After his release from prison, he continued to criticize the current government and was eventually expelled from Rome. Naevius first began writing and performing plays in 235 BC. He loved drama and translated 30 comedies and 6 tragedies in his lifetime. His works were not mere imitations of Greek classics, but a mixture of translation, creation and adaptation. His contribution to Roman literature is to nationalize Roman comedy. (Luo, 2007: 279)

In his translation, adaptation and composition of comedies, he mostly adopted the form of Greek comedy, but inserted many pure Roman characteristics. In addition, he wrote historical plays on the basis of real Roman events. He was the originator of Roman historical plays. His most important literary achievement is epic writing. His 7-volume epic ''Punic War'' describes the first Punic War in Greek poetic style, making a bold attempt to establish the tradition of Roman national epic. His epic, ''Punic War'', which was based on his own experiences of the wars between the Romans and the Carthaginians of North Africa, interspersed with historical events and myths. It was the first Roman epic, and it had a big influence on Virgil in writing ''Aeneid''. From the fragments of his works that have survived, we can see that the writing and translation style of Naevius is concise, and is clearly better than that of Andronicus. (Jiang, 2006: 108–109)

=== Quintus Ennius(239? BC–169 BC)===
Comparing with Naevius' translation of comedy and historical play writing, Ennius' contribution to ancient Roman literature lies in his creation of ancient Roman tragedy. He was born in 239 BC in Calabria of Italy. Although it was not a Greek settlement, it was heavily influenced by Greece because of its geographical location. So Ennius grew up in Greek culture from an early age. The biographer Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus (2nd century AD) called him “half Greek”. He mastered three languages: the first one was Oscan, the dialect of his hometown; the second one was Greek, which he had learned at school; and the last one was Latin, which he had learned while serving in the Roman army during the Second Punic War. In the literary activities during Ennius' life, the most important work which also brought him the greatest reputation was the epic ''Histories''. But his contribution in translation was also very important. Ennius mostly translated Greek tragedies, and he tried to translate the works of all three major Greek tragic writers. Through translation, he transplanted a Greek rhyme to Rome, and made a reform of the composition of Latin poetry. In addition, Ennius himself wrote at least six tragedies, the most famous of which was ''Iphigenia'', which was comparable to the works of Euripides. “His psychological description is profound and meticulous”, so he is known as “the father of Roman literature”. (Jiang, 2006: 280)

In conclusion, Andronicus, Naevius and Ennius, together with other contemporary writers and translators, passed on the Greek literary heritage to the later generations through translation and adaptation. Their literary and translation activities also played an important role in enriching the Roman culture and developing its literature.

== The Origin of Western Translation Thought==
Although the practice of translation was quite popular in the early period, no one paid much attention to the research on translation theories and methods before Cicero. The main purpose of translation was to introduce Greek culture so that Roman readers or audiences could be entertained by these translated or adapted works and plays. As for translation theory, even if there were some broken ideas, they were only used to counter critics and defend translation works.
=== Marcus Tullius Cicero(106 BC—43 BC)===
Cicero was an orator, politician and philosopher of the late Roman Republic and one of the most influential figures in ancient Rome. He was born in Epino, a small city near Rome. When he was young, he studied law, literature and philosophy in Rome and Athens. And later he served as a consul of the Roman Republic. In the political crisis of the late Roman Republic, he advocated republicanism and supported Octavius. In this way, he offended Mark Antony and was killed by him. He was not only a famous orator, statesman, philosopher and rhetorician in Roman history, but also a prolific translator. Cicero translated a great deal of Greek literature, politics and philosophy. For instance, Homer's ''Odyssey'', Plato's ''Timaeus'' and ''Protagoras''. Cicero's literary achievements made a great contribution to the development of Latin language. He was a famous literary figure in Rome at that time, with a magnificent oratory and fluent prose that set the literary style of Latin language.

Cicero not only translated many Greek classics, but also created many terms and Latin words that are still used today. While expounding rhetoric ideas, he gradually formed his own translation thoughts. His exposition of translation thoughts mainly focuses on two works: ''De Oratore'' (55 B.C.) and ''De Optima Genera Oratorio'' (46 B.C.). His main translation ideas are as follows:
First of all, Cicero made a clear distinction between “interpreter” and “orator” (what we later call literal translation and free translation). He was opposed to the “word-for-word” translation method. He believed that translation was not an imitation of the original text. The translator should not be an interpreter of the original text, but an orator delivering a speech to the audience:
“I translate not as an interpreter, but as an orator, keeping the same ideas and forms and using a language that conforms to our expressive habits. In this process, I think it is not necessary to translate word for word, but to preserve the overall style and power of the language.”
It was clear that Cicero saw a fundamental difference between the interpreter and the orator. The former does not have the ability to control language and can only use the “word-for-word” translation method. It focuses on the conversion of words and only conveys the literal meaning of the original text, rather than the thoughts of the orator. The latter pays attention to the retention of the overall style of language. It can effectively reproduce the thought and motivation of the orator, and can deliver rich emotions in public speeches. Secondly, Cicero put forward the concept of “competitive imitation” when translating ancient Greek literature. It means that literary translation should not only need literary talent, but also be more literary than the original one. Cicero demanded that translation should be a transmission of meaning, not a literal rewriting. But at the same time, at the lexical level, Cicero was very particular about the accurate translation of ancient Greek philosophical concepts. Thirdly, he also held that words and meanings are functionally inseparable, which is a universal language phenomenon. Since rhetoric devices are based on the natural connection between words and meanings, rhetoric devices of various languages have something in common with each other. This shows that translation can achieve stylistic equivalence. (Cicero, 2007:9)

Cicero's view can be summarized as follows: literal translation should be avoided, and the innermost thing of words -- meaning should be preserved in translation. To some extent, Cicero greatly developed translation theory, and his translation thoughts exerted a great influence on later translators and translation theorists, which occupied an important position in the history of translation. While discussing early translation theories, the British translation theorist Susan Bassnett have suggested: “Cicero and Horace’s translation thoughts have a significant impact on later translators. Their translation thoughts are produced in the discussion about two important responsibilities of poets: one is the common human responsibility to obtain and transmit wisdom; the other is the special art of creating and shaping poetry.” (Bassnett, 2004: 48)

=== Quintus Horatius Flaccus (65 BC—8 BC)===
Horace became another representative translation thinker after Cicero. Horace was a famous poet, critic and translator in the early Roman Empire. Influenced by Cicero, he also believed that literal translation must be avoided and flexible translation method should be adopted. His treatise on translation theory was mainly seen in ''Ars Poetica''. This was a letter to a Roman nobleman and his son. Combined with the status of Roman literature and art at that time, the principles of poetry and drama were put forward in this letter. His translation thoughts are as follows: Firstly, Horace believed that translators should adopt flexible translation method and reject literal translation method. He put forward the concept of “fidusinterpres” (it means faithful translation). However, the object of Horace's “fidusinterpres” is not the text, but the “customer”, and of course only the customer or reader of Horace's time. “A faithful translator/interpreter should be trusted by others. He needs to finish the task on time and achieve the satisfaction of both parties. To do this, he, as an interpreter, negotiates between clients by using two different languages. In the case of a translator, he negotiates between the customer and the two languages. Negotiation is the key, it is opposed to traditional reciprocal loyalty.” That is to say, translators and interpreters sometimes have to be “not very” faithful in order to avoid failure in negotiations if they want to do business. Horace proposed flexible translation and emphasized loyalty to the “customer”, the ultimate guide to translation. The “customer” in Horace's translation model is actually what we called “context” later, and the translation principle of "faithful translation for customers" has been developed into "translation according to context" for later generations. Secondly, Horace also proposed the concept of “privileged language”. In Horace's time, Latin was the privileged language. He asked translators to prefer the privileged language, Latin, which meant that foreign languages would be assimilated in translation. This was also a reflection of Horace's translation thought that tended to be “naturalized”, but his concept was also controversial and opposed by Schleiermacher. He emphasized that “faithful translation” should retain the national characteristics of the source culture, and his translation thought tended to be close to "foreignization". The two translation thoughts are opposite, and their respective focuses are also the topic of the early discussion of “domestication” and “foreignization”. Thirdly, he thinks the native language can be enriched by translation of loanwords. If the thing you want to express is very profound and must be expressed by new words, you can create new words to some degree. It not only can meet the needs of writing and translating, but also can enrich the language of the motherland. (Horace, 1981:79)

Horace's view on translation has exerted a great influence on later generations. His statement in ''Ars Poetica'' “a translator who is faithful to the original text will not translate word by word” is often quoted by later generations and used by free translators to criticize dead and direct translators. His idea of “enriching Latin through translation” is of great significance and influences many translators after the Renaissance.

=== Marcus Fabius Quintilianus (35?– 95?)===
Quintilian was another famous figure who advocated flexible translation after Cicero and Horace. Quintilian was born in 35 AD in a small town of Galaguris in the upper reaches of the Ebro River in northern Spain. He was an orator and educator during the Roman Empire. His thoughts on translation were concentrated in his book ''De institutione oratoria''. Although this book primarily concerned with Quintilian's educational ideas, it made important observations on the subject of translation. He noted differences in vocabulary, rhetoric between Greek and Latin, but he did not think such differences would lead to untranslatability. In his opinion, no matter how different languages and cultures are, there are various ways to express the same thought and emotion. Although translation cannot achieve the same effect as the original work, it can approach the original work through various means. In addition, he also proposed that translation should struggle with the original work. He said: “As for translation, I mean not only free translation, but also the struggle and competition with the original text in expressing the same meaning.” That is to say, translation is also a kind of creation, which must be comparable with the original work and even strive to surpass it. (Robinson, 1997:20)

It is not hard to find that the above three ancient scholars’ translation views have some similarities. They all oppose literal translation and advocate creative free translation. To talk about the early western translation theories, we should first clarify a fact— in the special context of ancient Rome, individual translators or translation theorists represented by Cicero did not talk about translation exclusively, but instead regarded translation as an exercise in rhetoric education and literary creation. Translation serves speech and literary creation and does not have the value of independent existence. In spite of this, their translation thoughts are of great significance, which create the first literary school in the history of western translation and form a distinctive tradition in the later development of translation theory.

== Early Bible Translation And St. Jerome As Well As St. Augustine==
Bible translation plays an important role in the history of western translation. From the ancient times to the present day, the translation of the Bible has never stopped. The range of languages, the number of translations and the frequency of use of the translations are unmatched by the translations of any other works. From the macro view of the Bible translation history, it has the following several important milestones: the first is ''The Septuagint''; then followed by ''Vulgate'' of four to five centuries; later there are different language versions in the early Middle Ages(such as Martin Luther’s version in Germany, the King James Bible in Britain, etc.) and various modern versions. All these translations have made indelible contributions to the spread and development of Christianity in the West, as well as to the flourishing of national languages and cultures.
=== ''The Septuagint''===
The first important translation of the Bible in the West was the Greek version of the Old Testament. The Old Testament was the official text of Judaism, and it was first written in Hebrew. Because the Jews were scattered and drifted abroad for a long time, they gradually forgot the language of their ancestors. So they used Arabic and Greek and other foreign languages, among which Greek speakers accounted for the majority. In ancient times, the Alexandria of Egypt was a cultural and trading center in the eastern Mediterranean region, where Jews accounted for two-fifths of the city’s total population. In the third century BC, the church decided to translate the Hebrew text of the Old Testament into Greek to meet the increasingly urgent religious needs of these Greek-speaking Jews. According to Ptolemy II’s will, 72 Jewish scholars gathered at the Library of Alexandria in Egypt between 285 and 249 BC to translate the Bible. According to legend, the 72 scholars came from 12 different Israeli tribes, each with six members. When they arrived at the Library of Alexandria, they worked in pairs in 36 different places and produced 36 very similar translations. In the end, 72 translators got together to check the 36 translations, and chose the final version, which they called ''The Septuagint''.

The translation of ''The Septuagint'' has two main characteristics. First of all, it is not an individual achievement, but the result of many people’s cooperation, which opens the history of collective cooperation in translation. A great advantage of collective translation is that it can guarantee the accuracy of the translation. Secondly, the 72 translators are not Greek, they are Jews in Jerusalem. Although Greek has become their daily language, they are not in Greece and the non-Greek language environment undoubtedly also has a great influence on them, which leads to affect the quality of translation. In addition, the foothold of their translation is that translation must be accurate. So, some words in translation are old and some sentences are translated straightly, even unlike Greek. However, far from being dismissed as eccentric, ''The Septuagint'' holds a special place in the history of translation. Later translations of the Old Testament in different languages such as Latin, Coptic (an ancient Egyptian language) and Ethiopian are based on it.

=== St. Jerome (347–420)===
In the late period of the Roman Empire, the ruling class intensified the use of Christianity in order to save the Empire from collapse. In this way, religious translation naturally received more attention and got greater development. It can be said that religious translation at this stage constituted the second climax in the history of western translation. During this period, the more influential figures in the field of translation were St. Jerome and St. Augustine.

St. Jerome was one of the four leading theologians of the early Western Christian Church and was considered the most learned of the Roman priests. He loved Latin literature and had a great interest in Greek religious culture. He praised highly the ideas of the Greek theologian Origenes. He translated 14 of his sermons. But Jerome was best known for his translation of the Bible, ''Vulgate''. It was a great success. It ended the confusion of Latin translations of the Bible and gave Latin readers the first “standard” translation of the Bible, which later became the only text recognized by the Roman Catholic Church. To some extent, it even replaced the Hebrew and Greek ones and became the basis for many later translators in European countries to translate the Bible. (Delisle, 1995: 101)

Jerome was not only an excellent translator, but also an outstanding translation theorist. In hundreds of prefaces and letters, Jerome set forth his mature thoughts on translation. During his lifetime, he had put forward some contradictory views on literal translation and free translation. In his early years, he advocated free translation. He cited some examples to support his point of view. For instance, he cited John Mark’s handling of translation. There was a paragraph in ''The Gospel of Mark'' that told the story of Jesus evoking a little girl who was ill. The original Hebrew phrase was “Ali that kumi” (little girl, get up), but John Mark translated it into Greek as “little girl, I tell you, get up.” Jerome thought that Mark had understood the tone of the command in Jesus’ words, and that it was all right to translate it literally rather than originally. It can be seen that Jerome realized that different languages are different from each other in terms of diction style, expression habit, syntax and so on. So it was not suitable to adopt the “word for word” translation method, but should adopt free translation following the principle of flexibility. But in the later years, in ''The Letter to Pammachius'', Jerome made clear the differences in translation between religious and non-religious texts. “I will freely confess that I have never translated Greek word for word, but meaning for meaning, except the Bible where word order is divine and mysterious.” Therefore, he believed that in literary translation, translators could and should adopt an easy-to-understand style to convey the meaning of the original text. In religious translation, free translation was not always adopted, but literal translation should be mainly adopted. It can be seen that his later viewpoint was a revision and an enrichment of his earlier viewpoint. Finally, he regarded the relationship between literal translation and free translation as a “complementary” relationship. He admitted that he sometimes adopted free translation and sometimes literal translation. And in some cases, he would integrate the two methods to pursue a better translation. (Jerome, 2007: 25–26)

Jerome’s translation principles and methods have exerted a great influence on later translation theories and practices, especially in the translation of the Bible during the Middle Ages. Many of his theories, such as “style is an inseparable part of content”, have been inherited and developed.

=== St. Augustine (354–430)===
Augustine was a Christian theologian and philosopher in the Roman Empire. Augustine was born in Thagaste, a small town in the Numidian mountains of North Africa. At that time, the city was part of the Roman Empire. Thagaste was originally a closed and monocultural town. But during the Roman Empire, a large number of immigrants poured in, making Thagaste gradually developed into a multi-ethnic and multi-cultural city. Augustine's father was a public servant in Thagaste. His family did not have much property and his father was keen on public charity, so he enjoyed a certain social status. However, his father was lazy, bad-tempered and had constant scandals. This had a great impact on Augustine’s growth and his attitude towards life. His mother was a devout Christian. She often induced Augustine to understand Christianity and even believe in Christianity, which was closely related to Augustine’s later philosophical achievements and even his eventual conversion to Christianity. The good educational environment in Rome laid a solid foundation for Augustine’s education. He studied Greek and Roman literature. His famous works were ''De Civitate Dei'', ''Confessiones'' and ''De doctrina christiana''.

Augustine played a very important role in the history of western translation. His discussion on translation was mainly found in his book ''De doctrina christiana''. Augustine explained his views on some aspects of translation. When talking about translation, Augustine recognized that translation was not always a “dictation”, but that there were also the transcendent wisdom of God, the personal understanding and interpretation of man in it. Augustine once wrote: “the Bible, as a remedy for the terrible disease of the human will, was originally written in the same language so that it might spread throughout the world. But later it was translated into various languages, a remedy known to all nations. One studied it to find out the will of the minds of those authors, and through them to find the will of God.” This shows that although the language of the translations varies, the will of God is eternal and unchangeable. A careful study and proper understanding of the different translations of the Bible will surely lead to hearing the call of God. Such an exposition of the translation has been taken out of the linguistic dimension and is filled with theological discourse, which is metaphysical. That is, although Augustine affirms the value of translation, what is actually implied is the wisdom of God that is transcendent over translation and language. The Bible is not to be read to understand the will of its author, but to understand the wisdom of God through the text. The original, the translation, and the wisdom of God must be viewed separately, and the translation is only a proven way of understanding God’s will. (Augustine, 2004: 47)

He was also the first to propose that the translation style (plain, elegant and solemn) depends on the requirements of the readers. In his opinion, the translation of enlightenment texts needs simple style; a text glorifying God needs elegance; exhortation and guidance texts require dignified style. His comments played an important role in the later generations and had a profound influence on translation studies. Therefore, he was regarded as the founder of the linguistic school in the history of western translation.

==Conclusion==
From the heyday of the Roman Empire to the fall of the Roman Empire, translation had gone through more than 700 years, during which there had been two major stages of the development of translation. In the first stage, it was mainly the Romans who translated Greek classics on a large scale, especially Homer's epics and plays. Translation activities in this stage promoted the emergence and development of Roman literature and played an important role as a bridge for later European countries to inherit ancient Greek culture. The second stage was the large-scale religious translation stage, which was the translation of the Bible and other theological works. At this stage, religious translation surpassed secular literary translation and gradually became the mainstream of western translation.

The earliest studies on translation theories and methods in the West can also be traced back to this period. Although some translation theories are sporadic, scattered and not systematic, they have a lot of insights on translation and have influenced subsequent translation theories. For example, Cicero explicitly put forward the problem of literal translation and free translation. Writers and translators began to discuss about this problem, and later formed the school of free translation represented by Cicero and Horace as well as the school of literal translation represented by Augustine and the school of both free translation and literal translation represented by Jerome. With the decline of the Roman Empire, western translation gradually turned into a low tide and transferred to the Middle Ages.

In addition to the historical study of ancient western translation, this thesis also aims to make readers understand the importance of translation history. Translation itself is a cross-cultural communication activity, reducing or even dredging communication barriers between different languages and regions. The development of translation activities can accelerate and promote the development of human civilization. Translation history is indispensable in translation studies. It is the testimony of the origin of translation activities and the record of their development. People should pay attention to the study of the history of translation and constantly explore its implications. The research results of translation history can provide a clear direction for translation studies and promote the further development of translation activities.

From the heyday of the Roman Empire to the fall of the Roman Empire, translation had gone through more than 700 years, during which there had been two major stages of the development of translation. In the first stage, it was mainly the Romans who translated Greek classics on a large scale, especially Homer's epics and plays. Translation activities in this stage promoted the emergence and development of Roman literature and played an important role as a bridge for later European countries to inherit ancient Greek culture. The second stage was the large-scale religious translation stage, which was the translation of the Bible and other theological works. At this stage, religious translation surpassed secular literary translation and gradually became the mainstream of western translation. The earliest studies on translation theories and methods in the West can also be traced back to this period. Although some translation theories are sporadic, scattered and not systematic, they have a lot of insights on translation and have influenced subsequent translation theories. For example, Cicero explicitly put forward the problem of literal translation and free translation. Writers and translators began to discuss about this problem, and later formed the school of free translation represented by Cicero and Horace as well as the school of literal translation represented by Augustine and the school of both free translation and literal translation represented by Jerome. With the decline of the Roman Empire, western translation gradually turned into a low tide and transferred to the Middle Ages. In addition to the historical study of ancient western translation, this thesis also aims to make readers understand the importance of translation history. Translation itself is a cross-cultural communication activity, reducing or even dredging communication barriers between different languages and regions. The development of translation activities can accelerate and promote the development of human civilization. Translation history is indispensable in translation studies. It is the testimony of the origin of translation activities and the record of their development. People should pay attention to the study of the history of translation and constantly explore its implications. The research results of translation history can provide a clear direction for translation studies and promote the further development of translation activities. Corrected by--[[User:Zhong Yifei|Zhong Yifei]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yifei|talk]]) 12:20, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

==References==
Augustine 奥古斯丁:《论基督教教义》''De doctrina christiana'', 石敏敏译 translated by Shi Minmin，中国社会科学出版社 China Social Sciences Press，2004，p.47。

Luo Niansheng 罗念生，《论古典文学》''On Classical Literature''，上海人民出版社 Shanghai People’s Publishing House，2007，p.279。

Editorial committee of ''A Journey to World’s Civilization''《世界文明之旅》编委会，《古罗马文明读本》''On Ancient Rome’s Civilization''，中国档案出版社 China Archives Press，2006，p.108。

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜，《西方翻译简史》''A Short History of Translation in the West''，商务印书馆 Beijing: The Commercial Press，2004，p.16。

Xu Haishan 许海山，《古罗马简史》''A Short History of Ancient Rome''，中国言实出版社 Yanshi Press，2006，p.363。

Bassnett, Susan. ''Translation Studies'' [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, p. 57.

Cicero. 2007. The best kind of orator[C]//D. Robinson. ''Western Translation Theory: from Herodotus to Nietzsche'', Beijing: FLTRP: 7-10.

Horace. ''English Literary Studies'' [M]. University of Victoria, 1981, p.79.

Jerome. ''Letter to Pammachius''. In Robinson, Douglas. ''Western Translation Theory: from Herodotus to Nietzsche''. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2007, p.25.

Robinson, Douglas. ''Western Translation Theory from Herodotus to Nietzsche''. Manchester: St. Jerome, 1997, p.20.

Xie Tianzheng 谢天振．中西翻译简史［M］A brief history of Chinese and Western Translation．北京:外语教学与研究出版社 Beijing: foreign language teaching and Research Press, 2009, p.57.

Delisle, Jean, & Judith Woodsworth. Eds. ''Translators Through History''. John Benjamins Publishing Company. 1995, p. 101.

Lefevere, André. ''Translation/ History/ Culture: A Sourcebook''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2006, p.15.

=钟义菲: The Chinese Translation History in Mordern Age=
钟义菲 Zhong Yifei，Hunan Normal University，China
==Abstract==
Since the middle of the 19th century, translation has gradually become a tool for people resolved to save the country from extinction. The spread of the large number of translation works has broadened the ways for the public, especially the intellectuals, to learn the west. In the meantime, it has also changed the social climate. The invasion of western civilization, translators' spontaneous development of translation activities and the passivity of national politics made Chinese society enter an important period of western learning translation, especially around the period of Opium War. The cause of translation in modern China coincided with the Chinese people's struggle against aggression. After the Opium War, China had to open the door. China had to end its isolation and began to face the outside world directly. However, the prolonged blockade made China lag behind the western world. Modem politics, economy, diplomacy and cultural activities are closely related to translation, which plays an indispensable role in history. The theme and source of the original translation often reflect the development trend of modem Chinese ideology and the direction of government policy. As for the nature and quantity of translation books in different periods, we can also see the motivation of translation books, the general trend of intellectual interests, and the impact of the dissemination in society. The time clue of this article is from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, briefly introducing the translation and the translator, emphasizing its emergence background and several important period of development, research and analysis of western culture reflected in translation works in modem Chinese history, the change of Chinese people’s thoughts in translation and the influence of modem translation on Chinese society. This paper is divided into three chapters. The first chapter introduces the emergence, importance and main characteristics of modem translation works, then reviews the emergence of modem translation works, emphasizes their importance, and briefly introduces representative translation works. The second chapter introduces the background of translation works and translation climax stages of western books, studies the main characteristics and development trend of translation in each period. The third chapter studies the influence and performance of modem translation on people's ideology and social life through the description in translation works. This paper focuses on the development of modem translation, the important role of translation in Chinese history, and the specific impact of translation on modem society.

==Key words==
Modern Translation，Translation，Social Life，Ideology

==Introduction==
Around the middle of the 19th century, The Western invasion brought new knowledge. The Westernization Movement sent a large number of international students to study abroad and translated a large number of books for military purposes.The Qing government decayed, and was tired of the invasion of foreign enemies, the war repeatedly failed. After the Sino-Japanese War in 1894, faced with internal and external troubles, far-sighted people knew that they could not rely on the Qing government, so they devoted themselves to writing novels. Many people accepted and spread Western culture through translating books. The importance of translation was recognized by the development of journalism, media, and provident men influenced by the Western culture at that time. In this social context, people have criticized the corruption of government through literature and translation.

Modern China began in the Opium War in 1840. It was a special period in Chinese history. During this period, the Chinese were attacked by foreign guns, as well as by foreign culture and foreign education. Especially after the Sino-Japanese War, the Chinese people were greatly shocked psychologically, and people began to realize that the West was more advanced than China in political, economic, cultural and other aspects, which was providing a great opportunity for the introduction of translation literature. Translators at that time also hoped to translate the western advanced scientific knowledge to the Chinese people so that they could broaden their horizons and innovate their ideas. During the Reform Movement of 1898, Liang Qichao advocated publicizing political ideas by translating foreign political novels to transform the society. He believed that the incredible power of novels was "enough to dominate people's psychology and could change the society of one generation." Based on the translation of the novel, Liang Qichao gave the novel new significance and mission. He put forward the idea of improving the novel, with the famous ones such as ''The Beauty Adventures'' and ''The Fifteen Little Heroes'', which promoted the process of novel revolution and the prosperity and development of the translating novels. Yan Fu translated works such as ''Heaven'' and Yuan Fu. His translation had a great influence at that time and was the most important enlightenment translation in China in the 20th century. In the translation of ''Heaven'', Yan Fu proposed three difficulties: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance. It was advocated by many literary writers at that time and used as the theoretical basis for their translation. The concept of "natural selection: the fittest to survive" conveyed in Yan Fu's Heaven woke people up from the dream of the heavenly world. There are more famous translation works such as Lin Shu’s ''The Lady of the Camellias'', Black slaves call for heaven record and so on. It had an important influence on the change of people's concept. People are not limited to the traditional concept of marriage and love, and the concept of freedom and equality gradually spread. Under the prevalence of translation works, traditional values, such as emphasizing agriculture and suppressing business, men being superior to women, gradually lost their status and were gradually replaced by new ideas. （A 1981:741）

The paper mainly includes three chapters: First, modern translation works and the overview of translators. Second, the background and climax of modern translation works. Third, the impact of modern translation on social life. In the modern Chinese literary circle, there was a wave of translation in western books, and the translation activities of foreign works were unprecedentedly prosperous.The emergence of a large number of translation works has also caused a large influx of foreign cultural ideas. Under the translation of domestic scholars, the translators not only conveyed the literary nature of foreign works, but also expressed their translation purpose through translation language and techniques, and had a huge impact on Chinese social life at that time. Academia research is more aimed at the overview of modern translation works and its prosperity, but little research on its impact on national social life. This paper analyzes the wide variety of materials and works to detail the influence of modern translation on social life. （Lian 2009:93）

==1. Modern Translation Work and Its Main Characteristics ==
===1.1 The Emergence of Translation Works and Their Importance===
The premise of the emergence of translation works is the introduction of western civilization. The spread of western culture in modern China can be traced back to the eve of the Opium War. The main translators are missionaries, who mainly introduce religious doctrine, and also bring western history and geography to China. They established schools, translated western books (such as the Bible), compiled magazines, wrote books and so on. It can be said that missionaries are the first wave of intermediaries communicating between Chinese and Western culture. Early missionaries in China, although for the purpose of conquest, tended to teach by words and deeds than coercion. However, considering China's closure at that time, the Chinese were not allowed to learn foreign languages. The missionaries have also made great efforts in communicating the Chinese and Western cultures. This also led to the introduction of western civilization at this stage and laid the foundation for the development of the modern translation and cultivated talents. The Opium War was an important period of western translation. The rise and fall of China is always closely related to the rise and fall of translation culture. As a special component of Chinese literature, the development of translation literature has always affected the process of Chinese literature and historical changes, especially the occurrence of modern Chinese translation literature, which has effectively promoted the transformation and development of Chinese literature and modern society. Modern translation, from its emergence to the development, is inseparable with China's social changes. Translation has promoted the change of people's ideas, enriched people's knowledge in many fields, and not only promoted the development of Chinese literature, but also played a certain positive role in the development of politics and Chinese society. （Guo 1979:126）

===1.2 Representative Works of Modern Translations and Their Main Categories===
The introduction of modern western literature made Lin Shu a famous literary translator. Many people will misunderstand ''The Lady of the Camellias'' as the first translation novel in modern China. But ''The Declaration'' has already begun to publish translation novels earlier. The first translation novel should be ''Xinxi Talk''. According to Zou Zhenhuan, the most expensive translation of the Bible was the first version to enter the palace, the "royal version" of the late Qing Dynasty. The first modern Japanese novel translated into Chinese was ''The Beauty Adventure'', translated by Liang Qichao, which opened the translation of the political novel in the late Qing Dynasty. At the same time, the Chinese translation books related to Japan was ''Ryukyu Geography''. Tan Ruqian thought it as “the first Chinese translation of Japanese documents”. After translation into Chinese, the most influential translation is Yan Fu’s ''Heaven'', Lin Shu’s ''The Lady of the Camellias'', and ''Black Slaves Call for Heaven'' record translated by Wei Yi and Lin Shu. The three works had a great influence on Chinese society in different aspects. Thai new history can represent part of the translation works since modern times. It is widely spread into China though it doesn’t achieve any effect in the West. The book is considered by western scholars as the most boring residual history and a third-rate world history. In China, it sold more than one million copies, which is the most popular reading book in the Restoration period. It can be said that the social influence in different historical stages and social backgrounds can be different. ''The Law of the Duke of Nations'' theoretically defeated the ignorant idea of the Qing government. In addition, there are translations about life which popularized scientific knowledge in China and played a good role in the abolition of feudal superstition. ''Foreign Cookery'' in Chinese was the earliest Chinese translation of a relatively systematic introduction of western cooking methods in the process of introducing western food culture in China. In the aspects of medicine, there were books such as ''Tessi’s Personal Theory'', ''Optical Disclosure and Cardiotherapy''. The first sociological monograph of full-text translation in modern China was translated by Zhang Taiyan, which had an important influence on the progress of social cognition.（Feng 2012: 234-235）

===1.3 Main Characteristics of Modern Translation Works===
One is catering to the taste and ethics of the Chinese readers in order to obtain a wider popularity. Influenced by the social background of the late Qing Dynasty, most people who learned from the West were limited to intellectuals and politicians. In order to make the translation get more attention, the translator chose more accepted literary works for translation. This to some extent leads to the lack of extensive translation categories. In Introduction to Translation, the second chapter "Translation of Catholic Scholars between the Ming and Qing Dynasties" discussed the Catholic doctrine translation and scientific translation between the Ming and Qing Dynasties, and pointed out that " at that time, translation sought more elegance, integrity and the willingness of Chinese officials and scholars to read. However, there are also some translators who try to keep the original meaning rather than deliberately satisfying the readers’ interests." On the other hand, it also confirms that the characteristics of translation was catering to readers at that time. （Zhang 2003:158）

The second is to use foreign novel translation as a tool for reform politics. After the failure of the Opium War, people with insight were eager to find good ways to save the country. The most direct and effective way is to learn western culture. In the process of learning western culture, the most convenient thing is to translate western works. However, hindered by language factors, the translation of monographs is far more difficult than the novels. Therefore, except for the few people who are proficient in foreign languages, most translators basically choose to take novels as the entry point to give personal political opinions and ideas to achieve the purpose of political improvement. Third, readers often take the translation of novels as a pastime, resulting in the flood of boring detective novels and romantic novels. Popular novels translations are enough while famous novels translations are rare. To cater to the market and earn publication costs, many translators translate foreign works for the purpose of making a profit. And after a few celebrities do not classify foreign translations, many translators will have a herd mentality. At the same time, due to the influence of domestic readers' literary taste, popular novels and simple literary works are more acceptable to them, so resulting in the flood of some novel categories. Fourth, the translation is not faithful. Influenced by traditional ideas, some phenomena in western works were not accepted by the Chinese at that time, and to avoid unnecessary trouble, the translator chose to omit part of the plot in the original, and could not completely express the original idea. In order to express his political position and views, the translator will fabricate the plot and comments not included in the original. For example, when Su Manshu translated ''Hugo's Bad World'', he invented a character called Lauder, using him to satirize the corrupt stupidity of the Qing government. Secondly, the translator will change the narrative perspective and structure of the original, which is largely influenced by the traditional Chinese narrative style. For example, Liang Qichao used the serial structure when translating ''The Beauty Adventure''.（Zhang 1934:42）

It is summarized as follows: excessive catering to readers and lack of independence; the monotonous type of translation with limitations; lack of translation proficiency and transmission of the idea; separation from the original work.

==2. The Rise Background and Climax of Modern Translation Works ==
===2.1 The Background of the Rise of Modern Translation===
After the Opium War, the Qing government successively signed the Nanjing Treaty and the Humen Treaty, which made insightful people attempt to save modern China from abyss of suffering. In the face of an unprecedented crisis, a group of people began to search for the way to save the country, and every individual has put all his strength into the efforts to save the nation in danger. Modern China is faced with a more powerful opponent in all aspects. People with insight realize that they must break through the current situation of self-isolation and learn from the outside world. Learning from the West and imitating the West became an important strategy of saving the nation at that time. Chinese society has constantly updated the old mechanism, trying to get rid of the original closed and rigid political dilemma, starting to find a new development direction, from the learning of western skills to the study of western political and economic system, ideology and culture. To learn from the West and seek self-improvement, translation is first serve as a bridge of communication. Domestic people with insight can bring western works to China by translating them. After the failure of the Second Opium War, China was forced to sign the Treaty of Beijing. The national crisis became more and more serious, the national crisis further strengthened the Chinese people's thought of self-improvement, and the understanding of the outside world became more and more urgent. At the same time, due to the current situation, foreign language communication and diplomatic intercourse have become very urgent. In this environment, translation became indispensable in this era.

===2.2 The Purpose of the Rise of Modern Translation===
The 19th century was a period of complex economic situation and chaotic political situation. At this time, the demand for formal translators increased. However, in this period, translation was very sophisticated and had a great influence on the control authority of the government and exchanges between Chinese and foreign countries. In the Treaty of Beijing, Britain and France sent documents that are written in English and French to China. But considering that there was almost no translation talent in China at that time, the two sides agreed to attach Chinese version. But if there was any dispute, both English and French characters should be the authority. Then the Qing government had to start training translation talents, and the first batch of foreign language schools were established accordingly. The original motivation of The School of Combined Learning was quite related to the signing of the Sino-British Treaty, and the British authorities attached a Chinese translation within three years, aiming to allow the Chinese government to cultivate a number of qualified translators during this period, so the establishment of The School of Combined Learning was established in 1861. It was the first official foreign language school in the late Qing Dynasty with the purpose of cultivating foreign language translation talents. Foreigners were the teachers, training specialized foreign language translators. In order to become rich and train soldiers, China must learn from advanced western science and technology. To learn from advanced western technology, it is bound to remove the language barriers in the process of learning. Zeng Guofan once mentioned that translation must occupy the fundamental strategic position of westernization cause. It is easy to see that the purpose of translation is to learn the advanced western technology more efficiently and to achieve the purpose of saving the nation. The process of modernizing Chinese literature is, in a sense, the process of Chinese literature learning from the West and seeking innovation and change under the impact of western culture. （Shi 1983:216）

===2.3 The Climax of Translation in the Western Book===
====2.3.1 From the Opium War to the Sino-Japanese War====
From the Opium War to the Sino-Japanese War, especially after the 1860s, with the rise of the westernization movement aimed at self-improvement and wealth, there was an upsurge in the translation of Western science and technology books. In the late Qing Dynasty, under the influence of opium smuggling, China and the UK exchanges are getting closer and closer. Until the Opium War broke out, the door of China was completely opened, and the Qing government had to face the outside world. Lin Zexu fought in the front line of the anti-smoking movement and the anti-British struggle from 1839 to 1840. He organized personnel to translate many books. In the monthly Macao, there are five volumes: on China, on tea, on smoking prohibition, on the use of military forces and on the feelings of foreigners in various countries. These materials are mainly translated from Guangzhou weekly, Guangzhou chronicle and etc. Lin Zexu never neglected to give up the work of organizing translation. Among Lin Zexu's translations, ''The Chronicles of Four Continents'' has the most far-reaching impact on Modern Chinese history. It is the first book in modern China to systematically introducing world geography and history. The translation of these books opened the eyes of the Chinese people and began to import Western learning in modern times, which is of great significance to the history of modern thought and culture. One of the most direct effects is that it has led to the emergence of a number of masters who compile and study foreign profiles. It indirectly led to the development of the style of study for practical use, and also had an important impact on the literary reform in history. Wei Yuan revised and supplemented ''The Records of the Four Continents''. This book not only retained the characteristics of the west, but also sublimated in combination with the domestic reality, added many notes and political comments, and put forward many political propositions represented by "learning from the foreigners and mastering their skills to control the foreigners", which gathered huge ripples in the ideological circles at that time, and even spread to Japan, It also had an impact on Japan's Meiji Restoration.However, at this time, the work of Lin Zexu and Wei Yuan only played the role of foresight and did not form a huge social situation. The development of translation still needs new forces to promote. At this time, the Westernization school played such a role. （Zou 2008:57-58）

The Westernization Movement took place after the second Opium War and before the Sino-Japanese war. During this period, the Qing government experienced the impact of two Opium Wars. Facing the strong ships and guns of Western powers, it was in a difficult situation at home and abroad, and felt a profound crisis never seen in history. The Westernization school, divided from the feudal landlord class, had a certain understanding of the world situation. They advocate learning from western capitalist countries. The main figures of the Westernization school were Zeng Guofan, Li Hongzhang and others. They held high positions in the Qing government. Compared with other ordinary officials, they were more deeply aware of the need to learn and introduce advanced military weapons and manufacturing technology from Western powers in order to maintain the ruling order of the feudal society and realize the stability of the regime of the Qing Dynasty. However, at that time, the Westernization school could only recognize the progress of Western skills and the strength of military strength. Their change Geng Chang's method was only limited to "learning from foreigners". Among them, the translation of foreign books became an important means to achieve the goal of learning from foreigners. （Wang 1987:23-24）

In 1862, due to the needs of diplomacy and Westernization Movement, Tongwen museum was established in Beijing to train translators. The Tongwen Library in Beijing regards translation and washing as an important activity. The Jiangnan manufacturing Bureau, founded in 1865, had a greater impact during this period. The two primary problems faced by Jiangnan manufacturing Bureau after its completion are technology and talents, and the key to solving these two problems is the translation of technical books. Therefore, it decided to "set up another school to learn translation", "it is planned to select intelligent disciples to study with the school when it is completed", "You don't have to fake a foreigner, you can also extend it and make it into a book." The books translated by the translators were mainly about natural science and applied technology, which played a positive role in introducing modern science and technology and promoting the development of productive forces, and became important teaching materials for people of insight at that time to understand the external world and update their knowledge structure. These books can be said to have cultivated the next batch of cultural newcomers, such as Kang Youwei, Liang Qichao, Zhang Taiyan and Cai Yuanpei and so on. （Zeng 1987:83）

During this period, the importance of translation has been paid some attention, and the government has begun to operate translation in an organized and planned way. At the same time, the translation activities of the church have also been strengthened. Missionaries played the role of cultural invaders in the process of foreign military aggression. At first, missionaries wanted to carry out cultural aggression in the sense of Christianity, but they were influenced by Chinese tradition The influence of culture was resisted by the Chinese people. So they turned to spread new western knowledge and Western civilization, set up institutions, run newspapers and translate books, and tried to open the gap of the Chinese people's thought, so as to achieve the purpose of cultural aggression control. But objectively speaking, they also played a role in spreading Western learning to a certain extent. The translation by foreign missionaries had a great impact on Chinese society. The Chinese people's own pure literary translation also began at this stage. However, the literary translation at this stage still lacks systematic theoretical guidance and positive social atmosphere.

====2.3.2 After the Sino-Japanese War====
After the Sino-Japanese War was defeated, the Westernization Movement was declared bankrupt, and China's current situation was at stake. People with lofty ideals learned from the failure of the Westernization Movement that reform is far from solving the problem. To make China embark on the road of independence, prosperity and strength, we must fundamentally learn from the West and change the feudal autocratic system. In order to comprehensively learn western learning, translation is the first thing at this time. Therefore, this is the moment The translation career of this period is very prosperous, which is very different from the translation characteristics of the previous era. First, the expansion of the field of translation. At this time, the focus of importing western learning turned to various fields of social science, and paid particular attention to the import of political and academic ideas. The eight famous works translated by Yan Fu were outstanding representatives of this period, which had a significant impact on the society of the Qing Dynasty. During this period, translation methods were widely used, that is, abridged translation and free translation of foreign works, which were understood by the translator At this time, a large number of social sciences have been introduced, which has greatly improved the ideological level of Chinese people and brought the political and cultural activities to a new stage. Secondly, the translation field has also been expanded. The previous translation work was limited to government-run institutions. After the Sino-Japanese War, the reformers stepped onto the historical stage, and the translation work has been included in the overall plan of the reform. The reformers created schools, ran newspapers and opened publishing houses, with the import of Western learning and the translation and introduction of Western books as the main activities. After the failure of the reform movement, the establishment of newspapers and publishing houses did not stop. At this time, China's translation industry began to gradually break away from the limited government-run and turn to the private sector, resulting in an unprecedented prosperity in the translation industry. In addition, the translation team has gradually expanded. The establishment of foreign language teaching has gradually increased the number of foreign students and personnel abroad. The emergence of more and more translation talents meets the development of the publishing industry and social needs at this time. More and more people who know foreign languages are engaged in translation. This period is also an era of a large number of translators. Not only Lin Shu and Yan Fu, but also Liang Qichao, Su Manshu, Zhou Guisheng, Wu Guangjian are all well-known. During this period, the level of translation was also greatly improved. In the early days, most of the translations were spoken by foreigners who knew a little Chinese, and then recorded and polished by Chinese. The level of translation was uneven. During this period, most translators were proficient in foreign languages, their Chinese level was also high, and the quality of translation improved greatly Great improvement.（Xiao 1984:23）

This stage is also a period of vigorous rise and unprecedented prosperity of novel translation. In the early modern times, novel translation was not paid much attention. The first foreign novel translated into China was translated by foreign missionaries and published by the church. It was ''The Pilgrim’s Progress'' by British writer John Buyan, and the translation was published in Xiamen in 1853. During this period, translation activities also had some defects. Due to the popularity of translation, although abridged translation and free translation made the translator more free to express his political ideas, it also caused the disadvantages of breaking away from the original works. The purpose of translation was not to introduce western literature, but to express the translator's own ideas as a political means. At the same time, translation theory was strongly advocated in this period and political utilitarianism have also been greatly strengthened.

====2.3.3 Marked by the Rise of the New Culture Movement====
After the revolution of 1911, people's political enthusiasm was obviously low. In terms of translation, few people paid attention to social, political and economic works, and the number of translated novels was significantly lower than that of creative novels. However, people's literary concept was gradually strengthened. During this period, many translators introduced foreign literature from a literary perspective, bringing a new atmosphere to the translation circle and the history of Chinese literature In the period of the new culture movement, the translator's political and literary ideas were significantly improved, which laid a good foundation for the third wave of Western Chinese book translation starting from the new culture movement.

During this period, first of all, the number of short stories was greatly increased. During this period, new translators preferred to translate short stories. For example, Hu Shi translated ''The Last Lesson'' and Zhou Zuoren also published several short translation novels in the magazine New youth. The short translation novels published during this period also included ''The Leisure Review of Customs'' translated by Lin Shu and Chen Jialin. At this stage, the translator chooses the original work carefully after fully understanding and studying the original author, and describes his own opinions and ideas in the preface and postscript. Unlike in the past, he arbitrarily cuts the original work to express his political ideas, most of them are serious and loyal to the original. During this period, script translation gradually prevailed, and poetry translation appeared a new atmosphere. German poetry began to receive attention, and vernacular poetry began to appear. A new generation of translation practitioners consciously linked the translation of foreign literature with the transformation of Chinese literature and the purpose of the new culture movement. Chinese literary translation and Chinese society have entered a new era. （Wang 1992:321-322）

==3. The Influence of Modern Translation on Social Ideas==
===3.1 Appearance of the Concept of Marriage===
The translation that made an important change in the concept of scholars in the late Qing Dynasty was ''The Legacy of the Camellia'' in Paris translated by Lin Shu. This book describes the ups and downs of the protagonist Mark fate and complex psychological feelings. After the Sino-Japanese War, Lin Shu joined the ranks of reformers. He took a more open attitude towards love, which made Lin's translated novels reflect some changes of the times to a certain extent, implying that modern marriage and love pay attention to color. In Lin Shu's concept, if women want to benefit from freedom of marriage, they must first receive good education, such as Qiu Zhilan as a chivalrous woman, the heroine Qiu Zhilan sneaked into the capital to avenge her father's murder. She met scholar LV Qiushi and fell in love at first sight. She took the initiative to give a keepsake while LV Qiushi was reading at night. Finally, with the help of the blind nun of Shuiyue nunnery, they got married. Qiu Zhilan pursued love independently and persevered, suggesting that women's sense of marriage and love had begun to change under the circumstances at that time, Or the wind of free marriage and love has gradually risen. In Lin Shu's translated novels, Lin Shu points out the rigidity of the orders of parents and the words of matchmakers. He also advocates that women should maintain the beauty of temperament. In Lin Shu, women generally can consciously control their emotions, maintain a certain degree of reserve and gentleness in their behavior, and never do things carelessly. To a certain extent, this reflects the love aesthetics and love trend of the society at that time.（Hu 1916:474）

In the past, the novels of talented women and beauties in ancient China were a special kind of art to express the love concept of the citizen class. In Chinese novels of talented women and beauties, most of the talented people in the books were portrayed as the images of handsome, talented, elegant and noble, and not in line with the times. Second, the highest ideal commonly pursued by scholars at that time was "wedding night, golden list." The happy ending of joys and sorrows can satisfy people's aesthetic taste in the past. In ''The Legacy of the Camellia Woman'' in Paris, It depicts the heroine, who is loyal to her feelings and has a sense of morality, left because of Yameng's career future and family happiness. This self-sacrifice combined with tragic color made the people who have seen the story of talented people and beautiful women for a long time with an unprecedented freshness, which provided a new type of love aesthetics for the people at that time. （Chen 1990:213）

There are also relevant translation works such as ''Better Return'' published during the Meiji period, which is called "the milestone of the theme novel describing women's consciousness in the Meiji period", which describes the content of women's resistance to the oppression of old morality and ethics, and the dramatic work ''Doll's House'', the heroine Nala breaks away from her originally happy family and realizes that she is a neglected individual value. Her home is just a doll's home. It can be inferred that Nora is not the only one. The concepts of marriage and love freedom and women's individual values conveyed in her works since modern times have gradually penetrated into the society, and people have begun to gradually recognize the importance of women’ s rights. （Yuan 1989:178-181）

During the May 4th movement, The Troubles of Young Witt was strongly favored by young Chinese readers at that time for its crazy love passion, very dreamy action, rebellious and independent thought of the society and the protagonist's individualistic thinking method. This book was once regarded as the "Bible" by young men and women at that time As a general cultural phenomenon, the love between Witt and Lvdi made the young people talk about the freedom of marriage and love at that time and take the sacred love between men and women as the ideal. Witt easily reminded people of the talents in the love story at that time. Witt's lovelorn was expressed through strong sadness, which was the best comfort and inspiration for the young people who were eager to escape from the feudal cage at that time. It was a landmark translation that influenced modern Chinese society at that time.（Shi 1989:245）

===3.2 The Emergence of the Concept of Freedom and Equality and the Changes and Manifestations of Social Values===
Feminism is also one of the concepts of freedom and equality. Among the reformers after the failure of the Sino Japanese War of 1894-1895, Lin Shu was one of the first to advocate feminism. This was also mentioned in the previous section when describing the concept of marriage and love. The rise of women's concept of freedom of marriage and love has gradually spread, which implies that women pay attention to their own rights. From the novels translated by Lin Shu, Lin Shu's admiration for women's courage to pursue their love or rights shows that Lin supports and advocates women's rights. Xinxi Gossip deals with the values of money and the concept of social class. The novel expounds the role of money in Europe, which is unheard of by Chinese scholars. For example, the third volume of the novel describes that the British set up marriage halls, that is, intermediaries such as today's marriage agencies, many people who come to the museum are losers, hoping to cheat into marrying rich families, it describes that many people go to parties, but are driven by money worship in an attempt to cheat them into marrying rich people. At the same time, it also describes that money can make an old woman get a young husband, and the young husband aims at the old woman's rich family wealth. In the eyes of the Chinese people at that time, this was not in line with the code of ethics and could not be accepted.（Lu 1981:56）

==Conclusion==
In the transition period of modern China, the social function of translation played an important role, and the subversion was the most prominent in the social function of translation. At that time, China had experienced a long period of inaction towards western culture and regardless of the political and economic state of locking the country, resulting in China's ignorance of the West. However, at this time, the western world has not stopped the translation and introduction of Chinese culture through various channels Understanding. Asymmetric information exchange and translation make China in a passive position when communicating with the West. With the continuous entry of western new ideas and translation into China, values are constantly challenged, and even some extreme culturists try to subvert traditional Chinese culture and social values. The current situation requires China to make progress, and the current situation also forces China to make progress. In this period of mixed internal and external relations and political chaos, translation, as a communication tool, has always led Chinese people of insight in the exploration of saving the nation from subjugation and strengthening the country. （Zhang 1966:5-7）

The changes of modern history and the prominence of modern cultural view are greatly influenced by the input of Western learning. In modern Chinese society under the shock of Western learning civilization, translation makes western learning smoothly enter the Chinese people's political world, cultural undertakings and social life, but the overall westernization is absolutely impossible. In modern times, although Chinese traditional Confucianism has been criticized, even as a cultural pioneer The activists threw the target of political opinions, but middle school can not be reduced. Middle school is also the spiritual belief of Chinese unity since modern times. Lin Shu has always stressed that the traditional ethics revealed by Confucian culture has some eternal value and universal significance. The real Western civilization does not let us abandon middle school and completely replace it with Western learning, but let middle school be a traditional culture The social atmosphere under the coverage is more civilized.

==Reference==
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Benjamin, Andrew. (1989). Translation and the Nature of Philosophy: A New Theory of Words. London and New York: Routledge.

Catford,J.C.(1965) A Linguistic Theory of Translation.New York: Oxford University Press.

Dolet, Etienne. (1540). How to Translate Well from One Language to Another. Robinson.

A Yin 阿英.阿英文集［M］.Collection of A Ying’s Books三联书店, Sanlian Bookstore 1981:741.

Chen Xulu 陈旭麓.陈旭麓学术文存［M］.Chen Xulu Academic Archives上海：上海人民出版社, Shanghai：Shanghai People’s Press 1990:213.

Feng Zhijie 冯志杰.中国近代翻译史 History of Modern Chinese Translation（late Qing dynasty）（晚清卷）[M].北京：九州出版社, Bejing：Kyushu Press 2012:234-235.

Guo Moruo郭沫若.少年时代［M］,The Youth Age 人民文学出版社,People’s Literature Press1979:126.

Hu Shi 胡适.论译书寄陈独秀.胡适学术文集新文学运动［M］.Hu Shi’s Academic anthology New Literature Movement 1916:474.

Lian Yantang 连燕堂.二十世纪翻译文学史[M].History of Translated Literature in the 20th Century 百花文化出版社, Baihua Culture Press 2009:93.

Lu Xun 鲁迅.中国小说史略［M］.A Brief History of Chinese Novels 北京：人民文学出版社,Beijing:People’s Literature Publishing House 1973:125-126.

Lu Xun 鲁迅.文化偏至论［M］On Cultural Deviation （《鲁迅全集》第一卷）.人民文学出版社，People’s Literature Press 1981:56.

Shi Meng 时萌.晚清小说［M］.Novels of the Late Qing Dynasty 上海：上海古籍出版社,Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Press 1989:245.

Shiteng Huixiu 实藤惠秀著，谭汝谦等译.《中国人留学日本史》History of Chinese People Studying in Japan［M］.三联书店, Sanlian Bookstore 1983:216.

Tan Sitong 谭嗣同.谭嗣同全集［M］.Complete Works of Tan Sitong北京：中华书局5 Beijing Zhonghua Book Company 1981.

Wang Xiangrong 汪向荣.中国的近代化与日本［M］.China’s Modernization and Japan湖南人民出版社,Hunan People’s Press1987:23-24.

Wang Lixing 王立兴.中国近代文学考论［M］.A Research on Modern Chinese Literature南京：南京大学出版社,Nanjing：Nanjing University Press1992:321-322.

Xiaotian Qiejin 小田切近著，山人译.日本的名作［M］.Japanese Masterpieces 福建人民出版社,Fujian People’s Press1984:23.

Yuan Jian 袁健，郑荣.晚清小说研究概说［M］.An Overview of Novels in Late Qing Dynasty 天津：天津教育出版社,Tianjin：Tianjin Education Press1989:178-181.

Zou Zhenhuan 邹振环.影响中国近代社会的一百种译作 One Hundred Translations Influential on Modern Chinese Society [M].江苏教育出版社，Jiangsu Education Press 2008: 57-58.

Zhang Hailin 张海林.近代中外文化交流史[M].History of Modern Sino-foreign Cultural Exchanges 南京：南京大学出版社, Nanjing University Press 2003:158.

Zhang Xingniang 张星娘.欧化东渐史［M］.History of Europeanization Spreading to the East 商务印书馆,Commercial Press1934:42.

Zhang Zhenyu 张振玉.译学概论［M］.Introduction to Translation 中台印刷厂,Zhongtai Press1966:5-7.

Zeng Guofan 曾国藩.轮船工竣并陈机器局情形疏.郑振铎编.晚清文选［M］,The Steamship Engineer and Machinery Bureau 上海书店, Shanghai Bookstore 1987影印本：83.

Written by--[[User:Zhong Yifei|Zhong Yifei]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yifei|talk]]) 13:50, 8 December 2021 (UTC)

=魏楚璇: Western translation history in the Modern and Contemporary Ages=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_14]]

=Mahzad Heydarian: Where Persian Language Meets Translation=

This paper is a journey to the history of Persian language and the presence of translation into/from Persian in different historical eras. Translation has been influenced by many social and intercultural factors throughout history; in this paper, its functions from ancient Persia to the contemporary era will be surveyed.

Key Words: Translation history, Persian language, Arabic influence, Medieval era

Persian Language, known as the language of great literary works by Hafez, Khayyam, Rumi and many other classical and modern poets and writers, has always been an interesting subject to study. Looking for its roots and origins and how it is changing and developing has been the interest of many linguists around the world. Like other important languages, Persian has developed and gradually changed in different eras in history. It seems that writings on translation history suffer from severe shortcomings. What is overlooked by the researchers of Persian translation history is to clarify the distinction between oral and written translation. These two have proved to be completely different subjects while they have been mixed when the writers judge its ups and downs in a specific period of time. Moreover, in the relatively limited knowledge of Persian translation history, the thematic classification of translations (e.g. literary, scientific, etc.) have not been considered.

Another common but important deficiency of such historiography is the lack of scientific consideration of the source and target texts, based on advances in the study of translation during the past three decades. The socio-cultural aspects of translation have rarely been surveyed, nor has the linguistic process of evolution of Persian historically been studied. Despite the importance of such inquiries, in most studies done by the Persian writers we could rarely find traces of identifying the direction of source and target texts, let alone contemplating the process and product as two imperative factors in any study of translation. Abdolhossein Azarang, whose history of translation comes with these problems admits that none of available historical books, including his, could be mentioned as a survey without offering at least a set of simple comparisons between the source and target texts in each era (Azarang, “Tarikhe” 9).

To our knowledge Persian has gone through three main changes over the years: starting from Old Persian, in transformed into Middle Persian, also known as Pahlavi, and was finally modernized into contemporary Persian—which is in use today in Iran, Afghanistan and parts of Central Asia. Persian is a branch of the Indo-European languages. As Ahmad Karimi-Hakkak (493) mentions “Over a millennium this language has been the primary means of daily discourse as well as the language of science, art and literature on the Iranian plateau.” He indicates that “Old Persian was brought into Iranian plateau in the second millennium BC by Eurasian steppes. In time, it became the language of the Achamenians (559-339 BC), a dynasty of kings who established the largest, most powerful empire in the ancient world” (493).

Among the encyclopedic references, Britannica has put forward a good remark for the root and divisions of Middle Persian with more detailed information. It mentions that:
Middle Persian is known in three forms, not entirely homogeneous—inscriptional Middle Persian, Pahlavi (often more precisely called Book Pahlavi), and Manichaean Middle Persian. The Middle Persian form belongs to the period 300 BCE to 950 CE and was, like Old Persian, the language of southwestern Iran. In the northeast and northwest the language spoken was Parthian, which is known from inscriptions and from Manichaean texts. There are no significant linguistic differences in the Parthian of these two sources. Most Parthian belongs to the first three centuries CE.

Nonetheless, the Middle Persian script was abandoned in favor of the Arabic script and led to many new linguistic alterations in Persian. According to Karimi-Hakkak “The new script was far simpler and more advanced. In addition, where the Arabic script lacked essentially Persian consonants these were added to it. In short, the adoption of the Arabic script for Persian did not give rise to ruptures as significant as certain modernist reformers have assumed it did” (494). Therefore, the start of the most significant change in the Persian language dates back to the seventh century when Islam started to take over the Iranian plateau. This led Persian to find many new scopes. By adopting the Arabic alphabet, Persian became even stronger and further blossomed into many classical literary works in the following centuries.

Among the encyclopedic references, Britannica has put forward a good remark for the root and divisions of Middle Persian with more detailed information. It mentions that: Middle Persian is known in three forms, not entirely homogeneous—inscriptional Middle Persian, Pahlavi (often more precisely called Book Pahlavi), and Manichaean Middle Persian. The Middle Persian form belongs to the period 300 BCE to 950 CE and was, like Old Persian, the language of southwestern Iran. In the northeast and northwest the language spoken was Parthian, which is known from inscriptions and from Manichaean texts. There are no significant linguistic differences in the Parthian of these two sources. Most Parthian belongs to the first three centuries CE.

Nonetheless, the Middle Persian script was abandoned in favor of the Arabic script and led to many new linguistic alterations in Persian. According to Karimi-Hakkak “The new script was far simpler and more advanced. In addition, where the Arabic script lacked essentially Persian consonants these were added to it. In short, the adoption of the Arabic script for Persian did not give rise to ruptures as significant as certain modernist reformers have assumed it did” (494). Therefore, the start of the most significant change in the Persian language dates back to the seventh century when Islam started to take over the Iranian plateau. This led Persian to find many new scopes. By adopting the Arabic alphabet, Persian became even stronger and further blossomed into many classical literary works in the following centuries.

The need for translation soon of course rose in a language like Persian spoken by large populations and used by different dynasties. Persian language had remained consistent and independent by asking the translation firstly and more importantly from Arabic. The language itself has neither been replaced by any other languages nor substantially changed during the centuries. That is why a Persian speaker today can effortlessly understand and enjoy the language of Hafez or Rudaki, the famous poets who lived in the 14th and 9th centuries, respectively.

The need for translation soon of course rose in a language like Persian spoken by large populations and used by different dynasties. Persian language had remained consistent and independent by asking the translation firstly and more importantly from Arabic. The language itself has neither been replaced by any other languages nor substantially changed during the centuries. That is why a Persian speaker today can effortlessly understand and enjoy the language of Hafez or Rudaki, the famous poets who lived in the 14th and 9th centuries, respectively.

The traces of written translation in different periods of the history of Persian language have mostly been based on the king’s demands or special order by one of the influential people in the royal court, mostly for their immediate political needs. This history, before the last century, has was interwoven with political, sometimes military and less commonly scientific texts. Therefore, individual or freelance translators who had been engaged in translation of literary works, or the Persian scientists who were keen to translate texts into Persian are absent in many historical periods. Azarang (15), studying the history of Safavid dynasty (1501–1736), in which Iran had lot of communications with Europe, has associated this strange phenomenon to the lack of concern and interest for learning and evolving in Persian travelers or dispatched students who commute to western countries. He believes that Iran missed a unique opportunity to use the scientific benefits for fundamental changes during Safavid dynasty, which was concurrent with the scientific and industrial transformations of Europe. As we will see, the attempts for translating texts for Iranian users were mostly confined to translation into Arabic instead of Persian as the main language of the whole plateau in post-Islamic era. The new movement of translating texts from different subjects into Persian was seen some 100 years after Safavid kings, during mid-Qajar era (1795–1925).

In this article a historical investigation of Persian translation is presented based on what is available in collecting books and articles, mostly based on four important references: Karimi-Hakkak’s article in Encyclopedia of Translation Studies (1998), Daeratol’ma’aref-e Bozorg-e Eslami (2008), Behrouz Karoubi’s important article (2017), and Azarang’s detailed chronological event book (2015). The study has been divided into five sections based on the five historical periods: Ancient Persia, Medieval Persian, The Mongol Era, Post-Mongol Era, and the Modern Period. This is more or less the same division done by Karimi-Hakkak, as the main resource of this article, but with a specific extension. This investigation refers primarily to translation into Persian and some comparatively rare cases of translation from Persian into the other languages, will exclusively be dealt with.

Ancient Persia (Before 651)
Karimi-Hakkak (493) mentions that “Translation into Persian has a long and eventful history; it has played an important part in the evolution of Iranian and Iranate civilizations throughout Western Asia and beyond.” We see the first traces of translation in medieval Persia, in which close contact and interface between Arabic and Persian occurred. He claims that “The Achamenian empire was multilingual, and many of its documents were written not only in various language of the empire, but in Babylonian and Elamite as well. Still our information about specific translation activities among these languages is too sketchy to allow any in-depth discussion of trends and patterns.” Later on, only with the formation of the Sasanian dynasty in Persia (AD 224–652) and the rise of Middle Persian the first authentic historical information about intercultural exchange could be found.

Behistun Inscription as the unique masterpiece in Achamenian’s era is an exclusive phenomenon in the history of translation of the world; Azarang argues that it is one of the most important translated texts in that era as well as one of the examples of precise translation. Translation of Behistun inscribed stone seems to be done by a number of trusted linguists who probably checked the texts’ conformity more than once. This translation shows that a precise translation accompanied by artistic delicacies on the stones had reached a very good level in that time (35).

Scholarship suggests that Old Persian was transmitted orally, as we have no written records from that time. There is Avesta, a religious book in what scholars have termed Avestan, a language closely related to Old Persian. Even though it was committed to writing in the fourth century AD, Avesta contains some Zoroastrian hymns thought to be in older Iranian languages” (qtd. in Karimi-Hakkak 493).

=Akira Jantarat： History of Chinese-Thai literature Translation in 19th century=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_17]]

=Jawad Ahmad; History of Translation=

[[Hist_Trans_EN_18]]

=Bible Translation in Christian History=
Benjamin Wellsand, Hunan Normal University, China
[[Hist_Trans_EN_18]]

==Abstract==
The history of Christianity is rich in translations. Why is this the case? What is the motivation behind all this translation effort? The present work will explain the rationale behind the perceived need for translation. It will describe the multicultural context that aided the church in communicating in a heart language. An awkward struggle in the Middle Ages will leave the future of the church in question. What created this polar shift in the West from the church's original course bearings? How and why did the church recover? What remains of centuries of Christian diligence to get the Word into the words of the other? Through historical events, life experiences of translators, and the tales that live on in the translations themselves will answer these questions and encourage the reader to enter the exciting and vast history of Bible translation.

==Key Words==
Aramaic language—refers to the Semitic dialect of a Middle Eastern people written in a Phoenician alphabet and first appearing in the 11th century B.C.E and growing to the peak of prominence in the 8th century B.C.E.

Free Translation—a translator’s decision to avoid as many target audience misunderstandings as possible due to linguistic and cultural differences with the source text’s culture

Functional or Dynamic Translation—a translator’s decision to focus more attention on communicating the meaning of the source text with concern for the target text

Grassroots theology—the lived experience of the church that then develops into a theological framework

Greek language—refers to that Greek developed in the 4th century B.C.E. and utilized by the Greco-Roman Empire

Heart language—the native language of a person from which the deepest emotional meanings are expressed

Hebrew language—refers to the ancient Jewish dialect spoken between the 10th century B.C.E. and the 4th century C.E.

Literal Translation—a translator’s decision to focus attention primarily on what the source text says

Septuagint—the Greek translations of the Hebrew Old Testament

Vernacular language—an expression or mode of expression that is a part of everyday communication and not yet in written form

==Introduction==
Translation of the biblical text has been a practice of the Christian church since its very origin. The founding of the church during the Jewish festival of Pentecost, as recorded in the Bible itself, involved Jesus’ disciples communicating the gospel message in the language of Parthians, Medes, Mesopotamians, and Egyptians, among others. (cf. Acts 2.7-11) The final vision of the multitude of the saved in heaven are described as a “people of God from every tribe and language and people and nation." (Rev. 5.9) The New Testament, although authored by primarily Hebrew-speaking Jews, was first written in the lingua franca, koine Greek, of the day. Whereas Buddhists and Muslims identify their sacred texts and faiths inseparably from the original languages of Sanskrit, Pali and Arabic, the Christian faith has sought to translate the biblical texts immediately and directly into the vernacular language of the people to accelerate its global spread.

On a historical basis, the Christian faith has been criticized regarding colonialism and the destruction of cultures. One such case occurred in the sixteenth-century with the Japanese. Giant ships (in comparison to the Japanese) came to dock on the island from Portugal. Many transactions were made between the Portuguese traders and the local Japanese damaiyo. When trade agreements went south, as it did in the case of Portugal and Japan, the Portuguese missionaries were associated with the politics and kicked out of the country. They were ousted under the accusations of encouraging Japanese to eat horses and cows, misleading people through science and medicine, and trading Japanese slaves. (Doughill 2012: l. 1064) Although the missionaries had done no such things, they were targeted along with the Portuguese government for these criminal acts.

There are cases where the colonial form of the church has not come to intentionally destroy but has assumed cultural superiority and inadvertently added to the host culture their own country of origin’s cultural forms. Late 19th century missionaries to Africa felt that the Western-style structure of a dwelling was an indicator of modern progress. In 1879, the magistrate of Gatberg declared:

It is not only that the requirement of modesty necessitates the providing of some sort of clothing, however simple; but Christian morality desires also a dwelling corresponding to human dignity, decency, and purity. Building plays an important part in the mission. First the missionary builds a simple small house for himself, to which he soon adds a school and a church. Generally, he must himself superintend this work; often enough, indeed, he must execute it with his own hand, and it stands him in good stead to have been a tradesman at home. But he induces the natives also to help him, and much patience as it requires on his part, he undertakes to instruct them. Gradually his word and his example produce their effect, and the converts from heathenism begin to build new and more decent dwellings for themselves. (Warneck 1888: 80)

There is no denying that the church has struggled to decontextualize the faith from their home culture and properly contextualize it into the host culture. This has led to the host culture’s Christianity looking eerily similar to the missionary’s, at best, or a faith that forever remains foreign to the host culture, at worst. Yet, as Lamin Sanneh notes, Christian missionaries have often played a key role in the preservation of cultures:

The translation enterprise had two major steps. One was the creation of a vernacular alphabet for societies that lacked a literary tradition. The other step was to shake the existing literary tradition free of its esoteric, elitist predilection by recasting it as a popular medium. Both steps stimulated an indigenous response and encouraged the discovery of local resources for the appropriation of Christianity. (Sanneh 1987: 333)

The translation of the biblical text into another language is not simply a greater convenience to the reader in the target culture but accomplishes far more as language extends much deeper than a mere form of communication.

Benjamin L. Whorf’s theory of linguistic relativity holds that language influences thought and not thought that influences language. For him, “linguistics is essentially the quest of meaning." (Carroll 1956: 73) George C. Lichtenberg, another pioneer of linguistics, is famously quoted as saying, “Our false philosophy is incorporated in our whole language; we cannot talk, so to say, without talking incorrectly. We do not consider that speaking, irrespective of its content, presents a philosophy." (Loewenberg 1943-44: 102) Richard D. Lewis illustrated this point with an interaction between himself, an Englishman, and a former Zulu chief who received a doctorate in philology at Oxford as they discussed the color green. As the Zulu pointed to a leaf in the sun, a leaf in the shade, a wet leaf in the sun and one in the shade, bush leaves, leaves in the wind, rivers, pools, tree trunks, and crocodiles, all to which Lewis responded with a single answer: green. Yet his Zulu friend had reached thirty-nine different terms for green with no trouble at all (Lewis 2006, 9). Paul G. Hiebert writes, “We examine the language to discover the categories the people use in their thinking." (Hiebert 2008: 90)

Christians, like Hiebert, recognize that true conversion of a person’s mind can only happen if it takes place on three levels of the individual: belief, behavior, and worldview. “Too often conversion takes place at the surface levels of behavior and beliefs; but if worldviews are not transformed, the gospel is interpreted in terms of pagan worldviews, and the result is Christo-paganism." (Hiebert 2008: 69) And, since worldview is linked to language, it goes without saying that the biblical text and Christian terminology must be placed in the language of the people in order for one to be truly Christian within their culture.

Grassroots theology is a term coined by Simon Chan. While it is true that theology is something that is viewed as coming down from God in the Christian faith, theology cannot be totally divorced from what happens on the physical earth among humanity. The idea behind grassroots theology is that theology takes place within the community of the faithful and will necessarily carry cultural characteristics of the host culture. The African context finds a great deal of suffering through poverty and illness and filial concerns extend to deceased ancestors. This has led African Christians to recognize Jesus as the Healer who can bring help for those suffering from disease. They will point to Messianic prophecies like, “the eyes of the blind shall be opened, and the ears of the deaf unstopped; then shall the lame man leap like a deer, and the tongue of the mute sing for joy." (Isa. 35.5-6) They also find him to be the fulfillment for their need of an ancestral role as a mediator between the earthly and spiritual realms. They draw attention to Paul’s letter to Timothy, “For there is one God, and there is one mediator between God and men, the man Christ Jesus." (1 Tim. 2.5) The same can be said of Latin Americans attraction to the Holy Spirit and those giftings associated with him and South Asia’s attention to fear-power aspects of the gospel message coming from a culture steeped in animism and folk religions.

Randy Dignan has learned from his own bilingual experience “that language isn’t understood only by the mind. Language can also be heard with the heart." (Dignan 2020: 13) The term heart language holds to the conviction that, while one can read and communicate in a second language, when in the most intimate and troubling circumstances an individual will automatically revert to his or her native tongue. This is since our native form of speech is not only natural but the language in which we communicate most deeply and freely. When the Japanese Christian, Shusaku Endo, reflected on the 250 years of suffering that the church in Japan had to endure and how the church was forced to recant their faith publicly and remove all religious symbols, he reverted to his native language to express his spiritual thoughts. The Japanese character chin (meaning silence) stood as a symbol as one “looks starkly into the darkness, but [creates] characters and language that somehow inexplicably move beyond” that darkness." (Fujimura 2016: 74) What in Shusaku Endo’s mind best describes the Japanese Christian’s experience of suffering? Chin. When speaking of things closest to us, humans, all of us, speak from the language closest to our heart—our native one.

The early church set the pattern as it was birthed within a multilingual context and immediately entered translation efforts. Colonialism remains a constant threat as one culture takes the Christian faith into another foreign cultural context. Conversion is defined by the church as an experience that involves an individual who possesses a former way of life modeled after a specific pattern of behavior and a particular spiritual influence and then that way of life is abruptly interrupted and overturned by an encounter with Jesus. (cf. Eph. 2.1-7) That experience involves a love for God with all of one’s heart, soul, mind, and strength. (cf. Mk. 12.30) What reaches to the depths of heart and soul is one’s language that reaches to worldview levels. Christianity is a faith that is intended to engulf the entire person from head to toe and from belief to action. The development of a grassroots theology involves the heart language of the people and has historically manifested the capacity to preserve cultures. This is a work on the history of translation in the church.

[1] Papias’ writings are only available to us through the records kept by Eusebius. In these records, there are two extant quotes regarding authorship of the gospels. In regard to the gospel of Matthew, he writes, “Matthew composed the gospel in the Hebrew dialect and each translated them as best he could.” The early church understood this to mean that Matthew had originally written his gospel in Hebrew and it was soon after translated into Greek. However, scholars, such as D. A. Carson and Douglas J. Moo, have brought the validity of this interpretation of Papias’ statement into question. (See 2005: 161-162)

==1. The Early Church And Translation==
The early church was a multicultural and multilingual group of people. The church had its start within Jerusalem during a Jewish festival known as Pentecost. It was during this festival that Jews would converge within the city from the Jewish diaspora that had been created through centuries of occupation and exile. The Jews living among foreign lands had taken on the culture and languages of their captors and captive neighbors. When they came back to worship at the centralized Jerusalem Temple in 30 C.E., there was a complex and diverse representation of culture and a need for the Hebrew speakers to communicate in the languages of the diaspora.

As noted above, Greek had long been the lingua franca by this time and translation of the church’s sacred text had already taken place. What is known as the Septuagint (LXX) was the Greek version(s) of the Hebrew Old Testament. Rather than referencing a specific translation, since there is no single identifiable text, the LXX is, in the words of Emanuel Tov, “the nature of the individual translation units” and “the nature of the Greek Scripture as a whole (p3).” The fictitious origins of the title Septuagint come from the tale of 70 translators who were said to have gathered in Alexandria during the reign of Ptolemy II and the translation was miraculously accomplished within seventy-two days. Despite the fictitious tale of its beginning and the difficulty in identifying exactly what the Septuagint text contains, there is no doubt that the translations existed, and that Jesus’s apostles utilized them regularly in their writing of the New Testament text.

The New Testament does not qualify as a written translation of a Hebrew text, but it is a written Greek text that is translated from Jewish thought. The Jewish concepts of Temple, Levitical priesthood, Messiah, animal sacrifice, along with many other Old Testament imagery and thought are written down in Greek. It is interesting that there are assumptions made by biblical scholars that, since the biblical writers were writing in Greek, they must have been borrowing from Greek thought to communicate to a Greek audience. A common example can be found in the beginning of the gospel of John and its use of word (or logos). The text reads, “In the beginning was the Word and the Word was with God, and the Word was God." (Jn. 1.1) Many find the apostle John borrowing from Platonic philosophy and following in the footsteps of Hellenistic, Jewish philosopher, Philo who connected Greek Sophia (or Wisdom) with the logos, which was the knowledge, reason, and consciousness of the God of the Old Testament that assisted humans in life.

Despite the face value validity of this being a moment of contextualization by the apostle John of Hebrew concepts into Greek thought, there may be a more reasonable explanation. Ronald A. Nash points out that it makes more sense to take logos not back to Greek philosophy primarily but to Hebrew thought in Genesis 1, since the writers had Jewish minds. In every activity of creation, as it is recorded in the Hebrew Old Testament, God is described as one who speaks all things into existence. “And God said, ‘Let there be light.'" (Gen. 1.3) It is the word of God that brought all of creation into existence. John takes the Hebrew thought regarding the spoken beginning of the cosmos and uses the Greek term logos as a title for Jesus to connect him with the origins of creation for the New Testament Greek audience.

Regardless of how thoughts were communicated in translation, the fact remains that the early church was diligent from the start to ensure the biblical text made it into the hands of every people group encountered in their own language. The earliest translation of the Greek New Testament was either Syriac or Coptic. The Coptic version was translated by Egyptians of the north-western province in the third century. Today, there are five or six different identifiable Syriac versions that arise out of more than 350 extant manuscripts and the Peshitta is the earliest known translation following the LXX. By 200 C.E. there was an estimated seven translations, thirteen by the sixth century, and fifty-seven by the nineteenth century. In 2020, the Bible has been translated in whole into 704 languages, New Testament-only translations in 1,551 languages, and partial translations in another 1,160.

[2] See D. Butler Pratt. 1907. “The Gospel of John from the Standpoint of Greek Tragedy.” The Biblical World. 30 (6): 448-459. The University of Chicago Press. and Ronald Williamson. 1970. Philo and the Epistle to the Hebrews. Leiden: E. J. Brill.

==2. Motivation and Opposition to Translation in the Middle Ages==
Emperor Diocletian had divided the Roman Empire into two sectors: the predominantly Latin-speaking western and the majority Greek-speaking eastern territories. Later in history with the weakening of the Roman Empire and a diversity of Germanic tribes occupying the west, the Eastern empire of Byzantium (led by a conviction as the rightful heirs of the Roman Empire) desired to reunite the former glory of Rome and, under the rule of Emperor Justinian I, successfully expanded its imperial authority from east to most of the former Roman western territory. There developed between Rome in the west and Constantinople in the east a politically driven religious rivalry after an alliance of the Frankish king, Pepin the Younger and the bishop of Rome. The political divide between the Franks and the Byzantines persisted to the point of the creation of two different leaders of the church, the Roman pope in the west and the Constantinian patriarch in the east. The Great Schism began in 1054 C.E. when the Byzantine patriarch Michael I Celarius sent a letter to the Roman bishop of Trani to debate the use of unleavened rather than leavened bread in the context of corporate worship with the claim of unleavened bread as a Jewish and not a Christian practice. The conflict was referred to the western capital city of Rome where pope Leo refused to make any concessions regarding the issue.

In 1079 C.E. a letter was written by Vratislaus I, duke of Bohemia, requesting the pope of Rome allow his monks to do officiate in Slavonic recitations. Pope Gregory VII responded:

Know that we can by no means favorably answer this your petition. For it is clear to those who reflect often upon it, that not without reason has it pleased Almighty God that holy scripture should be a secret in certain places, lest, if it were plainly apparent to all men, perchance it would be little esteemed and be subject to disrespect; or it might be falsely understood by those of mediocre learning, and lead to error … we forbid what you have so imprudently demanded of the authority of St. Peter, and we command you to resist this vain rashness with all your might, to the honor of Almighty God. (Deansely 1920: 24)

One wonders if the recent signs of a schism and concern over who held church authority, either the patriarch or the pope, did not significantly influence such a verdict. In this case, it was likely not so much a concern over the misuse of the biblical text as it was a deterrent of Greek and Slavic influence from the eastern church having a hold on western adherents to the Christian faith.

Vernacular translations did exist for royalty in nearly all European countries, such as those produced for John II of France or Charles V of Rome. Vernacular translations that were free adaptations, paraphrases, or rhymed verse were allowed among the laity for single books or portions of the Bible because such “a work was considered safer than the literal translation of the sacred text.” (Deansely 1920, 19) The fact that the Waldensians were early proponents of vernacular translation and viewed as a heretical group in the Roman church did not help the cause. This ascetic sect held that vows of apostolic poverty led to spiritual perfection. A native German and founder of the Waldensians, Peter Waldo, was a man with the will and financial means to have the New Testament translated into Franco-Provençal by a cleric from Lyon. The sect was not as keen on the Old Testament and so there was no completed translation work. The Lollards, or followers of Wycliffe, were viewed with theological suspicion by the church in Rome as well. John Wycliffe, an English philosopher and University of Oxford professor, believed that God was sovereign over all and that all men were on an equal footing under his reign and were not in submission to any other mediatory ecclesiastical power. Margaret Deansely claims that this “also led logically to the demand for a translated Bible” from the Latin vulgate to English. (Deansley 1920: 227) If everyone was under God and the divine mandate, then it is only fitting that each person be given that text in an understandable linguistic form. Wycliffe used the existence of translations among the nobility as a basis for a request for translations available to commoners.

In 1412, the English archbishop Thomas Arundel wrote to pope John XXII charging that Wycliffe had “fill[ed] up the measure of his malice, he devised the expedient of a new translation of the scriptures into the mother tongue.” (Deansely 1920: 238) His Constitutions that were authored against Wycliffe post-humously and against the existing Lollard community, according to Shannon McSheffrey, “were probably responsible for a freeze on English translations of scripture” with only one surviving license for an English Bible in the fifteenth century, the Lollard translation remained the “most widely circulated of vernacular manuscripts.” (McSheffrey 2005: 63) Margaret Aston found that, despite the church in Rome’s crackdown on vernacular translation, the Lollards cause continued to influence the Reformers through their written publications. Martin Luther utilized the Commentarius in Apocalypsin ante Centum Annos æditus, Robert Redman produced a work heavily dependent on The Lanterne of light, and William Thynne’s The Plowman’s Tale has its source in an original fourteenth-century Lollard poem. The fires for vernacular translation had been rekindled in the church of the west. Jacob van Liesveldt published a Dutch translation in 1526; Jacques Lefèvre d’Étaples completed the French Antwerp Bible in 1530; Luther’s German translation emerged in 1534; Maximus of Gallipoli printed a Greek translation of the New Testament in 1638; a completed Hungarian Bible immerged in 1590; Giovanni Diodati translated the Bible into Italian in 1607; João Ferreira d'Almeida printed a Portuguese New Testament in 1681; in 1550 a full translation arrived in Denmark; and Luther’s version of the New Testament was reprinted in part in the Swyzerdeutsch dialect by 1525. In 1953, Wycliffe Bible Translators was founded and currently has a global alliance of over 100 organizations that serve in Bible translation movements and language communities around the world and has been a part of vernacular translation in more than 700 languages.

==3. Defining Forms of Biblical Translation==
In translation of the biblical text, the best possible translation scenario is one that comes from the original Hebrew-Aramaic Old Testament (including the later LXX translations) and Greek New Testament languages. There are Bible versions that are translated based on previous translations, but this is not ideal as it removes the translators from the linguistic source context. Ancient Greek has single words with multiple meanings, like bar in English that can refer to an establishment that serves alcohol and a metal object or hua in Chinese that can be read either as a verb or a noun. This can lead to inconsistencies in translation. For example, the Chinese Union Version (CUV), which is the most used Chinese version, translates the Greek word aletheia as chengshi (or honesty). John uses aletheia nineteen times in the Gospel of John and only once in John 16.7 does the word carry the meaning of honesty. It is clear in this passage that the meaning is honesty as it is a description of how Jesus speaks with his disciples. A single word in one language can also carry more information than in another. The Greek word hamartánein (or sin) in 1 John 1.9 is a present active verb for sin. The JMSJ Chinese version adds jixu (or continue) which is a word not found in Greek, but best expresses the original meaning with the addition of a word not found in the source text.

When translation issues arise like the latter example given above, there are translator decisions that must be made on how to best translate a source text’s meaning into the target text. There are translators who make the decision to stay as close to the source language as possible. This is known as a literal translation of the source text. Leland Ryken states that a literal translation approach is concerned more with “what the original text says [than] what it means.” (Ryken 2009, l. 323) This may lead to a translator sacrificing ease of the recipient audience’s understanding for the sake of an aim to stay faithful to the text. However, there are cases where literal translation has worked best. Toshikazu Foley notes how the Chinese Union Version takes a literal approach in Philippians 1.8 when it translates the Greek word splagknois (or the most inward parts of a man where emotions are felt) as xinchang (or heart-intestines). This phrase carries the meaning of someone with a “good heart” or “merciful and kind.” While Today’s Chinese Version (TCV) takes a more dynamic approach and follows Today’s English Version’s (TEV) translation as heart. In this instance, what the Greek text says and what it means can transfer to the Chinese text.

Continuing with the Philippians 1.8 scenario, the Greek word splagknois (or the most inward parts of a man where emotions are felt) cannot be directly translated into English in the same way that it can with the Chinese term xinchang (or heart-intestines). For an English translator to take a literal translation approach and simply make a direct translation as “I long after you all in the bowels of Jesus Christ,” it would lead to a great misunderstanding by the English audience. The TEV translator has made the decision to surrender a literal translation out of concern for the target audience. This is known as a dynamic or functional equivalence translation. Ryken gives the following description: “Functional equivalence seeks something in the receptor language that produces the same effect (and therefore allegedly serves the same function) as the original statement, no matter how far removed the new statement might be from the original.” (Ryken 2009: l. 263)

There are varying degrees of helpfulness when a translator is forced to move into the realm of dynamic equivalence. A comparison of two translation results from 2 Timothy 2.3 can be used to illustrate. The Chinese Union Version reads, “You want to suffer with me, like a good soldier of Christ Jesus.” While the Today’s Chinese Version reads, “As a loyal soldier of Christ Jesus, you have to share in the suffering.” In the surrounding context, Paul has just explained his own suffering in chapter one and speaks intimately of Timothy as his son in chapter two and expects Timothy to propagate his message further. The CUV follows the context more closely as Timothy follows in the ministry of his spiritual “father” before him and, as he shares Paul’s message, will also share in his sufferings.

Those translators that are very target text oriented in avoidance of difficult language and cultural differences, can leave the realm of translation and enter that of interpretation. To pursue Ryken’s description further, the free translation approach is primarily concerned with what the text means in its communication. The Concise Bible (JMSJ) takes great liberty in its translation of 1 Corinthians 1.23. Where the Chinese New Version translates, “We preach the crucified Christ; a stumbling block to the Jews and stupidity to the foreigner”, the JMSJ reads:

“But all we proclaim is the Christ who was nailed to the cross to atone for people's sin. Jews hate this kind of message [, because their hope is in a political, military leader leading them to break free from Roman rule, and not the crucified Jesus]. People of other races think this kind of message is very foolish [, because they don't believe Jesus becoming sin and dying on a cross for people is Savior and Lord.]”

A non-native speaker could examine the Chinese New Version and JMSJ and recognize just by the stark contrast in Chinese character counts between the two versions that the JMSJ has gone to great lengths to communicate the meaning of the source text to its Chinese target audience.

==Conclusion==
The Christian church was birthed in a multilingual environment that was the result of seemingly endless years of exile which the superior kingdoms of Babylon, Assyria, Medo-Persia, Greece, and Rome forced upon the Jewish population. The Christians believe, in the pen of the apostle Paul, “we know that for those who love God all things work together for good, for those who are called according to his purpose.” (Rom. 8.28) The kingdoms aggressively destroyed and pillaged and uprooted families, friends, and neighbors from their promised land and decimated the Temple. The Jews were left without a king, a name, and, from all outward appearances, a God. Yet this landless state of a people, that commonly struggled with ethnocentrism, propelled them into a crash course with foreign language studies. Genesis 31.47; Jeremiah 10.11; Ezra 4.8-6.18; 7.12-26; and Daniel 2.4-7.28 are all portions of the Old Testament that were not written in Hebrew, but in Aramaic. Aramaic was the official language used circa 700-200 B.C.E. and remnants of its widespread usage were found in parts of Babylon, Egypt, Palestine, Arabia, Assyria, and other ancient regions. The LXX translations quoted in the New Testament also attest to the Greco-Roman occupation and the Jews ability to adapt to their surrounding cultures. When the Holy Spirit descends with tongues of fire, the followers of Jesus tongues are alight with the diversity mirroring the surrounding effects of a melting pot of cultural diversity. The first Christians (primarily Jewish) were already equipped to communicate the gospel message of Jesus on a worldview level in the heart language of their former oppressors.

The cultures that interacted, and at points even dominated the Palestinian culture, were the first ones to experience the early church’s fervent cross-cultural evangelistic efforts through the means of translation. Peter J. Williams gives this historical comment: “The oldest records in Syriac are pagan or secular, but from the mid-second century onward, the influence of Christianity could be felt in Syriac-speaking culture, and from the fourth century, this influence dominated literary output.” (Williams 2013: 143) The most notable of these early Christian texts is Tatian’s Diatessaron (the earliest known harmony of the four Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke and John) around 170 C.E. Philip Jenkins lists Syria among the Near Eastern places of origin where, “during the first few centuries [Christianity] had its greatest centers, its most prestigious churches and monasteries.” (Jenkins 2008: l. 47) It was the theological struggles of this church that led to the early articulation of key doctrines, like the hypostatic union of Christ that sets forth the relationship between his divine and human natures.

The utilization of koine Greek pressed the church outward with a global missional front. One that, as previously noted, preserves the languages of outlying and isolated cultures and plants the Christian faith firmly in the local cultural context to ensure its perseverance. Before the writings of the New Testament are even completed, the church is already seen in transition from a primarily Jewish body to a predominantly Greek one. The apostle Paul queried the apostle Peter, both of Jewish descent, “If you, though a Jew, live like a Gentile and not like a Jew, how can you force the Gentiles to live like Jews?” (Gal. 2.14) And the church in its infancy is described in the midst of a racial dilemma: “Now in these days when the disciples were increasing in number, a complaint by the Hellenists arose against the Hebrews because their widows were being neglected in the daily distribution.” (Acts 6.1) These were not signs of stagnation but were natural growing pains of a church that was oriented outward. Although the church seems to struggle or lose its focus from time to time, overall, it has been at the forefront of linguistic translation and has made the Bible the most popular and well-read text in all the world for centuries.

==References==
Aston, Margaret. 1964. “Lollardy and the Reformation: Survival or Revival.” in History. 49 (166): 149-170. Hoboken: Wiley.

Carroll, John B., ed. 1956. ''Language, Thought, and Reality: Selected Writings of Benjamin Lee Whorf''. Cambridge: MIT Press.

Carson, D. A. & Douglas J. Moo. 2005. ''An Introduction to the New Testament''. Grand Rapids: Zondervan.

Chan, Simon. 2014. ''Grassroots Asian Theology: Thinking the Faith from the Ground Up''. Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press.

CUV Bible (Heheben). 2006. Hong Kong: Hong Kong Bible Society.

Deansely, Margaret. 1920. ''The Lollard Bible and Other Medieval Biblical Versions''. Cambridge: University Press.

Dignan, Randy. 2020. ''Heart Language: Let’s Communicate Like Jesus and Change the World!'' Daphne: River Birch Press.

Doughill, John. 2012. ''In Search of Japan’s Hidden Christians: A Story of Suppression, Secrecy, and Survival''. Rutland: Tuttle Publishing.

ESV Study Bible. 2008. Wheaton: Crossway Books.

Foley, Toshikazu. 2009. ''Biblical Translation in Chinese and Greek: Verbal Aspect in Theory and Practice''. Leiden: Brill.

Fujimura, Makoto. 2016. ''Silence and Beauty: Hidden Faith Born of Suffering''. Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press.

Hiebert, Paul G. 2008. ''Transforming Worldviews: An Anthropological Understanding of How People Change''. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic.

Jenkins, Philip. 2008. ''The Lost History of Christianity: The Thousand-Year Golden Age of the Church in the Middle East, Africa, and Asia—and How It Died''. New York: HarperCollins.

JMSJ Bible (Jianmingshengjing). 2012. Taipei: Taipei Daoshen Publishing House.

Lewis, Richard D. 2010. ''When Cultures Collide: Leading Across Cultures''. 3rd ed. Boston: Hachette Book Group.

Loewenberg, Richard D. “An Eighteenth Century Pioness of Semantics.” ETC: A Review of General Semantics. 1 (2): 99-104. Institute of General Semantics.

McSheffrey, Shannon. 2005. “Heresy, Orthodoxy and English Vernacular Religion 1480-1525.” Past & Present. 186 (1): 47-80. Oxford University Press.

Nash, Ronald A. 2003. ''The Gospel and the Greeks: Did the New Testament Borrow from Pagan Thought?'' Phillipsburg: P & R Publishing.

Ryken, Leland. 2009. ''Understanding English Bible Translation: The Case for an Essentially Literal Approach''. Wheaton: Crossway.

Sanneh, Lamin. 1987. “Christian Missions and the Western Guilt Complex.” The Christian Century. 104 (11): 331-334. The Christian Century Foundation.

TCV Bible (Xiandaizhongwenyiben). 1979. Hong Kong: Hong Kong Bible Society.

TEV Bible. 1976. New York: American Bible Society.

Tov, Emanuel. 2010. “Reflections on the Septuagint with Special Attention Paid to the Post-Pentateuchal Translations,” in ''Die Septuaginta – Texte, Theologien, Einflusse'', ed. Wolfgang Kraus and Martin Karrer, 3–22. Tubingen: Mohr Siebeck.

Warneck, Gustav. 1888. ''Modern Missions and Culture: Their Mutual Relations''. Edinburgh: James Gemmell.

Williams, Peter J. 2013. “The Syriac Versions of the New Testament,” in ''The Text of the New Testament in Contemporary Research'', eds. Bart D. Ehrman and Michael W. Holmes, 143-166. Leiden: Brill.

History of Translations

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=Rouabah Soumaya: History of translation in the Middle Ages=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_2]]
== Abstract==
The history of translation is seen variously as examining the role of translation in historical episodes through decades or investigating the phenomenon or understanding of translation itself historically. These different historiographical perspectives involve potentially different research aims, approaches, concepts, methods and scholarly interlocutors. The paper focuses on this question of disciplinary commensurability in historical studies, and draws parallels between the history of translation and translation in the middle ages. Themes addressed include the bible translation as , established historiographical norms and alternative, interdisciplinary approaches. It is argued that both the history of translation started with the translation of the Bible in the early BC comes, towards a reflexive, transnational history that seeks productive modes of engagement with other historical disciplines. By bringing to the attention of translation scholars some of the key debates in the history of translation and by identifying commonalities, this paper hopes to present an overall view of translation in the middle ages with slight knowledge of Bible translation in the early centuries of the middle ages, which starts from th5 to the 15 century.

== Keywords==
History of Translation , Bible Translation, Translation in the Middle Ages
medieval translation, medieval translator, translation and culture

== Introduction ==
This paper aims at a general review of the history of translation studies and the prevalent approaches from antiquity to the present in the west, in the form of a historical survey in which key theoretical developments are taken into account, focusing on approaches that have been developed during the twentieth century. Without a doubt, It is James Holme's seminal paper "the name and nature of translation studies" that draws up a disciplinary map for translation studies and serves as a springboard for researchers with its binary division of Translation Studies into two branches: "pure" and "applied." Its growth as a discipline goes back to the 1980s. As time elapses, translation studies, by achieving a certain institutional authority and coalescing with many a resurging disciplines and trends as cultural studies, linguistics, literary theory and criticism, brings a renewed aspect to translation theory.

In addition, this paper argues that English medieval translation can be considered as part of a cultural project in that the medieval translator is concerned more with the role and the function of translation in the target culture. Medieval translation theory derives from the classical theories of translation, however, prefaces to translations indicate that medieval translator appropriates the classical translation theory and uses it to serve the cultural and ideological objectives of translation in the middle Ages.

Key words: medieval translation, medieval translator, translation and culture, translation theory.
The pioneering work of Jeannette Beer and Roger Ellis has decidedly promoted medieval translation as a significant area, and has established medieval translation as the work of culturally responsible, academically oriented people of learning.

1 Susan
* Assist. Prof. Dr., Hacettepe University, Department of English Language and Literature
1 The problematic situation of Medieval translation in the academia is discussed by Ruth Evans in "Translating
Past Cultures?" in The Medieval Translator /Vied. Roger Ellis and Ruth Evans, the University of Exeter Press,
Medieval Translation and Cultural Transformation

== Early History of Translation==
The word ‘translation’ comes from a Latin term which means, “To bring or carry across”. Another relevant term comes from the Ancient Greek word of ‘metaphrasis’ which means, “To speak across” and from this, the term ‘metaphrase’ was born, which means a “word-for-word translation”. These terms have been at the heart of theories relating to translation throughout history and have given insight into when and where translation have been used throughout the ages.

It is known that translation was carried out as early as the Mesopotamian era when the Sumerian poem, Gilgamesh, was translated into Asian languages. This dates back to around the second millennium BC. Other ancient translated works include those carried out by Buddhist monks who translated Indian documents into Chinese. In later periods, Ancient Greek texts were also translated by Roman poets and were adapted to create developed literary works for entertainment. It is known that translation services were utilised in Rome by Cicero and Horace and that these uses were continued through to the 17th century, where newer practices were developed.

The history of translation has been a topic that has long been debated by scholars and historians, though it is widely accepted that translation pre-dates the bible. The bible tells of different languages as well as giving insight to the interaction of speakers from different areas. The need for translation has been apparent since the earliest days of human interaction, whether it be for emotional, trade or survival purposes.

The demand for translation services has continued to develop and is now more vital than ever, with businesses acknowledging the inability to expand internationally or succeed in penetrating foreign markets without translating marketing material and business documents.

It is significant to review the history of translation in different languages. There are divisions of period made by scholars like George Steiner. According to Steiner, the history of translation is divided into four periods. Starting from the Roman translators Cicero and Horace to Alexander Fraser Tytler is the first period; the second period extends up to Valery and from Valery to 1960s becomes the third period and the fourth period 1960s onwards. The history of translation is stressed out from 3000 B.C. Rosetta Stone is considered the most ancient work of Translation belonged to the second century B.C. Livius Andronicus translated Homer’s Odyssey named Odusia into Latin in 240 B.C. All that survives is parts of 46 scattered lines from 17 books of the Greek 24-book epic. In some lines, he translates literally, though in others more freely. His translation of the Odyssey had a great historical importance. Before then, the Mesopotamians and Egyptians had translated judicial and religious texts, but no one had yet translated a literary work written in a foreign language until the Roman Empire. Livius’ translation made this fundamental Greek text accessible to Romans, and advanced literary culture in Latin. This project was one of the best examples of translation as artistic process. The work was to be enjoyed on its own, and Livius strove to preserve the artistic quality of original. Since there was no tradition of epic in Italy before him, Livius must have faced enormous problems. For example, he used archaizing forms to make his language more solemn and intense. Barnstone Willis. The Poetics of Translation: History, Theory and Practice. London: Yale University Press, 1993. Print. Bassnett, Susan and Lefevere, Andre (Eds.). Translation, History and Culture. London: Pinter, 1990. Print.

When we talk about the history of translation, we should think of the theories and names that e merged at its different periods. In fact, each era is characterized by specific changes in translation history, but these changes differ from one place to another. For example, the developments of translation in the western world are not the same as those in the Arab world, as each nation knew particular incidents that led to the birth of particular theories. So, what marked the western translation? .By Marouane Zakhir English translator University of Soultan Moulay Slimane, Morocco

== Translation in the Western World==
For centuries, people believed in the relation between translation and the story of the tower of Babel in the Book of Genesis. According to the Bible, the descendants of Noah decided, after the great flood, to settle down in a plain in the land of Shinar. There, they committed a great sin. Instead of setting up a society that fits God's will, they decided to challenge His authority and build a tower that could reach Heaven. However, this plan was not completed, as God, recognizing their wish, regained control over them through a linguistic stratagem. He caused them to speak different languages so as not to understand each other. Then, he scattered them all over the earth. After that incident, the number of languages increased through diversion, and people started to look for ways to communicate, hence the birth of translation (Abdessalam Benabdelali, 2006) (1).

Actually, with the birth of translation studies and the increase of research in the domain, people started to get away from this story of Babel, and they began to look for specific dates and figures that mark the periods of translation history.

Researchers mention that writings on translation go back to the Romans. Eric Jacobson claims that translating is a Roman invention (see McGuire: 1980) (2). Cicero and Horace (first century BC) were the first theorists who distinguished between word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Their comments on translation practice influenced the following generations of translation up to the twentieth century.

Another period that knew a changing step in translation development was marked by St Jerome (fourth century CE). "His approach to translating the Greek Septuagint Bible into Latin would affect later translations of the scriptures." (Munday, 2001) (3)

The first important translation in the West was that of the Septuagint, a collection of Jewish Scriptures translated into early Koine Greek in Alexandria between the 3rd and "1st centuries B C E The dispersed Jews had forgotten their ancestral language and Throughout the .middle Ages, /Latin was the lingua franca of the western learned world. -Wikipedia .org/wiki/

The 9th1century Alfred the Great, king of Wessex in England, was far ahead of his time in commissioning 'vernacular Anglo -Saxon translations of Bede’s Ecclesiastical History and Boethius « Consolation of Philosophy ) meanwhile, the Christian church frowned on even partial adaptations of St . Jerome ‘s Vulgate of CA 384 CE, the Latin Bible . -Wikipedia .org/wiki/

The broad historic trends in Western translation practice may be illustrated on the example of translation into the English language .

The first fine translations into English were made in the "the century by Geoffrey Chaucer, who adapted from the Italian of Giovanni Boccaccio in his own Knight's Tal e and Troilus and Criseyde ; began a translation of the French -language Roman de la Rose 7 and completed a translation of Boethius from the Latin . Chaucer bounded an English poetic tradition on adaptations and translations from those earlier established literary languages . -Wikipedia .org/wiki/

The first great English translation was the Wycliffe (CA 1382), which showed the weaknesses of an under developed English prose . only at the end of the "15th century did the great age to English prose translation begin with Thomas Malory ‘s "le Morte D arthur”- Ban adaptation of Arthurian romances so free that it can, in fact, hardly be called a true translation . The first great Tudor translations are, accordingly, the Tyndale new Testament ( 1525), which influenced the Authorized Version (1611), and Lord Berners version of jean Froissart’s Chronicles ( 1523- 25) . - Wikipedia .org/wiki/

== History of Translation in the Middle Ages==
In the history of Europe, the middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the Fifth to the late 15th centuries, similarly to the Post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and transitioned into the Renaissance and the Age of Discovery. The middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history: classical antiquity, the medieval period, and the modern period. The medieval period is itself subdivided into the Early, High, and Late Middle Ages.

This article is about medieval Europe. For a global history of the period between the 5th and 15th centuries, see Post-classical history. For other uses, see middle Ages (disambiguation).

"Medieval times" redirects here. For the dinner theatre, see Medieval Times.

Latin was the lingua franca of the Western learned world throughout the middle Ages, with few translations of Latin works into vernacular languages. In the 9th century, Alfred the Great, King of Wessex in England, was far ahead of his time in commissioning vernacular translations from Latin into English of Bede’s “Ecclesiastical History”and Boethius's “The Consolation of Philosophy”, which contributed to improve the underdeveloped English prose of that time.

It is argued that the knowledge and findings of Greek academics was developed and understood so widely thanks to the translation work of Arabic scholars. When the Greeks were conquered, Arabic scholars, who translated them and created their own versions of the scientific, entertainment and philosophical understandings took in their works. These Arabic versions were later translated into Latin, during the middle Ages, mostly throughout Spain and the resulting works provided the foundations of Renaissance academics.

Medieval times in human history – also referred to as the “Middles Ages” – was the time period that fell roughly between the fall of the Roman Empire in 476 CE and the 14th century. However, these years bear another moniker as well: the Dark Ages. There are valid reasons for that term. In the eyes of many historians, people during this age made little to no significant advancements that benefitted humankind. In addition, most notably, this was the period when the “Black Death” (the bubonic plague) killed an estimated 30 percent of the population of Europe.

However, the middle Ages were not completely “dark.” In fact, modern historians are taking a second look at this period with a more objective – and perhaps more generous – perspective. There is no doubt, for example, that religion flourished during this time. The Catholic Church came to prominence throughout Europe, and the rise of Islam was occurring simultaneously in the Middle East. It was there – particularly in urban centres such a Baghdad, Damascus and Cairo – that an extremely vibrant culture and intellectual society thrived.

The art of translation also made great strides during the middle Ages. Thanks to Alfred the Great (the king of England during the 9th century), The Consolation of Philosophy by Boethius and Ecclesiastical History by Bede were translated from Latin to English – a major feat that would have a great impact on the overall advancement of English prose during this period. Later, during the 12th and 13th centuries, the Toledo School of Translators (“Escuela de Traductores de Toledo”) worked on a wide variety of translations, including religious, scientific, philosophical and medical works. The original texts were created in Arabic, Hebrew and Greek, and all were translated into Castilian – and that formed the basis for the formation of the Spanish language. Also during the 13th century, English linguist Roger Bacon postulated the concept that a translator not only needed to be fully fluent in both the source and target languages of the work being translated, but also that a translator should be fully versed in the topic of the work to be translated – a tenet that still holds true in the language arts to this day.

One of the most notable translators during the middle Ages was also one of the most accomplished authors and poets – Geoffrey Chaucer. In fact, those historians who still maintain that the Dark Ages produced little to no significant contributions to humankind might do well to remember the works of Chaucer. In a lifetime that spanned some 60 years (from the 1340s until 1400), Chaucer earned the reputation as the “father of English literature.” However, that description only scratched the surface of Chaucer’s accomplishments. He was also a noted astronomer and philosopher, as well as a diplomat, bureaucrat and parliament member. Chaucer’s contributions to the language arts were no less significant; his use of Middle English (as opposed to Latin or French, which were the two most commonly used languages of the day) quite literally brought English into mainstream usage, as did his translations of numerous works from Italian, French and Latin into English.

It can truly be said that historians have given medieval times somewhat of a bad rap over the centuries. And while there’s no doubt that the accomplishments of linguists and others during the Middle Ages can’t come close to comparing with those of the Renaissance or later time periods, the contributions made during the “Dark Ages” should not be overlooked. In fact, from a linguistic point of view, this was an extremely crucial time. Not only were the basic principles of translation developed during the middle Ages, but also English itself began to take shape as a language of import for future years.

Studies on the theory and practice of medieval translation reveal therefore that the translation principles and the issues of translation theory in the Middle Ages derive from a long established tradition of translation theory developed by the classical authors. In practice, Roger Ellis states, medieval translation is heterogeneous; "every instance of practice that we may be tempted to erect into a principle has its answering opposite, sometimes in the same work (quoted in Evans, 1994: 27). Evidently, not only the critical approaches to translation in the Middle Ages but also theory and practice of translation of the period vary considerably. However, it seems that medieval translation utilises the translation and writing theories inherited from the classical authors to adopt a translational approach that recognises translation's vital role in the cultural transformation of the middle Ages. Page 96

This paper argues therefore that the medieval interest in translation can be considered as a cultural and political interest since the 1994. pp. 20-45. See Jeanette Beer, Medieval Translators and Their Craft.1989 and Roger Ellis (ed) assisted by Jocelyn Price, Stephen Medcalf and Peter Meredith. The Medieval Translator: The Theory and Practice of Translation in the Middle Ages: Papers Read at a Conference Held 20-23 August 1987 at the University of Wales Conference Centre, Gregynog //a//.Woodbridge, Suffolk: D.S. Brewer, 1989.

Rita Copeland, Rhetoric, Hermeneutics, and Translation in the Middle Ages: Academic Traditions and
Vernacular Texts. Cambridge, 1991. See particularly A. J. Minnis and A. B. Scots (eds) Medieval Literary
Theory and Criticism c.l 100-1375 The Commentary Tradition. Oxford, 1988.

Translations of the period are introduced as potential projects for cultural transformation. The formative role of translation in the middle Ages can be observed in medieval culture's awareness of the significance of cultural interaction. Medieval culture is a highly bookish culture, which contributed to the development of a vigorous translation activity in the Middle Ages. The recognition of the authority of the books seems to have led to the utilisation of the potential in translation for cultural education and transformation. As there was little or no difference between translation and original composition in the Middle Ages, translation was often considered in association with the pragmatic function of the book (Barratt, 1992:13-14).

In Geoffrey Chaucer's The Prologue to the Legend of Good Women, the fictional dialogue concerning the translations of the narrator provides an instructive interaction concerning translation activity as an integral part of cultural re-construction in the middle Ages.

The god of Love presents two works of Chaucer, the Troilus and Criseyde and the Romance of the Rose, as translations and questions the narrator's motives in choosing to translate works undermining the doctrine of Love (322-335). This fictional questioning introduces, in fact, the main attitude to translation in the middle Ages as it recognises the transformative role of translation on the target audience as an important issue the medieval translator recognises and aims at as the ultimate target of translation. Similarly, the narrator in Chaucer's Prologue to the Legend of Good Women argues that he wanted to teach the reader the true conduct in love through the experience of the lovers in the books he translated (471-474).

The translator in this fictional debate introduces the main objective of translation as making the works of foreign languages available to the linguistically disadvantaged audience for their cultural improvement. This rather pragmatic translational paradigm, moreover, introduces another important issue of medieval translation addressed by theoretical tradition of translation in the middle Ages. In fact, the translator accused of mistranslation in Chaucer's Prologue to the Legend of Good Women is also a writer, his accuser does not make a distinction between his role as a translator and his role as a writer.3 many of the medieval translators were also writers, and translation and interpretation were considered as important strategies in medieval composition. Moreover, most of the medieval translation activity from Latin into the vernacular involved a transfer of the past works into the vernacular by re-writing.
As Douglas Kelly argues, "such re-writing is 'translation' as literary invention, using pre-
existent source material. It is a variety of translation study « (1997: 48). Medieval reception of the translation theory of the classical antiquity as a principle governing creative activity led to a special sense of translation, that is, translation as "an 3 See the Prologue to the Legend of Good Women, lines 322-35 and 362-370. 97

".. And other bokes took me ...To reed upon ": Medieval Translation and Cultural Transformation 'unfaithful' yet artful interpretation or reinterpretation"(Kelly, 1997: 55), or "secondary translation" to put it in Copeland's words.

Identifying the important status of translation in the Middle Ages as a branch of writing reveals that the Middle Ages was not totally oblivious to the legacy of rhetorical and hermeneutic traditions of the classical antiquity. More importantly, it testifies to the significant function translation is given in the cultural transformation. As stated above, a theoretical understanding of translation in the middle Ages was largely dependent on the classical ideas of translation. Rita Copeland argues for the necessity of recognising the medieval awareness of the classical tradition as the strong theoretical foundation of Medieval translation.

3.1 Translation in middle Ages (The Philological Perspective)

Middle Ages epoch roughly represents the time between late fifth century and the fifteenth century A.D.in Europe. Middle Ages, however, continue until the advent of European Colonialism (about eighteenth century) in the 'Oriental' and African countries. With the spread of Christianity, translation takes a new role of disseminating the word of God. How to translate the divine words faithfully was a serious issue because of dogmatic and political concerns. “St. Jerome claims that he follows sense for sense approach rather than word for word approach when translating the New Testament in AD 384.”18 Since the aim of the divine text is to provide understanding and guidance, it seems logical to follow sense for sense approach. Thence, there is a possibility of intentional or unintentional change of meaning and the context; for these reasons, some scholars emphasize on the word for word translation approach. The first translation of the complete Bible into English was the Wycliffe Bible is which was produced between 1380 and 1384; “Wycliffe believes man should have direct contact with God and thus the Bible should be translated into language that man can understand, i.e. in the vernacular. Purvey believes translator should translate “after sentence (meaning),” not only after words. Martin Luther says, “... the meaning and subject matter must be considered, not the grammar, for the grammar should not rule over the meaning;”19 Criticism on sense for sense was widespread because it minimized the power of the church authorities, “while literal translation was bound up with the Bible and other religious and philosophical works, says Jeremy Monday; non-literal or non-accepted translation came to be seen and used as a weapon against the Church.”20“In the Western Europe this word-for-word versus sense-for-sense debate continued in one form or another until the twentieth century. The centrality of Bible to translation also explains the enduring theoretical questions about accuracy and fidelity to fixed source.”21 In the eighth and ninth century A.D., a large number of translations from Greek into Arabic gave rise to Arabic learning. “Scholars from Syria, a part of the Roman Empire (during 64B.C.-636A.D) came to Baghdad and translated Greek works of Physician Hippocrates (460-360 B.C.), philosophers Plato (427-327 B.C.) and Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) into Arabic during the eighth and ninth century A.D. Baghdad continued to be a centre of translations of Greek classics into Arabic even in the twentieth century A.D.”22 The dominance of religion is prominent in the Translation Era of Middle Ages. In this era, both the trends of Antiquity period can be seen in action, yet emphasis is again on the sense for sense approach.

3.2 Translation In the middle Ages between the 12th and the 15 centuries;

In the 12th and 13th centuries, the Toledo School of Translators (Escuela de Traductores de Toledo) became a meeting point for European scholars who — attracted by the high wages they were offered — came and settled down in Toledo, Spain, to translate major philosophical, religious, scientific and medical works from Arabic, Greek and Hebrew into Latin and Castilian. Toledo was a city of libraries offering a number of manuscripts, and one of the few places in medieval Europe where a Christian could be exposed to Arabic language and culture.

The Toledo School of Translators went through two distinct periods. Archbishop Raymond de Toledo, who advocated the translation of philosophical and religious works, led the first period (in the 12th century) mainly from classical Arabic into Latin. These Latin translations helped advance European Scholasticism, and thus European science and culture. King Alfonso X of Castile himself led the second period (in the 13th century). On top of philosophical and religious works, the scholars also translated scientific and medical works. Castilian — instead of Latin — became the final language, thus resulting in establishing the foundations of the modern Spanish language.

The translations of works on different sciences (astronomy, astrology, algebra, medicine) acted as a magnet for numerous scholars, who came from all over Europe to Toledo to learn first-hand about the contents of all those Arab, Greek and Hebrew works, before going back home to disseminate the acquired knowledge in European universities. While some Toledo translations of physical and cosmological works were accepted in most European universities in the early 1200s, the works of Aristotle and Arab philosophers were often banned, for example at the Sorbonne University in Paris.

Roger Bacon was a 13th-century English scholar heralded for his early exposition of a “universal grammar” (the concept that the ability to learn grammar is hard-wired into the brain). He was the first linguist to assess that a translator should know well both the source language and the target language to produce a good translation, and that the translator should be well versed in the discipline of the work he was translating. According to legend, after finding out that few translators did, Roger Bacon decided to do away with translation and translators altogether. However, his decision did not last long. He relied on many Toledo translations from Arabic into Latin to make major contributions in the fields of optics, astronomy, natural sciences, chemistry and mathematics.

Geoffrey Chaucer produced the first fine translations into English in the 14th century. Chaucer translated the “Roman de la Rose” from French, and Boethius’s works from Latin. He also adapted some works of the Italian humanist Giovanni Boccaccio to produce his own “Knight’s Tale” and “Troilus and Criseyde” (c.1385) in English. Chaucer is regarded as the founder of an English poetic tradition based on translations and adaptations of literary works in languages that were more “established” than English was at the time, beginning with Latin and Italian. The finest religious translation of that time was the “Wycliffe’s Bible” (1382-84), named after John Wycliffe, an English theologian who translated the Bible from Latin to English.

In the 15th century : Byzantine scholar Gemistus Pletho’s trip to Florence, Italy, pioneered the revival of Greek learning in Western Europe. Gemistus Pletho reintroduced Plato’s thought during the 1438-39 Council of Florence, in a failed attempt to reconcile the East-West schism (a 11th-century schism between the Eastern Orthodox and Catholic churches). During this Council, Pletho met Cosimo de Medici, the politician ruling Florence and a great patron of learning and the arts, and influenced him to found a Platonic Academy. Led by the Italian scholar and translator Marsilio Ficino, the Platonic Academy took over the translation into Latin of all Plato’s works, the “Enneads” of Plotinus and other Neo-Platonist works. Marsilio Ficino’s work — and Erasmus’ Latin edition of the New Testament — led to a new attitude to translation. For the first time, readers demanded rigor of rendering, as philosophical and religious beliefs depended on the exact words of Plato and Jesus (and Aristotle and others).

The great age of English prose translation began in the late 15th century with Thomas Malory’s “Le Morte d’Arthur” (1485), a free translation/adaptation of Arthurian romances about the legendary King Arthur, as well as Guinevere, Lancelot, Merlin and the Knights of the Round Table. Thomas Malory “interpreted” existing French and English stories about these figures while adding original material, e.g. the “Gareth” story about one of the Knights of the Round Table.4

== An Overview of Bible Translations in The Middle Ages==
The most significant turn in the history of translation came with the Bible translations. The efforts of translating the Bible from its original languages into over 2,000 others have spanned more than two millennia. Partial translation of the Bible into languages of English people can be stressed back to the end of the seventh century, including translations into Old English and Middle English. Over 450 versions have been created overtime.
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Bible translations in the Middle Ages discussions are in contrast to Late Antiquity, when the Bibles available to most Christians were in the local vernacular. In a process seen in many other religions, as languages changed, and in Western Europe, languages with no tradition of being written down became dominant, the prevailing vernacular translations remained in place, despite gradually becoming sacred languages, incomprehensible to the majority of the population in many places. In Western Europe, the Latin Vulgate, itself originally a translation into the vernacular, was the standard text of the Bible, and full or partial translations into a vernacular language were uncommon until the Late Middle Ages and the Early Modern Period. A page from the luxury illuminated manuscript Wenceslas Bible, a German translation of the 1390s.[1] From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia

During the Migration Period Christianity spread to various peoples who had not been part of the old Roman Empire, and whose languages had yet no written form, or only a very simple one, like runes. Typically, the Church itself was the first to attempt to capture these languages in written form, and Bible translations are often the oldest surviving texts in these newly written-down languages. Meanwhile, Latin was evolving into new distinct regional forms, the early versions of the Romance languages, for which new translations eventually became necessary. However, the Vulgate remained the authoritative text, used universally in the West for scholarship and the liturgy since the early development of the Romance languages had not come to full fruition, matching its continued use for other purposes such as religious literature and most secular books and documents. In the early middle Ages, anyone who could read at all could often read Latin, even in Anglo-Saxon England, where writing in the vernacular (Old English) was more common than elsewhere. A number of pre-reformation Old English Bible translations survive, as do many instances of glosses in the vernacular, especially in the Gospels and the Psalms.[4] Over time, biblical translations and adaptations were produced both within and outside the church, some as personal copies for religious or lay nobility, and others for liturgical or pedagogical purposes.[5][6] From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia

The Bible was translated into various languages in late antiquity; the most important of these translations are those in the Syriac dialect of Aramaic (including the Peshitta and the Diatessaron gospel harmony), the Ge'ez language of Ethiopia, and, in Western Europe, Latin. The earliest Latin translations are collectively known as the Vetus Latina, but in the late fourth century, Jerome re-translated the Hebrew and Greek texts into the normal vernacular Latin of his day, in a version known as the Vulgate (Biblia vulgata) (meaning "common version", in the sense of "popular"). Jerome's translation gradually replaced most of the older Latin texts, and gradually ceased to be a vernacular version as the Latin language developed and divided. The earliest surviving complete manuscript of the entire Latin Bible is the Codex Amiatinus, produced in eighth century England at the double monastery of Wearmouth-Jarrow. By the end of late, antiquity the Bible was therefore available and used in all the major written languages then spoken by Christians. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia

== Conclusion ==
The history of translation studies and the resurgence and genesis of the approaches to this emerging discipline was marked by the first century (BCE) commentator Cicero and then St. Jerome whose word-for-word and sense-for-sense approaches to translation was a springboard for other approaches and trends to thrive. From the medieval ages until now, each decade was marked by a dominant concept such as translatability, equivalence etc. Whilst before the twentieth century translation was an element of language learning, the study of the field developed into an academic discipline only in the second half of the twentieth century, when this field achieved a certain institutional authority and developed as a distinct discipline. As this discipline moved towards the present, the level of sophistication and inventiveness did in fact soared and new concepts, methods, and research projects were developed which interacted with this discipline. The brief review here, albeit incomplete, reflects the current fragmentation of the field into subspecialties, some empirically oriented, some hermeneutic and literary and some influenced by various forms of linguistics and cultural studies which have culminated in productive syntheses. In short, translation studies is now a field which brings together approaches from a wide language and cultural studies, that for its own use, modifies them and develops new models specific to its own requirements.
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== References ==

1 - https//www.tandfonline.com//

2- Susan * Assist. Prof. Dr., Hacettepe University, Department of English Language and Literature
1 The problematic situation of Medieval translation in the academia is discussed by Ruth Evans in "Translating
Past Cultures?" in The Medieval Translator /Vied. Roger Ellis and Ruth Evans, the University of Exeter Press,
Medieval Translation and Cultural Transformation .

3- Barnstone Willis. The Poetics of Translation: History, Theory and Practice. London: Yale University Press, 1993. Print. Bassnett, Susan and Lefevere, Andre (Eds.). Translation, History and Culture. London: Pinter, 1990. Print.
4-Early history of translation .By Marouane Zakhir English translator University of Soultan Moulay Slimane, Morocco
5- -Wikipedia .org/wiki/
6- This article is about medieval Europe. For a global history of the period between the 5th and 15th centuries, see Post-classical history. For other uses, see middle Ages (disambiguation) "Medieval times" redirects here. For the dinner theatre, see Medieval Times
7- the 1994. pp. 20-45. See Jeanette Beer, Medieval Translators and Their Craft.1989 and Roger Ellis
(ed) assisted by Jocelyn Price, Stephen Medcalf and Peter Meredith. The Medieval Translator: The Theory
and Practice of Translation in the Middle Ages: Papers Read at a Conference Held 20-23 August 1987 at
the University of Wales Conference Centre, Gregynog //a//.Woodbridge, Suffolk: D.S. Brewer, 1989.
^ Rita Copeland, Rhetoric, Hermeneutics, and Translation in the Middle Ages: Academic Traditions and
Vernacular Texts. Cambridge, 1991. See particularly A. J. Minnis and A. B. Scots (eds) Medieval Literary
Theory and Criticism c.l 100-1375 The Commentary Tradition. Oxford, 1988.

8-- Prologue to the Legend of Good Women, lines 322-35 and 362-370. 97 ".. And other bokes took me ...To reed upon ": Medieval Translation and Cultural Transformation 'unfaithful' yet artful interpretation or reinterpretation"(Kelly, 1997: 55), or "secondary translation" to put it in Copeland's words.

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10 - A page from the luxury illuminated manuscript Wenceslas Bible, a German translation of the 1390s.[1] From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia

11 - From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia

12- SSN 1799-2591 Theory and Practice in Language Studies, Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 77-85, January 2012 © 2012 ACADEMY PUBLISHER Manufactured in Finland. doi:10.4304/tpls.2.1.77-85

=李习长 History of Modern and Contemporary Chinese Translation=
“中国现当代翻译史”
Li Xichang, 李习长, Hunan Normal University, China
== Abstract==
The development of Chinese translation has a long history. Throughout the whole translation history, Chinese translation can be divided into four stages from the origin of translation, that is, the introduction of Buddhist scripture translation. They are ancient translation history, modern translation history, modern translation history and contemporary translation history. This paper will mainly summarize the modern and contemporary translation history, mainly from the three dimensions of translation history, theory and the representatives of translators in each period. In the contemporary era of rapid development, only when translation researchers have a clear understanding of translation history can they make outstanding contributions to the rapid development of translation.

== Key words==
translation history, representatives, modern, contemporary

== Introduction==
The fourth translation climax from the May 4th movement to the founding of new China has formed a unique translation theory system in China through the exploration and practice of countless predecessors. This stage is an extremely important period in China's translation history. It is a period of unprecedented development and magnificent development of translation cause. It is also a period of great development and debate of Chinese translation theory.
As the beginning of modern Chinese translation, the May 4th Movement gave birth to a group of outstanding translators, who mostly took literature as the theme, so the literary translation of this period reached the most brilliant moment in history. After the founding of new China, the history of Chinese translation has entered the contemporary period. The proletarian culture in this period is the most outstanding. Translators focus on political literature and literary translation, and focus on foreign translation, so that the west can understand Chinese culture and expand their horizons.

== History of Modern Chinese Translation ==
During this period, driven by the new culture movement and the May 4th movement, the new literature movement was in full swing, giving birth to many literary schools and literary associations, as well as translation ideas representing different literary positions. The role of translation in serving society, politics and the people was becoming more and more obvious. This period gave birth to many famous translators, such as Lu Xun, Yan Fu, Lin Shu and so on. Their emergence enriched the translation content of this period.

2.1 Lu Xun's translation thoughts
In 1919, with the rise of the May 4th New Culture Movement, many translators tried to absorb nutrition from foreign literature in order to achieve the purpose of transforming literature and society. Lu Xun is one of them. Lu Xun chose the road of literature out of the consideration of national crisis. He hoped that translation could arouse people's revolutionary enthusiasm, promote new literature and transform old literature.

In the 33 years from 1903 to 1936, Lu Xun's translation activities can be divided into three periods: early, middle and late. Lu Xun's early translation activities focused on the translation and introduction of scientific novels and political novels, mainly free translation, and the translation was mostly deleted and modified. With the change of translation thought, Lu Xun's translation activities gradually turned to the introduction of literary works of weak and small countries, and the translation strategy gradually changed from free translation to literal translation. In the later stage, Lu Xun focused on translating and introducing foreign revolutionary literary works and introducing foreign literary thoughts and policies to the Chinese people, and his literal translation and even "hard translation" translation strategy was further consolidated.

2.1.1 Lu Xun's early translation thoughts
In 1903, Lu Xun published the work sad dust by Victor Hugo, a French writer, which is considered to be the beginning of Lu Xun's translation career. In October 1903, Lu Xun translated Jules Verne's scientific novel "journey to the moon", and also translated "underground travel" in the same year. Subsequently, Lu Xun translated the world history, the scientific fantasy novel Arctic adventure and the two chapters of the theory of world evolution and the principle of element cycle in the new interpretation of physics. Unfortunately, these translations were not published or preserved. In the spring of 1905, Lu Xun translated the American Louis tolen's scientific fantasy novel "the art of making man", which was published in the fourth and fifth issues of women's world in Shanghai. A careful analysis of these works translated by Lu Xun shows that Lu Xun's translation materials in this period mainly include political novels and science fiction. In 1907, Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren jointly translated the novel "lost history of the Red Star", which should be originally named "desire of the world", which was co authored by haggard and Andrew LAN. This book was mainly translated by Zhou Zuoren. Lu Xun translated 16 poems, which were published by the Shanghai Commercial Press in December.

In short, Lu Xun's early translation was deeply influenced by the famous Yan Fu and Lin Shu at that time. However, without the early imitation translation, there will be no outstanding translation achievements in the future.

2.1.2 Lu Xun's mid-term translation thoughts
From 1909 to 1926, Lu Xun's translation thought gradually matured. The translation and introduction of foreign literature in many fields, levels, schools and channels is a major feature of Lu Xun's translation activities in this period.

In 1909, the collection of foreign novels was published. The translation was completed by Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren. The position of the collection of foreign novels in the history of Chinese translation and modern Chinese literature can not be ignored. It is a milestone translation event, which has a far-reaching impact on China's later literary creation and translation.

In 1919, Lu Xun translated the dream of a young man, during which his thought also changed deeply and complex. In 1920, with the help and support of Qi Shoushan, Lu Xun translated the worker Sui huiluefu. He began to cry out for the profound problem of "national character" and vigorously revealed it in his works, so as to attract people's attention and achieve the purpose of rescue. This kind of grief and anger that hates iron but does not become steel is in line with the ideal of the author alzhiba Suifu. During this period, Lu Xun paid more attention to Japanese literature and translated and introduced the collection of modern Japanese novels. In this collection, Lu Xun has translated 11 works of six people, including hanging scroll by his favorite writer Natsume Soseki, Mr. kleika, game by Mori ouwai and the tower of silence, with the young man by takero shimajima of the white birch school, the death of ah Mo, the last of Sanpu youweimen by Kikuchi Kuan of the new trend of thought, words of revenge and Ryunosuke Akutagawa Nose, Luo Shengmen, and night in the canyon by Jiangkou Huan are the works of famous masters of various schools in the Meiji era.

Lu Xun selected a wide variety of translation materials during this period, which created a precedent for translating and introducing the literature of "weak and small countries" to Chinese readers. In terms of translation style, he still adopted simple classical Chinese, but he has begun to use "alienation" At that time, Lu Xun's literary creation was closely accompanied by literary translation, and his literary creation was deeply inspired and influenced by literary translation.

2.1.3 Lu Xun's later translation thoughts
After 1927, Lu Xun ushered in the most brilliant period of his life. Whether in literary translation practice or literary translation theory, Lu Xun's achievements are the most prominent stage.

Lu Xun translated and introduced four works of literary theory of the former Soviet Union: 1. Lunacharski's work on art, which was translated in April 1929 and published by Shanghai Dajiang bookstore in June; 2. Lunacharski's collection of literary papers, literature and criticism, which was first published by Shanghai Shuimo bookstore in October, has six main texts On the task of Marxist literary criticism, the death of Tolstoy and young Europa, today's art and tomorrow's art, Soviet state and art, how art happens, Tolstoy and max; 3. In June 1929, Lu Xun spent four months translating Plekhanov's Marxist theory of Art (also known as art theory) In July, 1930, the first edition was published by Shanghai Guanghua book company; in April, 1929, the resolution of the Soviet government on the Communist Party's literary and artistic policy and the relevant meeting minutes, Soviet Russian literary and artistic policy (also known as literary and artistic Policy), the first edition was published by Shanghai Shuimo bookstore in June, 1930. In addition, Lu Xun also participated in the compilation of the small series of literary and artistic theories and the series of scientific theories of art.

During this period, Lu Xun's translations were different from the martial works of the first period and the works of resistance and cry of weak countries in Eastern Europe in the mid-term, but more focused on the translation of literary policies and artistic works. From literary revolution to revolutionary literature, it was precisely because of these debates that Lu Xun really firmly turned to the translation and introduction of revolutionary literary works. At the same time, through his own understanding of Soviet Russian literature The translation and understanding of theoretical works word by word, coupled with his personal experience of the revolution of 1911, Yuan Shikai becoming emperor and the second revolution, Lu Xun's thinking and insight on revolution, literature and art and life are more profound.

Lu Xun's translation thought is formed through continuous reflection and exploration. Dominated by the fundamental purpose of ideological enlightenment and political salvation, Lu Xun began his translation process. His choice of translated texts reflects his sense of social responsibility as a translator and his special pursuit of cultural values.
Lu Xun's translation emphasizes literal translation, focusing on "faith" and "better believe than smooth". He advocates hard translation and maintains the "foreign style" and "exotic" of the translation , for Lu Xun at that time, literal translation was not only a problem of translation and language construction, but also meant the construction of ideas and ideas, the introduction of new ideas and ideas, and the transformation of Chinese values and world outlook.

Lu Xun's choice caused an uproar in the intellectual circles at that time. Liang Shiqiu, a famous scholar at that time, also sarcastically said that he was "dead translation" and "hard translation". Lu Xun's articles sometimes read sentence patterns, and even the order of sentences is rarely reversed.

2.2 On Yan Fu's translation style
Yan Fu is one of the outstanding translators in modern China. His translation theory of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" has experienced the test of history and practice, and plays an important role in the history of Chinese translation.

2.2.1 Imitating the language structure of the pre Qin Dynasty
Yan Fu tried his best to use the pre-Qin morphology and syntax in his translation. In addition to imitation, the ready-made sentences of various schools of thought will also be borrowed by him as a part of the translation.

Yan Fu tried his best to imitate the morphology and syntax of the Pre-Qin Dynasty in western translation. An important feature of the pre-Qin Chinese morphology is the flexible use of parts of speech. According to his understanding and Research on the polysemy of a word in the pre-Qin classical Chinese, it is found that it can be extended at will. Therefore, in his translation language, the use of the characteristics of the pre-Qin morphology has made many parts of speech flexible use successful Application.

Another feature of Yan Fu's translated language is that some phrases have evolved through sentences. If you remove the "Zhi" in such phrases, you will find that the sentences will be complete. Yan Fu also imitated the language of the Pre-Qin Dynasty and used parallelism and dual sentences many times. The "four books and Five Classics" of the Pre-Qin Dynasty There are many parallelism and antithesis sentences in his translation. He uses parallelism and antithesis sentences in his translation. For example, "it's easy to work for the actual measurement of the other, but it's difficult to work for the pursuit of this." (four words of group studies · criticism of fools first) Yan Fu's parallelism and antithesis sentences did not continue the Han Dynasty, which only paid attention to the beauty of form and ignored the form of parallel prose with ideological content, but imitated the sentences of the Pre-Qin Dynasty. According to the needs of reaching the purpose, they were naturally paired without any trace of carving.

2.2.2 Deeply influenced by Buddhist scriptures and historical records
Yan Fu has always respected the Buddhist sutra translator kumarosh. In Tianyan Lun · examples of translation, he respected kumarosh as "master Shi". Therefore, kumarosh also had a great impact on Yan Fu. Yan Fu's translation language also imitated the historical records There are a large number of case language in the translation of the stylistic model of Yan Fu. Case language refers to the explanation and textual research made by the writer on the content of the article. The case language of Yan Fu's various translations totals about 170000 words, accounting for one tenth of the whole text of his translation. Yan Fu expresses his views and attitudes in the comments through a large number of case language, interpretation and analysis, so as to achieve his purpose of publicity and enlightenment.

2.2.3 Inheriting the "elegant and clean" characteristics of Tongcheng school's ancient prose
Tongcheng school is the mainstream prose school in Yan Fu's life era. Yan Fu is deeply influenced by it. Tongcheng school advocates elegant and clean style. The proposal of "elegant and clean" theory has created a simple, strict and elegant style, which is deeply respected by Yan Fu. Tongcheng school calls it "elegant and clean", which refers to "standardization and purity of language", "concise and concise materials and concise style", "Simplicity and natural brilliance of style". The words "elegance" and "cleanliness" can also be seen in Yan Fu's translation remarks. Yan Fu's proposal of "elegance" as a part of the translation standard is largely influenced by the "elegance" proposition of Tongcheng sages.

In short, Yan Fu's translated language adheres to the "elegant" style of Tongcheng ancient prose. Its translation is civilized, with elegant morphology and syntax, short and concise sentences, concise and fresh between the lines. It reads cadently, catchy and delicious.

==History of contemporary Chinese translation==
After the founding of new China, China's translation industry flourished rapidly. The practice of Chinese translation and foreign translation organized by the government was in full swing. There were a large number of excellent translators active on the cultural front, such as Yang Xianyi, Fu Lei, Qian Zhongshu, ye Junjian, Xu Yuanchong and Yang Bi. They not only had rich translation practice, but also had solid theoretical knowledge, It has made great contributions to the cultural construction of new China and promoted the all-round development of socialist economy, politics and culture.

3.1 Xu Yuanchong's translation thoughts
Professor Xu Yuanchong of Peking University is a famous translation theorist in China and the only expert in English French rhyme translation of Chinese poetry. He was nominated as a candidate for the Nobel Prize for literature in 1999, won the lifelong achievement award of translation culture of China Translation Association in 2010, and became the first "northern lights" of the International Federation of translators in 2014 The Asian translator of the outstanding literary translation award was also rated as the person of the year of "light of China" in 2015. Xu Yuanchong has worked tirelessly in the field of translation theory and practice all his life with indomitable and excellence craftsman spirit, and has put forward several important translation ideas and theories.

3.1.1 Translation practicality and practicability
The "practical function" of translation is reflected in that translation theory and translation research are always closely related to social reality and its development. They have obvious characteristics of the times, reflect the social and humanistic characteristics of the time, and express the humanistic spirit and cultural requirements of the times. Xu Yuanchong's translation theory and Practice deeply reflect the "practical function" He proposed that the philosophical basis for the creation of Chinese school literary translation theory is that practical theory comes from practice and is tested by practice. Practice is the only standard for testing truth.

3.1.2 Inheritance and innovation of translation
Xu Yuanchong innovated on the basis of inheriting Chinese traditional philosophy and aesthetics, put forward new ideas that conform to the development of the times, and put these ideas into translation practice to test and revise them repeatedly, so as to form a new translation theory. Therefore, inheritance and innovation are another important feature of Xu Yuanchong's Translation theory. Xu Yuanchong's combining the Chinese classical philosophy and the aesthetic thought is summarized as "the literary translation theory of the Chinese school, which gives them significance in the context of the new era, innovates theory in inheriting tradition and carries forward Chinese culture in theoretical innovation.

3.1.3 Translation foresight and Vanguard
As early as the early 1980s, when domestic translation studies were still focusing on the summary of translation practice and thinking about the level of translation language, Xu Yuanchong pointed out prospectively that the responsibility of Chinese translators and the mission of translation were to instill part of the blood of foreign culture into Chinese culture and part of the blood of Chinese culture into world culture. Xu Yuanchong regarded Chinese translation theory as "a cultural dream of China" to "enter the advanced ranks of world culture and make the development of world culture more brilliant". It points out the tasks and missions of cultural translators in the new era, and this is the best interpretation and response of “Chinese Dream” proposed by the chairman Xi given by the older generation of translationg wokers.

Xu Yuanchong's criterion for translating Chinese poetry is the "Three Beauties" theory put forward by himself, that is, he believes that the translated poetry should pay attention to the "Three Beauties", namely the beauty of meaning, sound and form. The basis of three beauties is three similarities: meaning similarity, sound similarity and shape similarity.

Iconicity is to convey the content of the original text, and can not be misinterpreted, omitted or translated more, but iconicity does not necessarily convey the beauty of the original text. To convey the beauty of meaning, we can choose wonderful words that are similar to the original meaning, borrow the words loved by British and American poets, and express the beauty of meaning of the original text with the help of sound beauty and shape beauty. Phonological beauty means that poetry should have rhythm, rhyme, smooth and pleasant to hear. Translators can choose rhymes similar to the original with the help of the metrical rules loved by British and American poets, and can also express phonological beauty with the help of double tone, rhyme, repetition, antithesis and other methods. However, the transmission of sound beauty is often difficult to achieve, and it is not even necessary to achieve sound similarity. The beauty of form mainly has two aspects: neat antithesis and the length of sentences. It is best to be similar in shape, or at least be generally neat. Among the three beauties, the beauty of meaning is the first, the beauty of sound is the second, and the beauty of form is the third. On the premise of conveying the beauty of the original meaning, the translator should convey the beauty of sound as much as possible, and on this basis, he should convey the beauty of form as much as possible, and strive to achieve the three beauties. If you can't do it, first of all, you can not require shape similarity or sound similarity, but in any case, you should convey the beauty of meaning and sound of the original text as much as possible.

3.2 Qian Zhongshu's translation thoughts
Qian Zhongshu, born in Wuxi, Jiangsu Province, is a famous modern Chinese writer, literary researcher and translator. He has an in-depth study of translation theory and loves the cause of translation. Mr. Qian Zhongshu is known as the "cultural Kunlun", which shows his profound knowledge. Mr. Qian has covered a wide range, including philosophy, anthropology, psychology, aesthetics, history and linguistics. Qian Zhongshu graduated from the Foreign Language Department of Tsinghua University, but he has been engaged in the study of Chinese literature for a long time. Representative works include Tan Yi Lu and Guan Zhi Bian, both of which are created in classical Chinese. In addition, there are selected notes of Song poetry. This work interprets the poetry of the Song Dynasty from a new perspective. In his works, many famous words and sentences of Chinese and Western scholars are usually quoted, and the corresponding foreign original texts are attached.

In Lin Shu's translation, Qian Zhongshu pointed out: "the highest standard of literary translation is'localization '. Transforming works from one country's language into another country's language can not reveal the traces of hard thinking due to differences in language habits, but also completely preserve the original flavor, which can be regarded as' realm of change." The core of 'realm of change' is localization, There are two kinds of translation: one is the realization of the highest ideal in literary translation, which is the goal pursued by a large number of translators represented by Qian Zhongshu; The second is the incomplete "assimilation". That is, the translator's translation practice.

However, Qian Zhongshu's "Huajing" theory has been misunderstood by many scholars for many years. Qian Zhongshu once pointed out that the translation should be faithful to the original, so that the translation does not read like the translation. In other words, the work will never read like what has been translated. This attitude makes many scholars think that the "transformation" of Qian Zhongshu's "realm" is actually equivalent to "faith". However, according to Qian Zhongshu, "Hua" and "faith" cannot be equated, but "Hua" is based on "faith" to achieve the goal of "beauty". In other words, "Hua" is a further accomplishment of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", and a transcendence of translation skills.

In his 1963 translation of Lin Shu, Qian Zhongshu wrote: "(incarnation) translation is compared with the reincarnation of the original work, the body changes, and the soul remains the same. In other words, the translation should be faithful to the original work, but it does not read like the translation, because the work will never read like the translation in the original text". Mr. Qian's lifelong commitment to "modernization" has roughly two meanings. First, the translation should change its form and conform to the grammatical rules of the target language. According to Xunzi's definition, translation is a process of change. In this process, some things will flow away, but sometimes we have to do so in order to make the translated results coherent and authentic. Qian Zhongshu also said that "there is always distortion and distortion in the translation". Therefore, the translation of "Huajing" is a departure from the mechanical literal translation in the past. It is better to "lose this" than to "change". The second is that "complete and complete 'transformation' is an impossible ideal". As the - first point says, "Hua" is an elusive and flexible concept. In other words, the translator can create the "realm" according to the habits of the original text and the target language, and translate the so-called perfect translation.

In his article "Lin Shu's translation", Qian Zhongshu put forward the circle of ancient Chinese characters, "Wai, translation also. From the" mouth "and" sound ", those who lead birds have been called" Yang "since the birth of birds". Using the meaning of this Chinese character, Qian Zhongshu summed up that translation should lead to "inducement", avoid "error" and seek "transformation". Qian Zhongshu regards "transformation" as the highest ideal of translation.

First, the reasons for the emergence of "error" and analyze the manifestations of "error". With regard to "e", Ji Jin wrote in his monograph Qian Zhongshu and modern Western Learning: "there are always distortions and distortions in the translation, which violate or do not fit the original text in meaning or tone. That is" e "(9175). The causes of" e "are caused by many factors. Qian Zhongshu, combined with his translation practice for many years, summarizes two reasons:

First of all, there are differences in characters between countries. In particular, China's character system is completely different from European languages. Newmark once said that the inevitable loss of capital comes from the differences between the two languages, both in terms of characteristics (Language) and social variants (Language) In terms of context, there are different lexical, grammatical and phonological differences. It is also different for many objects and abstract concepts. 1017. Translation is a process of transforming words with defects. Qian Zhongshu's goal is to "get through" and "be inseparable" It is also an impossible translation standard.

As like as two peas, there is a certain difference between the translator's own ability and his original work. What's wrong with the production is also hard to avoid. Because the translator (subject to his own cultural level and his own experience) can not understand the original works exactly as the author did at that time, it's easy to understand why many books (including classic books). It has been translated several times.

Second, the necessity of "inducement" and the analysis of its manifestation
Translation is a bridge connecting the cultural and cultural exchanges between the two countries. The function of "SEDUCTION" is to seduce, which is vividly compared to "matchmaker". Goethe once compared translation to "obscene professional matchmaker". This "matchmaker" acquaints and attracts people from different language backgrounds.

Qian Zhongshu said, "I increased my interest in learning foreign languages by reading Lin Shu's translation" [7] 500. It can be seen that Lin Shu's translation is
After the May 4th movement, Chinese modern and contemporary writers, such as Lu Xun, Zhu Ziqing and Mao Dun, all mentioned the guidance and influence of Lin Shu's translation on them. The climax of translation also drives social development and broadens the horizons of Chinese people, which is the necessity of "inducement".

== Modern and contemporary Chinese translation history from the perspective of social translatology ==
Social translatology originated in the West. In 1972, James Holmes, a Dutch American scholar, published the name and nature of translation studies. When discussing function oriented descriptive translation studies (DTS), he stressed that once the emergence and influence of the translated text in when, where, under what circumstances have become the academic focus, he has entered the field of studying translation activities from the perspective of sociology. Holmes further pointed out that emphasizing the important role of translation in social culture means the birth of the concept of translation sociology, or more accurately, social translation studies.

Sociology mainly focuses on the interactive relationship between agent structures, and practice is the intermediary between the two. Accordingly, social translatology focuses on the interactive relationship between the translator's actors and the social structure, and translation practice is the intermediary between the two. This chapter mainly discusses the history of modern and contemporary Chinese translation from the perspective of social translatology.

4.1 Modern Chinese translation history from the perspective of social translatology
During this period, the Communist Party of China was born, the Communist Manifesto was widely translated and spread, and the socialist thought was introduced into China and gradually rooted in the hearts of the people. The Chinese left-wing writers represented by Lu Xun do not hesitate to advocate "hard translation", mainly to convey the proletarian revolutionary theory, advocate humanism and promote the revolutionary theory, hoping to lay the foundation for the proletarian revolutionary literature through translation. At that time, a large number of excellent foreign literary works and literary theories, especially the literary works of the invaded weak and small nationalities, as well as some revolutionary theory works translated by Lu Xun, were translated into China. Through translation activities, the translator's social recognition is improved, the treasure house of Chinese literature is enriched, and it also provides a powerful ideological weapon for the proletarian revolution.

4.2 contemporary Chinese translation history from the perspective of social translatology
After the founding of new China, China's translation industry flourished. During this period, excellent translators such as Fu Lei, Qian Zhongshu and Xu Yuanchong produced a large number of translation works, which made great contributions to the cultural construction of new China.

As the dividing line of modern and contemporary Chinese translation history, the social background before and after the "Cultural Revolution" is very different. Since the general tone of the whole society is to wait for prosperity and start from scratch, the social function of translation practice is mainly to learn from socialist countries, and pay attention to the introduction of Marxist Leninist works to serve the country's political, economic and cultural construction. Mao Zedong, Zhou Enlai and other revolutionaries of the older generation attach great importance to translation, actively promote the compilation of Marxist Leninist classics and the introduction of foreign excellent literary works, advocate the guiding position of dialectical materialism and historical materialism in translation, and pay attention to the use of philosophical methodology to analyze problems. After the "Cultural Revolution", China soon entered the period of reform and opening up. With the rapid economic development, the translation industry also flourished, making great contributions to China's political, economic and cultural construction.

== Conclusion==
This paper mainly introduces the translation thoughts of famous translators Lu Xun, Yan Fu and Xu Yuanchong to reflect the development characteristics of modern and contemporary translation history in China. It can be seen that the thoughts of translators of various generations have their own advantages and have played a great leading role in the development of translation theory and practice in various periods, At the same time, the theory of output in these periods can be used for reference and learning for future translation learners, and has a far-reaching impact.

China's translation history has a history of more than 2000 years. We should sum up experience from the cultural heritage accumulated in 2000 years, develop our translation cause, and introduce more and better foreign scientific, technological and cultural achievements Accelerate the pace of China's construction. At the same time, we should also introduce China's excellent culture to the world with the help of translation, so that China can go to the world and the world can understand China.

== References==
[1] Jiang Zhigang, Zhan Yajie. Chinese translation history from the perspective of social translatology [J]. National translation, 2021 (04): 88-96
[2] Wang Yamin. Research on Yan Fu's translation style and strategy [J]. Journal of Civil Aviation Flight College of China, 2018,29 (01): 55-58
[3] Gan Lu, Luo Xianfeng. Three dimensions of the evolution of Lu Xun's translation thought [J]. Shanghai translation, 2019 (05): 78-83 + 95
[4] Jiang Yan. Xu Yuanchong. Characteristics of translation theory and practice [J]. Journal of Lanzhou Institute of technology, 2021,28 (02): 119-123
[5] Wang linli. Four translation climaxes in Chinese history and the development of Chinese translation theory [J]. Journal of insurance vocational college, 2007 (05): 94-96
[6] Jiang Zhigang, Zhan Yajie. Chinese translation history from the perspective of social translatology [J]. National translation, 2021 (04): 88-96. Doi: 10.13742/j.cnki.cn11-5684/h.2021.04.011

Written by- Li Xichang

=黄柱梁 The Translation of Buddihist Sutra in Chinese Translation History=
== Abstract==
'''Abstract:''' the translation of Buddhist Sutra is a major event in the history of Chinese translation. The introduction of Buddhism and the translation of Buddhist Sutra have not only had a great impact on ancient Chinese society, but also promoted the cultural exchange between China and India. Firstly, starting from the history of Buddhist Sutra Translation in China, this paper focuses on the contributions of several famous translators to Buddhist Sutra translation; Then it analyzes the “translation field” of Buddhist scripture translation; Finally, it analyzes the impact of Buddhist Sutra translation on Chinese culture and cultural exchanges.

== Key words==
'''Key words:''' Buddhist Sutra translation, “translation field”, cultural exchange

== Introduction==
'''I. Introduction'''
Buddhism is one of the three major religions in the world. It was founded by Sakyamuni in ancient India in the 6th century BC. Soon after the establishment of Buddhism, it began to spread abroad. With its spread, some Buddhist ideas and works also spread abroad. Buddhist Sutra is the abbreviation of “Buddhist Classics”. Buddhist Classics: collectively; Tibetan Sutra, commonly known as; Buddhist Sutra, also known as the Da Zang Sutra, is generally composed of Sutra, Law and Theory. “Sutra” refers to the Dharma script personally said by Sakyamuni and integrated by his disciples, “Law” refers to the commandments formulated by the Buddha for his disciples, and “Theory” refers to the experience gained by the disciples of the Buddha after learning the Sutra. For Buddhists, the status of Buddhist scriptures is equivalent to the influence of the Bible on Christians. In China, Buddhism was introduced from the Silk Road at the end of the Western Han Dynasty. With the introduction of Buddhism, Buddhist scripture translation activities also began. According to the data cited in Pei Songzhi's note in the annals of the Three Kingdoms, “in the first year of emperor AI's Yuanshou's life in the past Han Dynasty, the doctor's disciple Jinglu was dictated the Sutra of the floating slaughter by Yicun, the envoy of King Dayue.” in the first year of emperor AI's Yuanshou's life in the Han Dynasty, that is, in 2 BC, that is, China began the translation of Buddhist scriptures more than 2000 years ago. Liang Qichao cited the general record of magic weapon exploration in the Yuan Dynasty to record that from the tenth year of Yongping in the later Han Dynasty (AD 67) to the Song Dynasty, the translation only lasted until the early year of Zhenghe (AD 1111), 194 translators participated in the translation of Buddhist scriptures, 1335 scriptures and 5396 volumes. There are 3673 Tibetan sutras and continued Tibetan sutras carved in Japan, including 15682 volumes, excluding those added to the Dazheng Tibetan Sutra, and 150 volumes of the complete book of Buddhism in Japan. Hu Shi believes that there are more than 3000 Buddhist scriptures and more than 15000 volumes preserved, including the annotations and commentaries made by the Chinese people. When Buddhism first entered China, it was incompatible with Confucianism. In order to cater to China's Confucianism and Taoism culture, the word “Buddhism and Taoism” was used in the translation of Buddhism. In the Eastern Han Dynasty, Buddhism spread by relying on the Taoism popular in China at that time. During the Three Kingdoms period in the late Han Dynasty, Buddhism began to attach itself to metaphysics. From the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the southern and Northern Dynasties, the translation of Buddhist scriptures changed from individual translation to collective translation, from private translation to official translation, and there was a translation field organization. In the Wei and Jin Dynasties, Buddhism, metaphysics and Neo Confucianism were complementary and integrated with each other. The Sui Dynasty to the middle of the Tang Dynasty was the heyday of Buddhist scripture translation. During this period, kumarosh, Zhendi, Xuanzang and Bukong were known as the “four translators”. Buddhism in the Tang Dynasty has developed into Chinese Buddhism. After the late Tang Dynasty, Buddhism gradually declined in India, and there were no large-scale Buddhist scripture translation activities in China after the song and Yuan Dynasties.

The first Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures appeared in the middle of the 2nd century (some researchers believe it was A.D. 70). Few Buddhist missionaries who came to China in the first century A.D. were proficient in Chinese, and few Chinese knew Sanskrit at that time. Therefore, the Chinese translation of early Buddhist Scriptures was completed by many people: foreign monks recited scriptures, usually with the participation of interpreters, first produced a rather rough translation, and then modified and polished by Chinese assistants. This process made Buddhism sinicized from the very beginning of its introduction into China, and was therefore rapidly absorbed and assimilated by Chinese culture. This form of collective translation has lasted for nearly nine centuries, sometimes with a large number of participants, but the vast translation work can usually be sponsored by the ruling class. Due to the change of time span and the number of translators involved, translation methods and means are often not fixed, and with the passage of time, the cultural and linguistic background of translators will also change. Despite all kinds of obstacles, Chinese Buddhist believers are still committed to the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which has preserved many lost scriptures. It is worth mentioning that some Chinese versions are closer to the original Sanskrit texts than the later Sanskrit texts of India and Nepal. Buddhist missionary translation not only played a constructive role in the spread of Buddhism in the Far East, but also contributed to the establishment of literary languages in various countries and had a great impact on Asian culture. The translation of Buddhist scriptures from Sanskrit to Chinese can be roughly divided into three stages: the late Eastern Han Dynasty and the Three Kingdoms period (AD 148-265), the Dong Jin Dynasty, Xi Jin Dynasty and the Northern and Southern Dynasties (AD 265-589) and the Sui, Tang and Northern Song Dynasties (AD 589-1100).

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== Conclusion==
== References==

=王镇隆 The Brief History of Bible's Chinese Translation=
== Abstract==
== Key Words==
== The Overall Introduction of Bible Translation==
“Bible” translation has a pivotal position in the history of Western translation. From the beginning of the era to today, the translation of the “Bible” has never stopped. The range of languages involved, the number of translations, and the frequency of use of translations,etc., are unmatched by the translation of any other work. A birds-eye view of the history of “Bible” translation has the following important milestones: the first is the “Seventy Sons Greek Text” before the Era, the second is the “Popular Latin Text Bible” from the 4th to 5th centuries, and the later the national languages of the early Middle Ages. The ancient texts (such as Old German, Old French translations), modern texts since the 16th century Reformation Movement (such as the Lutheran version of Germany, the King James version, etc.) and various modern texts. All these translations have made indelible contributions to the spread and development of Christianity in the West, as well as the prosperity and development of the languages and cultures of various nations.

The “Bible” is the holy book of Christianity, including the “Old Testament” and “New Testament.” The Old Testament was written in BC. It is a classic of Judaism. It was inherited by Christianity from Judaism. The original text was in Hebrew. The New Testament was written in the second half of the first to second centuries, and the original text is in Greek. Throughout human history, language translation is almost as old as the language itself. Therefore, from the beginning of the era to today, the translation of the “Bible” has never stopped. The range of languages involved, the number of translations, and the frequency of use of the translations, etc., are unmatched by the translation of any other work. The translation of the "Bible" is mainly to spread the doctrine, so that people are influenced and accepted by the views. According to the “New Testament Acts” Chapter Two, Section One: The saints gathered on Pentecost, and they were all filled with the Holy Spirit, and spoke the words of other countries according to the eloquence given by the Holy Spirit. However, the translation at that time was mainly “interprete” or “interpretation.” Among them, St. Paul himself is a multilingual believer. He preached in Jerusalem, Athens and Rome in Hebrew, Greek and Italian respectively. The Bible was first translated from Hebrew into Greek, then into Latin, and then into Romanian, Portuguese, Spanish, Italian, and Walloon (wal-lon), German, French, Romance languages. English was then translated into various languages in the world, and the translations of its various texts were repeatedly revised by experts in the translation of the classics, which lasted more than ten centuries.

In the history of the translation of the Bible, it has gone through several milestone stages: the first is the “Seventy Sons Greek Text” before the era, the second is the “Popular Latin Text Bible” from the 4th to 5th centuries, and later it is the national languages of the early Middle Ages. Ancient texts (such as Old German, Old French translations), modern texts since the 16th century Reformation Movement (such as Luther, Casio Dorobin in Spain, King James Version in English, Nikon in Russia) and All kinds of modern texts (such as “American Standard Text” in English, “New English Bible” and “English Today”, etc.). “The Bible Old Testament” is the first important and earliest translation in ancient times in the West, and it was translated into Greek. The Old Testament was originally the official classic of Judaism, originally in Hebrew. The Jews have been scattered around for a long time and drifted overseas. Over time, they have forgotten the language of their ancestors and spoke foreign languages such as Arabic and Greek. Among them, Greek speakers accounted for the majority. In ancient times, the city of Alexandria in Egypt was the cultural and trade center of the eastern Mediterranean. The Jews living here accounted for two-fifths of the city’s total population. In the third century BC, in order to meet the increasingly urgent needs of these Greek-speaking Jews, the church decided to translate the Hebrew text of the Old Testament into a Greek text. In the second century BC, an unknown Jew once wrote an epistle article, which was later named “Letter of Aristeas” (“Letter of Aristeas”), which records that in the third century BC, Jerusalem At the request of Egyptian King Ptolemy II Feiradelphis (308-246 BC), Bishop Elizar sent translators to Alexandria to undertake the translation of the Old Testament. In this way, according to Ptolemy II's will, between 285 and 249 BC, 72 “noble” Jewish scholars gathered in the Library of Alexandria, Egypt, to perform this translation. According to legend, the 72 scholars came from 12 different Israeli tribes, with 6 from each tribe. After they came to the Library of Alexandria, they worked in pairs in 36 locations and translated them into 36 translations that were very similar to each other. Finally, 72 translators gathered together to compare and check the 36 translation manuscripts, and reached a consensus on the wording of the final version, and called it the “Seventy Son Text” or “Seventy Magi Translation”, that is, “Septuagint” (“Septuagint”), has since opened a precedent for collective translation in the history of translation. Soon after the translation of the “Seventy Sons”, the priests held a joint meeting with the Jewish leaders and pointed out: “This translation is well translated, pious, and very accurate.

Therefore, it must be kept as it is and cannot be changed.” We also regarded it as the classic translation. In fact, this Greek translation became the “second original”, and sometimes even replaced the Hebrew text and ascended to the throne of the “first original”. Many of the translations of the Bible in languages such as ancient Latin, Slavic, and Arabic are not based on the original Hebrew but on the Greek translation.

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== Conclusion==
== References==

== 叶维杰 Medieval Arabic Translation Movement=
== Abstract==
The Medieval Arabic Translation Movement(The Harakah al—Tarjamah) is also called the Translation Movement. It was a large-scale organized academic activity carried out by the Arab Empire in the Middle Ages to translate and introduce ancient Greek and Eastern scientific and cultural classics. The Abbasid Caliphate implemented a diversified and inclusive cultural policy, vigorously advocated and sponsored the translation of academic classics from ancient Greece, Rome, Persia, India and other countries into Arabic to absorb advanced cultural heritage. The Arabic translation movement preserved the natural sciences and humanities in ancient Greek and Roman cultures, and played an extremely important role in promoting the cultural revival of European political and cultural conditions in the late Middle Ages. The Hundred-Year Arab Translation Movement lasted for more than two hundred years, spanning the vast regions of Asia, Africa, and Europe, and blending ancient Eastern and Western cultures such as Persia, India, Greece, Rome, and Arabia. There are not many translation activities in the history of world civilization. Analyzing its causes, processes, results, and impacts is of great academic value for studying the phased development of human civilization and the commonality of human wisdom, and it is also of great help to deeply understand the Arab Islamic philosophy and culture.

== Key words==
Harakah al—Tarjamah, translation movement, Western culture, Islam

== Introduction==
After the establishment of the Arab Abbasid dynasty, Baghdad became the capital. At the beginning of the dynasty, political stability and economic prosperity heralded the arrival of a cultural climax. The golden age of Arab culture in the Middle Ages began with the translation movement. It can be divided into three main stages: the first stage, from the second monarch Mansour (reigned from 754 to 775) to the fifth monarch Harun Rashid (reigned from 786 to 809). Mainly translate astronomy and medical books; the second stage, from the seventh monarch Maimon (reigned from 813 to 833) to 913, the heyday of translation lasted for a hundred years, mainly translating philosophy, logic, and mathematics , Simultaneous translation of chemistry, animals, plants and other works; the third stage, after 913, is the continuation of the translation movement. In this translation movement advocated, initiated, and cared by the Caliph, a large number of famous translators of different nationalities have produced brilliant achievements and fruitful results. They have translated hundreds of various Greek books, such as Socrates, Plato, Various works of sages such as Aristotle have been translated into Arabic. The translation movement involves almost all scientific fields. The translators also translated books on astronomy, chemistry, agriculture, history, geography, legends, fables, stories, etc. of Persia, India and other peoples. On the basis of translation and introduction, starting from the 9th century, the Arabs began the stages of digestion, absorption, integration, development, and innovation, and achieved great results in various fields. This movement preserved ancient European academic materials and had a direct and significant impact on the European Renaissance movement. F. Engels has spoken highly of this. The Arabic translation movement and Buddhist scripture translation movement in the Middle Ages are two great wonders in the history of human civilization, which have strongly promoted the progress and development of human civilization.

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== References==

=李怡 Brief history of French translation =
== Abstract==
The purpose of this article is to make a brief introduction to the translation history of France. The history of French translation began in the Middle Ages: with the development of Christianity and nationalism, the royal family hired translators to translate the Bible. The Renaissance in the 16th century, as well as economic and educational development, increased the demand for reading and writing, thus promoting the development of translation, most of the translated works are classical works. Then two religious films appeared in France: Jansenists and Jesuit, which had a great influence on the translation schools of that time. During the Enlightenment in the 18th century, France was deeply influenced by Britain, so most of the works in this period were British progressive thoughts and literature. The Industrial Revolution in the second half of the 18th century increased French scientific and technological translation. With the progress of the French Revolution, French translators are more inclined to the economic and political and judicial fields. After the Second World War, the translation industry in France recovered and developed vigorously. France even set up ESIT（École Supérieure d'Interprètes et de Traducteurs）to train senior translators. In the 20th century, there appeared many translation theorists in France, which promoted the professionalization of translation.
== Key words==
Renaissance, French translation, contemporary, French Revolution
== Introduction==
As a developed country in the west, France has a very long translation history. Translators and translation theories emerge in endlessly, which can not be ignored in the history of translation. At the same time, with the development of globalization, translation theories in various countries learn from and integrate with each other. Among them, French translation theory also plays a very important role. Therefore, it is necessary to comb the history of French translation and study the translators of relevant times and their relevant theories.
==1.Medieval French translation based on Bible Translation==
In the middle ages, translation in various countries was deeply influenced by religion, especially the translation of the Bible, which greatly promoted the development of translation. In France, the royal family specially hired translators to translate various Latin and Greek works for the imperial court. The most prominent court interpreter was Nicholas Oresme of the Charles V Dynasty. Aristotle's works translated by him in 1377 had a great impact on the French translation and philosophy circles at that time. Jean de Vigne translated the Latin Bible in French in 1340. In addition, Jean de malkaraume, J argyropylos and others translated the works of Virgil, Ovid, Aristotle, Plato and contemporary writers at the same time.
==2.Renaissance: the development of French translation==
The Renaissance is the development period of French translation theory. The main representatives are Dolet and Jacques Amyot, especially the former. In the 16th century, there was an upsurge of translation in France. During this period, the focus of translation shifted from religious translation such as the Bible to classical literature translation. Religious translation abides by the translation principle of "word to word" . Its purpose is to follow the will of God and avoid blasphemy. This is irrefutable, so there are not many translation theories to speak of. However, as a new genre, the translation of literary works is different from the previous religious translation. Translators face many new problems, so translation theory came into being. Dolet and amyot are the most prominent representatives of translation theory in this period. They are both translators and translation theorists, and the latter wins especially by translation. Both their translation theories come from translation practice, so they are persuasive. Dolet is famous for his "five principles of translation". "Five principles of translation" comes from his paper on how to translate well published in 1540 ,La manière de bien traduire d’une langue à l’autre. 1. the translator must fully understand the content of the translated work; 2.The translator must be familiar with the target language and the target language; 3.The translator must avoid word by word translation; 4.The translator must adopt the popular language form; 5.The translator must select words and adjust word order to make the translation produce the effect of appropriate tone. These five principles involve the criterion of "faithfulness" in translation, the translator's bilingual ability, translation methods, style and style of translation. Amyot is one of the greatest translators in the history of French translation. He is known as the "king of translation". His translation has had a great impact on that time and future generations. He follows two principles in Translation: 1. The translator must understand the original text and make great efforts in the translation of content; 2.The translation must be simple and natural without any decoration. The first involves the standard of faithfulness in translation, and the second involves the style of translation. These two principles are similar to the first and fifth of Dolet's five translation principles.
==3.The 17th century: the climax of French translation and various translation schools==
After the Renaissance, classicism deeply influenced France. In the translation circle at that time, people were engaged in the translation of classical works on a large scale. Translation has launched a magnificent "dispute between ancient and modern" around the translation methods of classical works. Some translators pay more attention to the past than the present: they pay attention to the imitation of words with sentences, and praise the so-called accurate translation method. Some translators prefer to use the opposite translation method.
In the 17th century, the most famous French translator was Perrot d’Ablancourt,, His translation is sophisticated and elegant, both meaningful and beautiful, and easy to understand. There are no words that need to be explained in order to clarify the meaning in the translation, and there are no annoying cliches. Therefore, he has a great reputation for a long time. His characteristic is to take an original work and grasp the main idea. No matter what the original style is, as long as the translation is literary and readable and can make contemporary readers love and welcome, he will do whatever he can to add or delete the content at any cost, and modify it if he can, regardless of the accuracy of the translation. At that time, this literary and beautiful translation method attracted many followers, but it was also criticized by many people as "beautiful but unfaithful".By the end of the 17th century, those who advocated free translation were overwhelmingly in favor, while those who really advocated accurate translation were few and far between. The earliest theorist to advocate accurate translation was Bachet de Méziriac in the mid-17th century. In December 1635, he published an essay entitled "on translation" at the French academy, stating that translators must observe three principles :1.do not stuff the original work with personal goods; 2.The original work shall not be abridged; 3.No alteration may be made detrimental to the original intention.
As one of the most influential translators in France in the 17th century, Daniel Huet, worshipped classical literature and clearly advocated accurate translation. He criticized both post-modern translators and unfaithful translators abranguel. He believes that the best translation method is: the translator first closely follows the original author's meaning; Secondly, if possible, stick to his words; Finally, try to reproduce his character as much as possible; The translator must carefully study the character of the original author, not delete, weaken, add and expand, and faithfully make it complete as the original. His translation principles are: the only goal of translation is to be accurate. Only by accurately imitating the original in language can it be possible to accurately convey the original author's meaning; The translator has no right to choose words or change word order arbitrarily, because "Deviation" from the original text will lead to deviation from the original meaning. His translation theory has been praised by many people, but due to the lack of practice, his theory is not attractive to translators.
In the 17th century, there were also two representatives from inaccurate translation to accurate translation,François Maucroix and Jacques de Tourreil.
François Maucroix is regarded by contemporary and later critics as one of the most outstanding French translators in the 17th century and the first person to translate demesne in the 17th century. In addition to demesne, he also translated the works of Plato and others. Maucroix received the education of the Jesuit Church in his early years, was greatly influenced by the Jesuit Church, loved debating literature, and paid attention to ingenious expression and beautiful language style.
His early translations were inaccurate in content, style or written expression. He liked to modernize ancient terms and expressions. In 1685, his style changed, and his translation became more accurate, which seemed to have completely corrected the defects of procrastination and weakness in his early translation. The reason can be seen from his letters with Boileau in the last decade of the 17th century. He regarded Boileau not only as the most important representative of classical literature, but also as an authority on translation theory. Therefore, he always sent the translation to Boileau for revision. Boileau read the manuscript carefully, criticized some paragraphs and put forward better translation methods. In his reply, Maucroix said that Poirot's criticism of some of his inaccurate translations was pertinent, and his opinions on the revision were also very good. He admitted that the inaccurate translation was a mistake and must be completely corrected. He finally realized that translators must adhere to the principle of accurate translation if they want to become real classicists.
Jacques de Tourreil also experienced a change from inaccurate translation to accurate translation, which is reflected in his translation of three different versions of Demosthenes. In 1691, he published his first translation, which was influenced by the education of the Jesuit and paid attention to elegant style rather than accurate content. Tourreil processed the original work in the most ingenious way to modernize the ancients. After the translation was published, it was immediately severely criticized by Racine. After being criticized, Tourreil published a revised version in 1710, but the revised version actually only made detailed changes to the original translation, and the guiding principle of translation remains unchanged, that is, we must "make the characteristics of the original work conform to the characteristics of our nation". The new translation has received various comments. On the one hand, the ancient school refers to Tourreil 's attempt to impose new ideas on Demosthenes, believing that he not only did not beautify the original work, but distorted and vilified the original work. On the other hand, the present school believes that Tourreil's unfaithful translation of the original is better than the original, which is worth applauding. Tourreil himself is an ancient school. Naturally, he doesn't appreciate the present school's praise and thinks that this praise is "the most severe criticism to the translator". After that, he revised the translation for the third time, which is very different from the first two versions. It was not only a rare and accurate translation at that time, but also extremely beautiful. The translator translates in strict accordance with the original work, neither adding or subtracting nor making changes. By this time Tourreil had fundamentally changed his point of view.
Discussing the history of French translation from the 17th century to the 18th century is bound to involve the influence of Jesuit and Jansenists. The main reason is that the people engaged in education at that time were members of these two schools. They had direct or indirect contact with each translation school through their own translation practice and teaching.
The Jesuit believes that classical literature is worth studying and learning only in the aspect that it provides moral education or guides people how to learn eloquence. The excavation of classical works is not because their contents are of great value, but because of their beautiful forms. Teachers believe that the purpose of teaching is not so much to enable students to obtain substantive knowledge as to enable them to obtain formal learning identity.
The works translated by Jesuit teachers or students generally have an obvious sign, that is, they do not pay much attention to the spiritual essence of the original work, but only pay attention to the expression of the original thought and the beauty of the translation style. In order to achieve this, translators often sacrifice the content, even misinterpret the original meaning, and religiously turn classical literary works. Therefore, the origin of inaccurate translation in the 17th century is often influenced by Jesuit thought.
Jansenists is the second school that directly or indirectly affects translation principles. They believe that once students can read and write, they should read these translations in order to obtain basic knowledge about the original author and facilitate more and better reading of the original works in the future. In the early days, the views of the janssenian translators and the Jesuit translators were basically the same. Later, the translators of Jansenists believed that the practice of style for style in translation was also dangerous. However, towards the middle of the 17th century, their views changed and they believed that the style of ancient Greek and Latin writers, especially the style of ancient Greek writers, was worth learning. They really appreciate classical works more than the Jesuits. They admit that the language style of the ancients is superior to that of the present, but the present enjoys more inspiration from God, so the present surpasses the ancients in terms of thought and morality. In this way, no matter from which perspective, their views are completely consistent with those of ancient school. But the translation of Jansenists is far less elegant and beautiful than that of the Jesuits.
==4.The decline of French translation in the 18th century and the translator Charles Batteux==
In the 18th century, France was not as powerful as in the 16th and 17th centuries, nor was it culturally complacent. So she began to look at other countries' literature, first of all England. For example, the novels of the contemporary British sentimentalist writer Richard Were translated into French, which had a great influence on the development of French sentimentalist literature. In particular, the Chinese culture, which had been introduced to Europe for a long time, became more active in France in the 18th century. Although the number of translations is large, the quality is often not high.
Charles Batteux was one of the most important translators in France in the 18th century. He was one of the most influential literary and translation theorists in France and the whole Europe in the 18th century. He edited and published a variety of translation books, translated aristoteles, Horace and many other classical works of ancient Greece and Rome, wrote Principes de Litterature, Cours de Belles-Lettres and other works. Batteux elaborated his thoughts and views on translation in The Principles of Treatise. His original views and excellent exposition made this book an important milestone in the development of translation theory in the 18th century.
The fifth part of Principes de Litterature deals with translation problems.The theory of Charles Batteux obviously has the characteristics of philosophers, linguists, philology and translation. In other words, Charles Batteux discusses the principles of translation mainly from the perspective of general linguistic skills, rather than literary creation. He proposed the following 12 rules for dealing with word order in translation: 1. We must not alter the order of what the original says, either as fact or inference. 2. We should also preserve the order of ideas in the original text. 3. No matter how long the original sentence is, it should be kept intact in the translation, for a sentence is a thought in which the different elements are related to each other, and their correlation constitutes a kind of harmony. 4.All the conjunctions in the original text should be preserved. It is these conjunctions, so to speak, that hold the sentence elements together. 5. All adverbs should be placed either before or after the verb, depending on the harmony and momentum of the sentence. 6.Symmetrical sentences should be translated into symmetrical sentences. 7. Colorful ideas should be expressed in as much space as possible in the translation so as to maintain the same brilliance. 8. Rhetorical devices and forms of speech used to express ideas must be preserved in the translation. 9. We must translate short and pithy sayings that people like, or translate them into words that are natural and can be used as proverbs. 10. Interpretation is incorrect and incomplete because it is no longer a translation but a commentary. However, if there is no other way to convey the meaning of the original text, the translator has no choice but to use interpretation. 11. For the sake of meaning, we must abandon all forms of expression in order to make ourselves intelligible; Abandon emotion in exchange for a lively translation; Give up harmony for the pleasure of translation. 12. The idea of the original text can be expressed in different forms, combined or broken up by the words used to express it, and expressed by verbs, adjectives, nouns and adverbs, as long as its essence remains unchanged.
==5.The revival of French translation in the 19th century and its rich translators==
Another high tide of French translation came in the 19th century, when a large number of English, German, Italian, Spanish and Latin literary works were translated, such as Shakespeare, Milton, Byron, Shelley in England, Goethe and Schiller in Germany, Dante in Italy, and Spanish folk songs. The most prominent remains the translation of Shakespeare's works. If the 18th century was Shakespeare's Silver age in France, the 19th was the golden age. In the 19th century, people not only worshiped Shakespeare's works, but also worshipped him, and Shakespeare fever spread throughout France. From 1800 to 1910, at least eight different translations of Shakespeare's complete works were produced in France, of which francois-Victor Hugo is the best. Hugo's father was Victor Hugo, a great writer. With Hugo's assistance and cooperation, the complete works of Shakespeare were translated between 1859 and 1867. This translation has faithfully retained the unique rhythm of the play, so it has been praised by critics as the second milestone in the history of French translation of Shakespeare's plays, even more important than Letourne's famous translation in the late 18th century.
Famous French translators in the 19th century included Francoise-René de Chateaubriand, Gérard de Nerval, and Charles Baudelaire. Chateaubriand is another epoch-making translator in France after Amio. His translation is faithful and beautiful. His literal translation of Milton's Paradise Lost is one of the outstanding French translations with its melodious and poetic tone. Nerval is best known for his translation of Goethe's Faust in prose style. In 1830 Goethe saw Nerval's translation and praised it as better than his original. Baudelaire, another famous poet of this period, was one of the earliest French translators of American literature and the first translator of Allan Poe. For 13 years from 1852 to 1865, he wrote, translated and commented on the complete works of Allan Poe. Baudelaire found what he was pursuing in Allan Poe's works, and believed that he and the author were in the same spirit, so that the translation could be in touch with the author. The translation was smooth and natural, just like the French creation, and was listed as an excellent classic of French prose.
==6.The specialization of French translation in the 20th century and the maturity of translation theory==
The 20th century has been the heyday of French translation theory. The characteristics of French translation in this period are: since the end of the Second World War, due to practical needs, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological aspects of the translation boom, its momentum even more than literary translation, thus forming a major content of the development of modern western translation; The study of translation theory is unprecedented and has produced translation theorists who have an important influence on the history of translation in the world. Before the First World War, the two countries used the language of power in business transactions, and French, which was considered the language of diplomacy at international conferences and other diplomatic occasions, did not have much problem in translation. However, after the end of the First World War, French lost its dominance, and English rose to take the lead with French, forming a situation in which French and English were used together. The Paris Peace Conference of 1919 was the beginning of this situation. Later, the European Union has 24 official languages, which means that translation has become an indispensable part of daily work, whether it is communication between countries in other regions or between western countries. With the increase of cooperation between countries, the need for translators is increasing. To meet this need, a number of schools specializing in training translators have been set up. One of the most prominent is ESIT（École Supérieure d'Interprètes et de Traducteurs）.
ESIT was founded in 1957, set up the department of Oral translation and pen translation, initially only opened several European languages, since 1972 added Chinese, now a total of English, Chinese, Russian, Arabic, French, German, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Danish, Swedish, Icelandic and other languages translation courses. Later, on the basis of the original two departments, the School added a department of Translation Studies, specializing in the study of language and translation theory, with the right to confer doctoral degrees. After graduation, most of the students apply for translation departments of international institutions, and some graduates apply for the work license of free translators to relevant institutions of various countries in order to work freely and not apply for the work license of free translators to international institutions. Over the years, ESIT has trained a number of senior translators for the foreign affairs departments of the United Nations, the European Community (EU) and western countries.
Another characteristic of modern French translation is that French translators are organized in large numbers, setting up various translation associations and establishing various translation publications. Each association has its own purpose and purpose to carry out its work effectively. There are two major translation associations in France: the Association of French Translators and the Association of French Literary Translators. The Association of French Literary Translators was founded in 1973 as a splinter from the Association of Translators. Its entry requirements are the most stringent of any of its kind. Only highly qualified translators are eligible to join. Applicants must have at least one translation, which is carefully reviewed against the original work by a special selection committee. The aims of the association are :1.to improve the quality of French literature and literary translation publications; 2.To protect the rights and interests of members in respect of copyright, remuneration and working conditions of translated works; 3.Do not participate in any political activities. Since its establishment, the association has held many lectures and lectures, and its members have published many articles on translation in such authoritative publications as le Monde and New Literature. Through this series of business activities, it has become the most distinctive and vocal translation organization in France.
In the first half of the 20th century, the French translation theorist J.Marouzeau is worth a book. He is a professor at the University of Paris and editor in chief of Année Philologique. In 1931, he published a pamphlet called La Traduction du Latin. The theory is as follows:1.Translation is, first of all, a skill. Maruzzo does not deny that translation is an art and a science, and that it is more of a skill. To master it, we mainly rely on rich practical experience, solid language knowledge and flexible translation methods. 2.In order to reach as many readers as possible, the translator's primary task, like linguists, educators and exegetists, is to reveal to the reader what the source text is, not what it covers. 3.The purpose of using a dictionary is not to translate, but to understand. It is a puzzling view, but it is not hard to discern the truth in it. He points out that translators must learn to use dictionaries, but must first understand what problems they are using them to solve. Latin, for example, is very different from French, he said. Latin words are not related to each other, and there is no strict word order, which must be added to a French translation to make the translation smooth. Dictionaries don't help in this respect. They define a particular word in inverse proportion to its simplicity, thus leaving the translator in a difficult position to choose between many different translations. Therefore, the main purpose of using a dictionary is not to find ready-made words, but to understand the meaning of the original text, to explain the text of the original text, and then produce a translation on this basis. At the same time, Marouzeau points out that words from different sources must be interpreted differently. 4.Translation is not guesswork. This is especially important. When encountering difficulties, the translator must carefully consider and avoid any "preconceived ideas", because in translation, the first thought of meaning or expression is often not the most correct or best. 5.Translation must be in living language. This was a popular idea in England in the 17th and 18th centuries. Marouzeau said that to translate Latin into French, if you need to introduce an old expression, you have to turn to a living language so that the translation is alive. That is to say, the translator must ask: if the original author were alive today and writing in French, how would he express the same thing? But Marouzeau also points out that this is not a generalization, and that for some passages, especially those of Ovid, "a bit of antiquity is most appropriate in French translation".
The following is an introduction to Georges Mounin, a famous French translation theorist in the second half of the 20th century. He devoted his life to the teaching and research of linguistics and translation theory with outstanding achievements. He is regarded as the founder and most important representative of linguistic theory in contemporary French translation studies. Major theoretical works include Le belles infidèles , Les problèmes théorique de la traduction, La machine à traduire: Histoire des problèmes linguistiques, Linguistique et traduction, Semiotic praxis, etc. Among them, Les problèmes théorique de la traduction is the most praised by contemporary Western translation theorists. As mentioned above, this book uses the basic theories and methods of modern linguistics to explain translation, and sets up the first clear-cut flag of linguistic school in the field of Translation studies in France.
The core idea of Mounin 's book is that he thinks translation belongs to linguistics, so it should be studied, understood and explained by means of modern linguistics. To establish an effective translation theory, it has to for translation and the translation of basic problems related to make a scientific understanding of these problems include the nature of translation, translation and the meaning of vocabulary, grammatical structure, the relationship between translation and the objective world, the world's image), the relationship between translation and language universals and language features, the relationship between the processing of language features in translation, and so on. Mounin 's discussion of translation theory revolves around these questions.
What exactly is a translation? What kind of discipline should translation studies belong to and what kind of methods should be adopted? And so on. Such problems have always been the most concerned by translation researchers but have not been properly explained. Mounin believes that translation is a special and universal language activity, which naturally belongs to the scope of linguistics research, and the research results of language science can be applied to the study of translation problems. Mounin admit that the translation of poetry, the literature such as drama, movies, many factors other than language and paralanguage does play an important role, but the basis of translation activity is mainly to the original and the translation of linguistic analysis, and applied linguistics is more than any other skilled experience can provide accurate and reliable. Of course, from another point of view, especially from the perspective of the development of translation studies as an independent discipline since the 1980s, the practice of classifying translation studies as linguistics has been outdated. However, even if translatology is regarded as an independent discipline, its independence is only relative. Since translation (interlingual and intralingual translation) necessarily involves language, translation studies should not and cannot be completely free from the influence of linguistics at any time. In this sense, Mounin's view of linguistic translation has always been positive.
Since the 1970s and 1980s, the interpretive school represented by Seleskovitch or the Paris School has emerged in the field of Translation studies in France and become the most remarkable and French characteristic in the post-modern period, thus forming the second major feature of the development of contemporary French translation theory. It should be said that this school does not negate the basic idea of the school of linguistics to study linguistic phenomena, but only opposes the pure linguistic orientation of the school of linguistics and focuses on the research method of form. Interpretive theory holds that translation is a linguistic act, but it requires the participation of extralinguistic knowledge. Whether it is diachronic linguistics in the 19th century, synchronic descriptive linguistics and contrastive structural linguistics in the 20th century, or the later transformational generative grammar theory, it ignores the pragmatic context as the main component of language communication, so it cannot reasonably explain translation problems. Based on practice, the theory of interpretation studies translation as a linguistic act, and interprets and conveys the meaning of language from linguistic factors, cultural factors, and extralinguistic factors, so as to give a scientific and reasonable explanation to the reality of translation.
An important feature of interpretive translation theory is to reveal the essence of translation as communicative behavior from practice. Interpretivism holds that translation is a kind of linguistic act, which, like language use, must be supported by non-linguistic knowledge. However, as an act, the object of translation is not language, but meaning, which is the communicative meaning of the text. The output of meaning requires the combination of nonverbal thoughts and signs, and the reception of meaning requires the conscious behavior of the addressee. The arrangement of words is only a means of meaning formation for the originator of words. The understanding and grasp of meaning need to get rid of the original language form. The acquisition of meaning is instantaneous, not staged. Meaning is not the sum of words, but an organic whole, and the comprehension of meaning is completed at the level of discourse.
According to the interpretive theory, language and thought are separated in the translation of translators. Language and thought are not exactly the same thing, but there is a constant two-way communication between them. Thought waves can be transformed into language, and language can be transformed into thought waves. Human knowledge and experience do not reside in the brain in the form of words.
Interpretive theory also holds that understanding requires the participation of cognitive knowledge; The process of comprehension is the process of interpretation. Interpretation is the prerequisite of translation, and translation cannot be carried out without interpretation. Translation, on the other hand, is interpretation. Interpretive translation is a translation of meaning equivalence, which is established between texts. If a translation is to be successful, it is necessary to seek the overall meaning equivalence between the source text and the target text, and the meaning equivalence needs to achieve cognitive and emotional equivalence. Translators use their own abilities to organically combine the cognitive content and emotional content of the source text into an indivisible whole, and then successfully express it. Only in this way can the equivalence of meaning be achieved, which is the essence of the interpretive theory.
The interpretive theory also focuses on fidelity. The translator cannot interpret at will, and his interpretation and understanding can only be faithful to the actual content of the speaker. Although the interpreter interprets in his own words, he conveys the meaning of the speaker and imitates the speaker's style. The interpreter should understand the overall style of the speech, and tend to be consistent with the speaker, should be as far as possible to get rid of the constraints of words, in order to accurately reflect the original style.
== Conclusion==
There may be many deficiencies and omissions in the simple combing of French translation history, but as a powerful and long-standing western developed country, France's translation process and theory have great research and reference significance for China and the world. The world is still developing, so is translation. With the development of modern science and technology, people explore translation more deeply, and new theories are constantly put forward. Therefore, we should seize the trend of the times, base ourselves on China, look at the world and seriously study these excellent theories.
== References==
[1]陈顺意.法国翻译理论源流.法国研究,2014
[2]谭载喜.西方翻译简史.商务印书馆,2004
[3]许均,袁筱一.当代法国翻译理论.湖北教育出版社,2001
[4]柳鸣九,郑克鲁,张英伦.法国文学史,人民文学出版社,1979
[5]谢天振.中西翻译简史,外语教育与研究出版社,2009

=李新星A Comparative Study on The Translation history of Modern Chinese and Korean Literature under the Background of "Western Learning" (1894~1949) =
==Abstract==
The spreading of Western learning to the east is an extensive and far-reaching influence of modern Western culture on eastern civilization, which started from translation as a means of cultural communication.Scholars in China and Korea have always recognized the influence of the eastward spread of Western learning on the development of translation in their countries.However, most studies on modern and contemporary translation take the country as the boundary and rarely talk about the comparison and exchange between the two countries.In fact, although there are some individual differences between Chinese and Korean translation in modern times due to different national conditions, there are also many similarities and connections worthy of attention and research.From the perspective of translation history, this paper will explore the history of literary translation in China and Korea under the trend of western learning to the east, compare the commonness and individuality of the two countries' literary translation practices, explore the historical information behind the translation practices, and finally achieve the purpose of restoring the history of cultural (literary) exchanges between the two countries.

The spreading of western culture to the East was an extensive and far-reaching influence of modern Western culture on Eastern civilization, resulted from translation as a means of cultural communication.Scholars in China and Korea had always recognized the influence of the eastward spread of Western learning on the development of translation in their countries. However, most studies on modern and contemporary translation take the country as the boundary and rarely talk about the comparison and exchange between the two countries.In fact, regardless of some individual differences between Chinese and Korean translation in modern times due to different national conditions, there are also many similarities and connections worthy of attention and research.From the perspective of translation history, this paper will explore the history of literary translation in China and Korea under the trend of western learning to the East, compare the commonness and individuality of the two countries' literary translation practices, dig out the historical information behind the practices, and finally achieve the purpose of restoring the history of cultural exchanges between the two.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 07:23, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

==Key words==
History of literary translation；“Western Learning”;China;Korea

==摘要==
西学东渐是近代西方文化对东方文明的一次广泛而深远的影响，而这影响首先是从作为文化交流的手段———翻译开始的。一直以来，中韩两国学者都认同西学东渐对本国翻译发展的影响，但现有的研究在探讨近现代翻译时大多以本国为界，很少谈及两国比较和交流。而实际上，虽然因为国情不同，中国与朝鲜半岛的近现代翻译存在一定的个体差异，但同时也有很多相似点和联系点值得关注和研究。本文将从翻译史视角出发，窥探西学东渐时代潮流下中韩两国文学翻译史的面貌，比较两国文学翻译实践的共性和个性，发掘翻译实践背后的历史信息，最终达到还原两国文化 (文学) 交流史的目的。

==关键词==
文学翻译史；“西学东渐”；中国；朝鲜（韩国）

==1.Introduction==
The spreading of Western learning to the east is an extensive and far-reaching influence of modern Western culture on Eastern civilization.Late 19th century to early 20th century,When the West had modernized and gradually replaced the East as the world's dominant power,The three East Asian countries ( China, Japan and Korea), which had been sleeping for a long time, were gradually awakened and embarked on the "journey" of modernization.Among them, In order to achieve a rich country and a strong army, Japan left Asia and entered Europe,Take the lead in taking a series of measures to actively learn from the West and introduce advanced ideas and culture.The main measure is to develop the translation of western literature.Under the influence of such a large environment, the translation of overseas literature in China and the Korean Peninsula has also set off a boom.It can be said that the influence of the eastward spreading of Western learning on the modernization of East Asia began with translation as a means of cultural exchange.
Some scholars have pointed out that in the process of modernization in East Asia represented by Japan,Translation plays an important role.Without translation, East Asia would not have been able to open the door to modernization.This is also true in modern China and the Korean Peninsula.It can be said that after entering the modern society, the cultural exchanges between the two countries were continued through translation --"A history of translation is not only a history of cultural exchange, but also a history of the dissemination of ideas".As we all know, the study of translation history is a "basic project" in the construction of translation discipline.Behrman, a famous translator and translation theorist, once pointed out that "the composition of translation history is the first task of modern translation theory, and self-reflection is the establishment of itself" .The history of literary translation is an important part of the study of translation history and an indispensable factor in the investigation of a country's literature and even the whole cultural background in a particular period.
In view of the above analysis, the author believes that in order to have a macro and in-depth understanding of the cultural exchanges between China and Korea in modern times.It is necessary for us to make a comparative study of literary translation between the two countries during this period (1894 ~ 1949).Writers believe that only by putting literary translation activities into a larger social and historical context can we have a clearer understanding of the translation practices of the two countries at that time.Therefore, from the perspective of translation history, this paper will explore the history of literary translation in China and Korea under the trend of western learning to the east, compare the commonness and individuality of the two countries'literary translation practices, explore the historical information behind the translation practices, and finally achieve the purpose of restoring the history of cultural (literary) exchanges between the two countries.

The spreading of Western learning to the east exerted an extensive and far-reaching influence on Eastern civilization.In the late 19th century to early 20th century,when the West had modernized and gradually replaced the East as the world's dominant power,the three East Asian countries (China,Japan and Korea),which had been sleeping for a long time, were gradually awakened and embarked on the "journey" of modernization. In order to attain prosperity, Japan left Asia and entered Europe, taking a series of measures to actively learn from the West and introduce advanced ideas and culture through the media of translation.Under the influence of such a univerasl situation, the translation of overseas literature in China and the Korean Peninsula had also set off a boom.It could be said that the influence of the eastward spreading of western learning on the modernization of East Asia began with translation as a means of cultural exchange.
Some scholars have pointed out that translation plays an important role in the process of modernization in East Asia represented by Japan.Without translation,East Asia would not have been able to open the door to modernization.This is also true in modern China and the Korean Peninsula.It can be said that after entering the modern society, the cultural exchanges between the two countries were continued through translation --"A history of translation is not only a history of cultural exchange, but also a history of the dissemination of ideas".As we all know, the study of translation history is a "basic project" in the construction of translation discipline.Behrman, a famous translator and translation theorist, once pointed out that "the composition of translation history is the first task of modern translation theory, and self-reflection is the establishment of itself".The history of literary translation is an important part of the study of translation history and an indispensable factor in the investigation of a country's literature and even the whole cultural background in a particular period.
In view of the above analysis, the author believes that in order to have a macro and in-depth understanding of the cultural exchanges between China and Korea in modern times.It is necessary for us to make a comparative study of literary translation between the two countries from 1894 to 1949. Only by putting literary translation activities into a larger social and historical context can we have a clearer understanding of the translation practices of the two countries at that time.Therefore, from the perspective of translation history, this paper will explore the history of literary translation in China and Korea under the trend of western learning to the East, compare the commonness and individuality of the two countries' literary translation practices, explore the historical information behind the practices, and finally achieve the purpose of restoring the history of cultural (literary) exchanges between the two countries.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

==2. The origin and development of modern translation in both countries ==
After being opened to the outside world, western civilization flooded in. China and North Korea, which had been pursuing the policy of "closing the door to the outside world", began to "open their eyes to the world".From the government to the people, there has been an upsurge in the introduction of advanced Western civilization.Translation plays an important, even decisive role in this process.
====2.1The historical evolution of Modern Translation in China====
As is known to all, Among the three East Asian countries, China is the first to pay attention to the West and understand and learn the West through translation.In the 1860s, after the Westernization Movement, a climax of modern Chinese translation began slowly.Strictly speaking, this translation period can be further divided into two stages, namely, with the Sino-Japanese War of 1894 as the dividing line, the early stage was the translation period dominated by westernization school, and the later stage was the translation period dominated by reformists.If the translation during the Westernization Movement was the primary stage of modern Western learning translation in China, there were still many problems, then the translation activities led by reformists such as Kang Youwei, Liang Qichao and Yan Fu had a greater development in terms of scale, significance and function.From the perspective of translation history, they set up translation institutes and translated western books widely(Especially those that had a great influence on Meiji Restoration in Japan.)Training translation talents, etc.Its scale, breadth of subjects, quantity and quality are unmatched by translation in the Westernization period.It should be noted that since the 1880s, China's interest in learning from the West has shifted from science to politics, education system and so on.In the late Qing Dynasty and early period, literary works gradually became the main object of translation activities.In the minds of the Vixinists represented by Liang Qichao, novels have become the most appropriate tool for political reform, popular enlightenment and the modernization of the country.Thus, beginning in the late 19th and early 20th centuries,Foreign literature has been widely translated into China, and communication channels include not only modern media such as newspapers and magazines, but also single-line books and large-scale translation literature series, which have also produced a series of arguments and discussions on translation methods and techniques.Modern Chinese translation has also entered a new period, that is, from the Ming and Qing period of scientific and technological translation as the mainstream gradually to culture / literature / literary translation as the core of the translation activities period.Overall, the translation of modern foreign literature in China from the end of the 19th century to the period 1949 can be broken down into the following three stages.
The first stage was from the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China to the May 4th Movement in 1919.In December 1898, Liang Qichao translated The Japanese political novel The Adventure of The Beautiful Woman in Qingyi Daily. In 1900, Zhou translated one of the most influential works in Japanese political fiction, Yano Ryuki's "On The Classics of America".Since then, many Japanese political novels have been translated and introduced to China.After a more concentrated translation of political novels, other genres, such as history, science and the popular detective novels, have also been introduced.After 1907, a variety of modern literary magazines sprang up, and a large number of translated novels were published in these magazines in serial form, among which the serialized translated novels in magazines such as "Novel Forest" and "New Novel Cluster" even occupied absolute space, forming the first climax of foreign novel translation.However, it should be emphasized that the translation of literary works in this period was still in the exploratory stage,Although there are a large number of works, there are problems in the selection of works, translation skills and strategies.
The second period is 1916 to 1936. This period can be further subdivided into the May Fourth Movement period and the Left Coalition Period.With the development of the New literature movement, Chinese literary translation has entered the most glorious period in the history of translation.Compared with the late Qing Dynasty, literary translation in this period was larger in scale, higher in quantity and quality, and its influence was unprecedented.It is worth emphasizing that almost all the heavyweights in the history of modern Chinese literature have participated in the translation and introduction.In addition to translation works, they also introduced various literary and artistic thoughts, and actively explored and discussed translation methods and theories.Especially with their active advocacy and hard work, The translation industry in China has been closely integrated with the struggle against imperialism and feudalism.It completely changed the chaotic and unprincipled state of translation circles before the May 4th Movement.In addition, it was from this time that China's translation of Soviet/Russian literature gradually reached its peak.It can be said that the mainstream of Chinese literature translation in the 1930s was Marxist literary trend of thought and progressive literature (especially Soviet/Russian literature).Of course, in addition to Russian/Soviet literature, this period has translated the literature of Britain, The United States, Japan, France, Germany and southeast Northern Europe and Asia.
The third period is from 1937 to 1949. After the war of Resistance against Japan broke out.The translation community, like the rest of the country, has concentrated all its efforts on the cause of saving the nation from extinction and striving for liberation.Therefore, the pace of development of Translation in China slowed down during this period.In spite of this, Chinese writers and translators have overcome various difficulties and translated and published many excellent foreign literary works.During this period, there was a wide range of translations, ranging from western European classical literature to war literature at that time, and even ancient Greek literature and Jewish literature.In terms of genres, there are novels, poems, plays, prose and even some academic works on literary history.A number of famous translators in the history of Chinese translation literature, such as Zhu Shenghao, Ge Baoquan, Fu Lei, Liang Shiqiu, Lin Yutang and so on, are active in literary translation.Of course, the biggest characteristic of this period was the translation of the Soviet Union and other countries anti-fascist war works, in particular, the establishment of the revolutionary translation group "Times Press", published the revolutionary translation publication "Soviet Literature", a large number of Soviet literary and artistic works.

====2.2 The situation of modern and contemporary Translation on the Korean Peninsula and the Influence of China==
==
From the end of the 19th century, western civilization began to flow into East Asia on a large scale, and Korea was further plunged into the situation of internal troubles and foreign aggression. Faced with the complicated situation at home and abroad, the enlightened intellectuals of Korea further realized that translating Western books was an important task at that time. As early as 1886, The "Seoul Weekly" published by Powen Bureau had a column specially emphasizing the importance of translation, and proposed to establish a special translation agency to translate foreign books. And six years later, another important newspaper of the day 《Huangcheng News 》also commented, stressing that translation is an important means to enrich the country and strengthen the army and realize modern civilization. We call for the establishment of specialized translation institutions under the guidance of the government "to strengthen the guidance and management of translation. On behalf of this, not only all kinds of news media actively propagated, but also some intellectuals at that time called for the realization of civilization and the prosperity of the country and the strength of the army by translating overseas literature and learning advanced western experience. As a result, the Korean Peninsula at that time set off a boom in the translation of overseas works, especially literary works. Of course, as in China, one of the preconditions for translating Western books in the Korean Peninsula was the development of modern media, which provided a platform for the dissemination of written works at that time. After the 1895-1895 revolution, modern schools were established one after another, and special language schools were set up, which played a positive role in understanding overseas and spreading Western culture, and reserved talents for the translation and introduction of foreign literature.
Generally speaking, the history of translation of foreign works on the Korean Peninsula from 1895 to 1949 can be divided into the following five stages: Patriotic enlightenment period (1895-1910), translation literature awakening period (1911-1919), translation into the proper period (1920-1935), dark Period (1936-1945), Regeneration period (1945 ~1949). We can refer to Kim Byung-chul's Studies on the History of Modern Korean Translation Literature, the earliest and only work on the history of modern Korean Translation literature. However, it is worth noting that Kim Byung-chul's pioneering work has carefully combed and studied the translation history of modern Korean literature from both macro and micro perspectives. However, there is no introduction to the translation of Chinese and Japanese literature. In fact, in the whole modern and modern period, although the communication between China and South Korea seems not as active and close as that in ancient times, the spiritual, political and cultural ties that have connected the two countries for thousands of years have not disappeared overnight. This point can be seen from the early stage of The History of Korean translated literature with China as the medium of translation activities and the late continuous translation of Modern Chinese literature.
The first stage (1895-1910) is the period of patriotic enlightenment，The main function of translation in this period was "enlightenment of civilization, independence, social and political enlightenment", and the translation activities inevitably had obvious purpose and utility. The patriotic enlighteners represented by Xuan CAI, Zhang Zhiyuan, Shen Caihao and Zhou Shijing received Chinese education from childhood and were deeply influenced by Confucian culture. Most of the works translated from The Korean Peninsula during this period were biographies of great men, history of the war, history of independence and geographical history. Almost all the translated works are from Chinese and Japanese versions. According to statistics, there were about 37 separate editions of such works translated in the Korean Peninsula before 1910, among which 16 were based on Chinese translations, not including those published in newspapers and magazines. In particular, it is worth emphasizing the important works in the early history of Korean literature, such as The History of The Fall of Vietnam, the Biography of the Three Masters of the Founding of Italy, and so on.The Biography of the Patriotic Lady was introduced to the Korean Peninsula based on the Chinese version. In addition, the Japanese Ryoki Yano's Korean single version of The Book On The Nation and the United States (1908, Translated by Hyun Gonglian) was based on zhou Kui's Chinese version in 1907. It is also highly likely that The first western literary work to be officially translated into Korea, Robin Sun Crusoe (1908, translated by Kim Chan), was translated into Chinese. In a word, China's influence cannot be ignored in the history of translated literature during the Korean civilization period.
The second stage (1910 ~ 1919) is called "the Awakening period of Translated literature". The translation activities of this period did have many characteristics different from those of the previous period. For example, many translations clearly identify the original author and translator; There appeared some literary magazines that paid attention to translation, such as Youth, New Star, Youth, Light of Learning and New Wenjie.“Three Lights", and "Tai Xi Literature and Art News" founded in 1918 with the main purpose of translating foreign literary works; At the beginning, it was consciously emphasized that translation should be based on the original text rather than through a third language. Translation methods also began to emphasize the separation from the earlier simple emphasis on the transmission of content translation, summary translation, abbreviated translation, etc. It puts forward the importance of respecting the original text and being faithful to the original text, and actively practices it. Kim Il and other important figures in the history of Korean translation literature have officially started their translation activities. And so on. All these indicate that the translation activities on the Korean Peninsula have "awakened" and are ready for further progress on the right track.
Generally speaking, since 1908, when Juvenile was first published，The Translated literature of the Korean Peninsula further broke away from the original utilitarian and purist nature and began to enter the era of "pure literature and art" translation. Since then, a great deal of Western literature has been translated into The Korean peninsula, and the quality of translation in this period is significantly higher than that of the Patriotic Enlightenment period. In addition to new novelists such as Lee Sang-hyup, Lee Hae-jo and Ahn Guk-seon, the translators also include famous figures in the history of literature such as Choi Nam-seon, Hong Myung-hee and Lee Kwang-soo, as well as some publishers and media workers. It is worth noting that some scholars believe that literary exchanges between China and Korea ended after Japan annexed the Korean Peninsula in 1910. This view is obviously somewhat arbitrary. According to incomplete statistics, at least 20 Chinese translations were introduced to the Korean Peninsula through the medium of Chinese translations, although the translation activities based on Chinese translations were not as active as in the Enlightenment period. These works include not only reprints of Chinese vernacular novels in Ming and Qing Dynasties, but also western novels based on Chinese translations. Among these Chinese translations of western novels, 8 are from the large western literature translation series "Shuobo Congshu", which was planned and published by the Shanghai Commercial Press in 1903. Choi Chan-sik, a famous writer of new novels at the time, recalled that recalled that he began writing a new novel after translating a book in the "Shaobo Series" published in Shanghai, China. These data show that even at a time when Japan's control over the Korean Peninsula was increasing, China's translation and media activities still have a certain influence on Korean intellectuals. In other words, under the new historical conditions, the cultural exchanges between the two countries are still struggling to continue in a new form.
The third stage (1920-1935) marked the beginning of joseon's translation literature. According to Kim byung-chul's statistics, at least 600 foreign literary works have been translated to the Korean Peninsula in various forms since the 1920s, Genres include fiction, poetry, drama, essays, fairy tales, and some literary criticism, Countries involved Britain, the United States, Germany, France, Russia, India and so on. Of course, this statistic does not include the translation of Chinese literature. In fact, after the 1920s, one of the biggest changes in the history of Sino-Korean translation was the movement that was then in China and the new literary works began to be translated and introduced to the Korean Peninsula. According to incomplete statistics, about 30 kinds of modern Chinese literary works including novels were translated and translated in the Korean Peninsula during the colonial period (In addition to the only collection of Chinese Short Stories during the colonial period), 16 plays, 41 poems, 3 essays, 1 fairy tale, etc., and more than a dozen literary criticism. If we add the Chinese classical literature translated in this period, we can say that after 1920, the translation of Chinese literature in the Korean Peninsula is relatively comprehensive and continuous, which should not be excluded from the history of Korean translated literature.
The fourth stage (1936-1945) was a dark period for the entire Korean Peninsula. In terms of translated literature, Japan has strengthened its control over public opinion and media by strengthening its policy of suppressing national language, The flood of Japanese books, coupled with the growing economic collapse on the Korean peninsula, has put pressure on the publishing industry and reduced the number of magazines, Access to foreign books has also been blocked, resulting in a huge blow to translation activities on the Korean Peninsula. This was the darkest period in the history of Translated literature on the Korean Peninsula. Although there were sporadic translations of Chinese literary works, they only catered to the political needs of the Japanese colonial government and chose some works that were irrelevant to politics and even covered up and beautified its militarist ambitions. In 1940, for example, Three Thousand Miles magazine ran a special collection of "New Chinese literature,"The content of the works is either daily life, love or traditional art, which has nothing to do with politics, and the original translations are entirely dependent on Japanese translations. The content of the works is either daily life, love or traditional art, which has nothing to do with politics, and the original translations are entirely dependent on Japanese translations.
In the fifth stage (1945-1949), the Korean Peninsula was finally liberated from Japanese colonial rule. The country was in ruins and all walks of life seemed to be full of hope, but at the same time, it was in a sudden chaos. At this time, translation has gradually entered the recovery period. From the point of view of countries, the United States and the Soviet Union were the most translated works, which obviously reflected the political situation and ideology at that time. However, the translation and study of modern Chinese literature also ushered in a brief bright period. Many researchers from academic schools joined the ranks of translation, and the translation of their works also moved toward specialization and systematization, with the emergence of selected Modern Chinese Short Stories (1946), Short Stories of Lu Xun (1946), Selected Modern Chinese Poems (1947) and other individual editions. He even published the history of Modern Chinese Literature (1949), the first book of Chinese studies in Korea. Compared with the colonial period, translation at this time was no longer subject to many restrictions, and further got rid of the early enlightenment and utilitarian color in nature. It began to attempt to approach modern Chinese literary works from the perspective of aesthetics and pure literature and carried out systematic and professional research. Translators seem to want to make up for the many regrets of the colonial period and are eager to translate and study modern Chinese literature in an all-round way. Unfortunately, this boom came to an abrupt end after the outbreak of the war in 1950, and The cause of Chinese literary translation fell into recession again.

==3. Differences and Similarities in the translation history of Modern Chinese and Korean literature==
Differences and similarities in the translation history of Modern Chinese and Korean literature
As is known to all, since the 1970s, translation studies have achieved a "cultural" shift, and the scope of research has expanded from the purely linguistic category to the non-linguistic category of culture, ideology, power relations, politics and so on.The literariness and thinking of literary works determine that literary translation has the dual orientation of ideology and poetics.Therefore, the study of literary translation should be connected with the socio-historical background and the poetic background so as to analyze and explain the important translation phenomena in depth.Throughout the history of modern literary translation in China and South Korea, we will find that the biggest similarity is that the "cultural political practice" (Venuti) of translation has always been controlled by ideology.Under the environment of western learning spreading eastward, one of the main social ideologies in East Asia was"Modern transformation".As an important means of modernization transformation, translation not only has an impact on the political and economic development of China and Korea, but also plays an important role in the two countries' acceptance of Western civilization, dissemination of new knowledge, formation of new culture, and the development of their own language and literature.In the process of sorting out the translation history of modern Chinese and Korean literature, we can clearly find that there are many similarities and intersections, and of course there are individual differences.Whether similarities or differences arise, some of them are related to the social ideology of the two countries, and some are related to the influence of the translator's personal ideology.It can be said that ideology permeates all aspects of modern translation in both countries, especially the change and development of social ideology plays a significant role in the evolution of translation.Below, this paper will compare and analyze the similarities and differences of literary translation between the two countries from several aspects.
(1) The nature and motivation of translation
In terms of the nature of translation, the modern translation activities in China and South Korea have obvious utilitarian, effective and political characteristics.Before the formal launch of literary translation, China had gone through a long stage of translating and introducing western scientific and technological books for the purpose of learning from the West, strengthening industrial development and achieving a prosperous country and a strong army.After the failure of the Reform movement of 1898, the development of Chinese foreign literature translation was in fact based on the translation of novels.One of the reasons is that Liang Qichao, the leader of the Reformists, put forward the slogan of "novel revolution" and advocated the translation of political novels, blowing the horn of literary translation. At the same time, a group of literary translators represented by Lin Shu actively engaged in translation practice, which also promoted the development of literary translation at that time.At that time, the purpose of literary translation was also to enlightening the people, reforming the society and giving play to the unique role of literary thought in shaping the "consciousness of the world".After the May 4th Movement, political demands still played a leading role in the selection of translators despite literary factors.On the other hand, the Korean Peninsula, because of the late opening of port and the depth of the country's internal troubles and foreign aggression, had no time to translate western literature as China and Japan did in terms of promoting industrial development and enriching the country and strengthening its armed forces.For them, translation is first of all a means of understanding the outside world, and its direct purpose is to get rid of the control of foreign forces and achieve independence.Therefore, the modern translation of the Korean Peninsula did not go through the stage of large-scale scientific translation, but from the very beginning, a part of social science translation and a large number of literary translation, including political novels, biographies of great men and so on.In particular, the translation of literary works has always occupied an important position in the modern translation of the Korean Peninsula.It is worth mentioning that liang Qichao had a great influence on literary translation during the Period of Korean Civilization.It was under his influence that a large number of political novels were translated and introduced to the Korean Peninsula, and played an important role in the transformation of thoughts and concepts in the Korean Peninsula in the modern period and the emergence and development of modern literature.Of course, after entering the period of colonial rule, the Translation of the Korean Peninsula became more colonial,In many ways, it is more influenced and restricted by Japan. Although there is also the pursuit of literature, the final translation inevitably has a strong political nature.In a word, the translation activities in the first half of the 20th century in both countries are determined by both literary factors and social ideology, but in the final analysis, the latter always plays a dominant role.Due to the special historical environment and similar fate, translation in both countries has strong utilitarian, utility and political characteristics to a large extent, which are the manifestation of the "manipulation" of translation by the ideological form.
(2) The source of the translation
There is no doubt that in all stages of modern translation history, the sources of translated works in the two countries are closely related to Japan, but there are differences in the specific range of sources and degree of dependence on Japan.In fact, before the late Qing Dynasty, a large number of Western scientific and technological books translated in China were basically based on the original Western language.In the translation period dominated by the Reformists, due to the vigorous development of Japanese translation and the characteristics of easy learning and understanding of Japanese, Liang Qichao and Kang Youwei advocated the translation of foreign works from Japanese. It was not until then that A large number of Japanese translations were carried out in China.
After the May 4th Movement, Translation in China flourished, with translators of various languages appearing in large numbers and many intellectuals participating in translation activities.At this time, the original versions of Chinese translations are also varied, including Japanese and English versions, and many are directly translated from the original.On the other hand, due to the influence of history, during the whole period of the Korean Peninsula, the translation of foreign books mainly consisted of Japanese and Chinese versions, and few of them were directly translated from the original.After entering the period of colonial rule, due to Japan's rule and influence on the Korean Peninsula in various fields, there were fewer and fewer translation cases based on The Chinese version, and the Japanese version took the dominant position.However, due to the increasing number of intellectuals focusing on Western language and literature (such as the emergence of the "Overseas Literature School" in 1926), the call for translation based on the original text became stronger and stronger.After all, most of the Korean intellectuals of the "overseas literary school" studied in Japan,Therefore, although they put forward the slogan of "translation from the original text", their translation activities are still directly or indirectly influenced by the Japanese knowledge system.In short, if the modern times of East Asia are "modern times of translation", as a bridge of translation in East Asia, Japanese translation is based on the original text or English.In China, there are both literal translation of the original text and retranslation of English and Japanese versions. On the other hand, Korean translation sources are a little bit unitary, basically retranslating some Chinese and most Japanese versions.However, from another point of view, the translation path of the Korean Peninsula at that time was the most complicated among the three countries, which could be the path of "Japanese → Korean", "Western → Chinese → Korean" or even "Western → Japanese → Chinese → Korean".
At that time, many Korean intellectuals were fluent in both Chinese and Japanese, so it was difficult to refer to only one source in the translation process.For example, The book On The Classics and The United States (1908), marked with the "translation" of Xuan Gonglian, was published with reference to both the Japanese and Chinese versions.Kim Kyo-je, a famous writer of new novels in the early modern period, translated or reprinted 11 novels at least four were translated to the Korean Peninsula through the path of "Western → Chinese → Korean";While Li Haichao translated Iron World (1908), the translation path is "Western → Japanese → Chinese → Korean" .
In Korea at that time, this kind of double, triple or even multiple retranslation is very common. For this reason, the modern Korean Peninsula is also called "retranslated modern times" by scholars.
(3) Topic selection and content of the translated work
Corresponding to the nature, motivation and characteristics of translation, there are not only similarities and intersecting points, but also their own characteristics in the topic selection of translated works.For example, the pilgrim's Progress, a religious novel by English novelist John Bunyan (1628-1688), was among the first western literary works translated in both countries.
This fact reflects the important role of western missionaries in the translation history of the two countries.Aesop's Fables is also one of the earliest and most frequently translated western literary works in both countries.Aesop's Fables was translated many times in both countries and included in the textbooks of the time as a children's book.After entering the modern and contemporary period, both countries highly respected historical and biographical works and political novels, and had a period of concentrated translation.For example, political novels such as "A Journey with the Wind", "Jingguo Meiyu" and "Iron World" have been translated into Chinese and English respectively.In addition, many historical and biographical works (especially the history of subjugations) were translated into The Korean Peninsula through Chinese media at that time, such as The Founding of Switzerland and Fifteen Little Heroes. As well as liang Qichao's writings or translations of the hundred Days' Coup, The History of the Fall of Vietnam, the biography of the three Heroes of the Founding of Italia, The biography of Madame Roland, and the biography of Hungarian patriot Gasus, etc.History books such as A New History of Tai Xi, a Brief History of Russia, A War in the Middle East and modern History of Egypt were also translated from Chinese versions. In the whole period of civilization, the Korean Peninsula concentrated on the translation of history, biographical works and political novels, although there is no lack of Japanese influence, but obviously The Influence of China can not be ignored.Due to reasons such as politics, current affairs and the market, the two countries in politics, history and biography of before and after the translation in the first decade of the 20th century gradually into the low tide, and other types of novels, such as science fiction, detective novels, western pure literary fiction and gradually be translated a lot, at the same time, poetry translation have greater development.It is worth mentioning that translation in both countries reached a new climax after the late decade of the first decade of the 20th century.In terms of the number and diversity of genres, China is far more diverse than The Korean Peninsula, but there are some interesting intersections in the literary translation topics of the two countries, such as Shakespeare, Hardy, Stevenson and Conan Doyle in The UK, Tolstoy, Gorky and Chekov in Russia, Tagore in India,Norway's Ibsen and other works have had a great influence in both countries.It is worth mentioning that there are obvious differences between the two countries in the topic selection of translated works as follows. The first is the translation of Japanese literature
The problem. As we all know, Japanese literature plays a very important role in the history of Chinese translation of foreign literature in the 20th century.On the Korean Peninsula, although the influence of Japanese literature is beyond doubt, and the translation of Japanese literature in the first half of the 20th century can be said to run through the whole modern translation activities of the Korean Peninsula, but the translation of Japanese literature in the Korean Peninsula itself is very few.
The reasons are mainly related to the special political and historical background of the Korean Peninsula and the control and infiltration of Japanese language in the Korean Peninsula after entering the colonial period, as well as the role of national emotional factors.Secondly, the translation and introduction of the other side's literature. In the first half of the 20th century, the literature of the two countries was not the main target of translation in each other's country, but this does not mean that there is no overlap between them. On the whole, the Korean Peninsula paid more and deeper attention to Chinese literature than China did to Korean literature during this period.After entering the modern society, under the extremely complicated and difficult cultural environment, the Korean Peninsula continued to translate Chinese vernacular novels and some classical poems in the Ming and Qing dynasties, and at the same time carried out a relatively concentrated translation of Liang Qichao, the pioneer of Chinese novel revolution. However, what is more noteworthy is his continuous translation and introduction of New Chinese literature, which started in the second half of the 1910s.Due to the special historical and geographical relationship, Korea is the first country in the world to notice China's new cultural movement except Japan. At that time, many magazines and newspapers on the Korean Peninsula introduced and reported the New Chinese literature. Some Korean intellectuals had deep feelings about the innovative atmosphere in The Chinese literary circle and hoped to provide necessary reference for the improvement and innovation of their own literature through the translation and introduction of The new Chinese literature.In a word, during the Period of Japanese rule, the Translation and introduction of modern Chinese literature in The Korean Peninsula was quite comprehensive, and many famous writers and works in the history of Chinese literature were involved in the topic selection, which played an important role in the study of Chinese literature in Korea. On the contrary, China's translation of Korean literature at that time was very limited, mainly due to the concern of "weak and weak ethnic literature", and also influenced by the war ideology of anti-japanese and national salvation, nationalism. However, in the huge history of modern Chinese literature translation, the translation of Korean literature is just a drop in the ocean and has not received enough attention. All in all, the depth and breadth of the translation of each other's works is extremely unbalanced.
(4) The translator's main body, translation strategies and methods
There are also similarities between the two countries on the subject of translators in the history of modern translation literature. In the early stage of translation activities, western missionaries played a great role. Later, famous intellectuals, social activists and literary scholars of the two countries realized the importance of translation, actively participated in translation activities, and became the leading leaders of modern translation in the two countries.For example, yan Fu, Liang Qichao and Lin Shu were active translators in early China, while xuan CAI, Pu Yinzhi, Shen Caihao and other famous scholars, thinkers and social activists led the translation during the Korean Peninsula's enlightenment period. After entering the decade of the 20th century, the translation of the two countries gradually entered the climax.Many Chinese writers, including Lu Xun, Guo Moruo and Zhou Zuoren, actively translated while writing. Choi Nam-sun and Lee Kwang-soo, leaders of Korean literature in the first decade of the 20th century, also actively translated their works.In addition, famous writers of new novels such as Lee Hae-jo, Ahn Guk-seon, and Choi Chan-sik were motivated and motivated by translation activities. With the development of translation, a number of specialized literary translators have emerged in both countries. In addition, some new women at that time also participated in the translation, such as Bing Xin from China and Kim Myung-soon from Korea.In terms of translation strategies or ways, early modern translation system is far from mature, highly standard translation way, utilitarian purpose, color thick, many translators from themselves and the needs of the audience, or excerpts and delete any reduction of the original (AD, Jane), or add their own opinions and comments in the process of translation, the tai shang ganying pian), Or in the form of translation only summarize the general idea (synopsis), for example, liang Qichao and Cui Nanshan's translation to a large extent are abridged, synopsis or translation.Generally speaking, the forms and methods of translation at that time were characterized by diversity and hybridity, which were similar in China and Korea. The reason is related to the mainstream ideology of the translation leaders who hoped to enlighten the people, enrich the country and strengthen the army through translation as soon as possible.
(5) Disputes on "Literary translation"
After literary translation gradually got on the right track and became the mainstream of translation works in the two countries, translators in the two countries gained further insights on the application, methods and techniques of translation and gradually began to express their own views on translation, whose discussions cover all aspects of translation. Such as translation methods, translation skills, translation and the status of translators, the role of translation. The opinions of different translators are bound to be different. Therefore, in the modern and contemporary period, both China and South Korea had debates on translation (literary translation). The focus and theme of the debate are similar, such as "translatable or untranslatable", "literal translation versus free translation" and so on.It is well known that in the history of modern Chinese translation, especially in the May Fourth Movement period, many writers began their literary career by translating foreign literature, and most of them published discussions on translation. The differences between different translators and groups have led to several famous debates in the history of Chinese translation. For example, lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren proposed Literal translation and related debates are typical examples. In addition, in the history of modern Chinese translation, there are also debates on "translated names", "translatable or not translatable literary works", translation methods such as mistranlation, hard translation and dead translation, and translation paths such as literal translation or retranslation.The 1920s was a period when the history of modern and contemporary translation in Korea was on the right track. Many newspapers and magazines published discussions on translation and related debates. In the history of modern translation on the Korean Peninsula, one of the most famous disputes about translation is the dispute between Jin Yi and Liang Zhudong about "literal translation" and "free translation" in poetry translation. Liang zhudong believes that poetry is untranslatable and should be literal compared with free translation. Jin Yi believes that although poetry is untranslatable, if translators exert their own subjective initiative, it can completely improve the value of translated poetry and even become a new creation. However, it is interesting that although Liang zhudong praised the method of "literal translation", he criticized the "overseas literature school" that focused on foreign literature at that time for being too rigid in the way of literal translation, and believed that "literal translation" should be organically combined with "free translation".In fact, the debate between literal translation and free translation, or "domestication" and "foreignization", is closely related to ideology.
The debate between translators in the two countries over these issues is actually carried out at the ideological level. According to venuti, a famous translation theorist of deconstruction school, the choice of translation strategy is determined by ideology.
(6) The influence of translation on the languages and literature of the two countries
In fact, the greatest influence of modern literary translation on China and South Korea is reflected in the development of characters and literature. First of all, translation must be carried out with language as the carrier. Under normal circumstances, the translated language is naturally the lingua franca of a country and a nation, but for China and South Korea in the late 19th and 20th centuries, a common problem emerged in the process of translation in terms of language carrier: At that time, both countries had two parallel language systems, which coincided with the social and cultural transition, so language translation became a very interesting topic.As we all know, in the late 19th century and the early 20th century, There were two languages in China: Classical Chinese and vernacular Chinese. Vernacular Chinese was still in the ascendant, while classical Chinese still played an important role in written and literary translation. Of course, the classical Chinese at this time refers to the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China common "shallow classical Chinese", it is different from the past obscure ancient prose, but in classical Chinese mixed with common sayings, is a kind of literary language between ancient Classical Chinese and vernacular.For example, Lin Shu, a great modern translator, translated foreign literature in classical Chinese. His translation was not only welcomed by readers at that time, but also had a great influence on many famous Chinese intellectuals. In the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China, there were both classical Chinese and vernacular Chinese translations, and the classical Chinese translations were more than the vernacular ones, but basically the two languages co-existed peacefully. In the process of translation, the needs of the audience should be considered. The same translator can translate in both vernacular and classical Chinese. The same foreign novel may have both classical and vernacular translations.It was not until after the New Culture Movement that the vernacular style gradually occupied the main position in written language. After the 1920s, the translated works in China were mainly in vernacular. For the development of modern Chinese vernacular, it can be said that the impact of translation is extremely far-reaching. Chinese vernacular can be divided into "traditional vernacular" and "modern vernacular".The traditional vernacular is based on a Dream of Red Mansions.
The vernacular of China represented by such vernacular classics as Water Margin, which is not influenced by western language. The "modern vernacular" is based on the traditional vernacular, influenced by oral and ancient prose and with the color of European, that is, the May 4th Movement advocated vernacular, namely the so-called European vernacular.It is worth noting that this Kind of European vernacular was actually created by western missionaries in China at that time, and the tool of missionaries to create European vernacular is translation. In order to spread religion and western culture smoothly, they translated a large number of Western books, including holy books, and consciously chose words and styles more suitable for ordinary people to read in the process of translation, which was the prototype of vernacular Chinese vigorously advocated by the May Fourth Movement.Similar to the situation in China, the Korean Peninsula in the late 19th and early 20th centuries also had two basic styles, namely, the mixed style of Chinese and Chinese and the pure Style of Chinese. It was only after the 1894-1895 Revolution that the Korean Peninsula's national language began to be widely used. It takes time for any language style to emerge and mature, and the Korean Peninsula's "pure Korean style" is no exception,In 1921, Korean language researchers formed the Korean Language Research Society under the influence of the Zhou Dynasty, which served as an opportunity for the further establishment of the modern Korean language. Before this, mixed Chinese and Korean language played an important role in the written language of the Korean Peninsula for a long time.In fact, the so-called mixed Chinese characters are based on Chinese characters, sometimes using Korean characters. The difference is that some mark Korean characters on Chinese characters, and some do not even mark Korean characters, but only Chinese characters. There is another special case, that is, the pure Chinese style with Korean auxiliary words and endings, such as the "hanging out Chinese style" used by Shen Caihao in the translation of the Biography of the Three Heroes of the Foundation of Itri.It is worth mentioning that it was also western missionaries who initially carried out translation activities in Korean. In order to preach, they carried out translation activities mainly aimed at the "Bible" in the Korean Peninsula, using the Korean language, which was not popular and was not valued by the Korean intellectuals at that time. The purpose of using The Korean language was to make the translated holy book easier for more ordinary people to accept. Kim Byeong-cheol holds that it is the translation of sacred books in the native Korean language that gave birth to the main form of modern literature on the Korean Peninsula, namely the "new novel", and thus promoted the "unity of language and language" and the emergence of modern literature in Korea.In general, the influence of translation on the development of Chinese and Korean characters and literature is far more than that. It can be said that the expansion of sentence structure, the change of style, the enrichment of vocabulary, the improvement of expressive force and the perfection of grammar system of the two languages are all inseparable from translation. In a word, translation has played an indispensable role in the unification of language and language in the history of Chinese and English literature. In addition to its role in language, translation also has a profound influence on the development of modern literature in both countries. As is known to all, the translation and introduction of a large number of foreign novels not only brought strong shock and impact to the literary circles of the two countries at that time, but also provided a lot of reference for the realization of the literary transformation of the two countries.It can be said that in the process of the collision, integration and evolution of eastern and western literature, literary translation plays a decisive external role in the transformation of Chinese and Korean literature from classical form to modern form, and has a great impact on the literary concept, literary type, narrative mode and expression mode. In this regard, researchers in China and South Korea have given positive descriptions.
==4. conclusion==
There are many similarities between China and South Korea in modern times. Under the environment of western learning spreading to the east, both of them were knocked out of the country by the West, suffered the invasion of western powers and Japan successively, and passively started the journey of modernization. Under the circumstance of deepening national crisis of domestic and foreign invasion, the enlightened intellectuals of the two countries have carried out the exploration of saving the nation from extinction, and translation is an important means for them to achieve this goal. To be specific, the historical context of the spreading of Western learning from the end of the 19th century endowed the two countries with unique historical characteristics. Due to the similarity of historical, cultural and political background and mainstream ideology, the translation of modern and contemporary literature in the two countries also presents many similarities and even intersecting points. As analyzed above, the most obvious common point in the modern translation history of China and Korea is ideology Influence throughout. For China and Korea at that time, one of the mainstream ideologies was "modernization transformation", and translation was the driving force for the modernization transformation process of the two countries. Therefore, utilitarianism and purposefulness run through the development of modern translation in both countries. In addition to the mainstream social ideology, the translator's personal ideology also has a great influence on literary translation in both countries.For example, the early translation phenomenon led by Western missionaries and the later translation activities led by intellectuals of the two countries were all carried out by translators for their personal purposes under the influence of the general environment at that time. It can be said that it is because of the influence of the subliminal form of the western learning spreading to the east that the modern and modern translations of the two countries show many similarities or similarities. Comparing the literary translation of the two countries in terms of specific content, we can find many similarities in details. For example, western missionaries played an important role at the beginning. After entering the 20th century, the translation of both countries was deeply influenced by Japan. The translation groups of the two countries were the best intellectuals and representatives of the new culture at that time. When they translated foreign works, they also carried out various discussions and even debates about translation. Translation activities have broadened the horizons of the people of the two countries and enriched their languages, literature and even culture.

It is worth mentioning that cultural exchanges between the two countries have also been continued through translation. Of course, due to the differences in specific situations, there are some differences in literary translation between the two countries while showing common features. The author believes that the biggest difference lies in the scale of translation. To be specific, from the number of translated works and translators, the discussion and construction of translation theories, the importance attached to translation, and the influence and status of translation in the history of national literature, Chinese modern translation is obviously higher. The main reason is that the translation environment and background of the two countries at that time are different, that is, the difference between complete colonies and semi-colonies. Although the Qing Dynasty fell under the background of the competition of western powers, China did not completely become a colony of any power, so it was relatively free and independent in political and cultural development. However, because Korea was annexed and ruled by Japan, it was difficult to develop modernization independently. The whole society was highly dependent on Japan, and it was also greatly restricted and influenced by Japan in terms of ideology. Translation activities were no exception.

As mentioned above, the purpose of the author's comparative study of Chinese and Korean contemporary literature translation is to restore the contemporary and contemporary literary exchanges between the two countries, and at the same time to provide necessary background for the mutual translation and introduction of the contemporary and contemporary literature of the two countries. However, the study of Chinese and Korean modern literature translation is a polyphonic and polysemy subject with a very wide range of coverage. Due to the limited space and author's ability, this paper only generalizes and arranges the subject from a macro perspective, and many details are not developed in depth. Translated works by the capacity of, for example, the sources of the related works and so on, for more exist in the two countries pay fork points to explore, in the evaluation of literature translation of words between the two countries and the specific influence of literature, especially under the background of their literary translation between the two countries the properties and significance of literary translation, etc, if you can carry out further discussion and exploration of the content, The research results will be more rich and three-dimensional.

There were many similarities between China and South Korea in modern times. Under the environment of western learning spreading to the East, both of them were knocked out of the country by the West, suffered the invasion of western powers and Japan successively, and passively started the journey of modernization. Under the circumstance of deepening national crisis of domestic and foreign invasion, the enlightened intellectuals of the two countries had carried out the exploration of saving the nation from extinction.Translation was an important means for them to achieve this goal. To be specific, the historical context of the spreading of Western learning from the end of the 19th century endowed the two countries with unique historical characteristics. Due to the similarity of historical, cultural and political background and mainstream ideology, the translation of literature in the two countries also presented many similarities and even intersecting points. As analyzed above, the most obvious common point was ideology influence. For China and Korea at that time, one of the mainstream ideologies was "modernization transformation",for which translation was the driving force. Therefore, utilitarianism and purposefulness ran through the development of modern translation in both countries. In addition to the mainstream social ideology, the translator's personal ideology also has a great influence on literary translation in both countries.For example,the early translation phenomenon led by Western missionaries and the later translation activities led by intellectuals of the two countries were all carried out by translators for their personal purposes under the influence of the general environment at that time. Without doubt, the influence of the subliminal form of the western learning spreading to the east constituted similarities between the two countries.Comparing the literary translation of the two countries in terms of specific content,we found many similarities in details. For example, western missionaries played an important role at the beginning. After entering the 20th century, the translation of both countries was deeply influenced by Japan. The translation groups of the two countries were the best intellectuals and representatives of the new culture at that time. When they translated foreign works, they also carried out various discussions and even debates about translation. Translation activities had broadened the horizons of the people and enriched their languages, literature and even culture.

It is worth mentioning that cultural exchanges between the two countries have also been continued through translation. Of course, due to the differences in specific situations, there are some differences in literary translation between the two countries while showing common features. The author believes that the biggest difference lies in the scale of translation. To be specific, from the number of translated works and translators, the discussion and construction of translation theories, the importance attached to translation to the influence and status of translation in the history of national literature, Chinese modern translation was obviously higher. The main reason was that the translation environment and background of the two countries at that time were different, that is, the difference between complete colonies and semi-colonies. Although the Qing dynasty fell under the background of the competition of western powers, China did not completely become a colony of any power, so it was relatively free and independent in political and cultural development. However, because Korea was annexed and ruled by Japan, it was difficult to develop modernization independently. The whole society was highly dependent on Japan, and it was also greatly restricted and influenced by Japan in terms of ideology. Translation activities were no exception.

As mentioned above, the purpose of the author's comparative study of Chinese and Korean contemporary literature translation is to restore the literary exchanges between the two countries, and at the same time to provide necessary background for the two countries. However, the study of Chinese and Korean modern literature translation is a polyphonic and polysemy subject with a very wide range of coverage. Due to the limited space and author's ability, this paper only generalized and arranged the subject from a macro perspective, and many details were not developed in depth, such as the sources of the related works,the evaluation of literature translation of words, the properties and significance of literary translation and so on. This paper will be more rich and three-dimensional with further discussion and exploration of the content.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 07:59, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

==References==
*金秉哲[韩]: 《韩国近代翻译文学史研究》，首尔: 乙酉文化社，1975。130-160页
*金鹤哲: 《1949 年以前韩国文学汉译和意识形态因素》，《中国比较文学》2009 年第 4 期，第 66 页。
*金旭东[韩]: 《翻译与韩国的近代》，首尔: 小明出版社，2010，第25~28页。
*王秉钦、王颉: 《20世纪中国翻译思想史》，南开大学出版社，2004，第31页。
*许钧: 《面向中西交流的翻译史研究》，《解放军外国语学院学报》2014 年第 5 期，第 140 页。
*许钧、袁筱一编著《当代法国翻译理论》，南京大学出版社，1998，第 128 页。
*朱一凡: 《翻译与现代汉语的变迁 ( 1905 ~ 1936) 》，外语教学与研究出版社，2011，第 72 页。

=刘沛婷 Western Translation history in Renaissance)=
==Abstract==
The Renaissance is not only an important period in the history of literature and technology, but also a turning point in the history of western translation. During this period, the translation of religious and literary works gradually flourished, and translators constantly put forward new translation concepts and tried translation practices.The soaring of national consciousness and national languages contributed to the characteristic ideas of translation in the Renaissance. Especially France, Britain and Germany had made outstanding contributions to the evolution and progress of the entire translation history during this period.This chapter is to have a brief introduction to the translation history in Renaissance, conduct a detailed explaination from the three countries of France, Britan and Germany respectively and illustrate some representative translators and translation theories with the hope to show the magnificent translation achievements in Renaisance and the evolvement of human translation history.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 06:19, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

==Key words==
Translation history; renaissance; France; Britain; Germany

==Introduction==

The period from around the fourteenth until the mid-seventeenth century has conventionally been designated as the Renaissance,referring to the rediscovery and revitalization of the literature, art and science of ancient Greece and Rome. The term was devised by Italian humanists who sought to reaffirm their own continuity with the classical humanist heritage after an interlude of Middle Ages (Habib 2011：79).It was a great revolution in intellect and culture. It is also “the greatest progressive revolution that mankind has so far experienced, a time which called for giants and produced giants” (Engels 1972：445).Renaissance takes spreading humanism thought as one of the main forms of expression, involving all aspects of the cultural field, including the ancient Greek, Roman works and contemporary European works. In the process of studying and reviving classical culture, as well as developing and spreading new ideas, translation obviously plays an important role. The magnificent Renaissance itself included and depended on an unprecedented scale of translation activities. Therefore, it marks not only a great development in literature, art and science, but also an important milestone in the history of translation.

Originated in Italy in the 15th century, and in the 16th century Renaissance swept Europe, (especially Western European countries) and gradually formed a climax. At that time, western society was filled with a spirit of seeking and conquering the objective world. When this spirit was reflected in the translation field, translators were full of ambition and spared no effort to constantly discover new literary styles, excavate new cultural heritages and transplant new ideas to their motherland. Many translators translated classic works related to politics, philosophy, social system, literature and art of past glorious countries into their national languages as reference for the development of their own countries. All achievements in translation were compared to "trophies" in literature and knowledge. Next, we are to have a review on translations history of France, Britain and Germany, three major Western European countries in the high tide of Renaissance.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 06:24, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

==1.History of Translation in France==

In France, during this period, the wind of restoring ancient styles began to prevail, ancient languages were valued, and ancient writers were respected. A large number of literary works of Italian humanists, such as Dante, Petrarch and Boccaccio, were introduced to France, which opened people's eyes and promoted the development of French humanist movement. Therefore, the focus of translation in France shifted from religious works to Italian classical literature works. The increasingly translation activities constituted a climax of translation history in France.Translators generally believed that translating literary works was much more difficult than translating religious works. Although translation began to reach a new climax, most of the translations were the "by-products" of literary creation, with low quality and little influence. However, in the climax of translation in France in the 16th century, there were two outstanding contributors , one is Jacques Amyot and the other is Etienne Dolet.(Tan Zaixi,2000:21)

Jacques Amyot was considered the king of translation in France. His first translation, Heliodoros’ ''Aethiopica'', was completed in 1547. Later, he translated Diodorus Siculus’s ''Bibliotheca Historica'' and, in 1559 he translated Ploutarchos’s ''Vies des Hommes illustrus'', which was Amyot’s most famous work. Amyot advocated translators’ thorough understanding of the original text and plain expressions without embellishment. He emphasized the unity of content and form, free translation and literal translation. In his translation, he borrowed words from Greek and Latin and simultaneously created a large number of words in politics, philosophy, science, literature, music and so on. He fused common people language and academic language, and therefore formed an independent style of translation and greatly enriched the French vocabulary. At that time, the French language is still in a state of confusion, Amyot and other humanists made tremendous contributions to unify the French national language.

Another great man in translation history of France was Etienne Dolet. As a famous translation theorist, Dolet advocated targeted texts’ faithfulness to the original work, which is the fundamental and indispensable principle in translation. Dolet believed that an excellent translator must be proficient in both source language and target language. He was aware of the weakness of word-by-word translation and emphasized that the translation should be consistent with the original text in style through various rhetorical devices. Ballard,a French translation theorist, argued that dolet’ translation principles constituted the rudiment of the French translation theory. What he proposed was the universal principles for translation.(Xu Jun and Yuan Xiaoyi,1998:284)

Jacques Amyot set an example for the following translation works in France in the 16th century; Etienne Dolet’s translation theories were of great significance and were the first systematic principles of translation, which were ahead of those of Germany and Britain and advanced translation studies into a higher level. Thanks to their efforts, France had earned a place in translation history during Renaissance period.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 06:25, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

==2. History of Translation in Britain==

In Britain, the Renaissance came later than in the main countries of continental Europe, but Britain gradually kept up with others countries. During this period, the British capitalist economy developed rapidly, productivity improved greatly, and the country became increasingly prosperous , which has laid a solid material foundation for the development of literature and translation. Especially since Elizabeth came to the throne in the mid-16th century by the early 17th century, translation was flourishing. On the one hand, religious translation is in the ascendant, on the other hand, a great deal of literature from Greece, Rome and other contemporary countries was translated into English, which made English translation activities in this period one of the peaks of translation activities in Europe and even the world. Literary translation ranged from history and philosophy to poetry and drama, with the occurrence of a large number of excellent translators,who introduced ancient ingenuity to Britain, offering serious lessons not only to the Queen and politicians, but also plots and materials for dramatists and readers with the purpose of serving their country. At that time, many translators were not scholars, they were not bound by any strict translation theory, they could translate what they had at their own will. Many translations are not directly from the original texts, but from the translations or even the translation of the translation. Therefore, the scope and quantity of translation are unprecedented in Britain.In the aspect of religious translation, the translator was also influenced by humanism and the Reformation, a new understanding of the Bible arose, as well as a new attitude and a new way of dealing with the translation of the Bible. People advocated accurate translation in religious works, while for literature, the unbridled freedom of traditional translation methods persisted throughout the Elizabethan era.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 07:15, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

====2.1 Translation of Douglas and Cheke====

Gavin Douglas (1475-1522), a famous Scottish poet and translator, published his translation of Virgil’s epic Poem ''The Aeneid'' in the early 16th century. He began his preface with a eulogy of Virgil and then launched into a serious critique of the overly liberal medieval translation. He criticized Caxton's French translation as unfaithful, as far from Virgil's original work, and "as different from the devil as st. Austin" (Amos,1920:129). Douglass did not translate word by word, but freely translated. He said that if translator encountered difficult words, sentences, rhymes, one had to deviate from the original text. Douglass had added new content and new meaning to translation principles, and thus had a certain value.

Towards the middle of the 16th century, an important figure in translation was John Cheke (1514-1557). He was a humanist and supporter of the Reformation, as well as a polyglot authority on Greek at the time and served as Principal Regent Chair Professor at Cambridge university. As a result of his popularity, Cambridge became one of the academic centers in Britain, and its students were well versed in translation and language studies.Cheke was a tireless translator,who had translated many Greek works and the Bible. Characteristically, he used only pure English words or words of Saxon origin in any case, and did not adopt any foreign words. He thought the English language was rich enough without borrowing foreign words. Because of his insist on pure English words and expressions in his translation, he sometimes had to use vulgar, old and remote words, so that the style of his translation was sometimes forced and stiff.
Cheke's theory had a great influence on contemporary translators. Many other translators often mentioned Cheke's translation views in their own translations. At that time, the main criterion for evaluating a translated work was whether it was authentic and easy to be understood by compatriots. At the same time, the study of foreign grammar and contrastive vocabulary also appeared in language studies. The translator aimed to turn the translation into a textbook for students of language and translation to imitate. Some translators also use word-for-word translation to provide guidance to students. Abraham Fleming, for example, translated Virgil's Poems "according to grammatical rules." He "used plain and understandable words so as to accommodate those who are slow in comprehension, since the translator's aim is to use straightforward language structures to ease the difficulties of those whose grammatical concepts are vague, rather than to devise ways to satisfy the desires of grander humanists" (Amos,1920:109).--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 07:16, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

====2.2 Translation from Thomas North to Georga Chapman====

However, in the translation of classical masterpieces, translators tended to shift from one extreme to another. In order to avoid word-for-word translation, translators adopted excessively free translation, which was not only for the expression of words but also for the treatment of the substance of the content. Nicholas Udall(1505-1556) created the first British comedy ''Ralph Roister Doister''. In 1542 he translated Erasmus's ''Book of Proverbs'', and later presided over Erasmus's Latin translation, including the Gospel of Luke, which was published in 1548. In the preface to the translation of the ''New Testament'', he discussed various issues related to translation: the treatment of translators, the expansion of English vocabulary, the treatment of sentence structure of the translation, Erasmus's style and the stylistic characteristics of different authors. In his opinion, translation should not follow rigid rules. He advocated the use of liberal translation without deviation from the original meaning, and the translation should be readable and understandable to the general readers.

The most famous translation work of the whole Elizabethan period was the English version of ''The live of the Noble Grecians and Romans'' by translator Thomas North (1535-1601).He studied at Cambridge University in his early years, and later worked in London, where he met many translation lovers and gradually became interested in translation. In 1557 he translated ''Diall of Princes'' from a French translation and later he translated an oriental allegory from an Italian translated version in 1601. ''The live of the Noble Grecians and Romans'' was translated in 1579. This translation was not from the original Greek version, but from Amyot's French translation. However, it was still considered as an excellent epoch-making translation. North did not express any unique views on translation, but he was famous for his excellent translation in the western translation circle with three main characteristics:(1)because it is not from the original Greek, the style of the translation is different from Plutarch's style; The original text is elegant while his translation is plain. (2) North's style is also different from that of Amio in the French translation, which he used as a model. He not only changes the wording of the French translation, but also its spirit. Like Amio's French translation, North's is another masterpiece based on Plutarch's original subject. (3) Though he knew little of the classical language, North was a master of The English language, and his translations were so simple and fluent, so elegant and idiomatic, that readers might have taken them for the original if they had not read the plot(Tan Zaixi 2004:76). North's translation was praised by Shakespeare, who drew his inspirations from this translated works and cited its expressions, which can be considered a terrific contribution of translation to literature. The prose style adopted by ''The live of the Noble Grecians and Romans'' is novel and elegant, neither rigid nor grotesque, and hence it has become an enduring model in the history of English translation.

Philemon Holland (1552-1637) was the most outstanding English translator of the 16th century, whose works outnumbered those of his contemporaries. He had been a surgeon and headmaster of Coventry General School. He was a learned translator and scholar, fluent in Greek and Latin, proficient in ancient writing and proverbs, as well as rhetoric. His classical works were not translated but directly from the Original Greek and Latin texts, and the subject matter was also varied. He translated Livy's Romane Historie in 1600 and Pliny's Natural Historie in 1601, Plutarch's Moralia in 1603, and translated Zitonius's The Historie of The Twelve Caesars in 1606. Hollander is better known in British translation circles than North or Florio, known as the Elizabethan "translator general" who truly understood "the secret of translation." Holland's translation has two main characteristics :(1) translation must serve the reality; (2) Translation must be stylistic. In the preface to his translation of Natural History, he emphasized, "the practicality of the content of the translation, which should be suitable not only for learned people, but also for the uncivilized peasants in the countryside and for the industrious craftsmen in the cities”(Amos 1920:86). Hollander was particular about the style of his translation. Like other translators of his time, he used a slow prose style, and the translation was always longer than the original. In his translation he tried to be authentic, not foreign. He does not use artificial language, but popular style. Like Cheke before him, he also preferred archaic words to foreign ones out of love for the language of his own country. What’s more, he believed that the style of the original work must be reflected in the translation, and that different works must adopt different styles without adding differences. Hollander had left behind more than just translations, but a series of works with distinctive stylistic characteristics that could withstand even the rigors of modern stylist analysis and provide the modern reader with great pleasure.

Georga Chapman (1559-1634) was another outstanding translator, whose greatest contribution is that his translations serve as a bridge between the 16th and 17th centuries. He spent his early years as a student at Oxford University before writing poetry and plays. But it was mainly his translations that made him famous in the literary world. He translated the first seven books of the Iliad in 1598, completed the epic in 1611, and the Odyssey in 1616. The translator's profound attainments and outstanding achievements made his translation a literary masterpiece of the time. Chapman adopted two different styles to translate the same poetic style of the original work, that is, he translated Iliad in sonnet and Odyssey in heroic couplet. In contrast, the former is more appropriate and decent than the latter. In his translation, Chapman made extensive use of mythological dictionaries, referred to early reviews of Homer's work. However, both in content and style, the translation is not completely consistent with the original work. It has transformed the characters in the poem, and added elements of moral preaching to the value of wisdom and the expression and restraint of feelings. Chapman is unblemished as a translator. As a poet, however, he was blameless. His translation has achieved great success mainly because of his extraordinary creative ability as a poet and superb ability to control language.
Chapman also made some contributions to the theoretical issues of translation. In the preface of his translation, he clearly put forward the principles guiding the translation of poetry, thus filling some gaps in translation theory in the 16th century, especially in the later period. In principle, he was against too much strictness as well as too much freedom. He said, "I despise the translators for being trapped in the mire of word-for-word translation, losing the living soul of their native language and blackening the original author with stiff language. At the same time, I abhors the use of complicated language to express the meaning”(Amos 1920:130). Of all that he opposed, the first was word for word translation,which was considered the most unnatural and absurd. According to the views of translation theories such as Horace, who had insight and a prudent attitude that the translator should not follow the original number of words and word order, but follow its material composition and sentences, carefully weigh sentences, and then use the most appropriate expressions and form to express and decorate the translation. Chapman believed that word-by-word translation was a common fault of translators, and even he himself was inevitable. But those mistakes could be overcome. Although the expression of meaning and language style of Greek and English are different, the translator could compare the translation with the original text in meaning and style as long as he carefully identified, understood the spirit of the original text and had a thorough understanding of its grammar and vocabulary and thus approximately achieved "formal correspondence"(Catford 1965:32). Chapman's theory was carried on by many translators of the 17th and 18th centuries. This was obviously because he opposed both extremes, and it was easier to argue for a compromise.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 06:45, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

====2.3 Translation of Tyndale and Fulke====

In the 16th century, the translation of the English Bible also flourished. Since the introduction of ethnic translation in the Middle Ages, the Bible had been increasingly read. It had the same appeal for all classes of people, which prompted translators to combine the accuracy required by scholars with the intelligibility required by ordinary people, thus promoting the overall development of translation art and theory. In this respect, religious translation in England in the 16th century was more effective than literary translation. Tyndale and Fulke were the main representatives of bible translation.

William Tyndale (1494-1536) was an erudite humanist and protestant reformist. In 1523, his translation of the New Testament from Greek from a Protestant standpoint was opposed and persecuted by the English church authorities and was not allowed to be published. He fled to Germany in 1524 and, after many twists and turns, had his translation first published in 1525. In 1526, he smuggled the translation back to England against the will of the Church, trying to spread Protestant ideas through the new translation of the Bible and convert The English people to Protestants. The church authorities immediately took measures to lay siege. The Bishop of London claimed to have found 2,000 errors in Tyndale's translation. Thomas More, a famous humanist, attacked his translation very unkindly, and the priests bought all the copies they could get and burned them to prevent their proliferation. Uncompromising, Tyndale continued to translate the Bible in his own way: he translated the first book of the Old Testament in 1530, completed The Book of Jonah in 1531, and published the revised New Testament in 1534. The church authorities had no choice but to burn Tyndale in 1536 for heresy.
Tyndale's translation, however, had not disappeared but was republished after Tyndale's martyrdom and became increasingly influential, serving as the main reference version and as the model for all English translations for centuries to come. The greatest achievement of Tyndale's translation is that it takes into account the needs of academe, conciseness and literariness, and integrates these three elements into the style of English translation of the Bible. Tyndale paid special attention to the popularity of the translation, trying to use the authentic English vocabulary and ordinary narrative expressions of vivid and specific expressions, which makes his text simple and natural without being pedantic.

If Tyndale made a special contribution to the practical translation of the Bible in the 16th century, then it was William Fulke (1538-1589)who made the greatest achievements in the theoretical study of bible translation. Fulke was a scholar of The Bible with humanistic thoughts. Without translating the Bible completely, he had great views on translation theory. In 1589 he published a book entitled in Defence of the Sincere and True Translation of the Holy Scriptures into the English Tongue. It must be pointed out that Fulke did not systematically discuss the universal principles of translation as Dolet did. Instead, he only talked about the facts and refuted Gregory Martin's views, and expounded the theoretical issues in a rather chaotic manner. To sum up, there were mainly two aspects as follows:
(1)Translation can have nothing to do with faith. Fulke, influenced by Erasmus's linguistic approach, disagreed with Martin's assertion of theological authority over scientific scholarship. Translators, he believed, must be fluent in many languages so that they could make accurate judgments about the teachings of the saints without blindly following them. The power of a translator lies in his solid linguistic ability, not in his belief in God. He said, The translator cannot be called an unfaithful heretic as long as the translation conforms to the language and meaning of the original text, even if the motive is not good. (Amos 1920:71) Fulke never accepted Martin's strict translation formulas, nor did he submit to unproven authoritative theories, even from the leaders of his own faction. Fulke’s point of view is obviously a challenge to the theological authority of Augustine with its purpose to liberate the Bible translation from the narrow theological tradition and win the right for ordinary people to translate and interpret the Bible.
(2)The Translation of the Bible must respect linguistic habits. If the translator has difficulty in understanding the original text, he/she should turn to the language habits of ancient non-religious writers, while one encounters difficulties in diction, translator should refer to the language habits of contemporary secular writers and the general public. Fulke added: "We are not lords dictating the way people speak. If we were, we would teach them how to use language better. Since we cannot change the way people speak, we have to follow Aristotle's instructions and use the language of ordinary people."(Amos 1920:72) Therefore, religious usage should give way to common usage if it is in conflict with common usage. In translation, words and expressions that are most easily understood must be used so that those who do not know their etymological meaning can understand them. At the same time, if words have been misused over a long period of time, with meanings that do not correspond to the original meaning of the words, or have been misused to increase the ambiguity of the words, the translator should not follow blindly, but should look to the root and choose the words according to their original meaning, that is, according to the meaning used in the time when the Bible was written. In translating the Bible into English, Fulke did not advocate excessive borrowing of foreign words but tapping the expressive potential of English itself and paying attention to the use of expressions in line with English habits. Fulke acknowledged that English had a small vocabulary compared with older languages, but argued that this could not be compensated for by making up words, but by using Old English words again.
Clearly, some of Mr Fulke's views are limited and conservative. Many of the foreign words he objects to have been adopted as part of the English vocabulary. But many of his criticisms of Martin are convincing, and his work has been generally praised by the translators of the Bible. Some of his observations on language are so incisive that they are still of great reference value to the study of modern English.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 07:17, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

==3.History of Translation in Germany==

In Germany, the national self-consciousness was further strengthened, and the trend of mechanical imitation of Latin gradually disappeared in the 15th century.

====3.1 Dominant Ideas in German Translation====

Linguists realized the unique style and expressive ability of German, and hence shifted the focus of translation from the original language to the target language. Free translation took the place of word-to-word translation and occupied the dominant position. The only reason for translators to object literal translation is its convenience for readers to understand word-by-word translation.
Gradually, scholars recognized that Hebrew, Greek, and Latin all have distinct features, especially in terms of idiomatic expressions. Similarly, since German is an independent language, it also has its own unique expressions that cannot be translated word by word into other languages, nor can expressions in other languages be translated word by word into German. Based an an understanding of the nature and differences of languages as well as a growing sense of nationality and desire to develop the national language, more and more historians and scholars have begun to use German idiomatic expressions rather than imitate Latin.
Against the background of this trend of thought, the free translators gradually changed their inferiority in the debates with the literal translators in the 15th century, and rightly put forward another profound reason against literal translation: German is an independent language with its own rules that must be respected; German has its own language style, which cannot be destroyed by imitation of other languages. This was the dominant idea in German translation throughout the 16th century.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 07:17, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

====3.2 Translation of Reuchlin, Erasmus and Luther====

Johannes Reuchlin(1455-1522) aroused great academic interest in Hebrew. In 1515, he wrote Epistolae Obscurorum Virorum, exposing the narrow-mouthing ignorance of the scholars and monks, which led to a fierce debate between the reformers and conservatives in the church. At the same time, he was also very knowledgeable about translation theory. He mainly translated two works, ''Batrachom Yomachia'' (1510) and ''Septem Psalmos Poenitentiales'' (1512), using word-for-word translation. This contradicts his own remarks about translation.
However, its actual content and general principles could not be compared to those of the literal translation school in the 15th century. The literatrists of the 15th century only emphasized the imitation of certain rhetorical forms of the text, while Reuchlin understood the value of rhythm and the difference between the text and the translation. He believed that the form of the original was so closely integrated with the original that it could not be preserved in the target language. Just like Homer's works alive only in Greek, it would detract from the aesthetic value of literature when translated into any other language. The purpose of literal translation was not to ask the translator to imitate the style of the original text, but to make readers pay attention to the style of the original text and appreciate its literary value.

Another outstanding representatives of a new approach to literary study and new insights into translation theory in the 16th century was Desiderius Erasmus (1466-1536), who was born in a priest's family in Rotterdam, Netherlands. His early education was influenced by The Canon of Augustine. After studying in Paris, he lived successively in Britain, Germany, Italy and Switzerland, accepting humanism and opposing scholasticism. He was knowledgeable, good at language studies, and had profound attainments in Greek and Latin literature, especially his incisive treatises on literature and style.
Erasmus advocated that the original work must be respected. Before Erasmus, the Translation of the Bible in Various European countries was in a state of confusion. Erasmus bitterly pointed out that the translation and commentary of the Bible must be faithful to the original text, because no translation can fully translate the "language of God" as the Bible itself. Early theologians did not understand Hebrew or Greek and could not understand the original text of the Bible, so the truth of the Bible was covered up, distorted, or ossified into dogma. To uncover this truth, we must go back to the source. It is truth, not authority, that should be respected. What’s more, he claimed that translator must have a rich knowledge of language. He believed that to interpret the ''New Testament'' correctly it was necessary to learn ancient Greek; Anyone who wished to pursue theological studies must first be able to read the classics and learn Greek semantics, meanings, and rhetoric. Also, he realized the great importance of style in translation and attached great importance to readers’ requirements. There is no doubt that Erasmus' translation theory is the result of his humanistic thought, his mastery of multiple languages as well as his appreciation of literary styles. His translation principles and methods have exerted great influence on both contemporary and later translators.

Martin Luther (149-146) was the founder of the European Religious Reform movement and the Protestant Church reformer. Luther translated the Bible, known as “the first bible of common people” in the history by using the people's language, which played a great role in unifying the German language and laid a foundation for the formation and development of modern German.
He also proposed that translation should adopt common people language and only appropriate free translation can bring the original enlightening thoughts of Bible into light. Grammatical correction and semantic coherence were of great value during translation. Translation was so challenging that it requires collective wisdom and repeatedly revisions.
Luther had also put forward seven rules for translation: the word order of the original text can be changed; modal particles can be used reasonably; necessary conjunctions can be added; words in the original text that do not have an equivalent can be omitted; phrases can be used to translate individual words; figurative usage and non-figurative usage can be changed flexibly; the accuracy of variant forms and explanations should be strengthened. Although Luther’s translation practice received a great deal of criticism, his translation of Bible his was considered to be the earliest written language in German and opened a new era in the development of modern German(Xie Tianzhen 2009:23).It endowed him with the highest reputation and the most profound influence in Germany.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 07:04, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

==Conclusion==
It could be seen from the above sections that one of the biggest characteristics of Western translation during the Renaissance was the parallel and independent development of the translation of western European national languages. The use of Latin, though still having some market, was a tributary in both writing and translation. Before the Renaissance, especially before the middle ages, when we talked about western translation, we mostly meant translation in Latin. Since the Renaissance, with the gradual formation and consolidation of national states and the development of national languages, western translation had turned to national languages,especially French, English and German.The translation activities in the Renaissance period were basically devoid of disciplinary consciousness, and the theories were fragmentary and unsystematic. Most of the authors were translation practitioners, and most of the theories were empirical(Pan Wenguo 2002:23). Thanks to the translators in these three countries who were devoted themselves to the study of translation principles and the transmission of classic works, their consistant and pain-staking efforts had pushed the translation theory to anew level and left countlessly valueable translated works.Therefore, the Renaissance could be said to be a turning point in the history of western translation. In short, the Renaissance marks that the translation of national languages has been firmly on the historical stage, and that translation practice and theory have broken away from the dark Middle Ages.It also laid a solid foundation for the contemporary translation.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 07:14, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

==References==
*Amos, Flora Ross. (1920). Early Theories of Translation. New York: Columbia University Press.
*Benjamin, Andrew. (1989). Translation and the Nature of Philosophy: A New Theory of Words. London and New York: Routledge.
*Catford,J.C.(1965) A Linguistic Theory of Translation.New York: Oxford University Press.
*Dolet, Etienne. (1540). How to Translate Well from One Language to Another. Robinson.
*Frederick Engels. (1883) The Dialects of Nature. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
*Luther, Martin. (1530). Sendbrief vom Dolmetschen. Stoerig.
*M.A.R. Habib. (2011) Literary Criticism from Plato to the Present: An Introduction. New Jersey: Wiley-Blackwell Publishing.
*Munday, Jeremy. (2001). Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. London and New York: Routledge.
*Pan Wenguo 潘文国.(2002) 当代西方的翻译学研究[Contemporary Translation Studies in the West].中国翻译[Chinese Translation Journal] 31-34.
*Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2000). 翻译学[Translation Studies]. Wuhan: Hubei Educational Press 湖北教育出版社.
*Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004).西方翻译简史[A Short History of Translation in the West]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.
*Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2003). 翻译研究新视野[New Perspective for Translation Studies]. Qingdao: Qingdao Publishing 青岛出版社.
*Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2009).中西翻译简史[A Brief History of Translation in China and the West].Beijing:Foreign Language Teachinng and Research Press 北京外语教学与研究出版社.
*Xu Jun, Yuan Xiaoyi 许钧，袁筱一. (1998). 当代法国翻译理论[Contemporary Translation Thoery in France]. Nanjing: Nanjing University 南京大学.

=刘薇 Contemporary American Translation History)=

Liu Wei 刘薇 Hunan Normal University, China

==Abstract==
The United States is an important part of the "West", so when we talk about the conception of "West", it is impossible not to include the United States.Therefore, this chapter combs the development of contemporary American translation by introducing a series of theories of American Translators.

==Key words==
translation theory of American, Eugene Nida,Robert Boogrand.

==Introduction==

In the field of translation studies, the situation in the United States is very special.Since the history of the United States itself is not long, we can not expect to talk about "ancient American translation theory", "medieval American translation theory", or even "modern American translation theory".American translation theory is mainly the "contemporary translation theory", which is developed after World War II (Guo Jianzhong, [introduction]: 2).Although the development of American translation theory is relatively short, there are still many influential translation theorists, such as Eugene Nida, Robert Boogrand, Andre Leverville, Lawrence Venudi, Edwin Gentzler and so on. They are constantly innovating and developing new theories in the field of translation.

==Chapter1 Characteristics of the local American translation theory ==

The development of contemporary American translation theory has three main characteristics: first, it inherits the tradition of European translation theory in terms of overall research methods;Second, the early studies were mostly influenced by the schools of American structural linguistics;Third, there is a tendency to catch up in research results.These characteristics are discussed one by one below.

On the first point, the inheritance of European tradition in the overall research method of American translation theory is due to its unique language and cultural tradition.As an integral part of the whole culture, translation culture naturally presents the basic characteristics of the development of the whole culture.Since the American culture with English as the national language is mainly inherited from European culture, the development of American translation culture, as an integral part of American culture, also inherits European translation culture.Especially in the early stage of the development of American translation theory, many influential people engaged in translation studies were immigrants from Europe or descendants of recent European immigrants.

Take Thorman as an example: his translation theory work the art of translation published in 1901 is one of the earliest published works in the field of American translation theory, but the contents and discussion methods involved in the book have no obvious "American characteristics".On the contrary, it is more like a work belonging to Europe, especially the British translation tradition. Even the examples in the book are similar to the European, especially the British translation tradition.

The second characteristic of the tradition of American translation theory is that the early studies were greatly influenced by the schools of American structural linguistics, which can be said to be a more distinctive "American characteristic" in American translation studies.

American linguistic studies are at the forefront of the West in many aspects. There have been many linguistic schools, such as human language school, structuralism school, transformational generative school and so on. All kinds of schools have also had various direct or indirect effects on American translation studies.

The representative of American structuralist language school is Bloomfield. He adopts the method of behaviorism and believes that everything about language can be studied scientifically and objectively.He put forward a behaviorist semantic analysis method, which holds that meaning is the relationship between stimulus and language response.In 1950s, Chomsky's transformational generative theory replaced Bloomfield's theory and occupied the dominant position in American linguistics theory and occupied the dominant position in American linguistics.The influence of Chomsky's theory on translation studies mainly lies in his discussion of surface structure and deep structure.The concept of "deep" has led to large-scale semantic research. Because semantics is closely related to translation research, Chomsky's theory has promoted the development of translation theory in the United States and even the whole west.

Therefore, under the influence of various linguistic theories, many people try to put forward new translation concepts and research methods. These people can be collectively referred to as the structural School of American translation theory.Among them, the main characters include Wojilin, Bolinger, Katz, Quinn and Eugene Nida.

Take Wojilin as an example. He is a human linguist.His greatest contribution is to put forward a multi-step translation method (also known as step-by-step translation method).The biggest advantage of his multi-step translation method is that the steps are clear, flexible and easy to master.

Using Chomsky's transformational generative theory, Boringer puts forward a concept of structural translation as opposed to lexical translation.Based on structural linguistics, Katz makes a profound analysis of the translatability of language and the philosophical problems in language and translation.Based on the discussion of strange language, Quinn expounds some basic problems of translation from the perspective of philosophy, which has aroused great repercussions in the field of western translation theory.

The third characteristic of the development of American translation theory is that it has a tendency to catch up with others in research results.One of the most prominent scholars is Eugene Nida. Although he is an outstanding linguist, his views on "translation is science", "translation is communication", "translation must pay attention to reader response" and other aspects are an innovation and breakthrough to the previous views. In addition, after Eugene Nida, many scholars have put forward many new views because of their existence,It was only after World War II that American translation theory continued to catch up.
Therefore, we will focus on him in the next chapter.

==Chapter2 Eugene Nida's translation theory==

Eugene Albert Nida (1914 -) was born in Oklahoma City in the south central United States. He graduated from the University of California, Los Angeles in 1936. In 1943, he worked in Bloomfield and fries (Charles fries received his doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous scholars. As the leading translation theory figure in contemporary America, Nida has also engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology and communication engineering. Before his retirement in the 1980s, he worked in the Translation Department of the American Holy Bible Association and served as the executive secretary of the translation department for a long time. He is mainly engaged in the Bible Organization of translation and revision of translations and the Bible Training and theoretical guidance for translators. He is proficient in many languages and has investigated and studied more than 100 languages, especially some small languages in Africa and Latin America. In 1968, he served as the president of the American language society. Although he does not take teaching as his career, he has extremely rich experience in Translation training and lecturing. In addition to a long-term part-time job, he speaks linguistics in the famous American summer In addition to teaching linguistics and translation courses in the Institute, he also served as a guest lecturer and professor in many American universities. He was often invited to give short-term lectures in Europe, Latin America, Africa and Asia, and won several honorary doctorates. In order to recognize his contribution to translation research, especially in the field of Bible translation research, the American Bible Association named the Institute after him in 2001 In particular, Nida has deep feelings for China. Since 1982, he has been invited to give lectures in China more than ten times, and has maintained close academic contacts and exchanges with many schools and academic colleagues in China for a long time.

Nida is a prolific language and translation theorist. From 1945 to 2004, he published more than 200 articles and more than 40 works (including works cooperated and edited with others). Among them, there are more than 20 works on language and translation theory, and a collection of papers has been published.

His research achievements include "Toward a Science of Translating" published in 1964, "The Theory and Practice of Translation" Co authored with Charles Taber in 1969, "Com ponential Analysis of Meaning " published in 1975 and "language structure and Translation" . Nida's anthology "Language Structure and Translation : Essays by Eugene A. Nida，ed. by Anwar S. Dil" , "From One Language to Another" , co authored with de warrd in 1986, "The Sociolinguistics of Interlingual Communication" , published in 1996 and published in 2001 "Language and Culture :Contertsin Translating" 。

Throughout Nida's translation thought, we can divide it into three main development stages: the linguistic stage with obvious American structuralism in the early stage, the stage of translation science and translation communication in the middle stage, and the stage of social semiotics.

The first major stage is the linguistic stage, from 1943 when he wrote his doctoral thesis "a summary of English syntax" to 1959 when he published "principles of translation from biblical translation".At this stage, he tries to clarify the structural nature of language through the description of syntax, morphology and language translation.In his early days, he was greatly influenced by American structuralist Bloomfield and human linguist Sapir, and paid attention to the collection and analysis of language materials in language research.Through the opportunity to visit and contact different languages all over the world, many examples of speech differences are collected.However, he does not regard speech differences as insurmountable obstacles between languages, but as different phenomena of the same essence.

The second development stage of Nida's translation thought is the stage of translation science and translation communication. It took 10 years from the publication of "principles of translation from biblical translation" in 1959 to the publication of "translation theory and practice" in 1969.The research achievements at this stage have played a key role in establishing Nida's authoritative position in the whole western translation theory circle.
By summarizing this main development period, the main contents of the following five aspects can be summarized:

（一）Translation science.Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill, but also a science.The so-called science here means that translation problems can be handled by "scientific approaches to language structure, semantic analysis and information theory", that is, a linguistic and descriptive method can be adopted to explain the translation process.If the principles and procedures of translation seem to be normative, it is only because they are generally considered to be the most useful in a specific scope of translation.Nida's view that "translation is science" has had great repercussions in the field of western linguistics and translation theory.

（二） Translation communication theory. Nida applies communication theory and information theory to translation studies and holds that translation is communication. After World War II, not only advertisers, politicians and businessmen attached great importance to the intelligibility of language, but also scholars, writers, editors, publishers and translators realized that any information would be worthless if it could not play a communicative role. Therefore, to judge whether a translation is successful, we must first see whether it can be immediately understood by the recipient and whether it can play a role in the communication of ideas, information and feelings. Therefore, in the field of translation research, various names and statements such as "communicative translation", "functional translation" and related "equal response theory", "equal effect theory", "equal role theory" and "equal power theory" have sprung up one after another. Nida's "translation is communication" and his "reader response theory" and "dynamic equivalence" discussed below“ "Functional equivalence" has become an important representative of the communicative school in the field of western translation studies.

Nida's theory of "translation is communication" is based on the theory of language commonality. Nida, like Jacobson, believes that all languages in the world have the same expression ability, which can enable native speakers of the language to express ideas, describe the world and carry out social communication. His argument is based on the same "identity" For example, in countries with relatively developed productive forces, many scientific and technological words will appear in their languages, while in countries with less developed or very low productive forces, there may be a lack of scientific and technological words in their languages. However, this does not mean that the latter has the same expressive ability as the former, but only shows that people have different requirements for languages in different languages, It is not because the language cannot produce scientific and technological vocabulary, but because the speakers of the language do not have or temporarily do not have the requirement to use scientific and technological vocabulary. Once there is such a requirement, there will be corresponding vocabulary in the language, or "native" scientific and technological vocabulary, or "foreign" vocabulary transplanted from foreign words. In short, the expression efficiency of various languages is the same.

Nida believes that the primary task of translation is to make it clear to the readers at a glance after reading the translation. That is to say, the translation should be fluent and natural, and the readers can understand it without the knowledge of the cultural background of the source language. This requires that rigid foreign words should be used as little as possible in translation, and expressions belonging to the receiving language should be used as much as possible. For example, in a Sudanese language, for If the expression "repent and reform" is translated directly, it will make people feel at a loss, and it should be translated into the local familiar "spitting on the ground in front of someone". For example, in the language without "Snow", white as snow may be puzzling, but it should be said "white as frost" or "white as egret hair" Another example is that in the ancient West, the habit of people meeting and greeting each other was "sacred kiss", but now it should become "very warm handshake".

In a sense, the theory of translation communication is not only one of the main symbols of Nida's second development stage of translation thought, but also one of the biggest characteristics of his whole ideological system.Especially after the publication of translation theory and practice, Nida's translation communication theory has had a great impact on the western translation circles, including those in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union.

（三） Dynamic equivalence theory.The so-called dynamic equivalence translation is actually translation under the guidance of translation communication theory. Specifically, it refers to "reproducing the source language information with the closest (original) natural equivalence in the receiving language from semantics to style".In this definition, there are three key points: one is "nature", which means that the translation cannot have a translation cavity;The second is "close", which refers to selecting the translation with the closest meaning to the original text on the basis of "nature";The third is "equivalence", which is the core.Both "nature" and "close" serve to find equivalents.

（四） Translation function theory.From the perspective of sociolinguistics and language communicative function, Nida believes that translation must serve the reader.To judge whether a translation is correct or not, we must take the reader's response as the criterion.If the response of the target readers is basically the same as that of the original readers, the translation can be considered successful.

（五） Four step model.This refers to the translation process.Nida puts forward that the process of translation is: analysis, transfer (transfer the meaning obtained from the analysis from the source language to the receiving language), reorganization (reorganize the translation according to the rules of the receiving language), and inspection (detect the target text against the source text).Among these four steps, "analysis" is the most complex and key, which is the focus of Nida's translation research.The focus of the analysis is semantics. He distinguishes four parts of speech from the perspective of semantics: object words, activity words, abstract words and relational words.In semantic analysis, he introduced three methods: linear analysis, hierarchical analysis and component analysis.In the specific analysis of semantics, he focuses on grammatical meaning, referential meaning and connotative meaning (or emotional meaning and associative meaning).These distinction theories are of great significance to understand his translation thought.

Nida's research achievements in the 1980s can be regarded as the third stage of translation thought.He has made a series of modifications and supplements to his translation theory.He did not completely abandon the theory of the original communicative school, but further developed on the original basis and incorporated the useful elements of the original theory into a new model, which is the social semiotics model in the third development stage translation thought.

Compared with previous works, Eugene Nida has the following four changes and developments in from one language to another: first, based on the translation theory of social semiotics, he emphasizes that everything in the text has meaning, including speech form, so form cannot be easily sacrificed.That is to say, form is also meaningful. Sacrificing form means sacrificing meaning.Secondly, it points out that the rhetorical features of language play an important role in language communication, so we must pay attention to these features in translation.Third, the theory of "dynamic equivalence" is no longer used, but replaced by "functional equivalence", which is intended to make the meaning of the term clearer and easier to understand.Fourth, instead of using the distinction of grammatical meaning, referential meaning and associative meaning, meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, and all kinds of meaning are divided into referential meaning and associative meaning.From the whole historical process of the development of translation theory, it should be said that these changes are basically positive.

Of course, his theory and works are not perfect.First, his theory focuses too much on solving the problems of communicative and intelligibility of translation, so its scope of application is limited.It is natural to emphasize the intelligibility of the translation in the field of Bible translation, but if the intelligibility of the translation is always put in the first place in the translation of secular literary works, it will inevitably lead to the simplification and even non literariness of the translated language.

Second, he no longer completely negates "formal correspondence", but believes that the expression form of the original text cannot be broken at will in translation.In order to expand the scope of application of his theory, he also added rhetoric.However, despite his amendments, he failed to elaborate more deeply on his new views.

Thirdly, Eugene Nida once put forward the proposition that "translation is science", and then basically abandoned this proposition.Whether he put forward or gave up, he did not put forward sufficient and convincing arguments, which can not be said to be a major defect.

Of course, Nida's theory and works are not perfect. Firstly, his theory focuses too much on solving the problems of communicative and intelligibility of translation, so its scope of application is limited. It is natural to emphasize the intelligibility of the translation in the field of Bible translation, but if the intelligibility of the translation is always put in the first place in the translation of secular literary works, it will inevitably lead to the simplification and even non literariness of the translated language. Newmark, a British translation theorist, once pointed out: "if we delete all the metaphors in the Bible that Doneda believes readers cannot understand, it will inevitably lead to a large loss of meaning." . an important feature of literary works is that they use more metaphorical and novel language. The author's real intention may have to taste and capture between the lines. If all the metaphorical images in the original work are deleted and all the associative meanings are clearly stated, the result will be that the translation is easy to understand, but it is dull and can't reach To the purpose of literature. In recent years, Nida has become more and more aware of this, and has constantly revised and improved some of his past views. For example, he later no longer focused on the intelligibility of the translation, but advocated a "three nature principle", that is, the principle of paying equal attention to comprehensibility, readability and acceptability. In addition, he no longer completely denied "formal correspondence" In order to expand the scope of application of his theory, he especially added rhetoric. However, despite Nida's amendments, he failed to make a more profound exposition of his new views; he was only aware of the existence of the problem rather than successfully solving the relevant problems Besides, Nida once put forward the proposition that "translation is science", and then basically gave up this proposition. Whether he put forward or gave up, he did not put forward sufficient and convincing arguments, which is a major defect.

Of course, flaws do not hide the jade. Looking at Nida's lifelong contributions, he is one of the most outstanding theoretical figures in the field of contemporary translation studies in the United States and even the whole west. The historical theory of the development of western translation theory should give him a heavy pen.

==Chapter3 Robert Boogrand's translation theory==

Since the 1970s, more voices outside the structural language school and the communicative school have gradually emerged in the field of translation studies in the United States, especially the voice of discourse linguistics theory and discourse analysis represented by Robert Boogrand.
Boogrand teaches in the English Department of the University of Florida and is engaged in the study of literary discourse rhetoric and grammatical structure.In 1978, he published a book called "elements of translation theory of poetry"), which was listed as one of the Translation Studies Series edited by Holmes and attracted extensive attention.

Boogrand's view is: 1. The unit of translation is not a single word or sentence, but the whole text.2. Translation is a process of interaction among authors, translators and readers.3. What is worth studying is not the characteristics of the article itself, but the skills of language use reflected in these characteristics.

After the publication of the above translation theory works guided by the thought of discourse linguistics in 1978, Boogrand continued to engage in the research of language and translation along the same line, and more than ten relevant works (including Works CO authored and co edited with others) have been published successively, mainly including discourse, discourse and process: multidisciplinary discourse science exploration Linguistic Theory: Discourse of basic works, introduction to discourse linguistics, language discourse, Western and Middle East translation Boogrand has always expounded language and translation from the perspective of discourse linguistics, thus establishing his important position as the leader of discourse linguistics in the field of British and American translation studies. Boogrand's contribution as one of the pioneers of discourse analysis and discourse linguistics in translation studies is very important and worthy of full recognition.

==Chapter4 Andre Lefevere's translation theory==

With the development of the times, translation studies in the United States, like other parts of the west, have been continuously improved in theoretical depth. By the 1990s, the focus of theorists' discussion on translation has gradually separated from the previous specific translation processes and methods, and turned more to the fundamental nature of translation, translation and ideology, translation and culture. This chapter introduces Andre Leverville's translation theory.
Andre Leverville, a professor of translation and comparative literature at the University of Texas at Austin, originally from Belgium, is a very important theoretical figure in the field of Contemporary Western comparative literature and translation research. We can discuss his main ideas from the following two aspects.

(一)The cultural turn in translation studies. It is a common feature of all cultural schools to turn the focus of translation studies from the language structure and language form correspondence that language schools are most concerned about to the meaning and function of the target text and the source text in their respective cultural systems. He believes that any literature must survive in a certain social and cultural environment, and its meaning and value Value, as well as its interpretation and acceptance, will always be affected and restricted by a series of interrelated and mutually referenced factors, including both internal and external factors of literature. Therefore, as far as translation research is concerned, the goal of the research is far from limited to exploring the equivalence or equivalence of the two texts in language forms, but to explore at the same time.Study various cultural issues directly or indirectly related to translation activities.

（二） The concept of manipulation in translation. When talking about and describing the basic characteristics of the cultural school, we often can not do without using the word "manipulation". Here, "manipulation"It is not emotional, but a special term representing the concept of neutrality. According to the translation operation of Andre Leverville and others, the core meaning is that in the process of processing the source text and generating the target text, the translator has the right and will rewrite the text in order to achieve a certain purpose. Andre Leverville believes that translation is a reflection of the image of the text.Other literary forms such as literary criticism, biography, literary history, drama, film, fiction and so on are also the rewriting of the text image, and rewriting is the manipulation of the text.

（三） Obviously, the manipulative rewriting in Lefevere and his cultural school theory is not simply equivalent to "Rewriting" in the general sense, because in his view, all translation is rewriting, even the "most faithful"Translation is also a form of rewriting. As a translation manipulator, this rewriting or manipulation should be regarded as a cultural necessity in essence. In the process of translation, the translator is bound to be affected and restricted by various social and cultural factors. In addition to considering all the characteristics related to the source text, such as the original author's intention, the context of the source text and so on, the more important thing is toIt is necessary to consider a series of factors related to the target or receiving culture, such as the purpose of translation, the function of the target text, the expectations and reactions of readers, the requirements of clients and sponsors, and the review of the publishing and distribution organization of the work. The existence of these factors and the degree of constraints imposed by the translator on them vary from person to person constitute the inevitable "manipulation" condition of the translator on the text.
For "manipulation" in this sense, we can not judge it by moral value words such as "legitimate" or "improper", but only by the "appropriateness" criteria such as whether the target text has achieved the purpose of translation, whether it meets the expectations of the audience, and whether it can be accepted by the accepted culture.

==Chapter5 Lawrence Venudi's translation theory==

It is precisely because the cultural school or manipulation school, and even the polysystem school, in translation studies have established a relationship with the theory of domestication and Foreignization in translation, that a new group of scholars and viewpoints have emerged. In the field of American translation studies, Lawrence Wenudi is the most vocal theoretical figure on the issues of "domestication" and "Foreignization".
As an English professor at Temple University in Philadelphia, winudi is one of the most active and influential figures in the field of American translation theory since the 1990s. Winudi belongs to the deconstruction school in translation studies, that is, what genzler calls the "post structuralism school"In his works on translation studies, Venuti advocates that literary translation should not aim at eliminating alien features, but should try to show cultural differences in the target text.

Venuti's main view is that it is wrong to require the translator to be invisible in translation; the translator should not be invisible in the translation, but should be visible. That is to say, translation should adopt the principle and strategy of "alienation" to keep the translation exotic and exotic, and read like the translation, rather than "domestication"So that the translation can be transformed completely in accordance with the ideology and creative norms of the target culture. It doesn't read like foreign works, but the original of the target language.

However, translation has never been carried out in an unaffected way. Foreignization translation and domestication translation are actually the products of translation activities affected. From the perspective of translation ethics, it is difficult to assert which is good or which is bad, because translation reality shows that the two play irreplaceable roles in the target language and culture and complete their respective missions.Therefore, the two kinds of translation will always coexist and complement each other.

==Chapter6 Edwin Gensler's translation theory==

Edwin Genzler is the director of the translation center of Amherst University of Massachusetts, doctor of comparative literature and professor of translation. His famous translation work is contemporary translation theory published in 1993 and reprinted in 2001.

Genzler's contribution to translation theory is mainly reflected in the following three aspects:
First, it comprehensively combs the contemporary western translation theories, so as to clarify people's understanding of various western translation theory schools since World War II, and thus arouse the research interest in all kinds of contemporary western translation theories in the field of translation studies (including China's Translation Studies).In contemporary translation theory, Genzler studies translation from different perspectives such as scientific theory, polysystem theory and deconstruction. By exploring the "political reality" outside translation (literary translation practice), he outlines the outline of contemporary western translation research and guides readers to rethink a series of theoretical issues such as the definition and classification of translation.

Secondly, on the basis of comprehensively and systematically combing various contemporary western translation thoughts and theories, Genzler puts forward a multi-channel cooperative translation research view of "fair treatment of all systems".He believes that contemporary translation theory, like literary theory, originates from structuralist theory.All these structuralist or post structuralist theories have been confined to their respective academic circles for a long time.Various schools have very special requirements for the terms used in this system, and the terms are limited;Their pursuit of "correctness" or "objectivity" of theory tends to be one-sided, and they all try to gain universal recognition in the academic circles at the expense of other perspectives.The result is only the continuous conflict between theories, but there is no due cooperation and exchange between theories, which leads to the marginalization of academic research.

Thirdly, Genzler puts forward a post structuralist interpretation model of the essence of translation.In translation, post structuralism and power, he analyzes the deconstruction (post structuralism) thoughts of Derrida, Spivak and others, as well as the translation thoughts of translation theorists such as Wenudi, Levin and Robinson under the influence of their deconstruction thoughts, and points out that the new translation interpretation model can no longer follow the past tradition and simply define translation as"The transformation from a single language to another single language", but it should be regarded as the transformation between a multicultural form environment and another equally multicultural form environment.

==Conclusion==

In addition to the above-mentioned important theoretical figures in the field of contemporary American translation studies, many others, such as Roberto Tradu, Daniel Shaw, Burton Raphael and so on, have also made achievements in translation theory. However, due to space constraints, they cannot be discussed in detail here.

Generally speaking, due to the historical origin and the influence of the subject's immigrant culture, the initial development of American translation studies depends on the inheritance and promotion of the tradition of European translation theory. With the evolution of the times, American translation studies catch up with each other in many aspects with rapid development and fruitful achievements, and walk in the forefront of western translation studies, becoming the driving force of contemporary western translation theory. On an important force for forward development.

==reference==

谭载喜. (1999).《新编奈达论翻译》.北京:中国对外翻译出版公司.p22-44.

谭载喜. (2000).《翻译学》武汉:湖北教育出版社.p227-267.

谭载喜. (2003).《再论翻译学》.武汉:湖北教育出版社.p100-150.

谢天振. (2003).《翻译研究新视野》.青岛:青岛出版社,p250-269.

中国对外翻译出版公司（编).(1983).《翻译理论与翻译技巧论文集》.北京:中国对外翻译出版公司.p60-80.

中国对外翻译出版公司（编).(1983).《国外翻译理论评介文集》.北京:中国对外翻译出版公司.

中国翻译工作者协会（编).1984.《翻译研究论文集》.北京:外语教学与研究出版社.p39-48.

Lefevere·André. (1975).Translating Poetry :Seven Strategies and a Blueprint. Assen andAmsterdam: van Gorcum,p22-29.

Lefevere·André. (1977).Translating Literature : The German Tradition from Luther to Rosenzweig. Assenand Amsterdam: van Gorcum,p25-48.

Lefevere·André. (1980). "Translating literature/Translated literature - The state of the art". In Zuber (ed.).p153-161.

Newmark·Peter. （1978）.“The theory and the craft of translation". In V. Kinsella ( ed.).Language Teach-ing and Linguistics :Surve ys.Carmbridge. p79-100.

Newmark·Peter. （1981）. A p proaches to Translation.Oxford and London: Pergamon Press.Reprint in 1988.New York:Prentice Hall International.2001年上海外语教育出版社出版影印版,p67-89.

Nida·Eugene.（1964）. Toward a Science of Translating Leiden:E.J. Brill、 Reprint in 2003.------ 1975a.Componential Analysis of Meaning . The Hague:Mouton,p34-78.
Nida·Eugene.（1975）b.Language Structure and Translation :Essa ys by Eugene A. Nida ed. by AnwarS. Di!. Stanford:Stanford University Press,p18-45.

Nida·Eugene.（1996）.The Sociolinguistics of Interlingual Communication. Brussels:Editions du Hazard,p37-45.

Katz·Jerrold J. （1966）.The Philosophy of Language. New York:Harper and Row,p26-45.

Katz·Jerrold J. （1978）. "Effability and translation" . In Guenthner and Guenthner-Reutter (eds.).191-234.Katz，Jerrold J. and J. A. Fodor. 1963. "The structure of a semantic theory". Language 39.p170-210.

Pound，E. 1917. "Notes on Elizabethan classicists" . In T. S. Eliot (ed.).p227-249.

--[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 16:11, 8 December 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

=周俊辉 Translation of Science and Technology in Late Qing Dynasty and Early Republic of China=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_11]]
==Abstract==
With the rapid development of all walks of life in contemporary China, there is a huge demand for professional scientific and technological translation talents in the Chinese translation market, but there is still a gap between professional translators supply and demand in various fields. In the long history of modern Chinese translation, there are three translation climaxes. Western translation in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China was the third climax in the history of Chinese translation, and its scientific and technological translation activities, with its great influence and achievements, added numerous bright spots and scenery to the history of Chinese translation. Its achievements deserve to be ccelebrated. It still has reference value and learning significance for modern scientific and technological translation. It is of great significance to discuss the characteristics of scientific and technological translation in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China to attach importance to scientific and technological translation and its related academic and practical construction. This paper will mainly analyze the third translation climax, that is, science and technology translation activities in the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of china, to examine its reference significance for translators in the field of contemporary science and technology.

==Keywords==
The translations of science and technology; Chinese translation; organizations of scientific translation; May 4th Movement period; organization

==Introduction==
Like other countries, the translations of science and technology in China begins with interaction with foreign nations. There is no doubt that there are a large number of technical translation activities in the exchanges between China and foreign countries in the political, economic and cultural fields, which is difficult to verify. The translations of Chinese scientific literature began as a parasitic translation of religious literature. As Christian missionaries entered China, Western science and technology began to enter China. Although the missionaries brought the latest scientific and technological knowledge to the Chinese doctors from the end of the Ming Dynasty to the early Qing Dynasty, the strict restrictions were stressed on the dissemination of religious culture in China. Therefore, there were not many Chinese intellectuals who could realized the achievements of Western geography, and the common person was unaffected by the new ideas from across the Atlantic and sticked to the original traditional ideas.It was not until the late Qing Dynasty and early period of the Republic of China that western scientific knowledge was widely disseminated in China, and had a widespread influence on Chinese intellectuals. Chinese intellectuals nourished advanced ideas in the late Qing Dynasty played a leading role in the translations of scientific and technological literature.

== The Motivation of Translation from the End of the Qing Dynasty to the Early Period of the Republic of China==
At the end of the 17th century, many disciplines of western natural science separated from natural philosophy and set up independent branch. By the 19th century, various humanities gradually established its own system. Chinese society was declining and corrupt in the 19th century. only a few people with keen eyes, such as Lin Zexu, Wei Yuan and others, began to notice the advantages of Western learning in their contact with westerners. But they still basically didn’t regard Western learning as an academic culture as important as Chinese learning. Wei Yuan's famous saying "learning merits from the foreign to conquer the foreign" can illustrate this point. The failure of the Opium War and the signing of a series of unequal treaties aroused the strong desire of some advanced-minded officials to know the world and thus acquire advanced science and technology in the West. They hope to learn from the West to achieve the goal of "Reform". The failure of the Opium War also prompted the Qing government to launch “Self-Strengthening Movement” in the 1860s, which also led to the re-introduction of Western science and technology to China. As the intercourse with the West deepened, many Chinese officials and intellectuals began to face up to Western studies and regarded it as academic ideas equivalent to Chinese learning, and began to explore the method that western knowledge could be integrated into Chinese learning to help China become rich and powerful. Zhang's "Chinese learning do noumenon, Western learning do use" has become the most typical viewpoint of late fresh intellectuals. “But this group of intellectuals is mainly concerned with the Western advanced weapons and related equipment manufacturing and transportation and other technical fields.”(Xiong Yuezhi 1994:46-48) They think that Western studies are superior to Chinese learning in terms of objects and institutions, but they are still inferior to China in basic ideological and moral aspects, so they do not feel it necessary to learn the academic ideas from the West. After the Sino-Japanese War, because China was faced with the fate of the country's destruction, many people of insight began to actively and comprehensively learn from the West. It emerged a group of world-minded thinkers, like Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei, Tan Sitong and so on. They learned a great deal of natural knowledge and social sciences from the West, and they also urged political reform. During this period, a great deal of Western knowledge was introduced into China, which had a very wide impact. Many people also study Western studies by translating Western books written by the Japanese.

From the Opium War of 1840 to the eve of the May 4th Movement in 1918, China became a semi-colonial and semi-feudal society step by step, and the Chinese of this period faced a situation of "survival problems". “When people ended the dream of ‘China is the most powerful country in the world’ and realized the strength of European countries”(Xiong Yuezhi 1994:46-48), they began to seek the reasons why European countries became strong. “Chinese's attitude towards Western science presents a process from exclusion to acceptance and finally welcome, as well as a process of Chinese proactive pursuit of the ‘making the country rich and at the same time maintain its military power’.” (Xiong Yuezhi 2000:47) Hence a large-scale Western translation began to produce. If we explain that the scientific and technological translation from the end of the Ming dynasty to the beginning of the Qing Dynasty is only an invasion of Western culture, and that China is passive as the main recipient, then the Western translation from the end of the Qing Dynasty to the early period of the Republic of China is entirely a spontaneous and active act. The motivation of the latter translation is more urgent and the purpose is more clear than the previous one. This urgency determines that Western translation in the duration, in the number of translation works, in the number of people involved in translation activities are much superior to the previous scientific and technological translation.

== Object of Translation from the Late Qing Dynasty to the Early Republic of China ==

====Overview of Translation’s Object====
“The scientific and technological translations of the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty were all cooperative translations of foreign missionaries and Chinese doctors”(Du Zezong 1949:11), because Chinese intellectuals at that time knew almost no Western language, and the Chinese language proficiency of missionaries was generally not high. So at that time, the translation of science and technology was basically dictated by the foreign, and written by Chinese intellectuals. “But in this process, ‘missionary instruments play a leading role, Chinese are always in a passive and secondary position.’ Whether it is ‘written’ or ‘polished’ by Chinese, it’s ‘must be examined by western scholar’”(Lan Hongjun 2010:93-94). The translation of Euclid's ''Elements'' is an example: the original book contains 15 volumes, Matteo Ricci and Xu Guangqi worked together for 6 volumes. Xu Guangqi want to finish the remaining volumes, but Ricci believes that the first six volumes’ translation has achieved the purpose of scientific mission, then refused to continue to translate. It can be seen that whether it is translation material selection or translation methods, Chinese have no right to choose by themselves.

In the western translation of the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China, only several translation teams were in the form of cooperation between Westerners and Chinese, like the School of Combined learning organized by Lin Zexu and later founded by the Foreign Affairs School, and the Translation Hall of Jiangnan Manufacturing General Administration. After the Sino-Japanese War, more and more Chinese learned about Western studies, and international students became the backbone of the translation industry. “The representative figures of the Reformists, who advocate ‘improving China with Western studies’, are active figures in the translation circles of this period, and they believe that the fundamental of the reform lies in ‘enlightening the people's intelligence’, and the main way is to introduce and disseminate Western studies widely.”(Ni Qinhe 1988:13-14) For this purpose, bilingual translators choose their own translation of books that they consider to be beneficial to the public, and choose the appropriate translation method according to the characteristics of the target audience. For example, the Reformists explicitly declared that translated books "take political knowledge first and art translate second". Therefore, the focus of translation in this period shifted from natural science and applied science to humanities and social sciences. The translated books cover every sphere including politics, sociology, philosophy, economics, law, education and history. Another feature of translation in this period is the introductory translation of Western literature. The famous translators Yan Fu, Liang Qichao and Lin Shu all regarded literary translation as a means of educating the people and improving politics and economy of China. The popular novels introduced are more easily accepted by the general public than the more specialized works of the humanities, thus they can spread Western culture more widely in China.

In the second half of the 19th century, in order to enrich the country, a wave of learning and translating Western scientific and technological knowledge was set off in the late Qing Dynast. Under the efforts of Hua Hengfang, Xu Tao, Li Shanlan, Zhao Yuanyi and a Englander, John Fryer, a number of western modern science and technology books have been translated and published. Hua Hengfang plays an important role, the books of which he has participated in the translation and proofreading are ''A Treatise on Coast Defence'', ''Algebra'', ''Principles of Geology'', ''Deremetal-lica'' and other 17 kinds. He also introduced systematically knowledge of mathematics (including algebra, triangle, exponential calculus and probability), geology, geo-literature and other fields. John Fryer was born in Hyde, England, and worked in China for more than 20 years, translating 138 kinds of science and technology, including applied science, land and sea military science and technology, as well as historical and other social sciences, which played a positive role in the development of science and technology and social reform in China at the end of the 19th century.

At the beginning of the 20th century, the scientific and technological translation activities can be summarized as follows: 1. The translation of science textbooks not only help to implement large-scale scientific education, but also have a great impact on China's social culture. 2. The translation of evolution has dealt a great blow to the stereotype "heaven change not, likewise the Way changeth not"(Yang Jindin 1996:830). New ideas of evolution have been widely disseminated. 3. The translation of works in logic and scientific experimentation contributed to the mature development and application of methodological scientific concepts in the ideological circles at that time. Its representative figures are Yan Fu, Liang Qichao, Du Yaquan, as well as Jiangnan General Administration of Manufacturing Translation Museum, School of Combined Learning, Christian Literature Society for China and other translation agencies. With this scientific and technological translation activity, a large number of words entered into China greatly enriched the Chinese language which was regarded as a cultural carrier, and changed the Chinese's knowledge structure and social concepts. Chinese traditional Confucian culture is also influenced by it, absorbing many advanced western cultures and ideas, which has contributed to the germination of scientific culture in Chinese society.

====Object of Translation Activities after the May 4th Movement====
The May 4th New Culture Movement advocated science and democracy. After the May 4th Movement, Chinese translation activities entered a new historical period. In order to introduce western science and technology and textbooks to Chinese people, many progressive intellectuals and overseas students, with the enthusiasm of "science to save the country", actively participated in the translation of foreign new science and new ideas. The quality of scientific books translated by talents who are fluent in foreign languages and have a solid foundation of professional knowledge of the subject has been greatly improved compared with previous translations of relevant books. For example, Ma Junwu (1881-1940), a doctor of engineering who returned from studying in Japan in 1901, translated and published a series of scientific works such as ''The History of Natural Creation'' and the ''Mystery of the Universe'' by E. Haecke (1834-1919). His translation of Charles Robert Darwin's ''The Origin of Species'' (1809-1882) was a best-seller and was reprinted 12 times in 16 years.

The Government of the Republic of China also followed the old rules of the Qing Dynasty and established the National Compilation and Translation Library under the Ministry of Education of the Beijing government in 1920. At the same time, the government also set up a book compilation agency. After that, “the Nanjing Nationalist government rebuilt and expanded the National Compilation and Translation Library under the Graduate School and the Ministry of Education.” (Li Nanqiu 1999:42)The tasks of the Library included translating and publishing scientific books, compiling textbooks for higher and secondary education, compiling the translation of scientific terms and terms, and compiling dictionaries of various disciplines. But overall, the government-sponsored translation agency's publications account for only a small proportion of the total number of translated books published.

At that time, Chinese scholars established a number of early scientific societies, which played an active role in the translation of foreign scientific books, the unification of translation names and the compilation of disciplinary dictionaries. For example, the Chinese Medical Association, founded in Shanghai in February 1915, held its first conference in the second year for its establishment. The responsibility of the nominating division of the sub-body formed by the resolution of the conference is to participate in the examination of scientific translations. From 1916 to 1926, the Medical Association was represented at the annual conferences of the Medical Terminology Review Committee (changed to scientific Terminology after 1919), Anatomy, chemistry, medicine, bacteriology, pathology, parasitology, biochemistry, organic chemistry, pharmacology, surgery, physiology, internal medicine, pharmacology, etc. Chinese Science Society was founded by Zhao Yuanren, Ren Hongjun and Hu Mingfu in October 1915. At the beginning of the establishment of the society, it clearly declared that it would create a foundation for examining and approving translated names. In the sixth chapter "Administrative organs" of the ''General Chapter of the Chinese Science Society'', there is also a "book translation department". The ministry "manages translated books" and "has a minister in charge of translated books". There was a symposium on nouns in 1916, the results of which were published in the society's monthly ''Science''. Later, the ministry attended the noun examination meeting held by Jiangsu Education Association and Chinese Medical Association for many times. The Science Society organized many translations activities of books and papers, and ''Science'' published many scientific translations. The efforts of these civil academic societies to unify the translation of scientific names have attracted the attention of the government. The Kuomintang government changed the Ministry of Education into a graduate school in 1927, and in the following year, the preparatory Committee for the Unification of Graduate School translation names was established. Later, with the joint efforts of civil academic groups and government departments, a series of work on the unification of the translation of scientific nouns was carried out, which has done a lot of work for the unification of Chinese translation names.

At the beginning of the founding of new China, China mainly relied on the former Soviet Union to introduce various advanced scientific and technological information. Under the planned economy system, a large number of Spanish translators quickly changed to Russian translators, and many scientific research and higher education personnel actively joined the group of amateur translators. At the same time, many national and local publishing houses also actively engaged in the translation and publication of Russian scientific materials. A large number of Russian translated materials played an important role in scientific research, education and economic construction at that time. Publications such as ''Translation Bulletin'', ''Russian Teaching and Translation'' and ''Research on Russian Teaching'' have become important publishing fields of Research on Russian translation methods.

== Pioneers and Important Organizations of Scientific Translation==

====Pioneers====
Lin Zexu (1785--1850), an official of Fujian Province, was appointed as imperial envoy to go to Guangdong to ban smoking with great success in 1838. In order to grasp enemys' information, he set up a special translation institution to organizing timely the translation of Western books and newspapers, and actively collecting the information of Western society. Lin Zexu publicly destroyed opium confiscated from British, American and other merchants in June 1839, while actively preparing for the sea defense, repeatedly fighting back against the armed provocations of the British army. During his time as Governor, great attention was paid to collecting information on a wide range of Chinese and foreign warships and absorbing foreign technology in order to strengthen the navy. He was tightly guarded in the southern sea During the Opium War, which force the British to go north. “Lin Zexu advocated ‘surpass foreigners by learning from them’ on the issue of foreign aggression, demanding resistance to aggression, and does not exclude learning from the west's strengths.”(Ma Zuyi 1998:53)During the smoking ban, Lin Zexu wanted to know about the global situation, so he had people translate ''The Encyclopedia of Geography'' and pro-polish it personally. This book, briefly introducing to Chinese in late Qing dynasty the geographies, histories and political status of the four continents in the world, is the first complete and systematic geography book in modern China. But ''The Encyclopedia of Geography'' can not be published for various reasons at that time. According to the relevant scholars, the book introduced the world's five continents including more than 30 countries geography and history, rich in content, which is the most complete and the most innovative book. Many of the contents of this works were cited by Wei Yuan's ''Records and Maps of the World''.

Wei Yuan (1794-1856) is a good friend of Lin Zexu, who, like Lin Zexu, advocates pragmatism. He finished 50 volumes of the first draft of ''Records and Maps of the World'' in 1843, which introduced a large number of foreign natural, geographical, economic, scientific, cultural and other materials, including ''The Encyclopedia of Geography'' compiled by Lin Zexu. “Information on foreign ship-making, mine warfare, telescopes, firearms and mines was added and the length of the book was expanded to 60 volumes in 1847. It was compiled and revised to add information on democracies in capitalist countries such as the United States and Turkey, and published in 100 volumes in 1852.”(Zou Zhenhuan 2007:349) When launching the Modernization Movement, Kang Youwei used ''Records and Maps of the World'' as the basic material for teaching Western studies. Then this book gradually attracted people's attention.

Xu Jishe (1795-1893) was also a patriotic official who paid attention to the collection of foreign translations during the Opium War. Referring to the collection of foreign historical books (including translated books), he recorded the dictation of foreign books by foreigners, and completed the first draft of ''Geography of the World'', the first Chinese a comprehensive introduction to world geography in 1844. Many patriotic people who sought truth from the West, such as Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao at the end of the Qing Dynasty, learned about the world through this book.

Although Lin Zexu, Wei Yuan and Xu Jishe didn’t understand foreign languages, they attached importance to and organized the translation of foreign materials earlier, and contributed to the understanding of the outside world by their contemporary at that time. They were also pioneers in the translation of scientific literature at the end of the Qing Dynasty, and had a great impact on China's modern history.

==== Translation and Publishing Institution Established by Westernizationists ====
At the end of the Qing Dynasty, advocates of the westernization mouvement, such as Li Hongzhang, Zeng Guofan, Zuo Zongtang, Zhang Zhidong, etc., actively promoted the creation of modern schools and modern military industry, and established a number of translation and publishing institutions. The Sino-British Treaty of Tianjin was renewed in 1858 to provide that "subsequent English instruments were written in English". In order not to be fooled into dealing with foreigners who appeared as victors, the Chinese government had to find ways to reserve its own translation talents, establishing the Jingshi Tongwen Guan in Beijing in 1862 to train foreign language talents, and appointing Xu Jishe the general manager purser of this institution. An English-language department was opened in the same year, and an additional Russian and French department was established in the following year, each with 10 students. The government of Qing dynasty set up a science museum to organize students to study arithmetic and astronomy in 1866. The Buwen (German) department was added in 1872, and the East (Japanese) department was added in 1895. These foreign language department have invited foreign teachers to give courses with better conditions for textbooks and materials. Textbooks cover many aspects, including chemistry, medicine, grammatology, geography, agriculture, military law, dictionaries, poetry and history. In the field of foreign language teaching, in addition to the use of the above-mentioned original textbooks, there are some teaching materials in the courses were translated and compiled by the Chinese teachers. The general teacher of the Jingshi Tongwen Guan, Ding Yuliang, organized teachers and excellent students to translate Western books beginning in 1874. The number of books have been compiled and published by the Jingshi Tongwen Guan has not yet been able to make accurate statistics, and its translations include Chinese and Western books, manuscripts of scientific and technological publications, diplomatic documents of the Prime Minister's affairs in various countries, telegrams and so on. The first translators in the history of China have been trained in Tongwen Guan.

In 1863, Li Hongzhang applied to his superiors to imitate the Jing Shi Tongwen Guan in Beijing to open the wide dialect school in Shanghai, originally named "Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages and Characters", later fixed "Tongwen Guan of learning foreign languages", referred to as "Shanghai Tongwen Guan", then changed its name in 1867 to "Shanghai Wide Dialect School." “Students also take foreign languages as their major course, and take historical and natural sciences as their minor course.” (Li Nanqiu 1996:96) Many excellent translators have been cultivated in Shanghai Wide Dialect school. In 1864, Guangzhou imitated Shanghai Wide Dialect School and also set up a institution of foreign languages and characters, called Guangdong Tongwen Guan or Guangzhou Tongwen Guan. Although the institutions in Beijing, Shanghai and Guangdong were established in different time and they are independent mutually, they possess the obvious common ground at the aspect of , purpose for founding, teaching methods, curriculum settings, employment of the teachers and student selection. At the same time as the Tongwen Guan cultivate foreign language talents, it has also been translated a large number of western scientific works of higher quality.

Zeng Guofan founded Jiangnan Machine Manufacturing Bureau in Shanghai in 1865, which recruited talents and gradually developed into a large-scale factory group engaged in military production. “For the needs of factory production and manufacturing, xu Shou (1818-1884) and Hua Hengfang (1833-1902) founded the Translation institution in 1867, and presided over the translation and publication of a large number of scientific and technological books.”(Li Yashu, Li Nanqiu 2000:106-107) Xu Shou participated in the systematic translation of books on general chemistry, inorganic chemistry, organic chemistry, analytical chemistry, chemical quantitative analysis and chemical qualitative analysis, and promoted the diffusion of Western chemistry knowledge, which is recognized as “the enlightenment of modern chemistry in China”(Du Shiran 1982:251). Hua Hengfang’s translated books cover a wide range of subjects, because he like mathematics since childhood, his translation focus mainly on mathematics. His translation of the ''Microcomputer Traceability'' introduced the new knowledge of mathematics calculus, ''Decisive Mathematics'' for the first time introduced to the Chinese people the knowledge of probability theory. Through the translation of books, he improved his level of mathematical research, become a well-known mathematician and scientific and technological literature translator at the end of the Qing Dynasty. Zhao Yuanyi (1840-1902) is another outstanding translator of Jiangnan Manufacturing Bureau Translation Museum. Knowledgeable, he widely translated Western books, especially good at translating Western modern medical books, such as ''The Law of Internal Medicine'', ''Western Medicine Denton'', ''Confucian Medicine'', ''General Theories of Medicine'' and so on. The quantity and quality of the medical books he translated were among the best at that time.

At the end of the Qing Dynasty, many translation institutions were set up in Beijing, Shanghai and Fujian, such as the Military Engineering Secondary School (Shanghai, 1869), the Strong School Of Books (Beijing, 1895), the Nanyang Institute of Public Studies (Shanghai, 1895), the Agricultural Society (Shanghai, 1896), and the Translation Association (1897), Shanghai), Jingshi University Hall Translation Museum (Beijing, 1901), Jiang chu Compilation Bureau (1901, Wuchang), Business Press Library Compilation Institute (1905, Beijing) and Fujian Ship Administration School ( 1866, Fuzhou). These translation agencies have translated and published a large number of scientific and technical documents and textbooks.

====Compilation and Publishing Organization of Foreign Missionaries in China====
A number of translation and publishing institutions were also founded by Christian missionary who came to China in the late Qing Dynasty, which, although serving missionary activities, objectively translated a number of Western natural science books. One of the earliest was founded in 1843, the Mohai Library. It is not very large that the number of western modern science books translated and published by Mohai Library. These books introduced the knowledge of Western modern calculus, astronomy, botany, symbolic algebra, mechanics and optics to our country earlier.

In addition to western missionaries, there are also some Chinese scholars, such as Wang Tao, Li Shanlan, Zhang Fuxuan and so on. Among them, Li Shanlan (1811-1882) was a famous mathematician in the Qing Dynasty and a pioneer of modern Chinese science. He has known mathematics since he was a child, and he learned ''Elements'' at the age of 15. During his stay in Shanghai in 1852, he met Alexander Wylie, an Englishman, and others, discussed Chinese and Western scholarship with them, and collaborated with Vera Toure on the last nine volumes of ''Element'', which were translated in 1856 and published the following year, culminating in Xu Guangqi's unfinished business. He has also collaborated with Westerners on a variety of scientific books, including ''Botany'', ''About Sky'', ''Algebra'', ''Generation Micro-Accumulation'', etc.

Since then, a number of Christians have set up printing and publishing institutions. Such as the American-Chinese Library was set up by the American Presbyterian in Shanghai in 1860, which printed and published science and technology books. “In 1875, the British missionary John Fryer opened The Chinese Scientific BookDepot in Shanghai.” (Sun Shangsun 1996:124-125) In addition to selling scientific instruments and foreign books, he translated independently and printed a variety of science books, including the most famous books "knowledge series", which covering mining, geosciences, astronomy, geography, animals, plants, mathematics, acoustics, mechanics, hydrology, optics, chemistry and Western history, humanities and social etiquette and other aspects.

Church Hospital Guangzhou Boji Hospital also has an attached translation agency. In order to compile teaching materials for the attached South China Medical School, Boji Hospital has compiled and published a large number of medical books since 1859, such as "The Pox Book", "Western Medicine", "Cutting Book", "Phlegmonosis", "Chemical Primary Order", "Internal Medicine", "Ten Chapters of Physical Use", "Western Medical Encyclopedia" and dozens of other books, early dissemination of Western medical knowledge. Its attached medical school for our country to train a batch of early Western medical talent.

Foreign missionaries held a conference in Shanghai and decided to create a school textbook committee in 1877, later known as the Puzzle Book Club, to publish textbooks for church schools in many cities in China, especially coastal ports, and to compile and publish 104 textbooks in the 10 years from 1877 to 1886. At that time, China's own profane schools also used these textbooks, which promoted the development of modern modern schools in the late Qing Dynasty.

In addition, the more influential translation and publishing institutions are the British, American, German and other countries composed of missionaries of the Broad Society, the agency to translate and publish a variety of social science books mainly. Foreign missionaries set up these translation and publishing institutions of course for the purpose of missionary and colonial, but objectively they still introduced a lot of advanced Western scientific knowledge to China at that time.

==Conclusion==

Throughout China's translation achievements of science and technology , it seems that we go with the tide. Though occasionally we have some own views, the science that we are now in contact with is the view of Westerners. This can also provides some enlightenment from our modern education: it seems we have been western and internationalised, in fact, remain in a lack of the influence of the technology in the Chinese intrinsic culture. For quite a long time, we regard scientific translation as a pure translation in oral to express meaning. It demands a strictly functional equivalence. Translators were completely anonymous, absolutely invisible. Translation of science and technology with a great sanctity and authority, there have been a domestic famous scholar was opposed to the view that translation should have the artistry. In fact, scholarship is a matter, academic education is another matter. In academic research, our ancients were earnest and sincere in educating people by virtue. To put it in modern terms, it means to cultivate EQ as well as IQ of people. But throughout our education, we are producing a lot of people with high IQ but low EQ.“The translators of modern science and technology are generally invisible for fear of revealing any ‘translation traces’.”(Wang Hongzhi 2000:38) Although this can also be regarded as rigorous scholarship, but in view of the international development trend, scientific and technological literary style also began to pay attention to a certain artistic and aesthetic value. A technical article of literary or aesthetic value will continue to live on even when the technology described has become obsolete. “For scientific and technological translation, the same is true, if we want to make our translation vitality for a long time, we must also emphasize artistic and aesthetic value.”(Tan Suqin 2008:61)

The translation of science and technology in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China adopted the mode of mutual cooperation between Chinese scholar-officials and missionaries in China, among which the more famous ones were William Elias and John Fryer from England and Li Shanlan and Xu Shou from China. After the Opium War, the Translation institute of Jiangnan General Bureau of Manufacturing, The Jingshi Tongwen Guan, and the Guanghui Society all produced many cooperative translations. This model can be used for reference by many single-handed and independent workers in the field of scientific and technological translation. Scientific translation itself requires the translator to have a deep knowledge of English and Chinese, as well as professional knowledge of science and technology, which is multidisciplinary. If a translator should possess these abilities at the same time and be able to complete the translation work well, it is self-evident that it is difficult. And if it is given to those who have these abilities separately, they will do their best and take their responsibilities together, and their efficiency and quality will be improved a lot.

In the history of Chinese translation, the 20th century was a climax period with many translation activities. There is no other period that can be compared with the number of translated works, the wide range of subjects covered, and the great influence on Chinese society. In particular, the tide of translation at the beginning of the century is even more brilliant. It can be said that the large-scale multi-disciplinary translation activities in the new century have begun at this time, and its important position at the beginning can not be underestimated.

==References==

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Lan Hongjun蓝红军(2010).《明末清初传教士科技翻译的主体性特点》[Subjectivity of Missionary Scientific Translation in late Ming and early Qing Dynasties].江苏科技大学学报Journal of Jiangsu University of Science and Technology，2010(1) : 93-94.

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=周玖Translation of Science and Technology in Ancient China=

周玖 Zhou Jiu Hunan Normal University，China

==Abstract==
Scientific and technological translation activities in China have a history of more than a thousand years. In the early period of translation of Buddhist scriptures, the astronomy, calendar and medicine of ancient India attached to Buddhist scriptures and the astronomy and mathematics of Arabia attached to Islam in the Sui and Tang dynasties constituted the first scientific and technological translation activities in China. With the arrival of Christian missionaries in China, Western science and technology was introduced into China. This paper will introduce the scientific and technological translations before the 16th century, the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, and the scientific and technological translation activities of the missionaries Matteo Ricci, Xu Guangqi. The impact of latter-day Western science on China's technological development and the significance of ancient Chinese scientific and technological books to human development will be discussed through the technological and cultural exchanges between China and other countries.
==Key words==
Scientific and technological translation; scientific and technological exchange; influence
==Introduction==
Translation activities in China have a very early origin, as far back as the pre-Qin period, when the customs and languages of various tribes were different and the need for interaction led to the emergence of translation. Mr. Ji Xianlin once graphically pointed out that translation plays an important role in the process of cultural exchange: "If we take a river as an analogy, the long river of Chinese culture is full of water at times, but never dries up. The reason is that new water is injected.... The panacea for the longevity of Chinese culture is translation." Looking back at the history of translation today, there were about four times when it greatly contributed to the renewal of Chinese culture: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the late Eastern Han Dynasty to the early Northern Song Dynasty, the translation of Western studies in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the translation of Western studies from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, and the translation since the reform and opening up. The first two translation climaxes were closely related to the introduction of Buddhism and Catholicism respectively, in which the spread of religion played an important role as a catalyst, and can be said to be the unique translation period in the history of Chinese translation.
The Silk Road, as a channel of communication between the East and the West, played a significant role in contributing to the first two translation climaxes. Since the Silk Road was established by Zhang Qian in the Western Han Dynasty, this busy land route has become an important link between the East and the West, carrying not only precious goods from foreign lands, but also spreading culture and art. It was also through this road that Buddhism was introduced to China during the two Han dynasties. With the further opening of the Maritime Silk Road, China became more closely connected to the world, and 1000 years later Western missionaries landed from the southeast coast of China and formally introduced Catholicism to China. From this point of view, the Silk Road, as a major transportation route, was closely related to the introduction of two exotic religions. It is thanks to the tide of cultural interchange brought by the Silk Road that translation in China underwent the process of transmutation from initial awakening to budding and then maturity. This paper will introduce the scientific and technological translation before the 16th century and the late Ming and early Qing dynasties to recreate the history of ancient scientific and technological translation in China. Secondly, this paper selects Matteo Ricci and Xu Guangqi of the Ming Dynasty as representative figures of ancient scientific and technological translation and analyzes the importance of their translation activities to the development of science and technology in China and Western countries.
== Scientific and Technical Translations Before the Sixteenth Century==
The translation of scientific literature in ancient China began in the end of Han Dynasty, when foreign monks translated some ancient Indian literature on medicine, astronomy and arithmetic along with the Buddhist scriptures. However, unlike the collective translation method adopted in the translation of Buddhist sutras, the translation of these scientific literature was often done by the translating monks alone, and the contents translated were fragmentary and were subsidiary or by-products of the translation of Buddhist sutras rather than systematic introduction. According to some historical books and scattered records of Buddhist books, there were astronomical and calendrical books translated from ancient India in about the 2nd century AD. An Shigao, the originator of the translation of our Buddhist scriptures, is the earliest verifiable translator of astronomical and arithmetical texts. According to Dao An's ''Catalogue of the Comprehensive Scriptures'', An Shigao's translation of the ārdūlakar·nāvadāna is the earliest translation of astronomy, which introduces the knowledge of astronomy in ancient India. His translation of Brahman's Algorithm is one of the earliest translations of mathematical works in China.

During the Wei-Jin North-South Period, Dharmarajiva translated the Brahmana Astronomy Sutra. In 541 A.D., Upas translated ''Mahāratna kūṭasūtra'', which recorded the ancient Indian fractions. In 508 A.D., the monk Renamati translated Nāgārjuna bodhisattva, which is an ancient Indian pharmacological text. During the Sui and Tang dynasties, China's foreign exchanges were more frequent than ever before, and scientific and technological translations were more prosperous than in previous dynasties. The invention of engraving and printing in the 9th century A.D. also facilitated the production and dissemination of various texts. In 718 A.D, Gautama Siddhartha, an astronomer who came to China from India, translated the ancient Indian ''Jiuzhi Calendar'', which introduced the ancient Indian algorithm characters, calendar degrees, the calculation of cumulative sun and small remainder, the position and movement of the sun and the moon, and the projection of solar and lunar eclipses, etc. It faithfully reflected the characteristics of Indian mathematical astronomy. It was included in the ''Kaiyuan Zhizhi'' (Vol. 104) and has been preserved to this day. The ancient Chinese numerals that appeared in China during the Song Dynasty were obviously influenced by the ancient Indian algorithmic symbols introduced in the ''Jiuzhi Calendar''. This period also saw the translation of the ''Sutra'' by the Sanskrit monk Bukong, who came to China. Some translations of medical books were translated continuously during the Sui and Tang dynasties. Although these medical books have been scattered, Indian medicine undoubtedly influenced the medical texts of the Tang Dynasty, such as ''Wai-tai-mi-yao'', ''Prescriptions Worth a Thousand Pieces of Gold for Emergencies'', and Sun Simiao's ''Qianjin Yifang'', which all contain many Indian medical components. In particular, ancient Indian ophthalmology was at the world's leading level at that time. There are many records of ancient Indian doctors treating eye diseases in Tang Dynasty literature, and even the poems of literati and bachelors have traces of ancient Indian ophthalmology treatment, such as the poem of the famous poet Liu Yuxi, "Presented to the Brahmin Monk, an Eye Doctor", which describes the scene of suffering from cataract."

The interaction between the Arab world and China became more and more frequent after the Tang Dynasty. In addition to the exchange of materials in trade and commerce, the influence of cultural exchanges was more profound, and Arab knowledge of astronomy, calendars and medicine was gradually introduced to China. The introduction of Arab religious books to China began in 632 AD. According to the historical records of the Tang Dynasty, in 651 A.D., Arabia sent an ambassador to China for the first time. Arabic medical prescriptions and medicines were already recorded in the medical dictionaries of the Tang Dynasty. Arab non-religious books first came to China during the reign of Emperor Song Renzong (1023-1063). At the beginning of the Song Dynasty, the ''Yingtian Calendar'', which was compiled by the scholar Ma Yize and submitted by the Chinese official Wang Dune, who presided over the compilation, was based on the Arabic astronomical calculation data and attracted Arabic astronomical knowledge, using the Arabic calculation methods of solar and lunar eclipses and the five stars' travel degrees, and dividing each night into five shifts, which is said to be the beginning of the Chinese method of changing points. Our rule during the Yuan dynasty spanned Eurasia, and Genghis Khan's three western expeditions strengthened the scientific exchange between China and Arabia, after which the number of people who knew Arabic on Chinese territory increased dramatically, and the original language of Chinese scientific translations gradually changed from Sanskrit to Persian, which was used in the eastern part of Arabia at that time. It was in the 13th century that Arab non-religious books were introduced to China on a large scale. A number of Arab astronomers worked in the official institution of the Yuan dynasty, the Sitiantai (established in 1260). One of them, the astronomer Jamal al-Din, prepared the almanac based on the Arabic calendar, which was adopted by the Yuan government for 14 years and was later used as the basis for the chronological calendar prepared by the Chinese scholar Guo Shoujing. Zamaradin also made various astronomical instruments and brought the latest achievements of astronomy in the Arab world at that time, which was the first time that the knowledge of Arab "for the sphere" was introduced to China. The use of Arabic numerals in mathematics by the Chinese also began in the Yuan Dynasty. In terms of medicine, the rulers of the Yuan Dynasty organized the Arab doctors who were recaptured in the conquest to set up the "Hui Hui Medicine Institute", and at the end of the Yuan Dynasty, they also translated 36 volumes of "Hui Hui Medicine", which was engraved in the early Ming Dynasty. From the surviving remnants, this is a complete, comprehensive medical encyclopedia. In the early years of the Ming Dynasty, Zhu Yuanzhang, the founder of the Ming Dynasty, summoned the Arab scholars who used to work in the Yuan Dynasty's Tienmin, and issued an edict to translate Arab books, including the Ming translation of the Tienmin and the Hui Hui Calendar.

== Science and Technology translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties==
In the middle of the sixteenth century, the feudal society of Ming Dynasty turned from prosperity to decline. “The old agrarian culture was under attack; capitalism began to sprout; a new breed of industrialists and businessmen emerged. The citizen class represented the emerging power, demanding self-expression and eager for reform”. Some intellectuals began to reflect on traditional culture and were eager to understand the outside world. While the Reformation emerging in Europe seized most of the territory of Catholicism in Europe, so they began to expand their power to the East. In order to spread their religion, the Western missionaries tried hard to study Chinese culture and adopted culturally applicable strategies in the translation process, with flexible and reader-oriented translation methods. In terms of ideology and culture, they conformed to Chinese culture with Western culture and allowed the scholars to absorb Western culture without degrading Chinese culture, emphasizing the complementarity and consistency of Chinese and Western cultures to ensure that the Chinese could accept Western ideas and knowledge smoothly. Translation was a bridge for mutual communication between China and the West, and the late Ming and early Qing dynasties were characterized by scientific and technical translations, the second climax in the history of translation in China. (Wang, 2013:49-51)

According to statistics, "From 1582 to 1773, a total of 352 Western works were translated into China, including 71 in astronomy and 20 in mathematics”. When the Italian missionary Matteo Ricci first came to China in 1582, he found it difficult to preach in China because of the deep-rooted traditional thinking. The first president of the Jesuits in China, Matteo Ricci discovered the status and influence of the scholarly class in Chinese society and began to study the ancient Chinese scriptures and make friends with officials in order to facilitate travel to China and the construction of churches. In 1584, he hung up a map of the world in his church and named it ''Great Universal Geographic Map'' for public viewing. This was the first time that geography, a modern Western science, was introduced to China. In about 1605, Xu Guangqi wrote ''The Explanation of Great Universal Geographic Map'', which was the first work of the Chinese to spread Western science. When the subjects of the great kingdom of heaven discovered that this great country actually occupied only a small part of the earth, you can imagine how much they were shocked. The Chinese scholars, such as Xu Guangqi and Li Zhizao, believed that translation could broaden the horizons of the nation. Therefore, it was necessary to introduce advanced Western science and technology into China, and they worked together with Western missionaries to translate and co-edit some works on natural sciences, and later on, many works on philosophical principles, scientific ideas and religious beliefs. (Zhao, 1998:33-37 )

The translation of the first scientific work is Ricci's dictation, Xu Guangqi's ''Euclid's Elements'' 6 volumes, which opened the climax of China's first scientific and technological translation. The book was completed at the beginning of the thirty-five-year calendar (1607) and was immediately imprinted. Mathematics is a basic science, because geometry is lacking in ancient Chinese arithmetic. Therefore it was first translated into Chinese. Xu Guangqi and others translated and studied Western scientific and technological works, participated in the compilation of the ''Chongzheng Almanac'', and produced astronomical instruments such as the armillary sphere, telescope and so on. In 41 years (1613), Li Zhizao edited the arithmetic book, which he had studied and translated with Ricci, into the book ''Tongwen Suanzhi''. Thus, Western science has been integrated with ancient Chinese science from the very beginning of its introduction.

In 1622, the German missionary Tang Ruowang, an expert in astronomy and almanac, arrived in China and worked with Xu Guangqi to set up an early cooperative variant of the "Calendar Bureau" in China. "But then Yang Tingjun and others called on the court to set up a more formal translation sentence, but due to the death of the Wanli Emperor and the tightening of the border war. The ambitious plan to systematically translate 7,000 Western scientific works afterwards also came to naught". But Xu Guangqi still organized a considerable number of Western calendar books through his work on calendar revision. In 1626, Tang Ruowang wrote The Theory of Telescope, introducing the optical principles, functions, production methods and usage of telescopes. Under the oral transmission of Deng Yuxuan, Wang Zheng wrote the book Yuanxi Qiqi Tushuo, which was the first mechanics book in China. The book describes the specific gravity, center of gravity bar and other methods and their usage. He also made some simple machines by himself. Xiong Sanbao translated the book Biao Dushuo, which described the theory of astronomy and the principles of measuring the twenty-four solar terms from a table. The missionaries Pang Di and Ejuelo wrote and drew ''The Theory of Overseas Map'' and ''Great Universal Geographic Map''，which supplemented the introduction of geography. Long Huamin wrote ''Earthquake Interpretation'', which describes the modern earthquake doctrine such as causes, grades, scope, size and time, and omens of earthquakes. Dictated by Tang Ruowang and written by Jiao Castellan, the book ''Huogong lveyao'' was translated, which contains the methods of casting, mounting and using artillery, as well as the methods of manufacturing bullets and mines. The work of transmitting the Western calendar began in 1629-the second year of Chongzhen. In 1635, the famous ''Chongzhen Calendar'', which is about 1.8 million words, was completed. (Li, 2012: 88-90)

Soon after the introduction of this technological knowledge into China, the Ming Dynasty fell. In 1645, Tang Ruowang revised and added to the ''Chongzhen Calendar'' and presented it to the Qing court as the New Western Calendar. During the reign of Shunzhi, the missionary Mu Ni Ge taught the Na's logarithm, which was not long produced in the West. During the Kangxi period, Xue Fengzuo, who studied with Mu Ni Ge, compiled a book called ''Lixue Huitong'', which included astronomy, arithmetic, physics and medicine. In addition, the missionary Nan Huairen made six kinds of astronomical measuring instruments and left behind the book ''Lingtai YiXiang ZhiTu'' to introduce the method of making them. The Kangxi Emperor also personally presided over the compilation of the ''Essence of Mathematics'', and organized and led missionary Bai Jin and others to conduct the mapping of the whole country together with the relevant personnel in China, and compiled the ''Huangyu Quantu''. (Xie, 2009:114)

This culmination of scientific and technological translations has promoted the development of science and technology in China. The introduction of this advanced Western knowledge opened the eyes of the Chinese and gave us a more correct and clear understanding of the world. The introduction of these advanced technologies also promoted the production and improvement of advanced scientific instruments. The climax of scientific and technological translation in this period opened up new ways for everyone to learn Western knowledge and promoted the progress and development of traditional Chinese technology and society as a whole. What’s more, this surge in scientific and technological translation also had a positive effect on the development of Chinese industrial civilization. These translated scientific and technological books broadened the Chinese people's horizons and enhanced their ability to transform society and nature, enabling them to create more efficient material and spiritual wealth and thus improve the material, spiritual and living standards of the people. These translations spread the ideas of materialism and dialectics, profoundly combating the ruling ideology of idealism of the time and further liberating the productive forces. The scientific and technological translations of this period not only injected fresh blood into the then dead China, but also laid the foundation and played a positive bridging role for the industrial revolution in later China.

== Matteo Ricci==

In the middle of the sixteenth century, the feudal society of the Ming Dynasty turned from prosperity to decline, and since the climax of the Northern Song Dynasty, the field of science and technology stagnated, which was the beginning of the sprouting of capitalism. In 1582, Matteo Ricci came to Macau with a Portuguese caravan, where he diligently studied the Chinese language and learned about Chinese customs, state systems and political organizations. In the eyes of the Chinese, China was the only country in the world worthy of praise: “As far as the greatness of the country, the advancement of its political system and its academic fame were concerned, the Chinese regarded all other nations not only as barbarians, but even as irrational animals. There is no other king, dynasty or culture in the world that is worth boasting about in the eyes of the Chinese” (He 1983:181) The Western missionaries, in their efforts to spread their religion, studied Chinese culture and adopted culturally applicable strategies in the translation process, which was flexible and reader-centered. “In terms of ideology and culture, they conformed to Chinese culture with Western culture and allowed the scholars to absorb Western culture without degrading Chinese culture, emphasizing the complementarity and consistency of Chinese and Western cultures to ensure that the Chinese could accept Western ideas and knowledge smoothly”(Xiong 1994:16).

The year 2021 marks the 420th anniversary of the settlement of the late Ming Jesuit Ricci in Beijing. He then managed to gain a foothold in the capital, establishing a church, "legitimizing Catholicism in China," and "pioneering the history of combining Chinese and Western translation and introduction of Western scientific and technical literature, as well as being the first to translate the Four Books: ''The Great Learning'', ''The Doctrine of the Mean'', ''The Confucian Analects'' and ''The Works of Mencius into Latin'', opening the way for the introduction of Chinese texts to the West. He was also the first to translate the Four Books into Latin, which was the first time that Chinese texts were introduced to the West. In the history of cultural exchange between China and the West, this is an event of great significance. Since entering China, Matteo Ricci adopted the strategy of attaching to Confucianism and complementing Confucianism, hoping to convert China to Jesus Christ through the adaptation of Catholicism to traditional Chinese culture. Ricci's friendly and tolerant attitude toward Confucianism made the spread of Catholicism at that time a success, and he himself won the eyes of some of the great scholars. “Ricci wrote a hundred aphorisms in Chinese about friendship from the Western philosophers he had read, had them embellished by Wang Kentang, and had them printed in Nanchang in 1595 under the title "On Friendship" and presented to the dignitaries of the time. This book contains the treatises on friendship from ''Plato's Rutgers'', ''Aristotle's Ethics'', ''Cicero's On Friendship'', ''Montaigne's Essays'', and ''Plutarch's Moral Theory''”(Xie 2009:115). Some of them were also authored by Ricci himself. He maintained a friendly, tolerant and sincere attitude toward traditional Chinese culture and the Chinese people, and was therefore respected by some Confucian students as "Li Zi" or "Western Confucian", and many people were happy to make friends with him. In the following decade, Matteo Ricci laid the foundation for the spread of Christianity in China and objectively promoted a deep cultural dialogue and scientific and technological exchange between China and the West. Ricci's success was largely based on the "academic missionary" and "dumb missionary" methods, i.e., the translation and compilation of Western scientific and technical works and theological works to expand his influence and achieve the missionary purpose. The Western translation of the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, which began with Matteo Ricci, was the second high point in the history of translation in China. Although the impact of this translation on Chinese culture could not be compared with the translation of Buddhist scriptures, Chinese people learned directly from it for the first time about European scientific and technological knowledge such as mathematics, calendars, geography and arms manufacturing. This scientific and technological knowledge, especially the modern world concept, opened the eyes of some of the scholars, and the Western scientific thinking method began to influence our academia from both logical reasoning and empirical investigation. Matteo Ricci is the most influential figure in the history of cultural exchange between China and the West. Ricci is credited with pioneering the development of modern Western science and Catholicism in China. Ricci's map of the world, ''Great Universal Geographic Map'', was engraved in 12 different editions from 1584 to the end of the Ming Dynasty. In order to illustrate the concept of the map, Matteo Ricci especially applied the cone projection to draw the equatorial north and south hemispheres on the map, indicating the circle of the earth, the north and south poles, the length of day and night north and south of the equator, and the five belts. The names of the five continents: Europa, Lemuria (Africa), Asia, North and South Asia, Murica, and Murray Mecca. He marked out more than thirty countries in Europe, and introduced North and South America, and made field measurements with modern scientific methods and instruments, and drew the latitude and longitude of eight cities in China: Beijing, Nanjing, Datong, Guangzhou, Hangzhou, Xi'an Taiyuan, Jinan. The concept of the five continents, the doctrine of the circle of the earth, and the division of the zones have all made important contributions to Chinese geography. Many of the translations of the names of countries and places on the five continents are still in use today. In addition, there are more than twenty Chinese works of Matteo Ricci, among which thirteen are included in the Siku Quanshu,and six in The History of Ming Dynasty. What’s more, there are also a number of series of books or individual collections in which Matteo Ricci's writings are collected, and he himself has been called "the first foreigner from whom Chinese people could learn from his Chinese writings”. Mr. Hushi also affirmed that "in the last three hundred years, Chinese thought and learning have all tended to be scientific in their precision and nuance .... All of them were influenced by Matteo Ricci's arrival in China". Mr. Fanghao also believed that "Matteo Ricci was the first person who bridged Chinese and Western cultures in the Ming Dynasty". Of course, Matteo Ricci's subjective intention was to preach, and what he imported was mainly Greek science, which was far from modern scientific theories and methods. But for the Chinese scholars, who lacked an axiomatic, systematic and symbolic scientific system, these scientific theories did have a liberating significance. Moreover, "when missionaries such as Matteo Ricci used science as a missionary tool, they not only aroused the interest of some of the scholars in Western science, but also to some extent satisfied the needs of some scholars and even the emperor. It was this relationship between the need and the wanted that made possible the peaceful dialogue between Chinese and Western civilizations, mediated by the missionaries and the scholars”（Cheng 2002:70-74).

== Xu Guangqi==
Xu Guangqi was an official in the late Ming Dynasty, a member of the scholarly class. This position gave Xu Guangqi early access to Western missionaries and to Western technology in the context of national development. Seeing that his country was in decline, that the gap between the East and the West was great, and that the "Heavenly Kingdom" was only an illusion, Xu Guangqi tried to revitalize his country by translating Western learning. He translated and compiled a series of Western academic works in many fields, including astronomy, mathematics, and water conservation. Wu Jin considers Xu Guangqi to be the first scientist to accept Western scientific knowledge and introduce it to the Chinese, and to be the pioneer and founder of Chinese science and technology. In 1593, Xu Guangqi, who was an official, began to communicate with missionaries, and his love for science and technology, coupled with his sense of crisis and national salvation after the contrast between the East and the West, actively cooperated with Matteo Ricci, who used "academic missionary", and they each took what they needed and began to translate and compile academic works. The two men began to translate and compile scholarly works.

The second culmination of translation in China shifted from Buddhist scripture translation to scientific and technical translation. At the end of the Ming Dynasty, Xu Guangqi's cooperation with the missionaries became an important driving force for this climax. According to ''A Brief History of Chinese and Western Translation'' edited by Xie Tianzhen, the works that Xu Guangqi translated and compiled with the missionaries mainly include: 1) ''Elements'' , in 1604, Xu Guangqi contacted Matteo Ricci and studied ''Elements'' with him, and the first six volumes were translated in 1607. The first six volumes were translated in 1607. Thus, Western geometry began to spread in China and became famous for centuries. 2) ''Water Conservation and Irrigation Methods'' in the West , which was translated by Xu Guangqi and Xiong Sanbao in 1612, mainly introduced Western water engineering and machinery. 3) ''Chongzhen Calendar'', as early as the beginning of the 17th century, knowledgeable people wrote to request the revision of the calendar, and it was not until 1629 that Emperor Chongzhen decreed that Xu Guangqi and Li Zhizao and other knowledgeable people were ordered to revise the calendar and compile the astronomical calendar.

Xu Guangqi had a far-sighted and strategic mind. As a proponent of Western learning in the late Ming Dynasty, Xu Guangqi's translation activities were inseparable from Catholicism. From his first acquaintance with Catholics in Shaozhou in 1595, he was formally baptized as a Catholic eight years later in 1603. It was during the exchange with Matteo Ricci and others that Xu Guangqi gradually learned about the basic situation of university education in the West and further realized the fundamental place of mathematics and science. So in the selection of the content of the translation, determined the Western mathematical and scientific classics as the first choice for translation. He believed that the Western mathematical theory was rigorous and had a certain logical system, which seemed to be useless but was actually the basis of all uses. Ancient China was an agricultural civilization, and when agriculture flourished, the country flourished. From Li Bing's construction of Dujiangyan, we can see the importance of agricultural water conservancy to the country and to the people. Xu Guangqi's strategic vision of translation went beyond the study and debate on the mere textual "translation techniques" of Buddhist scriptures translation, such as the "text-quality controversy" of the time. “Xu Guangqi's translations of Elements and The Celiang Fayi saved traditional Chinese mathematics, which was on the verge of extinction, and the people's attention and research on mathematics facilitated the transformation of China from classical to modern mathematics”(Li 2021:60-64). The social function of translation was highlighted in this culmination of translation, and Kong Deliang argues that "although it was not fully realized due to the time constraints, it became a turning point in the history of Chinese translation” (Kong 2015:76-80).

In the midst of China's social transformation and the tide of Western learning, Xu Guangqi was involved in the translation and proofreading of Western scientific and technical books. He selectively filtered, absorbed, borrowed, digested and integrated Western learning to add fresh and heterogeneous elements to the ancient Chinese culture, in order to maintain the vitality of the local culture and promote the modern transformation of Chinese society in political, economic and cultural aspects. His translation statements are the grass-roots threads in the interpretation of the history of Chinese translation and thought, and they have been the pulse of Chinese thought since modern times. Xu Guangqi of the late Ming Dynasty was "the first person of distinction to expand the scope of translation from religion and literature to the field of natural science and technology", and he had "outstanding philosophical thinking ability", but unfortunately he did not "elaborate the theory of translation from a philosophical height" (Chen, F. K. 2010:55).

== Conlusion==
Before the sixteenth century, China had the most frequent cultural exchanges with Arabia and India. While promoting the spread of Buddhism in China, it also promoted the progress of astronomy, calendar and medicine in ancient China, and laid a solid foundation for the development of science and technology in ancient China. The climax of scientific and technological translation in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties pushed forward the development of modern science and technology in China, introduced advanced Western instruments, and set off a wave of learning Western science and technology for China. At the same time, the scientific and technological translations in the late Qing and early Ming dynasties also transformed the way of thinking and values of Chinese people, making China modernize its ideology. The missionary Matteo Ricci brought advanced Western science and technology to China, opening up the eyes of the Chinese people and promoting the development of traditional Chinese science and technology. The attention to and translation of traditional Chinese texts, triggered by the ancient Chinese scholar Xu Guangqi, went far beyond the confines of East Asia and created a craze for admiration in Western European countries as well, reflecting to a certain extent the breakthrough and growth of China's translation business.
==References==
Cheng Deng陈登(2002). [从西学翻译看利玛窦对中国文化的影响] The Influence of Matteo Ricci on Chinese Culture in the Light of Western Translation, 湖南大学学报(社会科学[1]版) Journal of Hunan University (Social Sciences [1] Edition)

Cheng Fukang陈福康(2010). [中国译学史] History of Chinese Translation, 上海：上海人民出版社 Shang Hai: Shanghai People's Publishing House

Kong Deliang孔德亮(2015).[徐光启科技翻译的启示] The Inspiration of Xu Guangqi's Scientific and Technical Translation.中国石油大学学报（社会科学版）Journal of China University of Petroleum (Social Science Edition)

Li Shucang李书仓(2012).[试论明末清初科技翻译的基本特征] On the Basic Characteristics of Scientific and Technological Translation in the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties. 山东女子学院学报Journal of Shandong Women's College

Li Tenglong李腾龙(2021).[明清科技翻译之思想史意义发微——兼论徐光启和傅兰雅的翻译思想] The significance of the Ming and Qing dynasties' Scientific and Technological Translations in the History of Ideas: A Discussion of the Translation Ideas of Xu Guangqi and Fu Lanya.上海翻译Shanghai Translation

Matteo Ricci, Giannini金阁尼, 利玛窦(1983).[利玛窦中国札记] Ricci's China Journal中华书局China Bookstore

Ma Zuyi马祖毅(2006).[中国翻译词典序言] Preface to the Chinese Translation Dictionary 武汉：湖北教育出版社Wuhan: Hubei Education Publishing House

Wang Jihui王吉会(2013).[特殊历史条件下开启的明末清初科技翻译高潮] The Climax of Scientific and Technological Translation in the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties under Special Historical Conditions中国科技翻译Chinese Scientific Translation

[Xie Tianzheng谢天振(2009).[中西翻译简史] A Brief History of Chinese and Western Translation北京：外语教学与研究出版社 Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press

[Xiong Yuezhi雄月之(1994). [西学东渐与晚清社会] Western Learning and Late Qing Society上海：上海人民出版社 Shanghai: Shanghai People's Publishing House

Xue Xinxin薛欣欣(2020).[汉代严佛调和明代徐光启的翻译比较研究] A Comparative Study of Translations by Yan Fotiao in the Han Dynasty and Xu Guangqi in the Ming Dynasty民族翻译 Ethnic Translation

Zhao Wenli赵文利(1998).[明末清初西方传教士来华与中国翻译] Western Missionaries to China and Chinese Translation in the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties. 中国科技翻译Chinese Scientific Translation

=钟雨露Western Translation History in the Old Ages=

钟雨露 Zhong Yulu, Hunan Normal University, China

==Abstract ==
Many translation historians believe that translation is an extremely ancient activity, no matter in the West or the East. However, the history of translation has long been neglected in the field of research. Translation researchers tend to focus on the study of translation techniques and theories while neglecting the study of the history of translation. The western translation history has a long history of more than two thousand years from ancient times, which has experienced the Old Ages, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance and the Modern times. As we all know, when we know something, we often need to go back to its origin. Western translation history can be traced back to the third century BC, which opened the prelude of the history of western translation. This paper will study the western translation history in the Old Ages to help readers have a deep understanding of the history of translation and translation itself.

Many translation historians believe that translation is an extremely ancient activity, no matter in the West or the East. However, the history of translation has long been neglected in the field of research. Translation researchers tend to focus on the study of translation techniques and theories while neglecting the study of the history of translation. The western translation history has a long history of more than two thousand years from ancient times, which has experienced the Old Ages, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance and the Modern times. As we all know, when we know something, we often need to go back to its origin. Western translation history can be traced back to the third century BC, which opened the prelude of the history of western translation. This paper will study the western translation history in the Old Ages to help readers have a deep understanding of the history of translation and translation itself. Corrected by--[[User:Zhong Yifei|Zhong Yifei]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yifei|talk]]) 12:12, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

==Key words==
Western translation history; the Old Ages; Andronicus; the Bible translation

==Introduction==
Throughout human history, language translation has been almost as old as language itself. The relationship between the two primitive tribes, from antagonism to amity, all depends on the exchange of ideas, mutual understanding and translation. ''The Genesis'' describes that Greece and Persia signed the Treaty of Cary Aas in 449 BC, and the ancient Roman Empire recruited German soldiers for its army. All these activities relied on interpreters. Similarly in China, for example, Confucius traveled various kingdoms where spoke different languages, so he also needed to rely on interpreters to communicate with others. However, there is no record of who these interpreters were, or historians have yet to discover them. The same is true in the West. Therefore, to discuss the history of translation, we can only start from the period of historical records. (Xie, 2009: 57)

In Europe, the history of translation can date back to the third century BC. In a broad sense, the earliest translation in the West is ''Septuagint'', translated by 72 Jewish scholars in Alexandria of Egypt around the third century BC. Strictly speaking, the first translation in the West is Andronicus’ Latin translation of Homer’s epics ''Odyssey'' around the middle of the third century BC. No matter the former or the latter one, they are both invented in the third century BC, that is the time of Livius Andronicus（the first Roman translator）. Before discussing this point, we must briefly review the historical background at that time.

In the 6th century BC, Rome entered the slave society from the primitive commune and established the Roman Republic. With the development of productivity, the Roman Republic grew. The rulers began to expand outwards for their own benefit. By the third century BC, Rome, with its increasing military force, first conquered the entire Italian peninsula. And after four Macedonian Wars, Rome controlled the whole of Greece. Thus, Rome replaced Greece's dominant position in the Mediterranean area in politics, economy as well as military, and became a powerful empire.

Rome and Greece are geographically adjacent to each other. Some Greeks had long been immigrated to the territory of Rome. Later, Rome conquered the Greece, so it was able to contact with the Greek culture directly. Since Greece had a splendid culture heritage, the Romans began to translate the Greek books on a large scale from the third century BC. And also in this time, the written records of translation appeared. Livius Andronicus, Gnaeus Naevius, and Quintus Ennius, considered the three founders of Roman literature, all translated or adapted Homer's epics and the Greek plays of Aischulos, Sophokles, and Euripides in Latin. The Romans inherited the Greek culture through translation and imitation. They did not inherit it simply, but carried it forward, and formed their own unique culture. Roman culture was formed by absorbing the cultural achievements of different regions on the basis of the economic and political relations of that time. This is the first large-scale translation activity in Europe and the whole Western history. Some translation activities in Europe probably existed long before that. However, from the existing written records, the history of western translation has just opened its first chapter. (Xu, 2006: 363)

Throughout human history, language translation has been almost as old as language itself. The relationship between the two primitive tribes, from antagonism to amity, all depends on the exchange of ideas, mutual understanding and translation. ''The Genesis'' describes that Greece and Persia signed the Treaty of Cary Aas in 449 BC, and the ancient Roman Empire recruited German soldiers for its army. All these activities relied on interpreters. Similarly in China, for example, Confucius traveled various kingdoms where spoke different languages, so he also needed to rely on interpreters to communicate with others. However, there is no record of who these interpreters were, or historians have yet to discover them. The same is true in the West. Therefore, to discuss the history of translation, we can only start from the period of historical records. (Xie, 2009: 57)

In Europe, the history of translation can date back to the third century BC. In a broad sense, the earliest translation in the West is ''Septuagint'', translated by 72 Jewish scholars in Alexandria of Egypt around the third century BC. Strictly speaking, the first translation in the West is Andronicus’ Latin translation of Homer’s epics ''Odyssey'' around the middle of the third century BC. No matter the former or the latter one, they are both invented in the third century BC, that is the time of Livius Andronicus（the first Roman translator）. Before discussing this point, we must briefly review the historical background at that time. In the 6th century BC, Rome entered the slave society from the primitive commune and established the Roman Republic. With the development of productivity, the Roman Republic grew. The rulers began to expand outwards for their own benefit. By the third century BC, Rome, with its increasing military force, first conquered the entire Italian peninsula. And after four Macedonian Wars, Rome controlled the whole of Greece. Thus, Rome replaced Greece's dominant position in the Mediterranean area in politics, economy as well as military, and became a powerful empire.

Rome and Greece are geographically adjacent to each other. Some Greeks had long been immigrated to the territory of Rome. Later, Rome conquered the Greece, so it was able to contact with the Greek culture directly. Since Greece had a splendid culture heritage, the Romans began to translate the Greek books on a large scale from the third century BC. And also in this time, the written records of translation appeared. Livius Andronicus, Gnaeus Naevius, and Quintus Ennius, considered the three founders of Roman literature, all translated or adapted Homer's epics and the Greek plays of Aischulos, Sophokles, and Euripides in Latin. The Romans inherited the Greek culture through translation and imitation. They did not inherit it simply, but carried it forward, and formed their own unique culture. Roman culture was formed by absorbing the cultural achievements of different regions on the basis of the economic and political relations of that time. This is the first large-scale translation activity in Europe and the whole Western history. Some translation activities in Europe probably existed long before that. However, from the existing written records, the history of western translation has just opened its first chapter. (Xu, 2006: 363) Corrected by--[[User:Zhong Yifei|Zhong Yifei]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yifei|talk]]) 12:14, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

==The Latin Translation of the Ancient Greek Classics==
From the above historical background, it can be seen that the translation activities in early Rome were the translation of ancient Greek classics. These translation activities continued until the fall of the Roman Empire in the fifth century AD. The whole process can be divided into two major stages, namely the Roman Republic stage and the Roman Empire stage. The translation objects during the Roman Republic mainly focused on dramas and epics, which formed the cultural translation tradition in the history of western translation. In the Roman Empire, the translation objects were mostly philosophy and religion, which later formed the tradition of the Bible translation in the history of western translation. It is worth mentioning that the translation ideas of the Roman Empire later became the source of the entire history of western translation thoughts, and the Romans were also considered to be the inventors of western translation theories. (Bassett, 2004: 57)
===Livius Andronicus(284?BC—204BC)===
In the translation activities of the early Romans, Greek drama was undoubtedly their most concern. The native Roman drama was an improvisational comedy, which was not as complete and rich as Greek drama in terms of language, performance and costume. Therefore, Greek drama, as a new form of entertainment, attracted Roman soldiers who came to Greece because of war and writers who made a living by writing from the 4th to the 3rd century BC. They soon introduced this novel form of entertainment to Rome, while writers translated Greek plays into Latin. In fact, it was not a translation, but an extremely liberal adaptation. The main purpose of it was not to produce accurate translation for academic study, but for performance and entertainment, so a large number of deletions and additions were inevitable in translation. (Lefevere, 2006: 15)

Among these early translators, the first to be mentioned is Livius Andronicus. He was the earliest translator of Rome and was known as “the father of Roman poetry”. Andronicus was born in the Greek colony of Taranto(a port city of southeast Italy today) around 284 BC. He was enslaved by the Romans, who captured the city around 272 BC. He was later set free and became his master's tutor, teaching Latin and Greek. One of the great difficulties he encountered in teaching was that there were no books available to teach Latin. To facilitate his teaching, he began to translate some books. Around 250 BC, he translated some fragments of Homer's ''Odyssey'' into Latin in Saturnian verse, a free-flowing translation that had long served as a textbook. Although the translation is of little literary value, it is the first Latin poem and the first literary work to be translated into Latin in the history of Roman literature. In addition, Andronicus introduced a new literary genre -- epic for Roman literature through his adaptation and translation works. One of the major features of the translation of ''Odyssey'' is that when translating the names of Greek gods, Andronicus did not use transliteration, but directly replaced the corresponding Greek gods with Roman gods. For example, the Greek god Zeus was translated into Jupiter, the Roman god; The Greek Cronos was translated into Saturns, the Roman god of agriculture; the Greek Muses was translated into Camenae, etc. Andronicus’ translation, though not accepted by modern translators, promoted the integration of Roman gods with Greek gods and played a positive role in enriching Roman culture.In addition, Andronicus also translated and adapted Greek plays. He translated and adapted nine tragedies by the major Greek writers Aischulos, Sophokles and Euripides, such as ''Agamemnon'', ''Oedipus the King'' and ''Medea''. And he translated and adapted three comedies, all of which were written by Menandros. (Tan, 2004: 16)

From the literary perspective, Andronicus’ translations, such as those of ''Odyssey'', are crude. However, his contribution was not in the translation itself, but that he was the first to introduce ancient Greek epics and plays to Roman society and to adapt Greek verse and rhyme to the Latin language. Through the efforts of him and many other contemporary and subsequent translators, the style of the ancient Greek dramas had a profound influence on the later European dramas.

=== Gnaeus Naevius(270 BC—200? BC)===
In the era of Andronicus, translation activities had gradually developed. The great movement of people caused by the Roman conquests led to an increase in the number of polyglots. And people had a growing interest in Greek culture. Many poets and playwrights also engaged in extensive translation of Greek works. The chief translators after Andronicus were Gnaeus Naevius and Quintus Ennius. The two men were basically contemporaries of Andronicus and enjoyed equal popularity with him in ancient Latin poetry and dramatic achievements. Some people refer to them as “the three founding fathers of ancient Roman literature creation and translation.”

Gnaeus Naevius was born in the Campania of present-day Italy. He lived at a time when Rome was actively expanding outward. When he was young, he served in the Roman army and fought in the first Punic War. As a writer with democratic leanings, he was imprisoned for his scathing attacks on the Roman authorities. After his release from prison, he continued to criticize the current government and was eventually expelled from Rome. Naevius first began writing and performing plays in 235 BC. He loved drama and translated 30 comedies and 6 tragedies in his lifetime. His works were not mere imitations of Greek classics, but a mixture of translation, creation and adaptation. His contribution to Roman literature is to nationalize Roman comedy. (Luo, 2007: 279)

In his translation, adaptation and composition of comedies, he mostly adopted the form of Greek comedy, but inserted many pure Roman characteristics. In addition, he wrote historical plays on the basis of real Roman events. He was the originator of Roman historical plays. His most important literary achievement is epic writing. His 7-volume epic ''Punic War'' describes the first Punic War in Greek poetic style, making a bold attempt to establish the tradition of Roman national epic. His epic, ''Punic War'', which was based on his own experiences of the wars between the Romans and the Carthaginians of North Africa, interspersed with historical events and myths. It was the first Roman epic, and it had a big influence on Virgil in writing ''Aeneid''. From the fragments of his works that have survived, we can see that the writing and translation style of Naevius is concise, and is clearly better than that of Andronicus. (Jiang, 2006: 108–109)

=== Quintus Ennius(239? BC–169 BC)===
Comparing with Naevius' translation of comedy and historical play writing, Ennius' contribution to ancient Roman literature lies in his creation of ancient Roman tragedy. He was born in 239 BC in Calabria of Italy. Although it was not a Greek settlement, it was heavily influenced by Greece because of its geographical location. So Ennius grew up in Greek culture from an early age. The biographer Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus (2nd century AD) called him “half Greek”. He mastered three languages: the first one was Oscan, the dialect of his hometown; the second one was Greek, which he had learned at school; and the last one was Latin, which he had learned while serving in the Roman army during the Second Punic War. In the literary activities during Ennius' life, the most important work which also brought him the greatest reputation was the epic ''Histories''. But his contribution in translation was also very important. Ennius mostly translated Greek tragedies, and he tried to translate the works of all three major Greek tragic writers. Through translation, he transplanted a Greek rhyme to Rome, and made a reform of the composition of Latin poetry. In addition, Ennius himself wrote at least six tragedies, the most famous of which was ''Iphigenia'', which was comparable to the works of Euripides. “His psychological description is profound and meticulous”, so he is known as “the father of Roman literature”. (Jiang, 2006: 280)

In conclusion, Andronicus, Naevius and Ennius, together with other contemporary writers and translators, passed on the Greek literary heritage to the later generations through translation and adaptation. Their literary and translation activities also played an important role in enriching the Roman culture and developing its literature.

== The Origin of Western Translation Thought==
Although the practice of translation was quite popular in the early period, no one paid much attention to the research on translation theories and methods before Cicero. The main purpose of translation was to introduce Greek culture so that Roman readers or audiences could be entertained by these translated or adapted works and plays. As for translation theory, even if there were some broken ideas, they were only used to counter critics and defend translation works.
=== Marcus Tullius Cicero(106 BC—43 BC)===
Cicero was an orator, politician and philosopher of the late Roman Republic and one of the most influential figures in ancient Rome. He was born in Epino, a small city near Rome. When he was young, he studied law, literature and philosophy in Rome and Athens. And later he served as a consul of the Roman Republic. In the political crisis of the late Roman Republic, he advocated republicanism and supported Octavius. In this way, he offended Mark Antony and was killed by him. He was not only a famous orator, statesman, philosopher and rhetorician in Roman history, but also a prolific translator. Cicero translated a great deal of Greek literature, politics and philosophy. For instance, Homer's ''Odyssey'', Plato's ''Timaeus'' and ''Protagoras''. Cicero's literary achievements made a great contribution to the development of Latin language. He was a famous literary figure in Rome at that time, with a magnificent oratory and fluent prose that set the literary style of Latin language.

Cicero not only translated many Greek classics, but also created many terms and Latin words that are still used today. While expounding rhetoric ideas, he gradually formed his own translation thoughts. His exposition of translation thoughts mainly focuses on two works: ''De Oratore'' (55 B.C.) and ''De Optima Genera Oratorio'' (46 B.C.). His main translation ideas are as follows:
First of all, Cicero made a clear distinction between “interpreter” and “orator” (what we later call literal translation and free translation). He was opposed to the “word-for-word” translation method. He believed that translation was not an imitation of the original text. The translator should not be an interpreter of the original text, but an orator delivering a speech to the audience:
“I translate not as an interpreter, but as an orator, keeping the same ideas and forms and using a language that conforms to our expressive habits. In this process, I think it is not necessary to translate word for word, but to preserve the overall style and power of the language.”
It was clear that Cicero saw a fundamental difference between the interpreter and the orator. The former does not have the ability to control language and can only use the “word-for-word” translation method. It focuses on the conversion of words and only conveys the literal meaning of the original text, rather than the thoughts of the orator. The latter pays attention to the retention of the overall style of language. It can effectively reproduce the thought and motivation of the orator, and can deliver rich emotions in public speeches. Secondly, Cicero put forward the concept of “competitive imitation” when translating ancient Greek literature. It means that literary translation should not only need literary talent, but also be more literary than the original one. Cicero demanded that translation should be a transmission of meaning, not a literal rewriting. But at the same time, at the lexical level, Cicero was very particular about the accurate translation of ancient Greek philosophical concepts. Thirdly, he also held that words and meanings are functionally inseparable, which is a universal language phenomenon. Since rhetoric devices are based on the natural connection between words and meanings, rhetoric devices of various languages have something in common with each other. This shows that translation can achieve stylistic equivalence. (Cicero, 2007:9)

Cicero's view can be summarized as follows: literal translation should be avoided, and the innermost thing of words -- meaning should be preserved in translation. To some extent, Cicero greatly developed translation theory, and his translation thoughts exerted a great influence on later translators and translation theorists, which occupied an important position in the history of translation. While discussing early translation theories, the British translation theorist Susan Bassnett have suggested: “Cicero and Horace’s translation thoughts have a significant impact on later translators. Their translation thoughts are produced in the discussion about two important responsibilities of poets: one is the common human responsibility to obtain and transmit wisdom; the other is the special art of creating and shaping poetry.” (Bassnett, 2004: 48)

=== Quintus Horatius Flaccus (65 BC—8 BC)===
Horace became another representative translation thinker after Cicero. Horace was a famous poet, critic and translator in the early Roman Empire. Influenced by Cicero, he also believed that literal translation must be avoided and flexible translation method should be adopted. His treatise on translation theory was mainly seen in ''Ars Poetica''. This was a letter to a Roman nobleman and his son. Combined with the status of Roman literature and art at that time, the principles of poetry and drama were put forward in this letter. His translation thoughts are as follows: Firstly, Horace believed that translators should adopt flexible translation method and reject literal translation method. He put forward the concept of “fidusinterpres” (it means faithful translation). However, the object of Horace's “fidusinterpres” is not the text, but the “customer”, and of course only the customer or reader of Horace's time. “A faithful translator/interpreter should be trusted by others. He needs to finish the task on time and achieve the satisfaction of both parties. To do this, he, as an interpreter, negotiates between clients by using two different languages. In the case of a translator, he negotiates between the customer and the two languages. Negotiation is the key, it is opposed to traditional reciprocal loyalty.” That is to say, translators and interpreters sometimes have to be “not very” faithful in order to avoid failure in negotiations if they want to do business. Horace proposed flexible translation and emphasized loyalty to the “customer”, the ultimate guide to translation. The “customer” in Horace's translation model is actually what we called “context” later, and the translation principle of "faithful translation for customers" has been developed into "translation according to context" for later generations. Secondly, Horace also proposed the concept of “privileged language”. In Horace's time, Latin was the privileged language. He asked translators to prefer the privileged language, Latin, which meant that foreign languages would be assimilated in translation. This was also a reflection of Horace's translation thought that tended to be “naturalized”, but his concept was also controversial and opposed by Schleiermacher. He emphasized that “faithful translation” should retain the national characteristics of the source culture, and his translation thought tended to be close to "foreignization". The two translation thoughts are opposite, and their respective focuses are also the topic of the early discussion of “domestication” and “foreignization”. Thirdly, he thinks the native language can be enriched by translation of loanwords. If the thing you want to express is very profound and must be expressed by new words, you can create new words to some degree. It not only can meet the needs of writing and translating, but also can enrich the language of the motherland. (Horace, 1981:79)

Horace's view on translation has exerted a great influence on later generations. His statement in ''Ars Poetica'' “a translator who is faithful to the original text will not translate word by word” is often quoted by later generations and used by free translators to criticize dead and direct translators. His idea of “enriching Latin through translation” is of great significance and influences many translators after the Renaissance.

=== Marcus Fabius Quintilianus (35?– 95?)===
Quintilian was another famous figure who advocated flexible translation after Cicero and Horace. Quintilian was born in 35 AD in a small town of Galaguris in the upper reaches of the Ebro River in northern Spain. He was an orator and educator during the Roman Empire. His thoughts on translation were concentrated in his book ''De institutione oratoria''. Although this book primarily concerned with Quintilian's educational ideas, it made important observations on the subject of translation. He noted differences in vocabulary, rhetoric between Greek and Latin, but he did not think such differences would lead to untranslatability. In his opinion, no matter how different languages and cultures are, there are various ways to express the same thought and emotion. Although translation cannot achieve the same effect as the original work, it can approach the original work through various means. In addition, he also proposed that translation should struggle with the original work. He said: “As for translation, I mean not only free translation, but also the struggle and competition with the original text in expressing the same meaning.” That is to say, translation is also a kind of creation, which must be comparable with the original work and even strive to surpass it. (Robinson, 1997:20)

It is not hard to find that the above three ancient scholars’ translation views have some similarities. They all oppose literal translation and advocate creative free translation. To talk about the early western translation theories, we should first clarify a fact— in the special context of ancient Rome, individual translators or translation theorists represented by Cicero did not talk about translation exclusively, but instead regarded translation as an exercise in rhetoric education and literary creation. Translation serves speech and literary creation and does not have the value of independent existence. In spite of this, their translation thoughts are of great significance, which create the first literary school in the history of western translation and form a distinctive tradition in the later development of translation theory.

== Early Bible Translation And St. Jerome As Well As St. Augustine==
Bible translation plays an important role in the history of western translation. From the ancient times to the present day, the translation of the Bible has never stopped. The range of languages, the number of translations and the frequency of use of the translations are unmatched by the translations of any other works. From the macro view of the Bible translation history, it has the following several important milestones: the first is ''The Septuagint''; then followed by ''Vulgate'' of four to five centuries; later there are different language versions in the early Middle Ages(such as Martin Luther’s version in Germany, the King James Bible in Britain, etc.) and various modern versions. All these translations have made indelible contributions to the spread and development of Christianity in the West, as well as to the flourishing of national languages and cultures.
=== ''The Septuagint''===
The first important translation of the Bible in the West was the Greek version of the Old Testament. The Old Testament was the official text of Judaism, and it was first written in Hebrew. Because the Jews were scattered and drifted abroad for a long time, they gradually forgot the language of their ancestors. So they used Arabic and Greek and other foreign languages, among which Greek speakers accounted for the majority. In ancient times, the Alexandria of Egypt was a cultural and trading center in the eastern Mediterranean region, where Jews accounted for two-fifths of the city’s total population. In the third century BC, the church decided to translate the Hebrew text of the Old Testament into Greek to meet the increasingly urgent religious needs of these Greek-speaking Jews. According to Ptolemy II’s will, 72 Jewish scholars gathered at the Library of Alexandria in Egypt between 285 and 249 BC to translate the Bible. According to legend, the 72 scholars came from 12 different Israeli tribes, each with six members. When they arrived at the Library of Alexandria, they worked in pairs in 36 different places and produced 36 very similar translations. In the end, 72 translators got together to check the 36 translations, and chose the final version, which they called ''The Septuagint''.

The translation of ''The Septuagint'' has two main characteristics. First of all, it is not an individual achievement, but the result of many people’s cooperation, which opens the history of collective cooperation in translation. A great advantage of collective translation is that it can guarantee the accuracy of the translation. Secondly, the 72 translators are not Greek, they are Jews in Jerusalem. Although Greek has become their daily language, they are not in Greece and the non-Greek language environment undoubtedly also has a great influence on them, which leads to affect the quality of translation. In addition, the foothold of their translation is that translation must be accurate. So, some words in translation are old and some sentences are translated straightly, even unlike Greek. However, far from being dismissed as eccentric, ''The Septuagint'' holds a special place in the history of translation. Later translations of the Old Testament in different languages such as Latin, Coptic (an ancient Egyptian language) and Ethiopian are based on it.

=== St. Jerome (347–420)===
In the late period of the Roman Empire, the ruling class intensified the use of Christianity in order to save the Empire from collapse. In this way, religious translation naturally received more attention and got greater development. It can be said that religious translation at this stage constituted the second climax in the history of western translation. During this period, the more influential figures in the field of translation were St. Jerome and St. Augustine.

St. Jerome was one of the four leading theologians of the early Western Christian Church and was considered the most learned of the Roman priests. He loved Latin literature and had a great interest in Greek religious culture. He praised highly the ideas of the Greek theologian Origenes. He translated 14 of his sermons. But Jerome was best known for his translation of the Bible, ''Vulgate''. It was a great success. It ended the confusion of Latin translations of the Bible and gave Latin readers the first “standard” translation of the Bible, which later became the only text recognized by the Roman Catholic Church. To some extent, it even replaced the Hebrew and Greek ones and became the basis for many later translators in European countries to translate the Bible. (Delisle, 1995: 101)

Jerome was not only an excellent translator, but also an outstanding translation theorist. In hundreds of prefaces and letters, Jerome set forth his mature thoughts on translation. During his lifetime, he had put forward some contradictory views on literal translation and free translation. In his early years, he advocated free translation. He cited some examples to support his point of view. For instance, he cited John Mark’s handling of translation. There was a paragraph in ''The Gospel of Mark'' that told the story of Jesus evoking a little girl who was ill. The original Hebrew phrase was “Ali that kumi” (little girl, get up), but John Mark translated it into Greek as “little girl, I tell you, get up.” Jerome thought that Mark had understood the tone of the command in Jesus’ words, and that it was all right to translate it literally rather than originally. It can be seen that Jerome realized that different languages are different from each other in terms of diction style, expression habit, syntax and so on. So it was not suitable to adopt the “word for word” translation method, but should adopt free translation following the principle of flexibility. But in the later years, in ''The Letter to Pammachius'', Jerome made clear the differences in translation between religious and non-religious texts. “I will freely confess that I have never translated Greek word for word, but meaning for meaning, except the Bible where word order is divine and mysterious.” Therefore, he believed that in literary translation, translators could and should adopt an easy-to-understand style to convey the meaning of the original text. In religious translation, free translation was not always adopted, but literal translation should be mainly adopted. It can be seen that his later viewpoint was a revision and an enrichment of his earlier viewpoint. Finally, he regarded the relationship between literal translation and free translation as a “complementary” relationship. He admitted that he sometimes adopted free translation and sometimes literal translation. And in some cases, he would integrate the two methods to pursue a better translation. (Jerome, 2007: 25–26)

Jerome’s translation principles and methods have exerted a great influence on later translation theories and practices, especially in the translation of the Bible during the Middle Ages. Many of his theories, such as “style is an inseparable part of content”, have been inherited and developed.

=== St. Augustine (354–430)===
Augustine was a Christian theologian and philosopher in the Roman Empire. Augustine was born in Thagaste, a small town in the Numidian mountains of North Africa. At that time, the city was part of the Roman Empire. Thagaste was originally a closed and monocultural town. But during the Roman Empire, a large number of immigrants poured in, making Thagaste gradually developed into a multi-ethnic and multi-cultural city. Augustine's father was a public servant in Thagaste. His family did not have much property and his father was keen on public charity, so he enjoyed a certain social status. However, his father was lazy, bad-tempered and had constant scandals. This had a great impact on Augustine’s growth and his attitude towards life. His mother was a devout Christian. She often induced Augustine to understand Christianity and even believe in Christianity, which was closely related to Augustine’s later philosophical achievements and even his eventual conversion to Christianity. The good educational environment in Rome laid a solid foundation for Augustine’s education. He studied Greek and Roman literature. His famous works were ''De Civitate Dei'', ''Confessiones'' and ''De doctrina christiana''.

Augustine played a very important role in the history of western translation. His discussion on translation was mainly found in his book ''De doctrina christiana''. Augustine explained his views on some aspects of translation. When talking about translation, Augustine recognized that translation was not always a “dictation”, but that there were also the transcendent wisdom of God, the personal understanding and interpretation of man in it. Augustine once wrote: “the Bible, as a remedy for the terrible disease of the human will, was originally written in the same language so that it might spread throughout the world. But later it was translated into various languages, a remedy known to all nations. One studied it to find out the will of the minds of those authors, and through them to find the will of God.” This shows that although the language of the translations varies, the will of God is eternal and unchangeable. A careful study and proper understanding of the different translations of the Bible will surely lead to hearing the call of God. Such an exposition of the translation has been taken out of the linguistic dimension and is filled with theological discourse, which is metaphysical. That is, although Augustine affirms the value of translation, what is actually implied is the wisdom of God that is transcendent over translation and language. The Bible is not to be read to understand the will of its author, but to understand the wisdom of God through the text. The original, the translation, and the wisdom of God must be viewed separately, and the translation is only a proven way of understanding God’s will. (Augustine, 2004: 47)

He was also the first to propose that the translation style (plain, elegant and solemn) depends on the requirements of the readers. In his opinion, the translation of enlightenment texts needs simple style; a text glorifying God needs elegance; exhortation and guidance texts require dignified style. His comments played an important role in the later generations and had a profound influence on translation studies. Therefore, he was regarded as the founder of the linguistic school in the history of western translation.

==Conclusion==
From the heyday of the Roman Empire to the fall of the Roman Empire, translation had gone through more than 700 years, during which there had been two major stages of the development of translation. In the first stage, it was mainly the Romans who translated Greek classics on a large scale, especially Homer's epics and plays. Translation activities in this stage promoted the emergence and development of Roman literature and played an important role as a bridge for later European countries to inherit ancient Greek culture. The second stage was the large-scale religious translation stage, which was the translation of the Bible and other theological works. At this stage, religious translation surpassed secular literary translation and gradually became the mainstream of western translation.

The earliest studies on translation theories and methods in the West can also be traced back to this period. Although some translation theories are sporadic, scattered and not systematic, they have a lot of insights on translation and have influenced subsequent translation theories. For example, Cicero explicitly put forward the problem of literal translation and free translation. Writers and translators began to discuss about this problem, and later formed the school of free translation represented by Cicero and Horace as well as the school of literal translation represented by Augustine and the school of both free translation and literal translation represented by Jerome. With the decline of the Roman Empire, western translation gradually turned into a low tide and transferred to the Middle Ages.

In addition to the historical study of ancient western translation, this thesis also aims to make readers understand the importance of translation history. Translation itself is a cross-cultural communication activity, reducing or even dredging communication barriers between different languages and regions. The development of translation activities can accelerate and promote the development of human civilization. Translation history is indispensable in translation studies. It is the testimony of the origin of translation activities and the record of their development. People should pay attention to the study of the history of translation and constantly explore its implications. The research results of translation history can provide a clear direction for translation studies and promote the further development of translation activities.

==References==
Augustine 奥古斯丁:《论基督教教义》''De doctrina christiana'', 石敏敏译 translated by Shi Minmin，中国社会科学出版社 China Social Sciences Press，2004，p.47。

Luo Niansheng 罗念生，《论古典文学》''On Classical Literature''，上海人民出版社 Shanghai People’s Publishing House，2007，p.279。

Editorial committee of ''A Journey to World’s Civilization''《世界文明之旅》编委会，《古罗马文明读本》''On Ancient Rome’s Civilization''，中国档案出版社 China Archives Press，2006，p.108。

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜，《西方翻译简史》''A Short History of Translation in the West''，商务印书馆 Beijing: The Commercial Press，2004，p.16。

Xu Haishan 许海山，《古罗马简史》''A Short History of Ancient Rome''，中国言实出版社 Yanshi Press，2006，p.363。

Bassnett, Susan. ''Translation Studies'' [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, p. 57.

Cicero. 2007. The best kind of orator[C]//D. Robinson. ''Western Translation Theory: from Herodotus to Nietzsche'', Beijing: FLTRP: 7-10.

Horace. ''English Literary Studies'' [M]. University of Victoria, 1981, p.79.

Jerome. ''Letter to Pammachius''. In Robinson, Douglas. ''Western Translation Theory: from Herodotus to Nietzsche''. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2007, p.25.

Robinson, Douglas. ''Western Translation Theory from Herodotus to Nietzsche''. Manchester: St. Jerome, 1997, p.20.

Xie Tianzheng 谢天振．中西翻译简史［M］A brief history of Chinese and Western Translation．北京:外语教学与研究出版社 Beijing: foreign language teaching and Research Press, 2009, p.57.

Delisle, Jean, & Judith Woodsworth. Eds. ''Translators Through History''. John Benjamins Publishing Company. 1995, p. 101.

Lefevere, André. ''Translation/ History/ Culture: A Sourcebook''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2006, p.15.

=钟义菲: The Chinese Translation History in Mordern Age=
钟义菲 Zhong Yifei，Hunan Normal University，China
==Abstract==
Since the middle of the 19th century, translation has gradually become a tool for people resolved to save the country from extinction. The spread of the large number of translation works has broadened the ways for the public, especially the intellectuals, to learn the west. In the meantime, it has also changed the social climate. The invasion of western civilization, translators' spontaneous development of translation activities and the passivity of national politics made Chinese society enter an important period of western learning translation, especially around the period of Opium War. The cause of translation in modern China coincided with the Chinese people's struggle against aggression. After the Opium War, China had to open the door. China had to end its isolation and began to face the outside world directly. However, the prolonged blockade made China lag behind the western world. Modem politics, economy, diplomacy and cultural activities are closely related to translation, which plays an indispensable role in history. The theme and source of the original translation often reflect the development trend of modem Chinese ideology and the direction of government policy. As for the nature and quantity of translation books in different periods, we can also see the motivation of translation books, the general trend of intellectual interests, and the impact of the dissemination in society. The time clue of this article is from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, briefly introducing the translation and the translator, emphasizing its emergence background and several important period of development, research and analysis of western culture reflected in translation works in modem Chinese history, the change of Chinese people’s thoughts in translation and the influence of modem translation on Chinese society. This paper is divided into three chapters. The first chapter introduces the emergence, importance and main characteristics of modem translation works, then reviews the emergence of modem translation works, emphasizes their importance, and briefly introduces representative translation works. The second chapter introduces the background of translation works and translation climax stages of western books, studies the main characteristics and development trend of translation in each period. The third chapter studies the influence and performance of modem translation on people's ideology and social life through the description in translation works. This paper focuses on the development of modem translation, the important role of translation in Chinese history, and the specific impact of translation on modem society.

==Key words==
Modern Translation，Translation，Social Life，Ideology

==Introduction==
Around the middle of the 19th century, The Western invasion brought new knowledge. The Westernization Movement sent a large number of international students to study abroad and translated a large number of books for military purposes.The Qing government decayed, and was tired of the invasion of foreign enemies, the war repeatedly failed. After the Sino-Japanese War in 1894, faced with internal and external troubles, far-sighted people knew that they could not rely on the Qing government, so they devoted themselves to writing novels. Many people accepted and spread Western culture through translating books. The importance of translation was recognized by the development of journalism, media, and provident men influenced by the Western culture at that time. In this social context, people have criticized the corruption of government through literature and translation.

Modern China began in the Opium War in 1840. It was a special period in Chinese history. During this period, the Chinese were attacked by foreign guns, as well as by foreign culture and foreign education. Especially after the Sino-Japanese War, the Chinese people were greatly shocked psychologically, and people began to realize that the West was more advanced than China in political, economic, cultural and other aspects, which was providing a great opportunity for the introduction of translation literature. Translators at that time also hoped to translate the western advanced scientific knowledge to the Chinese people so that they could broaden their horizons and innovate their ideas. During the Reform Movement of 1898, Liang Qichao advocated publicizing political ideas by translating foreign political novels to transform the society. He believed that the incredible power of novels was "enough to dominate people's psychology and could change the society of one generation." Based on the translation of the novel, Liang Qichao gave the novel new significance and mission. He put forward the idea of improving the novel, with the famous ones such as ''The Beauty Adventures'' and ''The Fifteen Little Heroes'', which promoted the process of novel revolution and the prosperity and development of the translating novels. Yan Fu translated works such as ''Heaven'' and Yuan Fu. His translation had a great influence at that time and was the most important enlightenment translation in China in the 20th century. In the translation of ''Heaven'', Yan Fu proposed three difficulties: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance. It was advocated by many literary writers at that time and used as the theoretical basis for their translation. The concept of "natural selection: the fittest to survive" conveyed in Yan Fu's Heaven woke people up from the dream of the heavenly world. There are more famous translation works such as Lin Shu’s ''The Lady of the Camellias'', Black slaves call for heaven record and so on. It had an important influence on the change of people's concept. People are not limited to the traditional concept of marriage and love, and the concept of freedom and equality gradually spread. Under the prevalence of translation works, traditional values, such as emphasizing agriculture and suppressing business, men being superior to women, gradually lost their status and were gradually replaced by new ideas. （A 1981:741）

The paper mainly includes three chapters: First, modern translation works and the overview of translators. Second, the background and climax of modern translation works. Third, the impact of modern translation on social life. In the modern Chinese literary circle, there was a wave of translation in western books, and the translation activities of foreign works were unprecedentedly prosperous.The emergence of a large number of translation works has also caused a large influx of foreign cultural ideas. Under the translation of domestic scholars, the translators not only conveyed the literary nature of foreign works, but also expressed their translation purpose through translation language and techniques, and had a huge impact on Chinese social life at that time. Academia research is more aimed at the overview of modern translation works and its prosperity, but little research on its impact on national social life. This paper analyzes the wide variety of materials and works to detail the influence of modern translation on social life. （Lian 2009:93）

==1. Modern Translation Work and Its Main Characteristics ==
===1.1 The Emergence of Translation Works and Their Importance===
The premise of the emergence of translation works is the introduction of western civilization. The spread of western culture in modern China can be traced back to the eve of the Opium War. The main translators are missionaries, who mainly introduce religious doctrine, and also bring western history and geography to China. They established schools, translated western books (such as the Bible), compiled magazines, wrote books and so on. It can be said that missionaries are the first wave of intermediaries communicating between Chinese and Western culture. Early missionaries in China, although for the purpose of conquest, tended to teach by words and deeds than coercion. However, considering China's closure at that time, the Chinese were not allowed to learn foreign languages. The missionaries have also made great efforts in communicating the Chinese and Western cultures. This also led to the introduction of western civilization at this stage and laid the foundation for the development of the modern translation and cultivated talents. The Opium War was an important period of western translation. The rise and fall of China is always closely related to the rise and fall of translation culture. As a special component of Chinese literature, the development of translation literature has always affected the process of Chinese literature and historical changes, especially the occurrence of modern Chinese translation literature, which has effectively promoted the transformation and development of Chinese literature and modern society. Modern translation, from its emergence to the development, is inseparable with China's social changes. Translation has promoted the change of people's ideas, enriched people's knowledge in many fields, and not only promoted the development of Chinese literature, but also played a certain positive role in the development of politics and Chinese society. （Guo 1979:126）

===1.2 Representative Works of Modern Translations and Their Main Categories===
The introduction of modern western literature made Lin Shu a famous literary translator. Many people will misunderstand ''The Lady of the Camellias'' as the first translation novel in modern China. But ''The Declaration'' has already begun to publish translation novels earlier. The first translation novel should be ''Xinxi Talk''. According to Zou Zhenhuan, the most expensive translation of the Bible was the first version to enter the palace, the "royal version" of the late Qing Dynasty. The first modern Japanese novel translated into Chinese was ''The Beauty Adventure'', translated by Liang Qichao, which opened the translation of the political novel in the late Qing Dynasty. At the same time, the Chinese translation books related to Japan was ''Ryukyu Geography''. Tan Ruqian thought it as “the first Chinese translation of Japanese documents”. After translation into Chinese, the most influential translation is Yan Fu’s ''Heaven'', Lin Shu’s ''The Lady of the Camellias'', and ''Black Slaves Call for Heaven'' record translated by Wei Yi and Lin Shu. The three works had a great influence on Chinese society in different aspects. Thai new history can represent part of the translation works since modern times. It is widely spread into China though it doesn’t achieve any effect in the West. The book is considered by western scholars as the most boring residual history and a third-rate world history. In China, it sold more than one million copies, which is the most popular reading book in the Restoration period. It can be said that the social influence in different historical stages and social backgrounds can be different. ''The Law of the Duke of Nations'' theoretically defeated the ignorant idea of the Qing government. In addition, there are translations about life which popularized scientific knowledge in China and played a good role in the abolition of feudal superstition. ''Foreign Cookery'' in Chinese was the earliest Chinese translation of a relatively systematic introduction of western cooking methods in the process of introducing western food culture in China. In the aspects of medicine, there were books such as ''Tessi’s Personal Theory'', ''Optical Disclosure and Cardiotherapy''. The first sociological monograph of full-text translation in modern China was translated by Zhang Taiyan, which had an important influence on the progress of social cognition.（Feng 2012: 234-235）

===1.3 Main Characteristics of Modern Translation Works===
One is catering to the taste and ethics of the Chinese readers in order to obtain a wider popularity. Influenced by the social background of the late Qing Dynasty, most people who learned from the West were limited to intellectuals and politicians. In order to make the translation get more attention, the translator chose more accepted literary works for translation. This to some extent leads to the lack of extensive translation categories. In Introduction to Translation, the second chapter "Translation of Catholic Scholars between the Ming and Qing Dynasties" discussed the Catholic doctrine translation and scientific translation between the Ming and Qing Dynasties, and pointed out that " at that time, translation sought more elegance, integrity and the willingness of Chinese officials and scholars to read. However, there are also some translators who try to keep the original meaning rather than deliberately satisfying the readers’ interests." On the other hand, it also confirms that the characteristics of translation was catering to readers at that time. （Zhang 2003:158）

The second is to use foreign novel translation as a tool for reform politics. After the failure of the Opium War, people with insight were eager to find good ways to save the country. The most direct and effective way is to learn western culture. In the process of learning western culture, the most convenient thing is to translate western works. However, hindered by language factors, the translation of monographs is far more difficult than the novels. Therefore, except for the few people who are proficient in foreign languages, most translators basically choose to take novels as the entry point to give personal political opinions and ideas to achieve the purpose of political improvement. Third, readers often take the translation of novels as a pastime, resulting in the flood of boring detective novels and romantic novels. Popular novels translations are enough while famous novels translations are rare. To cater to the market and earn publication costs, many translators translate foreign works for the purpose of making a profit. And after a few celebrities do not classify foreign translations, many translators will have a herd mentality. At the same time, due to the influence of domestic readers' literary taste, popular novels and simple literary works are more acceptable to them, so resulting in the flood of some novel categories. Fourth, the translation is not faithful. Influenced by traditional ideas, some phenomena in western works were not accepted by the Chinese at that time, and to avoid unnecessary trouble, the translator chose to omit part of the plot in the original, and could not completely express the original idea. In order to express his political position and views, the translator will fabricate the plot and comments not included in the original. For example, when Su Manshu translated ''Hugo's Bad World'', he invented a character called Lauder, using him to satirize the corrupt stupidity of the Qing government. Secondly, the translator will change the narrative perspective and structure of the original, which is largely influenced by the traditional Chinese narrative style. For example, Liang Qichao used the serial structure when translating ''The Beauty Adventure''.（Zhang 1934:42）

It is summarized as follows: excessive catering to readers and lack of independence; the monotonous type of translation with limitations; lack of translation proficiency and transmission of the idea; separation from the original work.

==2. The Rise Background and Climax of Modern Translation Works ==
===2.1 The Background of the Rise of Modern Translation===
After the Opium War, the Qing government successively signed the Nanjing Treaty and the Humen Treaty, which made insightful people attempt to save modern China from abyss of suffering. In the face of an unprecedented crisis, a group of people began to search for the way to save the country, and every individual has put all his strength into the efforts to save the nation in danger. Modern China is faced with a more powerful opponent in all aspects. People with insight realize that they must break through the current situation of self-isolation and learn from the outside world. Learning from the West and imitating the West became an important strategy of saving the nation at that time. Chinese society has constantly updated the old mechanism, trying to get rid of the original closed and rigid political dilemma, starting to find a new development direction, from the learning of western skills to the study of western political and economic system, ideology and culture. To learn from the West and seek self-improvement, translation is first serve as a bridge of communication. Domestic people with insight can bring western works to China by translating them. After the failure of the Second Opium War, China was forced to sign the Treaty of Beijing. The national crisis became more and more serious, the national crisis further strengthened the Chinese people's thought of self-improvement, and the understanding of the outside world became more and more urgent. At the same time, due to the current situation, foreign language communication and diplomatic intercourse have become very urgent. In this environment, translation became indispensable in this era.

===2.2 The Purpose of the Rise of Modern Translation===
The 19th century was a period of complex economic situation and chaotic political situation. At this time, the demand for formal translators increased. However, in this period, translation was very sophisticated and had a great influence on the control authority of the government and exchanges between Chinese and foreign countries. In the Treaty of Beijing, Britain and France sent documents that are written in English and French to China. But considering that there was almost no translation talent in China at that time, the two sides agreed to attach Chinese version. But if there was any dispute, both English and French characters should be the authority. Then the Qing government had to start training translation talents, and the first batch of foreign language schools were established accordingly. The original motivation of The School of Combined Learning was quite related to the signing of the Sino-British Treaty, and the British authorities attached a Chinese translation within three years, aiming to allow the Chinese government to cultivate a number of qualified translators during this period, so the establishment of The School of Combined Learning was established in 1861. It was the first official foreign language school in the late Qing Dynasty with the purpose of cultivating foreign language translation talents. Foreigners were the teachers, training specialized foreign language translators. In order to become rich and train soldiers, China must learn from advanced western science and technology. To learn from advanced western technology, it is bound to remove the language barriers in the process of learning. Zeng Guofan once mentioned that translation must occupy the fundamental strategic position of westernization cause. It is easy to see that the purpose of translation is to learn the advanced western technology more efficiently and to achieve the purpose of saving the nation. The process of modernizing Chinese literature is, in a sense, the process of Chinese literature learning from the West and seeking innovation and change under the impact of western culture. （Shi 1983:216）

===2.3 The Climax of Translation in the Western Book===
====2.3.1 From the Opium War to the Sino-Japanese War====
From the Opium War to the Sino-Japanese War, especially after the 1860s, with the rise of the westernization movement aimed at self-improvement and wealth, there was an upsurge in the translation of Western science and technology books. In the late Qing Dynasty, under the influence of opium smuggling, China and the UK exchanges are getting closer and closer. Until the Opium War broke out, the door of China was completely opened, and the Qing government had to face the outside world. Lin Zexu fought in the front line of the anti-smoking movement and the anti-British struggle from 1839 to 1840. He organized personnel to translate many books. In the monthly Macao, there are five volumes: on China, on tea, on smoking prohibition, on the use of military forces and on the feelings of foreigners in various countries. These materials are mainly translated from Guangzhou weekly, Guangzhou chronicle and etc. Lin Zexu never neglected to give up the work of organizing translation. Among Lin Zexu's translations, ''The Chronicles of Four Continents'' has the most far-reaching impact on Modern Chinese history. It is the first book in modern China to systematically introducing world geography and history. The translation of these books opened the eyes of the Chinese people and began to import Western learning in modern times, which is of great significance to the history of modern thought and culture. One of the most direct effects is that it has led to the emergence of a number of masters who compile and study foreign profiles. It indirectly led to the development of the style of study for practical use, and also had an important impact on the literary reform in history. Wei Yuan revised and supplemented ''The Records of the Four Continents''. This book not only retained the characteristics of the west, but also sublimated in combination with the domestic reality, added many notes and political comments, and put forward many political propositions represented by "learning from the foreigners and mastering their skills to control the foreigners", which gathered huge ripples in the ideological circles at that time, and even spread to Japan, It also had an impact on Japan's Meiji Restoration.However, at this time, the work of Lin Zexu and Wei Yuan only played the role of foresight and did not form a huge social situation. The development of translation still needs new forces to promote. At this time, the Westernization school played such a role. （Zou 2008:57-58）

The Westernization Movement took place after the second Opium War and before the Sino-Japanese war. During this period, the Qing government experienced the impact of two Opium Wars. Facing the strong ships and guns of Western powers, it was in a difficult situation at home and abroad, and felt a profound crisis never seen in history. The Westernization school, divided from the feudal landlord class, had a certain understanding of the world situation. They advocate learning from western capitalist countries. The main figures of the Westernization school were Zeng Guofan, Li Hongzhang and others. They held high positions in the Qing government. Compared with other ordinary officials, they were more deeply aware of the need to learn and introduce advanced military weapons and manufacturing technology from Western powers in order to maintain the ruling order of the feudal society and realize the stability of the regime of the Qing Dynasty. However, at that time, the Westernization school could only recognize the progress of Western skills and the strength of military strength. Their change Geng Chang's method was only limited to "learning from foreigners". Among them, the translation of foreign books became an important means to achieve the goal of learning from foreigners. （Wang 1987:23-24）

In 1862, due to the needs of diplomacy and Westernization Movement, Tongwen museum was established in Beijing to train translators. The Tongwen Library in Beijing regards translation and washing as an important activity. The Jiangnan manufacturing Bureau, founded in 1865, had a greater impact during this period. The two primary problems faced by Jiangnan manufacturing Bureau after its completion are technology and talents, and the key to solving these two problems is the translation of technical books. Therefore, it decided to "set up another school to learn translation", "it is planned to select intelligent disciples to study with the school when it is completed", "You don't have to fake a foreigner, you can also extend it and make it into a book." The books translated by the translators were mainly about natural science and applied technology, which played a positive role in introducing modern science and technology and promoting the development of productive forces, and became important teaching materials for people of insight at that time to understand the external world and update their knowledge structure. These books can be said to have cultivated the next batch of cultural newcomers, such as Kang Youwei, Liang Qichao, Zhang Taiyan and Cai Yuanpei and so on. （Zeng 1987:83）

During this period, the importance of translation has been paid some attention, and the government has begun to operate translation in an organized and planned way. At the same time, the translation activities of the church have also been strengthened. Missionaries played the role of cultural invaders in the process of foreign military aggression. At first, missionaries wanted to carry out cultural aggression in the sense of Christianity, but they were influenced by Chinese tradition The influence of culture was resisted by the Chinese people. So they turned to spread new western knowledge and Western civilization, set up institutions, run newspapers and translate books, and tried to open the gap of the Chinese people's thought, so as to achieve the purpose of cultural aggression control. But objectively speaking, they also played a role in spreading Western learning to a certain extent. The translation by foreign missionaries had a great impact on Chinese society. The Chinese people's own pure literary translation also began at this stage. However, the literary translation at this stage still lacks systematic theoretical guidance and positive social atmosphere.

====2.3.2 After the Sino-Japanese War====
After the Sino-Japanese War was defeated, the Westernization Movement was declared bankrupt, and China's current situation was at stake. People with lofty ideals learned from the failure of the Westernization Movement that reform is far from solving the problem. To make China embark on the road of independence, prosperity and strength, we must fundamentally learn from the West and change the feudal autocratic system. In order to comprehensively learn western learning, translation is the first thing at this time. Therefore, this is the moment The translation career of this period is very prosperous, which is very different from the translation characteristics of the previous era. First, the expansion of the field of translation. At this time, the focus of importing western learning turned to various fields of social science, and paid particular attention to the import of political and academic ideas. The eight famous works translated by Yan Fu were outstanding representatives of this period, which had a significant impact on the society of the Qing Dynasty. During this period, translation methods were widely used, that is, abridged translation and free translation of foreign works, which were understood by the translator At this time, a large number of social sciences have been introduced, which has greatly improved the ideological level of Chinese people and brought the political and cultural activities to a new stage. Secondly, the translation field has also been expanded. The previous translation work was limited to government-run institutions. After the Sino-Japanese War, the reformers stepped onto the historical stage, and the translation work has been included in the overall plan of the reform. The reformers created schools, ran newspapers and opened publishing houses, with the import of Western learning and the translation and introduction of Western books as the main activities. After the failure of the reform movement, the establishment of newspapers and publishing houses did not stop. At this time, China's translation industry began to gradually break away from the limited government-run and turn to the private sector, resulting in an unprecedented prosperity in the translation industry. In addition, the translation team has gradually expanded. The establishment of foreign language teaching has gradually increased the number of foreign students and personnel abroad. The emergence of more and more translation talents meets the development of the publishing industry and social needs at this time. More and more people who know foreign languages are engaged in translation. This period is also an era of a large number of translators. Not only Lin Shu and Yan Fu, but also Liang Qichao, Su Manshu, Zhou Guisheng, Wu Guangjian are all well-known. During this period, the level of translation was also greatly improved. In the early days, most of the translations were spoken by foreigners who knew a little Chinese, and then recorded and polished by Chinese. The level of translation was uneven. During this period, most translators were proficient in foreign languages, their Chinese level was also high, and the quality of translation improved greatly Great improvement.（Xiao 1984:23）

This stage is also a period of vigorous rise and unprecedented prosperity of novel translation. In the early modern times, novel translation was not paid much attention. The first foreign novel translated into China was translated by foreign missionaries and published by the church. It was ''The Pilgrim’s Progress'' by British writer John Buyan, and the translation was published in Xiamen in 1853. During this period, translation activities also had some defects. Due to the popularity of translation, although abridged translation and free translation made the translator more free to express his political ideas, it also caused the disadvantages of breaking away from the original works. The purpose of translation was not to introduce western literature, but to express the translator's own ideas as a political means. At the same time, translation theory was strongly advocated in this period and political utilitarianism have also been greatly strengthened.

====2.3.3 Marked by the Rise of the New Culture Movement====
After the revolution of 1911, people's political enthusiasm was obviously low. In terms of translation, few people paid attention to social, political and economic works, and the number of translated novels was significantly lower than that of creative novels. However, people's literary concept was gradually strengthened. During this period, many translators introduced foreign literature from a literary perspective, bringing a new atmosphere to the translation circle and the history of Chinese literature In the period of the new culture movement, the translator's political and literary ideas were significantly improved, which laid a good foundation for the third wave of Western Chinese book translation starting from the new culture movement.

During this period, first of all, the number of short stories was greatly increased. During this period, new translators preferred to translate short stories. For example, Hu Shi translated ''The Last Lesson'' and Zhou Zuoren also published several short translation novels in the magazine New youth. The short translation novels published during this period also included ''The Leisure Review of Customs'' translated by Lin Shu and Chen Jialin. At this stage, the translator chooses the original work carefully after fully understanding and studying the original author, and describes his own opinions and ideas in the preface and postscript. Unlike in the past, he arbitrarily cuts the original work to express his political ideas, most of them are serious and loyal to the original. During this period, script translation gradually prevailed, and poetry translation appeared a new atmosphere. German poetry began to receive attention, and vernacular poetry began to appear. A new generation of translation practitioners consciously linked the translation of foreign literature with the transformation of Chinese literature and the purpose of the new culture movement. Chinese literary translation and Chinese society have entered a new era. （Wang 1992:321-322）

==3. The Influence of Modern Translation on Social Ideas==
===3.1 Appearance of the Concept of Marriage===
The translation that made an important change in the concept of scholars in the late Qing Dynasty was ''The Legacy of the Camellia'' in Paris translated by Lin Shu. This book describes the ups and downs of the protagonist Mark fate and complex psychological feelings. After the Sino-Japanese War, Lin Shu joined the ranks of reformers. He took a more open attitude towards love, which made Lin's translated novels reflect some changes of the times to a certain extent, implying that modern marriage and love pay attention to color. In Lin Shu's concept, if women want to benefit from freedom of marriage, they must first receive good education, such as Qiu Zhilan as a chivalrous woman, the heroine Qiu Zhilan sneaked into the capital to avenge her father's murder. She met scholar LV Qiushi and fell in love at first sight. She took the initiative to give a keepsake while LV Qiushi was reading at night. Finally, with the help of the blind nun of Shuiyue nunnery, they got married. Qiu Zhilan pursued love independently and persevered, suggesting that women's sense of marriage and love had begun to change under the circumstances at that time, Or the wind of free marriage and love has gradually risen. In Lin Shu's translated novels, Lin Shu points out the rigidity of the orders of parents and the words of matchmakers. He also advocates that women should maintain the beauty of temperament. In Lin Shu, women generally can consciously control their emotions, maintain a certain degree of reserve and gentleness in their behavior, and never do things carelessly. To a certain extent, this reflects the love aesthetics and love trend of the society at that time.（Hu 1916:474）

In the past, the novels of talented women and beauties in ancient China were a special kind of art to express the love concept of the citizen class. In Chinese novels of talented women and beauties, most of the talented people in the books were portrayed as the images of handsome, talented, elegant and noble, and not in line with the times. Second, the highest ideal commonly pursued by scholars at that time was "wedding night, golden list." The happy ending of joys and sorrows can satisfy people's aesthetic taste in the past. In ''The Legacy of the Camellia Woman'' in Paris, It depicts the heroine, who is loyal to her feelings and has a sense of morality, left because of Yameng's career future and family happiness. This self-sacrifice combined with tragic color made the people who have seen the story of talented people and beautiful women for a long time with an unprecedented freshness, which provided a new type of love aesthetics for the people at that time. （Chen 1990:213）

There are also relevant translation works such as ''Better Return'' published during the Meiji period, which is called "the milestone of the theme novel describing women's consciousness in the Meiji period", which describes the content of women's resistance to the oppression of old morality and ethics, and the dramatic work ''Doll's House'', the heroine Nala breaks away from her originally happy family and realizes that she is a neglected individual value. Her home is just a doll's home. It can be inferred that Nora is not the only one. The concepts of marriage and love freedom and women's individual values conveyed in her works since modern times have gradually penetrated into the society, and people have begun to gradually recognize the importance of women’ s rights. （Yuan 1989:178-181）

During the May 4th movement, The Troubles of Young Witt was strongly favored by young Chinese readers at that time for its crazy love passion, very dreamy action, rebellious and independent thought of the society and the protagonist's individualistic thinking method. This book was once regarded as the "Bible" by young men and women at that time As a general cultural phenomenon, the love between Witt and Lvdi made the young people talk about the freedom of marriage and love at that time and take the sacred love between men and women as the ideal. Witt easily reminded people of the talents in the love story at that time. Witt's lovelorn was expressed through strong sadness, which was the best comfort and inspiration for the young people who were eager to escape from the feudal cage at that time. It was a landmark translation that influenced modern Chinese society at that time.（Shi 1989:245）

===3.2 The Emergence of the Concept of Freedom and Equality and the Changes and Manifestations of Social Values===
Feminism is also one of the concepts of freedom and equality. Among the reformers after the failure of the Sino Japanese War of 1894-1895, Lin Shu was one of the first to advocate feminism. This was also mentioned in the previous section when describing the concept of marriage and love. The rise of women's concept of freedom of marriage and love has gradually spread, which implies that women pay attention to their own rights. From the novels translated by Lin Shu, Lin Shu's admiration for women's courage to pursue their love or rights shows that Lin supports and advocates women's rights. Xinxi Gossip deals with the values of money and the concept of social class. The novel expounds the role of money in Europe, which is unheard of by Chinese scholars. For example, the third volume of the novel describes that the British set up marriage halls, that is, intermediaries such as today's marriage agencies, many people who come to the museum are losers, hoping to cheat into marrying rich families, it describes that many people go to parties, but are driven by money worship in an attempt to cheat them into marrying rich people. At the same time, it also describes that money can make an old woman get a young husband, and the young husband aims at the old woman's rich family wealth. In the eyes of the Chinese people at that time, this was not in line with the code of ethics and could not be accepted.（Lu 1981:56）

==Conclusion==
In the transition period of modern China, the social function of translation played an important role, and the subversion was the most prominent in the social function of translation. At that time, China had experienced a long period of inaction towards western culture and regardless of the political and economic state of locking the country, resulting in China's ignorance of the West. However, at this time, the western world has not stopped the translation and introduction of Chinese culture through various channels Understanding. Asymmetric information exchange and translation make China in a passive position when communicating with the West. With the continuous entry of western new ideas and translation into China, values are constantly challenged, and even some extreme culturists try to subvert traditional Chinese culture and social values. The current situation requires China to make progress, and the current situation also forces China to make progress. In this period of mixed internal and external relations and political chaos, translation, as a communication tool, has always led Chinese people of insight in the exploration of saving the nation from subjugation and strengthening the country. （Zhang 1966:5-7）

The changes of modern history and the prominence of modern cultural view are greatly influenced by the input of Western learning. In modern Chinese society under the shock of Western learning civilization, translation makes western learning smoothly enter the Chinese people's political world, cultural undertakings and social life, but the overall westernization is absolutely impossible. In modern times, although Chinese traditional Confucianism has been criticized, even as a cultural pioneer The activists threw the target of political opinions, but middle school can not be reduced. Middle school is also the spiritual belief of Chinese unity since modern times. Lin Shu has always stressed that the traditional ethics revealed by Confucian culture has some eternal value and universal significance. The real Western civilization does not let us abandon middle school and completely replace it with Western learning, but let middle school be a traditional culture The social atmosphere under the coverage is more civilized.

==Reference==
Amos, Flora Ross. (1920). Early Theories of Translation. New York: Columbia University Press.

Benjamin, Andrew. (1989). Translation and the Nature of Philosophy: A New Theory of Words. London and New York: Routledge.

Catford,J.C.(1965) A Linguistic Theory of Translation.New York: Oxford University Press.

Dolet, Etienne. (1540). How to Translate Well from One Language to Another. Robinson.

A Yin 阿英.阿英文集［M］.Collection of A Ying’s Books三联书店, Sanlian Bookstore 1981:741.

Chen Xulu 陈旭麓.陈旭麓学术文存［M］.Chen Xulu Academic Archives上海：上海人民出版社, Shanghai：Shanghai People’s Press 1990:213.

Feng Zhijie 冯志杰.中国近代翻译史 History of Modern Chinese Translation（late Qing dynasty）（晚清卷）[M].北京：九州出版社, Bejing：Kyushu Press 2012:234-235.

Guo Moruo郭沫若.少年时代［M］,The Youth Age 人民文学出版社,People’s Literature Press1979:126.

Hu Shi 胡适.论译书寄陈独秀.胡适学术文集新文学运动［M］.Hu Shi’s Academic anthology New Literature Movement 1916:474.

Lian Yantang 连燕堂.二十世纪翻译文学史[M].History of Translated Literature in the 20th Century 百花文化出版社, Baihua Culture Press 2009:93.

Lu Xun 鲁迅.中国小说史略［M］.A Brief History of Chinese Novels 北京：人民文学出版社,Beijing:People’s Literature Publishing House 1973:125-126.

Lu Xun 鲁迅.文化偏至论［M］On Cultural Deviation （《鲁迅全集》第一卷）.人民文学出版社，People’s Literature Press 1981:56.

Shi Meng 时萌.晚清小说［M］.Novels of the Late Qing Dynasty 上海：上海古籍出版社,Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Press 1989:245.

Shiteng Huixiu 实藤惠秀著，谭汝谦等译.《中国人留学日本史》History of Chinese People Studying in Japan［M］.三联书店, Sanlian Bookstore 1983:216.

Tan Sitong 谭嗣同.谭嗣同全集［M］.Complete Works of Tan Sitong北京：中华书局5 Beijing Zhonghua Book Company 1981.

Wang Xiangrong 汪向荣.中国的近代化与日本［M］.China’s Modernization and Japan湖南人民出版社,Hunan People’s Press1987:23-24.

Wang Lixing 王立兴.中国近代文学考论［M］.A Research on Modern Chinese Literature南京：南京大学出版社,Nanjing：Nanjing University Press1992:321-322.

Xiaotian Qiejin 小田切近著，山人译.日本的名作［M］.Japanese Masterpieces 福建人民出版社,Fujian People’s Press1984:23.

Yuan Jian 袁健，郑荣.晚清小说研究概说［M］.An Overview of Novels in Late Qing Dynasty 天津：天津教育出版社,Tianjin：Tianjin Education Press1989:178-181.

Zou Zhenhuan 邹振环.影响中国近代社会的一百种译作 One Hundred Translations Influential on Modern Chinese Society [M].江苏教育出版社，Jiangsu Education Press 2008: 57-58.

Zhang Hailin 张海林.近代中外文化交流史[M].History of Modern Sino-foreign Cultural Exchanges 南京：南京大学出版社, Nanjing University Press 2003:158.

Zhang Xingniang 张星娘.欧化东渐史［M］.History of Europeanization Spreading to the East 商务印书馆,Commercial Press1934:42.

Zhang Zhenyu 张振玉.译学概论［M］.Introduction to Translation 中台印刷厂,Zhongtai Press1966:5-7.

Zeng Guofan 曾国藩.轮船工竣并陈机器局情形疏.郑振铎编.晚清文选［M］,The Steamship Engineer and Machinery Bureau 上海书店, Shanghai Bookstore 1987影印本：83.

Written by--[[User:Zhong Yifei|Zhong Yifei]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yifei|talk]]) 13:50, 8 December 2021 (UTC)

=魏楚璇: Western translation history in the Modern and Contemporary Ages=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_14]]

=Mahzad Heydarian: Where Persian Language Meets Translation=

This paper is a journey to the history of Persian language and the presence of translation into/from Persian in different historical eras. Translation has been influenced by many social and intercultural factors throughout history; in this paper, its functions from ancient Persia to the contemporary era will be surveyed.

Key Words: Translation history, Persian language, Arabic influence, Medieval era

Persian Language, known as the language of great literary works by Hafez, Khayyam, Rumi and many other classical and modern poets and writers, has always been an interesting subject to study. Looking for its roots and origins and how it is changing and developing has been the interest of many linguists around the world. Like other important languages, Persian has developed and gradually changed in different eras in history. It seems that writings on translation history suffer from severe shortcomings. What is overlooked by the researchers of Persian translation history is to clarify the distinction between oral and written translation. These two have proved to be completely different subjects while they have been mixed when the writers judge its ups and downs in a specific period of time. Moreover, in the relatively limited knowledge of Persian translation history, the thematic classification of translations (e.g. literary, scientific, etc.) have not been considered.

Another common but important deficiency of such historiography is the lack of scientific consideration of the source and target texts, based on advances in the study of translation during the past three decades. The socio-cultural aspects of translation have rarely been surveyed, nor has the linguistic process of evolution of Persian historically been studied. Despite the importance of such inquiries, in most studies done by the Persian writers we could rarely find traces of identifying the direction of source and target texts, let alone contemplating the process and product as two imperative factors in any study of translation. Abdolhossein Azarang, whose history of translation comes with these problems admits that none of available historical books, including his, could be mentioned as a survey without offering at least a set of simple comparisons between the source and target texts in each era (Azarang, “Tarikhe” 9).

To our knowledge Persian has gone through three main changes over the years: starting from Old Persian, in transformed into Middle Persian, also known as Pahlavi, and was finally modernized into contemporary Persian—which is in use today in Iran, Afghanistan and parts of Central Asia. Persian is a branch of the Indo-European languages. As Ahmad Karimi-Hakkak (493) mentions “Over a millennium this language has been the primary means of daily discourse as well as the language of science, art and literature on the Iranian plateau.” He indicates that “Old Persian was brought into Iranian plateau in the second millennium BC by Eurasian steppes. In time, it became the language of the Achamenians (559-339 BC), a dynasty of kings who established the largest, most powerful empire in the ancient world” (493).

Among the encyclopedic references, Britannica has put forward a good remark for the root and divisions of Middle Persian with more detailed information. It mentions that:
Middle Persian is known in three forms, not entirely homogeneous—inscriptional Middle Persian, Pahlavi (often more precisely called Book Pahlavi), and Manichaean Middle Persian. The Middle Persian form belongs to the period 300 BCE to 950 CE and was, like Old Persian, the language of southwestern Iran. In the northeast and northwest the language spoken was Parthian, which is known from inscriptions and from Manichaean texts. There are no significant linguistic differences in the Parthian of these two sources. Most Parthian belongs to the first three centuries CE.

Nonetheless, the Middle Persian script was abandoned in favor of the Arabic script and led to many new linguistic alterations in Persian. According to Karimi-Hakkak “The new script was far simpler and more advanced. In addition, where the Arabic script lacked essentially Persian consonants these were added to it. In short, the adoption of the Arabic script for Persian did not give rise to ruptures as significant as certain modernist reformers have assumed it did” (494). Therefore, the start of the most significant change in the Persian language dates back to the seventh century when Islam started to take over the Iranian plateau. This led Persian to find many new scopes. By adopting the Arabic alphabet, Persian became even stronger and further blossomed into many classical literary works in the following centuries.

Among the encyclopedic references, Britannica has put forward a good remark for the root and divisions of Middle Persian with more detailed information. It mentions that: Middle Persian is known in three forms, not entirely homogeneous—inscriptional Middle Persian, Pahlavi (often more precisely called Book Pahlavi), and Manichaean Middle Persian. The Middle Persian form belongs to the period 300 BCE to 950 CE and was, like Old Persian, the language of southwestern Iran. In the northeast and northwest the language spoken was Parthian, which is known from inscriptions and from Manichaean texts. There are no significant linguistic differences in the Parthian of these two sources. Most Parthian belongs to the first three centuries CE.

Nonetheless, the Middle Persian script was abandoned in favor of the Arabic script and led to many new linguistic alterations in Persian. According to Karimi-Hakkak “The new script was far simpler and more advanced. In addition, where the Arabic script lacked essentially Persian consonants these were added to it. In short, the adoption of the Arabic script for Persian did not give rise to ruptures as significant as certain modernist reformers have assumed it did” (494). Therefore, the start of the most significant change in the Persian language dates back to the seventh century when Islam started to take over the Iranian plateau. This led Persian to find many new scopes. By adopting the Arabic alphabet, Persian became even stronger and further blossomed into many classical literary works in the following centuries.

The need for translation soon of course rose in a language like Persian spoken by large populations and used by different dynasties. Persian language had remained consistent and independent by asking the translation firstly and more importantly from Arabic. The language itself has neither been replaced by any other languages nor substantially changed during the centuries. That is why a Persian speaker today can effortlessly understand and enjoy the language of Hafez or Rudaki, the famous poets who lived in the 14th and 9th centuries, respectively.

The need for translation soon of course rose in a language like Persian spoken by large populations and used by different dynasties. Persian language had remained consistent and independent by asking the translation firstly and more importantly from Arabic. The language itself has neither been replaced by any other languages nor substantially changed during the centuries. That is why a Persian speaker today can effortlessly understand and enjoy the language of Hafez or Rudaki, the famous poets who lived in the 14th and 9th centuries, respectively.

The traces of written translation in different periods of the history of Persian language have mostly been based on the king’s demands or special order by one of the influential people in the royal court, mostly for their immediate political needs. This history, before the last century, has was interwoven with political, sometimes military and less commonly scientific texts. Therefore, individual or freelance translators who had been engaged in translation of literary works, or the Persian scientists who were keen to translate texts into Persian are absent in many historical periods. Azarang (15), studying the history of Safavid dynasty (1501–1736), in which Iran had lot of communications with Europe, has associated this strange phenomenon to the lack of concern and interest for learning and evolving in Persian travelers or dispatched students who commute to western countries. He believes that Iran missed a unique opportunity to use the scientific benefits for fundamental changes during Safavid dynasty, which was concurrent with the scientific and industrial transformations of Europe. As we will see, the attempts for translating texts for Iranian users were mostly confined to translation into Arabic instead of Persian as the main language of the whole plateau in post-Islamic era. The new movement of translating texts from different subjects into Persian was seen some 100 years after Safavid kings, during mid-Qajar era (1795–1925).

In this article a historical investigation of Persian translation is presented based on what is available in collecting books and articles, mostly based on four important references: Karimi-Hakkak’s article in Encyclopedia of Translation Studies (1998), Daeratol’ma’aref-e Bozorg-e Eslami (2008), Behrouz Karoubi’s important article (2017), and Azarang’s detailed chronological event book (2015). The study has been divided into five sections based on the five historical periods: Ancient Persia, Medieval Persian, The Mongol Era, Post-Mongol Era, and the Modern Period. This is more or less the same division done by Karimi-Hakkak, as the main resource of this article, but with a specific extension. This investigation refers primarily to translation into Persian and some comparatively rare cases of translation from Persian into the other languages, will exclusively be dealt with.

Ancient Persia (Before 651)
Karimi-Hakkak (493) mentions that “Translation into Persian has a long and eventful history; it has played an important part in the evolution of Iranian and Iranate civilizations throughout Western Asia and beyond.” We see the first traces of translation in medieval Persia, in which close contact and interface between Arabic and Persian occurred. He claims that “The Achamenian empire was multilingual, and many of its documents were written not only in various language of the empire, but in Babylonian and Elamite as well. Still our information about specific translation activities among these languages is too sketchy to allow any in-depth discussion of trends and patterns.” Later on, only with the formation of the Sasanian dynasty in Persia (AD 224–652) and the rise of Middle Persian the first authentic historical information about intercultural exchange could be found.

Behistun Inscription as the unique masterpiece in Achamenian’s era is an exclusive phenomenon in the history of translation of the world; Azarang argues that it is one of the most important translated texts in that era as well as one of the examples of precise translation. Translation of Behistun inscribed stone seems to be done by a number of trusted linguists who probably checked the texts’ conformity more than once. This translation shows that a precise translation accompanied by artistic delicacies on the stones had reached a very good level in that time (35).

Scholarship suggests that Old Persian was transmitted orally, as we have no written records from that time. There is Avesta, a religious book in what scholars have termed Avestan, a language closely related to Old Persian. Even though it was committed to writing in the fourth century AD, Avesta contains some Zoroastrian hymns thought to be in older Iranian languages” (qtd. in Karimi-Hakkak 493).

=Akira Jantarat： History of Chinese-Thai literature Translation in 19th century=
[[Hist_Trans_EN_17]]

=Jawad Ahmad; History of Translation=

[[Hist_Trans_EN_18]]

=Bible Translation in Christian History=
Benjamin Wellsand, Hunan Normal University, China
[[Hist_Trans_EN_18]]

==Abstract==
The history of Christianity is rich in translations. Why is this the case? What is the motivation behind all this translation effort? The present work will explain the rationale behind the perceived need for translation. It will describe the multicultural context that aided the church in communicating in a heart language. An awkward struggle in the Middle Ages will leave the future of the church in question. What created this polar shift in the West from the church's original course bearings? How and why did the church recover? What remains of centuries of Christian diligence to get the Word into the words of the other? Through historical events, life experiences of translators, and the tales that live on in the translations themselves will answer these questions and encourage the reader to enter the exciting and vast history of Bible translation.

==Key Words==
Aramaic language—refers to the Semitic dialect of a Middle Eastern people written in a Phoenician alphabet and first appearing in the 11th century B.C.E and growing to the peak of prominence in the 8th century B.C.E.

Free Translation—a translator’s decision to avoid as many target audience misunderstandings as possible due to linguistic and cultural differences with the source text’s culture

Functional or Dynamic Translation—a translator’s decision to focus more attention on communicating the meaning of the source text with concern for the target text

Grassroots theology—the lived experience of the church that then develops into a theological framework

Greek language—refers to that Greek developed in the 4th century B.C.E. and utilized by the Greco-Roman Empire

Heart language—the native language of a person from which the deepest emotional meanings are expressed

Hebrew language—refers to the ancient Jewish dialect spoken between the 10th century B.C.E. and the 4th century C.E.

Literal Translation—a translator’s decision to focus attention primarily on what the source text says

Septuagint—the Greek translations of the Hebrew Old Testament

Vernacular language—an expression or mode of expression that is a part of everyday communication and not yet in written form

==Introduction==
Translation of the biblical text has been a practice of the Christian church since its very origin. The founding of the church during the Jewish festival of Pentecost, as recorded in the Bible itself, involved Jesus’ disciples communicating the gospel message in the language of Parthians, Medes, Mesopotamians, and Egyptians, among others. (cf. Acts 2.7-11) The final vision of the multitude of the saved in heaven are described as a “people of God from every tribe and language and people and nation." (Rev. 5.9) The New Testament, although authored by primarily Hebrew-speaking Jews, was first written in the lingua franca, koine Greek, of the day. Whereas Buddhists and Muslims identify their sacred texts and faiths inseparably from the original languages of Sanskrit, Pali and Arabic, the Christian faith has sought to translate the biblical texts immediately and directly into the vernacular language of the people to accelerate its global spread.

On a historical basis, the Christian faith has been criticized regarding colonialism and the destruction of cultures. One such case occurred in the sixteenth-century with the Japanese. Giant ships (in comparison to the Japanese) came to dock on the island from Portugal. Many transactions were made between the Portuguese traders and the local Japanese damaiyo. When trade agreements went south, as it did in the case of Portugal and Japan, the Portuguese missionaries were associated with the politics and kicked out of the country. They were ousted under the accusations of encouraging Japanese to eat horses and cows, misleading people through science and medicine, and trading Japanese slaves. (Doughill 2012: l. 1064) Although the missionaries had done no such things, they were targeted along with the Portuguese government for these criminal acts.

There are cases where the colonial form of the church has not come to intentionally destroy but has assumed cultural superiority and inadvertently added to the host culture their own country of origin’s cultural forms. Late 19th century missionaries to Africa felt that the Western-style structure of a dwelling was an indicator of modern progress. In 1879, the magistrate of Gatberg declared:

It is not only that the requirement of modesty necessitates the providing of some sort of clothing, however simple; but Christian morality desires also a dwelling corresponding to human dignity, decency, and purity. Building plays an important part in the mission. First the missionary builds a simple small house for himself, to which he soon adds a school and a church. Generally, he must himself superintend this work; often enough, indeed, he must execute it with his own hand, and it stands him in good stead to have been a tradesman at home. But he induces the natives also to help him, and much patience as it requires on his part, he undertakes to instruct them. Gradually his word and his example produce their effect, and the converts from heathenism begin to build new and more decent dwellings for themselves. (Warneck 1888: 80)

There is no denying that the church has struggled to decontextualize the faith from their home culture and properly contextualize it into the host culture. This has led to the host culture’s Christianity looking eerily similar to the missionary’s, at best, or a faith that forever remains foreign to the host culture, at worst. Yet, as Lamin Sanneh notes, Christian missionaries have often played a key role in the preservation of cultures:

The translation enterprise had two major steps. One was the creation of a vernacular alphabet for societies that lacked a literary tradition. The other step was to shake the existing literary tradition free of its esoteric, elitist predilection by recasting it as a popular medium. Both steps stimulated an indigenous response and encouraged the discovery of local resources for the appropriation of Christianity. (Sanneh 1987: 333)

The translation of the biblical text into another language is not simply a greater convenience to the reader in the target culture but accomplishes far more as language extends much deeper than a mere form of communication.

Benjamin L. Whorf’s theory of linguistic relativity holds that language influences thought and not thought that influences language. For him, “linguistics is essentially the quest of meaning." (Carroll 1956: 73) George C. Lichtenberg, another pioneer of linguistics, is famously quoted as saying, “Our false philosophy is incorporated in our whole language; we cannot talk, so to say, without talking incorrectly. We do not consider that speaking, irrespective of its content, presents a philosophy." (Loewenberg 1943-44: 102) Richard D. Lewis illustrated this point with an interaction between himself, an Englishman, and a former Zulu chief who received a doctorate in philology at Oxford as they discussed the color green. As the Zulu pointed to a leaf in the sun, a leaf in the shade, a wet leaf in the sun and one in the shade, bush leaves, leaves in the wind, rivers, pools, tree trunks, and crocodiles, all to which Lewis responded with a single answer: green. Yet his Zulu friend had reached thirty-nine different terms for green with no trouble at all (Lewis 2006, 9). Paul G. Hiebert writes, “We examine the language to discover the categories the people use in their thinking." (Hiebert 2008: 90)

Christians, like Hiebert, recognize that true conversion of a person’s mind can only happen if it takes place on three levels of the individual: belief, behavior, and worldview. “Too often conversion takes place at the surface levels of behavior and beliefs; but if worldviews are not transformed, the gospel is interpreted in terms of pagan worldviews, and the result is Christo-paganism." (Hiebert 2008: 69) And, since worldview is linked to language, it goes without saying that the biblical text and Christian terminology must be placed in the language of the people in order for one to be truly Christian within their culture.

Grassroots theology is a term coined by Simon Chan. While it is true that theology is something that is viewed as coming down from God in the Christian faith, theology cannot be totally divorced from what happens on the physical earth among humanity. The idea behind grassroots theology is that theology takes place within the community of the faithful and will necessarily carry cultural characteristics of the host culture. The African context finds a great deal of suffering through poverty and illness and filial concerns extend to deceased ancestors. This has led African Christians to recognize Jesus as the Healer who can bring help for those suffering from disease. They will point to Messianic prophecies like, “the eyes of the blind shall be opened, and the ears of the deaf unstopped; then shall the lame man leap like a deer, and the tongue of the mute sing for joy." (Isa. 35.5-6) They also find him to be the fulfillment for their need of an ancestral role as a mediator between the earthly and spiritual realms. They draw attention to Paul’s letter to Timothy, “For there is one God, and there is one mediator between God and men, the man Christ Jesus." (1 Tim. 2.5) The same can be said of Latin Americans attraction to the Holy Spirit and those giftings associated with him and South Asia’s attention to fear-power aspects of the gospel message coming from a culture steeped in animism and folk religions.

Randy Dignan has learned from his own bilingual experience “that language isn’t understood only by the mind. Language can also be heard with the heart." (Dignan 2020: 13) The term heart language holds to the conviction that, while one can read and communicate in a second language, when in the most intimate and troubling circumstances an individual will automatically revert to his or her native tongue. This is since our native form of speech is not only natural but the language in which we communicate most deeply and freely. When the Japanese Christian, Shusaku Endo, reflected on the 250 years of suffering that the church in Japan had to endure and how the church was forced to recant their faith publicly and remove all religious symbols, he reverted to his native language to express his spiritual thoughts. The Japanese character chin (meaning silence) stood as a symbol as one “looks starkly into the darkness, but [creates] characters and language that somehow inexplicably move beyond” that darkness." (Fujimura 2016: 74) What in Shusaku Endo’s mind best describes the Japanese Christian’s experience of suffering? Chin. When speaking of things closest to us, humans, all of us, speak from the language closest to our heart—our native one.

The early church set the pattern as it was birthed within a multilingual context and immediately entered translation efforts. Colonialism remains a constant threat as one culture takes the Christian faith into another foreign cultural context. Conversion is defined by the church as an experience that involves an individual who possesses a former way of life modeled after a specific pattern of behavior and a particular spiritual influence and then that way of life is abruptly interrupted and overturned by an encounter with Jesus. (cf. Eph. 2.1-7) That experience involves a love for God with all of one’s heart, soul, mind, and strength. (cf. Mk. 12.30) What reaches to the depths of heart and soul is one’s language that reaches to worldview levels. Christianity is a faith that is intended to engulf the entire person from head to toe and from belief to action. The development of a grassroots theology involves the heart language of the people and has historically manifested the capacity to preserve cultures. This is a work on the history of translation in the church.

[1] Papias’ writings are only available to us through the records kept by Eusebius. In these records, there are two extant quotes regarding authorship of the gospels. In regard to the gospel of Matthew, he writes, “Matthew composed the gospel in the Hebrew dialect and each translated them as best he could.” The early church understood this to mean that Matthew had originally written his gospel in Hebrew and it was soon after translated into Greek. However, scholars, such as D. A. Carson and Douglas J. Moo, have brought the validity of this interpretation of Papias’ statement into question. (See 2005: 161-162)

==1. The Early Church And Translation==
The early church was a multicultural and multilingual group of people. The church had its start within Jerusalem during a Jewish festival known as Pentecost. It was during this festival that Jews would converge within the city from the Jewish diaspora that had been created through centuries of occupation and exile. The Jews living among foreign lands had taken on the culture and languages of their captors and captive neighbors. When they came back to worship at the centralized Jerusalem Temple in 30 C.E., there was a complex and diverse representation of culture and a need for the Hebrew speakers to communicate in the languages of the diaspora.

As noted above, Greek had long been the lingua franca by this time and translation of the church’s sacred text had already taken place. What is known as the Septuagint (LXX) was the Greek version(s) of the Hebrew Old Testament. Rather than referencing a specific translation, since there is no single identifiable text, the LXX is, in the words of Emanuel Tov, “the nature of the individual translation units” and “the nature of the Greek Scripture as a whole (p3).” The fictitious origins of the title Septuagint come from the tale of 70 translators who were said to have gathered in Alexandria during the reign of Ptolemy II and the translation was miraculously accomplished within seventy-two days. Despite the fictitious tale of its beginning and the difficulty in identifying exactly what the Septuagint text contains, there is no doubt that the translations existed, and that Jesus’s apostles utilized them regularly in their writing of the New Testament text.

The New Testament does not qualify as a written translation of a Hebrew text, but it is a written Greek text that is translated from Jewish thought. The Jewish concepts of Temple, Levitical priesthood, Messiah, animal sacrifice, along with many other Old Testament imagery and thought are written down in Greek. It is interesting that there are assumptions made by biblical scholars that, since the biblical writers were writing in Greek, they must have been borrowing from Greek thought to communicate to a Greek audience. A common example can be found in the beginning of the gospel of John and its use of word (or logos). The text reads, “In the beginning was the Word and the Word was with God, and the Word was God." (Jn. 1.1) Many find the apostle John borrowing from Platonic philosophy and following in the footsteps of Hellenistic, Jewish philosopher, Philo who connected Greek Sophia (or Wisdom) with the logos, which was the knowledge, reason, and consciousness of the God of the Old Testament that assisted humans in life.

Despite the face value validity of this being a moment of contextualization by the apostle John of Hebrew concepts into Greek thought, there may be a more reasonable explanation. Ronald A. Nash points out that it makes more sense to take logos not back to Greek philosophy primarily but to Hebrew thought in Genesis 1, since the writers had Jewish minds. In every activity of creation, as it is recorded in the Hebrew Old Testament, God is described as one who speaks all things into existence. “And God said, ‘Let there be light.'" (Gen. 1.3) It is the word of God that brought all of creation into existence. John takes the Hebrew thought regarding the spoken beginning of the cosmos and uses the Greek term logos as a title for Jesus to connect him with the origins of creation for the New Testament Greek audience.

Regardless of how thoughts were communicated in translation, the fact remains that the early church was diligent from the start to ensure the biblical text made it into the hands of every people group encountered in their own language. The earliest translation of the Greek New Testament was either Syriac or Coptic. The Coptic version was translated by Egyptians of the north-western province in the third century. Today, there are five or six different identifiable Syriac versions that arise out of more than 350 extant manuscripts and the Peshitta is the earliest known translation following the LXX. By 200 C.E. there was an estimated seven translations, thirteen by the sixth century, and fifty-seven by the nineteenth century. In 2020, the Bible has been translated in whole into 704 languages, New Testament-only translations in 1,551 languages, and partial translations in another 1,160.

[2] See D. Butler Pratt. 1907. “The Gospel of John from the Standpoint of Greek Tragedy.” The Biblical World. 30 (6): 448-459. The University of Chicago Press. and Ronald Williamson. 1970. Philo and the Epistle to the Hebrews. Leiden: E. J. Brill.

==2. Motivation and Opposition to Translation in the Middle Ages==
Emperor Diocletian had divided the Roman Empire into two sectors: the predominantly Latin-speaking western and the majority Greek-speaking eastern territories. Later in history with the weakening of the Roman Empire and a diversity of Germanic tribes occupying the west, the Eastern empire of Byzantium (led by a conviction as the rightful heirs of the Roman Empire) desired to reunite the former glory of Rome and, under the rule of Emperor Justinian I, successfully expanded its imperial authority from east to most of the former Roman western territory. There developed between Rome in the west and Constantinople in the east a politically driven religious rivalry after an alliance of the Frankish king, Pepin the Younger and the bishop of Rome. The political divide between the Franks and the Byzantines persisted to the point of the creation of two different leaders of the church, the Roman pope in the west and the Constantinian patriarch in the east. The Great Schism began in 1054 C.E. when the Byzantine patriarch Michael I Celarius sent a letter to the Roman bishop of Trani to debate the use of unleavened rather than leavened bread in the context of corporate worship with the claim of unleavened bread as a Jewish and not a Christian practice. The conflict was referred to the western capital city of Rome where pope Leo refused to make any concessions regarding the issue.

In 1079 C.E. a letter was written by Vratislaus I, duke of Bohemia, requesting the pope of Rome allow his monks to do officiate in Slavonic recitations. Pope Gregory VII responded:

Know that we can by no means favorably answer this your petition. For it is clear to those who reflect often upon it, that not without reason has it pleased Almighty God that holy scripture should be a secret in certain places, lest, if it were plainly apparent to all men, perchance it would be little esteemed and be subject to disrespect; or it might be falsely understood by those of mediocre learning, and lead to error … we forbid what you have so imprudently demanded of the authority of St. Peter, and we command you to resist this vain rashness with all your might, to the honor of Almighty God. (Deansely 1920: 24)

One wonders if the recent signs of a schism and concern over who held church authority, either the patriarch or the pope, did not significantly influence such a verdict. In this case, it was likely not so much a concern over the misuse of the biblical text as it was a deterrent of Greek and Slavic influence from the eastern church having a hold on western adherents to the Christian faith.

Vernacular translations did exist for royalty in nearly all European countries, such as those produced for John II of France or Charles V of Rome. Vernacular translations that were free adaptations, paraphrases, or rhymed verse were allowed among the laity for single books or portions of the Bible because such “a work was considered safer than the literal translation of the sacred text.” (Deansely 1920, 19) The fact that the Waldensians were early proponents of vernacular translation and viewed as a heretical group in the Roman church did not help the cause. This ascetic sect held that vows of apostolic poverty led to spiritual perfection. A native German and founder of the Waldensians, Peter Waldo, was a man with the will and financial means to have the New Testament translated into Franco-Provençal by a cleric from Lyon. The sect was not as keen on the Old Testament and so there was no completed translation work. The Lollards, or followers of Wycliffe, were viewed with theological suspicion by the church in Rome as well. John Wycliffe, an English philosopher and University of Oxford professor, believed that God was sovereign over all and that all men were on an equal footing under his reign and were not in submission to any other mediatory ecclesiastical power. Margaret Deansely claims that this “also led logically to the demand for a translated Bible” from the Latin vulgate to English. (Deansley 1920: 227) If everyone was under God and the divine mandate, then it is only fitting that each person be given that text in an understandable linguistic form. Wycliffe used the existence of translations among the nobility as a basis for a request for translations available to commoners.

In 1412, the English archbishop Thomas Arundel wrote to pope John XXII charging that Wycliffe had “fill[ed] up the measure of his malice, he devised the expedient of a new translation of the scriptures into the mother tongue.” (Deansely 1920: 238) His Constitutions that were authored against Wycliffe post-humously and against the existing Lollard community, according to Shannon McSheffrey, “were probably responsible for a freeze on English translations of scripture” with only one surviving license for an English Bible in the fifteenth century, the Lollard translation remained the “most widely circulated of vernacular manuscripts.” (McSheffrey 2005: 63) Margaret Aston found that, despite the church in Rome’s crackdown on vernacular translation, the Lollards cause continued to influence the Reformers through their written publications. Martin Luther utilized the Commentarius in Apocalypsin ante Centum Annos æditus, Robert Redman produced a work heavily dependent on The Lanterne of light, and William Thynne’s The Plowman’s Tale has its source in an original fourteenth-century Lollard poem. The fires for vernacular translation had been rekindled in the church of the west. Jacob van Liesveldt published a Dutch translation in 1526; Jacques Lefèvre d’Étaples completed the French Antwerp Bible in 1530; Luther’s German translation emerged in 1534; Maximus of Gallipoli printed a Greek translation of the New Testament in 1638; a completed Hungarian Bible immerged in 1590; Giovanni Diodati translated the Bible into Italian in 1607; João Ferreira d'Almeida printed a Portuguese New Testament in 1681; in 1550 a full translation arrived in Denmark; and Luther’s version of the New Testament was reprinted in part in the Swyzerdeutsch dialect by 1525. In 1953, Wycliffe Bible Translators was founded and currently has a global alliance of over 100 organizations that serve in Bible translation movements and language communities around the world and has been a part of vernacular translation in more than 700 languages.

==3. Defining Forms of Biblical Translation==
In translation of the biblical text, the best possible translation scenario is one that comes from the original Hebrew-Aramaic Old Testament (including the later LXX translations) and Greek New Testament languages. There are Bible versions that are translated based on previous translations, but this is not ideal as it removes the translators from the linguistic source context. Ancient Greek has single words with multiple meanings, like bar in English that can refer to an establishment that serves alcohol and a metal object or hua in Chinese that can be read either as a verb or a noun. This can lead to inconsistencies in translation. For example, the Chinese Union Version (CUV), which is the most used Chinese version, translates the Greek word aletheia as chengshi (or honesty). John uses aletheia nineteen times in the Gospel of John and only once in John 16.7 does the word carry the meaning of honesty. It is clear in this passage that the meaning is honesty as it is a description of how Jesus speaks with his disciples. A single word in one language can also carry more information than in another. The Greek word hamartánein (or sin) in 1 John 1.9 is a present active verb for sin. The JMSJ Chinese version adds jixu (or continue) which is a word not found in Greek, but best expresses the original meaning with the addition of a word not found in the source text.

When translation issues arise like the latter example given above, there are translator decisions that must be made on how to best translate a source text’s meaning into the target text. There are translators who make the decision to stay as close to the source language as possible. This is known as a literal translation of the source text. Leland Ryken states that a literal translation approach is concerned more with “what the original text says [than] what it means.” (Ryken 2009, l. 323) This may lead to a translator sacrificing ease of the recipient audience’s understanding for the sake of an aim to stay faithful to the text. However, there are cases where literal translation has worked best. Toshikazu Foley notes how the Chinese Union Version takes a literal approach in Philippians 1.8 when it translates the Greek word splagknois (or the most inward parts of a man where emotions are felt) as xinchang (or heart-intestines). This phrase carries the meaning of someone with a “good heart” or “merciful and kind.” While Today’s Chinese Version (TCV) takes a more dynamic approach and follows Today’s English Version’s (TEV) translation as heart. In this instance, what the Greek text says and what it means can transfer to the Chinese text.

Continuing with the Philippians 1.8 scenario, the Greek word splagknois (or the most inward parts of a man where emotions are felt) cannot be directly translated into English in the same way that it can with the Chinese term xinchang (or heart-intestines). For an English translator to take a literal translation approach and simply make a direct translation as “I long after you all in the bowels of Jesus Christ,” it would lead to a great misunderstanding by the English audience. The TEV translator has made the decision to surrender a literal translation out of concern for the target audience. This is known as a dynamic or functional equivalence translation. Ryken gives the following description: “Functional equivalence seeks something in the receptor language that produces the same effect (and therefore allegedly serves the same function) as the original statement, no matter how far removed the new statement might be from the original.” (Ryken 2009: l. 263)

There are varying degrees of helpfulness when a translator is forced to move into the realm of dynamic equivalence. A comparison of two translation results from 2 Timothy 2.3 can be used to illustrate. The Chinese Union Version reads, “You want to suffer with me, like a good soldier of Christ Jesus.” While the Today’s Chinese Version reads, “As a loyal soldier of Christ Jesus, you have to share in the suffering.” In the surrounding context, Paul has just explained his own suffering in chapter one and speaks intimately of Timothy as his son in chapter two and expects Timothy to propagate his message further. The CUV follows the context more closely as Timothy follows in the ministry of his spiritual “father” before him and, as he shares Paul’s message, will also share in his sufferings.

Those translators that are very target text oriented in avoidance of difficult language and cultural differences, can leave the realm of translation and enter that of interpretation. To pursue Ryken’s description further, the free translation approach is primarily concerned with what the text means in its communication. The Concise Bible (JMSJ) takes great liberty in its translation of 1 Corinthians 1.23. Where the Chinese New Version translates, “We preach the crucified Christ; a stumbling block to the Jews and stupidity to the foreigner”, the JMSJ reads:

“But all we proclaim is the Christ who was nailed to the cross to atone for people's sin. Jews hate this kind of message [, because their hope is in a political, military leader leading them to break free from Roman rule, and not the crucified Jesus]. People of other races think this kind of message is very foolish [, because they don't believe Jesus becoming sin and dying on a cross for people is Savior and Lord.]”

A non-native speaker could examine the Chinese New Version and JMSJ and recognize just by the stark contrast in Chinese character counts between the two versions that the JMSJ has gone to great lengths to communicate the meaning of the source text to its Chinese target audience.

==Conclusion==
The Christian church was birthed in a multilingual environment that was the result of seemingly endless years of exile which the superior kingdoms of Babylon, Assyria, Medo-Persia, Greece, and Rome forced upon the Jewish population. The Christians believe, in the pen of the apostle Paul, “we know that for those who love God all things work together for good, for those who are called according to his purpose.” (Rom. 8.28) The kingdoms aggressively destroyed and pillaged and uprooted families, friends, and neighbors from their promised land and decimated the Temple. The Jews were left without a king, a name, and, from all outward appearances, a God. Yet this landless state of a people, that commonly struggled with ethnocentrism, propelled them into a crash course with foreign language studies. Genesis 31.47; Jeremiah 10.11; Ezra 4.8-6.18; 7.12-26; and Daniel 2.4-7.28 are all portions of the Old Testament that were not written in Hebrew, but in Aramaic. Aramaic was the official language used circa 700-200 B.C.E. and remnants of its widespread usage were found in parts of Babylon, Egypt, Palestine, Arabia, Assyria, and other ancient regions. The LXX translations quoted in the New Testament also attest to the Greco-Roman occupation and the Jews ability to adapt to their surrounding cultures. When the Holy Spirit descends with tongues of fire, the followers of Jesus tongues are alight with the diversity mirroring the surrounding effects of a melting pot of cultural diversity. The first Christians (primarily Jewish) were already equipped to communicate the gospel message of Jesus on a worldview level in the heart language of their former oppressors.

The cultures that interacted, and at points even dominated the Palestinian culture, were the first ones to experience the early church’s fervent cross-cultural evangelistic efforts through the means of translation. Peter J. Williams gives this historical comment: “The oldest records in Syriac are pagan or secular, but from the mid-second century onward, the influence of Christianity could be felt in Syriac-speaking culture, and from the fourth century, this influence dominated literary output.” (Williams 2013: 143) The most notable of these early Christian texts is Tatian’s Diatessaron (the earliest known harmony of the four Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke and John) around 170 C.E. Philip Jenkins lists Syria among the Near Eastern places of origin where, “during the first few centuries [Christianity] had its greatest centers, its most prestigious churches and monasteries.” (Jenkins 2008: l. 47) It was the theological struggles of this church that led to the early articulation of key doctrines, like the hypostatic union of Christ that sets forth the relationship between his divine and human natures.

The utilization of koine Greek pressed the church outward with a global missional front. One that, as previously noted, preserves the languages of outlying and isolated cultures and plants the Christian faith firmly in the local cultural context to ensure its perseverance. Before the writings of the New Testament are even completed, the church is already seen in transition from a primarily Jewish body to a predominantly Greek one. The apostle Paul queried the apostle Peter, both of Jewish descent, “If you, though a Jew, live like a Gentile and not like a Jew, how can you force the Gentiles to live like Jews?” (Gal. 2.14) And the church in its infancy is described in the midst of a racial dilemma: “Now in these days when the disciples were increasing in number, a complaint by the Hellenists arose against the Hebrews because their widows were being neglected in the daily distribution.” (Acts 6.1) These were not signs of stagnation but were natural growing pains of a church that was oriented outward. Although the church seems to struggle or lose its focus from time to time, overall, it has been at the forefront of linguistic translation and has made the Bible the most popular and well-read text in all the world for centuries.

==References==
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