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2020-12-27T06:03:19Z

Zhou Luoping: /* Zhao Xi 赵茜 */

==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==
'''Zhu Ziqing'''

A third example, where an author shows another face in his essays is Zhu Ziqing. He is known as the author of the most often reprinted story-like Chinese essay "''Back View''" (Beiying), a standard school text. The success of this essay lies in the fact, that it applies to filial pity. From the reported fare-well scene with his father at the train station, he learned that his father loved him and that he had grown-up too now.
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==
This self-reflective essay helped Zhu to find himself through the observation of the other (here his father). The 2nd often printed essay is also from Zhu. Parallelistic and repetitive structures are the driving factor in the atmospherical nebulous lyrical landscape desription "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.

Zhu Ziqing supposedly opposed all political engagement and, wrote about unspectacular things. In Taiwan he became a type of substitute for the categorically refused state writer of the People’s Republic, Lu Xun, mainly because of Zhu’s supposed political independence.
==Chen Han 陈涵==
I would like to show with three examples that Zhu had absolutely clear political ideas: He had taken part in the demonstration March 18, 1926, which ended in a massacre. Zhu described this in ''"Report On the Massacre of the Government''"[ (Zhizhengfu da tusha ji).].

''Shots were still being fired, and the entrance of the east gate was packed with people. [...] Pushing and shoving, we climbed over them with great effort. We must have lost our senses then, not seeing, to our shame, the grotesqueness of our action. ''

我想用三个例子说明，朱自清有绝对明确的政治思想。1926年3月18日，他参加了示威游行，这场游行最终以屠杀告终。朱自清在《执政府大屠杀记》中对此进行了描述。

''这时枪声未歇，东门口拥塞得几乎水泄不通。[...] 我们便推推搡搡，拥挤着，挣扎着，从他们身上踏上去。那时理性真失了作用，竟恬然不以为怪似的。'' --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Hui 陈惠==
''[...]I was still walking on top of the people. No one dared to miss a single step, filing through the gate that divided safety from danger, one that would give us life or take our lives away. [...] My efforts finally brought me down to the ground, sealing my fate as I rolled down from the human pile. [...] I learned later that some of the people by the gate were dead, killed by the pistol squad firing from the other side of the gate. When I recall stepping over dead bodies, I cannot help but tremble with fear. [...]''
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==
From this experience, Zhu addresses directly the repsonsible political leaders:

''Duan Qirui, you must think about it! [...] How could we explain this to the world? [...] Granted, Duan Qirui and others could commit such atrocities without a thought; but how could we, the people of China, face the world with such a shameless government? [...] We, [...], must ask, „So many were killed—what should we do?“''
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==
In contrast, Lu Xun has portrayed the same massacre with sighing undertone and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his "''Ways to die''"[ (Si fa).] - in which he finds "to be shot" the best method to die. The supposedly less politically engaged Zhu shows here more engagement.

The essay "''Facing the New China''"[ (Xin Zhongguo zai wang zhong).] is Zhu's political manifest: He asks for democracy, enlightenment and an increase of the education level.
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==
''China has to be born again through democratization. [...] The people should express their own will, concentrate on their own strength. Every level of administration should build up on the expressed will and strength of the people and struggle for the majority and its greatest happiness. This means that the people govern, the people own, the people enjoy.''

A few weeks before his death, he demanded in the speech ''"Today's duty of the Intellectuals''"[ (Zhishifenzi jintian de renwu).] the participation of the intellectual in the struggle for a better society.
==Chen Sha 陈莎==
With only a handful of essays I have demonstrated, that the picture of these three authors changes substantially, if we read carefully also their less known essayistic work. Imagine now how the picture of 20th century Chinese literature might change, if the literary histories and anthologies would not only tell the history of drama, fiction and poetry, but would also grant the essay its proper place. The following part of my paper are results of my monograph on the 20th century Chinese essay.
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==
'''The essay boom as a mirror reflecting growing individuality, participation in the public sphere, and the giddy-paced character of modern Chinese society'''

Acquiring an overview of the essay and assessing its essence has required extensive research in bookstores and libraries, in the People's Republic of China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and the United States for available resources in the form of essay book collections as well as secondary literature dealing with the essay.
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==
I built a database for a statistical analysis to rank more than 5000 essays and 1400 essayists. It turned out that out of the top 60 most famous Chinese essays only 14 had been translated into English so far. The forthcoming collection of Tam King-fai adds 4 and my own one the remaining 42.

Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report[ (baogao wenxue) (Klaschka 1998).].

我建立了一个用于统计分析的数据库，对5000余篇散文和1400名散文家进行排名。事实证明，迄今为止，在中国最著名的60篇论文中，只有14篇被翻译成英文。谭景辉即将出版的散文选集另有新翻译的4篇，我自己则翻译余下的42篇。

分析表明，自1979年以来，总体上来说，散文发表有所增加，在“文化大革命”之后还出现了两次热潮，在1990年达到了新的高度。首次增加出现在20世纪20年代和30年代，此后便被报告文学所取代（Klaschka 1998）。--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:41, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Cheng Yusi 成于思==
The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous essay bookseries[ sanwen congshu 散文叢書.].

The reason for the increase in essay production, which we can date right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in the sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for the survey. There are three reasons for the increase in Chinese essay production and popularity in the mid-1990s:
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==
1, The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts, as Hall has put it: “[...] we live in an age of exposition”[ (Hall 1984:xiii).].

2, The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands.

3, A revival of interest in discussing socio-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==
If we look carefully at essay collections not only published in the United States, but also in Hong Kong, Taiwan and the People’s Republic, we find the following three reasons for the under- and overestimation of single essayists or essays which correspond to regional differences:

1, EXOTIC In the United States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.

如果我们仔细观察在美国出版的，以及在香港、台湾和中华人民共和国出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们低估和高估了回应地域差异的单个散文家或散文:

1、异国情调在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，完全不知名的作者和老牌作家拥有一样多的空间。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

如果我们细细研读在美国出版的，以及在中国香港、台湾和大陆出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们因地域差异而低估或高估了某些散文家或散文:

1、异国情调在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，名不见经传的作者和著名的作家拥有同样多的市场。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==
2, SOCIO-POLITICAL In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, as the mentioned survey proofs, he ranks 12th among modern authors there. Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

3, PERSONAL Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by his disciple Huang Weiliang in favor for Yu.[ (see Lin Yaode 1989:50).]

Having named reasons for the essay boom and for the support for and the suppression of different actors in the cultural field of the essay, I would like to finish my paper by naming a few trends of the essay as they appear at the eve of the century.
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==
The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consumer-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".
==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("''On dreams''"[ "Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928.]) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 ("''My own garden''"[ 9.1923.], "''The Fly''"[ 1924.], "''Reading on the Toilet''"[ 1936.]), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the newly encountered world of mass consumerism.
==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==
In the end of this century not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. Among the upper list places of the political essay after 1949 there are critical essays. For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==
A sign for the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation for customers (former: "readers"). Following the emotional essays of Zhu Ziqing who rank 1st and 2nd, ''nostalgia'' is the element of emotional identification in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Zhou Zuoren, which ranks 3rd[ In Jia Pingwa's "Moon traces", which ranks 11, and in Ba Jin's "''Paradise for Birds''", which ranks 19]. Therefore one can state, that moving essays form the top.
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==
In 1927, Chinese literature took the form of 'engaged literature'. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics in daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. In the later half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of individuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife.
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==
In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only remiscent element left is the patriotism.[ ''Trends like the use of ordinary language'', which one finds in novels since 1993 (''Jia Pingwa'', Feidu; ''Gu Cheng'', Yingger) and New Borderlessness since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable ''object d'art''.]

上个世纪90年代，80年代的政论文随笔文化逐渐隐没了，唯一剩下留有想象空间的元素就是爱国主义。[“比如使用普通语言的趋势”，这是从1993年以来在小说中发现的（“贾平凹”）费杜，古格，英格）以及自1995年以来，《新无边际》都无法在论文写作中得到证明，我们之所以没有找到后现代小说意义上的后现代散文，是因为文章的直接性：随笔作为一种体裁，是作者和读者之间的对话，而不是想要引起不同解释的原因或可能依赖于特殊形式或内容甚至是按顺序引用前现代特征的艺术品，这使它成为一个与众不同的“艺术品”。]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 13:06, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

'''References''' [partly mentioned with German translation] （不用翻）

Vera Schwarcz 1996, Vera Schwarcz, "The pain of sorrow: public uses of personal grief in modern China", in Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Winter 1996)

Ba Jin 1982, Ba Jin: "Yi feng huixin 一封回信" (Ein Antwortbrief (26.10.1982)), in: Bing zhong ji 病中集 (Auf dem Krankenlager), Hongkong 香港 1984(?) (Series Suixiang lu 隨想錄 (Thoughts) Bd 4), 147 pp.

Ba Jin 1982a, Ba Jin: "Yi pian xuwen 一篇序文" (Ein Vorwort) [dated 1982.9/10], in: Ba Jin: Auf dem Krankenlager 1984

Ba Jin 1956, Ba Jin 巴金: "Duli sikao 獨立思考" (Unabhängig denken), in: Li Jisheng 李濟生, Li Xiaolin 李小林 (Hgg.): Ba Jin liushi nian wenxuan (1927 - 1986), Suixiang lu, zagan, sanwen, xuba, yanjiang, shuxin 巴金六十年文選（１９２７－１９８６）隨想錄·雜感·散文·序跋· 演講·書信 (Ba Jin. Werkauswahl aus 60 Jahren (1927 - 1986), Gedanken, vermischte Gefühle, Essays, Vor- und Nachworte, Reden, Briefe), Shanghai 上海: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe 上海文藝出版社 (Literatur- und Kunstverlag Shanghai), 1986.12, S. 461 - 462 [Datiert auf 1956.]

Ba Jin 1962, "Zuojia de yongqi yu zerenxin 作家的勇氣與責任心" (Mut und Verantwortungsbewußtsein der Schrifsteller) 1962; der Essay von Zhou Zuoren 周作人: "Wenxue tan 文學談" (Über Literatur), in: Tan long ji 談龍集 (Über Drachen. Sammlung), Shanghai 上海: Kaiming shudian 開明書店 (Kaiming Buchladen) 1927.12, Nachdruck: Hongkong 香港: Shiyong shuju 使用書局 (Praxisverlag) 1972.1, 310 S., S. 165 - 167

Zhou Zuoren 1919, Zhou Zuoren, "Zuxian chongbai 1919 (Ancestor Worship)," in Early Essays, op.cit., pp. 78

Zhou Zuoren 1920: Zhou Zuoren 周作人, Xin wenxue de yaoqiu 新文學的要求" (The demand of the New Literature) [lecture], in Beiping shaonian xuehui 北平少年學會 (Beiping youth conference) 1920.1.6, in: Zhang Ruoying 長若英: Xin wenxue yundong shi ziliao 新文學運動史資料 (Material on the history of the New Literature movement), Shanghai 上海: Guangming shuju 光明書局 (Guangming bookstore) (1934.9) ²1936.9, 291-296

Zhou Zuoren 1923, Zhou Zuoren: Yanzhicao ba (Preface to Yu Pingbo's Yanzhicao), in: Yongri ji (Book of Eternal Day), Shanghai: Beixin shuju 1929, 180-181

Zhou Zuoren 1929, Zhou Zuoren: Ertong de shu (The books of children), in: Chenbao fukan (1923.8.17)

Zhou Zuoren yuanliu, Zhou Zuoren: Zhongguo xin wenxue de yuanliu (Sources of New Chinese Literature), p 71

Zhou Zuoren 1932, Zhou Zuoren: Lun baguwen 1932, in: Kanyun ji p. 148

Source: NEAAS annual meeting 10/09/1999 New Haven (Yale University)

==Guo Lu 郭露==
'''Modern Chinese Literature and the Essay Genre: A New Perspective'''

''Martin Woesler''

In this paper, I will not recount the contents and propose interpretations of any essays, nor will I outline the main topics or styles of essaywriting in China, but I would like to take the opportunity to reflect a little bit on the phenomenon of the genre itself and discuss some conclusions and hypotheses with the attentive and critical audience which can be found at only a few places on earth, EALC at Harvard definitely being one of them.

《中国现代文学与散文体裁：以新视角》

''吴漠汀''

在本文中,我将不再赘述任何文章的内容和提出的观点,我也不会列出其主要主题或风格,但是我想借此机会,反映一些现象本身的类型，并与包括哈佛大学学生在内的观众对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

《中国现代文学与散文体裁：新视角》

吴漠汀

本文将不再赘述或解释任何文章的内容，也不会列出中国散文的主要主题或风格。我想借此机会，反思体裁现象，同乐于助人、至关重要且世间少有的读者，包括哈佛大学东亚语言和文化学院的学生，对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:28, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==
'''1. The unknown genre'''

The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. In my paper I will ask, if the picture of literature can remain unchanged, if we take into consideration also the essay. The genre has been neglected for a long time as a genre of merit (Margouliès 1949, Schmidt-Glintzer 1990) or overlooked (McNaughton 1974, Leiden 1988-90, McDougall 1998);

'''1.未知体裁'''

二十世纪文选和选集里的文学史的叙述对于整个中国文学来说是不完整的：散文题材是缺失的。在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

'''1.未知体裁'''

20世纪选集所讲述的文学历史叙事，描绘了一幅不完整的中国文学图景:：散文题材是缺失的。在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:30, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==
whereas its elder brother, fiction, has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularisation of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement. Modern anthologies would have the reader believe that a triumvirate of poetry, fiction and drama forms the backbone of modern Chinese literary output.
==He Changqi 何长琦==
'''Excursion: Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''

Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with xiaoshuo (fiction), sanwen (non-fictional prose)), lyrics (shige) and drama (xiqu). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term "wu yunwen" which corresponds to the term "epic" in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground.
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==
In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet. The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.
在抒情诗中，读者被鼓励去感受当下的感觉，并且常常是诗人的忏悔式的感觉。戏剧直接在独白或对话中回忆起一个自足的动作，以这种方式释放了读者/观众重新创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是一种超脱的、非虚构的、自由形式的主观表现。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 02:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==
"Essay", Chinese mostly ''sanwen'', is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Freedom in form and content is essential for the essay.
==Hu Jin 胡瑾==
Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, a subcategorization in numerous small entities, like Zheng Mingli does with the essay, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==
Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems. All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.
==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==

In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay.

在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。今天我们在刊物上看到的中国散文，已经具备了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文类别的第二个暗示。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 07:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

在21世纪，世界上的国家趋向于走到一起，而文化则主要取决于现代化水平。正如我们从现今报纸里面看到的那样，中国散文采用了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文开始趋同于国际散文体裁的第二个标志。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:27, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

21世纪，世界在共同成长，文化主要由现代化程度决定。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，在形式和内容上都与西方散文相似，其目标群体也与之相似。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文的第二个暗示。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，已经呈现出西方散文的形式与内容，并且其目标群体也与西方散文不相上下。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文体裁的第二个迹象。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:17, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Hao 姜好==
Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 1992 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay).
==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==
Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it "Chinese"? In the occidental essay the form seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework.

除了首先由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文有独特本土的特征。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？和中文散文相比，西方散文的文章形式似乎是更重要的分类标准。在中国，甚至有些文章内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 02:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

除了最初由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？与中文散文相比，西方散文的形式分类标准似乎更重要。在中国，有些文章甚至是内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:18, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==
This can be shown with Zheng Mingli, who subcategorises the "unfinished diary" or the "unfinished letter". Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Zheng Mingli: "essay in diary form" and "essay in letter form"), they are accepted as essays.
==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==
'''The Chinese understanding of the genre is tendencially broader'''

This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén'' "non-rhythmic prose", which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning "short literary essay pieces".

Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.
==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==
'''The Chinese essay is booming again in the 1980s and 1990s'''

Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report (''baogao wenxue'').[ Klaschka 1998.] The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous ''sanwen congshu'' 散文叢書 (essay bookseries).
==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==
The increase in essay production right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in a sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for a survey.

Thanks to the work of some major Chinese editors, the whole essay culture was compiled from magazines and newspapers and was published in a flood of anthologies since the 1970s. This boom is comparable to the cultural fever of undigging xiangtu literature, which rose in Taiwan in front of the background of the movement of self-identification and independance.
==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==
'''2. Why is the essay as abundant as fiction?'''

Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:

- The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history (the reform ideas from the end of the Qing dynasty through the May Fourth period with the literary theorethical pieces and the daily political zawen of Lu Xun, until today are mostly presented in essay form). The impact on literary reflection and theory is shown in the collection "Modern Chinese Literary Thought" 1996. The effect of the essay genre with its direct language, its connection to life (e.g. its role in the coming to terms with the cultural revolution), and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers. This impact is larger than the indirect one of fiction or poetry. The poem is the genre of retreat from social life, from political issues and time references.
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==
Hu Shi argues, that ''poetry'' is most important in the process of modernity, since poetry rises emotions. But it relies also on images and on linguistic rhythm. Liang Qichao stresses the role of novel and opera in the changing society. But ''sanwen'' is able to name things, it reflects life, caleidoscopic. Modern subjectivity is constructed with the tool of ''sanwen''.

- The essay also reflects trends in the society better than poetry and fiction: Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem with its limitation in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.

胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌依赖于形象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。

-散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。个人主义在随笔中表现得比在诗歌中更直接，但在内容和形式上都有局限性。短文的短暂性体现在短文的形式上，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 13:48, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi

胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗歌升华情感。但诗歌也依赖于意象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“散文”却能给事物命名，反映千变万化的生活。现代主体性就是以“散文”为工具建构的。

- 随笔也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的发展趋势。个人主义在随笔中的表现比在诗歌中更直接，因为诗歌在内容和形式上对此有所限制。随笔的短暂性体现在随笔的形式上，人们可以在上班路上的地铁里阅读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就没有那么随性的享受。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Haiquan 李海泉==
- The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, the amount of time spended on reading novels goes back, too. The essay itself a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.

- The essay tells us more about an author and his time than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions. We look trough authentic eyes on his contemporary society. Many authors turned to essay writing in the later periods of their lifes, like Lu Xun, Ba Jin, and Wang Meng.
==Li Lili 李丽丽==
- The volume of ''essay'' production exceeds the volume of ''xiaoshuo'' production: Chinese newspapers since the 1870s on[ Shenbao, Shibao etc. Liang Qichao sees the role of the newspaper both as liberal and authoritative: He understands the press as an institution to control the government, on the other hand he favors censorship.] and as a mass media from the early 20th century presented only one or two fictional stories in a serialized form, but invented essay columns like ''zagan'' (from which Lu Xun developed his ''zawen''), ''suibi'' or ''suixiang'' (from which famous collections like Ba Jin's ''Suixiang lu'' derived).

“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:54, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Lingyue 李凌月==
'''3. Let us assign the essay its proper place'''
The consequence which must be driven from the above presented contrast between value and valuing of the essay is: Let us assign the essay its proper place! I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.
Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay.
==Li Liqin 李丽琴==

In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).

20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这首先集中在鲁迅等单个作家的散文作品上。另外90年代的两次会议也没有趋于国际学术研究的动向。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（比如1995年Kubin的《关于梁漱溟》；Woesler的《关于王蒙》；Mansberg的《关于刘再复》[未发表]）或探讨某个群体的散文（1996年瓦格纳的《关于新月派》）。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 12:54, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Luyi 李璐伊==
Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998) and for the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996).

Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.
==Li Meng 李梦==
In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th. If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode 1989:50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation.
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==
Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai, Woesler) or already published (Pollard 1999). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. This year, scholars will meet on a first international conference on the essay (Achern, Germany August 25-26). In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays.
==Li Yu 李玉==
'''4. Taking into consideration the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature'''

I will give a few hints, what the essay can contribute to the picture of Chinese Literature, which so far is overshadowed by fiction through the narrative of C.T. Hsia, Prusek and Anderson.

We are used to established narratives, like the emergence and success of the May-Fourth literature. But this view neglects the role, that for example the ''yuanyang hudie pai'' played in the choir of different voices in the awoken intellectual debate in the beginning of this century.
==Lin Min 林敏==
The May-Fourth group at that time was one voice among many and only succeeded because of its agitation and polemic in the public sphere, so we have to use new means to assign the Chinese essay its proper place. We learn from simplifiying narratives, that it is absolutely necessary to differentiate, and to reconstruct the complex time background. Having understood Chinese literature as determined by the development of fiction and poetry only, a broader understanding will change the whole appearance of Chinese literature. A scholarly endeavour is the use of modern literary theories in the approach to this genre.
==Lin Xin 林鑫==
In the following, I will name three aspects (chronologically sorted by past, modern and contemporary time) to hold the argument, that the taking into consideration of the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature and change our current understanding of it.

'''5. The classical and premodern essay documents Chinese philosophy, early subjectivity and still, a native Chinese tradition is questioned'''

How is the Chinese essay to be positioned historically, how did it emerge, what is its generic background? Generically, the ancestors of the essay are both in China and the West notes written on the margins of books, they are letters and travel notes.

下面，我将从三个方面(在时间顺序上按过去、现代、当代排序)来论述对散文的考量将改写中国文学史，改变我们目前对它的认识这一论点。

5. 古典和前现代散文记录了中国哲学，其早期的主体性，仍然是对中国本土传统的质疑。
中国散文在历史上要如何定位，它是如何产生的，它的共有背景是什么？一般来说，中国和西方的散文都是起源于写在书本空白处的笔记，是书信和游记。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==
These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality und subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''.

From the very beginning, the essay was valued lower than poetry: the oldest reference this far for the term ''sanwen'' that I found is Luo Dajing's 羅大經 (? - after 1248) statement from 1240: “Shī sāomiào tiānxià, ér sǎnwén pōjué suǒsuì júcù.
==Liu Bo 刘博==
詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。” (Poetry is moving mankind in a wonderful way, prose inquires into incoherent bagatels, is limited.) (''Helin yulu''). Another reproach Luo Dajing mentions, is a formal one: In comparison to the highly artistic and century-long tradition of poetic writing, the direct and often vernacular langage of the essay in his eyes had less value.

In the West, a real 'art of the essaywriting' came up in the late 16th century as a medium for the newly reorganized knowledge.

“詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。”罗大京提到的另一个骂名，是形式上的：与具有高度艺术性和长达一个世纪传统的诗歌写作相比，散文中直接的、白话文式的语言在他看来并不那么有价值。
在西方，16世纪晚期出现了一种真正的“散文写作艺术”，作为一种传播重组知识的媒介。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

“诗騷妙天下，而散文颇觉瑣碎局促。”罗大经提出的另一个责难，是形式上的。在他看来，与高度艺术化的百年诗词写作传统相比，散文直接的、白话文式的语言没有什么价值。
在西方，真正的 “散文写作艺术 ”是在16世纪末作为重组知识的一种媒介出现的。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==
The reorganization originated from the observations of Kopernikus, which destroyed the whole conception of the world of the Middle Age.

In China, particularly the debates on Buddhism in the 4th and 5th century A.D. saw the origination of a tradition of letters. The Chinese tradition of the ''sanwen'' 散文 (essay) however, in the understanding of sǎn 散 as (to dispel, leisure, loose, relaxed, irregular, independant style, free prose, can be seen not before the detachment from the dialogue - or aphorism, which is still visible in the philosophical ''Lunyu''.
==Liu Liu 刘柳==
Xunzi delivered the prototype of the later essay with his philosophical treatises. They are an early form of philosophical didactical essays, in which general theorems are derived not only from quotations of the canonized classical works, but for the first time also from his own individual experience. The individuality is still a main characteristic of the essay today.

During the dynasties the essay manifested itself further in certain subcategories: From reading-notes written at the paper margins originated the ''biji'' µ§°O (occasional notes), flourishing in the Ming Dynasty.

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形，它们是哲学教学论文的早期形式。其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。

历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 02:25, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，这些散文中传授的普遍定理不仅有引用经典著作，还首次借鉴其个人经历。这种个体性在当代的散文中仍有保留。

历朝历代，散文通过一些子类别得以呈现，如明朝盛行的在书页边上写的读书注释，它就是源于笔记。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Ou 刘欧==
The marginalism is a link between Western and Chinese tradition of early essays. Occasional notes could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as a genre of its own originated in China not before the Qing ²M dynastie, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.

Taking into consideration the social-historical background draws a different picture of the old society than short stories and novels: Essays are much closer to real life, since they express individual problems and experiences.

边缘主义是中西早期散文的一个纽带。散见的笔记包含了私人的历史记录，轶事，交谈和个人沉思。然而，尽管当时的散文选集众多，但将视散文作为一种文体的意识，清朝之前并没有出现。

考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们在旧社会时，对短篇故事和小说的看法不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的困惑和经历。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 04:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==
Until now, the Chinese pre-''Hongloumeng'' individual literature spoke only through the indirect language of poems to us. Rediscovering the essays, we have a splendid source of opinions, social-historical pictures etc.

Premodern essay literature consists of much more than its most well-known example, the formally restrictive ''baguwen''. Lu Xun himself wrote some of his essays in ''baguwen'' style, but on the other hand took it as a synonym for the ancient society. Zhou Zuoren saw the rhythm of the language of the "Eight legged essay" as as appealing and intoxicating as the "pleasure of doing opium.'' (Zhou 1932:148).

目前为止，中国红楼梦前的个体文学还只是通过诗中的间接语言与我们对话。通过重拾散文，我们可以知晓不同观点和社会历史状况等文学创作的丰富源泉。
现代散文之前的文学并不限于形式上受限制的八股文，一方面鲁迅本人也有一些散文是用八股文写成的，但另一方面他又把八股文当作古代社会的代名词。周作人把 "八股文 "的语言节奏看作是 "做鸦片的快感 "一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 08:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

直到现在，中国前“红楼梦”的个体文学只能通过诗歌的间接语言与我们对话。重新发掘这些散文，我们可以拥有丰富的观点来源，社会历史图片等。

前现代散文文学不仅仅包括它最为人所知的例子，正式的、有限制性的“八卦文”。鲁迅自己的一些文章就是用“八卦文”写的，但是在另一方面又把它当作古代社会的同义词。周作人认为《八股文》的语言节奏就像“吸鸦片的快感”一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 09:07, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yi 刘艺==
But he considered it also as a prevalent genre implicit in the modern writings as ''yang bagu'' (westernized bagu) and ''dang bagu'' (party-line bagu) (borrowing from Wu Zhihui, Zhou Yuanliu:71).

Neo-Confucianism stressed ''wen'' (prose) as the most important tool to transmit the ''dao'' (way): ''Wenyi zai dao'' (Literature as the carrier of the way). If we reinterprete this diction in the perspective of genre, we can say, that the essay then has been regarded as an important tool to express truth, subjectivity and Self.

但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。

新儒家强调''文''（散文）是传播''道''的最重要工具：''文以载道''（文以载道）。如果我们从文体的角度来重新解读这句话，我们可以说，当时的散文已经被视为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。

理学强调“文”（散文）是传播“道”的最重要工具：“文以载道”。（以文学为载体的方式）。如果我们从体裁的角度来重新解读这一措辞，可以说，散文已成为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:53, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==
Liang Qichao developed a ''xīn wéntǐ'' 新文體 (new prose style), which was influenced by Western languages, but the essay became popular not before the newspapers became mass media, and the language changed into ''baihua''.

'''6. The essay as the medium of modernity, the questioning of the genuiness of the Chinese essay'''

To solve first of all the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, one finds both traditions relevant: The occidental essay was introduced to the writers of the literature reform movement from 1907 on by translations in Chinese (Lin Shu: ''Irving'' 1907, ''Addison'' 1911).
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==
The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations. First developed a Chinese essay tradition, which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology, its own proponents succumbed soon to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history only. A seemingly unbroken Chinese tradition of the native Chinese ''wenyan sanwen'' is presented in Chinese textbooks (Yu Zaichun 1978-82, Li Xishang 1985).

This is older than the ones referred to in the ''Large Chinese Dictionary'' of Morohashi (Morohashi undated) and in the ''Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Chinese Language'' 1966.

==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==
Still, the value of the native tradition of essay writing and the role of the Western influence upon it is discussed controversially among the scholars. Some admit that Western impact played a key role in what we understand as Chinese essays nowadays: Wang Bin 1992, Fan Peisong 1993; for Western impact in general see Průšek 1964, Gálik 1966, McDougall 1971. Other scholars think that Western influence is overestimated - Denton 1996 showed that the theoretical background was missing for understanding Western theories of literature in China, - and recommended that we understand the essay first by its national tradition.

然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:57, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 15:07, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==
How far personal opinion may influence the narrative of historical facts can be seen by the example of the legendary authors of the May Fourth movement. All of them considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay: Zhou Zuoren 1921, Lu Xun 1933, the anarchist and later member of the Guomindang Wu Zhihui [1934]. Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition:
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==
for example, Lu Xun with his theory "'Zhǎnkāi' shuō yǔ 'méngyá' lùn “展開”說與“萌芽”論"" (Theory of "Starting" and "Blossoming") came to see the fighting and critical character of the essay of the Jin dynasty (265 - 420) as the 'father' of the Chinese essay, and Zhou Zuoren first the English essay (1921) and later the ''biji'' (occasional notes) of the Ming, although he still tried to integrate the English essay in his "Gonganpài yu Yīngguo xiaopin 'hecheng' lun 公安派與英國小品“合成”論" (Theory of the Synthesis of the Gongan School and the English Essay).
==Ma Juan 马娟==
Wang Zengqi regrets that the national Chinese tradition of the essay at the time of the 'May Fourth Movement' has not been taken up again and has not continued in contemporary essays (Wang Zengqi 1993). The Chinese essay is an accommodating object of study, because one may look to it to prove any theory of the essay. One can find examples for each topic in almost every period, simply because the essay has a wide range of subjects.
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==
When Zhou Zuoren showed that only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge it was again possible to write about a candy seller (1924), he was critizised as "paralyzing" (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943). When he wrote a piece on the "Fly", he was reproached with dealing with subjects of minor importance. Reproaches like this lie in the very nature of the genre, since ''marginalism'' is substantial to the essay. The mentioned formal reproach of Luo Dajing can be found again in the 1990s, Hong Kong students critisized the literary style as it appears in Ba Jins "Thoughts" (Suixiang lu) as too direct and too less artful. But this perspective does not recognize the very nature of the essay, which is a very individual expression of an author's thoughts and not bound to tradition, and therefore much more free also in content.
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==
The essay - from its very nature free and independant - almost disappeared in the time of the Cultural Revolution and - except for the ideologically influenced essays - had a hard struggle between Yan'an and the loss of moral legitimacy by the leadership in 1989.

The essay was ''the'' genre of the modernizing society of the early 20th century. Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to war and warlordism and later in the modernizing society, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming "needs" of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products.
==Meng Ying 孟莹==
But from its very nature, the essay set new boundaries in form and content, and therefore not only survived the ideological restrictions, but also established its own critical subculture within. The essay was not only a medium of discussion and a documentation of the social-political background for us today, but also a documentation of the personal struggle of the writers finding a position in a changing environment, since the essay is "a genre of self-reflection". Some essays even deconstructed master narratives like the one of leftist ideology, often simply by confronting it with subjective experience, reality or art.

I want to mention another position on literature, which stresses the impact of literature on life, especially on the eve of revolutions - following this view, all literature is political (Jameson).
==Mo Ling 莫玲==
Not only the understanding of literature as a whole changes if we take into consideration the essay, also the view of single authors shifts, if we see not only their novels or poems, but also their essays. I mention only Zhou Zuoren. His ideas connected him spiritually to his contemporary collegues in Europe, Japan and America, but these where ideas for which China turned out to be not yet ready. At that time, China had taken a road which led away from progress, wealth, freedom and spiritual enlightenment. The consequences have yet to be overcome.

除开关注作家的小说和诗歌之外，如果我们对他们的散文有所涉猎，就会发现他们不仅对文学整体的理解发生了变化，单个作者的观点也发生了变化。仅就周作人来说，他的思想在精神上把他和他在欧洲、日本和美国的同伴们联系在一起，但是这些设想在中国行不通。当时的中国走的是一条远离进步、财富、自由和精神启蒙的道路，这一现状还并没有得到改变。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

==Mo Nan 莫南==
In 1927, Chinese literature has taken the form of 'engaged literature'. The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology.
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==
Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (My own garden 9.1923, "The Fly" 1924, "Reading on the Toilet" 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==
I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda. This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character.
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==
In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.

Taking into account of a genre shifts the whole perspective on literature, taking into account the essayistic works of an author shifts also the view of the author. I will name only one author as an example for a modern essayist: Zhou Zuoren.

20世纪90年代，20、30年代民国时期的文本和当代的文本一样也经常被重印。显然，我们可得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的那些政治宣传文只能留存在特殊的政治文章选集当中，到了21世纪初，就不再有作者去写这类文章，也不会有中国读者去看这类文章了。

考虑到整个体裁对整个文学角度的转变，以及散文作品反映出的作者观点的变化，我只举一位现代散文家的例子：周作人。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

20世纪90年代，20-30年代民国时期的文章仍然和当代的同类文章一样经常被重印。显然，我们可以得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的政治宣传类散文只保存在专门的政治散文集中，到21世纪初，不再有人去写，也不再有人读这类文章了。

一种文学体裁会转变整个文学的视角，一位作家的散文作品，同样也会转变对这个作家的看法。我只以一位现代散文家为例：周作人。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Dan 彭丹==
'''Zhou Zuoren'''

I mentioned already his theoretical contribution to the Chinese essayism, but still, his essays have been neglected until the 1980s. The reason does not lie in literary quality, but in political valuing. The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that the theoretical May Fourth genius "degenerated" and later became a "traitor". Publishing in the Japanese sponsored magazines ''Reminiscences'',* and ''Chinese Literature'', he was blamed together with Zhu Pu and Yuan Xi of collaboration. An unanswered question is, why another author, who published there, Zhang Ailing, was never reproached with collaboratorship. The difference between all of them is that Zhang Ailing tried to avoid political committments, whereas Zhou felt guilty, Zhu justified it and Yuan simply accepted it.
==Peng Juan 彭娟==
''The 'mainstream' writers took an affirmative approach in their writing, whereas the other writers formed a minority. The individual authors did not necessarily belong to either one of these groups throughout their life, but may have moved between them. Since the essay is a medium which enables the individual to express thoughts directly, the writers chosen for this paper can be classified according to their position.''

''Yu Guangzhong's essay'' "The wolves are coming" ''shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting.''
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==
In his small literary pieces, Zhou tried to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday life out of the subjective experience of his private space. The major contribution of Zhou Zuoren is, that he set the turning point in Chinese essay writing with his call for writing short literary pieces (''Meiwen'' 1921).

In foreign literature there is the so-called ''lunwen'' 論文 (treatise), which is roughly divided into two groups: the reflecting ones, piping 批評 (critical), are scientific articles. The others are ''jishu'' 記述 (descriptive) and ''yishuxing'' 藝術性 (artistic), they are also called ''meiwen'' 美文 (aesthetic essay). Within these texts, one can distinguish between ''xushi'' 敘事 (narrative) and ''shuqing'' 抒情 (lyric). But there are also mixed texts. [...] I hope that the aesthetical essay is encouraged to come back, and will open up a new field for the New Literature. Wouldn’t that be wonderful?
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==
With these words from the essay "''The aesthetic essay''" this new vernacular form was defined. This starting point founded a whole new tradition of essay writing in China. Contemporary writers called this piece the "king of essays".

In order to bring this new form to his compatriots, he tried to find similiarities with the ''xiaopinwen'' of the Ming dynasty. He further discussed these thoughts in his essay theory. In his own essays, he profited a lot from ancient ''suibi''. Later he further developed his literary theory towards an up and down of two trends. In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to "treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives" and to "make children the essence of children's literature" (Zhou 1923). He promoted the ''baguwen'' and the independance of literature from politics and effected the literary scene and the development towards a modern Chinese society especially between 1917 and 1938.

“美学散文”中的这些词语定义了这种新的白话形式。这个起点在中国建立了一种新的散文写作传统。当代作家称此作品为“散文之王”。

为了将这种新形式带给他的同胞，他试图找到其与明朝“小品文”的相似之处。他在散文理论中进一步讨论了这些思想。他自己的散文也从古代的“随笔”中受益匪浅。后来，他将文学理论朝着上下两种趋势进一步发展。在现代化社会中，他呼吁解放妇女、“将儿童看作具有外在和内在生命的完整主体”以及“让儿童成为儿童文学的本质”（Zhou 1923）。他提倡“八股文”和文学脱离政治的独立性，这对文学界产生了影响，并推动了中国向近代社会尤其是1917年至1938年的发展。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 09:48, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==
With this theoretical foundation and his own vo'luÉminous essayistic work, Zhou Zuoren through the example of his own form of short literary pieces within this genre, fought at that stage of the development of his literary theory like Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque 130 years ago in France for the idea "l'art pour l'art" , for individuality and independance of the writer, for disinterested literature. The jugdment, that Zhou was an apolitical author cannot be proved with his essays. Instead, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance (Zhou 1929:180-181).
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==
In fact he saw himself as ‘patriotic underground fighter’ and looked at the collaboration with the Japanese puppet regime as a forced one, following his attempted assasination, through which his driver had lost his life. His own concept of essay writing served less the needs of the building of a nation-state and comes closer to the ideal of the individual.

"I don't really know why, but I am feeling as if I am born into a dark age. I admit, that our forests are not inhabited by dragons, tigers and wolves, but shapeless "monsters" and "goblins" are still creeping around and try to swallow our souls. [...] What alarms me most, is the absence of freedom in this prison, into which we writers have been thrown."
==Qi Kai 漆凯==
Confronting tradition and progress in the essay "''Ancestor Worship''", he is in favor of the latter, since past could only become present through changes (Zhou 1919:7-8).

Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque (1767 - 1830) war französischer Romanschriftsteller und liberaler Politiker, der neben der Freiheit der Kunst nach der Französischen Revolution die Einführung der konstitutionellen Monarchie nach englischem Vorbild forderte.

==Qu Miao 瞿淼==
Siehe ''Journal'' (10.2.1804). Die "Kunst um der Kunst willen" propagierte die Zweckfreiheit der Kunst. Im Gegensatz dazu versteht sich die engagierte Literatur. Die Parallele zwischen Zhou Zuorens Literaturverständnis und dem Konzept "Kunst um der Kunst willen" zieht auch Wolff: ''Chou Tso-jen'' 1971, S. 84.

Siehe Zhou Zuoren: ''Der Ursprung der neuen chinesischen Literatur'' 1934, S. 95 - 98; vgl. auch Chen Zizhan: ''Vorträge zur chinesischen Literaturgeschichte'' 1937, Bd 3, pp. 416 - 422, besonders S. 422. Hinweis in: H. Martin: "''Liang Qichao on Poetry Reform''" 1996, Bd 1, S. 213.
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==
Regarding Zhou Zuoren, I want to correct the official assessment of the People’s Republic, that his work would have experienced a caesura in 1938. In order to explain his opposition of the propaganda to build up national heroes about 1937 and his collaboration from 1939, it has been said officially, that his thoughts had "duoluo 墮落" (degenerated) at that time (Zhu Jinshun 1990:59). In fact, this caesura, namely the change in the style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xianshi'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment) is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest through the Guomindang (1945).
==Sagara Seydou ==
Therefore not the Japanese suppressors are responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots'.

On the basis of the stigma of the 'traitor', he has been undervalued until now. That his work in the 1990s is almost as often published as Lu Xun's and Zhu Ziqing's shows that his texts finally experience a more positive literaric evaluation through the audience, which now must be registered also by scholars.

==Shi Diwen 石迪文==
Another example of a misread Zhou Zuoren is his short essay on "''The Fly''", where he describes his changing attitude towards flies, which he had played with as child but later disgusted when he learned about their danger of passing on diseases. ”''The fly''” shows Zhou Zuoren’s strength to describe details and make them a real topic by recalling memories on them or describing a change of perspective on them. Zhou summarized the philosophical wisdom he learnt from this, that people did not judge on things objectively, but were likely to praise or damn things.
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==
The official reading re¬proaches Zhou that he "saw only the fly and not the cosmos" , a quotation of the young Zhou about a position he himself clearly opposed.

His ability to chat about the more pleasent things in life is displayed in his essay ”Birds’ twitter”. In ”''Peking cakes and sweet-meat''” and in ”''Wild vegetable of my home region''”, Zhou Zuoren shows his ability to make the reader feel at home at a region, where he feels at home himself, by describing the customs and special regional food.

Siehe Zhou Zuoren: "Cangying 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: ''Chenbao fujuan'' 晨报副镌 (Beilage zur Morgenpost) (1924.7.13). Eine Zu¬sammenfassung des Inhalts findet sich in: Yu Daxiang (Hg.): ''Auswahllexikon chinesischer Essays mit Inhaltsangaben und Analysen'' 1993.

''Siehe Vollständige chinesische Anthologie der Wissenschaften - Bd Chinesische Literatur'' 1988, Bd 2, S. 1300. Dies spielt auf den Essay "''Cangying'' 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: Zhou Zuoren: ''Zhi Tang. Sammlung'' 1933 an.（文献无需翻译）

==Si Yu 司妤==
His piece ”''Bitter rain''” shows the atmosphere, for what his essays had been labelled ”bitter tea”: There remains a taste in one’s mouth after reading. If you compare Lu Xun’s ”''On tea drinking''” (Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326) with Zhou Zuoren’s essay with the same title, you see the difference of ”short and to the point” and ”eloquent and well-read”. ”''First love''” is more hilarious. The essay ”''Three different ways to die''” shows that Zhou Zuoren can compete with his elder brother in sarcasm. Lu Xun's essay on the same subject, the massacre on March 18, 1926, was a sight.
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==
Zhou asks for the ”best” way to die and favors the short and painless one. In ”''On alcohol''” and ”''The awning bunk boat''” Zhou Zuoren continues the tradition of late Ming ''biji''.

'''7. The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''

''What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.''

==Su Lin 苏琳==
The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a consciously “corrected” truth.
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==
The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (Wang Meng: "''Anxiang'' 安详" (Serene) 1992, "''Zuohao ni ziji de shi'' 做好你自己的事" (First make your own things in a good way) 1994).
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==
These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.

Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive ("''Shanxi opera''", Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world ("''The nightmare''", Si Yu 1995).

From the essay, we can see contemporary trends of literature, which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:

==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==
- The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall 1984:xiii);

- The increasing consciousness of indivi¬duality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjecti¬ve expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands;

- A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.

- The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.

- 当下中国社会的浮躁节奏，对转折性和短文的要求。"[...]我们生活在一个论述的时代"(Hall 1984:xiii)。

- 越发增加的独立意识，对其而言，文章是最直接的主体表达形式，甚至比诗的格律和形式要求更直接。

- 通过散文这一媒介讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复苏，就像20世纪20/30年代的情况一样。

- 日常生活的平庸性通过成为文学话题而变得自觉，最常见的是日常生活的文体--散文。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

-当前中国社会节奏轻快，要求有趣味的短文：“[…]我们生活在一个博览会时代”（大厅1984:xiii）；

-对于个人二元性意识的增强，散文是主体性表达的最直接形式，甚至比诗歌的韵律和形式要求更直接；

-通过这篇文章讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复复苏，如同20世纪20年代或30年代的情况一样。

-日常生活的平庸通过成为一个文学主题而变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活的体裁——散文。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:59, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tang Bei 汤蓓==
- The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays.

- Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.
==Tang Ming 唐铭==
This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publis¬hing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: "readers").

- The criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China are the following: In the most often printed essay "''The Back View''", filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", both written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==
Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Wang Zengqi. Therefore one can state, that moving es¬says form the top.

- ''In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in¬dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.''

==Tao Ye 陶冶==
''In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph'' China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war (''No''! 1996).

- ''The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art.''
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==
''Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Jia Pingwa, Feidu; Gu Cheng, Yingger) and'' New Borderlessness ''since'' 1995, ''cannot be pro-ven in the essaywriting. ''

- Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being "''The Small Dog Baodi''", written by Ba Jin 1981, in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before ("''In memoriam of Xiao Shan II''", Ba Jin 1984).
==Wang Xuan 王轩==
Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Der-Wei Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of Wang Zengqi's "''Rain in Kunming''" as well as for Jia Pingwa's "''Shanxi opera''".
类似的还有想象怀旧的概念，正如王功权所说的沈从文作品中虚构的真实（王大卫·德维王1992），有助于解读汪曾祺的《昆明雨》，也有助于贾平凹的《山西剧》。

- The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing fictional truth through the metaphor of his dog Baodi.
施瓦茨在“隐喻话语”中所表达的“个人悲伤”概念，有助于我们理解巴金是如何克服他以“存在的真理”而闻名的，却通过他的狗“宝坻”的隐喻而获得更具说服力的虚构真相。

Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.（文献无需翻译）

''Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay "The nightmare", where Si Yu appears as a de-constructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.''（文献无需翻译）

And maybe for Xie Bingxins* reflections on her experience as one of the chosen voluntaries of the Wuhan military academy: She insisted to remain a lifelong "woman soldier" .（文献无需翻译）

==Wang Yu 王煜==
'''8. Discussion: Is the genre of the essay the form of literary expression in 21st century China?'''

Regarding the future of the Chinese literature, we can only speculate. But out the risk of being wild and provocative, I would like to suggest some questions for considering the place of the essay in the field of Chinese literature and literary studies.

- People have less time for actions like reading, and get used to reduced visualized information through the Internet. Will the brevity of the essay make it the ideal medium?

==Wang Yuan 王源==
- If the Chinese people are rediscovering their individuality, will the essay allow them to express individual thoughts more directly?

- Modern societies are characterized by TV culture, mass consumption, and the loss of consciousness of one's own tradition, often partly due to the American impact on national cultures. Is the essay less bound to the restrictions of tradition, especially compared to the poem and thus more adaptable to the modern phenomenon of mass consumption?

==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==
- The alienation and the anonymity of citylife worldwide, in China is combined with a loss of traditional values like ideology, family, solidarity etc. in favor of the concept of profit for oneself, - if this has produced a longing for new orientation, will it possibly be filled by morally guiding essays or nationalistic thinking?

《红楼梦》与其他世界文学作品的相似性——推荐《红楼梦》列入世界记忆遗产名录

'''Commonness between the Red Chamber Dreams and other World Literature Novels – Proposing the Red Chamber Dreams to the World Documentary Heritage List'''（修改）

吴漠汀，湖南师范大学 Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University

Source: Lecture at Harvard University, Cambridge, MA USA, 14.3.2000（文献无需翻译）
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==
'''Abstract'''

In every culture, readers associate the literature they know with new literature they read. So literature is always cumulative, it grows out of existing literature and can refer back to it. When Western readers read the Red Chamber Dreams, they foremost associate novels and other pieces of literature of their own cultural tradition with the Dreams. This has also influenced the first full translation into German.

Cao Xueqin and even more his protagonist Jia Baoyu both are early humanists, universalists and world citizens. ''The Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide.

摘要

在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中生长出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。

曹雪芹，尤其是他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。（修改）

在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中衍生出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。

曹雪芹，甚至于他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:09, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==
''The Dream'' is a complex showroom of diverse aspects of Chinese cultures and is the embodiment and essence of Chinese cultures, but it has also a global impact, therefore it should be honoured as “World Documentary Heritage”.

红楼梦》综合展示了中国的多元文化，是中国文化的集中体现和精华，同时在全球范围内产生影响，理应列入世界记忆遗产名录。（修改）

多元一体

'''Key words'''

Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage

“红楼梦”是一个多元的中国文化综合体，是中国文化的体现和精髓，但它也具有全球影响力，因此应该被授予“世界文献遗产”的荣誉。（修改<nowiki>Insert non-formatted text here</nowiki>）

多元一体

'''Key words'''

Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage
--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

《红楼梦》是一个中国文化综合体，展示着中国文化的精髓的同时也极具全球影响力，理应被列入世界记忆遗产名录。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==
'''1. Chinese Ethics'''

To help the poor and disadvantaged belongs to the traditional core values of Chinese culture.

When we sit in the Beijing Subway today, the loudspeaker announcement reminds us, that it is Chinese traditional ethics to give seats to the disadvantaged (老弱病残孕让座是中国传统道德). We know of Cao Xueqin, that he supported the poor and disadvantaged, and that he made kites for children.

However, when we look closer at these “Chinese Ethics”, we discover, that they are claimed also in Indian Buddhism “karuna” and in the Christian tradition of “caritas” and in almost every civilization. Therefore, we might call these values “human ethics”.

==Wu Kai 吴恺==
'''2. Compatibility
'''
Why do the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide and have achieved world literature status even in their translations?

First of all, the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are, like novels worldwide, a piece of entertainment literature. In comparison to the drama, in which every element is compulsory and plays its part in the overall structure, in the novel the line of action itself is simpler and not so important, most of the scenes or episodes are loosely put together and fit in the broader theme of the novel.
==Wu Qi 吴琪==
However, the lose arrangement of episodes of the ''Dreams'' comes from the tradition of almost unconnected episodes like in the ''Shuihuzhuan'' and is a step towards the greater coherence of the episodes, the aligning into a story line and the greater concentration on fewer protagonists. Therefore, the ''Dreams'' show clearly a step towards the Western tradition of novels, maybe because of growing Western influence in Qing dynasty.

'''3. Impact of translator’s native culture on the translation process'''

There are intercultural parallels between the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' and Western works of literature.
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==
These parallels are fundamental for the translation and were explicitly and implicitly fundamental for the German translator Martin Woesler during his translation and editorial work on the first full German translation. In the following, I will mention some of the Western novels and pieces of literature, which the Western reader of the ''Dreams'' will immediately think of.

'''4. The novel as embodiment of “Zeitgeist”'''

According to Georg Lukács’ ''Theory of the Novel'', while the Epos (like Homer’s ''Ilias'', which like the ''Dream'' reasons the stories in the divine realm) displayed a holistic world experience, a complete, self-contained culture, the novel displays, that the modern world has become infinitely large and has lost its homely quality.
==Wu Xiang 邬香==
The novel as a genre is no longer documenting just one culture, but represents, with the words of Walter Benjamin, the Organon of History. So the understanding of the novel changed with Lukacs to historical-philosophically. A novel is understood as typical for its historical era, the novel embodies the spirit of the epoch (Zeitgeist).

The ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are written in front of the background of the Manchu minority having taken over the power in formerly Han-shaped Ming-China (which was a multi-ethnic and crosscultural society) and families suffering the changing favor of changing emperors, with the Cao family being fostered by Kangxi and being persecuted by Yongzheng.
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==
While the author in his time could not criticize the system and power of emperors, in the novel he came to terms with this life by seeking the guilt for the persecution in the growing decadence of the family (engaging in Daoism, leisure, poetry-writing, arts and music instead of learning for being able to earn a living) and in himself not fulfilling the expectations as the family heir. This description of decadence of a declining family reminds us of the novels of Tschechov (and e.g. in the ''Buddenbrooks'' by Mann, including the turn to arts and music).
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==
Moreover, with the detailed description of life on all social levels in early Qing Dynasty, the Dream appears as a documentary historical novel very much like Günter Grass’ The Tin Drum 1959.

'''5. Coming-of-age and Alienation'''

Abandoning the paradise-like garden in the Red Chamber Dreams is a symbol for leaving the protected childhood and arriving in the complex world of adults. With George Lukács theory of the novel, the protagonist starts to problematize the sense of his life, in the novel, the protagonist’s self permanently struggles with his environment.
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==
However, Cao Xueqin’s message is not simply the one of “Paradise Lost”, instead he himself made the best out of his life. Although being less wealthy than when his family still enjoyed the favour of the emperor, there was a payroll system and a social net intact in Early Qing China, where he received enough income to be independent from his rich relatives, to be selective on accepting jobs, to live a relaxed life in a small house in the nature, spending time with his family and friends, follow his own interests, like reading, writing and drinking wine, making kites for the children and thinking of the disadvantaged.

然而，曹雪芹的信息不仅是“失乐园”的信息，而是他本人的一生。尽管不如他的家人仍然享有皇帝的宠爱时富裕，但清初中国有一个工资体系和一个完整的社会网络，在那里他获得了足够的收入以独立于自己的富裕亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作在大自然的小房子里过着轻松的生活，与家人和朋友共度时光，遵循自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和喝酒，为孩子们放风筝和思考处境不利的人。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

==Xiao Ting 肖婷==
Cao Xueqin was fully aware of his time and China’s cultural achievements, he was familiar with the different levels of society, he was a detailed observer and skilful narrator. He may have conceptualized the ending of the novel as a discussion about the different personalities of the characters in the novel and therefore displaying his reflection about life and his psychological understanding of the diversity of human nature. He was able to grasp the “spirit of time” (Zeitgeist) and with his autobiographical experience create an eternal coming-of-age novel not just for his family, for the Qing-Chinese, for Chinese people, but for mankind.

曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就有充分的认识，他熟悉社会的方方面面，他观察细致，叙事娴熟。他能把小说的结尾构思为对小说中人物不同性格的探讨，从而体现出他对人生的思考和对人性多样性的理解。他能够把握 "时间精神"(Zeitgeist)，并以他的亲身经历为材料创造了一部成熟的绝世之作，这不仅是为他的家庭、为清人、为中国人，更是为全人类。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

曹雪芹充分了解自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就，熟悉社会的不同层次，是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。他可能将小说的结局概念化为对小说中人物不同性格的讨论，从而表现出他对生活的反思和对人性多样性的心理理解。他能够把握“时代精神”(时代精神)，并以他的自传体经历，为他的家庭，为清朝人，为中国人，为人类创造了一部永恒的成长小说。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 12:01, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就了如指掌，他熟悉社会的不同层面，他是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。因此，他在小说中对人的不同个性的理解和对小说中人物性格的多样性进行了概念化的探讨。他能够把握“时代精神”，用他的自传体经历，不仅为他的家庭，为清朝的中国人，为中国人民，而且为人类，创作了一部永恒的成人小说。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:43, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

==Xiao Xi 肖茜==
This tradition of Coming-of-age novels is also a European one, like enlightenment philosopher Voltaire’s novel ''Candide or Optimism''《老实人》shows at the very same time (1759) in Europe. Also Voltaire’s Candide has to leave the luxurious paradise of his childhood and strives for true love, but his main learning is more pessimistic, since Voltaire wrote the novel in opposition to Leibniz, who optimistically looked to China as “the best of all worlds”. Recent research findings show that China had a much larger influence on European enlightenment philosophers and we can be sure, that also Cao Xueqin was aware of some European literary traditions.
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==
Also the German readership is familiar with the chronological following of the life of the protagonist and his development, the fate of a family over generations, the German readership knows this type of novel as the “Education novel” or “Coming-of-age-novel”. In Germany, the genre of the coming-of-age novel has a long tradition and it is shaped more by single characters, who appear as teachers (Goethe: ''Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802).
==Xie Fan 解帆==
Wilhelm Meister, parallely to Jia Baoyu, is struggling with the traditional education, in ''Wilhelm Meister'' this is represented with the classics revived in Shakespeare’s dramas. Tradition can give orientation, but the personality of the protagonist needs to develop through emancipation is a wisdom, we can learn from all mentioned novels including the ''Dreams''.

'''6. Pornography and True Love, female rivals'''

Sexuality is a basic human need and has developed into different shapes in all cultures. The German audience is familiar with erotic topics from the Middle Ages, in which sexuality was stylized. In the “Schwänke” of the 15th century (Wittenwielers Ring), erotic scenes are described sexually explicit.

与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，这通过莎士比亚的经典戏剧得以体现。传统可以作为方向标，但主人公的个性需要通过解放才能发展，这是一种智慧，我们可以以上提过包括《梦》的所有小说中学习。
“6.色情与真爱，女性对手"
性是人类的一种基本需求，在不同文化中展现出不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是有固定程式的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:37, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，在《威廉·迈斯特》中，莎士比亚戏剧中复兴的经典作品代表了这一点。传统可以给予导向，但主人公的个性需要通过解放来发展是一种智慧，我们可以从包括《梦》在内的所有小说中学习。
“6。色情与真爱，女性对手"
性是人类的一种基本需求，在各种文化中形成了不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是程式化的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==
In the barock literature of the 17th century even the physical act is described extensively.

According to „cumulativity“, every human being is a product of history and literature is based on previous literature, therefore the author of this pager thinks that this background has to be taken into account while translating.

The best study on ''qing'' passion in the Dreams is the one by Anthony Yu, who understood it as ''desire'' and as the central motif of the ''Dreams''. „The centrality of qing in shaping virtually every aspect of The Story of the Stone’s structure and meaning cannot be denied [...].“ (Anthony Yu 2001, 54).

==Xu Jia 徐佳==
In the framework story of the Dreams, the narrator consciously takes a stand against low-action and stereotypical pornographic literature as well as against the widespread romance novels (with the classic roles of the beautiful, talented woman and the poor scholar who finally achieves a respected position and prosperity by passing a civil service exam).

In chapter 1 he says: ”of the true feelings of young people [...] nobody has reported about so far.”

Erotic scenes are described in a decent and associative way (“Game of clouds and rain”), while displaying another quality in its openness e.g. towards bisexuality.

==Xu Jing 许晶==
The ''Dreams'' narrate the story of unfortunate lovers. Unfortunate lovers also in the West have a literary tradition, they constitute an archetype, such as Hero and Leander, Pyramus and Thisbe, Tristan and Isolde, Flore and Blanscheflur as well as Troilus and Cressida, the latter being considered the model for Arthur Brookes, who wrote Romeo and Juliet in 1562 and thus directly influenced Shakespeare.

While Marián Galik saw as the central topic of both, the ''Dream'' and ''Faust'', the eternal feminine, which draws us on high, Gu Cheng called it the “eternal virgine”.

==Xu Jing 许静==
In Goethe’s coming-of-age novel ''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre'', we find a similar motif of female rivals, in the Keller 凯勒 ''The Green Henry'' 《绿衣亨利》1855, the hero turns away from an emphatically sexually designed figure and turns to the 'real' woman. In Jane Austen’s ''Pride and Prejudice'' 1813 Elizabeth and Lin Daiyu are similar, e.g. they both strive for real love (Zhuang 2011).
==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==
'''7. Feudal society and slavery'''

A widespread interpretation is that Jia Baoyu’s equal treatment of family members and slaves would be a manifesto to free the slaves. I also do not share this interpretation, since Aristotle, when he demanded democracy, would exclude slaves from the right to vote. So we cannot use modern concepts to judge on the past. In my understanding, Jia Baoyu was not fighting inequality, but looked at the people as humans and individuals.

封建社会和奴隶
一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶一视同仁，这将成为奴隶解放的宣言。我并不同意这个解释，因为亚里士多德的民主就排除了奴隶的投票权。所以，我们并不能用现代观念去评判过去。在我看来，贾宝玉并不是和不平等作斗争，而是把人视作群体和个人。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 09:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德，当他要求民主的时候，会排除奴隶的投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人看成是群体和个人。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:31, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==
Also the understanding of the servants as slaves does not match the description in the Dream, since some servants had servants themselves, the family took care after they left the Jia family to find a match for them and Jia Zheng refers to his daughter Yingchun as „yatou 丫头“, so it is inappropriate to translate this expression with slave. Therefore, the translator preferred “servant” over “slave” in the translation.

另外，把仆人理解为奴隶也与《红楼梦》中所描述的不符，因为有些仆人自己也有仆人，他们离开贾家后，家人会照顾他们，为他们婚配，并且贾正把女儿迎春称为“丫头”，所以用奴隶来翻译这个词是不合适的。因此，译者在翻译中更倾向于“仆人”而不是“奴隶”。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

而且把仆人理解为奴隶与《红楼梦》中的描写不符，因为有些仆人自己还有仆人，贾府会在她们离府的时候为她们寻一门亲事，作为贾府对她们的照料；贾政也把自己的女儿迎春喊作 “丫头”，所以把这些翻译成奴隶是不合适的。因此英文翻译中采用“servant”会比“slave”更为合适。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:08, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==
Mo Yan in his speech at the Frankfurt Bookfair in 2009, when China was the guest of honor, draws the (similarly) parallel between the ''Dream'' and Goethe’s ''Sorrows of the Young Werther'', that both expressed the wish to abandon feudal society. My own impression is that both do not express this wish, but that this is a later concept and interpretation and we should not apply this to judge the past.

2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，他在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的印象是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，而我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的感觉是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:43, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Hairong 杨海容==
'''8. Tragedy of all tragedies'''

Aristotle explained in ''On the Tragedy'' (Poetics VI), that tragedies move people more than comedies because they “imitate [mimēsis] an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude” (Aristotle 1971, 51), This high esteem of the tragedy in Europe is partly ascribed to the loss of Aristotle’s work ''On the Comedy''.

==Yang Hui 阳慧==
While Europe has the Hamlet as its tragedy of all tragedies, the lack of tragic literature in Chinese literary tradition has long been lamented. Wang Guowei sees the Dream as "tragedy of all tragedies". To Wang Guowei the suffering of Faust and Jia Baoyu is central in the novels. However, many scholars contest that Faustianism is central for Chinese culture.

In 18th century Europe, we saw a new development in the genre of the drama, to establish a “bourgeois tragedy”.

==Yang Yi 杨逸==
It developed as an emancipatory movement in the 18th century in London, Paris and Germany, and demonstrated that tragedy was not reserved to rulers, but was also imagineable for lower noblemen and ordinary citizens. The ''Dream'' at the same time as the bourgeois tragedy in Europe shows a tragic story of a mid-level noble family which loses its titles and privileges.

==Yang Yue 杨悦==
'''9. “Non-Binary” Novels'''

One of the things attracting Western readers is the adorable but mysterious protagonist Jia Baoyu. With his open bisexual orientation and his interest in his mates regardless of their social status, he appears “modern” or at least displaced in time. His struggle with traditional learning makes him appear sympathetic, his long states of rapture out of the world give him both the aura of a timeless character and of mystery.

==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==
With the bisexual orientation of the Dreams’ protagonist, the novel appears non-binary.
According to Karl-Heinz Pohl, binaries are just superficial, ultimately decisive is the ''Heart Sutra''. Today, the novel is listed among the genre of non-binary literature (see e.g. the bibliographical list on https://www.goodreads.com/list/tag/non-binary), in which contrasts are dissolved deconstructivistically.

==Yao Cheng 姚诚==
'''10. Foreign Cultures in the Red Chamber Dreams'''

Foreign Cultures frequently appear in the Dreams in all kinds of varieties, like exoticism with the many objects in the household and presented to the household as novelties, especially the blond girl of the same age as Baoyu referred to in person (combining different origins and cultures, including European, Japanese, Chinese) or several times on paintings, one time shown with wings as an angel.

==Yao Jia 姚佳==
The playful combination of different traditions we can see also when a religious dress is described, which carries characteristics of different religions. Similarly, the Daoist monk and the Confucian priest appear together. Cao Xueqin wanted to show the richness and diversity, also with the many topics and societal levels of the novel. Even a variety of Christian motifs can be found, like when Jia Baoyu is not recognized by his father in chapter 120 and when he disappears, all parallel to Jesus Christ.

==Yi Huan 易欢==
The variety of cultures is paralleled with the variety of elements of different dynasties, which makes it timeless and therefore even more a masterpiece of Chinese art and a masterpiece of human art. Therefore I would like to nominate the Red Chamber Dreams as “World Documentary Heritage”.

'''References'''（参考文献不用翻译）

Anthony, C. Yu. (2001). ''Rereading the Stone: Desire and the Making of Fiction in Dream of the Red Chamber''. Princeton University Press.

Aristotle. (1971). ''Poetics''. Trans. S. H. Butcher. Ed. Hazard Adams. Critical Theory since Plato. ew York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 48-66.

Woesler, Martin, ed., Cao Xueqin, Gao E et al. (2016). ''Der Traum der Roten Kammer oder Die Geschichte vom Stein'' [''Red Chamber Dreams or The Story of the Stone''], Peking: Foreign Languages Press, ISBN 9787119094120, 4813 pages, 6 vols., hardcover, transl. by Rainer Schwarz and Martin Woesler; Chinese-German bilingual edition

Woesler, Martin. (2011). “Being Explicit About the Implicit – John Minford’s Translation of the last Forty Chapters of The Story of the Stone with a Field Study on two Sexually Arousing Scenes”. ''Hong lou meng xue kan'' 6: 274-289

Woesler, Martin. (2010). “ ’To Amuse the Beaux and Belles’ The Early Western Reception of the Hongloumeng”. ''Journal of Sino-Western Communications'' 2 (2010.12) 2:81-107

Zhuang, Xiuhua. (2011). Self, Ideal and Salvation: A Comparative Study of Jane Austen’s Elizabeth and Cao Xueqin’s Lin Daiyu. ''Journal of Language Teaching and Research'', Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 420-423, March 2011. Fulltext: http://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/jltr/vol02/02/19.pdf.

==Yi Zichu 义子楚==
'''Virtual Communication Between Machines with the Human as Their Object
'''

A new stage of multimodal communication after oral, written, printed, electronic and machine-human communication

Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University

'''Abstract'''

Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role.

==You Yuting 游雨婷==
This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new media epoch of “virtual communication” (communication 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).

Algorithms do not only listen to oral or read written human communication (between humans or between humans and bots), but they analyze multimodal communication (including likes, behaviour, surfing habits, mobility profile, values, dreams, aims, beliefs etc.), compare them with Big Data (e.g. cloud data) and base decisions of manipulation on a prediction of behavior according to a personality profile and correlations.

本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。

算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yu Ni 余妮==
These algorithms target not only the explicit communications, but the emotions and thoughts of humans too and predict future behavior, therefore allowing simulations of reality. Mightier algorithms have also taken over decision-making roles in societies where they: replace human court decisions, fine tune just-in-time and on-demand production, censor chatrooms etc. Sets of algorithms help to manage smart cities and a whole society.

----
==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==
Although the human is still part of the communication, especially as the analyzed object and the target of the manipulation, the human is often unaware of the virtual communication and a passive receiver of the machine’s decisions, while the main actors in the virtual communication are machines.

虽然人仍然是通信的一部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人往往没有意识到虚拟通信和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟通信的主要参与者是机器。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

尽管人类仍然是交流活动的一个组成部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人类往往没有意识到，自己是虚拟沟通和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟沟通的主导者是机器。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

虽然人仍然是构成通信的一部分，尤其是作为分析对象和操纵目标，但人往往没有意识到人们在虚拟通信中扮演机器决策的被动接受者，而机器才是主要参与者。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==
Research describes these forms of virtual communication, finds evidence in social management systems and credit systems (in Germany, we have the “Schufa”, in the USA there are big players in credit history, which leads to credit-orientation and gamification of human life) or customized (fake) news filter bubbles and in customized consumption offers (Amazon, Facebook, Google, Netflix) and analyzes benefits, including security enhancements through such virtual communication.

研究对这些形式的虚拟沟通进行了描述，在社会管理系统、信用系统（定制的（虚假）新闻筛选泡沫）和定制的消费商（亚马逊、脸书、谷歌、网飞）里面找到了证据（德国有“Schufa”，美国则因为信用史有重大人物而使得社会信用至上并日趋游戏化），并对益处加以分析，这些益处包含通过这类虚拟沟通提升安全。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:20, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

研究描述了这些虚拟通信的形式，在社会管理系统和信用系统中找到证据（在德国，我们有 "Schufa"，在美国有信用记录的大玩家，这导致了信用导向和人类生活的游戏化）或定制化（假）新闻过滤气泡，以及在定制化的消费优惠中（亚马逊，Facebook，谷歌，Netflix），并分析了好处，包括通过这种虚拟通信增强安全性。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==
But research also has the duty to warn of abuse or harmful developments and to raise ethical questions. Exoskeletal ethics, imposed by gamifications like credit systems, especially need to be valued against intrinsic ethics.

'''Introduction'''

In this paper dealing with machine to machine communication, I skip the machines assisting humans to make their life more convenient (ranging from “The milk is out, please add the usual amount of milk to the delivery list,” to “The old lady has not left her bed this morning, I’ll better call the doctor”).

但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展发出警告，同时要对引起的伦理问题也要承担责任。特别是信用体系游戏化所造成的外骨骼伦理问题更需要得到重视，要反对内在的伦理问题。

引言

本论文在涉及机器与机器之间的交流时，我不考虑那些帮助人类让生活更便捷的机器（从“牛奶没了，请在送货单上加平常剂量的牛奶”到“老太太今早卧床不起，我最好叫医生吧”）。
--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:10, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展提出警告，并提出伦理问题。特别是信用体系等游戏化所强加的外骨骼伦理，更需要对照内在伦理加以重视。

引言

在本文中涉及机器与机器之间的交流，我跳过了机器协助人类提高生活便利的内容（从 "牛奶没了，请把平时的牛奶量加到送货单上"，到 "老太太今天早上还没下床，我还是叫医生吧"。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:40, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==
Instead, I deal with communication like: “Let’s create a user personality profile and compare it with Big Data to learn how I can best catch this user’s attention and make him/her vote for presidential candidate A or B.”; “Let’s check this users’ mouse movements and compare it with Big Data to get a correlation to estimate if (and if “yes” when) he will get Parkinson, to decide whether or not to deny him the loan or health insurance.”
实际上，本人研究涉及的方面如下：比如，“让我们创建一名用户的个性化主界面，并将其与大数据进行比对，学习如何最好的吸引该用户的注意，让他/她投票给总统候选人甲或乙。”“让我们检查这名用户鼠标的运动轨迹，通过与大数据进行比对，建立关联，来估计他是否会得帕金森。如果他患有帕金森疾病，我们会决定是否需要对他的贷款或医疗保险的申请予以拒绝。”--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:41, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Liang 曾良==
“Let’s check this users sexual orientation, religious beliefs, fears, secrets like adultery etc. to blackmail him to get ransom money for my programmer.”; or even “Let’s use this user’s location to aim the killer drone.”

The current neoliberal system with Amazon, Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, Google, Netflix etc. provides incentives to collect as much user data as possible and to abuse user data for manipulation, which creates huge profits.

“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、诸如通奸之类的秘密去勒索他为我的程序员去获取赎金”。或者甚至“使用用户的位置瞄准杀手无人机。”

当前具有亚马逊、脸谱网、瓦茨艾普、照片墙、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义系统激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:04, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

"让我们查一查这个用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、通奸等秘密，以勒索他为我的程序员获取赎金。"；甚至"利用这个用户的位置来瞄准杀手无人机。"
目前亚马逊、脸书、WhatsApp、Instagram、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义体系，为收集尽可能多的用户数据，并滥用用户数据，从而创造了巨大的利润。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、惧怕的事物、诸如通奸之类的秘密，从而勒索他让我的程序员获取赎金”。更有甚时，“让我们使用用户的位置让攻击机瞄准他。”

当前亚马逊、脸书、联络电话、Instagram、谷歌、网飞等的新自由主义的系统软件，激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==
Very much like the financial crisis, which was caused by the unregulated use of derivatives, this is a systemic development, which currently follows a path to enslave the human race under the control of algorithms for the benefit of tech companies. The enslavement has already begun, as we can see from the world wide addiction to social media, from the growing mass of conspiracy theorists and from the polarization of the USA over Trump or the polarization of Great Britain over the Brexit.

==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==
'''1 History of Media Epochs'''

Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role.

This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new stage of “virtual communication” (media epoch 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).

卢曼和贝克尔描述了从口头（媒体时代1.0）到文字（2.0）的通讯发展，再到印刷（3.0）数字通讯（4.0）
在所有这些阶段中，科技都只起到了协助作用。

本文认为，从根本上来说，“虚拟沟通”处于新阶段（媒体时代5.0），其中人工智能（由人类初始化）已被接管，人类已成为分析和操纵的对象（如顾客，选民等）--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 14:56, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hu 张虎==
While Luhmann would still summarize this under digital communication, I see a full new quality here, and have therefore coined the term “communication 5.0” or “virtual communication” for it. In Luhmann’s view, the computer consists out of the “surface” of the machine (the visible interfaces like screen, keyboard, mouse) and the “depth” of the machine (the invisible, often incomprehensive inside).

虽然卢曼仍然会在数字通信中总结这一点，但我在这里看到了一个全新的品质，因此创造了术语“通信5.0”或“虚拟通信”。在卢曼看来，计算机是由机器的“表面”(屏幕、键盘、鼠标等可见界面)和机器的“内里”(看不见的、内部不全面的部分)组成的。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:41, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hui 张慧==
However, we are almost constantly producing data, with our chats and geotracked movements, with our addiction to social media, our carrying of cell phones and more and more smart devices at all times, and we are therefore an object of analysis by algorithms.

The traditional setting of a communicative act blurs: The machine can directly communicate with the human (there the Turing test marks a threshold), and, after a certain complexity, it can hide its machine nature.

但是，我们几乎一直在通过聊天和地理位置追踪运动，不断沉迷于社交媒体，携带手机以及越来越多的智能设备来生成数据，因此，我们一直是通过算法进行分析的对象。

交流行为的传统设置变得模糊：机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标记了阈值），并且在经过一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏机器的本质。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:49, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

然而，我们几乎在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和地理追踪的动作，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们随时携带手机和越来越多的智能设备，我们因此成为算法分析的对象。

传统的交流行为的设定模糊了。机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标志着一个门槛），在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Ling 张玲==
The machine can also indirectly communicate with the human by simply analyzing humans’ verbal communication, non-verbal multimodal communication, behavior, personality etc. and interacting with the human with, or without, revealing its existence. A human, growing up in a filter bubble and believing in conspiracy theories is one such example: The human has been manipulated by social media and news which prefer lies over truth.

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==
Without even noticing that there was an interaction taking place between the human and the machine, the human has lost his/her independence to the machine.

'''2 Types of communicative acts'''

1.Texts (oral and written comments/chat texts/blogs/emails)

2.Surf behavior (websites visited)

3.Consumer behavior (purchases)

4.Likes (see OCEAN, UEBA)

5.Duration/Attention (see UEBA)

6.habits/repetitiveness/occurrences (is an element of analysis in different AI apps/tools)

==Zhang Qi 张琪==
7.Unconscious, often unique data allowing identification (way of writing, mouse movements pattern, see Raj Kannan 2020)

8.social interaction incl. friendships, sexual relationships

9.mobility behavior/pattern (e.g. immediate environment – e.g. unconsciously recording the inside of houses while playing “Pokemon Go”), travel: Travel Behavior (Yu Cui et al. 2018)

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==
'''3 Types of analysis'''

1.General (User and Entity Behavior Analytics UEBA: AI-assisted cybersecurity tools like by Gartner, Inc.)

2.True identity (e.g.: mouse movements, face recognition, find real name) (Verschuere 2016)

3.Personality profile: Big Five Personality Inventory: Openness to Experience, Consciousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism “OCEAN” (Golbeck 2011), by only analyzing the users' likes, Facebook can generate personality profiles (AI-Demand 2020)

4.Mobility profile/pattern

==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==
5.Health situation (health apps, ai supported disease research, see Daley 2020)

6.Job situation/job market (Talent Search People 2020 analyzes the job market, and classifies 4 different AI systems: 1. systems that think like humans, 2. systems that act like humans, 3. systems that think rationally, and 4.) systems that act rationally.)

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==
7.Financial credit-worthiness: E.g. German Schufa company uses AI in addition to human expertise for evaluations, see Banken-Technologie 2020. Banken-Technologie 2020. Schufa’s attempt to gain access to customers’ bank account transfer information was discussed in the news.

8.Consumer Behavior: e.g. the "clickworker" company analyses and optimizes customers' searches in respect to a client company's goals/products with the help of AI (clickworker 2019)

9.Secrets (like adultery)

==Zhang Yu 张瑜==
'''4 Unique quality of media epoch 5.0'''[ I have coined the terms “media epoch 5.0” and “virtual communication” I have developed it from concepts like „Industry 4.0“ in Germany and the four media epochs Luhmann and Baecker developed (by Baecker called 1.0 … 4.0). There are several authors speculating about the media epoch 4.0, like Ray Kurzweil. The Age of Intelligent Machines. 1990.]

1.the human switches from active to passive

2.the human switches from subject to object

3.the human becomes addicted to social media, which enhances depression (Van Den Eijnden et al. 2016, Jasso-Medrano et al. 2018, Shensa et al. 2017)

4.the human switches from puppeteer, or entity with seemingly free will, to puppet

5.nature of the internet turns from freedom to surveillance

4.媒介5.0时代的独特品质 [我创造了 "媒介5.0时代"和 "虚拟通信 "这两个词，它们是从德国的“工业4.0”以及卢曼和贝克提出的媒介4.0时代（贝克称之为1.0...4.0）等概念发展而来的。一些作者揣测媒介4.0时代这个词的含义，比如1990年出版的雷-库兹韦尔的《灵魂机器时代》]

1.人从主动到被动的转换

2.人从主体到客体的转换

3.人沉迷于社交媒体，提高了患抑郁症的风险

4.人从木偶操纵者或看似拥有自由意志的实体到木偶人的转换

5.互联网的性质从自由到监测的转换--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 01:25, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==
6.direct communication turns into indirect communication (humans may not be aware of this communication/analysis)

7.explicit communication (voice, words) turns into implicit communication (preferences/thoughts/dreams/wishes/ values (first experiments with brain scanners in worker hats have started in Shanghai and Peking))

8.man-man communication turns to man-machine communication (phone bot) to machine-machine

9.4.0 was from centralization to decentralization, 5.0 is partial centralization and partial decentralization, but also concentration

==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==
So far, mass media has been considered one-way. The interaction and processing of data of millions of individual users seemed simply too much work. In the age of virtual communication, the media epoch 5.0, mass media is individualized and interactive and therefore even more influential.

'''5 Types of manipulation (consciously or unconsciously, sometimes half-consciously)
'''

1.Priming by unconscious advertisements: Influencing consumer decisions

2.Filter bubbles => supports conspiracy theories, influences judgments

到目前为止，大众媒体一直被认为是单一的。数百万个人用户数据的交互和处理似乎太费力。在虚拟传播时代，即媒体时代5.0，大众传媒是个性化和互动的，因此更具影响力。

'''5 种操纵类型（有意识或无意识，有时是半意识的）'''

1.无意识广告发布：影响消费者决策

2.过滤泡沫=>支持阴谋论，影响判断--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:08, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhao Xi 赵茜==
3.Nature of social media: lies spread 6 times faster than truth. (Vosoughi et al. 2018).

4.Change of political attitude: Case Cambridge Analytica: Helped minority to win election by manipulating young people of majority not to vote (Do so: Don’t vote campaign, Oddleifson 2020); Trump election and Brexit were won by manipulation

5.Use of private information/dependencies to obtain advantages (blackmailing for money or for conducting crimes etc.)

6.Identity theft

3.社交媒体的本质：谎言的传播速度比真理快 6 倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。

4.改变政治态度：案例剑桥分析：通过操纵多数年轻人不投票帮助少数民族赢得选举（这样做：不要投票竞选。奥德利夫森 2020年）；特朗普选举和英国脱欧通过操纵获胜

5.利用私人信息/依赖关系获取好处（勒索钱财或犯罪等）

6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.社交媒体的性质：谎言传播速度是真相的6倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。
4.政治态度的改变：剑桥分析案例：通过操纵大多数年轻人不投票帮助少数人赢得选举（Do Do Do:Do not vote campaign，Oddleifson 2020）；特朗普选举和脱欧是通过操纵赢得的
5.利用私人信息/依赖性获取利益（勒索钱财或犯罪等）
6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==
'''6 Consequences'''

1.Virtual Communication is mostly “hidden”, the human is mostly unaware of it, but may endure the consequences (policeman may detain suspect simply because the face recognition glass recognizes a pedestrian passing by and assesses him/her as “dangerous”; loan is declined; insurance company declines to accept new customer)

6.后果

1.虚拟通讯大多是 "隐蔽 "的，人多半不知道，但可能会承受后果（警察可能仅仅因为人脸识别玻璃识别出路过的行人，并评估其为 "危险 "而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新的客户）--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

6.后果

1.虚拟通信通常是“隐藏的”，人类大多数情况下是不知道的，但可能会承受后果（警察可能只是因为面部识别玻璃杯识别出行人经过并将他/她评估为“危险”而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

'''6.后果
'''

1.大多情况下，虚拟通信是“隐藏的”，人类也没有意识到这一点，但可能会承担由此带来的后果（警察可能会因为面部识别玻璃检测到行人通过，并将其评估为“危险人物”而将嫌疑犯拘留‘贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==
2.User becomes transparent (government can fight terrorism, any user can be blackmailed, jealous spouse can check on adultery)

3.Less will to communicate and discuss (since positions are too far apart)

4.Populists and populist views gain supporters

5.Polarization of Society

6.There is an incentive not to reveal how much one knows about the object, because the object then could question the legality, the system etc.

7.Last resort, the thinking, is tackled: Machine interprets “real” attitudes, not lip-service words

==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==
8.The knowing ones (algorithms, hackers, controllers of algorithms) have power over the unknowing ones (victims)

9.Exoskeleton ethics (like points/awards for measurable performances) reduce incentives to build inner ethics
'''
7 Simulation of the imminent future'''

1.The imminent future behavior of a human can be predicted

2.With many analyzed humans, the imminent future of reality can be predicted => simulation

8.知道的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比不知道的人（受害者）更有力量
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机
'''
7模拟即将到来的未来
1.人类即将发生的未来行为是可以预测的
2.有了许多被分析的人类，现实的即将到来的未来可以被预测=>模拟--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:00, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==
Is this an Orwellian dystopia or reality? Some cases of the above listed phenomena have been documented. However, we are still at the beginning of “little” AI development (optimizing existing processes) and on the brink of a much more powerful development, that of “big” AI (rethinking whole industries, being able to reproduce and enhance itself). (cf. Euchner 2019).

==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==
'''8 Conclusion and Outlook'''

Data has succeeded oil as the most valuable resource for today’s economy. Big Tech companies already use users’ data and make big profits with it while legislation is delayed and national boundaries (which do not exist for the Tech companies) are struggled over.
Although input-legitimized liberal democracies and market economies, like that of the European Union, still protect privacy and data security, US- and China-based technology companies are already penetrating the European market.

==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==
We need to raise awareness and guide the youth to be careful with screen time and what they share online. We need to avoid addiction to social media.

'''The algorithms do not just check which film to suggest viewing next, they have started to invade the innermost sanctum of personality, our thoughts, dreams, wishes, visions, hopes, fears and secrets.
'''
'''
The listed consequences document a fundamental change of paradigms:
'''
我们需要提高意识，引导青少年注意屏幕时间和他们在网上分享的东西。我们需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。

'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''

所列出的后果证明了范式的根本变化:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

我们需要提高意识，引导青少年留意屏幕时间和网上分享，需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。

'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''

所列出的后果证明了范式的基本变化:--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:11, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==
'''The cause-based decision-making by humans with established institutions like politicians, judges etc. is being replaced with correlation-based decision-making by algorithms which often serve the profit interests of tech companies or the political interests of election-manipulators.
'''

AI took the wrong development path, when it changed from serving humans to trying to manipulate humans for economic or political profit. When AI is used to educate citizens – like helping German customers to keep a clean credit history and a good credit score – then it changes the behavior of citizens to an exoskeletal ethic.

==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==
However, animals with an exoskeleton reduce their inside muscles and develop a soft inside, making them totally incapable of living without the exoskeleton. An exoskeletal ethic, giving reward points, for example, for behavior which is deemed positive and subtracting points for behavior which is deemed negative, deprives the human of the natural learning and developing process, in a social environment, of his responsibility and inner ethical judgment. If you were to meet a human with exoskeletal ethics and one who has inner ethics, whom would you trust more?

==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==
If we want to avoid the consequences listed in point 6, the public needs to become aware of this and nations and supranational organizations need to define legislation to a) protect privacy and data security, and b) give the user the control over his/her data including the commercial use of it where they earn a share from the profit made with the usage of his/her data.

==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==
'''9 Outlook'''

We need to accept, that the development is irreversible. Every new technology has created fears. Important is, that we become aware of the developments and adjust where the development heads into the wrong direction. We need set the right framework and incentives that the new technology stays on track to serve humanity.

==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==
New developments open new possibilities. We need to make sure that not only a few tech companies and terrorists use this powerful new technology to achieve their goals, but that the mass of smart device users emancipate themselves from addiction to and manipulation by technology and gain back their dignity, privacy and free will.

'''References
'''
（参考文献不用翻译）

AI-Demand. (2020). www.ai-demand.com/insights/data/big-data/big-data-and-facebook-the-heavenly-pair-that-isnt-quite-in-heaven/

Baecker, Dirk. (2007). ''Studien zur nächsten Gesellschaft''. Frankfurt 2007

Banken-Technologie. (2020). 26. Handelsblatt Jahrestagung. Banken-Technologie. „New Normal” in der Finanzwirtschaft: digital – intelligent – automatisiert – hybrid. 2. und 3.12.2020, Digital [Conference Announcement] https://veranstaltungen.handelsblatt.com/bankentechnologie/ki-machine-learning-finanzanalyse/

Booth, T. "Cambridge Analytica controversy must spur researchers to update data ethics." ''Nature'' 555.7698 (2018): 559-560.

Clickworker. (2019). www.clickworker.com/2019/04/30/ai-for-ecommerce/

Cui, Yu, Qing He, and Alireza Khani. (2018). Travel behavior classification: an approach with social network and deep learning. ''Transportation research record'', 2672(47), 68-80. https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10109453

Daley, Sam. (2020). 32 Examples of AI in Healthcare that Will Make you Feel better about the Future (July 4, 2019, updated July 29, 2020). builtin.com/artificial-intelligence/artificial-intelligence-healthcare

Euchner, Jim. (2019). Little ai, Big AI—Good AI, Bad AI. Terminology Management 62:3, 10-12. pdf:

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/08956308.2019.1587280?needAccess=true

Golbeck, Jennifer, Cristina Robles, and Karen Turner. (2011). "Predicting personality with social media." ''CHI'11 extended abstracts on human factors in computing systems''. 2011. 253-262.

Jasso-Medrano, José Luis, and Fuensanta Lopez-Rosales. (2018). "Measuring the relationship between social media use and addictive behavior and depression and suicide ideation among university students." Computers in Human Behavior 87: 183-191.

Luhmann, Niklas. (1997). ''Die Gesellschaft der Gesellschaft''. 1997

Oddleifson, Evan. 2020, The Effects of Modern Data Analytics in Electoral Politics: Cambridge Analytica’s Suppression of Voter Agency and the Implications for Global Politics, ''Political Sciences Undergraduate Review'' 5 (2020) 7, 1-7.

https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/psur/index.php/psur/article/view/130/90/130-Article%20Text-642-1-10-20200401.pdf

Raj Kannan, J., Sabitha, R., Karthik, S., & Shanthini, J. (2020). Mouse Movement Pattern Based Analysis of Customer Behavior (CBA-MMP) Using Cloud Data Analytics. ''Wireless Personal Communications'', OnlineFirst, 1-17.

Ruan, Lotus, et al. "One App, Two Systems: How WeChat uses one censorship policy in China and another internationally." (2016).
Shensa, Ariel, et al. (2017). "Problematic social media use and depressive symptoms among US young adults: A nationally-representative study." ''Social Science & Medicine ''182: 150-157.

Talent Search People. (2020). How Will Artificial Intelligence Affect the Job Market? www.talentsearchpeople.com/en/blog/494-how-will-artificial-intelligence-affect-the-job-market/.

Van Den Eijnden, Regina JJM, Jeroen S. Lemmens, and Patti M. Valkenburg. (2016). "The social media disorder scale." ''Computers in Human Behavior ''61: 478-487.

Verschuere, Bruno, and Bennett Kleinberg. "ID‐check: Online Concealed Information Test reveals true identity." ''Journal of forensic sciences'' 61 (2016): S237-S240.

Vosoughi, Soroush, Deb Roy, and Sinan Aral. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science 359.6380: 1146-1151.. science.sciencemag.org/content/359/6380/1146

==Zhu Xu 朱旭==
'''Bio'''

Martin Woesler, PhD, is Jean Monnet Chair in European Studies with Hunan Normal University since 2020. At its Foreign Studies College, he is Distinguished Professor of Chinese Studies, Translation Studies and Comparative Literature since 2019. Woesler was elected Academian of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts, Salzburg in 2019.
Woesler has co-edited the books "China's Digital Dream", "Ethics of Information Society" and Springer has scheduled to publish the book "Diverse Voices in Chinese Translation and Interpretation" including his book chapter "Modern Interpreting with Digital and Technical Aids" in February 2021.

==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==
Woesler was a Senior Fellow of the German Science Foundation's (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) Research College "Media Cultures of Computer Simulations" 2019‐2020 and hosted a related workshop with Bertelsmann Foundation in 2020. Woesler is also a researcher with Witten/Herdecke University, Germany, investigating the impact of daily screen time of children and of young people on their health.

20201228 trans

2020-12-27T06:00:14Z

Zhou Luoping: /* Zhou Luoping 周罗平 */

==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==
'''Zhu Ziqing'''

A third example, where an author shows another face in his essays is Zhu Ziqing. He is known as the author of the most often reprinted story-like Chinese essay "''Back View''" (Beiying), a standard school text. The success of this essay lies in the fact, that it applies to filial pity. From the reported fare-well scene with his father at the train station, he learned that his father loved him and that he had grown-up too now.
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==
This self-reflective essay helped Zhu to find himself through the observation of the other (here his father). The 2nd often printed essay is also from Zhu. Parallelistic and repetitive structures are the driving factor in the atmospherical nebulous lyrical landscape desription "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.

Zhu Ziqing supposedly opposed all political engagement and, wrote about unspectacular things. In Taiwan he became a type of substitute for the categorically refused state writer of the People’s Republic, Lu Xun, mainly because of Zhu’s supposed political independence.
==Chen Han 陈涵==
I would like to show with three examples that Zhu had absolutely clear political ideas: He had taken part in the demonstration March 18, 1926, which ended in a massacre. Zhu described this in ''"Report On the Massacre of the Government''"[ (Zhizhengfu da tusha ji).].

''Shots were still being fired, and the entrance of the east gate was packed with people. [...] Pushing and shoving, we climbed over them with great effort. We must have lost our senses then, not seeing, to our shame, the grotesqueness of our action. ''

我想用三个例子说明，朱自清有绝对明确的政治思想。1926年3月18日，他参加了示威游行，这场游行最终以屠杀告终。朱自清在《执政府大屠杀记》中对此进行了描述。

''这时枪声未歇，东门口拥塞得几乎水泄不通。[...] 我们便推推搡搡，拥挤着，挣扎着，从他们身上踏上去。那时理性真失了作用，竟恬然不以为怪似的。'' --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Hui 陈惠==
''[...]I was still walking on top of the people. No one dared to miss a single step, filing through the gate that divided safety from danger, one that would give us life or take our lives away. [...] My efforts finally brought me down to the ground, sealing my fate as I rolled down from the human pile. [...] I learned later that some of the people by the gate were dead, killed by the pistol squad firing from the other side of the gate. When I recall stepping over dead bodies, I cannot help but tremble with fear. [...]''
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==
From this experience, Zhu addresses directly the repsonsible political leaders:

''Duan Qirui, you must think about it! [...] How could we explain this to the world? [...] Granted, Duan Qirui and others could commit such atrocities without a thought; but how could we, the people of China, face the world with such a shameless government? [...] We, [...], must ask, „So many were killed—what should we do?“''
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==
In contrast, Lu Xun has portrayed the same massacre with sighing undertone and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his "''Ways to die''"[ (Si fa).] - in which he finds "to be shot" the best method to die. The supposedly less politically engaged Zhu shows here more engagement.

The essay "''Facing the New China''"[ (Xin Zhongguo zai wang zhong).] is Zhu's political manifest: He asks for democracy, enlightenment and an increase of the education level.
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==
''China has to be born again through democratization. [...] The people should express their own will, concentrate on their own strength. Every level of administration should build up on the expressed will and strength of the people and struggle for the majority and its greatest happiness. This means that the people govern, the people own, the people enjoy.''

A few weeks before his death, he demanded in the speech ''"Today's duty of the Intellectuals''"[ (Zhishifenzi jintian de renwu).] the participation of the intellectual in the struggle for a better society.
==Chen Sha 陈莎==
With only a handful of essays I have demonstrated, that the picture of these three authors changes substantially, if we read carefully also their less known essayistic work. Imagine now how the picture of 20th century Chinese literature might change, if the literary histories and anthologies would not only tell the history of drama, fiction and poetry, but would also grant the essay its proper place. The following part of my paper are results of my monograph on the 20th century Chinese essay.
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==
'''The essay boom as a mirror reflecting growing individuality, participation in the public sphere, and the giddy-paced character of modern Chinese society'''

Acquiring an overview of the essay and assessing its essence has required extensive research in bookstores and libraries, in the People's Republic of China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and the United States for available resources in the form of essay book collections as well as secondary literature dealing with the essay.
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==
I built a database for a statistical analysis to rank more than 5000 essays and 1400 essayists. It turned out that out of the top 60 most famous Chinese essays only 14 had been translated into English so far. The forthcoming collection of Tam King-fai adds 4 and my own one the remaining 42.

Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report[ (baogao wenxue) (Klaschka 1998).].

我建立了一个用于统计分析的数据库，对5000余篇散文和1400名散文家进行排名。事实证明，迄今为止，在中国最著名的60篇论文中，只有14篇被翻译成英文。谭景辉即将出版的散文选集另有新翻译的4篇，我自己则翻译余下的42篇。

分析表明，自1979年以来，总体上来说，散文发表有所增加，在“文化大革命”之后还出现了两次热潮，在1990年达到了新的高度。首次增加出现在20世纪20年代和30年代，此后便被报告文学所取代（Klaschka 1998）。--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:41, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Cheng Yusi 成于思==
The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous essay bookseries[ sanwen congshu 散文叢書.].

The reason for the increase in essay production, which we can date right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in the sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for the survey. There are three reasons for the increase in Chinese essay production and popularity in the mid-1990s:
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==
1, The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts, as Hall has put it: “[...] we live in an age of exposition”[ (Hall 1984:xiii).].

2, The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands.

3, A revival of interest in discussing socio-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==
If we look carefully at essay collections not only published in the United States, but also in Hong Kong, Taiwan and the People’s Republic, we find the following three reasons for the under- and overestimation of single essayists or essays which correspond to regional differences:

1, EXOTIC In the United States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.

如果我们仔细观察在美国出版的，以及在香港、台湾和中华人民共和国出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们低估和高估了回应地域差异的单个散文家或散文:

1、异国情调在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，完全不知名的作者和老牌作家拥有一样多的空间。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

如果我们细细研读在美国出版的，以及在中国香港、台湾和大陆出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们因地域差异而低估或高估了某些散文家或散文:

1、异国情调在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，名不见经传的作者和著名的作家拥有同样多的市场。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==
2, SOCIO-POLITICAL In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, as the mentioned survey proofs, he ranks 12th among modern authors there. Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

3, PERSONAL Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by his disciple Huang Weiliang in favor for Yu.[ (see Lin Yaode 1989:50).]

Having named reasons for the essay boom and for the support for and the suppression of different actors in the cultural field of the essay, I would like to finish my paper by naming a few trends of the essay as they appear at the eve of the century.
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==
The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consumer-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".
==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("''On dreams''"[ "Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928.]) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 ("''My own garden''"[ 9.1923.], "''The Fly''"[ 1924.], "''Reading on the Toilet''"[ 1936.]), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the newly encountered world of mass consumerism.
==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==
In the end of this century not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. Among the upper list places of the political essay after 1949 there are critical essays. For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==
A sign for the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation for customers (former: "readers"). Following the emotional essays of Zhu Ziqing who rank 1st and 2nd, ''nostalgia'' is the element of emotional identification in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Zhou Zuoren, which ranks 3rd[ In Jia Pingwa's "Moon traces", which ranks 11, and in Ba Jin's "''Paradise for Birds''", which ranks 19]. Therefore one can state, that moving essays form the top.
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==
In 1927, Chinese literature took the form of 'engaged literature'. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics in daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. In the later half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of individuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife.
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==
In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only remiscent element left is the patriotism.[ ''Trends like the use of ordinary language'', which one finds in novels since 1993 (''Jia Pingwa'', Feidu; ''Gu Cheng'', Yingger) and New Borderlessness since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable ''object d'art''.]

上个世纪90年代，80年代的政论文随笔文化逐渐隐没了，唯一剩下留有想象空间的元素就是爱国主义。[“比如使用普通语言的趋势”，这是从1993年以来在小说中发现的（“贾平凹”）费杜，古格，英格）以及自1995年以来，《新无边际》都无法在论文写作中得到证明，我们之所以没有找到后现代小说意义上的后现代散文，是因为文章的直接性：随笔作为一种体裁，是作者和读者之间的对话，而不是想要引起不同解释的原因或可能依赖于特殊形式或内容甚至是按顺序引用前现代特征的艺术品，这使它成为一个与众不同的“艺术品”。]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 13:06, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

'''References''' [partly mentioned with German translation] （不用翻）

Vera Schwarcz 1996, Vera Schwarcz, "The pain of sorrow: public uses of personal grief in modern China", in Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Winter 1996)

Ba Jin 1982, Ba Jin: "Yi feng huixin 一封回信" (Ein Antwortbrief (26.10.1982)), in: Bing zhong ji 病中集 (Auf dem Krankenlager), Hongkong 香港 1984(?) (Series Suixiang lu 隨想錄 (Thoughts) Bd 4), 147 pp.

Ba Jin 1982a, Ba Jin: "Yi pian xuwen 一篇序文" (Ein Vorwort) [dated 1982.9/10], in: Ba Jin: Auf dem Krankenlager 1984

Ba Jin 1956, Ba Jin 巴金: "Duli sikao 獨立思考" (Unabhängig denken), in: Li Jisheng 李濟生, Li Xiaolin 李小林 (Hgg.): Ba Jin liushi nian wenxuan (1927 - 1986), Suixiang lu, zagan, sanwen, xuba, yanjiang, shuxin 巴金六十年文選（１９２７－１９８６）隨想錄·雜感·散文·序跋· 演講·書信 (Ba Jin. Werkauswahl aus 60 Jahren (1927 - 1986), Gedanken, vermischte Gefühle, Essays, Vor- und Nachworte, Reden, Briefe), Shanghai 上海: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe 上海文藝出版社 (Literatur- und Kunstverlag Shanghai), 1986.12, S. 461 - 462 [Datiert auf 1956.]

Ba Jin 1962, "Zuojia de yongqi yu zerenxin 作家的勇氣與責任心" (Mut und Verantwortungsbewußtsein der Schrifsteller) 1962; der Essay von Zhou Zuoren 周作人: "Wenxue tan 文學談" (Über Literatur), in: Tan long ji 談龍集 (Über Drachen. Sammlung), Shanghai 上海: Kaiming shudian 開明書店 (Kaiming Buchladen) 1927.12, Nachdruck: Hongkong 香港: Shiyong shuju 使用書局 (Praxisverlag) 1972.1, 310 S., S. 165 - 167

Zhou Zuoren 1919, Zhou Zuoren, "Zuxian chongbai 1919 (Ancestor Worship)," in Early Essays, op.cit., pp. 78

Zhou Zuoren 1920: Zhou Zuoren 周作人, Xin wenxue de yaoqiu 新文學的要求" (The demand of the New Literature) [lecture], in Beiping shaonian xuehui 北平少年學會 (Beiping youth conference) 1920.1.6, in: Zhang Ruoying 長若英: Xin wenxue yundong shi ziliao 新文學運動史資料 (Material on the history of the New Literature movement), Shanghai 上海: Guangming shuju 光明書局 (Guangming bookstore) (1934.9) ²1936.9, 291-296

Zhou Zuoren 1923, Zhou Zuoren: Yanzhicao ba (Preface to Yu Pingbo's Yanzhicao), in: Yongri ji (Book of Eternal Day), Shanghai: Beixin shuju 1929, 180-181

Zhou Zuoren 1929, Zhou Zuoren: Ertong de shu (The books of children), in: Chenbao fukan (1923.8.17)

Zhou Zuoren yuanliu, Zhou Zuoren: Zhongguo xin wenxue de yuanliu (Sources of New Chinese Literature), p 71

Zhou Zuoren 1932, Zhou Zuoren: Lun baguwen 1932, in: Kanyun ji p. 148

Source: NEAAS annual meeting 10/09/1999 New Haven (Yale University)

==Guo Lu 郭露==
'''Modern Chinese Literature and the Essay Genre: A New Perspective'''

''Martin Woesler''

In this paper, I will not recount the contents and propose interpretations of any essays, nor will I outline the main topics or styles of essaywriting in China, but I would like to take the opportunity to reflect a little bit on the phenomenon of the genre itself and discuss some conclusions and hypotheses with the attentive and critical audience which can be found at only a few places on earth, EALC at Harvard definitely being one of them.

《中国现代文学与散文体裁：以新视角》

''吴漠汀''

在本文中,我将不再赘述任何文章的内容和提出的观点,我也不会列出其主要主题或风格,但是我想借此机会,反映一些现象本身的类型，并与包括哈佛大学学生在内的观众对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

《中国现代文学与散文体裁：新视角》

吴漠汀

本文将不再赘述或解释任何文章的内容，也不会列出中国散文的主要主题或风格。我想借此机会，反思体裁现象，同乐于助人、至关重要且世间少有的读者，包括哈佛大学东亚语言和文化学院的学生，对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:28, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==
'''1. The unknown genre'''

The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. In my paper I will ask, if the picture of literature can remain unchanged, if we take into consideration also the essay. The genre has been neglected for a long time as a genre of merit (Margouliès 1949, Schmidt-Glintzer 1990) or overlooked (McNaughton 1974, Leiden 1988-90, McDougall 1998);

'''1.未知体裁'''

二十世纪文选和选集里的文学史的叙述对于整个中国文学来说是不完整的：散文题材是缺失的。在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

'''1.未知体裁'''

20世纪选集所讲述的文学历史叙事，描绘了一幅不完整的中国文学图景:：散文题材是缺失的。在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:30, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==
whereas its elder brother, fiction, has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularisation of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement. Modern anthologies would have the reader believe that a triumvirate of poetry, fiction and drama forms the backbone of modern Chinese literary output.
==He Changqi 何长琦==
'''Excursion: Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''

Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with xiaoshuo (fiction), sanwen (non-fictional prose)), lyrics (shige) and drama (xiqu). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term "wu yunwen" which corresponds to the term "epic" in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground.
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==
In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet. The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.
在抒情诗中，读者被鼓励去感受当下的感觉，并且常常是诗人的忏悔式的感觉。戏剧直接在独白或对话中回忆起一个自足的动作，以这种方式释放了读者/观众重新创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是一种超脱的、非虚构的、自由形式的主观表现。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 02:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==
"Essay", Chinese mostly ''sanwen'', is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Freedom in form and content is essential for the essay.
==Hu Jin 胡瑾==
Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, a subcategorization in numerous small entities, like Zheng Mingli does with the essay, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==
Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems. All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.
==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==

In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay.

在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。今天我们在刊物上看到的中国散文，已经具备了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文类别的第二个暗示。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 07:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

在21世纪，世界上的国家趋向于走到一起，而文化则主要取决于现代化水平。正如我们从现今报纸里面看到的那样，中国散文采用了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文开始趋同于国际散文体裁的第二个标志。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:27, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

21世纪，世界在共同成长，文化主要由现代化程度决定。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，在形式和内容上都与西方散文相似，其目标群体也与之相似。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文的第二个暗示。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，已经呈现出西方散文的形式与内容，并且其目标群体也与西方散文不相上下。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文体裁的第二个迹象。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:17, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Hao 姜好==
Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 1992 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay).
==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==
Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it "Chinese"? In the occidental essay the form seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework.

除了首先由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文有独特本土的特征。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？和中文散文相比，西方散文的文章形式似乎是更重要的分类标准。在中国，甚至有些文章内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 02:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

除了最初由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？与中文散文相比，西方散文的形式分类标准似乎更重要。在中国，有些文章甚至是内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:18, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==
This can be shown with Zheng Mingli, who subcategorises the "unfinished diary" or the "unfinished letter". Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Zheng Mingli: "essay in diary form" and "essay in letter form"), they are accepted as essays.
==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==
'''The Chinese understanding of the genre is tendencially broader'''

This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén'' "non-rhythmic prose", which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning "short literary essay pieces".

Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.
==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==
'''The Chinese essay is booming again in the 1980s and 1990s'''

Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report (''baogao wenxue'').[ Klaschka 1998.] The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous ''sanwen congshu'' 散文叢書 (essay bookseries).
==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==
The increase in essay production right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in a sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for a survey.

Thanks to the work of some major Chinese editors, the whole essay culture was compiled from magazines and newspapers and was published in a flood of anthologies since the 1970s. This boom is comparable to the cultural fever of undigging xiangtu literature, which rose in Taiwan in front of the background of the movement of self-identification and independance.
==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==
'''2. Why is the essay as abundant as fiction?'''

Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:

- The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history (the reform ideas from the end of the Qing dynasty through the May Fourth period with the literary theorethical pieces and the daily political zawen of Lu Xun, until today are mostly presented in essay form). The impact on literary reflection and theory is shown in the collection "Modern Chinese Literary Thought" 1996. The effect of the essay genre with its direct language, its connection to life (e.g. its role in the coming to terms with the cultural revolution), and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers. This impact is larger than the indirect one of fiction or poetry. The poem is the genre of retreat from social life, from political issues and time references.
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==
Hu Shi argues, that ''poetry'' is most important in the process of modernity, since poetry rises emotions. But it relies also on images and on linguistic rhythm. Liang Qichao stresses the role of novel and opera in the changing society. But ''sanwen'' is able to name things, it reflects life, caleidoscopic. Modern subjectivity is constructed with the tool of ''sanwen''.

- The essay also reflects trends in the society better than poetry and fiction: Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem with its limitation in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.

胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌依赖于形象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。

-散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。个人主义在随笔中表现得比在诗歌中更直接，但在内容和形式上都有局限性。短文的短暂性体现在短文的形式上，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 13:48, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi

胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗歌升华情感。但诗歌也依赖于意象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“散文”却能给事物命名，反映千变万化的生活。现代主体性就是以“散文”为工具建构的。

- 随笔也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的发展趋势。个人主义在随笔中的表现比在诗歌中更直接，因为诗歌在内容和形式上对此有所限制。随笔的短暂性体现在随笔的形式上，人们可以在上班路上的地铁里阅读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就没有那么随性的享受。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Haiquan 李海泉==
- The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, the amount of time spended on reading novels goes back, too. The essay itself a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.

- The essay tells us more about an author and his time than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions. We look trough authentic eyes on his contemporary society. Many authors turned to essay writing in the later periods of their lifes, like Lu Xun, Ba Jin, and Wang Meng.
==Li Lili 李丽丽==
- The volume of ''essay'' production exceeds the volume of ''xiaoshuo'' production: Chinese newspapers since the 1870s on[ Shenbao, Shibao etc. Liang Qichao sees the role of the newspaper both as liberal and authoritative: He understands the press as an institution to control the government, on the other hand he favors censorship.] and as a mass media from the early 20th century presented only one or two fictional stories in a serialized form, but invented essay columns like ''zagan'' (from which Lu Xun developed his ''zawen''), ''suibi'' or ''suixiang'' (from which famous collections like Ba Jin's ''Suixiang lu'' derived).

“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:54, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Lingyue 李凌月==
'''3. Let us assign the essay its proper place'''
The consequence which must be driven from the above presented contrast between value and valuing of the essay is: Let us assign the essay its proper place! I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.
Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay.
==Li Liqin 李丽琴==

In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).

20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这首先集中在鲁迅等单个作家的散文作品上。另外90年代的两次会议也没有趋于国际学术研究的动向。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（比如1995年Kubin的《关于梁漱溟》；Woesler的《关于王蒙》；Mansberg的《关于刘再复》[未发表]）或探讨某个群体的散文（1996年瓦格纳的《关于新月派》）。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 12:54, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Luyi 李璐伊==
Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998) and for the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996).

Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.
==Li Meng 李梦==
In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th. If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode 1989:50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation.
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==
Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai, Woesler) or already published (Pollard 1999). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. This year, scholars will meet on a first international conference on the essay (Achern, Germany August 25-26). In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays.
==Li Yu 李玉==
'''4. Taking into consideration the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature'''

I will give a few hints, what the essay can contribute to the picture of Chinese Literature, which so far is overshadowed by fiction through the narrative of C.T. Hsia, Prusek and Anderson.

We are used to established narratives, like the emergence and success of the May-Fourth literature. But this view neglects the role, that for example the ''yuanyang hudie pai'' played in the choir of different voices in the awoken intellectual debate in the beginning of this century.
==Lin Min 林敏==
The May-Fourth group at that time was one voice among many and only succeeded because of its agitation and polemic in the public sphere, so we have to use new means to assign the Chinese essay its proper place. We learn from simplifiying narratives, that it is absolutely necessary to differentiate, and to reconstruct the complex time background. Having understood Chinese literature as determined by the development of fiction and poetry only, a broader understanding will change the whole appearance of Chinese literature. A scholarly endeavour is the use of modern literary theories in the approach to this genre.
==Lin Xin 林鑫==
In the following, I will name three aspects (chronologically sorted by past, modern and contemporary time) to hold the argument, that the taking into consideration of the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature and change our current understanding of it.

'''5. The classical and premodern essay documents Chinese philosophy, early subjectivity and still, a native Chinese tradition is questioned'''

How is the Chinese essay to be positioned historically, how did it emerge, what is its generic background? Generically, the ancestors of the essay are both in China and the West notes written on the margins of books, they are letters and travel notes.

下面，我将从三个方面(在时间顺序上按过去、现代、当代排序)来论述对散文的考量将改写中国文学史，改变我们目前对它的认识这一论点。

5. 古典和前现代散文记录了中国哲学，其早期的主体性，仍然是对中国本土传统的质疑。
中国散文在历史上要如何定位，它是如何产生的，它的共有背景是什么？一般来说，中国和西方的散文都是起源于写在书本空白处的笔记，是书信和游记。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==
These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality und subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''.

From the very beginning, the essay was valued lower than poetry: the oldest reference this far for the term ''sanwen'' that I found is Luo Dajing's 羅大經 (? - after 1248) statement from 1240: “Shī sāomiào tiānxià, ér sǎnwén pōjué suǒsuì júcù.
==Liu Bo 刘博==
詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。” (Poetry is moving mankind in a wonderful way, prose inquires into incoherent bagatels, is limited.) (''Helin yulu''). Another reproach Luo Dajing mentions, is a formal one: In comparison to the highly artistic and century-long tradition of poetic writing, the direct and often vernacular langage of the essay in his eyes had less value.

In the West, a real 'art of the essaywriting' came up in the late 16th century as a medium for the newly reorganized knowledge.

“詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。”罗大京提到的另一个骂名，是形式上的：与具有高度艺术性和长达一个世纪传统的诗歌写作相比，散文中直接的、白话文式的语言在他看来并不那么有价值。
在西方，16世纪晚期出现了一种真正的“散文写作艺术”，作为一种传播重组知识的媒介。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

“诗騷妙天下，而散文颇觉瑣碎局促。”罗大经提出的另一个责难，是形式上的。在他看来，与高度艺术化的百年诗词写作传统相比，散文直接的、白话文式的语言没有什么价值。
在西方，真正的 “散文写作艺术 ”是在16世纪末作为重组知识的一种媒介出现的。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==
The reorganization originated from the observations of Kopernikus, which destroyed the whole conception of the world of the Middle Age.

In China, particularly the debates on Buddhism in the 4th and 5th century A.D. saw the origination of a tradition of letters. The Chinese tradition of the ''sanwen'' 散文 (essay) however, in the understanding of sǎn 散 as (to dispel, leisure, loose, relaxed, irregular, independant style, free prose, can be seen not before the detachment from the dialogue - or aphorism, which is still visible in the philosophical ''Lunyu''.
==Liu Liu 刘柳==
Xunzi delivered the prototype of the later essay with his philosophical treatises. They are an early form of philosophical didactical essays, in which general theorems are derived not only from quotations of the canonized classical works, but for the first time also from his own individual experience. The individuality is still a main characteristic of the essay today.

During the dynasties the essay manifested itself further in certain subcategories: From reading-notes written at the paper margins originated the ''biji'' µ§°O (occasional notes), flourishing in the Ming Dynasty.

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形，它们是哲学教学论文的早期形式。其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。

历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 02:25, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，这些散文中传授的普遍定理不仅有引用经典著作，还首次借鉴其个人经历。这种个体性在当代的散文中仍有保留。

历朝历代，散文通过一些子类别得以呈现，如明朝盛行的在书页边上写的读书注释，它就是源于笔记。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Ou 刘欧==
The marginalism is a link between Western and Chinese tradition of early essays. Occasional notes could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as a genre of its own originated in China not before the Qing ²M dynastie, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.

Taking into consideration the social-historical background draws a different picture of the old society than short stories and novels: Essays are much closer to real life, since they express individual problems and experiences.

边缘主义是中西早期散文的一个纽带。散见的笔记包含了私人的历史记录，轶事，交谈和个人沉思。然而，尽管当时的散文选集众多，但将视散文作为一种文体的意识，清朝之前并没有出现。

考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们在旧社会时，对短篇故事和小说的看法不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的困惑和经历。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 04:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==
Until now, the Chinese pre-''Hongloumeng'' individual literature spoke only through the indirect language of poems to us. Rediscovering the essays, we have a splendid source of opinions, social-historical pictures etc.

Premodern essay literature consists of much more than its most well-known example, the formally restrictive ''baguwen''. Lu Xun himself wrote some of his essays in ''baguwen'' style, but on the other hand took it as a synonym for the ancient society. Zhou Zuoren saw the rhythm of the language of the "Eight legged essay" as as appealing and intoxicating as the "pleasure of doing opium.'' (Zhou 1932:148).

目前为止，中国红楼梦前的个体文学还只是通过诗中的间接语言与我们对话。通过重拾散文，我们可以知晓不同观点和社会历史状况等文学创作的丰富源泉。
现代散文之前的文学并不限于形式上受限制的八股文，一方面鲁迅本人也有一些散文是用八股文写成的，但另一方面他又把八股文当作古代社会的代名词。周作人把 "八股文 "的语言节奏看作是 "做鸦片的快感 "一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 08:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

直到现在，中国前“红楼梦”的个体文学只能通过诗歌的间接语言与我们对话。重新发掘这些散文，我们可以拥有丰富的观点来源，社会历史图片等。

前现代散文文学不仅仅包括它最为人所知的例子，正式的、有限制性的“八卦文”。鲁迅自己的一些文章就是用“八卦文”写的，但是在另一方面又把它当作古代社会的同义词。周作人认为《八股文》的语言节奏就像“吸鸦片的快感”一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 09:07, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yi 刘艺==
But he considered it also as a prevalent genre implicit in the modern writings as ''yang bagu'' (westernized bagu) and ''dang bagu'' (party-line bagu) (borrowing from Wu Zhihui, Zhou Yuanliu:71).

Neo-Confucianism stressed ''wen'' (prose) as the most important tool to transmit the ''dao'' (way): ''Wenyi zai dao'' (Literature as the carrier of the way). If we reinterprete this diction in the perspective of genre, we can say, that the essay then has been regarded as an important tool to express truth, subjectivity and Self.

但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。

新儒家强调''文''（散文）是传播''道''的最重要工具：''文以载道''（文以载道）。如果我们从文体的角度来重新解读这句话，我们可以说，当时的散文已经被视为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。

理学强调“文”（散文）是传播“道”的最重要工具：“文以载道”。（以文学为载体的方式）。如果我们从体裁的角度来重新解读这一措辞，可以说，散文已成为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:53, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==
Liang Qichao developed a ''xīn wéntǐ'' 新文體 (new prose style), which was influenced by Western languages, but the essay became popular not before the newspapers became mass media, and the language changed into ''baihua''.

'''6. The essay as the medium of modernity, the questioning of the genuiness of the Chinese essay'''

To solve first of all the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, one finds both traditions relevant: The occidental essay was introduced to the writers of the literature reform movement from 1907 on by translations in Chinese (Lin Shu: ''Irving'' 1907, ''Addison'' 1911).
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==
The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations. First developed a Chinese essay tradition, which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology, its own proponents succumbed soon to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history only. A seemingly unbroken Chinese tradition of the native Chinese ''wenyan sanwen'' is presented in Chinese textbooks (Yu Zaichun 1978-82, Li Xishang 1985).

This is older than the ones referred to in the ''Large Chinese Dictionary'' of Morohashi (Morohashi undated) and in the ''Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Chinese Language'' 1966.

==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==
Still, the value of the native tradition of essay writing and the role of the Western influence upon it is discussed controversially among the scholars. Some admit that Western impact played a key role in what we understand as Chinese essays nowadays: Wang Bin 1992, Fan Peisong 1993; for Western impact in general see Průšek 1964, Gálik 1966, McDougall 1971. Other scholars think that Western influence is overestimated - Denton 1996 showed that the theoretical background was missing for understanding Western theories of literature in China, - and recommended that we understand the essay first by its national tradition.

然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:57, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 15:07, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==
How far personal opinion may influence the narrative of historical facts can be seen by the example of the legendary authors of the May Fourth movement. All of them considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay: Zhou Zuoren 1921, Lu Xun 1933, the anarchist and later member of the Guomindang Wu Zhihui [1934]. Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition:
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==
for example, Lu Xun with his theory "'Zhǎnkāi' shuō yǔ 'méngyá' lùn “展開”說與“萌芽”論"" (Theory of "Starting" and "Blossoming") came to see the fighting and critical character of the essay of the Jin dynasty (265 - 420) as the 'father' of the Chinese essay, and Zhou Zuoren first the English essay (1921) and later the ''biji'' (occasional notes) of the Ming, although he still tried to integrate the English essay in his "Gonganpài yu Yīngguo xiaopin 'hecheng' lun 公安派與英國小品“合成”論" (Theory of the Synthesis of the Gongan School and the English Essay).
==Ma Juan 马娟==
Wang Zengqi regrets that the national Chinese tradition of the essay at the time of the 'May Fourth Movement' has not been taken up again and has not continued in contemporary essays (Wang Zengqi 1993). The Chinese essay is an accommodating object of study, because one may look to it to prove any theory of the essay. One can find examples for each topic in almost every period, simply because the essay has a wide range of subjects.
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==
When Zhou Zuoren showed that only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge it was again possible to write about a candy seller (1924), he was critizised as "paralyzing" (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943). When he wrote a piece on the "Fly", he was reproached with dealing with subjects of minor importance. Reproaches like this lie in the very nature of the genre, since ''marginalism'' is substantial to the essay. The mentioned formal reproach of Luo Dajing can be found again in the 1990s, Hong Kong students critisized the literary style as it appears in Ba Jins "Thoughts" (Suixiang lu) as too direct and too less artful. But this perspective does not recognize the very nature of the essay, which is a very individual expression of an author's thoughts and not bound to tradition, and therefore much more free also in content.
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==
The essay - from its very nature free and independant - almost disappeared in the time of the Cultural Revolution and - except for the ideologically influenced essays - had a hard struggle between Yan'an and the loss of moral legitimacy by the leadership in 1989.

The essay was ''the'' genre of the modernizing society of the early 20th century. Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to war and warlordism and later in the modernizing society, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming "needs" of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products.
==Meng Ying 孟莹==
But from its very nature, the essay set new boundaries in form and content, and therefore not only survived the ideological restrictions, but also established its own critical subculture within. The essay was not only a medium of discussion and a documentation of the social-political background for us today, but also a documentation of the personal struggle of the writers finding a position in a changing environment, since the essay is "a genre of self-reflection". Some essays even deconstructed master narratives like the one of leftist ideology, often simply by confronting it with subjective experience, reality or art.

I want to mention another position on literature, which stresses the impact of literature on life, especially on the eve of revolutions - following this view, all literature is political (Jameson).
==Mo Ling 莫玲==
Not only the understanding of literature as a whole changes if we take into consideration the essay, also the view of single authors shifts, if we see not only their novels or poems, but also their essays. I mention only Zhou Zuoren. His ideas connected him spiritually to his contemporary collegues in Europe, Japan and America, but these where ideas for which China turned out to be not yet ready. At that time, China had taken a road which led away from progress, wealth, freedom and spiritual enlightenment. The consequences have yet to be overcome.

除开关注作家的小说和诗歌之外，如果我们对他们的散文有所涉猎，就会发现他们不仅对文学整体的理解发生了变化，单个作者的观点也发生了变化。仅就周作人来说，他的思想在精神上把他和他在欧洲、日本和美国的同伴们联系在一起，但是这些设想在中国行不通。当时的中国走的是一条远离进步、财富、自由和精神启蒙的道路，这一现状还并没有得到改变。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

==Mo Nan 莫南==
In 1927, Chinese literature has taken the form of 'engaged literature'. The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology.
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==
Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (My own garden 9.1923, "The Fly" 1924, "Reading on the Toilet" 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==
I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda. This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character.
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==
In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.

Taking into account of a genre shifts the whole perspective on literature, taking into account the essayistic works of an author shifts also the view of the author. I will name only one author as an example for a modern essayist: Zhou Zuoren.

20世纪90年代，20、30年代民国时期的文本和当代的文本一样也经常被重印。显然，我们可得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的那些政治宣传文只能留存在特殊的政治文章选集当中，到了21世纪初，就不再有作者去写这类文章，也不会有中国读者去看这类文章了。

考虑到整个体裁对整个文学角度的转变，以及散文作品反映出的作者观点的变化，我只举一位现代散文家的例子：周作人。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

20世纪90年代，20-30年代民国时期的文章仍然和当代的同类文章一样经常被重印。显然，我们可以得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的政治宣传类散文只保存在专门的政治散文集中，到21世纪初，不再有人去写，也不再有人读这类文章了。

一种文学体裁会转变整个文学的视角，一位作家的散文作品，同样也会转变对这个作家的看法。我只以一位现代散文家为例：周作人。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Dan 彭丹==
'''Zhou Zuoren'''

I mentioned already his theoretical contribution to the Chinese essayism, but still, his essays have been neglected until the 1980s. The reason does not lie in literary quality, but in political valuing. The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that the theoretical May Fourth genius "degenerated" and later became a "traitor". Publishing in the Japanese sponsored magazines ''Reminiscences'',* and ''Chinese Literature'', he was blamed together with Zhu Pu and Yuan Xi of collaboration. An unanswered question is, why another author, who published there, Zhang Ailing, was never reproached with collaboratorship. The difference between all of them is that Zhang Ailing tried to avoid political committments, whereas Zhou felt guilty, Zhu justified it and Yuan simply accepted it.
==Peng Juan 彭娟==
''The 'mainstream' writers took an affirmative approach in their writing, whereas the other writers formed a minority. The individual authors did not necessarily belong to either one of these groups throughout their life, but may have moved between them. Since the essay is a medium which enables the individual to express thoughts directly, the writers chosen for this paper can be classified according to their position.''

''Yu Guangzhong's essay'' "The wolves are coming" ''shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting.''
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==
In his small literary pieces, Zhou tried to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday life out of the subjective experience of his private space. The major contribution of Zhou Zuoren is, that he set the turning point in Chinese essay writing with his call for writing short literary pieces (''Meiwen'' 1921).

In foreign literature there is the so-called ''lunwen'' 論文 (treatise), which is roughly divided into two groups: the reflecting ones, piping 批評 (critical), are scientific articles. The others are ''jishu'' 記述 (descriptive) and ''yishuxing'' 藝術性 (artistic), they are also called ''meiwen'' 美文 (aesthetic essay). Within these texts, one can distinguish between ''xushi'' 敘事 (narrative) and ''shuqing'' 抒情 (lyric). But there are also mixed texts. [...] I hope that the aesthetical essay is encouraged to come back, and will open up a new field for the New Literature. Wouldn’t that be wonderful?
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==
With these words from the essay "''The aesthetic essay''" this new vernacular form was defined. This starting point founded a whole new tradition of essay writing in China. Contemporary writers called this piece the "king of essays".

In order to bring this new form to his compatriots, he tried to find similiarities with the ''xiaopinwen'' of the Ming dynasty. He further discussed these thoughts in his essay theory. In his own essays, he profited a lot from ancient ''suibi''. Later he further developed his literary theory towards an up and down of two trends. In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to "treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives" and to "make children the essence of children's literature" (Zhou 1923). He promoted the ''baguwen'' and the independance of literature from politics and effected the literary scene and the development towards a modern Chinese society especially between 1917 and 1938.

“美学散文”中的这些词语定义了这种新的白话形式。这个起点在中国建立了一种新的散文写作传统。当代作家称此作品为“散文之王”。

为了将这种新形式带给他的同胞，他试图找到其与明朝“小品文”的相似之处。他在散文理论中进一步讨论了这些思想。他自己的散文也从古代的“随笔”中受益匪浅。后来，他将文学理论朝着上下两种趋势进一步发展。在现代化社会中，他呼吁解放妇女、“将儿童看作具有外在和内在生命的完整主体”以及“让儿童成为儿童文学的本质”（Zhou 1923）。他提倡“八股文”和文学脱离政治的独立性，这对文学界产生了影响，并推动了中国向近代社会尤其是1917年至1938年的发展。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 09:48, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==
With this theoretical foundation and his own vo'luÉminous essayistic work, Zhou Zuoren through the example of his own form of short literary pieces within this genre, fought at that stage of the development of his literary theory like Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque 130 years ago in France for the idea "l'art pour l'art" , for individuality and independance of the writer, for disinterested literature. The jugdment, that Zhou was an apolitical author cannot be proved with his essays. Instead, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance (Zhou 1929:180-181).
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==
In fact he saw himself as ‘patriotic underground fighter’ and looked at the collaboration with the Japanese puppet regime as a forced one, following his attempted assasination, through which his driver had lost his life. His own concept of essay writing served less the needs of the building of a nation-state and comes closer to the ideal of the individual.

"I don't really know why, but I am feeling as if I am born into a dark age. I admit, that our forests are not inhabited by dragons, tigers and wolves, but shapeless "monsters" and "goblins" are still creeping around and try to swallow our souls. [...] What alarms me most, is the absence of freedom in this prison, into which we writers have been thrown."
==Qi Kai 漆凯==
Confronting tradition and progress in the essay "''Ancestor Worship''", he is in favor of the latter, since past could only become present through changes (Zhou 1919:7-8).

Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque (1767 - 1830) war französischer Romanschriftsteller und liberaler Politiker, der neben der Freiheit der Kunst nach der Französischen Revolution die Einführung der konstitutionellen Monarchie nach englischem Vorbild forderte.

==Qu Miao 瞿淼==
Siehe ''Journal'' (10.2.1804). Die "Kunst um der Kunst willen" propagierte die Zweckfreiheit der Kunst. Im Gegensatz dazu versteht sich die engagierte Literatur. Die Parallele zwischen Zhou Zuorens Literaturverständnis und dem Konzept "Kunst um der Kunst willen" zieht auch Wolff: ''Chou Tso-jen'' 1971, S. 84.

Siehe Zhou Zuoren: ''Der Ursprung der neuen chinesischen Literatur'' 1934, S. 95 - 98; vgl. auch Chen Zizhan: ''Vorträge zur chinesischen Literaturgeschichte'' 1937, Bd 3, pp. 416 - 422, besonders S. 422. Hinweis in: H. Martin: "''Liang Qichao on Poetry Reform''" 1996, Bd 1, S. 213.
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==
Regarding Zhou Zuoren, I want to correct the official assessment of the People’s Republic, that his work would have experienced a caesura in 1938. In order to explain his opposition of the propaganda to build up national heroes about 1937 and his collaboration from 1939, it has been said officially, that his thoughts had "duoluo 墮落" (degenerated) at that time (Zhu Jinshun 1990:59). In fact, this caesura, namely the change in the style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xianshi'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment) is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest through the Guomindang (1945).
==Sagara Seydou ==
Therefore not the Japanese suppressors are responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots'.

On the basis of the stigma of the 'traitor', he has been undervalued until now. That his work in the 1990s is almost as often published as Lu Xun's and Zhu Ziqing's shows that his texts finally experience a more positive literaric evaluation through the audience, which now must be registered also by scholars.

==Shi Diwen 石迪文==
Another example of a misread Zhou Zuoren is his short essay on "''The Fly''", where he describes his changing attitude towards flies, which he had played with as child but later disgusted when he learned about their danger of passing on diseases. ”''The fly''” shows Zhou Zuoren’s strength to describe details and make them a real topic by recalling memories on them or describing a change of perspective on them. Zhou summarized the philosophical wisdom he learnt from this, that people did not judge on things objectively, but were likely to praise or damn things.
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==
The official reading re¬proaches Zhou that he "saw only the fly and not the cosmos" , a quotation of the young Zhou about a position he himself clearly opposed.

His ability to chat about the more pleasent things in life is displayed in his essay ”Birds’ twitter”. In ”''Peking cakes and sweet-meat''” and in ”''Wild vegetable of my home region''”, Zhou Zuoren shows his ability to make the reader feel at home at a region, where he feels at home himself, by describing the customs and special regional food.

Siehe Zhou Zuoren: "Cangying 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: ''Chenbao fujuan'' 晨报副镌 (Beilage zur Morgenpost) (1924.7.13). Eine Zu¬sammenfassung des Inhalts findet sich in: Yu Daxiang (Hg.): ''Auswahllexikon chinesischer Essays mit Inhaltsangaben und Analysen'' 1993.

''Siehe Vollständige chinesische Anthologie der Wissenschaften - Bd Chinesische Literatur'' 1988, Bd 2, S. 1300. Dies spielt auf den Essay "''Cangying'' 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: Zhou Zuoren: ''Zhi Tang. Sammlung'' 1933 an.（文献无需翻译）

==Si Yu 司妤==
His piece ”''Bitter rain''” shows the atmosphere, for what his essays had been labelled ”bitter tea”: There remains a taste in one’s mouth after reading. If you compare Lu Xun’s ”''On tea drinking''” (Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326) with Zhou Zuoren’s essay with the same title, you see the difference of ”short and to the point” and ”eloquent and well-read”. ”''First love''” is more hilarious. The essay ”''Three different ways to die''” shows that Zhou Zuoren can compete with his elder brother in sarcasm. Lu Xun's essay on the same subject, the massacre on March 18, 1926, was a sight.
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==
Zhou asks for the ”best” way to die and favors the short and painless one. In ”''On alcohol''” and ”''The awning bunk boat''” Zhou Zuoren continues the tradition of late Ming ''biji''.

'''7. The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''

''What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.''

==Su Lin 苏琳==
The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a consciously “corrected” truth.
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==
The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (Wang Meng: "''Anxiang'' 安详" (Serene) 1992, "''Zuohao ni ziji de shi'' 做好你自己的事" (First make your own things in a good way) 1994).
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==
These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.

Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive ("''Shanxi opera''", Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world ("''The nightmare''", Si Yu 1995).

From the essay, we can see contemporary trends of literature, which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:

==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==
- The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall 1984:xiii);

- The increasing consciousness of indivi¬duality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjecti¬ve expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands;

- A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.

- The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.

- 当下中国社会的浮躁节奏，对转折性和短文的要求。"[...]我们生活在一个论述的时代"(Hall 1984:xiii)。

- 越发增加的独立意识，对其而言，文章是最直接的主体表达形式，甚至比诗的格律和形式要求更直接。

- 通过散文这一媒介讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复苏，就像20世纪20/30年代的情况一样。

- 日常生活的平庸性通过成为文学话题而变得自觉，最常见的是日常生活的文体--散文。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

-当前中国社会节奏轻快，要求有趣味的短文：“[…]我们生活在一个博览会时代”（大厅1984:xiii）；

-对于个人二元性意识的增强，散文是主体性表达的最直接形式，甚至比诗歌的韵律和形式要求更直接；

-通过这篇文章讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复复苏，如同20世纪20年代或30年代的情况一样。

-日常生活的平庸通过成为一个文学主题而变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活的体裁——散文。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:59, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tang Bei 汤蓓==
- The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays.

- Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.
==Tang Ming 唐铭==
This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publis¬hing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: "readers").

- The criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China are the following: In the most often printed essay "''The Back View''", filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", both written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==
Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Wang Zengqi. Therefore one can state, that moving es¬says form the top.

- ''In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in¬dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.''

==Tao Ye 陶冶==
''In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph'' China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war (''No''! 1996).

- ''The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art.''
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==
''Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Jia Pingwa, Feidu; Gu Cheng, Yingger) and'' New Borderlessness ''since'' 1995, ''cannot be pro-ven in the essaywriting. ''

- Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being "''The Small Dog Baodi''", written by Ba Jin 1981, in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before ("''In memoriam of Xiao Shan II''", Ba Jin 1984).
==Wang Xuan 王轩==
Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Der-Wei Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of Wang Zengqi's "''Rain in Kunming''" as well as for Jia Pingwa's "''Shanxi opera''".
类似的还有想象怀旧的概念，正如王功权所说的沈从文作品中虚构的真实（王大卫·德维王1992），有助于解读汪曾祺的《昆明雨》，也有助于贾平凹的《山西剧》。

- The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing fictional truth through the metaphor of his dog Baodi.
施瓦茨在“隐喻话语”中所表达的“个人悲伤”概念，有助于我们理解巴金是如何克服他以“存在的真理”而闻名的，却通过他的狗“宝坻”的隐喻而获得更具说服力的虚构真相。

Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.（文献无需翻译）

''Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay "The nightmare", where Si Yu appears as a de-constructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.''（文献无需翻译）

And maybe for Xie Bingxins* reflections on her experience as one of the chosen voluntaries of the Wuhan military academy: She insisted to remain a lifelong "woman soldier" .（文献无需翻译）

==Wang Yu 王煜==
'''8. Discussion: Is the genre of the essay the form of literary expression in 21st century China?'''

Regarding the future of the Chinese literature, we can only speculate. But out the risk of being wild and provocative, I would like to suggest some questions for considering the place of the essay in the field of Chinese literature and literary studies.

- People have less time for actions like reading, and get used to reduced visualized information through the Internet. Will the brevity of the essay make it the ideal medium?

==Wang Yuan 王源==
- If the Chinese people are rediscovering their individuality, will the essay allow them to express individual thoughts more directly?

- Modern societies are characterized by TV culture, mass consumption, and the loss of consciousness of one's own tradition, often partly due to the American impact on national cultures. Is the essay less bound to the restrictions of tradition, especially compared to the poem and thus more adaptable to the modern phenomenon of mass consumption?

==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==
- The alienation and the anonymity of citylife worldwide, in China is combined with a loss of traditional values like ideology, family, solidarity etc. in favor of the concept of profit for oneself, - if this has produced a longing for new orientation, will it possibly be filled by morally guiding essays or nationalistic thinking?

《红楼梦》与其他世界文学作品的相似性——推荐《红楼梦》列入世界记忆遗产名录

'''Commonness between the Red Chamber Dreams and other World Literature Novels – Proposing the Red Chamber Dreams to the World Documentary Heritage List'''（修改）

吴漠汀，湖南师范大学 Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University

Source: Lecture at Harvard University, Cambridge, MA USA, 14.3.2000（文献无需翻译）
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==
'''Abstract'''

In every culture, readers associate the literature they know with new literature they read. So literature is always cumulative, it grows out of existing literature and can refer back to it. When Western readers read the Red Chamber Dreams, they foremost associate novels and other pieces of literature of their own cultural tradition with the Dreams. This has also influenced the first full translation into German.

Cao Xueqin and even more his protagonist Jia Baoyu both are early humanists, universalists and world citizens. ''The Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide.

摘要

在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中生长出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。

曹雪芹，尤其是他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。（修改）

在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中衍生出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。

曹雪芹，甚至于他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:09, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==
''The Dream'' is a complex showroom of diverse aspects of Chinese cultures and is the embodiment and essence of Chinese cultures, but it has also a global impact, therefore it should be honoured as “World Documentary Heritage”.

红楼梦》综合展示了中国的多元文化，是中国文化的集中体现和精华，同时在全球范围内产生影响，理应列入世界记忆遗产名录。（修改）

多元一体

'''Key words'''

Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage

“红楼梦”是一个多元的中国文化综合体，是中国文化的体现和精髓，但它也具有全球影响力，因此应该被授予“世界文献遗产”的荣誉。（修改<nowiki>Insert non-formatted text here</nowiki>）

多元一体

'''Key words'''

Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage
--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

《红楼梦》是一个中国文化综合体，展示着中国文化的精髓的同时也极具全球影响力，理应被列入世界记忆遗产名录。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==
'''1. Chinese Ethics'''

To help the poor and disadvantaged belongs to the traditional core values of Chinese culture.

When we sit in the Beijing Subway today, the loudspeaker announcement reminds us, that it is Chinese traditional ethics to give seats to the disadvantaged (老弱病残孕让座是中国传统道德). We know of Cao Xueqin, that he supported the poor and disadvantaged, and that he made kites for children.

However, when we look closer at these “Chinese Ethics”, we discover, that they are claimed also in Indian Buddhism “karuna” and in the Christian tradition of “caritas” and in almost every civilization. Therefore, we might call these values “human ethics”.

==Wu Kai 吴恺==
'''2. Compatibility
'''
Why do the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide and have achieved world literature status even in their translations?

First of all, the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are, like novels worldwide, a piece of entertainment literature. In comparison to the drama, in which every element is compulsory and plays its part in the overall structure, in the novel the line of action itself is simpler and not so important, most of the scenes or episodes are loosely put together and fit in the broader theme of the novel.
==Wu Qi 吴琪==
However, the lose arrangement of episodes of the ''Dreams'' comes from the tradition of almost unconnected episodes like in the ''Shuihuzhuan'' and is a step towards the greater coherence of the episodes, the aligning into a story line and the greater concentration on fewer protagonists. Therefore, the ''Dreams'' show clearly a step towards the Western tradition of novels, maybe because of growing Western influence in Qing dynasty.

'''3. Impact of translator’s native culture on the translation process'''

There are intercultural parallels between the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' and Western works of literature.
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==
These parallels are fundamental for the translation and were explicitly and implicitly fundamental for the German translator Martin Woesler during his translation and editorial work on the first full German translation. In the following, I will mention some of the Western novels and pieces of literature, which the Western reader of the ''Dreams'' will immediately think of.

'''4. The novel as embodiment of “Zeitgeist”'''

According to Georg Lukács’ ''Theory of the Novel'', while the Epos (like Homer’s ''Ilias'', which like the ''Dream'' reasons the stories in the divine realm) displayed a holistic world experience, a complete, self-contained culture, the novel displays, that the modern world has become infinitely large and has lost its homely quality.
==Wu Xiang 邬香==
The novel as a genre is no longer documenting just one culture, but represents, with the words of Walter Benjamin, the Organon of History. So the understanding of the novel changed with Lukacs to historical-philosophically. A novel is understood as typical for its historical era, the novel embodies the spirit of the epoch (Zeitgeist).

The ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are written in front of the background of the Manchu minority having taken over the power in formerly Han-shaped Ming-China (which was a multi-ethnic and crosscultural society) and families suffering the changing favor of changing emperors, with the Cao family being fostered by Kangxi and being persecuted by Yongzheng.
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==
While the author in his time could not criticize the system and power of emperors, in the novel he came to terms with this life by seeking the guilt for the persecution in the growing decadence of the family (engaging in Daoism, leisure, poetry-writing, arts and music instead of learning for being able to earn a living) and in himself not fulfilling the expectations as the family heir. This description of decadence of a declining family reminds us of the novels of Tschechov (and e.g. in the ''Buddenbrooks'' by Mann, including the turn to arts and music).
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==
Moreover, with the detailed description of life on all social levels in early Qing Dynasty, the Dream appears as a documentary historical novel very much like Günter Grass’ The Tin Drum 1959.

'''5. Coming-of-age and Alienation'''

Abandoning the paradise-like garden in the Red Chamber Dreams is a symbol for leaving the protected childhood and arriving in the complex world of adults. With George Lukács theory of the novel, the protagonist starts to problematize the sense of his life, in the novel, the protagonist’s self permanently struggles with his environment.
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==
However, Cao Xueqin’s message is not simply the one of “Paradise Lost”, instead he himself made the best out of his life. Although being less wealthy than when his family still enjoyed the favour of the emperor, there was a payroll system and a social net intact in Early Qing China, where he received enough income to be independent from his rich relatives, to be selective on accepting jobs, to live a relaxed life in a small house in the nature, spending time with his family and friends, follow his own interests, like reading, writing and drinking wine, making kites for the children and thinking of the disadvantaged.

然而，曹雪芹的信息不仅是“失乐园”的信息，而是他本人的一生。尽管不如他的家人仍然享有皇帝的宠爱时富裕，但清初中国有一个工资体系和一个完整的社会网络，在那里他获得了足够的收入以独立于自己的富裕亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作在大自然的小房子里过着轻松的生活，与家人和朋友共度时光，遵循自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和喝酒，为孩子们放风筝和思考处境不利的人。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

==Xiao Ting 肖婷==
Cao Xueqin was fully aware of his time and China’s cultural achievements, he was familiar with the different levels of society, he was a detailed observer and skilful narrator. He may have conceptualized the ending of the novel as a discussion about the different personalities of the characters in the novel and therefore displaying his reflection about life and his psychological understanding of the diversity of human nature. He was able to grasp the “spirit of time” (Zeitgeist) and with his autobiographical experience create an eternal coming-of-age novel not just for his family, for the Qing-Chinese, for Chinese people, but for mankind.

曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就有充分的认识，他熟悉社会的方方面面，他观察细致，叙事娴熟。他能把小说的结尾构思为对小说中人物不同性格的探讨，从而体现出他对人生的思考和对人性多样性的理解。他能够把握 "时间精神"(Zeitgeist)，并以他的亲身经历为材料创造了一部成熟的绝世之作，这不仅是为他的家庭、为清人、为中国人，更是为全人类。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

曹雪芹充分了解自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就，熟悉社会的不同层次，是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。他可能将小说的结局概念化为对小说中人物不同性格的讨论，从而表现出他对生活的反思和对人性多样性的心理理解。他能够把握“时代精神”(时代精神)，并以他的自传体经历，为他的家庭，为清朝人，为中国人，为人类创造了一部永恒的成长小说。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 12:01, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就了如指掌，他熟悉社会的不同层面，他是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。因此，他在小说中对人的不同个性的理解和对小说中人物性格的多样性进行了概念化的探讨。他能够把握“时代精神”，用他的自传体经历，不仅为他的家庭，为清朝的中国人，为中国人民，而且为人类，创作了一部永恒的成人小说。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:43, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

==Xiao Xi 肖茜==
This tradition of Coming-of-age novels is also a European one, like enlightenment philosopher Voltaire’s novel ''Candide or Optimism''《老实人》shows at the very same time (1759) in Europe. Also Voltaire’s Candide has to leave the luxurious paradise of his childhood and strives for true love, but his main learning is more pessimistic, since Voltaire wrote the novel in opposition to Leibniz, who optimistically looked to China as “the best of all worlds”. Recent research findings show that China had a much larger influence on European enlightenment philosophers and we can be sure, that also Cao Xueqin was aware of some European literary traditions.
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==
Also the German readership is familiar with the chronological following of the life of the protagonist and his development, the fate of a family over generations, the German readership knows this type of novel as the “Education novel” or “Coming-of-age-novel”. In Germany, the genre of the coming-of-age novel has a long tradition and it is shaped more by single characters, who appear as teachers (Goethe: ''Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802).
==Xie Fan 解帆==
Wilhelm Meister, parallely to Jia Baoyu, is struggling with the traditional education, in ''Wilhelm Meister'' this is represented with the classics revived in Shakespeare’s dramas. Tradition can give orientation, but the personality of the protagonist needs to develop through emancipation is a wisdom, we can learn from all mentioned novels including the ''Dreams''.

'''6. Pornography and True Love, female rivals'''

Sexuality is a basic human need and has developed into different shapes in all cultures. The German audience is familiar with erotic topics from the Middle Ages, in which sexuality was stylized. In the “Schwänke” of the 15th century (Wittenwielers Ring), erotic scenes are described sexually explicit.

与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，这通过莎士比亚的经典戏剧得以体现。传统可以作为方向标，但主人公的个性需要通过解放才能发展，这是一种智慧，我们可以以上提过包括《梦》的所有小说中学习。
“6.色情与真爱，女性对手"
性是人类的一种基本需求，在不同文化中展现出不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是有固定程式的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:37, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，在《威廉·迈斯特》中，莎士比亚戏剧中复兴的经典作品代表了这一点。传统可以给予导向，但主人公的个性需要通过解放来发展是一种智慧，我们可以从包括《梦》在内的所有小说中学习。
“6。色情与真爱，女性对手"
性是人类的一种基本需求，在各种文化中形成了不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是程式化的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==
In the barock literature of the 17th century even the physical act is described extensively.

According to „cumulativity“, every human being is a product of history and literature is based on previous literature, therefore the author of this pager thinks that this background has to be taken into account while translating.

The best study on ''qing'' passion in the Dreams is the one by Anthony Yu, who understood it as ''desire'' and as the central motif of the ''Dreams''. „The centrality of qing in shaping virtually every aspect of The Story of the Stone’s structure and meaning cannot be denied [...].“ (Anthony Yu 2001, 54).

==Xu Jia 徐佳==
In the framework story of the Dreams, the narrator consciously takes a stand against low-action and stereotypical pornographic literature as well as against the widespread romance novels (with the classic roles of the beautiful, talented woman and the poor scholar who finally achieves a respected position and prosperity by passing a civil service exam).

In chapter 1 he says: ”of the true feelings of young people [...] nobody has reported about so far.”

Erotic scenes are described in a decent and associative way (“Game of clouds and rain”), while displaying another quality in its openness e.g. towards bisexuality.

==Xu Jing 许晶==
The ''Dreams'' narrate the story of unfortunate lovers. Unfortunate lovers also in the West have a literary tradition, they constitute an archetype, such as Hero and Leander, Pyramus and Thisbe, Tristan and Isolde, Flore and Blanscheflur as well as Troilus and Cressida, the latter being considered the model for Arthur Brookes, who wrote Romeo and Juliet in 1562 and thus directly influenced Shakespeare.

While Marián Galik saw as the central topic of both, the ''Dream'' and ''Faust'', the eternal feminine, which draws us on high, Gu Cheng called it the “eternal virgine”.

==Xu Jing 许静==
In Goethe’s coming-of-age novel ''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre'', we find a similar motif of female rivals, in the Keller 凯勒 ''The Green Henry'' 《绿衣亨利》1855, the hero turns away from an emphatically sexually designed figure and turns to the 'real' woman. In Jane Austen’s ''Pride and Prejudice'' 1813 Elizabeth and Lin Daiyu are similar, e.g. they both strive for real love (Zhuang 2011).
==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==
'''7. Feudal society and slavery'''

A widespread interpretation is that Jia Baoyu’s equal treatment of family members and slaves would be a manifesto to free the slaves. I also do not share this interpretation, since Aristotle, when he demanded democracy, would exclude slaves from the right to vote. So we cannot use modern concepts to judge on the past. In my understanding, Jia Baoyu was not fighting inequality, but looked at the people as humans and individuals.

封建社会和奴隶
一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶一视同仁，这将成为奴隶解放的宣言。我并不同意这个解释，因为亚里士多德的民主就排除了奴隶的投票权。所以，我们并不能用现代观念去评判过去。在我看来，贾宝玉并不是和不平等作斗争，而是把人视作群体和个人。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 09:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德，当他要求民主的时候，会排除奴隶的投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人看成是群体和个人。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:31, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==
Also the understanding of the servants as slaves does not match the description in the Dream, since some servants had servants themselves, the family took care after they left the Jia family to find a match for them and Jia Zheng refers to his daughter Yingchun as „yatou 丫头“, so it is inappropriate to translate this expression with slave. Therefore, the translator preferred “servant” over “slave” in the translation.

另外，把仆人理解为奴隶也与《红楼梦》中所描述的不符，因为有些仆人自己也有仆人，他们离开贾家后，家人会照顾他们，为他们婚配，并且贾正把女儿迎春称为“丫头”，所以用奴隶来翻译这个词是不合适的。因此，译者在翻译中更倾向于“仆人”而不是“奴隶”。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

而且把仆人理解为奴隶与《红楼梦》中的描写不符，因为有些仆人自己还有仆人，贾府会在她们离府的时候为她们寻一门亲事，作为贾府对她们的照料；贾政也把自己的女儿迎春喊作 “丫头”，所以把这些翻译成奴隶是不合适的。因此英文翻译中采用“servant”会比“slave”更为合适。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:08, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==
Mo Yan in his speech at the Frankfurt Bookfair in 2009, when China was the guest of honor, draws the (similarly) parallel between the ''Dream'' and Goethe’s ''Sorrows of the Young Werther'', that both expressed the wish to abandon feudal society. My own impression is that both do not express this wish, but that this is a later concept and interpretation and we should not apply this to judge the past.

2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，他在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的印象是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，而我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的感觉是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:43, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Hairong 杨海容==
'''8. Tragedy of all tragedies'''

Aristotle explained in ''On the Tragedy'' (Poetics VI), that tragedies move people more than comedies because they “imitate [mimēsis] an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude” (Aristotle 1971, 51), This high esteem of the tragedy in Europe is partly ascribed to the loss of Aristotle’s work ''On the Comedy''.

==Yang Hui 阳慧==
While Europe has the Hamlet as its tragedy of all tragedies, the lack of tragic literature in Chinese literary tradition has long been lamented. Wang Guowei sees the Dream as "tragedy of all tragedies". To Wang Guowei the suffering of Faust and Jia Baoyu is central in the novels. However, many scholars contest that Faustianism is central for Chinese culture.

In 18th century Europe, we saw a new development in the genre of the drama, to establish a “bourgeois tragedy”.

==Yang Yi 杨逸==
It developed as an emancipatory movement in the 18th century in London, Paris and Germany, and demonstrated that tragedy was not reserved to rulers, but was also imagineable for lower noblemen and ordinary citizens. The ''Dream'' at the same time as the bourgeois tragedy in Europe shows a tragic story of a mid-level noble family which loses its titles and privileges.

==Yang Yue 杨悦==
'''9. “Non-Binary” Novels'''

One of the things attracting Western readers is the adorable but mysterious protagonist Jia Baoyu. With his open bisexual orientation and his interest in his mates regardless of their social status, he appears “modern” or at least displaced in time. His struggle with traditional learning makes him appear sympathetic, his long states of rapture out of the world give him both the aura of a timeless character and of mystery.

==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==
With the bisexual orientation of the Dreams’ protagonist, the novel appears non-binary.
According to Karl-Heinz Pohl, binaries are just superficial, ultimately decisive is the ''Heart Sutra''. Today, the novel is listed among the genre of non-binary literature (see e.g. the bibliographical list on https://www.goodreads.com/list/tag/non-binary), in which contrasts are dissolved deconstructivistically.

==Yao Cheng 姚诚==
'''10. Foreign Cultures in the Red Chamber Dreams'''

Foreign Cultures frequently appear in the Dreams in all kinds of varieties, like exoticism with the many objects in the household and presented to the household as novelties, especially the blond girl of the same age as Baoyu referred to in person (combining different origins and cultures, including European, Japanese, Chinese) or several times on paintings, one time shown with wings as an angel.

==Yao Jia 姚佳==
The playful combination of different traditions we can see also when a religious dress is described, which carries characteristics of different religions. Similarly, the Daoist monk and the Confucian priest appear together. Cao Xueqin wanted to show the richness and diversity, also with the many topics and societal levels of the novel. Even a variety of Christian motifs can be found, like when Jia Baoyu is not recognized by his father in chapter 120 and when he disappears, all parallel to Jesus Christ.

==Yi Huan 易欢==
The variety of cultures is paralleled with the variety of elements of different dynasties, which makes it timeless and therefore even more a masterpiece of Chinese art and a masterpiece of human art. Therefore I would like to nominate the Red Chamber Dreams as “World Documentary Heritage”.

'''References'''（参考文献不用翻译）

Anthony, C. Yu. (2001). ''Rereading the Stone: Desire and the Making of Fiction in Dream of the Red Chamber''. Princeton University Press.

Aristotle. (1971). ''Poetics''. Trans. S. H. Butcher. Ed. Hazard Adams. Critical Theory since Plato. ew York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 48-66.

Woesler, Martin, ed., Cao Xueqin, Gao E et al. (2016). ''Der Traum der Roten Kammer oder Die Geschichte vom Stein'' [''Red Chamber Dreams or The Story of the Stone''], Peking: Foreign Languages Press, ISBN 9787119094120, 4813 pages, 6 vols., hardcover, transl. by Rainer Schwarz and Martin Woesler; Chinese-German bilingual edition

Woesler, Martin. (2011). “Being Explicit About the Implicit – John Minford’s Translation of the last Forty Chapters of The Story of the Stone with a Field Study on two Sexually Arousing Scenes”. ''Hong lou meng xue kan'' 6: 274-289

Woesler, Martin. (2010). “ ’To Amuse the Beaux and Belles’ The Early Western Reception of the Hongloumeng”. ''Journal of Sino-Western Communications'' 2 (2010.12) 2:81-107

Zhuang, Xiuhua. (2011). Self, Ideal and Salvation: A Comparative Study of Jane Austen’s Elizabeth and Cao Xueqin’s Lin Daiyu. ''Journal of Language Teaching and Research'', Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 420-423, March 2011. Fulltext: http://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/jltr/vol02/02/19.pdf.

==Yi Zichu 义子楚==
'''Virtual Communication Between Machines with the Human as Their Object
'''

A new stage of multimodal communication after oral, written, printed, electronic and machine-human communication

Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University

'''Abstract'''

Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role.

==You Yuting 游雨婷==
This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new media epoch of “virtual communication” (communication 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).

Algorithms do not only listen to oral or read written human communication (between humans or between humans and bots), but they analyze multimodal communication (including likes, behaviour, surfing habits, mobility profile, values, dreams, aims, beliefs etc.), compare them with Big Data (e.g. cloud data) and base decisions of manipulation on a prediction of behavior according to a personality profile and correlations.

本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。

算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yu Ni 余妮==
These algorithms target not only the explicit communications, but the emotions and thoughts of humans too and predict future behavior, therefore allowing simulations of reality. Mightier algorithms have also taken over decision-making roles in societies where they: replace human court decisions, fine tune just-in-time and on-demand production, censor chatrooms etc. Sets of algorithms help to manage smart cities and a whole society.

----
==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==
Although the human is still part of the communication, especially as the analyzed object and the target of the manipulation, the human is often unaware of the virtual communication and a passive receiver of the machine’s decisions, while the main actors in the virtual communication are machines.

虽然人仍然是通信的一部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人往往没有意识到虚拟通信和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟通信的主要参与者是机器。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

尽管人类仍然是交流活动的一个组成部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人类往往没有意识到，自己是虚拟沟通和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟沟通的主导者是机器。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

虽然人仍然是构成通信的一部分，尤其是作为分析对象和操纵目标，但人往往没有意识到人们在虚拟通信中扮演机器决策的被动接受者，而机器才是主要参与者。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==
Research describes these forms of virtual communication, finds evidence in social management systems and credit systems (in Germany, we have the “Schufa”, in the USA there are big players in credit history, which leads to credit-orientation and gamification of human life) or customized (fake) news filter bubbles and in customized consumption offers (Amazon, Facebook, Google, Netflix) and analyzes benefits, including security enhancements through such virtual communication.

研究对这些形式的虚拟沟通进行了描述，在社会管理系统、信用系统（定制的（虚假）新闻筛选泡沫）和定制的消费商（亚马逊、脸书、谷歌、网飞）里面找到了证据（德国有“Schufa”，美国则因为信用史有重大人物而使得社会信用至上并日趋游戏化），并对益处加以分析，这些益处包含通过这类虚拟沟通提升安全。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:20, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

研究描述了这些虚拟通信的形式，在社会管理系统和信用系统中找到证据（在德国，我们有 "Schufa"，在美国有信用记录的大玩家，这导致了信用导向和人类生活的游戏化）或定制化（假）新闻过滤气泡，以及在定制化的消费优惠中（亚马逊，Facebook，谷歌，Netflix），并分析了好处，包括通过这种虚拟通信增强安全性。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==
But research also has the duty to warn of abuse or harmful developments and to raise ethical questions. Exoskeletal ethics, imposed by gamifications like credit systems, especially need to be valued against intrinsic ethics.

'''Introduction'''

In this paper dealing with machine to machine communication, I skip the machines assisting humans to make their life more convenient (ranging from “The milk is out, please add the usual amount of milk to the delivery list,” to “The old lady has not left her bed this morning, I’ll better call the doctor”).

但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展发出警告，同时要对引起的伦理问题也要承担责任。特别是信用体系游戏化所造成的外骨骼伦理问题更需要得到重视，要反对内在的伦理问题。

引言

本论文在涉及机器与机器之间的交流时，我不考虑那些帮助人类让生活更便捷的机器（从“牛奶没了，请在送货单上加平常剂量的牛奶”到“老太太今早卧床不起，我最好叫医生吧”）。
--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:10, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展提出警告，并提出伦理问题。特别是信用体系等游戏化所强加的外骨骼伦理，更需要对照内在伦理加以重视。

引言

在本文中涉及机器与机器之间的交流，我跳过了机器协助人类提高生活便利的内容（从 "牛奶没了，请把平时的牛奶量加到送货单上"，到 "老太太今天早上还没下床，我还是叫医生吧"。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:40, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==
Instead, I deal with communication like: “Let’s create a user personality profile and compare it with Big Data to learn how I can best catch this user’s attention and make him/her vote for presidential candidate A or B.”; “Let’s check this users’ mouse movements and compare it with Big Data to get a correlation to estimate if (and if “yes” when) he will get Parkinson, to decide whether or not to deny him the loan or health insurance.”
实际上，本人研究涉及的方面如下：比如，“让我们创建一名用户的个性化主界面，并将其与大数据进行比对，学习如何最好的吸引该用户的注意，让他/她投票给总统候选人甲或乙。”“让我们检查这名用户鼠标的运动轨迹，通过与大数据进行比对，建立关联，来估计他是否会得帕金森。如果他患有帕金森疾病，我们会决定是否需要对他的贷款或医疗保险的申请予以拒绝。”--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:41, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Liang 曾良==
“Let’s check this users sexual orientation, religious beliefs, fears, secrets like adultery etc. to blackmail him to get ransom money for my programmer.”; or even “Let’s use this user’s location to aim the killer drone.”

The current neoliberal system with Amazon, Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, Google, Netflix etc. provides incentives to collect as much user data as possible and to abuse user data for manipulation, which creates huge profits.

“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、诸如通奸之类的秘密去勒索他为我的程序员去获取赎金”。或者甚至“使用用户的位置瞄准杀手无人机。”

当前具有亚马逊、脸谱网、瓦茨艾普、照片墙、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义系统激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:04, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

"让我们查一查这个用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、通奸等秘密，以勒索他为我的程序员获取赎金。"；甚至"利用这个用户的位置来瞄准杀手无人机。"
目前亚马逊、脸书、WhatsApp、Instagram、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义体系，为收集尽可能多的用户数据，并滥用用户数据，从而创造了巨大的利润。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、惧怕的事物、诸如通奸之类的秘密，从而勒索他让我的程序员获取赎金”。更有甚时，“让我们使用用户的位置让攻击机瞄准他。”

当前亚马逊、脸书、联络电话、Instagram、谷歌、网飞等的新自由主义的系统软件，激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==
Very much like the financial crisis, which was caused by the unregulated use of derivatives, this is a systemic development, which currently follows a path to enslave the human race under the control of algorithms for the benefit of tech companies. The enslavement has already begun, as we can see from the world wide addiction to social media, from the growing mass of conspiracy theorists and from the polarization of the USA over Trump or the polarization of Great Britain over the Brexit.

==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==
'''1 History of Media Epochs'''

Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role.

This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new stage of “virtual communication” (media epoch 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).

卢曼和贝克尔描述了从口头（媒体时代1.0）到文字（2.0）的通讯发展，再到印刷（3.0）数字通讯（4.0）
在所有这些阶段中，科技都只起到了协助作用。

本文认为，从根本上来说，“虚拟沟通”处于新阶段（媒体时代5.0），其中人工智能（由人类初始化）已被接管，人类已成为分析和操纵的对象（如顾客，选民等）--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 14:56, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hu 张虎==
While Luhmann would still summarize this under digital communication, I see a full new quality here, and have therefore coined the term “communication 5.0” or “virtual communication” for it. In Luhmann’s view, the computer consists out of the “surface” of the machine (the visible interfaces like screen, keyboard, mouse) and the “depth” of the machine (the invisible, often incomprehensive inside).

虽然卢曼仍然会在数字通信中总结这一点，但我在这里看到了一个全新的品质，因此创造了术语“通信5.0”或“虚拟通信”。在卢曼看来，计算机是由机器的“表面”(屏幕、键盘、鼠标等可见界面)和机器的“内里”(看不见的、内部不全面的部分)组成的。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:41, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hui 张慧==
However, we are almost constantly producing data, with our chats and geotracked movements, with our addiction to social media, our carrying of cell phones and more and more smart devices at all times, and we are therefore an object of analysis by algorithms.

The traditional setting of a communicative act blurs: The machine can directly communicate with the human (there the Turing test marks a threshold), and, after a certain complexity, it can hide its machine nature.

但是，我们几乎一直在通过聊天和地理位置追踪运动，不断沉迷于社交媒体，携带手机以及越来越多的智能设备来生成数据，因此，我们一直是通过算法进行分析的对象。

交流行为的传统设置变得模糊：机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标记了阈值），并且在经过一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏机器的本质。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:49, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

然而，我们几乎在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和地理追踪的动作，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们随时携带手机和越来越多的智能设备，我们因此成为算法分析的对象。

传统的交流行为的设定模糊了。机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标志着一个门槛），在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Ling 张玲==
The machine can also indirectly communicate with the human by simply analyzing humans’ verbal communication, non-verbal multimodal communication, behavior, personality etc. and interacting with the human with, or without, revealing its existence. A human, growing up in a filter bubble and believing in conspiracy theories is one such example: The human has been manipulated by social media and news which prefer lies over truth.

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==
Without even noticing that there was an interaction taking place between the human and the machine, the human has lost his/her independence to the machine.

'''2 Types of communicative acts'''

1.Texts (oral and written comments/chat texts/blogs/emails)

2.Surf behavior (websites visited)

3.Consumer behavior (purchases)

4.Likes (see OCEAN, UEBA)

5.Duration/Attention (see UEBA)

6.habits/repetitiveness/occurrences (is an element of analysis in different AI apps/tools)

==Zhang Qi 张琪==
7.Unconscious, often unique data allowing identification (way of writing, mouse movements pattern, see Raj Kannan 2020)

8.social interaction incl. friendships, sexual relationships

9.mobility behavior/pattern (e.g. immediate environment – e.g. unconsciously recording the inside of houses while playing “Pokemon Go”), travel: Travel Behavior (Yu Cui et al. 2018)

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==
'''3 Types of analysis'''

1.General (User and Entity Behavior Analytics UEBA: AI-assisted cybersecurity tools like by Gartner, Inc.)

2.True identity (e.g.: mouse movements, face recognition, find real name) (Verschuere 2016)

3.Personality profile: Big Five Personality Inventory: Openness to Experience, Consciousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism “OCEAN” (Golbeck 2011), by only analyzing the users' likes, Facebook can generate personality profiles (AI-Demand 2020)

4.Mobility profile/pattern

==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==
5.Health situation (health apps, ai supported disease research, see Daley 2020)

6.Job situation/job market (Talent Search People 2020 analyzes the job market, and classifies 4 different AI systems: 1. systems that think like humans, 2. systems that act like humans, 3. systems that think rationally, and 4.) systems that act rationally.)

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==
7.Financial credit-worthiness: E.g. German Schufa company uses AI in addition to human expertise for evaluations, see Banken-Technologie 2020. Banken-Technologie 2020. Schufa’s attempt to gain access to customers’ bank account transfer information was discussed in the news.

8.Consumer Behavior: e.g. the "clickworker" company analyses and optimizes customers' searches in respect to a client company's goals/products with the help of AI (clickworker 2019)

9.Secrets (like adultery)

==Zhang Yu 张瑜==
'''4 Unique quality of media epoch 5.0'''[ I have coined the terms “media epoch 5.0” and “virtual communication” I have developed it from concepts like „Industry 4.0“ in Germany and the four media epochs Luhmann and Baecker developed (by Baecker called 1.0 … 4.0). There are several authors speculating about the media epoch 4.0, like Ray Kurzweil. The Age of Intelligent Machines. 1990.]

1.the human switches from active to passive

2.the human switches from subject to object

3.the human becomes addicted to social media, which enhances depression (Van Den Eijnden et al. 2016, Jasso-Medrano et al. 2018, Shensa et al. 2017)

4.the human switches from puppeteer, or entity with seemingly free will, to puppet

5.nature of the internet turns from freedom to surveillance

4.媒介5.0时代的独特品质 [我创造了 "媒介5.0时代"和 "虚拟通信 "这两个词，它们是从德国的“工业4.0”以及卢曼和贝克提出的媒介4.0时代（贝克称之为1.0...4.0）等概念发展而来的。一些作者揣测媒介4.0时代这个词的含义，比如1990年出版的雷-库兹韦尔的《灵魂机器时代》]

1.人从主动到被动的转换

2.人从主体到客体的转换

3.人沉迷于社交媒体，提高了患抑郁症的风险

4.人从木偶操纵者或看似拥有自由意志的实体到木偶人的转换

5.互联网的性质从自由到监测的转换--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 01:25, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==
6.direct communication turns into indirect communication (humans may not be aware of this communication/analysis)

7.explicit communication (voice, words) turns into implicit communication (preferences/thoughts/dreams/wishes/ values (first experiments with brain scanners in worker hats have started in Shanghai and Peking))

8.man-man communication turns to man-machine communication (phone bot) to machine-machine

9.4.0 was from centralization to decentralization, 5.0 is partial centralization and partial decentralization, but also concentration

==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==
So far, mass media has been considered one-way. The interaction and processing of data of millions of individual users seemed simply too much work. In the age of virtual communication, the media epoch 5.0, mass media is individualized and interactive and therefore even more influential.

'''5 Types of manipulation (consciously or unconsciously, sometimes half-consciously)
'''

1.Priming by unconscious advertisements: Influencing consumer decisions

2.Filter bubbles => supports conspiracy theories, influences judgments

到目前为止，大众媒体一直被认为是单一的。数百万个人用户数据的交互和处理似乎太费力。在虚拟传播时代，即媒体时代5.0，大众传媒是个性化和互动的，因此更具影响力。

'''5 种操纵类型（有意识或无意识，有时是半意识的）'''

1.无意识广告发布：影响消费者决策

2.过滤泡沫=>支持阴谋论，影响判断--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:08, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhao Xi 赵茜==
3.Nature of social media: lies spread 6 times faster than truth. (Vosoughi et al. 2018).

4.Change of political attitude: Case Cambridge Analytica: Helped minority to win election by manipulating young people of majority not to vote (Do so: Don’t vote campaign, Oddleifson 2020); Trump election and Brexit were won by manipulation

5.Use of private information/dependencies to obtain advantages (blackmailing for money or for conducting crimes etc.)

6.Identity theft

3.社交媒体的本质：谎言的传播速度比真理快 6 倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。

4.改变政治态度：案例剑桥分析：通过操纵多数年轻人不投票帮助少数民族赢得选举（这样做：不要投票竞选。奥德利夫森 2020年）；特朗普选举和英国脱欧通过操纵获胜

5.利用私人信息/依赖关系获取好处（勒索钱财或犯罪等）

6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==
'''6 Consequences'''

1.Virtual Communication is mostly “hidden”, the human is mostly unaware of it, but may endure the consequences (policeman may detain suspect simply because the face recognition glass recognizes a pedestrian passing by and assesses him/her as “dangerous”; loan is declined; insurance company declines to accept new customer)

6.后果

1.虚拟通讯大多是 "隐蔽 "的，人多半不知道，但可能会承受后果（警察可能仅仅因为人脸识别玻璃识别出路过的行人，并评估其为 "危险 "而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新的客户）--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

6.后果

1.虚拟通信通常是“隐藏的”，人类大多数情况下是不知道的，但可能会承受后果（警察可能只是因为面部识别玻璃杯识别出行人经过并将他/她评估为“危险”而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

'''6.后果
'''

1.大多情况下，虚拟通信是“隐藏的”，人类也没有意识到这一点，但可能会承担由此带来的后果（警察可能会因为面部识别玻璃检测到行人通过，并将其评估为“危险人物”而将嫌疑犯拘留‘贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==
2.User becomes transparent (government can fight terrorism, any user can be blackmailed, jealous spouse can check on adultery)

3.Less will to communicate and discuss (since positions are too far apart)

4.Populists and populist views gain supporters

5.Polarization of Society

6.There is an incentive not to reveal how much one knows about the object, because the object then could question the legality, the system etc.

7.Last resort, the thinking, is tackled: Machine interprets “real” attitudes, not lip-service words

==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==
8.The knowing ones (algorithms, hackers, controllers of algorithms) have power over the unknowing ones (victims)

9.Exoskeleton ethics (like points/awards for measurable performances) reduce incentives to build inner ethics
'''
7 Simulation of the imminent future'''

1.The imminent future behavior of a human can be predicted

2.With many analyzed humans, the imminent future of reality can be predicted => simulation

8.知道的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比不知道的人（受害者）更有力量
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机
'''
7模拟即将到来的未来
1.人类即将发生的未来行为是可以预测的
2.有了许多被分析的人类，现实的即将到来的未来可以被预测=>模拟--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:00, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==
Is this an Orwellian dystopia or reality? Some cases of the above listed phenomena have been documented. However, we are still at the beginning of “little” AI development (optimizing existing processes) and on the brink of a much more powerful development, that of “big” AI (rethinking whole industries, being able to reproduce and enhance itself). (cf. Euchner 2019).

==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==
'''8 Conclusion and Outlook'''

Data has succeeded oil as the most valuable resource for today’s economy. Big Tech companies already use users’ data and make big profits with it while legislation is delayed and national boundaries (which do not exist for the Tech companies) are struggled over.
Although input-legitimized liberal democracies and market economies, like that of the European Union, still protect privacy and data security, US- and China-based technology companies are already penetrating the European market.

==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==
We need to raise awareness and guide the youth to be careful with screen time and what they share online. We need to avoid addiction to social media.

'''The algorithms do not just check which film to suggest viewing next, they have started to invade the innermost sanctum of personality, our thoughts, dreams, wishes, visions, hopes, fears and secrets.
'''
'''
The listed consequences document a fundamental change of paradigms:
'''
我们需要提高意识，引导青少年注意屏幕时间和他们在网上分享的东西。我们需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。

'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''

所列出的后果证明了范式的根本变化:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

我们需要提高意识，引导青少年留意屏幕时间和网上分享，需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。

'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''

所列出的后果证明了范式的基本变化:--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:11, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==
'''The cause-based decision-making by humans with established institutions like politicians, judges etc. is being replaced with correlation-based decision-making by algorithms which often serve the profit interests of tech companies or the political interests of election-manipulators.
'''

AI took the wrong development path, when it changed from serving humans to trying to manipulate humans for economic or political profit. When AI is used to educate citizens – like helping German customers to keep a clean credit history and a good credit score – then it changes the behavior of citizens to an exoskeletal ethic.

==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==
However, animals with an exoskeleton reduce their inside muscles and develop a soft inside, making them totally incapable of living without the exoskeleton. An exoskeletal ethic, giving reward points, for example, for behavior which is deemed positive and subtracting points for behavior which is deemed negative, deprives the human of the natural learning and developing process, in a social environment, of his responsibility and inner ethical judgment. If you were to meet a human with exoskeletal ethics and one who has inner ethics, whom would you trust more?

==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==
If we want to avoid the consequences listed in point 6, the public needs to become aware of this and nations and supranational organizations need to define legislation to a) protect privacy and data security, and b) give the user the control over his/her data including the commercial use of it where they earn a share from the profit made with the usage of his/her data.

==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==
'''9 Outlook'''

We need to accept, that the development is irreversible. Every new technology has created fears. Important is, that we become aware of the developments and adjust where the development heads into the wrong direction. We need set the right framework and incentives that the new technology stays on track to serve humanity.

==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==
New developments open new possibilities. We need to make sure that not only a few tech companies and terrorists use this powerful new technology to achieve their goals, but that the mass of smart device users emancipate themselves from addiction to and manipulation by technology and gain back their dignity, privacy and free will.

'''References
'''
（参考文献不用翻译）

AI-Demand. (2020). www.ai-demand.com/insights/data/big-data/big-data-and-facebook-the-heavenly-pair-that-isnt-quite-in-heaven/

Baecker, Dirk. (2007). ''Studien zur nächsten Gesellschaft''. Frankfurt 2007

Banken-Technologie. (2020). 26. Handelsblatt Jahrestagung. Banken-Technologie. „New Normal” in der Finanzwirtschaft: digital – intelligent – automatisiert – hybrid. 2. und 3.12.2020, Digital [Conference Announcement] https://veranstaltungen.handelsblatt.com/bankentechnologie/ki-machine-learning-finanzanalyse/

Booth, T. "Cambridge Analytica controversy must spur researchers to update data ethics." ''Nature'' 555.7698 (2018): 559-560.

Clickworker. (2019). www.clickworker.com/2019/04/30/ai-for-ecommerce/

Cui, Yu, Qing He, and Alireza Khani. (2018). Travel behavior classification: an approach with social network and deep learning. ''Transportation research record'', 2672(47), 68-80. https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10109453

Daley, Sam. (2020). 32 Examples of AI in Healthcare that Will Make you Feel better about the Future (July 4, 2019, updated July 29, 2020). builtin.com/artificial-intelligence/artificial-intelligence-healthcare

Euchner, Jim. (2019). Little ai, Big AI—Good AI, Bad AI. Terminology Management 62:3, 10-12. pdf:

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/08956308.2019.1587280?needAccess=true

Golbeck, Jennifer, Cristina Robles, and Karen Turner. (2011). "Predicting personality with social media." ''CHI'11 extended abstracts on human factors in computing systems''. 2011. 253-262.

Jasso-Medrano, José Luis, and Fuensanta Lopez-Rosales. (2018). "Measuring the relationship between social media use and addictive behavior and depression and suicide ideation among university students." Computers in Human Behavior 87: 183-191.

Luhmann, Niklas. (1997). ''Die Gesellschaft der Gesellschaft''. 1997

Oddleifson, Evan. 2020, The Effects of Modern Data Analytics in Electoral Politics: Cambridge Analytica’s Suppression of Voter Agency and the Implications for Global Politics, ''Political Sciences Undergraduate Review'' 5 (2020) 7, 1-7.

https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/psur/index.php/psur/article/view/130/90/130-Article%20Text-642-1-10-20200401.pdf

Raj Kannan, J., Sabitha, R., Karthik, S., & Shanthini, J. (2020). Mouse Movement Pattern Based Analysis of Customer Behavior (CBA-MMP) Using Cloud Data Analytics. ''Wireless Personal Communications'', OnlineFirst, 1-17.

Ruan, Lotus, et al. "One App, Two Systems: How WeChat uses one censorship policy in China and another internationally." (2016).
Shensa, Ariel, et al. (2017). "Problematic social media use and depressive symptoms among US young adults: A nationally-representative study." ''Social Science & Medicine ''182: 150-157.

Talent Search People. (2020). How Will Artificial Intelligence Affect the Job Market? www.talentsearchpeople.com/en/blog/494-how-will-artificial-intelligence-affect-the-job-market/.

Van Den Eijnden, Regina JJM, Jeroen S. Lemmens, and Patti M. Valkenburg. (2016). "The social media disorder scale." ''Computers in Human Behavior ''61: 478-487.

Verschuere, Bruno, and Bennett Kleinberg. "ID‐check: Online Concealed Information Test reveals true identity." ''Journal of forensic sciences'' 61 (2016): S237-S240.

Vosoughi, Soroush, Deb Roy, and Sinan Aral. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science 359.6380: 1146-1151.. science.sciencemag.org/content/359/6380/1146

==Zhu Xu 朱旭==
'''Bio'''

Martin Woesler, PhD, is Jean Monnet Chair in European Studies with Hunan Normal University since 2020. At its Foreign Studies College, he is Distinguished Professor of Chinese Studies, Translation Studies and Comparative Literature since 2019. Woesler was elected Academian of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts, Salzburg in 2019.
Woesler has co-edited the books "China's Digital Dream", "Ethics of Information Society" and Springer has scheduled to publish the book "Diverse Voices in Chinese Translation and Interpretation" including his book chapter "Modern Interpreting with Digital and Technical Aids" in February 2021.

==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==
Woesler was a Senior Fellow of the German Science Foundation's (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) Research College "Media Cultures of Computer Simulations" 2019‐2020 and hosted a related workshop with Bertelsmann Foundation in 2020. Woesler is also a researcher with Witten/Herdecke University, Germany, investigating the impact of daily screen time of children and of young people on their health.

History of Translation Studies 6

2020-12-21T14:31:41Z

Zhou Luoping: /* Study of domestication and foreignization in cross cultural translation 周罗平 Zhou Luoping */

这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第六部分(Part 6)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。

学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。

*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].

='''Foreignization and Domestication'''=

==Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches 汤蓓 Tang Bei 英语笔译==
<center> 汤蓓 Tang Bei, 202070080607.</center>

==='''Abstract'''===

Translation is a purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.

==='''Key words'''===
domestication; foreignization;functionalist approaches

==='''摘要'''===
翻译是一种有目的的跨文化交际，处理翻译的文化差异可以使用两种方法：归化和异化。本文从德国功能派翻译理论出发，利用该理论的主要观点，从翻译功能的角度分析译者在翻译过程中对翻译的两大策略——归化与异化的选择做出解释。

==='''关键词'''===
归化；异化；功能派理论

==='''Introduction'''===
Translation, bridging the world of different cultures together, is a cross-cultural activity to the essence as well as an important medium to promote cultural communication. However, due to the differences between materials, customs, religions, thoughts, living environments and language systems, cultural gaps, independent of man’s will, exist objectively, which cause the main difficulties in cultural communication. Only by adopting proper translation strategies can translators reduce cultural conflicts and effectively achieve cultural communication. There are arguments in translation circles on which translation strategy is the better one to remove cultural confusion and promote cultural communication. Domestication and foreignization are two points at issue. Some are for domestication, and some are for foreignization.

In 1970s, the German functionalist approaches emerged. “Functionalist” means focusing on the function or functions of texts and translations. Functionalism is a broad term for various theories that approach translation in this way. Although Skopostheory has played a major role in the development of this trend. For the functionalist, translation is a purposeful activity, Nord had mentioned that a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose.(Nord,1997) .The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “Skopos rule”, that is “the end justifies the means” (Nord 1997:29). Plus Holz-Manttari’s theory of tranlational action, Reiss’s text typology, the functionalism is intended to solve the eternal dilemma of many issues in translation studies, and the strategies of domestication and foreignization are without exception.

From the perspective of functionalist approaches, the choice of translation strategies depends on the functions of the texts, the Skopos. To achieve the prospective purposes, the translator has the freedom to choose the method he needs domestication or foreignization, or both. The functionalist approaches provided a perspective of translation studies.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:24, 11 December 2020 (UTC)

===Chapter1: Brief Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization===
====Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====
Domestication and foreignization, two different yet functionally related strategies, the two terms were formally put forward by Laurence Venuti, aiming at explaining two kinds of translation strategies in The Translator’s Invisibility in 1995. Venuti claimed that he traced the root of the terms back to Friedrich Schleiermacher’s famous notion about translation. Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher, said in a lecture in 1813 on the different methods of translation, which stated that “There are only two. Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995:37).

According to Venuti, “domestication means bringing the foreign culture closely to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture and making him or her see the differences” (Venuti 1995:148).

Mark Schuttleworth and Moria Cowie defined domestication and foreignization in the following way: “Domesticating translation is a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers”, while “Foreignizing translation is a term used by Venuti to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original”. (Schaffner 1995:21)

To sum up above, the conclusion can be drawn like this: domestication refers to a reader-oriented translation which makes use of acceptable expressions in the target culture to make the target text easy to understand and suitable for the target text readers. Foreignization translation is a culture-oriented translation, which tries to retain the charm of the original text as much as possible in order to preserve the flavour of the original text.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:26, 11 December 2020 (UTC)

====Supporter of Domestication and Foreignization====
Eugene. A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist dedicated to the communicative function of translation, is widely considered to be the most important supporter for domestication. Nida understands the concepts of domestication and foreignization as “dynamic or functional equivalence” and “formal equivalence” or “formal correspondence”. Dynamic equivalence is a principle of translation. According to this principle, the translators translate the original text with the purpose of making the impact of target language wording on the target culture readers. (Nida&Taber, 1969:200). He argues that, “Under normal circumstances, translators always change the form of the original text ,but as long as the conversion rules change the consistency of transfer in the context of the source language to follow the rules and follow the anti-conversion target language, then the information is retained, and translation is faithful”. (Nida, 1964:118)

Nida divides equivalence into two levels : the lowest level and the highest level of equivalence. The lowest level on the translation is of important and basic requirements; while the highest level on the translation is the ideal, and is therefore difficult to achieve. If the translator is unable to achieve the lowest level of equivalence, it is not enough. He also states that: “The purpose of dynamic equivalence in the translation is to achieve natural expression and to link the receptor and relevant behavior patterns within receptor’s cultural context.” (Nida, 1964:165)

The natural expression indicates fluency is very important to this translation theory. Apparently, domestication in Nida’s works is involved in this fluency. Nida and other proponents of domestication have their own reasons: First, it is not only unrealistic, but also dangerous for translators to try to impose the linguistic and cultural norms of the source text on the target text. Language barriers and cultural barriers should be overcome in a good translation. Second, since translation is an important and necessary medium in both cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication, the behavior patterns of the target culture should absorb some parts of the source culture in translation. Third, the language of the translated text should be natural, authentic and understandable, which is one of the requirements of translation. This requirement aims to avoid the misunderstanding caused by the target audience because of the language barriers. Domestication is considered to be the most important from the perspective of “natural expression” in Nida translations.

While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995:20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture uniqueness.

Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation neither only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies

Venuti and other proponents of foreignization argue reasons as following: First of all, “cultural authenticity” which embodies the characteristics of a foreign culture is one of the basic principles of foreignization translation. Only through the destruction of cultural norms of the target language, can foreignization maintain foreignness and cultural characteristics of foreign text. The supporters for foreignization hold that the target readers want to feel exoticism of the translated text. The translators should present a new cultural identity to the readers, because that is the purpose of the reader to read translated works. Thus readers may know the real outside world through translated works. The translators should have confidence in the readers’ intelligence and imagination to appreciate cultural differences. Third, the exchange and dissemination of culture should be one of the main purposes of the translation. The introduction of authentic exotic culture promotes cultural exchanges. Only when translation can transfer the source linguistic phenomenon and cultural phenomenon, can it be seen as faithful translation. Cultural communication can improve the development and prosperity of the local culture by means of foreignization translation. The local culture can be greatly enriched by absorbing nutritious heterogeneous culture. The culture of a nation will become energetic and influential through an open and receptive attitude towards foreignness.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:28, 11 December 2020 (UTC)

====My Understanding on Domestication and Foreignization====
As is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood.

While in foreignization, it can be concluded that the target readers want to experience a foreign culture. In other words, it is usually presumed that understanding foreign culture is one of the main purposes of the target readers in reading translated works. Generally speaking, foreignization is relatively smoother, simpler, clearer and more conventional, and can entertain ordinary readers and achieve a lively effect because the expression and style of such translation are familiar to the target readers. Foreignization is somewhat clumsy, unnatural and unfamiliar, and can be used to introduce foreign culture, history and philosophy, and let readers feel the exotic culture and customs. However, foreign cultural images and language features may cause information overload for readers. In a word, both domestication and foreignization have its advantages and disadvantages so it is hard to say which one is better. So we need a theoretical framework to guide us how to choose the translation strategy.
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)

===Chapter2:Brief Introduction of Functionalist Approaches===
====Skopos Theory====
Skopos theory was developed by Hans Vermeer in the late of 1970s. In the translation of non-literary text types such as scientific and academic papers, instructions for use, tourist guides, contracts etc, Vermeer came to realize that the contextual factors surrounding the translation cannot be ignored. These factors include the culture of the intended of the target text and of the client who has commissioned it, and, in particular, the function which the text is to perform in that culture for those readers. Later Vermeer and his followers continue to complete the theory and prove that it also can be applied to literary translation. Within the framework of Skopos theory, translation is not regarded as a process of transcoding, but as a specific form of human action. Like any other human action, translation has a purpose, and the word Skopos is used as a technical term for the purpose of a translation.

The general and primary rule of Skopos theory is the skopos rule. Vermeer assumes that as a general rule it must be the intended purpose of the text that determines translation methods and strategies. Translation is determined by its purpose. It all depends on the Skopos of translation whether to employ domesticating or foreignizing strategy. The second general rule is the coherence rule. This rule stipulates that the target text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended users to comprehend it, given their assumed background knowledge and situational circumstances. The third general rule is the fidelity rule. The rule concerns intertextual coherence between translation, the outcome of translational action, and source text. It stipulates only that some relationship must remain between the two once the overriding principle of the first two rules have been satisfied. Among the three rules, the skopos rule plays the most important role while the other two should subject to it. In the Skopos theory, another important term is “translation brief” which specifies what kind of translation is needed. In the ideal situation, translator can decide what strategy to use by the translation brief given by the initiator.

According to Skopos theory, a text is viewed as an “offer of information”(Reiss &Vermeer 1984: 139) made by a producer to a recipient. Translation is a secondary offer of information, imitating a primary offer of information. Translation is the production of a functionally appropriate target text based on an existing source text, and the relationship between the two texts is specified according to the Skopos of the translation. It is up to the translator to decide what role a source text is to play in the translation action. The decisive factor is the specified Skopos. As a result, the status of the source text is much lower in Skopos theory than in equivalence-based theories.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2020 (UTC)

====Theory of Translational Action====
The theory of translational action was developed by Holz-Manttari in1980s. The theory is based on the principles of action theory put forward by Wright and Rehbein and is designed to cover all forms of intercultural transfer. In her model, translational action is “the process of producing a message transmitter of a certain kind, designed to be employed in superordinate action systems in order to coordinate actional and communicative cooperation” or “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose” (Nord, 1997).The primary purpose of translational action is to enable cooperative, functionally adequate communication to take place across cultural barriers. Holz-Manttan pays special attention to the actional aspects of the translation process and she analyzes the roles of the participants (such as initiator,translator, user, message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place, medium) in which their activities take place. In her model, the source text is viewed as a mere tool for the realization of communicative functions. It is a text to which a translation initiator, a client, has assigned the function of serving as source material for translational action. It is totally subordinate to its purpose and is afforded no intrinsic value, thus it may undergo radical modification in the interest of the targeted reader.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)

====Text Typology====
The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator.
Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on the one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:37, 11 December 2020 (UTC)

===Chapter3:The Choice of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches===
====From the Perspective of Skopoos Theory====
The Skopos theory gets its name from the Greek word “Skopos” which means “purpose”. This approach to translation stresses the purpose of the translation, which determines the translation strategies to be adopted. A translatum i.e. the translated text is determined by its Skopos. Knowing why a text is to be translated and what its function is going to be in the target culture is important in this approach. Like the summary Nord made in 1997, Skopos theory seemed to be exactly the translational model that was needed since it was pragmatic, culture-oriented, consistent, practical, normative, comprehensive and expert. The main point of this functional approach is the following: it is not the source text as such, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, as is postulated by equivalence-based translation theories, but the prospective function or Skopos of the target-text as determined by the initiator’s, i.e. client’s, needs. Consequently, the Skopos is largely constrained by the target text user and his situation and cultural background.

There are some examples showing the function of Skopos rule. Translators’ choices of translation strategies are often decided by their purposes. Both Yang Xianyi and David Hawkes translated Hongloumeng, one of the four Chinese classical masterpieces. However, the two translators adopted totally different strategies. Yang tends to employ foreignizing translation while Hawkes domesticating translation. The translation of the title of Hongloumeng shows the difference. Yang translated the title into “A Dream of Red Mansions” while Hawkes chosen another name of the masterpiece, “The Story of the Stone”. For Hawkes, the Chinese traditional, noble red color won’t raise the same imagination in the westerners. Contrarily, it will be connected with blood, violence and so on. Therefore, he avoided translating the character literally and resorted to another English word “green” that has more pleasant meaning in English language. As a result, “怡红院” was translated as “the house of green delights” and “怡红公子”as “green boy” .

Another domesticating example is the translation of “鸳鸯” , the mandarin duck which is the symbol of true love. He used “lovebird” to replaced the specific Chinese word. In order to make the translated text easier to understand, and “谋事在人，成事在天”were rendered as “Man proposes, God disposes”. The Chinese Buddhist “heaven” becomes the western Christian “God”. Hawkes’ purpose is to entertain his English readers and he adopted those easy-understood words and phrases in English culture in spite of sacrificing the original cultural connotation. Contrarily, Yang’s purpose is to introduce the luxuriant Chinese culture to the western world. That’s why so many words and phrases with culture-specification were maintained and translated literally. His expected readers are those who are willing to know Chinese culture and to absorb new expressions. Consequently he adopted a rather foreignizing method, attempting to maintain the exotic cultural factors of source text. Examples were seen as following:
1.俗语说的好：“一龙九种，种种个别。”未免人多了就有鱼龙混杂，下流人物在内。(第九回)
“A dragon begets nice offspring, each one different.” And inevitably among so many boys there low types too, snakes mixed up with dragons.(Yang 202)
“There are nice kinds of dragon and no two kinds are alike”. Where many are gathered together the wheat is sure to contain a certain amount of chaff; and this school was no exception in numbering some very ill-bred persons among its pupils.(Hawkes 206)
2.真是天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福。(第十一回)
“Truly, ‘Storms gather without warning in nature, and nature, and bad luck befalls men overnight’”.(Yang 291)
“I know ‘the weather and human life are both unpredictable’.”(Hawkes 294)
3.俗话说得好：“杀人不过头点地。”(第十二回)
Remeber the proverb “A murder can only lose his head.”(Yang 318)
“You know what the proverb says: He who checks a moment’s rage, shall calm and carefree end his days.”(Hawkes 322)
It is can concluded that cultural gaps between the source language and the target language is always a hard nut for a translator to crack. Every language has its own specific cultural connotation, and sometimes the contained meanings are very difficult to convey by another language in the process of translation.

The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will cause different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984:335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)

====From the Perspective of Translational Action====
Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form of translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction.

As a form of communicative action, translating is a form of translational interaction. Translational interaction takes place in situations that are limited in time and space. This means every situation has historical and cultural dimensions that condition the agents’ behavior, their knowledge and expectations of each other, their appraisal of the situation, and the standpoint from which they look at each other and at the world. As a result, translators, who enable communication to take place between members of different culture communities, are conditioned by these factors too. Their decision of translating strategy is without exception. In addition, translation is an intentional interaction. For translators, there is a choice to act one war or another.

In Manttari’s model inter-linguistic translation is seen as a communicative process with a series of roles and players. The roles and players are: The initiator, the person, group or institution that starts off the translation process and determines its course by defining the purpose for which the target text is needed. (Nord,1997:20 )The commissioner, is the person who asks the translator to produce a target text for a particular purpose and addressee. Sometimes he may influence the very production of the target text by demanding a particular text format or terminology.The ST producer, the person who writes the ST;the TT producer, who is the translator;the TT user, who is the person who uses the TT; the TT receiver, who is the final recipient of the TT.(Reiss, 1971:25)

These roles and players are interconnected through a complex network of mutual relation. Among these roles, the initiator and the translator are the most significant since it is the initiator who gives out the translation brief and thus determines translator's translation strategy. Sometimes the roles and players can be overlapped, one person playing the roles of several agents at the same time. For example, translator can be the initiator and TT producer at the same time if he is the person who wants to translate the source text into target culture, Yan Fu and Lin Shu are of this kind. In this situation, the translator can determine the translation strategy subjectively according to the purpose he wants to attain. They initiated the translation action themselves and had their prospective TT receivers in mind. Thus the intentions of the translators, the initiators and the aesthetical expectation of TT receivers together determined the translators to choose the strategy of domestication.

Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detailed explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers.

Since the English readers are not familiar with the Chinese culture, Lin described it in great details; while in its Chinese version, these details were omitted. In Lin’s translation of Chinese classics, such as Laozi and Zhuangzi’s Taoism, he also adopted the same routine and won a large number of readers. In another translated work The Six Chapters of a Floating Life《浮生六记》, he adopted both domesticating and foreignizing strategies. The examples are in the following:

余笑曰：“卿非解人，摸索在有意无意间耳，拥而狂探，田舍郎之所为也。”
Beauty of caressing lies in doing naturally and half unconsciously. Only a country bumpkin will hug and caress a woman roughly. (Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)
惠来以番饼二圆授余，即以赠曹。曹力却，受一圆而去。
Hueilai gave me two Mexican dollars which 1 gave to Ts’ao, but Ts’ao would not take them, only after my insistence did he receive one dollar before going away.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)

In the two examples quoted above, Lin employed domesticating translation. The Chinese classics was translated into modern English and the cultural images were replaced, such as “田舍郎，番饼二圆”. The translation became fluent and transparent as if the translator was invisible. However, in order to introduce the profound Chinese culture, he also adopted foreignizing translation in the same text. The example is in the following:

其形削肩长颈，瘦不漏骨，眉弯目秀，顾盼神飞，惟两齿微露，似非佳相。
Of a slender figure, she had drooping shoulders and a rather long neck, slim but not to the point of being skinny. Her eyebrows were arched and in her eyes there was a look of quick intelligence and soft refinement. The only defect was that her two font teeth slightly inclined forward, which was not a mark of good woman.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)

The lines described the appearance of a Chinese woman. However, the traditional Chinese beauty may not be beautiful in western culture; and it is difficult for the westerners to understand that “两齿微露” is a premonition of disaster. Lin made no explanation here since he believed western reader would interpret the cultural connotation according to the context. There is no doubt that he succeeds.

The secret of his success is to focus on the function of the target text. Since translation is an intercultural action, different cultures can communicate smoothly by this means. In Lin’s case, he played the roles of source text producer, initiator and translator. Initiators can be a group or an institution. In order to achieve some kind of political purpose, government sometimes initiates a series of translation action and determines the translating strategies for translators. In addition, in order to get more benefit, publisher, the initiator, sometimes will set a translation brief for translators, and asks them to act accordingly. These phenomena are common in modern society. For example, many foreign romances are translated into Chinese in recent years. Some are domesticating while others are foreignizing. The reasons behind them probably lie in the publishers’ intention to satisfy their perspective readers. Translatorial action produces a TT that is functionally communicative and functionally suitable in the target culture. It places translation in its socio-cultural context, which includes the interplay between the translator and the institution that initiated it and stresses functionality.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)

====From the Perspective of Text Typology====
Among the advocates of functional approaches to translation is Reiss who works on text types which determine translation. Reiss’s approach considers the text rather than the word or the sentence as the translation unit and hence the level at which equivalence is to be sought. The contents of Reiss’s text typology are in the following:
The first one is the “informative” text where the content is the main focus. These texts do plain communication of facts, information, knowledge, opinions etc. The logical or referential dimension of language is what is involved. The second one is the “expressive” text where the focus is on creative composition and aesthetics. Both the author (the sender) and the message are what are foregrounded. Imaginative creative literature exemplifies these texts and the third one is the “operative” text where the focus is “appellative” by which what is meant is that the text appeals to the reader to act in a certain way, persuading, dissuading, requesting, and cajoling him. The form of language is dialogic.(Reiss, 1971:25)

Correspondingly Reiss advocates specific translation methods for these text types. The target text of an informative text should be in plain prose with explication where required, the aim being to transmit the referential content of the text. The text styles concern philosophy, news reports, science and so on that aim at introducing foreign culture, history and custom. This text type focuses on the convey of specific culture. Together with the function of Skopos theory, a foreignizing translation should be advocated. The target text of an expressive text should use the “identifying” method, the translator having to look at it from the ST author’s standpoint. The text type of this kind mainly is literature that concerns various linguistic, cultural factors with the functions of cognition, expression, moralism, aesthetics and so on.

Since it connects closely to culture, the choice of translation strategy seems more complex. Generally speaking, we can make the decision according to its function and purpose. For those works rich in cultural connotation, if the purpose is to introduce the source text culture to the target one, we should take foreignizing translation, such as Yang Xianyi’s A Dream of Red Mansions. Since the classic is a representation of Chinese culture and conventional moral, we should convey these information to foreign readers and avoid misreading or misunderstanding.

On the contrary, if the translator’s intention is to entertain the readers and provide the plot of the story, he can adopt the domesticating translation as Hawkes did in his The Story of the Stone. More examples can be seen at Su Mashu and Chen Duxiu’s 《悲惨世界》, all headings of the original novel were domesticated into typical Chinese traditional parallel sentences. For example, “The Close of A Day’s March” and “Prudence Recommended to Wisdom” were translated into “第一回迪涅城行人落魄，苦巴馆店主无情” and “第二回感穷途华贱伤心，遇贫客渔夫设计” respectively. Both content and form of an operative text are subordinate to the extra linguistic effect that the text is designed to achieve. “The translation of an operative text has to employ the ‘adaptive’ method, trying to create the same effect on the readers, as the ST. The translation of operative texts into operative texts should be guided by the overall aim of bringing about the same reaction in the audience, although this might involve changing the content and/or stylistic features of the original.” (Nord, 1997:38)

The examples can be found in the translation of advertisement. For instance, the famous trade mark “Coca Cola” was translated into “可口可乐” and reached a totally success. “Coca” is the plant the Indians view as saint and from which people abstract cocaine. If it is translated directly into“古柯” it probably cannot raise the nice flavor of the drink in Chinese customers. Then “Coca” was domesticated into “可口” while “Cola” maintained its foreigness. Therefore, for an operative text, since communicative function is prior to everything else, we tend to employ domesticating translation.

Reiss also mentioned evaluating criteria, which vary according to text types. Thus while the translation of any content-oriented text has to aim at semantic equivalence, and a popular science piece will have to preserve the ST style, there is greater need to retain a metaphor in an expressive text than in an informative target text. Reiss thinks one could gauge the adequacy of a TT by intra-linguistic criteria like semantic, grammatical and stylistic features and extra-linguistic criteria like situation, subject field, time, place, receiver sender and implications like humor, irony, emotion and so on.

Reiss’s text typology is a useful but it is clear that texts are often not as hermetically sealed as Reiss has once believed. A biography or an editorial could have informative as well as appellative content. A personal letter could well be informative, expressive and appellative as can be an advertisement. As a result, translators should take other factors into account, such as functions, Skopos and so on and make judgement accordingly. --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''Conclusion'''===
Domestication is reader-centered and TL culture-oriented, and foreignization is author-centered and SL culture-oriented. However, which of the two translating strategies should be chosen evokes a heated and endless debate at home and abroad, since scholars of these two opposite schools can't convince each other. Many scholars regard these two strategies as oil and vinegar, and believe that they can never coexist harmoniously in translation. People who advocate foreignization believe that, as a means of cultural communication, translation should introduce foreign culture and exoticness to target reader, meanwhile taking in new expressions. On the contrary, people who prefer domestication argue that translation should help to overcome not only language barrier but also cultural conflict. For them, the task of translator is to avoid cultural conflict, and domesticating translation can help readers understand the source text better and finally reach the goal of cultural communication.

From the perspective of functionalist theory, as a communicative, intercultural action, translation is viewed as an intentional, interpersonal interaction. From the angle of Skopos of translation, together with action theory and text typology theory, funetionalist approaches provide us a perspective. Skopos rule is the principal rule determining any translation process in the purpose of the overall translational action. Plus loyalty rule put forward by Nord, functionalist approaches put translation into the framework of action theory and cross-culture communication theory. And adequacy rather than equivalence should be the criterion of judging the quality of a translation. By analyzing the purposes of different parties involved in the translation action(such as initiator, translator, and reader)，guided by translation brief given by the initiator, a translator can determine which translation strategy should be chosen. If the purpose of translation is to introduce domestic culture, history, philosophy to foreign readers, then foreignization should be employed. On the other hand, if the purpose of translation is to entertain the target reader, domestication can add more readability and get better function. Besides, text typology can help translator to figure out the function of a source text and make wiser decision about translation strategy. In one word, from the viewpoint of functionalist, domestication and foreignization have different functions in target language culture. Translator can adopt either or both of them in order to achieve the prospective functions. They are not, and should not be regarded as contradictory, but complementary, and can be employed simultaneously in translation.

In a word, translation can realized cultural communication and transplantation goal under the guidance of the functionalist approaches.
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 12:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''References'''===

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2.Hawkes, David. (1982). ''The Story of the Stone.'' New York: Penguin Books.

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4.Nida, E. A. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating.'' Leiden: E. J. Bril1.

5.Nord, Christiane. (1997).''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist ApproachesExplained.'' Manchester:St. Jerome Publishing.

6.Reiss, K. (1971). ''Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism.'' Munich: Hueber.

7.Schaffner, (1995). Christina. ''“Editorial.” Cultural Functions of Translation.'' Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD.

8.Schleiermacher, A. (1992) On the Different Methods of Translating [A]. ''Theories of Translation: An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida''[C]. Schulte, R&Biguenet, J. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,36-54.

9.Venuti, L.(1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility.''[M]. London: Routledge.

10.Venuti, L.(1998). ''The Scandal of Translation.''[M]. London:Routledge.

11.Yang, Xianyi&Yang Gladys.(1994) ''A Dream of Red Mansions.'' Beijing: Foreign Language Press.

12.Cai Ping 蔡平.(2002).翻译方法应以归化为主[Domestication should be the Main Strategy in Literary Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal(5):39-41.

13.Cao Xueqin&Gao E曹雪芹&高鹗.(1992)''红楼梦''[Hongloumeng].Beijing:People's Literature Publishing Press 人民文学出版社.

14.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000).''文化与翻译''[Culture and Translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co.中国对外翻译出版公司.

15.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1999)''当代美国翻译理论''[Contemporary American translation theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.

16.Meng Jiangang 孟建刚. (2002).''关于翻译原则二重性的最佳关联性解释''[Accounting for the Duality of the Translating Principles of Foreignization and Domestication with the Notion of Optimal Relevance]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (5):27-31.

17.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1991). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short Translation History in the West].Beijing:The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.

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19.Zhu Guangqian朱光潜.(1984). ''谈翻译:翻译论文研究集''[On Translation: A collection of research papers on translation].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社

==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Howard Goldblatt’s Translation of Mo Yan’s Works 欧蓉 Ou Rong==
<center> 欧蓉 Ou Rong, 202020080629.</center>
===Abstract===
For a long time, owing to the unique style, Chinese literature has attracted much attention among world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge of cross-cultural communication and a medium of transmission. Mo Yan is a well-known representative Chinese writer, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012. And the study abroad on his works in translation has never stopped. Howard Goldblatt is a famous American translator specializing in contemporary Chinese literature, and all English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. Through analyzing the domestication and foreignization that reflect in the translated version of Mo Yan's works by Howard Goldblatt, the thesis aims to point out merits and and demerits of this application and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English. It can help strengthen the understanding and improve the fluency of the exchange between different cultures and promote Chinese literature goes ahead with the world.

===Key words===
domestication; foreignization; Howard Goldblatt; Mo Yan’s works

===题目===
葛浩文英译莫言作品中的归化和异化之应用

===摘要===
一直以来，中国文学的独特风格在世界文学中备受瞩目，在流向海外的过程中，翻译成为了跨文化沟通的桥梁与传播的媒介。莫言是中国著名作家，外国对其作品的翻译研究从未断过，2012年他获得诺贝尔文学奖。葛浩文是美国著名中国当代文学翻译家，莫言所有作品的英译本都来自于他。本文旨在通过分析葛浩文在翻译莫言作品过程中体现的归化和异化，从而指出其优点与缺点，从而思考中国文学作品被英译时应注意的事项，加强与提高不同文化之间交流的理解度与流畅度，帮助中国文学走出国门，面向世界。

===关键词===
翻译；归化；异化；葛浩文；莫言的作品

===Chapter1 Introduction===
From ancient to present, despite of its unique style, Chinese literature only has its own several classic works as famous among the world, such as Four Great Classical Novels---Water Margin, Journey to the West, Romance of the Three Kingdoms and Dream of the Red Chamber. Also, few literature works created in modern history have theirs own statues in the international. With the establishment of People’s Republic of China and Reform and Opening, there are a handful of modern and contemporary works that are well-known abroad(Lv Minhong, 2011:6).

Some Chinese literary works are published abroad and squeeze into bookshelves fill with English native books. The prominent Chinese writers in and out include Lu Xun, Mo Yan, Yu Hua, Lao She, Shen Congwen, Zhang Ailing and so on. Until 2012, the time that Mo Yan was awarded Nobel Prize, people’s interest in Chinese literature reached a climax(Sun Huijun,2014:86). In the process of flowing overseas, translator plays a crucial role in cultural transmission. The American sinologist Howard Goldblatt is the typical example, who made great contributions for the output of Chinese Culture(Ge Haowen,2014).

He can be called the mirror of Mo Yan in America, even the critic Updike said,the translation of contemporary Chinese novels in the United States seems to be the lonely career of Professor Howard Goldblatt(2005:37). Until now, his translation works of Mo Yan include Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, The Garlic Ballads, The Republic Wine, Sandalwood Death and so on. His superb translation for Mo Yan in certain sense helps a lot for Mo’s position in world literature.

Mo Yan said: ''without the outstanding work of Professor Howard Goldblatt, the translator of my novels, my novels could have been translated into English and published in the United States by others, but there is absolutely no such perfect translation as today. Many friends who are proficient in both English and Chinese said to me, Professor Howard Goldblatt’s translation perfectly matches with my original work. But I prefer to believe that his translation adds great luster to my original work''(2000:170).
=====1. Literature Review=====
Howard Goldblatt, who is well-known as a translator, sinologist and writer, translated many works of Chinese writers. During his 30-year translation career, he has translated more than 50 modern and contemporary Chinese literary works, making an inestimable contribution to the spread and influence of Chinese literature overseas(Jia,Yanqin,2012:62). However, as Howard mentioned in the interview, ''Americans don’t pay much attention to translated text. Because they are always suspicious to translation''(2009:50). Although translator plays a key role in literary dissemination and communication, the work of translators has not received the attention they deserve. And the researches on translation abroad also mainly focus on translation theorists rather than translators.

Therefore, the study about Howard Goldblatt’s translation is also not paid attention intensely outside. In 2011, the journal "Chinese Literature Today" was jointly organized by the University of Oklahoma and Beijing Normal University as an important platform for Chinese literature dissemination and research overseas, in which Howard, as the special guest, was introduced in details. In this journal, Christopher Lupke(2011)introduces Howard’s career of translation and studying, assesses his style of translation and discusses his faithful translation strategies.

Also, after three years, the journal “Chinese Literature Today” invited Howard again. Stalling Jonathan(2014)gives an original interview about Howard Goldblatt. The new point is the mention of opera of Yuan dynasty, which helps a lot for Howard’s translation of the work Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out.

Although there are few response to Howard Goldblatt’s translation abroad, many scholars in domestic regard him as a hot research object. Ji Jin(2009) conducts an interview on the situation of contemporary Chinese literary works overseas, Howard Goldblatt's criteria for choosing text, Howard Goldblatt's views and evaluations of contemporary Chinese writers, and his prospects for the development of contemporary Chinese literature in the future. This kind of study aims to find the problems Chinese literary works encountering with outside and to think about the solution.

Some scholars are interested in Howard Goldblatt’s view, principles and specific strategies on translation. Zhang Yaoping(2005)collects all Chinese works translated by Howard Goldblatt and figures out his views and style of translation. Then, Wen Jun, Wang Xiaochuan and Lai Tian(2007)summarize Howard Goldblatt’s four principles on translation. From the interview to Howard, Yan Yixun(2014) gets his ideas that “Elegance” is more important than “Faithfulness” and “Expressiveness” and that “Faithfulness” cannot be neglected by “Elegance”.

Nevertheless, the most common is the research on the text of translated version by Howard Goldblatt. Shao Lu(2013), through analyzing Howard’s Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, finds Howard’s “fidelity” and “infidelity” in translating. Shi Guoqiang(2013)points out Howard’s “Creative treason” on translation from his Big Breasts and Wide Hips. Yin Lingwei and Shen Xiangyu(2020)discuss Howard’s “fidelity” and “treason” in his translation of the work Frog. Many other works, such as Tales of Hulan River, Turbulence, Six Chapters From My Life Downunder, Red Sorghum and so on, also are studied by many scholars.

In this way, most scholars only reach a conclusion by analyzing a novel translated by Howard Goldblatt. Although the most studied is the translated texts of Mo Yan’s works, it lacks a systematic study of Howard’s translation strategies in a writer’s several works. Shao Lu(2011)has studied Howard’s translation of Mo Yan’s whole works, but her focus is translator’s decisive effect to promote the output of the original author’s works.

Therefore, the paper aims to analyze the domestication and foreignization in Howard Goldblatt's translation of Mo Yan's novels, find pivotal obstacles, and think about practical measures to promote Chinese culture to the world.

===Chapter 2 Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan===
Mo Yan, one of Chinese contemporary writers, born in Gaomi of Shandong province, creates plenty of novels in which the story happened in his hometown, Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips contained. His novel draws on the artistic guidelines of modernist novels such as magical realism, surrealism, symbolism, and stream of consciousness. He uses metaphors, symbols, exaggerations, and irony to express the profundity of the society, history, culture and the beauty of thousands of styles of regional culture in China.(Lv Minhong,2011:102)

Notwithstanding there is another feature in Mo Yan’s works---neutral and objective portrayal to the characters from different parties. For example, in Red Sorghum, when it comes to theme of history, to reconstruct history by overturning the dualistic opposition in the creation of traditional anti-Japanese novels, he presents the vague horizon between past and present, death and life, good and evil(Shao Lu,2011:51).

Combining the living description and impersonal history sense, Mo Yan’s work receives much attention from readers over the world. However, Mo Yan’s unique writing style with dialects and local color is difficult to translate into another language. It is Howard Goldblatt who translates his novels into English that speeds up the spreading overseas.

Howard Goldblatt, although with American descent, is interested in Chinese culture very much. He once studied and taught in Taiwan for many years, which provides him much experience to absorb Chinese culture. He once said Taiwan is his another home. When he came back to America, he was matriculated by San Francisco State University to study Chinese language literature. After several years, he went to Indiana University of Pennsylvania for further study under the guidance of the Professor Liu Wuji who is a well-known expert in Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29).

What drive Howard to choose Mo Yan continually and frequently can probably be several causes following. Firstly, Howard himself is interested in Chinese culture, which can be seen from his long-term study in China and his further study with the help of the Professor Liu Wuji. Here Mo Yan is a convinced writer representing Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29).

Secondly, Mo Yan’s work meets the taste of Americans. After his translated work Red Sorghum was published in America, the volume pressed and sale is impressive. Howard explained that American readers prefer two or three kinds of novels---those more about sex and politics or the detective novels(2009:46). Obviously, the former two elements can be shown in Mo Yan’s work.

Finally, there is a great relationship established between Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan. They would communicate with each other frequently. Each Mo Yan’s new book, Howard said, he would read it and admit the value of Mo’s works(2009:54). Just occasionally, Mo Yan once praised Howard’s rigorous spirit in translation and expressed his gratification to the cooperation(2000:170).

So much connection with China and accumulation of Chinese culture fosters his profound knowledge about Chinese literature. From 1970s Howard began to translate Chinese literary works. Among the works he had translated, the number of Mo Yan’s works is the most. And the version translated by Howard is the most accepted.

===Chapter 3 Embodiment of Demestication and Foreignization===
Domestication and foreignization are frequently used in the process of translation. The two terms were first brought forward by Venuti, an Italian. According to Venuti, domestication is to "bring the original author into the target language culture", while foreignization is to "accept the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text and bring the reader into the foreign context"(2004:20).

It implies that domestication requires the translator to get closer to the readers of the target language. The translator must speak like the native author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the reader, the translation must become an authentic native language. On the contrary, foreignization accepts the language characteristics of foreign cultures in translation and absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to move closer to the original author, adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author's use to convey the content of the original text, that is, the source language culture is the destination(Venuti,2004:25).

In Howard Goldblatt’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, the application of domestication and foreignization are ubiquitous.
=====1. Domestication=====
To convey the information more fluently and naturally, providing convenience to readers to understand, Howard applies domestication a lot in his translated works. Annotation, addition, omission and substitution, which are methods of domestication, can be seen in the Howard Goldblatt’s translated works.

======1.1. Annotation======
In Mo Yan’s work, there are many unique elements that exist in Chinese culture. To avoid obstacles for foreign readers, Howard makes some explanations based on the original meaning. There are several examples following:

E.g: Original text: 她回头对上官吕氏说：“上官家的，你跟我进来。”(Mo Yan,2012:10)

Translated text: She stopped, turned and said to Shangguan Lv:“Lady Shangguan, come with me.”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:17)

In China, especially in the northern regions, when addressing a person’s wife, the word “的” is usually added to the man’s last name. “上官家的” refers to Shangguan Fulu’s wife. It is a kind of dialect, showing the local color of Gaomi town. Here Howard uses “lady” to explain “的”, for the former is commonly used in English expression to greet a married woman. American readers could keep pace with the plots without culture gap, avoiding the obstacle for understanding.

There are some special expressions only in Chinese local culture, which are even able to be understood by the local. Howard also adds some annotations following:

E.g: Original text: 八竿子拨拉不着的个表姨。(Mo Yan,2012:328)

Translated text: You’re such a distant aunt.(Howard Goldblatt,2011:363)

“八竿子拨拉不着” is equivalent to the meaning of “Eight poles can’t be struck”, describing the relationship between the two being alienated or unrelated. The original description of the person killed by the little lion is a whole number when counted on the table. Howard adopts the strategy of domestication, only expressing the distance between the two, without literally translating "Baganzi".

The translator is responsible for the original work and also for the target readers, paying attention to reader’s acceptance and to the fluency of the translation. Therefore, Howard puts the content and form of the translation within the knowledge range of the target language readers, helping them to better understand the translation with their own cultural concepts.

======1.2. Addition======
It is known that addition can be used as a method of domestication to explain the concealed information.

E.g: Original text:---信马由缰式的---(Wen Jun,2007:79)

Translated text: Prepared to go with the flow---that was how he lived his life---he followed the man inside.(Wen Jun,2007:79)

Xu Yuanchong believes that the four-character idiom of Chinese is an advantage that the West does not have, and only China has. Peole cannot find a perfect expression in another language. There is not an absolutely identical expression matches the meaning of certain an idiom. The idiom of Chinese The idiom “信马由缰”means to wander aimlessly on a horse. Howard Goldblatt not only translated the literal meaning of the idiom, but also explained the meaning of the idiom in specific situations based on the meaning in the text(Xu Yuanchong,1993:87).

======1.3. Omission======
There are some elements in original text that are difficult to understand for foreign readers. Therefore, Howard makes some omissions when translating.

E.g:Original text: 谢谢审判长的提醒，我马上进入实质性辩护。近几年来，农民的负担越来越重。我父亲所在村庄，种一亩蒜薹，要交纳农业税九元八角。要向乡政府交纳提留税二十元，要向村委会交纳提留三十元，要交纳县城建设税五元（按人头计算），卖蒜薹时，还要交纳市场管理税、计量器检查税、交通管理税、环境保护税，还有种种名目的罚款！(Cao Shunying,2015:127)

Translated text: Thank you for reminding me, Your Honor. I’ll get right to the point. In recent years the peasants have been called upon to shoulder ever heavier burdens: fees, taxes, fines, and inflated prices for just about everything they need.(Cao Shunying,2015:127)

Compared with the original work, some details of Chinese legal policies are obviously omitted here, because foreign readers basically do not understand Chinese legal policies, which are too difficult and boring to understand. If the translator makes too many descriptions of these details, foreign readers will lose interest in this work. It is also an embodiment of domestication. By the way, in the end of The Garlic Ballads, Howard makes a great change that he deletes some problematic plot and turns the imperfect ending into a satisfying ending. This action, certainly proved, is correct(Yan Yixun,2014:197).

======1.4. Substitution======
Sometimes, the meaning of words or expression is not equal to the literal meaning. Perhaps, it is the contrary or unrelated meaning, which requires translators make a closing reading and recognize the real meaning the original author want to express. This time, translators should find a more accurate native expression to substitute the original expression. There is an typical example following:

E.g: Original text: 余占鳌在火辣辣的痛楚中，忽然感到一阵酥酥麻麻的快乐，这快乐冲到喉咙，启动牙齿，化作一连串胡言乱语：“亲娘亲娘亲娘……亲娘……亲娘……”(Mo Yan,2007:158)

Translated text: Stung by the pain, he experienced a sense of numbing ecstasy, and when it reached his throat it activated his teeth moving and emerged as a stream of gibberish:“Mistress Mistress Mistress...”(Howard Goldblatt,1994:165)

The Chinese “亲娘” and “亲妈” are not only called as the biological mother, but also often people’s blurting when sighing. For example, if people are shocked by something, they will say: “哦，我的妈呀！” Here, the author uses the word “亲娘” five times to express the confusion and excitement in Yu Zhanao's heart.

Grandmother scolded Yu Zhanao as a punishment for him breaking into her room, but Yu Zhanao admired her grandmother, so he regarded her grandma's behavior as a flirtation, so he was happy. If the translator literally translates “亲娘” as “mother”, this will not only make readers feel very confused about the relationship and plot, but also the original flirting feeling will be indifferent. Howard Goldblatt uses the strategy of domestication to replace it with “mistress”. It not only eliminates the differences between language and culture, but also makes translation more fluent, natural and smooth.

=====2. Foreignization=====
To close the distance with the original text and try at most to transmit the authentic culture of original text, translators apply foreignization as a translation method. This kind of method usually does not change the style and order of the characters in original text, keeping the exotic tinge of original culture in the target language. Transliteration and literal translation, as the methods of foreignization, are the most frequently used by Howard Goldblatt.

======2.1. Transliteration======
In most cases, transliteration is the best translation method for names without special meaning. When translating a name, transliteration is a very important way. The translator can translate the name according to its pinyin without changing the Chinese order. Howard Goldblatt uses a lot of transliteration when there is no special meaning in the translation of Red Sorghum. For example, “戴凤莲” was translated as “Dai Fenglian”, “豆官” was “Douguan”, and “单庭秀” was “Shan Tingxiu”. “王文义” means “Wang Wenyi”(Howard Goldblatt,1994).

It can be seen from the above that Howard extremely respects the original author in the translation of such names. He not only uses pinyin completely, but also follows the order of Chinese names, that is, the surname is first and the first name is last, respecting and obeying Chinese traditional cultural customs.

However, when translating some characters’ nicknames and names with special meanings, transliteration is not applicable. The translator needs to find out the specific implicit meaning, and then choose the most suitable translation, such as “刘罗汉”, which is translated into “Arhat Liu”. Because 刘罗汉 was a loyal, firm and honest helper. He passed away in order to protect the property of his host. His spirit is consistent with the meaning of “Araht”, so Howard’s translation of it is very symbolic(Howard Goldblatt,1994).

There is another transliteration that appears with some annotations, which can enlarge reader’s insight and make the plot more logically:

E.g: Original text: 直到春暖花开的清明节。(Mo Yan,2012:110)

Translated text: Qingming, the day of ancestral worship in the warmth of spring, when flowers were in full bloom. (Howard Goldblatt,2011:140)

“清明节” is a traditional Chinese festival. It is a festival to worship ancestors. The traditional activity is tomb sweeping. Using transliteration and short explanations, readers can have a basic understanding of this object, and can remind readers of its uniqueness.

======2.2. Literal Translation======
In the translation of some idioms and culturally loaded words, Howard Goldblatt also adopts the literal translation method to maintain the characteristics of the source language, so that people of different nationalities can share some common points in cognition.

E.g: Original text: 母亲咬着牙齿说：“姓沙的，你癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉，做梦去吧！”(Mo Yan,2012:85)

Translated text: Mother clenched her teeth. “You there, Sha”, She said, “Like the toad who want to feast on a swan, you can just dream on!”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:113)

In this sentence, “癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉” is a common Chinese idiom, which means that without self-knowledge, one wants to obtain something impossible. For American readers, they may not be able to fully understand the relationship between Toad and Swan in Chinese. But in this way, they can understand what the author wants to express based on their own experience and context.

In this way, Howard has neither changed the lively image of the original text nor has it lost the connotative meaning of the original text. He once said:''If I can find appropriate slangy or regional or slightly archaic or unusual words that carry that sense, I’ll certainly use them. If I can’t I won’t.''(2014:8)

===Chapter4 Enlightenment for Translation===
Howard Goldbaltt puts faithfulness to the original text in the first place, reproduces the original content and ideas and retains the original writing style and language characteristics. It reflects the translator’s ethics of being faithful to the original text; secondly. To consider the target language reader's reading ability and translation the translator adopts domestication strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers, appropriately reduces the cultural information of the original text, and provides a naturally familiar target language for readers of the target language(Chen Jiayu,2019:20).

In order to promote cultural exchanges and realize cross-cultural communication, translators adopt foreignization strategies to preserve the cultural and national characteristics of the original text as much as possible. This not only allows target language readers to understand foreign cultures and customs, but also promotes cultural exchanges and dissemination and makes outstanding contributions to promoting Chinese literature to overseas.

The purpose of Howard Goldbaltt’s translation is to complete a translation that is readable for Americans and highly accepted by the market. And about Howard’s translation of domestication and foreignization, there are many some arguments. Most scholars confirm to that Howard Goldblatt’s translation is applied domestication more frequently, while foreignization is minor(Yin Ting,2014:150).

However, in studying the translated text Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Shi Guoqiang(2013:80) thinks that foreignization is the main methods of Howard’s translation, domestication minor. He comes up with several aspects that Howard use foreignization in his translation, such as some idoims, special nouns and two-part allegorical saying and so on. Despite of the arguments, Howard’s excellent translation cannot be denied, which help a lot for the going abroad of Chinese literature.

Analyzing the Howard’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, although his translation is the best version of Mo Yan’s novels until now, as for the output of Chinese litertature even Chinese culture, we still can get some enlightenment.

Firstly, when translating Chinese literature into other languages, the translator himself is important. Usually, the translators who translate Chinese into another language are our Chinese. They translate their mother language into another language, in a sense, not as well-master as the people of target language. It causes a problem that the readers of target language cannot read and understand the translated version naturally and easily by Chinese translators. And the Chinese translators, most of them, are living in China, lack of the context of target language(Hu Anjiang,2010:11).

Also, the Chinese translators who specialize in two languages and cultures are rare. What is more, the foreign translators familiar with Chinese culture is less. Therefore, according to Xu Jianping and Zhang Rongxi, the most effective way for Chinese-English translation is the cooperation of the original author and foreign translator of target language(2002:38). Howard Goldblatt and MoYan is the best example. And Howard himself also expresses the similar view(2014:201).

Secondly, the translation strategy is also crucial. Chinese literature is the “weak literature”(Yin Lingwei,2020:109), so Xu Jianping thinks that foreignization should not be widely used in Chinese-English translation, because foreign readers’ understanding of China and its language and culture is far less than Chinese readers' understanding of foreign language and culture(2002:38).

However, from the 1870s to the 1970s, for a hundred years, Chinese literary translation was roughly based on domestication; during the two decades of reform and opening up, inspired by Western translation theories, the Chinese translation community rethought foreignization and domestication, and the two methods have gradually become balanced in China. Therefore, Sun Zhili believes that the translation of Chinese literature in the 21st century will be dominated by foreignization(2002:40).

Actually, it is not suitable to regard domestication and foreignization by dichotomy. Combining the two ways, the starting point should be to bring Chinese literary translations closer to Western readers through the domestication translation method, so as to enter the mainstream Western culture. Let Western readers first understand our cultural routines and ways of thinking, and then talk about further transformation and influence on the West Follow-up issues such as literary creation mode(Hu Anjiang,2010: 15).

Finally, the responsibility of publishers and editors is also heavy. When Chinese literature goes out, the most in short supply of talents are intermediary talents, that is, intermediary agencies that can understand Chinese contemporary literary works, and at the same time understand the international market, and have a good background of cooperation with international publishing institutions...(Li Yun,2007)

There is “the third readers” in the world. They usually don't pay much attention to the content when reading, because they are more in love with the readability or text style of the work. Also, they do not compare the translations with the original works, but only compare these translations with original English works or those literary translations translated from other languages into English. Paying more attention to such “fair readers” who pursue pure literary feeling and pure aesthetic experience will be an important guarantee for literary translations to gain the literary market, commercial profits and even the status of translated literary classics(Medougall,2007:23)

===Chapter5 Conclusion===
For any responsible translator, every choice made in the translation process is not random or blind, but has a clear consciousness and clear goals, and they strive to resolve various contradictions encountered in translation to achieve the value of translation(Liu Yunhong, 2014). Through analyzing the application of domestication and foreignization Howard Goldblatt’s translation of Mo Yan’s works, some enlightenment can be concluded. The translators, the translation strategies and the publisher and editor can be taken as the crucial aspects.

Citing the words of Nida, for a truly successful translation, bilingual proficiency in culture is more important than in language, because words have meaning only in the culture in which they function(1993:83). This shows that in the process of translation, translators should not stick to a single domestication or foreignization translation strategy. They should comprehensively consider various factors such as language, culture, and readers’ comprehension, and adopt appropriate strategies to arrive at a degree of integration and adaptation for the highest translation.

The needs of the target language culture have changed with the development of society and the changes of the times, and the target language readers' acceptance and understanding of Chinese culture have also increased with the increase of China's international influence. Many things that tended to be domesticated in the past are now or in the future using foreignized translations that are completely acceptable to the target language readers, and even look forward to them. Translating Chinese literary works with increasingly alienated strategies, allowing the world to read Chinese stories and understand Chinese culture is the only way for Chinese culture to “go out”.

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--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 07:06, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong

==Domestication and Foreignization in the Course of Translation Under the Direction of Skopos Theory 谭星越 Tan Xingyue==
<center> 谭星越 Tan Xingyue,202020080642.</center>
===Abstract===

Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'' in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more understanable by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.
Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.

===Key Words===
Skopos Theory, domestication, foreignization

===题目===
目的论视角下归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用

===摘要===
归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出来的。归化翻译是一种倾向于译入语文化的翻译方法，使原文文本更加容易被目的语读者所接受。异化翻译则旨在尽可能地传递原文文本的异质性和文化特色。翻译目的论由赖斯和弗米尔于20世纪70年代提出，该理论认为翻译目的决定翻译策略。本文将以目的论作为理论研究的依据，分析归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用和实践。

===关键词===
目的论，归化，异化

===Introduction===
In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge of communication between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choice according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and Foreignization.
In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer as the landmark of functional approaches to translation is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.
The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.

===Chapter 1 Skopos Theory===
According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was accounted as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory has been proposed based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings. In this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.

====1.1 Origination and formulation of Skopos Theory====
The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized. Therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus, it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation.

In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, "Skopos" referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claims that the intended purpose of the translation determins the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.

Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages among different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced "message transmitter" that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation need not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.

In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity and faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.

It can be seen from the above that the landmark theories of the German functionalist approach were: Katharina Reiss’ Text Typology, Hans Josef Vermeer’ Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’ Theory of Translation Action and Nord's Function plus Loyalty.

====1.2 Three rules of the Skopos Theory====
The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There are three ways to understand this word "skopos": the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, "skopos" referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.

===Chapter 2 Domestication and Foreignization===
As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially in the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation in which there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.

====2.1 Domestication====
Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not all people in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.

Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation''. He proposed that domestication was an approach that the translator "leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him" and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, and that openly adopted conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and that catered to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)

Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book ''Dictionary of Translation Studies'' defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth & Cowie, 2004:59)

Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)

Domesticating translation that emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.

In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into that of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.

====2.2 Foreignization====
Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as a standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.

Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and the respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of "literal translation" and "free translation". They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:

"An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] express itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language, because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign."(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)

The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's "Deconstruction" philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “difference” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Difference” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.

On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The "heterogeneity" of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of "translation autonomy" and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of "artistic autonomy" in the translation of literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates the promotion of the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.

===Chapter 3 Translation Method under the Direction of Skopos Theory===

Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its "social identity".(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images of the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable.

====3.1 Target reader-oriented approach — domestication====

If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, or considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.

“煮茶非漫浪,要须其人与茶品相得。故其法每传于高流隐逸、有烟霞泉石磊磈于胸次间者。
The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake. The moral state of the brewer should match well with the quality of the tea. That explains why the techniques of tea brewing are usually handed down only to eremitic wisdoms with lofty characters and peaceful mind."
(Jiang & Jiang，2009:36)

“The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art need no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public's eye in the long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors.

Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word "turret" originates from the Latin word "turris", which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Much more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are "Chinese hamburger" and "Chinese sandwich", because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese "meat burger" or "meat sandwich", and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.

====3.2 The purpose of source culture dissemination—foreignization====
For the sake of spreading the source language culture, translator should adopt foreignization so as to promulgate the culture of the original language to the target readers to the largest degree, stimulate the readers to learn the unknown source culture, help to overcome the obstacles in cross-cultural communication, and finally facilitate cultural integration. Then, I will analyze the practice of foreignizing translation combined with some examples.

“凡采茶,在二月、三月、四月之间。
The second, third, fourth months of the lunar year are a proper time for almost all sorts of tea to get harvested."
(Jiang & Jiang, 2009:48)

During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introducing into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.

Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in ''The Dream of Red Mansions'', as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel. Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.

===Conclusion===
Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criteria of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.

===References===
*Gentzler, Edwin.(1993). ''Contemporary Translation Theories''. London: Routledge.

*Graham, Joseph.(1986). ''Difference in Translation''. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.

*Justa Holz-Manttari.(1984). ''Translatorisches Handeln, Theorie und Methode''. Distributor, Akateeminen Kirjakauppa.

*Nida, Eugene. A. (2003). ''Toward a Science of Translating''. Brill Academic Publishers.

*Nord, Christiane.(2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functional Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

*Reiss, Katharine. &Vermeer, Hans. J. (1984). ''Towards a General Theory of Translational Action: Skopos Theory Explained''. London: Routledge.

*Robinson, Douglass. (1997). ''Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theory Explained''. Manchester: St Jerome.

*Schleiermacher, Friedrich. (2004). ''On the Different Methods of Translating''. In Lawrence Venuti ed. The Translation Studies Reader. London: Routledge.

*Schuttleworth, Mark. & Cowie, Moria. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Manehester: St Jerome.

*Vermeer, Hans. J. (1987). ''What does it Mean to Translate''. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics (2):25-33.

*Venuti, Lawrence.(2001). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: History of Translation''. London and New York: Routledge.

*An Feng安锋.(2004). 霍米·巴巴“后殖民理论研究”.[Homi Bhabha’s Study on Postcolonial Theory]. 北京语言大学 Beijing Language and Culture University.

*Guo Jianzhong郭建中.(1998).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化.[Cultural Factors in Translation:Foreignization and Domestication].上海外国语大学学报 Journal of Shanghai International Studies University (2):3-5.

*Jiang Xin&Jiang Yi（唐）陆羽，姜欣, 姜怡（译）. (2009).大中华文库·茶经．[The Classics of Tea].湖南：湖南人民出版社 Hunan People's Press．

*Xie Yao 谢瑶.(2017).“一带一路”背景下中国茶文学作品的归化翻译与异化翻译.[Domesticating and Foreignizing Translation of Chinese Tea Literature in the Context of Belt and Road].福建茶叶 Fujian Tea(2) :360-361．

*Zhang Jinghua 张景华.(2009). 翻译伦理：韦努蒂翻译思想研究.[Ethics of Translation: A Study of Venuti's Thought on Translation]. 上海交通大学出版社 Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press.

*Zhang Jinlan张锦兰. (2004).目的论与翻译方法.[The Skopos Theory and Translation Method]. 中国科技翻译 Technology Translation in China(1):35-37.

==Study of domestication and foreignization in cross cultural translation 周罗平 Zhou Luoping English language and literature==
<center> 周罗平 Zhou Luoping,202020080670.</center>

===Abstract===
Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This chapter will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.

===Key words===
Domestication Foreignization Cross-cultural Translation

===题目===
跨文化翻译中归化和异化研究

===摘要===
语言是文化的载体，是文化间传播和交流的媒介。语言和文化之间密不可分。在文化交流日益频繁的今天，用翻译去传递不同文化之间的信息就显得格外重要。翻译不仅仅是将一种语言转化为另一种语言，更要关注不同语言背后所承载的历史背景和文化传统，故在跨文化翻译中，译者应掌握处理文化的两种翻译方法：归化和异化。本章将系统地介绍归化和异化这两种翻译策略，并探究在跨文化翻译中如何选择使用这两种翻译策略。

===关键词===
归化异化跨文化翻译

===Introduction===
Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.

Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought about by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the target language and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.

===Chapter 1 Domestication and Foreignization===
The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. These two concepts are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).

====1.1 Introduction of Domestication====
According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus bringing the author back home. Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers (Venuti 2009, 20).

In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it makes the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domestication, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spread of different cultures and hinders readers’ understanding of foreign culture (He 2019, 70).

Eugene Nida is the representative figure advocating domestication. Nida’s functional equivalence theory or dynamic equivalence theory shows that he is a supporter of domesticating translation. His dynamic equivalence theory shows that he pursues the most natural equivalence translation. He once said that “dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language” (Nida & Taber 2004, 24).

In other words, dynamic equivalence means that the reader’s response to the translation is consistent with that of the original. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory fully considers the reader’s language culture and the reader’s ability to appreciate the translation. Therefore, in the course of translating, the translator should take the completely natural and smooth language expression as the goal. In order to make the translation natural and smooth, the translator must make some adjustments to the original text. Some heterogeneous cultures which are not accepted by readers should be eliminated as much as possible. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory takes the reader into full consideration. It aims to eliminate the readers’ strangeness to the original content and let readers better understand the thought and meaning of the original text, which precisely reflects the characteristics of domesticating translation.

====1.2 Introduction of Foreignization====
Foreignization is an ethnodeviant practice, keeping language and cultural differences of the original texts as far as possible and thus sending the reader abroad. In other words, in order to show the cultural characteristics of the source work, translators use foreignising translation to retain the characteristics of the source text and try to keep the writing techniques used by the author of the source language. Hence, for the readers of the target language, the translation is exotic and unfamiliar (Venuti 2009, 20).

Same to the domestication, foreignization also has its advantages and disadvantages. Foreignization, by transplanting the culture of the source language into the culture of the target language, enriches the culture of the target language to a great extent. For example, the Chinese phrase “武装到牙齿” is translated into “armed to the teeth”, which greatly spreads Chinese culture and enriches English and Chinese language culture. Of course, foreignization also has its limitations. Some cultural differences and language differences are difficult to overcome. If foreignization is adopted blindly in the process of translation, there will produce some translations that readers cannot understand and accept, and translation will also lose its function of cultural communication (He 2019, 71).

Schleiermacher and Venuti are strong supporters of foreignization. Schleiermacher’s preferred strategy is to accommodate the reader to the author. He claims that translations need not be same as the original author writes in the source language. The translation doesn’t conform to the general expression habits of the target language. He believes that a translator who knows the target language can help target readers who are not proficient in the foreign language but have a strong understanding of the original text. To achieve this goal, the translator must adopt the foreignization translation, emphasize the value of heterogeneous culture, and ensure the faithfulness to the original text by subordinating the words in the target text to the source language. In this way, the translation can be faithful to the meaning of the original text and can introduce heterogeneous cultures and concepts to readers of target language (Jiang 2016, 147).

In his book The Translator’s Invisibility, Venuti expresses his understanding and support for foreignization translation in detail. He believes that foreignization translation is a kind of translation strategy that preserves and highlights the heterogeneity of the original text in the translation. Firstly, he believes that foreignization is reflected in the selection of translation materials. He mainly aims at the classic translation of literature and culture of the target language instead of scientific translation. In the process of foreignising translation, the translator chooses a foreign text which is different from the mainstream culture of the target language, which can change the cultural composition of the target language (Venuti 2009, 42).

Secondly, foreignization translation is reflected in the language used by the translator. This means that in the process of translation, the closer the language style of the translation is to the language style of the original, the more heterogeneous the readers will feel. Moreover, Venuti advocates that in the process of translation, the translator should use words that are not commonly used and non-standard. Translators should mix slang, neologism or archaic words to achieve heterogeneous effects. In this way, the foreignization style of translation highlights the heterogeneity of foreign texts and challenges and resists the mainstream culture of the target language (Venuti 2009, 35).

Thirdly, foreignization translation is embodied in cultural alienation. By highlighting the cultural differences caused by language differences, foreignization translation promotes the development of cultural diversity, helps to resist the hegemony of European and American culture, and helps to promote the development of culture and language of weak and small nations (Venuti 2009, 21).

Fourthly, foreignising translation highlights and enhances the status of the translator, which changes the phenomenon that the smooth translation makes the translator invisible in the past, thus promoting translation research to gradually move to the academic center. Venuti elaborates that smooth translation has long occupied the mainstream position in the history of western translation, and the fluency of translation has become the standard to judge whether a translation is good or not. Venuti challenges and questions this phenomenon. The smooth translation covers up the translator’s intervention and interpretation of the original text, and covers up the language and cultural differences of the original work (Venuti 2009, 17).

Therefore, he puts forward the concept of resistant translation to expound his translation thoughts. Resistant translation refers to a translation strategy that preserves some heterogeneity in literary translation. The object of resistance is the prevailing translation thought in British and American culture, that is, fluent translation is acceptable translation. Venuti challenges the dominant position of British and American culture and introduces the idea of weak culture by advocating resistant translation (Jiang 2016, 169).

Translation is not only a process of seeking similarities between languages and cultures, but also a process of facing the differences between languages and cultures. Translators cannot completely and thoroughly eliminate these differences. Therefore, a good translation must be the blending and collision of different cultures, from which the readers can better understand and perceive cultural diversity (Jiang 2016, 170).

====1.3 Literal translation, free translation, domestication, and foreignization====
There are a lot of discussions on the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and literal translation and free translation. Many people think that domestication is equal to free translation, while foreignization is equal to literal translation. I don’t think so. In this part, I will make a comparison and distinction between the two groups of translation concepts.

Literal translation refers to the translation that maintains the content and style of the original text while following the norms of the target language. Literal translation starts with word to word translation (Shuttleworth & Moira 2005, 129). However, due to the need to be consistent with the grammar of the target language, the final target text may also present the equivalence of phrase to phrase or clause to clause. Free translation, as opposed to literal translation, refers to the translation that reads naturally, rather than the type of translation that completely retains the wording of the source text. Free translation is usually oriented to the target language (Shuttleworth & Moira 2005, 84).

As mentioned before, domesticating translation covers up the differences between different cultures and weakens the strangeness of the original. The translation produced by domestication is very fluent and natural so that readers are able to read and understand the translation according to their own language expressions. Foreignising translation requires the translation to show the heterogeneity of the original text and convey the foreign cultural characteristics of the original text as far as possible so that the reader will feel a strange feeling when reading the translated text and sometimes they will have some misunderstanding or questions that are caused by exotic culture.

Literal translation and free translation emphasize whether the translation is consistent with the original text in terms of language form and style. Domestication and foreignization not only emphasizes the language level, but also pays attention to whether the values and cultural traditions conform to the expression habits of the target language. Additionally, it is worth mentioning that literal translation and free translation are static opposites. Whether the translation is faithful to the original is mainly seen from the linguistic unit. Domestication and foreignization is a pair of dynamic opposites. With the frequency of cultural exchanges and the passage of time, the original foreignization will become domestication. Therefore, we cannot easily equate literal translation with foreignization, nor can we equate free translation with domestication (Lu 2018, 57).

===Chapter 2 Factors influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization===
In cross-cultural translation, translators are always faced with the choice of domestication and foreignization. Then, how does the translator make a choice? This part will explore some factors that influence the choice of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and then discuss when to domesticate and when to foreignize the text.

====2.1 The type of the text====
Different text has its own function. When dealing with different kinds of texts, translators should choose different translation strategies to translate text and to better show the function of the text. Newmark, a famous translator, divides text into three types according to its content and style: expressive function, informational function, and vocative function.

Expressive text mainly has literary value or shows the author’s unique writing style, including some serious literary works, such as some serious imaginative literature, authoritative statements and some literary works like personal letters, autobiography, and essay. Expressive text emphasizes the expressive function of language. This kind of the text takes the authority of the original author into consideration and pays less attention to readers’ responses (Newmark 2001, 39).

Compared with other types of texts, expressive texts use artistic and beautiful language with the purpose of creating artistic images, so that readers can be inspired and moved by the language in the process of reading. The characteristics of expressive texts require translators to translate not only meaning, but also the emotion in the process of translation, so as to reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text to the greatest extent and make readers feel the artistic charm of the source text when reading the translated text. Therefore, the linguistic features and purposes of expressive texts require translators to use foreignization as much as possible to reflect the exotic flavor of the source language and reproduce the artistic features of the source text (Wang 2008, 138).

Informative text is mainly to convey the original information to readers truthfully and smoothly, mainly including technical reports, articles in newspapers or periodical, general teaching materials, product descriptions and other text whose content is more important than form. This kind of text is created without author’s personal emotion and its main function is to lead readers to know and understand information (Newmark 2001, 40).

These characteristics require translators to focus on the content of the text and uses simple or clear expression as far as possible to convey the content so that readers can fully accept the meaning; therefore, it’s better to use domestication as much as possible to reproduce the content of the original text instead of sticking to the language styles.

Vocative text is mainly to call readers to take action, to think, and to make reaction, including notice, instruction, and advertisement. This type of text emphasizes the infective function of the language and it takes readers as center. Vocative text emphasizes the readability of the text and the acceptability of the reader. It is necessary to put the readers of the target language in the first place and take their culture and receptivity into consideration, so that they can clearly get the information (Newmark 2001, 41).

Therefore, when translating such texts, translators should grasp the cultural differences between different languages and put the cultural habits of target readers in the first place. Only in this way can readers truly think, feel, and act. Additionally, in the course of translation, translators should give full play to the linguistic advantages of the target language and should not be limited to the expression of the original text, so as to achieve the same effect as the original language as far as possible (Wang 2008, 139).

According to Newmark, the division of text is not absolute, and most texts have all three functions at the same time with one or two of them dominate (Newmark 2001, 42).

Hence, in the actual translation, domestication and foreignization should be combined. They are not always antithetical; on the contrary, they complement each other. When choosing foreignising translation strategy, translators should pay attention to the smoothness and understandability of the target text. When choosing the domestication translation strategy, translators should also pay attention not to lose the flavor and style of the original text. During translating, to a certain extent, translators have freedom so they should give full play to the advantages of the two translation strategies. Translators can adopt domesticating translation to familiarize language expression and use foreignising translation to keep cultural elements (He 2019, 71).

====2.2 Readers of the target language====
The translator choosing which translation strategy is not only influenced by the type of text, but also by the target readers. Reader is an important factor influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization so translator should take readers’ age, gender and educational level into consideration in the course of translation.

The translation under the domestication strategy is smooth and natural and it’s easier to be accepted by readers. Therefore, if the target readers of the translated text are young children or readers with low education level, the translator can use the domestication strategy more when translating, so that the readers can understand and accept the information of the translated text (Zhang & Wang 2007, 147).

However, the translation under the foreignization strategy aims at revealing the heterogeneity of the source culture, spreading foreign culture, and preserving the unique expression and original flavor of the original text. Such a translation may be awkward and difficult to understand. If the readers of the target text are highly educated, highly receptive, or have a certain understanding and cognition of the culture of the source language, the translator can use the foreignization strategy to show the style of the source text, so that the readers can better understand the foreign culture and broaden their horizon (Zhang & Wang 2007, 147).

Generally speaking, most works have a specific audience for reading. Different groups of readers have their own characteristics and different levels of comprehension; therefore, translators should take the factor of readers into consideration to choose domestication strategy or foreignization strategy in the actual translation.

===Chapter 3 The application of translation methods in domestication and foreignization===
In cross-cultural translation, translating culturally-loaded expressions is difficult. Choosing appropriate ways to translate culturally-loaded expressions will not only keep the original favor, but also make readers of target language better understand, so in this part I will introduce some methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions under the domestication and foreignization strategy.

====3.1 Introduction of culturally-loaded expressions====
Culturally-loaded words refer to words with certain cultural background or profound cultural implication, including proverbs, allusions, special characters’ names and current idioms and idioms that have been deposited in a certain historical stage (Fang 2011, 297).

As culturally-loaded words have their own uniqueness, the following principles should be followed in the translation of culture-loaded words. According to Wang Zhenqi, first, the key implied meaning of the expression in the source text should be converted into non-implied meaning in translation. Second, the representation of the lexical meaning of the source language should be given priority to the representation of the form. Third, the context of the source words should be taken into full consideration in the choice of translation (Wang 2014, 97).

Then, in the translation of such words, the translator takes cultural exchange as the purpose, evaluates the readers’ cultural reception and perceptivity, and adopts flexible and appropriate translation methods, so as to ensure that the translated text not only retains the cultural information and cultural color of the original text, but also has readability. There are different ways of translating culturally-loaded words because of their different forms and cultural meanings.

====3.2 Translation methods under the domestication strategy====
Under the domestication translation strategy, there are three main methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions, namely: free translation, cultural substitution, and simplification.

Free translation is a common way in translating culturally-loaded words. Free translation is to translate the cultural information in the source text as much as possible. If the translator only conveys literal meanings of the words that are rich in cultural information, sometimes they will confuse and even misunderstand readers. In order to better convey the meaning of the original text, the translator adopts free translation method to translate the real connotation of culturally-loaded words for filling the gap in the readers’ culture and letting readers understand the text more naturally and smoothly (Wang 2014, 98).

For example, some color words in Chinese have lots of different symbolic meanings. The color purple in Chinese culture represents the spirit of saints and emperors, which is maybe unfamiliar to readers of other cultures. Hence, when translating the term “紫禁城”，in order to eliminate misunderstanding, the translator tends to adopt free translation to translate it as “the forbidden city”. When translating “紫气” in the phrase “紫气东来”, the translator translate it into “propitious omen”, which shows its cultural meaning (Wang 2014, 98).

In cross-cultural translation, the translator may face such difficulty that there is no corresponding word in the target language equaling to the culturally-loaded word in source language. In this case, cultural substitution is a good choice. Cultural substitution, put forward by Beekman and Callow, is a method of dealing with things that exist in the source language but do not exist in the target language. It is defined as using things in target language to replace the things in source language culture that is unknown to readers of target language. In order to maintain the functional meanings, both things have the same function. There are three points to note. Firstly, do not replace history with didactic words; secondly, choose the one that suits best and not just the one with the most obvious function; thirdly, avoid functional conflicts between source language and target language (Fang 2011,104).

For example, in order to let readers of target language better feel and understand the love of Romeo and Juliet, we will use cultural substitution methods and translate it into the love between Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai, which eliminates the unfamiliarity of the cultural image in source language and is the representation of domestication. Using the cultural images in the target culture, the translator enables the target readers to understand the foreign culture on the basis of their own culture, thus strengthening the understanding between different cultures.

Simplication is also a good way to deal with culturally-loaded expressions translation. According to Wang, simplified translation is to translate the core meaning of culture-loaded words in the source language into a simple and clear target language. In cross-cultural translation, the translator may encounter such a situation when the long-winded concept of the original text can be simply expressed in the target language, such as using idiom, and such a translation is more acceptable to the target language readers. Therefore, it is very effective to use simplified translation which not only preserves the core concept of the original text, but also makes the translation acceptable (Wang 2014, 98).

Free translation, cultural substitution and simplication are all translation methods to eliminate the strangeness caused by culturally-loaded words in the source language text and avoid readers’ confusion or misunderstanding. These domesticated text translation methods facilitate readers’ reading, better ensure that readers correctly understand the content of the source language text and experience the emotion of the source language text.

====3.3 Translation methods under the foreignization strategy====
Under the foreignization translation strategy, there are five main methods to translate culturally-loaded words, namely: literal translation, literal translation plus annotation, transliteration, transliteration plus annotation, and cultural borrowing.

Literal translation is loyal to the meaning and structure of the source text, directly translating the source language into the target language. With the increasingly frequent cultural exchanges, some loaded words and expressions have gradually become familiar to people (Fang 2011, 104).

For example, the proverb “All roads lead to Rome” is directly translated as “条条大路通罗马” . “A near friend is better than a far-dwelling kinsman” is translated as “远亲不如近邻”. These culturally-loaded expressions are directly translated into the target language and Chinese readers can clearly understand the meanings (Fang 2011, 104).

However, when literal translation can’t fully convey the original cultural information and readers have difficulty perceiving the meaning, the translator can add some annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the literal translation. Annotations can be used to supplement background information, cultural traditions and other information for readers to understand (Wang 2014, 98).

For example, the translator translates “工人文化宫” as “the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park” and add annotation in the sentence “Some went to the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park, a recreation center built for the proletariat during the heyday of communism”. By adding the supplementary information, readers will know the meaning of this sentence clearly. Hence, for one thing, the translation preserves the original culture and promotes the communication between different cultures as well; for another, the readers of target language can better understand the cultural connotation and broaden their knowledge (Fang 2011, 104).

Transliteration is a good and common way to translate culturally-loaded expressions. It uses letter symbols to represent letter symbols in another language system. When there is a big difference between the source language and the target language and there is a semantic gap, it is impossible to translate the semantic meaning. In this case, transliteration is the main translation method. The objects of transliteration are the names of people, places and newly generated terms (Fang 2011, 105).

For instance, a city of America “Mount Pleasant” is translated as “芒特普莱森特” in Chinese. The Chinese Taoist thought “阴”and “阳” are translated as “Yin” and “Yang.” Through transliteration, readers of the target language can not only gain some understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language, but also introduce new cultural concepts into the culture of the target language (Wang 2014, 97 ).

Transliteration plus annotation is also often used in the translation of specific cultural words. The translator can add some annotation that can be in-text annotation or extra-text annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the transliteration, so as to achieve the purpose of cultural information transmission (Fang 2011, 105).

For example, the sentence “诸如此类，其实只是一种社交上的客套，和‘顿首’‘百拜’同是仪式的虚伪” is translated as “All these are, in fact, nothing but civilities of social life, as hypocritical as the polite formula dunshou (Kowtow) or Baibai (a hundred greetings) used after the signature in old-fashioned Chinese lettering writing” by Zhang Peiji. The annotation gives a clear explanation of the connotation of culturally-loaded words (Fang 2011, 105).

Cultural borrowing refers to some words in the source language, which can only be transferred into the target language word by word according to the literal meaning because no appropriate corresponding language can be found in the target language. The borrowed words may be unchanged or slightly altered, but their meaning must be clear and unmistakable in the target language text (Fang 2011, 304).

For example, “as timid as a rabbit” can be translated as “胆小如兔”in Chinese. By cultural borrowing, this translation preserves the emotional image and cultural connotation of source language and the readers of target language can figure out the meaning of this expression. Therefore, when using cultural borrowing, the translator should not only keep the cultural image in source text but also let the reader of target language understand the image with exotic connotation.

On the basis of preserving the culture and keeping the flavor of the original text, these five translation methods try their best to make readers understand the culture of the source language so as to make readers perceive the beauty of foreign culture and to introduce new expressions into target language.

===Conclusion===
Translation is an activity of communication between different languages and cultures. Different nations and countries have different ways of language expression because of their different cultures. In cross-cultural translation, translators should not only take on the responsibility of transmitting the source language culture and promoting the communication between different cultures, but also take the responsibility of making the target readers understand the connotation of the text, so as to make the translation readable and acceptable. This requires the translator to master the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization and grasp the balance between them.

Domestication is helpful for the target language readers to understand the original text and avoid the obstacles caused by cultural differences; however, the translation approach to the readers’ language and culture will inevitably lose language features and cultural customs of the original text.

Foreignization translation retains the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it is easy to increase the understanding difficulty of the target language readers, and may even cause misreading of the target language readers. With the frequent cultural exchanges, to some degree, people around the world are relatively familiar with each other’s cultural customs; therefore, on the premise that the target readers have no misunderstanding of the original text, the foreignization translation strategy can be appropriately adopted, which can enrich the target language culture and broaden the horizon of the target readers.

Hence, in cross-cultural translation, translators had to deal with the problems of domestication and foreignization. Translators should consider some factors that influence the choice and choose appropriate translation methods to make domestication and foreignization complement each other, and retain the original flavor of the original text while ensuring the understanding of the target readers.

===References===
*Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011)中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.
*Jiang Tong蒋童.(2016).韦努蒂翻译理论的谱系学研究[Genealogical study on Lawrence Venuti’s translation theory].商务印书馆The Commercial Press.
*Lu Xiaojun 陆晓君. (2018) 归化和异化与直译和意译的比较[A Comparison between domestication and foreignization and literal translation and free translation]. 齐齐哈尔师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qiqihar Junior Teachers’ College](05) 55-57.
*He Limin何丽敏.(2019). 浅析翻译中归化和异化策略的选择 [An analysis of the choice of domestication and foreignization in Translation].辽宁经济 Liaoning Economy (10):70-71.
*Newmark, P. (2011) A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.
*Nida, E.A. & Taber C.R. (2004) The Theory and Practice of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.
*Shuttleworth, M. & Moira, C. (2005) Dictionary of Translation Studies.谭载喜译Translated by Tan Zaixi. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
*Venuti, L. (2009) The Translator’s Invisibility. 张景华译Translated by Zhang Jinghua. 外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
*Wang Chan王婵.(2008). 纽马克翻译理论在不同文本类型中的体现[The Embodiment of Newmark’s translation in different text types].湖北师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Hubei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) (02) 138-140.
*Wang Zhenqi王溱琪.(2014).文化负载词翻译方法浅议[A brief discussion on culturally-loaded word translation method ].长江大学学报(社科版)Journal of Yangtze University (Social Science) (01) 97-98.
*Zhang Siyong &Wang Huimin张思永,王慧敏. (2007). 归化还是异化——谈影响翻译策略选择的若干因素 [Domestication or foreignization-an analysis of factors influencing the choice of translation strategy].广西社会科学 Guangxi Social Science (10):145-148.
--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 09:08, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian==
<center> 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian,202020080601.</center>

===Abstract===
Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is a kind of cross-cultural communication, which spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. The depth study of the connotation and translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this chapter attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, and to explore their translation strategies.

===摘要===
汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，人们耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流活动，深入学习研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。

===Key words===
Chinese Xiehouyu; domestication and foreignization; translation strategy

===关键词===
汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略

===Introduction===
Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotation and has a special structural form. It is vivid and humorous, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, so it is widely spread and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese Xiehouyu is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles. However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to translators.

The strategies of domestication and foreignization play an important role in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating Chinese Xiehouyu will appropriately and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. Therefore, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, analyze the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and explore the translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu with many examples.

===Chapter 1 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu===

====1.1. The Origin of Chinese Xiehouyu====

Chinese Xiehouyu is also called "Qiaopihua", "Qiaoyu", "Jiehouyu", "Xinueyu"(witticism),"Suojiaoyu"(abbreviation),"Yingzhuyu"(quotation) and so on. When it comes to Xiehouyu, Chinese people are familiar with it, because it is a form of expression that Chinese people have learned since childhood. When studying the origin of Chinese Xiehouyu, some linguists and linguistic works also mentioned other related names. For example, Chen Wangdao (1932) included Xiehouyu in the section of "Cutting and Shortening Words" in his ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''.(Chen Wangdao 1932)

Guo Shaoyu (1925) pointed out that Xiehouyu originated from "shefu" (a form similar to guessing riddles) in his book ''A Study of Proverbs''; and names, such as "Miyu"(riddle) and "Yanyu"(proverb), were listed in other books. By comparison, most of them reveal some similarities and differences. Let's briefly review the origin of the name "Xiehouyu".(Guo Shaoyu 1925)

The word "xiehou" was first found in the biography of Zheng fan in Tang Dynasty, and it is mentioned in the book that "the style of Zheng Wu Xiehou" (a kind of poem with the style of "xiehou"). The word "Xiehouyu" has appeared for a long time, but what the ancients said just refers to the ppoetry or a word game about Xiehouyu. The Xiehouyu, which we are talking about today, was called "Qiaoyu", "Fangyu" and "Shiyu" by the ancients and were more commonly known as "Yaoyan". （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 5）

At the beginning of the 20th century, Bai Qiming took Xiehouyu as a kind of folk literature and art after the publication of his article "''Xiehouyu Which Should Be Included in The Collection of Songs'' ".(Bai Qiming 1924) He pointed out that Xiehouyu, also known as "argot", was called " wind typeface " in Tang Dynasty and "Kaner" or "Kanzi" in custom. However, he did not explain why he called it "Xiehouyu" in his article.

In the 1930s, Chen Wangdao pointed out in his book " ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''" that Xiehouyu has two meanings: one is "Xiehouyu" used by the ancients, also known as "cutting and shortening words of Xiehou"; the other is "Xiehouyu" that people use today, also referred as “Pijieyu”, that is, the Xiehouyu composed of interpretation.

In the 1950s, Mao Dun pointed out that in order to distinguish it from the "original or formal xiehouyu", a different name should be given to the Xiehouyu that people use today, but he did not specify what name to use instead. In the 1980s, from the perspective of academic research, Wen Duanzheng thought that the academic name should reflect the essential characteristics of the things it referred to. He agreed with Mao Dun's opinion, and concluded that Xiehouyu did not express the meaning of "xiehou" in Chinese through a large number of examples. Therefore, he suggested that the Xiehouyu should be renamed as "quotations" according to the relationship between the former and latter parts of the Xiehouyu.

However, most scholars believe that the name "Xiehouyu" has been accepted by people and it is difficult to change it. Therefore, they advocate that the name "Xiehouyu" should still be used without any change. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）

====1.2 The Structure of Chinese Xiehouyu====
Chinese Xiehouyu can be literally translated into "rest ending sayings" or "post-pause expressions". According to its structure, it is also translated as "example-explanation-sayings". In 1986, Professor Luo Shenghao, a linguistic professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, translated "Chinese Xiehouyu" into "enigmatic folk similes" in his book ''A Dictionary of Chinese Xiehouyu''.

According to professor Luo, "Similes" refers to the Chinese Xiehouyu which is generally composed of vehicle and tenor. The vehicle are figurative metaphors. The tenor is the explanation of the vehicle to show its essential significance. For example, “粪坑里的石头——又臭又硬” (The stone in the cesspit —— smelly and hard.). "Folk" indicates that the Xiehouyu originates from the folk and is used more frequently in daily spoken language. "Enigmatic" indicates that this kind of expression has the nature and characteristics of riddles which also have two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. Therefore, "enigmatic Folk Similes" basically reflects the special structure and essential characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui 2011, 110)

====1.3 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu====
Xiehouyu has very distinct characteristics, and its external structure is composed of two parts. The former part is the image and descriptive language, which tells a thing, a modality, an object, a scene and so on, while the latter part is a summary and abstract language, which is the explanation of the former part. The combination of the former part and the latter part produces a sense of wit and humor to express meaning. Therefore, the fixed phrase is called Xiehouyu. (Bao Huinan & Bao Ang 2000, 64)

In the dictionary, the explanation of Xiehouyu is that a sentence composed of two parts: the former part is like the riddle, the latter part is like the answer of the riddle, and the original meaning is from the latter part. For example, “泥菩萨过江——自身难保”(like a clay idol fording a river, hardly able to save oneself (let alone anyone else)). Therefore, Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom with relatively fixed structure and oral characteristics, which is composed of two parts with the relationship of citation and annotation. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 5）

''An Unabridged, Comprehensive Dictionary''defines Xiehouyu as follows: Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom, which is humorous and vivid sentences that are familiar to the masses. When used, the latter part can be omitted, and the former part can show the meaning, such as "丢了西瓜捡芝麻" (lose the watermelon and pick up the sesame) can mean "因小失大" (keep the tail from wagging the dog); the former and latter part can also be juxtaposed, such as "芝麻开花—节节高" (A sesame stalk puts forth blossoms notch by notch, higher and higher – rising steadily). (Liu Na 2016, 18)

The definition points out the nature and components of Xiehouyu. In the branches of linguistics, Xiehouyu belongs to the National Cultural Connotation (NCC), which is composed of the former part and the latter part. The former part often explains and describes a kind of life phenomenon, and the latter part makes comments and analysis on this phenomenon. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）

In the section of language and characters in the ''Chinese Encyclopedia'', Xiehouyu refers to the humorous utterance formed by deliberately missing one word or half sentence of a commonly used word when speaking. There are usually two kind of Xiehouyu. The first one is the original meaning of Xiehouyu, referred to the omission of the last word of an idiom, which is also called "abbreviation". （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）

The second one is allegorical saying that has expanded its meaning. The two-part allegorical sayings in Beijing are called "Qiaopihua (witticism)", which means that the last half of a sentence can be omitted. For example, "竹篮打水（Ladling water with a wicker backet）" omits the latter part "一场空（all is empty）". Sometimes homonyms are used. Such as "外甥打灯笼一一照旧（舅）(Things seemed to be the same as before)". In this sentence, “旧” and “舅” are homophones in China. (Yang Peigen & Li Yanlin 2006，93)

In short, Xiehouyu is a special language form created by the Chinese people in their daily life. It is a short, funny and vivid sentence and composed of two parts: the former part plays the role of introduction, like a riddle, and the latter part plays the role of supplement, like the answer of the riddle, which is very natural and appropriate. In a certain language environment, one usually says the former part and omit the latter part, the other can understand and guess its original meaning, so this language form is called Xiehouyu.（Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 7）

====1.4 The Importance of Chinese Xiehouyu Translation====
Xiehouyu is a kind of Chinese idioms, which reflects people's daily life and experience, and is a concise summary and warning of people's experience in life. It has rich ideological connotation and unique cultural characteristics. There are similar forms of Chinese Xiehouyu in English, but so far, there is no official definition corresponding to Chinese Xiehouyu. How to reproduce the language style of Xiehouyu and convey its rich cultural connotation is a subject worthy of discussion and research. At the same time, the translation of Xiehouyu helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. (Xu Yanan & Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)

From the perspective of linguistics, the most difference is that Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. Chinese belongs to the Chinese-Tibet language, while English belongs to the Indo-European language. In Chinese, the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them, for example, 下雨了(the rain fell)；河水泛滥(the river flooded)；房子被冲走了(the house washed away). In English, the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don’t come. (Lian Shuneng 1993，48-49)

Therefore, interlingual conversion occurs in the process of translation, which it is of great value in translation. In the process of translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English, it is necessary to faithfully reproduce the meaning of the source language by integrating language, cognition, culture, communication and other factors. The form and meaning of Chinese idioms are not completely coincident, which is fully reflected in the literal meaning and implied meaning of Xiehouyu. For foreigners, understanding Xiehouyu can strengthen their mastery of Chinese and deepen their understanding of Chinese culture and civilization. (Liu Na 2016, 18)

===Chapter 2 Types of Chinese Xiehouyu===
According to the connection between the two parts of the Chinese Xiehouyu, it can be roughly divided into two types: metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui 2011,110)

====2.1 Metaphorical Xiehouyu====
There are numerous examples of metaphorical Xiehouyu. The former part implies a metaphorical meaning and the latter part original meaning. Their internal connections are very clear and logical.

For example,
（1）那个宝玉是个丈八的灯台——照见人家，照不见自己的，只知嫌人家脏。这是他的房子，由着你们糟蹋。 (As for Baoyu, he is like a ten-foot lamp-stand that sheds light on others but none on it-self. He complains that other people are dirty, yet leaves you to turn his own rooms topsy-turvy.)

It can be seen that in the first example, the vehicle is literally translated, while the tenor is translated with interpretation, explaining the former part. Literal translation with interpretation not only retains the figurative image of the original language, but also effectively conveys its cultural connotation, which is clear to the target readers.(Qi Dehui 2011,110)

====2.2 Paronomasia Xiehouyu====
The paronomasia Xiehouyu has a great proportion in Chinese Xiehouyu. The latter part of the paronomasia Xiehouyu is a pun, which has both the surface meaning of the vehicle and other deep meaning. In other words, the literal meaning is to explain the former part, but its deep meaning expresses a completely different meaning from the whole context. (Jin Huikang 2004, 132)

For example,
(2)一根筷子吃藕——挑眼(Eating lily root with only one chopstick——picking it up by the holes.)
In the second example, “pick holes” means to find one’s faults, while the meaning of its vehicle is to pick the whole in lotus root slices with a chopstick.(Ling Li 2004, 452)

(3)三九天的萝卜——冻了心（动了心）(A mid-winter turnip（in the third period of nine days after the winter solstice）—— the heart is frozen（affected in heart).)
In the third example, the surface meaning of “the heart is frozen” is that the turnip in a mind winter is completely frozen from the root, and the root is a symbol of heart. Moreover, “冻了心”and“动了心”in Chinese are homophones, which becomes a pun.(Qi Dehui 2011,111)

===Chapter 3 Domestication and Foreignization===

====3.1 Definition Of Domestication and Foreignization====
The terms of domestication and foreignization were first put forward by German philosopher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher. He proposed his famous notion of the translation which “leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995,19-20). Later, this term was introduced into the field of translation by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist. He referred to the first method proposed by Schleiermacher as "domestication", and the second method as "foreignization". In a word, domestication is s term used by Venuti (1995) to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers. （Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie 2004, 43-44）

Then, foreignization is a term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie, 2004, 59)Eugene A. Nida, the advocate of the theory, put forward in his linguistic theory of functional equivalence that "cultural equivalence can be achieved by excluding linguistic differences."

Qian Zhongshu, a famous writer and translator in China, once put forward the theory of "sublimation" in ''The Translation of Lin Shu'', which means that the translation should not only accord with the language expression custom of the target language, but also keep the style of the original work. Substantially, the theory of sublimation requires translators to comprehend the meaning of the original work and to consider the factors of semantic relation, style, cultural differences and information transfer effect etc., and then translators should translate selectively.

On the contrary, "foreignization" requires the translators to approach the author and express the meaning of the original text with the expressions commonly used by people. During the period of the New Culture Movement in China, Lu Xun, the advocator of the theory, once put forward the translation method of "domestication", which brought a western style to the works. (Liu Xiaocen 2017, 99)

In conclusion, domestication is to localize the source language, take the target language and the target readers as the destination, and adopt the expression methods that are familiar to the target language readers to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translators to approach the target language readers, and the translators must speak like the author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the readers, the translated text must become a native language. Domesticating translation helps readers understand the translation better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)

On the contrary, Foreignization means that the translator should try his best not to disturb the author and let the readers approach the author. In translation, it is to accommodate the language characteristics of foreign culture, absorb foreign language expression, and require the translator to approach the author and adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the target culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization strategy is to consider the differences of national culture, preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationality and language style, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)

====3.2 Dialectical Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization====
Domestication and foreignization have a great difference which is the former requires that the text is close to the reader, while the latter requires that the text is close to the author. Some scholars believe that domestication and foreignization, no matter which one is adopted, must be applied in the whole translation text, and cannot be confused. However, in the actual practice of translation, we can't really do that. (Xu Yanan & Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)

Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the thoughts and styles of the author of the original text, which are full of strong foreign style, so it is necessary to adopt the method of foreignization. However, at the same time, the translation should also consider the readers' understanding and the fluency of the original text, so it is also necessary to adopt the strategy of domestication. It is not advisable to choose one strategy and completely exclude the other. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages, so it cannot achieve the ultimate goal of translation with only one of them. (Xiao Luan & Feng Xuehua 2011，65)

In translation, we are always faced with the choice of foreignization and domestication, so that the translation can find a middle point between being close to the reader and being close to the author, but the "middle point" is not fixed. Sometimes the translated text is closer to the author and sometimes closer to the reader. However, no matter which side it is close to, it should follow a principle: when being close to the author, the translation should not be too far away from the reader; when being close to the reader, it should not be too far away from the author. (Xiao Luan & Feng Xuehua 2011，66)

In other words, foreignization should not hinder the smoothness and understandability of the translated text, and domestication does not lose the style of the original text. At the same time, we should adhere to the domestication strategy for the language form, while foreignization for cultural factors in the original text. In this way, the translated text can combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid their disadvantages, so that they can have common development. Therefore, during the practical translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other so that appropriate translated texts can be produced. (Liu Xiaocen 2017，99)

===Chapter 4 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu===
There are always contradictions and disputes between foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese xiehouyu. Moreover, there is also a great deal of debates in the field of translation about whether to use foreignization to take the culture of source language as the destination and retain the characteristics of the foreign text, or to use domestication to take the culture of target language as the destination and conform to the characteristics of the target language.（Qi Dehui 2011,110）

For example, “ 三个臭皮匠 —— 顶一个诸葛亮 ”. Some translate it into “Two heads are better than one.” Others translate it into “Three cobblers with their wits combined together equal Zhuge Liang，the master mind.” The first translation obviously adopts a domesticating translation strategy, which conforms to the English expression. It is easy for native English speakers to understand and accept, and it is easy to read. However, the disadvantage is that "one (head)" in the first translation version is not exactly referred as Zhuge Liang in the Chinese Xiehouyu. In Chinese culture, Zhuge Liang was an intelligent man, while "one (head)" was just an ordinary person. （Qi Dehui 2011,111）

The second translation version adopts foreignization, which retains the characteristics of Chinese, so that readers from English-speaking countries can understand the connotation of Chinese culture from the translation and promote cultural exchanges. But how do readers in English speaking countries feel when they read such articles? How can cultural exchanges be promoted if it is difficult for readers to understand and lose interest in reading? And when readers see the translation, they can't understand that it is an idiom in Chinese which is humorous, catchy and well-known, and the meaning of the source language is lost. （Qi Dehui 2011,111）

For example, （4）那胡正卿心头 “十五个吊桶打水——七上八下” Hu Chengching was very much upset by this and his heart was beating like fifteen buckets being hurriedly lowered into a well for water——eight going down while seven coming up. （5）他这一阵，心头如同十五个吊桶打水——七上八下，老是宁静不下来。His mind was in turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight.

The fourth example uses foreignization to retain the two images of "fifteen buckets" and "seven up and eight down"; the fifth example uses domestication, abandons the image of the original text, and directly translates it into a more native phrase "in turmoil". Should foreignization or domestication be adopted in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu? When do translators use foreignization and when do they use domestication? It depends on the purpose of translation, the characteristics of the translated works and the readers the works are facing with. "If the purpose is to convey culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted". For example, ''the Chinese-English Dictionary of Xiehouyu'' compiled by Guo Zhuzhang and Luo Shenghao, and ''100 Xiehouyu'' translated by Jia Cen are designed to let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, so they mostly adopt the strategy of foreignization. (Huan Yahui 2004, 118)

Foreignization can also be used if the features and images of the source language are retained in translation, which will not affect the communication of information and conform to the language usage of the target language. For example,
（6）咱们俩的事，一条绳上拴着两只蚂蚱——谁也跑不了！We're like two grasshoppers tied to one cord，neither can get away!
（7）去设埋伏我们都没有信心，想必他一定在昨天晚上就早溜了，今天去也是瞎子点灯——白费蜡。We had no confidence in today's ambush because we were sure he had escaped last night. It seemed as useless as a blind man lighting a candle. (Huan Yahui 2004, 119)

In the process of translation, the translators retain the unique language form of the original text, which not only will not affect the communication of information, but also can promote the exchange of culture and thought, giving the target readers a similar aesthetic enjoyment. Because those vivid metaphors in the original text are the products of human common thinking and they can be understood and accepted by readers in other countries. (Zhou Ningqi 2008，152)

However, if a literary work is translated and the readers of the translated text are only for the sake of appreciating the work or even for entertainment, domestication should be adopted. For example，
（8）你别狗咬吕洞宾——不识好人心。我是好心好意劝你，倒粘到我身上来了。Don't snarp and snarl at me when I’m trying to do my best for you. I give you my advice with the best will in the world and you turn round and lay the blame on me.(Zhou Ningqi 2008，152)

This example refers to a character in Chinese mythology. If it is translated literally for the purpose of preserving the cultural information of the original text, it is necessary not only to annotate who Lu Dongbin is, but also to explain to foreign readers the allusion that Lu Dongbin is willing to do good deeds. (Yang Hongwei & Li Yadan 2004,84)

In fact, the origin of the Chinese Xiehouyu is not important here. It is better to discard its cultural background knowledge and translate it directly into "don't snarp and snarl at me", which ensures the effective transmission of key information and makes the translation concise and fluent. Although the cultural reference of "狗咬吕洞宾" is not reflected in the translation of this saying, the translator uses the verbs "snarp" and "snarl" to vividly depict the dog biting and barking, which, to some extent, reproduces the vivid and figurative rhetorical effect achieved by the use of Xiehouyu in the original text. For example,
（9）我们有些同志喜欢写文章但是没有什么内容，真是“懒婆娘的裹脚——又长又臭”。 Some comrades love to write long articles，but such articles are exactly like the foot-bandages of a slut（the cloth used for women’s foot in ancient China），Long and smelly（implies the articles are long and dull）.(Yang Hongwei & Li Yadan 2004,84)

A translation is full of long, boring words and obscure annotations that can be daunting to the reader. It can be better to translate the sentence into “these articles are dull and overelaborate”. Through a lot of translation practice, the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can be summarized as follows. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)

====4.1 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====

====4.1.1 Literal Translation====
Most Xiehouyu use vivid metaphors, whose metaphorical meaning is referred as general things or common sense. When the metaphorical relationship is clear, literal translation is generally adopted as long as it does not affect the understanding of the target language readers, that is to say, literal translation is adopted without too much extension and explanation, so as to retain both the content and the form of the source language. It is not only faithful to the original text, but also vivid and easy for the target language readers to read and appreciate. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)

For example,
（10）瘫子掉在井里——捞起也是坐。（Even if a paralytic falls into a well，he can be no worse off than before.）(Yang Xianyi & Dai Naidie,1986)
（11）竹篮打水——一场空。（Drawing water from a bamboo basket——all in vain. ）
（12）哑巴梦见妈——说不出来的苦。（Like a dumb man dreaming of his mother，he could not express his despair! ）

The above three cases are translated by Yang Xianyi. The translator adopts literal translation to keep the original style of the source language and strive to meet the expectations of the target language readers for heterogeneity. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)

====4.1.2 Literal Translation with Notes====
In Chinese, idioms about dog are generally derogatory, such as "狼心狗肺、狗腿子、狗仗人势、狗头军师", and so on. However, in English, the words and sentences about dog are often positive, such as "every dog has its day." Western readers might not understand the differences between the two languages and cultures. Therefore, in the translation with foreignization, literal translation with notes should be adopted to fully express the original meaning and metaphorical meaning of Chinese Xiehouyu. For example, "狗戴帽子——装人" is a taunt. It can be translated as " A dog is wearing a cap —— pretending to be a human being（an insult）." In this way, the English reader would not be misunderstood the meaning. (Zhou Ningqi 2008，153)

In addition, some Xiehouyu with allusions are often literally translated with notes, so as not to make English readers feel puzzled. For example,
（13）周瑜打黄盖——一个愿打，一个愿挨。
Box on the ear was skillfully given by a Chou Yu and gladly taken by a Huang Kai.（A fourteenth century novel based on events which took place in the third century A.D. Chou Yu of the Kingdom Wu had Huang Kai，another of Wu general，cruelly beaten，and then sent him to the enemy camp in order to deceive the enemy.）

====4.2 Domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====

====4.2.1 Free Translation====
Free translation mainly refers to grasping the content and metaphorical meaning in translation, combining with the context, and flexibly conveying the meaning. For example,
（14）我这个人你也知道。说话向来是袖筒里入槌——直出直入。(You know me——I speak frankly and to the point.)

（15）他必审问我，我给他个“徐庶入曹营”——一言不发。(He sure to ask questions but I'll hold my tongue to begin with.)

（16）穷棒子闹翻身，是八仙过海，各显神通。(When we pass from the old society to the new one，each of us shows his true worth.)

（17）我们校队近年来可是“孔夫子搬家——净是（输）书。”(Our school team has kept losing in the recent years.) (Guo Jianzhong 1996, 13)

====4.2.2 Combination of literal and free translation====
While the literal translation is adopted to retain the metaphorical image of the original text, free translation is also used, sometimes with some appropriate supplement, so that the translation can convey the meaning of the original text more clearly. The Chinese Xiehouyu often carries a deep historical and cultural implication. It is very difficult to transfer the loaded cultural information in Chinese Xiehouyu into English. (Gao Yun & Yu Jie 2004, 126)

Some Xiehouyu have strong national cultural features in their image and style, and the translation should be based on the premise of being faithful to the meaning expressed in the original text. Literal translation should be followed by free translation to show its metaphorical meaning. The combination of literal translation and free translation is undoubtedly one of the effective means of cultural compensation, which not only keeps the metaphorical image of the source language, but also maintains the integrity of the cultural content. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112) For example,
（18）我说二三百两银子，你就说二三十两，戴着斗笠亲嘴——差着一帽子。 (When I say two or three hundred taels，you say twenty or thirty! It's like kissing in straw helmets——the lips are far apart!)
（19）兔子的尾巴——长不了。(The tail of a rabbit can't be long——won't last long.)（Guo Jiangzhong 1996, 12）

====4.2.3 Equivalent Translation====
Some English idioms and some Chinese Xiehouyu use the same or similar metaphors to express their metaphorical meanings. In this case, borrowing English synonym idioms to translate them is proper as well. That is to change the original image of the vehicle in translation and translate it with a metaphor familiar to English readers. That is to say, the target text and the original text adopt different vehicles to create the same image, convey the same spirit and achieve the same effect. For example,
（20）冰冻三尺——非一日之寒。 (Rome was not built in a day.)
（21）肉包子打狗——一去不回头。（A dog given a bone that doesn't come back for more.）
（22）脱裤子放屁——多此一举。(To carry coals to Newcastle.) (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)

When using English idioms to translate Chinese Xiehouyu, we should pay attention to the rhetorical features. If the rhetorical feature of two languages is different, we cannot apply it. For example, "老王卖瓜——自卖自夸" must be translated into “No man cries stinky Fish”, because the former has a positive meaning, while the latter does not. （Ling Li 2004,59）

====4.2.4 Omission====
Omission refers to the deletion of certain words from the original text. It is not to delete the original text, but to leave out the words that are self-evident in the translation, or to leave out words that are too cumbersome or not suitable for English expression. This strategy is especially suitable for the translation of some Chinese Xiehouyu. For example,
（23）癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉——痴心妄想。 (You are like a toad trying to swallow a swan.)
（24）赔了夫人又折兵——双重损失。 (You’ve lost the campaign and your wife into the bargain.)(Zhou Ningqi 2008，152)

The metaphorical meanings of the above two examples are quite obvious. The target language readers can infer the figurative meaning directly from the image of the vehicle or from the context of Chinese Xiehouyu, so only the metaphorical part can be translated.(Yang & Dai 1986)

To sum up, in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, attention should be paid to the similarity of form and spirit, so that the surface and deep meanings can be expressed accurately, clearly and vividly. Therefore, we should flexibly adopt the methods of free translation and annotation to truly show the stylistic and pragmatic characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. Moreover, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Xiehouyu. (Liu Na 2016,19)

==='''Conclusion'''===
In the cultural perspective translation is a communicating process, in which the choosing of translation strategies is of vitality. In the communication of western and Chinese culture, we should absorb the quintessence and abolish what is old and establish in its place the new order of things. When we learn from the languages and cultures of different nationalities, we should also be open-minded and inclusive.

In the translation field, literary translation has always occupied an important position, and the research on literary translation is very active and constantly expanding. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can lay a theoretical foundation for better learning other languages. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is not only the conversion between two languages, but also the interlingual activity of cultural exchange between the two nations. We should not only learn our own language, but also have a deep and profound understanding of our own culture. Thus, we can be easier to translate Chinese Xiehouyu into English by narrowing cultural gap and eliminate the obstacles of language.

The translation of Xiehouyu is flexible，which needs surmount double barriers to language and culture and adopt different translation strategies according to different situations. In order to convey Chinese culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted. Moreover, those which is vivid and easy to understand should retain their original content and form, and foreignization can also be adopted for literal translation.

However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; for metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal and free translation can be used with the strategy of foreignization.

In a word, as far as the structure of the target language are concerned, the phrases and sentences are all in line with the translation standards. Chinese Xiehouyu not only carries the wisdom of Chinese predecessors, but also reflects the profound culture, history and thinking mode of the Chinese nation from a different perspective. In the process of translation, the translator should try to keep the style of the original work, focus on the target language readers, and translate the Chinese Xiehouyu appropriately to avoid wrong translation, overtranslation or undertranslation.

==='''Reference'''===

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Qi Dehui. 戚德慧. (2011). 归化与异化在汉语歇后语英译中的运用.[ The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the English Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu]. 现代语文(语言研究版).[Modern Chinese].110-112.

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--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 12:02, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==A Brief Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Idioms Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨 202070080633, MTI英语笔译==

<center> 邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu, No.202070080633.</center>

===Abstract===
The translation of Chinese idioms has something to do with cultural differences of English and Chinese. To appositely adjust cultural differences between English and Chinese, a large number of translators use two translation strategies: domestication and foreignization, when translating Chinese idioms.

Domestication and foreignization are two kinds of translation strategies which are culture-oriented. This paper will make an introduction of domestication and foreignization in the first part, and then will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms. Then, it will discuss the application of these two translation strategies to Chinese idioms by taking some examples so that the author of this paper can make a brief analysis of the relativity of these two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, and learn how to select proper translation strategies to translate Chinese idioms.

The study of the translation of Chinese idioms is conducive to the development of language, which will promote international exchanges and cooperation as well as the innovation of translation methods, thus deepening the organic integration of two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the translation of idioms and promoting the research and development of translation.

===Key Words===
Domestication; Foreignization; Chinese Idioms; Translation

===题目===
浅析汉语习语翻译的归化异化

===摘要===
汉语习语的翻译涉及到英汉文化差异。为了适当地调和英汉文化之间的差异，许多译者采用了归化和异化的翻译策略。

归化和异化是两种以文化为导向的翻译策略，本文第一部分先介绍归化异化两种策略，紧接着在第二部分从含义、文化内涵方面对汉语习语进行了介绍，然后通过举例来探讨这两种翻译策略在汉语习语翻译中的运用，从而分析出这两种翻译策略的相关性以及如何选取合适的翻译策略来翻译汉语习语。

对汉语习语翻译的研究有利于语言的发展，促进国际间的交流与合作，推进翻译方法的革新，加深归化异化两种翻译策略在习语翻译中的有机融合，推动翻译的研究与发展。

===关键词===
归化；异化；汉语习语；翻译

===Chapter1 Domestication and Foreignization===
Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies, they are commonly used in the translation of Chinese idioms. In this chapter, the author will introduce the definition of domestication and foreignization, and then will present the debates on these two translation strategies.

====The Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====
Domestication is a term used by Lawrence Venuti, American translation theorist, to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for readers of target language (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti believes domestication originated from Friedrich Schleiermacher's famous notion of the translation which "leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him" (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74).

From Venuti's perspective, domestication has negative connotations as it's regarded as a policy common in dominant cultures which are "aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign", and which he describes as being "accustomed to fluent translation that invisibly inscribe foreign texts with values of target language and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a culture order" (Venuti 1995, 15).

According to Venuti, domestication is the predominant translation strategy in Anglo-American culture, and he argues that this is consistent with the unbalanced relation between Anglo-American culture and other cultures. He further points out that domestication has widely served domestic affairs, therefore it's necessary to adopt other translation strategies to challenge the domination of domestication (Venuti 1995, 15).

Foreignization is a term used by Lawrence Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the origin text (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti asserts foreignization is derived from the translation type, stated by Schleiermacher, in which "the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him" (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74).

As far as Venuti is concerned, he describes foreignization as an "ethnodeviant pressure" (Venuti 1995, 20), and thus considers it can "register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad" (Venuti 1995, 20). In specific terms foreignization means not only the freedom from the absolute restriction of target language and texts, but the selection of an non-fluent, opaque style in some appropriate situations and the deliberate accumulation of "Realia" of source language or "Archaisms" of target language, which would provide readers of target language with an "alien reading experience" (Venuti 1995, 20).

====The Debates on Domestication and Foreignization====
There has been a long-standing debate about how to deal with cultural differences in translation. There are many scholars, such as John Dryden, Alexander Tytler, Denham, Lefevere, Frere, who approved of domestication. Domestication has been in the dominant position for a long time. To begin with, translation theorists like Cicero, Saint Jeromi and Quintilian raised some ideas about word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Considered from the theories they put forward, they favored free translation (Schulte & Biguenet 1992, 13).

As is well-known, Eugene A. Nida proposed the concept of functional equivalence. From his perspectives, translation is communication, in which what really matters is what people get when they listen, speak and read the translated text. Translation shouldn't be judged by the comparison of the corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical categories and rhetorical devices, but by the extent to which the recipient correctly understands and appreciates the translated text. The purpose of Nida's functional equivalence theory is that the expression of the translated text should be completely natural, so that the readers can better understand the original text through domestication translation, thus avoiding cultural conflicts, eliminating the gap, and finally achieving the purpose of cultural exchange (Nida 1993, 118).

The supporters of domestication hold the view that the translator should take readers into consideration, and if the content of the translation is not within the reader's understanding, the effect of translation and communication will not be achieved, and secondly the translator should try to avoid cultural conflicts, and in the process of translation, the translator should constantly get closer to the target reader, so that the target reader can read the translation with the same effect as the reader of the original text. Thirdly, each language has its own cultural connotation, so if there is a cultural gap between the two languages, foreignization will not only result in a non-fluent translation, but also in the reader's unacceptability of the translation. Last but not least, it cannot be realized to find the completely equivalent word in another language, so to avoid producing opaque translations, it's no doubt that domestication is a better choice (Chan 2004, 171).

Foreignization started later than domestication, and gained much popularity in the 20th century. Many scholars' translations embody this translation strategy, including many of Ezra Pound's translations and Nabokov's famous literal translation of Pushkin's Eugene Onegin (Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie 2004, 59).

Lawrence Venuti firstly defined foreignization and was a representative of foreignization. Venuti described foreignization in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility'' as "a form of resistance, which is against ethnocentrism, racism, cultural narcissism and imperialism, in the interests of democratic geopolitical relations" (Venuti 1995, 20). He proposed a translation theory and practice that opposes translation fluency and aims not to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in translation, but to express such linguistic and cultural differences in translation. This is also one of the basic ideas of deconstructionist translation thought. It's said by Venuti that "the aim of opposing domestication and advocating foreignization is to develop a translation theory and practice that resists the predominance of cultural values of the target language, thus expressing the linguistic and cultural differences of foreign texts" (Venuti 1995, 20). Foreignization is premised on the belief that cultures differ from each other and that communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignization is to recognize and tolerate the differences and to express the cultural differences in the target language.

People who favor of foreignization hold the following reasons. Firstly, the translator should make every effort to be faithful to the original work in the translation, and the content of the original work should be reproduced to the maximum extent. If the translator fails to reach this, then the translation will be considered as faithful. Secondly, adding the expression of source language into target language will enrich the target language. Thirdly, the purpose of readers' reading translations is to learn about foreign cultures, which foreignization can help to realize. Foreignization attempts to keep the characteristics of the source language (孙致礼 2002, 40-44). The debate between domestication and foreignization has still continued until the 21st century.

===Chapter2 The Definition and Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms===
It is of great importance to have an understanding of Chinese idioms before analyzing domestication and foreignization in the translation of Chinese idioms. Chinese idioms are closely related to various Chinese cultures. Domestication and foreignization are commonly used by translators in dealing with cultural factors in translation. Therefore, in this chapter, the author will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms.

====The Definition of Chinese Idioms====
According to ''Modern Chinese Dictionary'', Chinese idioms are "concise and meaningful phrases or short sentences that have been in long public usage" (Dictionary Editorial Office, Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 2002, 248).

In ''The New Oxford Dictionary of English'', idiom is "a group of words established by usage as having a meaning not deducible from those of the individual words; a form of expression natural to a language, a person, or group of people" (Hanks 2001, 908).

As is defined in ''Webster's New World Dictionary of the American'' (1972), idiom means "an accepted phrase, construction, or expression contrary to the usual patterns of the language or having a meaning different from the literal".

These definitions all mention that idioms are formed in the long process that people use languages, and they cannot be understood from their literal words because they are closely related to the culture. Thus, the cultural characteristics must be taken into consideration.

====The Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms====
In this section, the author will divide the cultural connotation of Chinese idioms into four groups: geographical culture, conventional culture, historical culture and religious culture.

For Chinese idioms reflecting geographical culture, they are created in China's particular geographical environment. China has been a big country dominated by agriculture since ancient times, and the agricultural population accounts for a large proportion. Therefore, a large part of Chinese idioms is related to agriculture. They are the crystallization of the extremely rich wisdom accumulated by the working people in the productive labor for generations. For example, those who engage in agriculture will say: "靠山吃山，靠水吃水" (One has to make use of whatever resources available.), "种瓜得瓜，种豆得豆" (What goes around comes around.), "一日之计在于晨" (An hour in the morning is worth two in the evening.) (Qiu Nengsheng, Qiu Xiaoqin 2019, 52).

For Chinese idioms reflecting conventional culture, they derive from Chinese national customs in the social life. Chinese people are made of fifty-six ethnic groups, and each group has its own customs. Just in Han, there are many types of customs such as marriage customs, drinking customs, funeral customs, etc. Among these different aspects of customs, people create abundant Chinese idioms. For an instance, "红运当头" which means one has a good fortune, "开门红" which means to make a good start (Qiu Jixin 2002, 45).

For Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture, they originate from Chinese long-run national history and culture. An important element of Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture is the historical allusions and fables. They are treasures of Chinese national history and culture, with strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, containing rich historical and cultural information, and reflecting the characteristics of historical cultures. Many idioms of this type come from historical allusions and fables. For an instance, "万事俱备，只欠东风" comes from the Battle of the Red Cliff, "八仙过海，各显神通" reflects the content of Chinese traditional myths and legends (Zhang Ning 1999, 24).

For Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture, they mainly come from Buddhism and Taoism. Confucius and Mencius are considered as saints by Chinese people. Many Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture contain "佛" (Buddha), "庙" (temple) and "和尚" (monk or bonze). For example, "临时抱佛脚" (embrace Buddha's feet in one's hour of need) which means seeking help at the last moment, "放下屠刀，立地成佛" (drop one's cleaver and become a Buddha) which means achieving salvation as soon as one give up evil (Wang Fang 2001, 35).

===Chapter3 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms' Translation===
In the translation of Chinese idioms, Foreignization and domestication are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, they can work together to help to produce better translations. In this chapter, the author will present specific examples of the application of these two translation strategies in Chinese idioms’ translation.

====The Application of Domestication in Chinese Idioms Translation====
我要有个[三长两短]，你给玉山捎个话！(杜鹏程《保卫延安》)

Translation: If [anything should happen] to me, let Yushan know!

The meaning of "三长两短" cannot be understood from its literal words. If the idiom is translated into "three long and two short things", the target readers will feel confused. Therefore, it's more appropriate to use domestication in the translation. Though the national feature may not be expressed in the translation, domestication makes the translation more fluent and comprehensive.

她怕[碰一鼻子灰]，话到嘴边，她又把它吞了下去。(茅盾《子夜》)

Translation: She was afraid of [being snubbed], so she swallowed the words that came to her lips.

The image of "碰一鼻子灰" is to have one's nose rubbed in the dirt, which is difficult for the target reader to understand what it means, so it's necessary to abandon the original image and to express its meaning to the target reader.

运涛好久不来信了，一家子[盼了星星盼月亮]。(梁斌《红旗谱》)

Translation: For many months no letter came from Yuntao till his whole family [worried over him day and night].

The translation gives up seeking a consistent form with the original text, instead it chooses to find a functionally similar expression to convey the emotion of the original sentence, giving the target reader the same feeling as the readers of the original text have.

等他们赶来营救时，已是[正月十五贴门神——晚了半月]啦。

Translation: But they were [too late] for a rescue.

Two-part allegorical sayings (xiehouyu) are unique to the Chinese language, and are in the unique structural form with strong national characteristics. Because of the double barriers of language form and culture, translators sometimes have to abandon the unique structural form and national characteristics of two-part allegorical sayings and adopt the translation strategy of domestication, which is to only translate its meaning, and abandon the metaphor and metonymy of it.

一剑剁去随手而倒。霎时觉来，乃[南柯一梦]，口中犹骂，操贼不止。(罗贯中《三国演义》)

Translation: Dong Cheng cried to Cao, chopping at him with his blade. Cao crumbled in the wake of the blow, as Cheng repeated the words "traitor, traitor" until he had awoken from [the empty dream].

This idiom mainly talks about that Chun Yufen had a dream of becoming a sheriff of Nanke County and living a wealthy life. However, when he woke up, he found out that it was just a dream. Later, people use "南柯一梦" to refer to a dream, or a metaphor for a happy air. The target reader who has no knowledge of the background of this idiom will have difficulty acquiring the meaning. Under this circumstance, it's a better choice to adopt domestication.

The translation strategy of domestication is to grasp the important aspect of the content and metaphor of idioms. When using domestication, the translator sometimes has to sacrifice the image and needs to combine the context to convey metaphors flexibly. One of the responsibilities of the translator is to avoid cultural conflicts leading to misunderstanding of the translation. When translating a text into another culture, the translator must carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. If the content and form expressed in the translation are within the knowledge range of the target reader's understanding of the real world, it will be easier for the reader to understand them (许建平 2004, 8).

English and Chinese idioms belong to different languages and are produced under different cultural backgrounds. If the foreignization translation method is overemphasized, it will increase the reader's unfamiliarity with the translation, increase the difficulty of readers' acceptance, and hinder the mutual communication and penetration between different countries and nations. Therefore, according to the national psychology of the target language, if the foreignization cannot be expressed clearly, the domestication translation strategy can be adopted so that the reader can appreciate and grasp the meaning of the original text (Chan 2004, 104).

====The Application of Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====
“他一家子在这，他的房子、地在这儿，他跑？[跑了和尚跑不了庙]。”(周立波《暴风骤雨》)

Translation: "Escape? But his home and property can't escape. [The monk may run away, but the temple can't run with him]".

咳，这一来，[竹篮子打水一场空了]！(梁斌《红旗谱》)

Translation: Ah! We were [drawing water in a baboo basket].

特别是她那时的“密司林佩瑶”，禀受了父亲的名士气质，曾经[架起了多少的空中楼阁]…… (茅盾《子夜》)

Translation: She herself, Miss Lin Pei-yao, endowed with her scholarly father's idealistic temperament, was especially fond of [building castles in the air]...

Because people's feelings, perceptions of objective things and social experiences have many similarities, there are a small number of idioms that are identical or similar in English and Chinese idioms. These idioms have the same or similar figurative meaning, and the same implied meaning, which means that the literal and figurative meanings of these idioms convey the same cultural information and can be translated into each other. The translation of "跑了和尚跑不了庙", "竹篮子打水一场空" and "架起了多少的空中楼阁" convey the same meaning as their Chinese meaning, and the it's not difficult for foreign readers to get the information. Therefore, foreignization which is used in these three translations not only expresses the the meaning, but preserves the national and cultural characteristics of the idioms.

匡超人听了这话，慌忙作揖，磕下头去，说道：“晚生真乃‘[有眼不识泰山]’。”(吴敬梓《儒林外史》)

Translation: When Kuang Chao-jen heard this, he made haste to bow. "Although I have eyes," he exclaimed, "I [have failed to see Mount Tai]!" (Translated by Yang Xianyi)

In this translation, the translator preserves the image and national characteristics, directly expressing the literal meaning of "有眼不识泰山". As China has developed rapidly, Mount Tai has been known by more and more foreigners as a famous scenic spot of China. Foreigners who get the knowledge of the mountain will not misunderstand the idiom. Thus, using foreignization makes the translation both understandable and vivid.

主公仰慕将军，欲求令爱为儿妇，永结[秦晋之好]。(罗贯中《三国演义》)

Translation: My master, long your admirer, seeks your treasured daughter's hand in behalf of his son to [band the two houses in marriage as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times].

For idioms with strong national color or allusive nature, the translator can translate them with foreignization on the basis of context, and some explanations can be added in the translation to express the original meaning more clearly. The Chinese historical idiom "秦晋之好" comes from a historical allusion. When this idiom first appeared in the novel, the translator translated the names of the two vassal states by transliteration, thus retaining the differences of cultures. In order to make readers better understand the idiom, the translator also interpreted the idioms so that the meaning hidden behind the Chinese characters was much clear. Now that the English translation of the sentence is an experiment, the result of deleting "band the two houses in marriage" can be called a faithful translation, but at most it is only the faithfulness of the language form. If the former part is deleted, it will be "as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times". The translation seems to convey the main meaning of the idiom, but at least in form, the extraordinary meaning of the original idiom is gone. It is a pity that "秦晋之好" lost its own meaning. On this basis we should add some annotations.

Foreignization conveys information from one culture and language to another in a way that maintains its original nature, bringing not only a new component to the target language, but also an influx of such a component that will lead to various aggregation and fission reactions within the target language, which will eventually lead to its fundamental transformation. As a result, the integration of nations and peoples are greatly facilitated. The use of heterogeneous translations of idioms is conducive to the mutual exchange and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, and promotes the integration between them. Therefore, the metaphors, images and national and local colors of the original idioms are preserved in the translation as much as possible without violating the linguistic norms of the translation and without causing false associations (Liao Qiyi 2001, 58).

====The Application of the Combination of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====
(张飞) 瞠目大叱曰: “我哥哥是[金枝玉叶]，你是何等人 ……”(罗贯中《三国演义》)

Translation: The moment Zhang Fei heard this, his eyes widened and he shouted, "Our brother is a prince of the blood, [a jade leaf on a golden branch]. Who are you to …"

梁虔等曰: “夏侯驸马乃[金枝玉叶]，倘有疏虞，难逃坐视之罪。”(罗贯中《三国演义》)

Translation: Liang Qian, as well as others argued, "Imperial Son－in－Law Xiahou Mao is [part of the royal family], the slightest negligence will be punished as willful indifference to his fate".

耀骂曰: “曹都督乃[金枝玉叶]，安肯与反贼相见耶! ”(罗贯中《三国演义》)

Translation: Fei Yao taunted him:" Field Marshal Cao [belongs to the royal family]. He would not lower himself to meet a traitor".

The interpretation of "金枝玉叶" in the Chinese dictionary is: The golden jade metaphor the royal family and the noble people. It can be seen from the translation of this idiom in ''The Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' that the translator uses the combination of foreignization and domestication. If you completely use the method of foreignization, readers will think that Chinese people are the same in their thinking mode. If the method of foreignization is completely adopted, the reader will understand each word. But they do not understand the overall meaning, because there is no relationship between the two images of "金枝" and "玉叶". They may speculate on the linguistic expression of these two images, because they are suppressed by the difference in the strange world, and this kind of speculation may hinder the understanding of the whole sentence. On the other hand, the more important the difference in the language culture of the original language is, the more it should be reproduced. In order to highlight the Chinese emphasis on "Gold" and "Jade", the idiom should be completely alienated, which resulted in different translations of the three sentences of this idiom.

蒙曰: “兵有利钝，战无必胜。如猝然遇敌，步骑相促，人尚不暇及水，何能入船乎?”权曰: “[人无远虑，必有近忧]。子明之见深远。”(《论语》)

Translation: Lu Meng responded:" The fortunes of war are never constant; victory is never sure. In an abrupt confrontation, with infantry and cavalry jostling together, our men may not have time to reach the water much less board the boats". Sun Quan commented, "[Improvidence invites danger]. Lu Meng wisely looks ahead".

子邓忠劝曰: “[小不忍则乱大谋]，父亲若与他不睦，必误国家大事。” (《论语》)

Translation: Ai's son, Deng Zhong, urged him to forbear, saying, "[Intolerance for trifles ruins great plans]. Father, if you fall out with him, you will fail the dynasty".

The above two famous idioms are all from the ''Analects of Confucius''. In the different translations versions, the translations of "人无远虑，必有近忧" and "小不忍则乱大谋" are also different. The word-by-word interpretation conveys the literal meaning of the idioms and is used in dialogue. The author's situation is always like this, he cannot express all aspects of the original text, and choosing one side means giving up other aspects. Observing the translations, the number of words is originally quite a lot, and the meaning is also expressed clearly enough, and there is no longer a need for domestication interpretation. To be fair, both translations are consistent with the language style of the translated text. The foreignization and domestication are balanced in the translation.

In translation, even if every word in the original text can be translated with its "equivalence" in the translation, it is not always guaranteed that the translation will have the same or similar effect on the readers of the translated text as the original text, because readers often use their own cultural concepts to understand the content of the translated text. In some idioms, the cultural color of the original language is preserved by foreignization, but it causes linguistic errors and difficulties for readers to understand, and if we adopt domestication, we will lose the cultural color of the original language and cannot let the readers fully understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, we can adopt a combination of domestication and foreignization to translate the literal meaning and then point out the implied meaning, so that the translation can be imaginative and vivid, reflecting the style and flavor of the original language and being fully accepted by the readers (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17).

===Conclusion===
In the translation of idioms, domestication and foreignization are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, these two strategies can work together to make the translation better. If the expressive habits of the target language are taken into account, the cultural connotation in the source language is inevitably affected, and vice versa. From the perspective of cultural differences, excessive domestication or foreignization is not conducive to the transmission of idioms' meaning, and these two translation strategies need to be used interactively according to the actual situation (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 18).

Firstly, the choice of domestication and foreignization is in accordance with the purpose of translation. In order to ease cultural contradictions and to make the translation both fluent and easy to understand, it is recommended to use the domestication strategy. At the same time, there are also many Chinese idioms that introduce English vocabulary through foreignization translation strategy. For example, "lose one's face" comes from "丢面子". Many idioms can be translated using two strategies. The key depends on the translator's attitude and choice, and what needs to be achieved. The translation of Chinese idioms in the famous book ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' such as "巧妇难为无米之炊", which the famous Chinese translator Yang Xianyi translated like this:" Even the cleverest housewife can't cook a meal without rice". And the British sinologist David Hawkes translated it as "Even the cleverest housewife can't make bread without flour". Yang uses a foreignization strategy to introduce eastern culture to the west while Hawkes uses domestication strategy to enhance western readers' comprehension.

Secondly, the choice of using domesticaton and foreignization can be made on the basis of the Chinese idiom's content. Translation is a cultural exchange. Translators need to be culturally conscious, that is, to introduce the language and culture of one nation to another. If you can find the equivalent expression or the similar expression that you can directly apply, choose the foreignization translation. For example, "熟能生巧" can be directly translated as "Practice makes perfect". When the original text and the translation cannot be translated according to cultural differences, it is necessary to replace the "culture of source language" with the "culture of target language", and to transform the meaning to be conveyed in the source language into the cultural image familiar to the target language, such as "吃不了兜着走". Its corresponding expression in English cannot be found, so it has to be translated as "be in serious trouble" according to its original meaning.

Last but not least, the combination of domestication and foreignization is necessary in translating Chinese idioms. It is not enough to use just one translation strategy to retain the cultural characteristics of the idioms, but also to convey the meaning. If the translation also wants to be accepted by readers of the target language, it is not enough to use a certain translation strategy. The translator needs to combine two strategies to do the translation. For example, "三十六计，走为上策". If the translator only uses the foreignization translation strategy to translate it, the translation of this idiom will be like "Of the thirty-six strategies, the best is running away". Although the culture in the original text is retained and the literal meaning is also expressed, its implicit meaning is not reflected. At this time, it is indispensable to supplement the domestication translation like "as you have no better choice". Only in this way can the translation be more complete.

===References===
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*Schleiermacher, Fredrich. (1838/1963). "Ueber die verschiedenen Methoden des Uebersezens", in Hans Joachim Störig (1963) ''Das Problem des Übersetzens'', Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft [Wege der Forschuung Band VIII], 38-70.

*Schleiermacher, Fredrich. (1838/1977). "On the Different Methods of Translating", in André Lefevere (ed. & trans.) (1977) ''Translating Literature: The German Tradition from Luther to Rosenzweig'', Assen & Amsterdam: Van Gorcum, 66-89. [Translation of Schleiermacher 1838/1963].

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*Hanks, Patrick.(ed.). (2001). ''The New Oxford Dictionary of English''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

*Dictionary Editorial Office, Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 中国社会科学院语言研究所词典编辑室. (2002). ''现代汉语词典'' [Modern Chinese Dictionary]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.

*Qiu Nengsheng, Qiu Xiaoqin 邱能生, 邱晓琴. (2019). 文化差异背景下英汉习语翻译的异化和归化处理探微 [Foreignization vs. Domestication in Cross-cultural Idiom Translation]. ''上海翻译'' Shanghai Journal of Translators (01) 51-56.

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= '''Title Translation''' =

==A Study on the Translation of Movie Titles 陈惠 Chen Hui==
陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592 专业：英美文学--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 03:52, 15 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

===Abstract===
Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. The title is an important factor in a movie's appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements.

This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the features and functions of film title translation, put forward the criteria and principles of film title translation, and briefly discuss the strategies of film title translation.

===Key words===
Features of film titles. Translation criteria, translation principles, translation strategies.

===摘要===
电影是一门集视觉和听觉为一体的综合性艺术，为文化的跨国传播和融合做出了巨大的贡献。电影标题正是电影吸引大众眼球的重要因素。因此电影标题的翻译就显得至关重要。其译文既需贴合电影内容又要跨越文化差异，并且有严格的字数控制，难以像文学作品翻译那样相对自由，要求极高。本文将分析目前电影名翻译的现状，试图总结电影片名的特点和功能，提出电影片名翻译的标准及原则并浅谈电影标题翻译的策略。

===关键词===
电影片名特点，翻译标准，翻译原则，翻译策略。

===Chapter 1 Introduction===
As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. The translated names of films reflect different ways of dealing with foreign cultures and convey different cultural values.On the basis of English movie released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area,this paper released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area's English movie, for example, from the political system, economic environment and language habits, this paper analyzes the reasons of different film title translation, points out that the different cultural values, dubbing staff of different translation strategies.

And in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences should be important factors would definitely be a key factor that should be taken into consideration in occasion of the translation practice.
With the increasingly close cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, English films, as an important cultural form, have gradually entered the Stage of Chinese films, which inevitably involves English-Chinese translation. In English-Chinese film translation, film title translation plays a very important role.

Han Su said that “Good title translation can not only make the film more attractive, but also help Chinese and Western films to go out and bring in better, and promote cultural exchanges and communication.” (Han,2018,P95).In order to translate high-quality film titles into Chinese, it is necessary to have an accurate understanding of the characteristics, translation principles and translation strategies of film titles.

===Chapter2 Movie: A kind of Art===

====2.1 The Introduction of Movie====
Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. Yang Shu said that :“Different from other art categories, film is an emerging art form formed with modern technology and has its own ontological characteristics.”(Yang Shu, 2017, P78)).The title of the film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. The title of film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. It should not only fit the film content but also be fully aware of cross cultural differences.

Moreover, one basic principle of film title is strict word count control,which is actually a high requirement and makes it difficult to translate,though with relative freedom. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the characteristics of film title translation and the principle of film title translation, and to talk about the strategies of film title translation. Film, a continuous image developed by the combination of mobile photography and slide show, is a visual and auditory modern art, but also a complex of modern technology and art that can accommodate drama, photography, painting, music, dance, writing, sculpture, architecture and other arts.

Cinema is a visual art that simulates the experience of communicating ideas, stories, perceptions, sensations, beauty, or atmosphere through recorded or programmed moving images and other sensory stimuli. The term cinematography is short for cinematography, usually used to refer to film-making and the film industry, as well as the art form that emerges from it. Films are cultural relics created by a particular culture. They reflect these cultures and influence them. Film is regarded as an important art form, a source of popular entertainment and a powerful medium for educating citizens.

The visual basis of a film gives it universal power of transmission. The film has its own characteristics. In terms of artistic expression, it not only has the characteristics of all kinds of other arts, but also has the means of expression beyond all other arts because it can use the artistic montage of the film grouping skills. With the development of modern society, movies have penetrated into every aspect of human social life and become an indispensable part of People's Daily life. Film is an art whose time and course of growth are known by human beings.

It is a media with rapid development and great influence since the 20th century. It is also a creative industry integrating politics, economy and culture. Since the end of the 19th century, France, the United States and other parts of the film inventors have invented can mimic a person's eyes and ears of photoacoustic records and reduction technology and machine, the film technology, from the birth, were entrepreneurs become film business, by politicians become ideology, by artists become film art, researchers developed into film theory.

The history of a film is also the history of filmmakers exploring the laws of film. Film is a kind of modern art which uses modern scientific and technological achievements as tools and materials, and uses the means of expression to create visual images and the combination of shots. In the space and time of the screen, it shapes the specific images that are moving, sound and painting combined, and lifelike, to reflect social life.

Film can somehow reflect on the real world, as well as creating a virtual world,giving people a sense of authenticity and intimacy and immersion.This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience different kinds of life in a broader and more effective way. In terms of classification,movie can be divided into action movie, fantasy movie, comedy movie, horror movie, science fiction movie and so on

====2.2 Features of English Film Title====
On the one hand, a film title is an art form, reflecting the literary value of a film; on the other hand, it is linked with the box office, reflecting the commercial value of a film. Therefore, a film title directly affects the success of a film. English movie titles have the following characteristics.

(1) The title is easy to understand so that can arouse the audience's interest. But this may be contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles in our commonsense.Some Chinese movie names are not illustrated by the media, which makes them difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as 《承诺》 and 《无间道》. Movie titles in English are often simple, but they have a profound effect on the audience's enthusiasm. For example, True Lies, the movie's title tells you that the movie is about a lie, but what kind of a lie is a "True lie"? When the audience sees the name of the movie, they will first have such doubts in their minds, and then watch the movie with doubts and curiosity. There are plenty of similar movies, such as Back to the Future.

(2) The title contains slang to enhance the appeal of the film.The title of the film incorporates slang, on the one hand, to make the audience feel friendly, on the other hand, to achieve the desired ironic effect of the film. One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest, and at that very moment, the Cuckoo's Nest Flew very slowly. "Slumdog," for example, is a slur for someone who lives in a Slumdog. The other way around is to be sarcastic. The other way around is to be sarcastic.

(3)The title of the film is named after a name, which is clear at a glance.Names of people, places, objects and places often appear in the titles of European and American films, such as Pearl Harbor. As long as you have some historical knowledge, it is not difficult to know the content of the film, which is obviously related to the Pearl Harbor incident during the Second World War. In addition, there are also Casablanca, Roman Holiday, Waterloo Bridge(Waterloo Bridge) and other famous films with place names as film titles.

People like Forrest Gump, which is clearly the main story in the film, but also Emma, Jane Eyre, etc. It's about a Perfume genius who's obsessed with Perfume and becomes a psychopath. It's also about The Piano and The Net. In addition, there are one case, is to add in the title of the character (place or items) characteristics. For example, Edward Scissorhands, Schindler's List, The Mask of Zorro, etc.

(4) The title contains numbers to indicate the plot.Numbers appear frequently in English movies, and they are real rather than imaginary. In this kind of naming, the numbers in the title will appear in the play, either directly spoken by the characters, or the numbers-almand-or explained gradually through the plot. This may be related to the fact that westerners pay more attention to objectivity and practicality, and think more straight lines. The famous film with numbers included in the title has Seven Deadly Sins(" Seven Sins ").

According to the title, it can be associated with the Seven Deadly Sins of the Bishop. The mysterious serial murders in the film are one of these Seven Sins, so the title gives a good hint to the audience. Eleven tells the story of Eleven skilled dodgers.Heart completes a breathtaking mission story; Six Days and Seven Nights a man crashes in a plane and lands on a desert island for Six Days and Seven Nights. In addition, there are also Twelve Angry Men, The Six Sense, Eight Legged Freaks and so on.

These are the characteristics of British and American film titles, we can see that they value simplicity. Due to cultural differences, most Chinese film titles have deep meanings and reveal rich cultural heritage, such as 《霸王别姬》《千里之行》《金花咒》and so on. Therefore, foreign films should attach importance to the translation of film titles in order to enter the Chinese market. How to arouse the resonance of Chinese audience's aesthetic appreciation requires the translator to pay attention to aesthetic factors in the translation of movie names.(Lin Wen, 2015)

====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====
The British translation theorist Newmark believes that language has six functions: the function of expression, the function of information, the function of demanding, the function of beauty, the function of responding, and the function of meta-language. Among them, the first four are the main ones. The title of a film is a proper noun, which is the product of the screenwriter's careful conception. It can not only highly summarize the theme or content of the film, but also strongly stimulate the reader's desire to watch it. Therefore, it mainly has information function, imperative function and aesthetic function.

In film title translation, BaoHui south thinks "should not only conform to the language specification, but also full of artistic charm, as well as the content of the faithful to the original title, and to reflect the language characteristics of formerly, strive to achieve the art to create", wants be particular about "mass, popularization, colloquial and artistic quality", "to be able to have very good guide depending on and promotion effect". The author believes that the film title has five functions:
1) Suit the content of the original film, reflect the theme of the original film, help the audience better understand the original film, highlight the style of the original film.

2) Concise and comprehensive, easy to remember.

3) Set the emotional tone of the film, and infect the audience with strong lyric, thrilling or dramatic atmosphere.

4) It conforms to the language norms of Chinese and is suitable for the appreciation habits of Chinese audiences.

5) Attract audience and increase box office income.

Therefore, the theoretical support for film title translation is not the traditional translation theory centered on "faithfulness to the original author or the original text", but the unified equivalence with the original title in language, cultural information and functional characteristics.(Newmark,1958).

===Chapter3 Analysis on Movie Title Translation===

====3.1 Current Study of Movie Title Translation====
With the rapid development of China's society and the improvement of the openness of the country at all levels, more and more foreign films have entered China, giving Chinese audiences different visual and spiritual cultural feast. At times, however, the translation of movie titles has left audiences baffled. Due to the vast territory of China, the same English movies are sometimes translated differently under the cultural background of the mainland, Taiwan and the three places, making it difficult for people to judge the same movie from the name of the translated movie.

For example,《飘》is translated in Mainland China, while《乱世佳人》is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan. For example, in Cantonese, "slam-dunk" is called "Thun", while in Mandarin it is "slam-dunk". Therefore, the movie Space Jam has been translated into "Thun in Space" and "Slam-Dunk in the Air". Due to different pronunciations, the translation of movie names will also be different. For example, the classic film Titanic was translated into the Hong Kong version of "Titanic" and "Titanic", but the latter is better known.

Influence of commercial interests More and more films are driven by commercial investment. In order to win high box office, eye-catching words are often added to the title of the film in translation to make the audience shine. For example, in the film Leon, merchants translate it into Leon in order to pursue a better box office. In fact, it is also possible to translate it into Leon, but it lacks the thriller of the former, so it cannot better attract the audience. There's another movie, The Mask, for example. The Mainland version is The Mask, while The Taiwan version is The Modern Saint.

The former is more convincing and mysterious, and The translation is better.Random translation is quite common in Hong Kong. The so-called random translation refers to the translation of the name without the content of the film, imaginary, unrestrained, full of exaggerations, suspense, with only one purpose, is to attract audiences. For example, "Fair Came" was translated into Chinese by Hong Kong and translated into Chinese as "Fair game". The film tells the story of Kitty, who was originally a lawyer in miami-famous family firm, who woke up and suddenly became a target of Soviet spies, facing death threats all the time. It was hard to see how Kitty could be called a witch from beginning to end.

Hong Kong translations (1995) and mainland Chinese translations of "Shawshank Redemption". The story takes place at the beginning of 1947, banker Andy is wronged and imprisoned. Facing the unfair fate, Andy can show not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personal losses and silently construct his own future. It is not clear where 1995 came from in the Hong Kong translation, and the word "stimulus" does not match the content of the film. From the perspective of translation, translation has made big fear of translation standards, even the most basic of faithful to the original works and "letter" to the cause for the current more than a translation, the chaotic translation for the current situation.

In addition to our regional factors mentioned above, a local translation characteristics, the mass media have unshirkable responsibility. As a mass media, newspapers, magazines, films, radio and television do not pay attention to the use of standardized translation of the name, which leads to the further deterioration of the phenomenon of film translation one translation. In addition, in order to pursue business profits, translator and even from The film content, subjective themselves, exaggerated exaggerated, use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no bridge ", and "candle" two characters.

The tragic fate of The film, The heroine, consider translation of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", such as Hong Kong and Taiwan to Hemingway's masterpiece The Sun Also Rises "The Sun Also Rises" translation "concubine is chaoyang and zhao jun, and formerly known as and simply goes and The original content.(Song Yanlan, 2017)

====3.2 Defining Movie Title Translation====

=====3.2.1 Ways to Define=====
Facing the current situation of film title translation, how should we regulate the translation of film title? I think there are several ways to look at it. From the perspective of the translator, the translator should accurately grasp the original content, want to reaction and its creation and works reflect the major theme of background, this can help the translator vividly grasp accurately the original content, understand the formerly known as connotation, translation with the original content, to maximize the reappearance of formerly known as information, make the translation really play a guide role.

Such as film, A Walk in the Clouds, title literally "go" in the cloud, which describes A youth couple of vine flowers in the loving touching love story, also the garden it is translated into "to Walk through the Clouds,", reflects both the original meaning, and full of poetic, leave the audience with fragrant vineyard, fascinating intoxicating refreshing romantic breath. The translator should also be in accordance with the original, pay attention to the using a variety of translation method is flexible, should not only respect the formerly known as film, also considering the cultural differences, adopt the appropriate expression, proper free translation of some of the titles, appropriately express the original information, should not only to retain the original western style.

And to consider domestic audience's comprehension and language habits, considering the cultural differences. Some titles can be translated literally, simply and clearly to convey the information of original titles, such as Sindler's List translated into Schindler's List,Back to the Future translated into Back to the Future, etc. Some titles require free translation. For example, the novel Cone Wih the Wind is translated as "Gone with the Wind" with literal translation, but the film's translation of "Gone with the Wind" is more attractive.

"Troubled times" tells the background of the story, "Beautiful Woman" points out the heroine of the film, which -- the translated title vividly shows the heroine Scarlett's rough experience in the war years, which can fully attract the audience's attention. Waterloo Bridge, literal translation is "Waterloo Bridge", see the translation, the audience will first think of the battle of Waterloo, napoleon, but the film describes not smoke of the battlefield, but sad love story, the symbol of the combination of Chinese folk story "the blue Bridge", the translator skillfully as a "blue use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no Bridge", and "candle" two characters, the film highlighted the tragic fate of the heroine.(Yao Dongyu, 2016)

=====3.2.2 The Criteria for Movie Title Translation=====
As for the criteria of translation,Yan Fu, a famous modern translator, put forward the criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance".Faithfulness “is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style and inside.”Expressiveness is for the translation, and requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech. While in terms of elegance, there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept.

As for the concept of effect, he pointed out that, after clarifying the effect of information on the receiver, it should be emphasized that it should include the full effect of information, namely the thorough understanding and feeling obtained by the receiver. Includes main spirit, concrete fact, artistic conception atmosphere three main elements. In the translation practice of the film title, Jin Ti said that because of different language changes are bound to cause changes in the language effect, so only from the effect of the translation, to determine whether the language is appropriate.

Taking this as the standard, the translated name should try to achieve the equivalence of spirit, fact and artistic conception in sound, shape and meaning, that is, the relationship between the recipient and the translated message should be basically the same as that between the recipient and the original message "(Nida, CF King: 1998).

====3.3 The Principles of Movie Title Translation====
Although the translation of film titles has its particularity, it is not distinct from the translation of other genres, but has something in common. In terms of its translation process and results, the author believes that it should be mainly reflected in the following two principles :1. Principle of Economic Benefit Liu Miqing (1999,P.49) pointed out that since the content contained in the original language is worthy of translation (i.e., it has social benefits), the conversion should be realized by the target language that is acceptable to the society, instead of being restricted by the readability of the original language.

It is also said that social benefits are the yardstick by which the meaning of translation, the quality of translation and the value of translation are tested "(1999,P.48). He puts forward three principles, among which the readability principle of the target language plays a guiding role in title translation. When the readability of the source language is very good, it can convert all the formal meaning and stylistic meaning of the source language into the target language correspondingly...". In Hong Kong, for example, Sound of Music has been translated as "floating in the sky" and in Taiwan as "truth, goodness and beauty", which leaves the audience puzzled.

Since then, the film has been widely accepted as 《音乐之声》 by Chinese mainland translators. 2. Principles of Cultural Characteristics Translation with cultural characteristics is considered to be one of the most difficult to translate. "As for culture-specific", translation theorist Baker(2000, p.64) said that the words of the target language may express a concept that is completely unknown to the culture of the target language, which may be abstract or concrete and may be related to religious beliefs, social customs or even certain things.

This shows the difficulty of cultural translation. The film is the director's reflection of the real or virtual life, and the title that reflects the content of the film also naturally contains many cultural factors, making it difficult to translate. There are various ways to embody cultural connotation, such as cultural words and idioms. "First Blood” for example, is an idiom meaning "first to win a battle", but always translated as "the first drop of blood".

===Chapter4 Ways of Movie Title Translation===

====4.1 Literal Translation====
literal translation - simple and clear, to the literal translation is carried out in accordance with the literal meaning to translation, translation is not to add or increase or decrease, achieve unity, so as to convey sincerity buy primitive thoughts, reflects the primitive expression of the style of work, even done very well, otherwise the translation will lose the essence of the original. Nowadays, more and more audiences like original films. Excellent film translations retain their own unique labels while promoting films. Although there is no gorgeous translation of words, they are insipid yet mysterious.

For example, a film about psychology, Beautiful Mind, which the translator translated directly into "A Beautiful Mind", without adding any other elements, makes people have a calm and mysterious feeling towards this film. There is also a film about the Sniper in Iraq war, American Sniper, which the translator directly translated into American Sniper. When people see the title, they can clearly know what subject this film is about. There is no gorgeous language, but it goes straight to the theme without losing the original meaning.(Zhou Baoxue, 2013)

====4.2 Free Translation====
Free translation -- in a similar situation, free translation with cultural characteristics is translated in accordance with the general idea of the original text, instead of word for word translation, which can be applied in the context of huge cultural differences between the original language and the target language.There is a classic work starring by Nicolas Cage called "Face Off". Some translators have translated it into 《变脸》 or 《夺面双雄》. Both are free translations, not literal ones.The advantage is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film. so that the film name can quickly enter people's minds and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme with local cultural characteristics.

When English films encounter Chinese culture, they need to be adjusted appropriately, so that the film name can quickly enter people's lives and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme and with local cultural characteristics.For example,the translation title of a movie starring by Tom Hanks,called Catch Me If You Can,was not directly translated into 《如果你能抓住我，but translated into《猫鼠游戏》or《逍遥法外》，according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features.The two translation versions both make good use of the four words Chinese idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, leaving people never forget.

====4.3 Transliteration====
Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into ''米尔克''. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films..(He Ying, 2001)

====4.4 Amplification and Omission====
Amplification and provincial translation -- to highlight the features of the film and keep close to the theme, amplification or provincial translation refers to adding or reducing the corresponding information on the original basis to achieve the function of better information transmission, so as to make the name of the film more representative and play the role of advertising.

So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. Another movie is named How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into How to Tame Your Dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.(Jin Ti, 1997)

====4.5 Naturalization====
Domestication method is adopted in the translation of English film titles to avoid literal translation, which would make the Chinese translation of film titles impossible for Chinese audiences to understand the theme and cultural connotation of the film. This translation strategy aims to make the translated title conform to the cultural psychology and aesthetic standards of Chinese audiences, adapt to the difficulty of public understanding, give the audience an intuitive and preliminary understanding of the film content, and stimulate their interest in watching the film.

Cleopatra Cleopatra was the last queen of the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt, one of the first sovereigns of Alexander the Great after his conquest of Egypt. Legend has it that Cleopatra was beautiful and intelligent. She was close to Caesar and Antony, politically adept, involved in the politics of the end of the Roman Republic, ambitious, and a legendary Egyptian queen. There is no doubt that Cleopatra was a central figure in ancient Egypt, and her anecdotes about Her relationships with Caesar and Antony made her a famous figure in literature and art. This is the story of Cleopatra, the 52-year-old Caesar who came to Egypt as a Roman governor to settle a royal contest between Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic dynasty, and her half brother Ptolemy XIII.

Cleopatra quickly conquered Caesar with her charm of courage and political skill, gaining control not only of the Ptolemies in Egypt, but of Rome as well. The son of Cleopatra and Caesar was made heir, but Antony and Octavian were not satisfied. AAfter Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the territory and throne of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra.If the title of the English movie is literally translated into Chinese as《克娄巴特拉》……Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate it as 《埃及艳后》to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest, and at the same time, the audience can understand the theme of the film more intuitively, so as to achieve the purpose of promoting the cultural transmission.(Wu Shuang, 2005)

====4.6 Foreignization====
In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the original titles, bring the audience into the English language and culture, let the audience experience an unprecedented exotic amorous feelings, and maximize the dissemination of English language and culture. Zeng Qinyu thought domestication and foreignization can be regarded as the extension of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent to literal translation and free translation.

The Hollywood film Titanic tells the touching love story between rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter, when the luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg and sank. On April 15, 1912,Titanic set sail from Southampton, England, carrying more than 1,000 passengers and more than 800 crew members, bound for New York. But unfortunately it collided with an iceberg and sank. When the wreck was found on the bottom of the sea in 1985, there was a portrait of a teenage girl on the cabin wall, and Rose, who was 102 at the time, claimed to be the girl. The original Rose because her fiance Carl is a snob and do not want to marry him, when ready to throw himself into the sea, was Bohemian poor painter Jack save.

Rose fell in love with jack, a cheerful character. As a witness of love, Jack drew a portrait for Rose. Not long after that, the ship hit an iceberg and began to sink. In the critical moment of life and death, Jack left the chance of life to Rose, he was frozen to death in the cold sea. In the translation of the film title, alienation strategy was adopted, literally translated as Titanic. This translation strategy was consistent with the understanding and acceptance level of Chinese audiences, loyal to the social and cultural life of English-speaking countries, and retained the form and content of the original English title to the greatest extent.(Zeng Qinyu，2020)

===Chapter5 Conclusion===
Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also require rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills.. The title translation is not a simple and mechanical arrangement. It needs to consider the similarities and differences between Eastern and Western cultures and the acceptability of translation according to the content of the film, so that it not only conveys the message of the film, but also is full of beauty.

Therefore, translators should not only be familiar with the ways of language expression and conversion, but also have a profound cultural awareness. On the basis of in-depth understanding of the cultural information conveyed by the title, translators should understand the content and style of the film, try to understand the wording and try to accurately grasp the surface meaning and associative meaning of the source language and the target language. "I was a standup, I was at the tenth month of October", I translated the title of the film with a rigorous attitude, and only by carving and chiselling can I achieve a classic translation that enjoys universal popularity.(Yang Shu, 2017)

===References===
[1]Eugene A. Nida. Toward a Science of Translating. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.

[2]Jin Ti. Equivalent Translation Exploration. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1997.

[3]Han Su. Comparison between English and Chinese Version in Film Title Translation. Journal of Chifeng University.2019(03):101-103

[4]He Ying. Theory and method of Film Title Translation. Foreign language Teaching, 2001 ,(01):56-60.

[5]Lin Wen. Cultural Identity and Translation of English Film Titles. Guizhou Normal University,2016.

[6]Liu Miqing. Contemporary Translation Theory. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1999.

[7]Lu Hui. Brief analysis of English Film Title Translation. Huashang. 2008(06):68.

[8]Song Yanlan. Common Chinese Cultural Factors in English Film Title Translation -- Take 50 films for example. Liberal arts navigation. 2017(04):22-24.

[9]Yao Dongyu. Journal of Liao Ning Institute of Science and Technology,2016.

[10]Yang Hu Hong. On several Translation Methods of Film Title Translation. Anhui Literature, 2006.

[11]Yang Shu. Narrative Studies of Mainland Chinese Films Since the New Era. Shandong Normal University. 2017.

[12]Zen Qingyu. A Brief analysis of domestication and Foreignization of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Guide. 2020(05):25-26.

[13]Zhou Baoxue. A Brief Analysis of the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Literature Review. 2013(08):149-150.

--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 12:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

== A Study on Movie Titles Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing Student No.202070080601 MTI英语笔译 ==

<center>罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing No.202070080601</center>

==='''Abstract'''===

With the continuous advancement of globalization, more and more foreign films are introduced into China continuously. China's film market is huge and Watching films has become a popular way of entertainment for Chinese. Various kinds of films emerge in endlessly so that film titles are particularly important. The film title is the eye of the film, the highlight and essence of a film. A good film title can successfully attract people's attention, stimulate the desire to watch, and bring them into the cinema, which is the purpose of English film title translation. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this paper will analyze the characteristics and functions of film titles, all kinds of existing translations, and puts forward some translation methods of English film titles, hoping to be helpful to the translation of film title translation.

==='''Key words'''===

English film title translation; Skopos Theory; translation methods

==='''摘要'''===

随着全球化进程的不断推进，越来越多的外国电影源源不断地涌入中国，中国电影市场巨大，看电影已成为一种广受欢迎的娱乐消遣方式，各种电影层出不穷，因此电影片名就显得尤为的重要。电影片名是电影的眼睛，是一部电影的亮点与精华所在。一个好的电影名可以成功吸引人的眼球，激发大众观看欲望，将大众带入电影院。而英语电影片名的翻译目的就在此。本文主要将从目的论的视角出发，分析电影片名的特点与作用，对各种现有译名的进行分析，就此提出一些英文电影片名的翻译方法，希望能对电影片名的翻译工作有所帮助。

==='''关键词'''===

英语电影片名翻译；目的论; 翻译方法

==='''Chapter1 Introduction'''===

A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxed way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. （Ma Yuanyuan，2010,1-5)

With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges because different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. （Ma Yuanyuan，2010,1-5)

Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It is not good enough to accurately summarize the contents of the film to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. （Ma Yuanyuan 2010,1-5）

This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. The Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. （Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）

The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.（Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）

This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis. Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres, features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principles. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.

==='''Chapter2 A General Introduction of English Film Title'''===

====2.1 Film Genres ====

According to He Ying in her article "Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation", films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film, and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses image and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. (He Ying 2001, 57)

Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genre of action and war，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. (Tim Dirks,2003,3.19)

====2.2 Features of English Film Title====

===== 2.2.1 Linguistic Features=====

Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and the translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four-character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.(Tang Su, 2015,(05)128-129)

The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）

=====2.2.2 Aesthetic Features =====

In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. Film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. (Ma Yuanyuan,16-17)

Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline Dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word "fireworks" is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)

=====2.2.3 Commercial Features=====

Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aimed to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. (Ma Yuanyuan,16-17)

For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy Story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public have already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)

====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====

=====2.3.1 Informative Function =====

The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess. It is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless. To enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories. In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. (Newmark 2001, 40)

A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same terminus, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. (Ma Yuanyuan,16)

The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. (Film title and its translation, Douban Movie website)

Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are aware that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle.(Ma Yuanyuan,16)

=====2.3.2 Aesthetic Function=====

Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation. Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience. (Ding Jin,2008,9)

Take ''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》for examle, this film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, and the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw Miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created melancholy atmosphere. (The plot of this movie)

What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound. In addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)

=====2.3.3 Vocative Function =====

A film title can show the audience the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, "the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee" (Newmark 2001, 41).

According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)

Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)

==='''Chapter3 A General Introduction of Skopos Theory'''===

====3.1 The Development of Skopos Theory====

Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. "Skopos" means " purpose "or " goal " in Greek. "The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation ." The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one. The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages. (Munday 2016, 73)

Firstly,in the book “ Possibility and Limitations in Translation Criticism” , Katherine Rice first proposed functional translation theory. She believes that translators should put functional features first rather than information equivalence. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)

Secondly, Hans Vermeer, a student of Reiss, broke away from the equivalence-based theories and set up the theoretical framework for "Functional School": Skopos Theory. situation". In the framework of Vermeer's theory, every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means “ to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” (Vermeer 1987, 29).

Thirdly, on the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed the functional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ”“ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place". Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose.(Nord1991, 12-13).

Fourthly，Christina Nord summed up and perfected the theory of functionalism. She systematically expounds in English the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation and how to formulate translation strategies suitable for translation purposes on the basis of the functions of the original text. Christina Nord sorts out the functionalist theories and proposes that translators should follow the guiding principle of “ Function Plus Loyalty ” , thus perfecting the theory.(Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)

=====3.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory=====

The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “ skopos rule”, what Reiss and Vermeer described as “ the end justifies the means ” (Reiss &Vermeer1984, 101). There are three possible kinds of purposes in the field of translation: (1) the translator's general purpose in the translation process (perhaps to earn a living); (2) the communicative purpose aimed at by the target text in the target situation (perhaps to instruct the reader); (3) the purpose aimed at by a particular translation strategy or procedure (for example, to translate literally in order to show the structural particularities of the source language). (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)

The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function. (Nord 2001, 29)

Another important rule of Skopos Theory is the coherence rule, which means that "a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers situation". Focusing on the target readership and target culture, functionalists regard intra-textual coherence than inter-textual coherence, just as Nord put it, "inter-textual coherence is considered subordinate to intra-textual coherence, and both are subordinated to the skopos rule. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)

The third rule of Skopos Theory is fidelity rule. Fidelity rule means that there should be inter -textual coherence between the original text and the target text. This is equivalent to the so-called faithfulness to the original text in other translation theories, but the degree and form of faithfulness to the original text depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original text. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)

=====3.3 Function Plus Loyalty=====

As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction to the change of source text. (Ding Jin,29）

In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why."(Nord 2001, 125)

Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients. All in all, this theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids soure-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,Skopos Theory)

====Chapter4 The Application of Skopos Theory in Film Title Translation====

=====4.1 Skopos Theory's Guiding Role in English Film Title Translation=====

A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena. Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. （Zheng Yuqi & Wang Xiaodong，2006）

Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation. Of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi & Wang Xiaodong，2006）

For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. （Ding Jin,36）

Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film. If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,翻译目的论)

Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film ''Thelma and Louise'', Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)

Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)

Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)

There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast & Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. (Ding Jin,16)

====4.2 Methods for Film Title Translation====

=====4.2.1Transliteration=====

Transliteration means to seek phonetic correspondence in terms of the translation to describe the English syllables through the corresponding Chinese characters carrying similar sounds. It relates to the conversion of different alphabets in different language system. Transliteration is usually applied this situations, when they are the name of persons and places and historical events. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)

This method is often adopted in the film title translation because it has the obviously features in keeping the phonetic fluency of original film titles which express its strong exoticism, which can arouse the audience's curiosity to see the film. With the development of global communication, people become more and more interested in knowing other country’s culture, this method is becoming increasingly popular. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)

For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)

=====4.2.2 Literal Translation =====

Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text. The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original. The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. （Nord 2004, 36)

In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation. For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. (He Ying,59)

Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》. To make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese.(He Ying,59)

What’s more, sometimes, the article like "a, or, the" will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》. (He Ying,59)

=====4.2.3 Liberal Translation=====

Any translator with common sense of translation will not expect to find equivalent expressions in the target language all the time. Given this, translators may often adopt free translation. Free translation is an alternative approach that is used mainly to convey the meaning and the spirit of the original title without sticking to the form. (Feng qinhua2000, 36-44)

Liberal translation preserve the content of the original title as much as possible at the cost of changing the form of the film title. In the specific operation, translators often use some techniques, such as addition, conversion and extension in particular so as to deeply convey the content of the original film and enhance the appeal of the title.（He Ying 2001, 57）

A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)

=====4.2.4 Combination of Transliteration and Literal Translation=====

In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. (Ding Jin,51)

For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)

=====4.2.5 Combination of Literal Translation and Liberal Translation=====

The combination of literal translation and liberal translation can be faithful to the original text to the greatest extent and attract the audience. Due to various reasons, the original titles of some English films only realize the information function of translated titles. In order to realize the various functions of translation, the translator sometimes retains the reasonable part of the original name, and then combines the need of the audience to complete the relevant information as far as possible. (He Aixiang2020, 103-107)

There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)

=====4.2.6 Re-creative Translation=====

As mentioned above, re-creative translation is the last resort so far as the translation of English film titles is concerned. Sometimes, some titles are obscure and neither nor fowl after translation while others are very ordinary without attraction and this method aims not only transferring the informative value, but also reproducing the aesthetic and appellative value of the film. (Ma Yuanyuan 2010, 28-29)

The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)

==='''Chapter5 Conclusion'''===
This paper studies the translation of film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory. Firstly, it analyzes the genres of films, the characteristics and functions of film titles translation. Secondly, it mainly introduces the development and rules of Skopos Theory. Finally, it analyzes the translation of film names under the Skopos Theory and puts forward some translation methods of film titles.

Skopos Theory holds that the skopos rule is the primary rule, therefore, when translating film titles, translators have more initiative and they can use more diversified methods, which makes the film titles more commercial. However, there are still many shortcomings in this paper. For example, when analyzing the characteristics and functions of film titles, the aspect of cultural exchange is not taken into account. In the final translation method part, the summary is not in place, and the proposed method is not novel enough.

I hope that in the further study, I can put forward a more applicable model of film title translation, and the last point is the lack of film data, the main purpose of film title translation is to attract more audience to buy tickets. If I can analyze the data of box office well, I can further evaluate whether the purpose of film title translation has been achieved.

This paper is only limited to the author's understanding of the translation, thus some conclusions and analysis are still not profound enough. The author hopes that there will be more research results in the future, which can provide more abundant theories and methods to guide the translation of film titles.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 09:43, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''References'''===

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*Ma Yuanyuan马媛媛. (2010). 翻译目的论视角下的英文电影片名的汉译 [Translation of English Film Titles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. 黑龙江大学 Heilongjiang University ,2-29.

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*Zheng Yunqi & WangXiaodong. 郑玉琪,王晓冬. (2006) 小议电影片名的英汉翻译原则[On the English-Chinese Translation of Movie Titles].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal, 27(02) 66-68.

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*Douban Movie website 豆瓣电影网 https://movie.douban.com/

==The Study of Brand Name Translation 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie==
<center>谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，202020080641. 俄语语言文学</center>

===Abstract===
With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention, evoke their desire to buy the products, and is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. The study of brand name translation is helpful to express the meaning of brand name, reflect its cultural connotation, and promote cultural exchange and transmission. Based on many convincing examples, this chapter introduces the definition and functions of brand name, states the principles of the its translation, offers the available and useful methods for its translation. I hope this chapter is helpful to the study of brand name translation.

===key words===
Brand name translation; Principle; Methods

===商标翻译研究===

===摘要===
随着经济全球化进程的加快，越来越多的企业活跃在全球市场中。商标翻译在国际贸易中起着举足轻重的作用。一个好的译名是吸引顾客注意，并唤起他们购买商品欲望的直接因素，对商品的销售量有着极其重要的影响。研究商标翻译有助于准确表达商标含义，体现其蕴藏的文化内涵，促进文化交流与传播。本文结合许多令人信服的例子，介绍商标的定义和功能，阐述商标翻译的原则，提供有用的商标翻译方法,希望对商标翻译研究有帮助。

===关键字===
商标翻译；原则；方法

===1. Introduction===
In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”, A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity, can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)

The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time, brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application.

First part is the introduction of this chapter. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and its translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles of brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, "Three Principles of Beauty"). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this chapter is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research.

====1.1 Brand and Its Name====
According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “the brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods. (Jing Yang 2018,1)

Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008: 4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty and various branding strategies.” Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)

====1.2 Brand Name Translation====
With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products enter the Chinese market and have gotten the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market.

To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from source language to target language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.

===2. The Principles of Brand Name Translation===
The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods. Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language, it should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, In order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand name should abide by the following principles. (Fade Wang 2012,3)

====2.1 The Principle of Following the Target Customers' Culture====
In China people pursues auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as "金", "美", "福" and "佳 ". In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特). (Liu Haiyan 2013,11)

Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters "dragon", "phoenix", "magpie", "petrel" and so on, because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, Petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture, dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouses terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means "someone who chatters", petrel is the symbol of disaster. (Liu Haiyan 2020,4)

People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)

====2.2 The Principle of Using Concise Words====
As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember. Generally, English brand name are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. (Feng Wang 2012,3).

For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders, William Hewlett and David Packard. "Hewlett packard" was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”, but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —"马尔波罗"—"万宝路"、Mercedes-Benz (car) —"默赛德斯·本茨"—"奔驰". The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to. The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese. (Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng 2018,2); (Zhang Lulu 2011,2)

====2.3 The Principle of Grasping the Characteristics of Commodities====
The brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed.

For example: the toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder, William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain; while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia. Brand name implies regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand "维维豆奶" is translated as "Soybean", in which "Bean" refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)

Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, the two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang 2012,2)

====2.4 The Principle of Considering the Target Consumers’ Aesthetic Preference====
Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, "Lu Hua Nong" serves as a sound transcription of "Revlon", On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai "云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓", which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original brand name so as to create brand name translation with Chinese characteristics.

Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”, Since ancient times, a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and product characteristics.

There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: "桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家", which perfectly implies the good attributes of "home")(Victor Mair 2019);(Ogilvy Ao Mei 2017);(Liu Haiyan 2020,3); (Li Jianzi 2018).

====2.5 “Three Principles of Beauty”====
Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the "Three Principles of Beauty" for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form. As far as I'm concerned, the standard also applies to brand name translation. (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru 2018,1)

=====2.5.1 The Beauty in Sense=====
Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence. In the process of translation, the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods, so that consumers can understand the goods. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)

=====2.5.2 Beauty in Sound=====
The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP"(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into English, it is usually translated directly in pinyin. This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)

=====2.5.3 Beauty in Form=====
Brand name should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).

===3.The methods of brand name translation===

====3.1 Transliteration====
Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target language to translate the name of the product. Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)

Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lacks implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “Ben Chi奔驰”, which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called "Quick" is translated to "Kuai Ke快克" in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease. The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei赛百味”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only convey the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda柯达), “Intel”(Yingteer因特尔), "Puma"(Biao Ma彪马), "Parker"(Pai Ke派克), "Lincoln"（Lin Ken林肯), "Canon" (Jia Neng佳能). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly. (Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)

It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means "spell" and yin means "sound". In Chinese pronunciation transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “Hai Er海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”. The well-known drink brand “Wa Ha Ha娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. (Fade Wang 2012,3)

====3.2 Literal Translation====
The literal translation means that using the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and the function is equivalent. Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)

A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand "Dynasty" as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao王朝”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently. The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao蓝鸟” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China, it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness”. Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “Hua Hua Gong Zi花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “Ye Huo Ji野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “Lan Dai蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “Hong Niu红牛”, all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Zhang Shu 2018,4)

In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we can't use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “Zi Luo Lan紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand is poor. Other examples such as “Bianfu蝙蝠”(bat) , “Baixiang白象”(white elephant) , “Jinji金鸡”(Golden Cock), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation. (Zhang Jin 2019,2); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)

====3.3 Free translation====
When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, the best choice is to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation”, namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)

Here are some instances such as "Rejoice", its translation is "Piao Rou飘柔". Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo. So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia舒肤佳”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect. The translation of many brand names adopts free translation method, for instance, “Kui Hua葵花” (Sunflower), “Bai Ling百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (Xian Feng先锋), “Skinice”(Fu Mei Ling肤美灵). (Jing Yang 2018,5); (Jing Yang 2018, 4)

However, owing to the different cultural systems, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos“, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name.(Fade Wang 2012,4)

====3.4 Combinative Translation====
Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have a nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name.

“Coca-Cola” is translated as “Ke Kou Ke Le可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it surely can give you nice flavor and pleasure. The "Goldlion" is translated into "Jin Li Lai", which is a good translation. As we all know, "lion" means "Shi Zi"" in Chinese, but the pronunciation of "Lion" is similar to the Chinese "Shi", and "Shi" means "Lose" in Chinese, then the businessmen will think "lose" unlucky. When it is translated as "Jin Li Lai金利来", it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly. Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(Nai Ke耐克), “Unilever”(Lian He Li Hua联合利华), “Uniqlo”(You Yi Ku优衣库), “Revlon”(Lu Hua Nong露华浓), “Volkswagen”(Da Zhong大众) and so on. (Fade Wang 2012,4); (Jing Yang 2018,5)

====3.5 Non-translation====
Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand names, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5).

On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the "999"medicines, "IBM" computers, "TCL" electronic products, "LG" Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on. Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leaves the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. (Zhang Jin 2019,2)

===4.Conclusion===
In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages.

From this thesis, the following conclusions can be reached:

First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this chapter. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and "Three Principles of Beauty", product sales will increase.

Second, brand name translation can use the five methods: transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation.

Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. Brand name translation is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.

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[5]Liu Haiyan. 刘海燕. (2013). 英文商标名称汉译技巧探析. [Analysis of Chinese Translation Skills of English Trademark Names]. 英语广场 [English Square] (Academic Research). (09) 8-11.

[6]Lu Wenchan. (2018).跨文化交际视角下的汉英商标名称翻译研究. [Studies on Chinese-English Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Communication]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 2nd International Conference on Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities (SSAH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.

[7]Wang Hengen. 王恒恩. (2009). "三美"论与商标翻译分析. ["Three Beauty" theory and Trademark Translation Analysis]. 成功(教育) [Success (Education)]. (03) 274-275.

[8]Xuechuan He. (2018).汉英商标翻译研究. [The Study of Chinese-English Trademark Translation]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies. 8(5).

[9]Zhang Shu.(2018). 从目的论角度研究品牌名称的英译. [Study on E-C translation of Brand names from the perspective of Skopos Theory].Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 5th International Conference on Education,Management and Computing Technology(ICEMCT 2018)[C].Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:5.

[10]Zhang Jin. 张瑾. (2019). 中英商标名翻译的原则与方法. [Principles and Methods of Translating Chinese and English Trademark Names]. 校园英语 [Campus English]. (10) 225-226.

[11]Zhang Wenfei. 张文斐. (2020). 再议三美论下的商标翻译策略. [Further Discussion on Trademark Translation Strategies under "Three Beauty" theory]. 校园英语 [Campus English].(30)249-250.

[12]Li Jianzi. 李健子. (2018.7.11). 中国译名也能圈粉！make up for ever的“浮生若梦”引热议. [Chinese translated names are popular! "Make up for Ever" arouses hot discussion]. https://www.cbo.cn/article/id/45823.html

[13]Ogilvy Ao Mei. 奥美. (2017.5.2). 为什么好文案月薪10万理所应当，看看这些绝妙翻译. [Why should a good copywriter earn $100,000 a month? Look at these awesome translations]. https://m.digitaling.com/articles/36896.html

[14]Victor Mair (2019.10.19). ["Revlon" in Chinese]. https://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=44732

History of Translation Studies 6

2020-12-21T09:08:30Z

Zhou Luoping: /* Study of domestication and foreignization in cross cultural translation 周罗平 Zhou Luoping */

这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第六部分(Part 6)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。

学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。

*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].

='''Foreignization and Domestication'''=

==Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches 汤蓓 Tang Bei 英语笔译==
<center> 汤蓓 Tang Bei, 202070080607.</center>

==='''Abstract'''===

Translation is a purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.

==='''Key words'''===
domestication; foreignization;functionalist approaches

==='''摘要'''===
翻译是一种有目的的跨文化交际，处理翻译的文化差异可以使用两种方法：归化和异化。本文从德国功能派翻译理论出发，利用该理论的主要观点，从翻译功能的角度分析译者在翻译过程中对翻译的两大策略——归化与异化的选择做出解释。

==='''关键词'''===
归化；异化；功能派理论

==='''Introduction'''===
Translation, bridging the world of different cultures together, is a cross-cultural activity to the essence as well as an important medium to promote cultural communication. However, due to the differences between materials, customs, religions, thoughts, living environments and language systems, cultural gaps, independent of man’s will, exist objectively, which cause the main difficulties in cultural communication. Only by adopting proper translation strategies can translators reduce cultural conflicts and effectively achieve cultural communication. There are arguments in translation circles on which translation strategy is the better one to remove cultural confusion and promote cultural communication. Domestication and foreignization are two points at issue. Some are for domestication, and some are for foreignization.

In 1970s, the German functionalist approaches emerged. “Functionalist” means focusing on the function or functions of texts and translations. Functionalism is a broad term for various theories that approach translation in this way. Although Skopostheory has played a major role in the development of this trend. For the functionalist, translation is a purposeful activity, Nord had mentioned that a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose.(Nord,1997) .The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “Skopos rule”, that is “the end justifies the means” (Nord 1997:29). Plus Holz-Manttari’s theory of tranlational action, Reiss’s text typology, the functionalism is intended to solve the eternal dilemma of many issues in translation studies, and the strategies of domestication and foreignization are without exception.

From the perspective of functionalist approaches, the choice of translation strategies depends on the functions of the texts, the Skopos. To achieve the prospective purposes, the translator has the freedom to choose the method he needs domestication or foreignization, or both. The functionalist approaches provided a perspective of translation studies.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:24, 11 December 2020 (UTC)

===Chapter1: Brief Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization===
====Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====
Domestication and foreignization, two different yet functionally related strategies, the two terms were formally put forward by Laurence Venuti, aiming at explaining two kinds of translation strategies in The Translator’s Invisibility in 1995. Venuti claimed that he traced the root of the terms back to Friedrich Schleiermacher’s famous notion about translation. Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher, said in a lecture in 1813 on the different methods of translation, which stated that “There are only two. Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995:37).

According to Venuti, “domestication means bringing the foreign culture closely to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture and making him or her see the differences” (Venuti 1995:148).

Mark Schuttleworth and Moria Cowie defined domestication and foreignization in the following way: “Domesticating translation is a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers”, while “Foreignizing translation is a term used by Venuti to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original”. (Schaffner 1995:21)

To sum up above, the conclusion can be drawn like this: domestication refers to a reader-oriented translation which makes use of acceptable expressions in the target culture to make the target text easy to understand and suitable for the target text readers. Foreignization translation is a culture-oriented translation, which tries to retain the charm of the original text as much as possible in order to preserve the flavour of the original text.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:26, 11 December 2020 (UTC)

====Supporter of Domestication and Foreignization====
Eugene. A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist dedicated to the communicative function of translation, is widely considered to be the most important supporter for domestication. Nida understands the concepts of domestication and foreignization as “dynamic or functional equivalence” and “formal equivalence” or “formal correspondence”. Dynamic equivalence is a principle of translation. According to this principle, the translators translate the original text with the purpose of making the impact of target language wording on the target culture readers. (Nida&Taber, 1969:200). He argues that, “Under normal circumstances, translators always change the form of the original text ,but as long as the conversion rules change the consistency of transfer in the context of the source language to follow the rules and follow the anti-conversion target language, then the information is retained, and translation is faithful”. (Nida, 1964:118)

Nida divides equivalence into two levels : the lowest level and the highest level of equivalence. The lowest level on the translation is of important and basic requirements; while the highest level on the translation is the ideal, and is therefore difficult to achieve. If the translator is unable to achieve the lowest level of equivalence, it is not enough. He also states that: “The purpose of dynamic equivalence in the translation is to achieve natural expression and to link the receptor and relevant behavior patterns within receptor’s cultural context.” (Nida, 1964:165)

The natural expression indicates fluency is very important to this translation theory. Apparently, domestication in Nida’s works is involved in this fluency. Nida and other proponents of domestication have their own reasons: First, it is not only unrealistic, but also dangerous for translators to try to impose the linguistic and cultural norms of the source text on the target text. Language barriers and cultural barriers should be overcome in a good translation. Second, since translation is an important and necessary medium in both cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication, the behavior patterns of the target culture should absorb some parts of the source culture in translation. Third, the language of the translated text should be natural, authentic and understandable, which is one of the requirements of translation. This requirement aims to avoid the misunderstanding caused by the target audience because of the language barriers. Domestication is considered to be the most important from the perspective of “natural expression” in Nida translations.

While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995:20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture uniqueness.

Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation neither only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies

Venuti and other proponents of foreignization argue reasons as following: First of all, “cultural authenticity” which embodies the characteristics of a foreign culture is one of the basic principles of foreignization translation. Only through the destruction of cultural norms of the target language, can foreignization maintain foreignness and cultural characteristics of foreign text. The supporters for foreignization hold that the target readers want to feel exoticism of the translated text. The translators should present a new cultural identity to the readers, because that is the purpose of the reader to read translated works. Thus readers may know the real outside world through translated works. The translators should have confidence in the readers’ intelligence and imagination to appreciate cultural differences. Third, the exchange and dissemination of culture should be one of the main purposes of the translation. The introduction of authentic exotic culture promotes cultural exchanges. Only when translation can transfer the source linguistic phenomenon and cultural phenomenon, can it be seen as faithful translation. Cultural communication can improve the development and prosperity of the local culture by means of foreignization translation. The local culture can be greatly enriched by absorbing nutritious heterogeneous culture. The culture of a nation will become energetic and influential through an open and receptive attitude towards foreignness.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:28, 11 December 2020 (UTC)

====My Understanding on Domestication and Foreignization====
As is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood.

While in foreignization, it can be concluded that the target readers want to experience a foreign culture. In other words, it is usually presumed that understanding foreign culture is one of the main purposes of the target readers in reading translated works. Generally speaking, foreignization is relatively smoother, simpler, clearer and more conventional, and can entertain ordinary readers and achieve a lively effect because the expression and style of such translation are familiar to the target readers. Foreignization is somewhat clumsy, unnatural and unfamiliar, and can be used to introduce foreign culture, history and philosophy, and let readers feel the exotic culture and customs. However, foreign cultural images and language features may cause information overload for readers. In a word, both domestication and foreignization have its advantages and disadvantages so it is hard to say which one is better. So we need a theoretical framework to guide us how to choose the translation strategy.
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)

===Chapter2:Brief Introduction of Functionalist Approaches===
====Skopos Theory====
Skopos theory was developed by Hans Vermeer in the late of 1970s. In the translation of non-literary text types such as scientific and academic papers, instructions for use, tourist guides, contracts etc, Vermeer came to realize that the contextual factors surrounding the translation cannot be ignored. These factors include the culture of the intended of the target text and of the client who has commissioned it, and, in particular, the function which the text is to perform in that culture for those readers. Later Vermeer and his followers continue to complete the theory and prove that it also can be applied to literary translation. Within the framework of Skopos theory, translation is not regarded as a process of transcoding, but as a specific form of human action. Like any other human action, translation has a purpose, and the word Skopos is used as a technical term for the purpose of a translation.

The general and primary rule of Skopos theory is the skopos rule. Vermeer assumes that as a general rule it must be the intended purpose of the text that determines translation methods and strategies. Translation is determined by its purpose. It all depends on the Skopos of translation whether to employ domesticating or foreignizing strategy. The second general rule is the coherence rule. This rule stipulates that the target text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended users to comprehend it, given their assumed background knowledge and situational circumstances. The third general rule is the fidelity rule. The rule concerns intertextual coherence between translation, the outcome of translational action, and source text. It stipulates only that some relationship must remain between the two once the overriding principle of the first two rules have been satisfied. Among the three rules, the skopos rule plays the most important role while the other two should subject to it. In the Skopos theory, another important term is “translation brief” which specifies what kind of translation is needed. In the ideal situation, translator can decide what strategy to use by the translation brief given by the initiator.

According to Skopos theory, a text is viewed as an “offer of information”(Reiss &Vermeer 1984: 139) made by a producer to a recipient. Translation is a secondary offer of information, imitating a primary offer of information. Translation is the production of a functionally appropriate target text based on an existing source text, and the relationship between the two texts is specified according to the Skopos of the translation. It is up to the translator to decide what role a source text is to play in the translation action. The decisive factor is the specified Skopos. As a result, the status of the source text is much lower in Skopos theory than in equivalence-based theories.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2020 (UTC)

====Theory of Translational Action====
The theory of translational action was developed by Holz-Manttari in1980s. The theory is based on the principles of action theory put forward by Wright and Rehbein and is designed to cover all forms of intercultural transfer. In her model, translational action is “the process of producing a message transmitter of a certain kind, designed to be employed in superordinate action systems in order to coordinate actional and communicative cooperation” or “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose” (Nord, 1997).The primary purpose of translational action is to enable cooperative, functionally adequate communication to take place across cultural barriers. Holz-Manttan pays special attention to the actional aspects of the translation process and she analyzes the roles of the participants (such as initiator,translator, user, message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place, medium) in which their activities take place. In her model, the source text is viewed as a mere tool for the realization of communicative functions. It is a text to which a translation initiator, a client, has assigned the function of serving as source material for translational action. It is totally subordinate to its purpose and is afforded no intrinsic value, thus it may undergo radical modification in the interest of the targeted reader.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)

====Text Typology====
The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator.
Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on the one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:37, 11 December 2020 (UTC)

===Chapter3:The Choice of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches===
====From the Perspective of Skopoos Theory====
The Skopos theory gets its name from the Greek word “Skopos” which means “purpose”. This approach to translation stresses the purpose of the translation, which determines the translation strategies to be adopted. A translatum i.e. the translated text is determined by its Skopos. Knowing why a text is to be translated and what its function is going to be in the target culture is important in this approach. Like the summary Nord made in 1997, Skopos theory seemed to be exactly the translational model that was needed since it was pragmatic, culture-oriented, consistent, practical, normative, comprehensive and expert. The main point of this functional approach is the following: it is not the source text as such, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, as is postulated by equivalence-based translation theories, but the prospective function or Skopos of the target-text as determined by the initiator’s, i.e. client’s, needs. Consequently, the Skopos is largely constrained by the target text user and his situation and cultural background.

There are some examples showing the function of Skopos rule. Translators’ choices of translation strategies are often decided by their purposes. Both Yang Xianyi and David Hawkes translated Hongloumeng, one of the four Chinese classical masterpieces. However, the two translators adopted totally different strategies. Yang tends to employ foreignizing translation while Hawkes domesticating translation. The translation of the title of Hongloumeng shows the difference. Yang translated the title into “A Dream of Red Mansions” while Hawkes chosen another name of the masterpiece, “The Story of the Stone”. For Hawkes, the Chinese traditional, noble red color won’t raise the same imagination in the westerners. Contrarily, it will be connected with blood, violence and so on. Therefore, he avoided translating the character literally and resorted to another English word “green” that has more pleasant meaning in English language. As a result, “怡红院” was translated as “the house of green delights” and “怡红公子”as “green boy” .

Another domesticating example is the translation of “鸳鸯” , the mandarin duck which is the symbol of true love. He used “lovebird” to replaced the specific Chinese word. In order to make the translated text easier to understand, and “谋事在人，成事在天”were rendered as “Man proposes, God disposes”. The Chinese Buddhist “heaven” becomes the western Christian “God”. Hawkes’ purpose is to entertain his English readers and he adopted those easy-understood words and phrases in English culture in spite of sacrificing the original cultural connotation. Contrarily, Yang’s purpose is to introduce the luxuriant Chinese culture to the western world. That’s why so many words and phrases with culture-specification were maintained and translated literally. His expected readers are those who are willing to know Chinese culture and to absorb new expressions. Consequently he adopted a rather foreignizing method, attempting to maintain the exotic cultural factors of source text. Examples were seen as following:
1.俗语说的好：“一龙九种，种种个别。”未免人多了就有鱼龙混杂，下流人物在内。(第九回)
“A dragon begets nice offspring, each one different.” And inevitably among so many boys there low types too, snakes mixed up with dragons.(Yang 202)
“There are nice kinds of dragon and no two kinds are alike”. Where many are gathered together the wheat is sure to contain a certain amount of chaff; and this school was no exception in numbering some very ill-bred persons among its pupils.(Hawkes 206)
2.真是天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福。(第十一回)
“Truly, ‘Storms gather without warning in nature, and nature, and bad luck befalls men overnight’”.(Yang 291)
“I know ‘the weather and human life are both unpredictable’.”(Hawkes 294)
3.俗话说得好：“杀人不过头点地。”(第十二回)
Remeber the proverb “A murder can only lose his head.”(Yang 318)
“You know what the proverb says: He who checks a moment’s rage, shall calm and carefree end his days.”(Hawkes 322)
It is can concluded that cultural gaps between the source language and the target language is always a hard nut for a translator to crack. Every language has its own specific cultural connotation, and sometimes the contained meanings are very difficult to convey by another language in the process of translation.

The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will cause different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984:335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)

====From the Perspective of Translational Action====
Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form of translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction.

As a form of communicative action, translating is a form of translational interaction. Translational interaction takes place in situations that are limited in time and space. This means every situation has historical and cultural dimensions that condition the agents’ behavior, their knowledge and expectations of each other, their appraisal of the situation, and the standpoint from which they look at each other and at the world. As a result, translators, who enable communication to take place between members of different culture communities, are conditioned by these factors too. Their decision of translating strategy is without exception. In addition, translation is an intentional interaction. For translators, there is a choice to act one war or another.

In Manttari’s model inter-linguistic translation is seen as a communicative process with a series of roles and players. The roles and players are: The initiator, the person, group or institution that starts off the translation process and determines its course by defining the purpose for which the target text is needed. (Nord,1997:20 )The commissioner, is the person who asks the translator to produce a target text for a particular purpose and addressee. Sometimes he may influence the very production of the target text by demanding a particular text format or terminology.The ST producer, the person who writes the ST;the TT producer, who is the translator;the TT user, who is the person who uses the TT; the TT receiver, who is the final recipient of the TT.(Reiss, 1971:25)

These roles and players are interconnected through a complex network of mutual relation. Among these roles, the initiator and the translator are the most significant since it is the initiator who gives out the translation brief and thus determines translator's translation strategy. Sometimes the roles and players can be overlapped, one person playing the roles of several agents at the same time. For example, translator can be the initiator and TT producer at the same time if he is the person who wants to translate the source text into target culture, Yan Fu and Lin Shu are of this kind. In this situation, the translator can determine the translation strategy subjectively according to the purpose he wants to attain. They initiated the translation action themselves and had their prospective TT receivers in mind. Thus the intentions of the translators, the initiators and the aesthetical expectation of TT receivers together determined the translators to choose the strategy of domestication.

Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detailed explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers.

Since the English readers are not familiar with the Chinese culture, Lin described it in great details; while in its Chinese version, these details were omitted. In Lin’s translation of Chinese classics, such as Laozi and Zhuangzi’s Taoism, he also adopted the same routine and won a large number of readers. In another translated work The Six Chapters of a Floating Life《浮生六记》, he adopted both domesticating and foreignizing strategies. The examples are in the following:

余笑曰：“卿非解人，摸索在有意无意间耳，拥而狂探，田舍郎之所为也。”
Beauty of caressing lies in doing naturally and half unconsciously. Only a country bumpkin will hug and caress a woman roughly. (Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)
惠来以番饼二圆授余，即以赠曹。曹力却，受一圆而去。
Hueilai gave me two Mexican dollars which 1 gave to Ts’ao, but Ts’ao would not take them, only after my insistence did he receive one dollar before going away.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)

In the two examples quoted above, Lin employed domesticating translation. The Chinese classics was translated into modern English and the cultural images were replaced, such as “田舍郎，番饼二圆”. The translation became fluent and transparent as if the translator was invisible. However, in order to introduce the profound Chinese culture, he also adopted foreignizing translation in the same text. The example is in the following:

其形削肩长颈，瘦不漏骨，眉弯目秀，顾盼神飞，惟两齿微露，似非佳相。
Of a slender figure, she had drooping shoulders and a rather long neck, slim but not to the point of being skinny. Her eyebrows were arched and in her eyes there was a look of quick intelligence and soft refinement. The only defect was that her two font teeth slightly inclined forward, which was not a mark of good woman.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)

The lines described the appearance of a Chinese woman. However, the traditional Chinese beauty may not be beautiful in western culture; and it is difficult for the westerners to understand that “两齿微露” is a premonition of disaster. Lin made no explanation here since he believed western reader would interpret the cultural connotation according to the context. There is no doubt that he succeeds.

The secret of his success is to focus on the function of the target text. Since translation is an intercultural action, different cultures can communicate smoothly by this means. In Lin’s case, he played the roles of source text producer, initiator and translator. Initiators can be a group or an institution. In order to achieve some kind of political purpose, government sometimes initiates a series of translation action and determines the translating strategies for translators. In addition, in order to get more benefit, publisher, the initiator, sometimes will set a translation brief for translators, and asks them to act accordingly. These phenomena are common in modern society. For example, many foreign romances are translated into Chinese in recent years. Some are domesticating while others are foreignizing. The reasons behind them probably lie in the publishers’ intention to satisfy their perspective readers. Translatorial action produces a TT that is functionally communicative and functionally suitable in the target culture. It places translation in its socio-cultural context, which includes the interplay between the translator and the institution that initiated it and stresses functionality.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)

====From the Perspective of Text Typology====
Among the advocates of functional approaches to translation is Reiss who works on text types which determine translation. Reiss’s approach considers the text rather than the word or the sentence as the translation unit and hence the level at which equivalence is to be sought. The contents of Reiss’s text typology are in the following:
The first one is the “informative” text where the content is the main focus. These texts do plain communication of facts, information, knowledge, opinions etc. The logical or referential dimension of language is what is involved. The second one is the “expressive” text where the focus is on creative composition and aesthetics. Both the author (the sender) and the message are what are foregrounded. Imaginative creative literature exemplifies these texts and the third one is the “operative” text where the focus is “appellative” by which what is meant is that the text appeals to the reader to act in a certain way, persuading, dissuading, requesting, and cajoling him. The form of language is dialogic.(Reiss, 1971:25)

Correspondingly Reiss advocates specific translation methods for these text types. The target text of an informative text should be in plain prose with explication where required, the aim being to transmit the referential content of the text. The text styles concern philosophy, news reports, science and so on that aim at introducing foreign culture, history and custom. This text type focuses on the convey of specific culture. Together with the function of Skopos theory, a foreignizing translation should be advocated. The target text of an expressive text should use the “identifying” method, the translator having to look at it from the ST author’s standpoint. The text type of this kind mainly is literature that concerns various linguistic, cultural factors with the functions of cognition, expression, moralism, aesthetics and so on.

Since it connects closely to culture, the choice of translation strategy seems more complex. Generally speaking, we can make the decision according to its function and purpose. For those works rich in cultural connotation, if the purpose is to introduce the source text culture to the target one, we should take foreignizing translation, such as Yang Xianyi’s A Dream of Red Mansions. Since the classic is a representation of Chinese culture and conventional moral, we should convey these information to foreign readers and avoid misreading or misunderstanding.

On the contrary, if the translator’s intention is to entertain the readers and provide the plot of the story, he can adopt the domesticating translation as Hawkes did in his The Story of the Stone. More examples can be seen at Su Mashu and Chen Duxiu’s 《悲惨世界》, all headings of the original novel were domesticated into typical Chinese traditional parallel sentences. For example, “The Close of A Day’s March” and “Prudence Recommended to Wisdom” were translated into “第一回迪涅城行人落魄，苦巴馆店主无情” and “第二回感穷途华贱伤心，遇贫客渔夫设计” respectively. Both content and form of an operative text are subordinate to the extra linguistic effect that the text is designed to achieve. “The translation of an operative text has to employ the ‘adaptive’ method, trying to create the same effect on the readers, as the ST. The translation of operative texts into operative texts should be guided by the overall aim of bringing about the same reaction in the audience, although this might involve changing the content and/or stylistic features of the original.” (Nord, 1997:38)

The examples can be found in the translation of advertisement. For instance, the famous trade mark “Coca Cola” was translated into “可口可乐” and reached a totally success. “Coca” is the plant the Indians view as saint and from which people abstract cocaine. If it is translated directly into“古柯” it probably cannot raise the nice flavor of the drink in Chinese customers. Then “Coca” was domesticated into “可口” while “Cola” maintained its foreigness. Therefore, for an operative text, since communicative function is prior to everything else, we tend to employ domesticating translation.

Reiss also mentioned evaluating criteria, which vary according to text types. Thus while the translation of any content-oriented text has to aim at semantic equivalence, and a popular science piece will have to preserve the ST style, there is greater need to retain a metaphor in an expressive text than in an informative target text. Reiss thinks one could gauge the adequacy of a TT by intra-linguistic criteria like semantic, grammatical and stylistic features and extra-linguistic criteria like situation, subject field, time, place, receiver sender and implications like humor, irony, emotion and so on.

Reiss’s text typology is a useful but it is clear that texts are often not as hermetically sealed as Reiss has once believed. A biography or an editorial could have informative as well as appellative content. A personal letter could well be informative, expressive and appellative as can be an advertisement. As a result, translators should take other factors into account, such as functions, Skopos and so on and make judgement accordingly. --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''Conclusion'''===
Domestication is reader-centered and TL culture-oriented, and foreignization is author-centered and SL culture-oriented. However, which of the two translating strategies should be chosen evokes a heated and endless debate at home and abroad, since scholars of these two opposite schools can't convince each other. Many scholars regard these two strategies as oil and vinegar, and believe that they can never coexist harmoniously in translation. People who advocate foreignization believe that, as a means of cultural communication, translation should introduce foreign culture and exoticness to target reader, meanwhile taking in new expressions. On the contrary, people who prefer domestication argue that translation should help to overcome not only language barrier but also cultural conflict. For them, the task of translator is to avoid cultural conflict, and domesticating translation can help readers understand the source text better and finally reach the goal of cultural communication.

From the perspective of functionalist theory, as a communicative, intercultural action, translation is viewed as an intentional, interpersonal interaction. From the angle of Skopos of translation, together with action theory and text typology theory, funetionalist approaches provide us a perspective. Skopos rule is the principal rule determining any translation process in the purpose of the overall translational action. Plus loyalty rule put forward by Nord, functionalist approaches put translation into the framework of action theory and cross-culture communication theory. And adequacy rather than equivalence should be the criterion of judging the quality of a translation. By analyzing the purposes of different parties involved in the translation action(such as initiator, translator, and reader)，guided by translation brief given by the initiator, a translator can determine which translation strategy should be chosen. If the purpose of translation is to introduce domestic culture, history, philosophy to foreign readers, then foreignization should be employed. On the other hand, if the purpose of translation is to entertain the target reader, domestication can add more readability and get better function. Besides, text typology can help translator to figure out the function of a source text and make wiser decision about translation strategy. In one word, from the viewpoint of functionalist, domestication and foreignization have different functions in target language culture. Translator can adopt either or both of them in order to achieve the prospective functions. They are not, and should not be regarded as contradictory, but complementary, and can be employed simultaneously in translation.

In a word, translation can realized cultural communication and transplantation goal under the guidance of the functionalist approaches.
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 12:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''References'''===

1.Bassnett, Susan&Andre Lefevere. (2001). ''Constructing cultures: Essays on Literary Translation.'' Shanghai: Foreign Language Education Press.

2.Hawkes, David. (1982). ''The Story of the Stone.'' New York: Penguin Books.

3.Nida, E. A.&Chr. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation.'' Leiden: E. J. Brill.

4.Nida, E. A. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating.'' Leiden: E. J. Bril1.

5.Nord, Christiane. (1997).''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist ApproachesExplained.'' Manchester:St. Jerome Publishing.

6.Reiss, K. (1971). ''Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism.'' Munich: Hueber.

7.Schaffner, (1995). Christina. ''“Editorial.” Cultural Functions of Translation.'' Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD.

8.Schleiermacher, A. (1992) On the Different Methods of Translating [A]. ''Theories of Translation: An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida''[C]. Schulte, R&Biguenet, J. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,36-54.

9.Venuti, L.(1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility.''[M]. London: Routledge.

10.Venuti, L.(1998). ''The Scandal of Translation.''[M]. London:Routledge.

11.Yang, Xianyi&Yang Gladys.(1994) ''A Dream of Red Mansions.'' Beijing: Foreign Language Press.

12.Cai Ping 蔡平.(2002).翻译方法应以归化为主[Domestication should be the Main Strategy in Literary Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal(5):39-41.

13.Cao Xueqin&Gao E曹雪芹&高鹗.(1992)''红楼梦''[Hongloumeng].Beijing:People's Literature Publishing Press 人民文学出版社.

14.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000).''文化与翻译''[Culture and Translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co.中国对外翻译出版公司.

15.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1999)''当代美国翻译理论''[Contemporary American translation theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.

16.Meng Jiangang 孟建刚. (2002).''关于翻译原则二重性的最佳关联性解释''[Accounting for the Duality of the Translating Principles of Foreignization and Domestication with the Notion of Optimal Relevance]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (5):27-31.

17.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1991). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short Translation History in the West].Beijing:The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.

18.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). ''新编奈达论翻译'' [A new edition of Nida’s theory of translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co. 中国对外翻译出版社公司.

19.Zhu Guangqian朱光潜.(1984). ''谈翻译:翻译论文研究集''[On Translation: A collection of research papers on translation].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社

==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Howard Goldblatt’s Translation of Mo Yan’s Works 欧蓉 Ou Rong==
<center> 欧蓉 Ou Rong, 202020080629.</center>
===Abstract===
For a long time, owing to the unique style, Chinese literature has attracted much attention among world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge of cross-cultural communication and a medium of transmission. Mo Yan is a well-known representative Chinese writer, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012. And the study abroad on his works in translation has never stopped. Howard Goldblatt is a famous American translator specializing in contemporary Chinese literature, and all English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. Through analyzing the domestication and foreignization that reflect in the translated version of Mo Yan's works by Howard Goldblatt, the thesis aims to point out merits and and demerits of this application and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English. It can help strengthen the understanding and improve the fluency of the exchange between different cultures and promote Chinese literature goes ahead with the world.

===Key words===
domestication; foreignization; Howard Goldblatt; Mo Yan’s works

===题目===
葛浩文英译莫言作品中的归化和异化之应用

===摘要===
一直以来，中国文学的独特风格在世界文学中备受瞩目，在流向海外的过程中，翻译成为了跨文化沟通的桥梁与传播的媒介。莫言是中国著名作家，外国对其作品的翻译研究从未断过，2012年他获得诺贝尔文学奖。葛浩文是美国著名中国当代文学翻译家，莫言所有作品的英译本都来自于他。本文旨在通过分析葛浩文在翻译莫言作品过程中体现的归化和异化，从而指出其优点与缺点，从而思考中国文学作品被英译时应注意的事项，加强与提高不同文化之间交流的理解度与流畅度，帮助中国文学走出国门，面向世界。

===关键词===
翻译；归化；异化；葛浩文；莫言的作品

===Chapter1 Introduction===
From ancient to present, despite of its unique style, Chinese literature only has its own several classic works as famous among the world, such as Four Great Classical Novels---Water Margin, Journey to the West, Romance of the Three Kingdoms and Dream of the Red Chamber. Also, few literature works created in modern history have theirs own statues in the international. With the establishment of People’s Republic of China and Reform and Opening, there are a handful of modern and contemporary works that are well-known abroad(Lv Minhong, 2011:6).

Some Chinese literary works are published abroad and squeeze into bookshelves fill with English native books. The prominent Chinese writers in and out include Lu Xun, Mo Yan, Yu Hua, Lao She, Shen Congwen, Zhang Ailing and so on. Until 2012, the time that Mo Yan was awarded Nobel Prize, people’s interest in Chinese literature reached a climax(Sun Huijun,2014:86). In the process of flowing overseas, translator plays a crucial role in cultural transmission. The American sinologist Howard Goldblatt is the typical example, who made great contributions for the output of Chinese Culture(Ge Haowen,2014).

He can be called the mirror of Mo Yan in America, even the critic Updike said,the translation of contemporary Chinese novels in the United States seems to be the lonely career of Professor Howard Goldblatt(2005:37). Until now, his translation works of Mo Yan include Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, The Garlic Ballads, The Republic Wine, Sandalwood Death and so on. His superb translation for Mo Yan in certain sense helps a lot for Mo’s position in world literature.

Mo Yan said: ''without the outstanding work of Professor Howard Goldblatt, the translator of my novels, my novels could have been translated into English and published in the United States by others, but there is absolutely no such perfect translation as today. Many friends who are proficient in both English and Chinese said to me, Professor Howard Goldblatt’s translation perfectly matches with my original work. But I prefer to believe that his translation adds great luster to my original work''(2000:170).
=====1. Literature Review=====
Howard Goldblatt, who is well-known as a translator, sinologist and writer, translated many works of Chinese writers. During his 30-year translation career, he has translated more than 50 modern and contemporary Chinese literary works, making an inestimable contribution to the spread and influence of Chinese literature overseas(Jia,Yanqin,2012:62). However, as Howard mentioned in the interview, ''Americans don’t pay much attention to translated text. Because they are always suspicious to translation''(2009:50). Although translator plays a key role in literary dissemination and communication, the work of translators has not received the attention they deserve. And the researches on translation abroad also mainly focus on translation theorists rather than translators.

Therefore, the study about Howard Goldblatt’s translation is also not paid attention intensely outside. In 2011, the journal "Chinese Literature Today" was jointly organized by the University of Oklahoma and Beijing Normal University as an important platform for Chinese literature dissemination and research overseas, in which Howard, as the special guest, was introduced in details. In this journal, Christopher Lupke(2011)introduces Howard’s career of translation and studying, assesses his style of translation and discusses his faithful translation strategies.

Also, after three years, the journal “Chinese Literature Today” invited Howard again. Stalling Jonathan(2014)gives an original interview about Howard Goldblatt. The new point is the mention of opera of Yuan dynasty, which helps a lot for Howard’s translation of the work Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out.

Although there are few response to Howard Goldblatt’s translation abroad, many scholars in domestic regard him as a hot research object. Ji Jin(2009) conducts an interview on the situation of contemporary Chinese literary works overseas, Howard Goldblatt's criteria for choosing text, Howard Goldblatt's views and evaluations of contemporary Chinese writers, and his prospects for the development of contemporary Chinese literature in the future. This kind of study aims to find the problems Chinese literary works encountering with outside and to think about the solution.

Some scholars are interested in Howard Goldblatt’s view, principles and specific strategies on translation. Zhang Yaoping(2005)collects all Chinese works translated by Howard Goldblatt and figures out his views and style of translation. Then, Wen Jun, Wang Xiaochuan and Lai Tian(2007)summarize Howard Goldblatt’s four principles on translation. From the interview to Howard, Yan Yixun(2014) gets his ideas that “Elegance” is more important than “Faithfulness” and “Expressiveness” and that “Faithfulness” cannot be neglected by “Elegance”.

Nevertheless, the most common is the research on the text of translated version by Howard Goldblatt. Shao Lu(2013), through analyzing Howard’s Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, finds Howard’s “fidelity” and “infidelity” in translating. Shi Guoqiang(2013)points out Howard’s “Creative treason” on translation from his Big Breasts and Wide Hips. Yin Lingwei and Shen Xiangyu(2020)discuss Howard’s “fidelity” and “treason” in his translation of the work Frog. Many other works, such as Tales of Hulan River, Turbulence, Six Chapters From My Life Downunder, Red Sorghum and so on, also are studied by many scholars.

In this way, most scholars only reach a conclusion by analyzing a novel translated by Howard Goldblatt. Although the most studied is the translated texts of Mo Yan’s works, it lacks a systematic study of Howard’s translation strategies in a writer’s several works. Shao Lu(2011)has studied Howard’s translation of Mo Yan’s whole works, but her focus is translator’s decisive effect to promote the output of the original author’s works.

Therefore, the paper aims to analyze the domestication and foreignization in Howard Goldblatt's translation of Mo Yan's novels, find pivotal obstacles, and think about practical measures to promote Chinese culture to the world.

===Chapter 2 Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan===
Mo Yan, one of Chinese contemporary writers, born in Gaomi of Shandong province, creates plenty of novels in which the story happened in his hometown, Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips contained. His novel draws on the artistic guidelines of modernist novels such as magical realism, surrealism, symbolism, and stream of consciousness. He uses metaphors, symbols, exaggerations, and irony to express the profundity of the society, history, culture and the beauty of thousands of styles of regional culture in China.(Lv Minhong,2011:102)

Notwithstanding there is another feature in Mo Yan’s works---neutral and objective portrayal to the characters from different parties. For example, in Red Sorghum, when it comes to theme of history, to reconstruct history by overturning the dualistic opposition in the creation of traditional anti-Japanese novels, he presents the vague horizon between past and present, death and life, good and evil(Shao Lu,2011:51).

Combining the living description and impersonal history sense, Mo Yan’s work receives much attention from readers over the world. However, Mo Yan’s unique writing style with dialects and local color is difficult to translate into another language. It is Howard Goldblatt who translates his novels into English that speeds up the spreading overseas.

Howard Goldblatt, although with American descent, is interested in Chinese culture very much. He once studied and taught in Taiwan for many years, which provides him much experience to absorb Chinese culture. He once said Taiwan is his another home. When he came back to America, he was matriculated by San Francisco State University to study Chinese language literature. After several years, he went to Indiana University of Pennsylvania for further study under the guidance of the Professor Liu Wuji who is a well-known expert in Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29).

What drive Howard to choose Mo Yan continually and frequently can probably be several causes following. Firstly, Howard himself is interested in Chinese culture, which can be seen from his long-term study in China and his further study with the help of the Professor Liu Wuji. Here Mo Yan is a convinced writer representing Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29).

Secondly, Mo Yan’s work meets the taste of Americans. After his translated work Red Sorghum was published in America, the volume pressed and sale is impressive. Howard explained that American readers prefer two or three kinds of novels---those more about sex and politics or the detective novels(2009:46). Obviously, the former two elements can be shown in Mo Yan’s work.

Finally, there is a great relationship established between Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan. They would communicate with each other frequently. Each Mo Yan’s new book, Howard said, he would read it and admit the value of Mo’s works(2009:54). Just occasionally, Mo Yan once praised Howard’s rigorous spirit in translation and expressed his gratification to the cooperation(2000:170).

So much connection with China and accumulation of Chinese culture fosters his profound knowledge about Chinese literature. From 1970s Howard began to translate Chinese literary works. Among the works he had translated, the number of Mo Yan’s works is the most. And the version translated by Howard is the most accepted.

===Chapter 3 Embodiment of Demestication and Foreignization===
Domestication and foreignization are frequently used in the process of translation. The two terms were first brought forward by Venuti, an Italian. According to Venuti, domestication is to "bring the original author into the target language culture", while foreignization is to "accept the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text and bring the reader into the foreign context"(2004:20).

It implies that domestication requires the translator to get closer to the readers of the target language. The translator must speak like the native author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the reader, the translation must become an authentic native language. On the contrary, foreignization accepts the language characteristics of foreign cultures in translation and absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to move closer to the original author, adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author's use to convey the content of the original text, that is, the source language culture is the destination(Venuti,2004:25).

In Howard Goldblatt’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, the application of domestication and foreignization are ubiquitous.
=====1. Domestication=====
To convey the information more fluently and naturally, providing convenience to readers to understand, Howard applies domestication a lot in his translated works. Annotation, addition, omission and substitution, which are methods of domestication, can be seen in the Howard Goldblatt’s translated works.

======1.1. Annotation======
In Mo Yan’s work, there are many unique elements that exist in Chinese culture. To avoid obstacles for foreign readers, Howard makes some explanations based on the original meaning. There are several examples following:

E.g: Original text: 她回头对上官吕氏说：“上官家的，你跟我进来。”(Mo Yan,2012:10)

Translated text: She stopped, turned and said to Shangguan Lv:“Lady Shangguan, come with me.”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:17)

In China, especially in the northern regions, when addressing a person’s wife, the word “的” is usually added to the man’s last name. “上官家的” refers to Shangguan Fulu’s wife. It is a kind of dialect, showing the local color of Gaomi town. Here Howard uses “lady” to explain “的”, for the former is commonly used in English expression to greet a married woman. American readers could keep pace with the plots without culture gap, avoiding the obstacle for understanding.

There are some special expressions only in Chinese local culture, which are even able to be understood by the local. Howard also adds some annotations following:

E.g: Original text: 八竿子拨拉不着的个表姨。(Mo Yan,2012:328)

Translated text: You’re such a distant aunt.(Howard Goldblatt,2011:363)

“八竿子拨拉不着” is equivalent to the meaning of “Eight poles can’t be struck”, describing the relationship between the two being alienated or unrelated. The original description of the person killed by the little lion is a whole number when counted on the table. Howard adopts the strategy of domestication, only expressing the distance between the two, without literally translating "Baganzi".

The translator is responsible for the original work and also for the target readers, paying attention to reader’s acceptance and to the fluency of the translation. Therefore, Howard puts the content and form of the translation within the knowledge range of the target language readers, helping them to better understand the translation with their own cultural concepts.

======1.2. Addition======
It is known that addition can be used as a method of domestication to explain the concealed information.

E.g: Original text:---信马由缰式的---(Wen Jun,2007:79)

Translated text: Prepared to go with the flow---that was how he lived his life---he followed the man inside.(Wen Jun,2007:79)

Xu Yuanchong believes that the four-character idiom of Chinese is an advantage that the West does not have, and only China has. Peole cannot find a perfect expression in another language. There is not an absolutely identical expression matches the meaning of certain an idiom. The idiom of Chinese The idiom “信马由缰”means to wander aimlessly on a horse. Howard Goldblatt not only translated the literal meaning of the idiom, but also explained the meaning of the idiom in specific situations based on the meaning in the text(Xu Yuanchong,1993:87).

======1.3. Omission======
There are some elements in original text that are difficult to understand for foreign readers. Therefore, Howard makes some omissions when translating.

E.g:Original text: 谢谢审判长的提醒，我马上进入实质性辩护。近几年来，农民的负担越来越重。我父亲所在村庄，种一亩蒜薹，要交纳农业税九元八角。要向乡政府交纳提留税二十元，要向村委会交纳提留三十元，要交纳县城建设税五元（按人头计算），卖蒜薹时，还要交纳市场管理税、计量器检查税、交通管理税、环境保护税，还有种种名目的罚款！(Cao Shunying,2015:127)

Translated text: Thank you for reminding me, Your Honor. I’ll get right to the point. In recent years the peasants have been called upon to shoulder ever heavier burdens: fees, taxes, fines, and inflated prices for just about everything they need.(Cao Shunying,2015:127)

Compared with the original work, some details of Chinese legal policies are obviously omitted here, because foreign readers basically do not understand Chinese legal policies, which are too difficult and boring to understand. If the translator makes too many descriptions of these details, foreign readers will lose interest in this work. It is also an embodiment of domestication. By the way, in the end of The Garlic Ballads, Howard makes a great change that he deletes some problematic plot and turns the imperfect ending into a satisfying ending. This action, certainly proved, is correct(Yan Yixun,2014:197).

======1.4. Substitution======
Sometimes, the meaning of words or expression is not equal to the literal meaning. Perhaps, it is the contrary or unrelated meaning, which requires translators make a closing reading and recognize the real meaning the original author want to express. This time, translators should find a more accurate native expression to substitute the original expression. There is an typical example following:

E.g: Original text: 余占鳌在火辣辣的痛楚中，忽然感到一阵酥酥麻麻的快乐，这快乐冲到喉咙，启动牙齿，化作一连串胡言乱语：“亲娘亲娘亲娘……亲娘……亲娘……”(Mo Yan,2007:158)

Translated text: Stung by the pain, he experienced a sense of numbing ecstasy, and when it reached his throat it activated his teeth moving and emerged as a stream of gibberish:“Mistress Mistress Mistress...”(Howard Goldblatt,1994:165)

The Chinese “亲娘” and “亲妈” are not only called as the biological mother, but also often people’s blurting when sighing. For example, if people are shocked by something, they will say: “哦，我的妈呀！” Here, the author uses the word “亲娘” five times to express the confusion and excitement in Yu Zhanao's heart.

Grandmother scolded Yu Zhanao as a punishment for him breaking into her room, but Yu Zhanao admired her grandmother, so he regarded her grandma's behavior as a flirtation, so he was happy. If the translator literally translates “亲娘” as “mother”, this will not only make readers feel very confused about the relationship and plot, but also the original flirting feeling will be indifferent. Howard Goldblatt uses the strategy of domestication to replace it with “mistress”. It not only eliminates the differences between language and culture, but also makes translation more fluent, natural and smooth.

=====2. Foreignization=====
To close the distance with the original text and try at most to transmit the authentic culture of original text, translators apply foreignization as a translation method. This kind of method usually does not change the style and order of the characters in original text, keeping the exotic tinge of original culture in the target language. Transliteration and literal translation, as the methods of foreignization, are the most frequently used by Howard Goldblatt.

======2.1. Transliteration======
In most cases, transliteration is the best translation method for names without special meaning. When translating a name, transliteration is a very important way. The translator can translate the name according to its pinyin without changing the Chinese order. Howard Goldblatt uses a lot of transliteration when there is no special meaning in the translation of Red Sorghum. For example, “戴凤莲” was translated as “Dai Fenglian”, “豆官” was “Douguan”, and “单庭秀” was “Shan Tingxiu”. “王文义” means “Wang Wenyi”(Howard Goldblatt,1994).

It can be seen from the above that Howard extremely respects the original author in the translation of such names. He not only uses pinyin completely, but also follows the order of Chinese names, that is, the surname is first and the first name is last, respecting and obeying Chinese traditional cultural customs.

However, when translating some characters’ nicknames and names with special meanings, transliteration is not applicable. The translator needs to find out the specific implicit meaning, and then choose the most suitable translation, such as “刘罗汉”, which is translated into “Arhat Liu”. Because 刘罗汉 was a loyal, firm and honest helper. He passed away in order to protect the property of his host. His spirit is consistent with the meaning of “Araht”, so Howard’s translation of it is very symbolic(Howard Goldblatt,1994).

There is another transliteration that appears with some annotations, which can enlarge reader’s insight and make the plot more logically:

E.g: Original text: 直到春暖花开的清明节。(Mo Yan,2012:110)

Translated text: Qingming, the day of ancestral worship in the warmth of spring, when flowers were in full bloom. (Howard Goldblatt,2011:140)

“清明节” is a traditional Chinese festival. It is a festival to worship ancestors. The traditional activity is tomb sweeping. Using transliteration and short explanations, readers can have a basic understanding of this object, and can remind readers of its uniqueness.

======2.2. Literal Translation======
In the translation of some idioms and culturally loaded words, Howard Goldblatt also adopts the literal translation method to maintain the characteristics of the source language, so that people of different nationalities can share some common points in cognition.

E.g: Original text: 母亲咬着牙齿说：“姓沙的，你癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉，做梦去吧！”(Mo Yan,2012:85)

Translated text: Mother clenched her teeth. “You there, Sha”, She said, “Like the toad who want to feast on a swan, you can just dream on!”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:113)

In this sentence, “癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉” is a common Chinese idiom, which means that without self-knowledge, one wants to obtain something impossible. For American readers, they may not be able to fully understand the relationship between Toad and Swan in Chinese. But in this way, they can understand what the author wants to express based on their own experience and context.

In this way, Howard has neither changed the lively image of the original text nor has it lost the connotative meaning of the original text. He once said:''If I can find appropriate slangy or regional or slightly archaic or unusual words that carry that sense, I’ll certainly use them. If I can’t I won’t.''(2014:8)

===Chapter4 Enlightenment for Translation===
Howard Goldbaltt puts faithfulness to the original text in the first place, reproduces the original content and ideas and retains the original writing style and language characteristics. It reflects the translator’s ethics of being faithful to the original text; secondly. To consider the target language reader's reading ability and translation the translator adopts domestication strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers, appropriately reduces the cultural information of the original text, and provides a naturally familiar target language for readers of the target language(Chen Jiayu,2019:20).

In order to promote cultural exchanges and realize cross-cultural communication, translators adopt foreignization strategies to preserve the cultural and national characteristics of the original text as much as possible. This not only allows target language readers to understand foreign cultures and customs, but also promotes cultural exchanges and dissemination and makes outstanding contributions to promoting Chinese literature to overseas.

The purpose of Howard Goldbaltt’s translation is to complete a translation that is readable for Americans and highly accepted by the market. And about Howard’s translation of domestication and foreignization, there are many some arguments. Most scholars confirm to that Howard Goldblatt’s translation is applied domestication more frequently, while foreignization is minor(Yin Ting,2014:150).

However, in studying the translated text Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Shi Guoqiang(2013:80) thinks that foreignization is the main methods of Howard’s translation, domestication minor. He comes up with several aspects that Howard use foreignization in his translation, such as some idoims, special nouns and two-part allegorical saying and so on. Despite of the arguments, Howard’s excellent translation cannot be denied, which help a lot for the going abroad of Chinese literature.

Analyzing the Howard’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, although his translation is the best version of Mo Yan’s novels until now, as for the output of Chinese litertature even Chinese culture, we still can get some enlightenment.

Firstly, when translating Chinese literature into other languages, the translator himself is important. Usually, the translators who translate Chinese into another language are our Chinese. They translate their mother language into another language, in a sense, not as well-master as the people of target language. It causes a problem that the readers of target language cannot read and understand the translated version naturally and easily by Chinese translators. And the Chinese translators, most of them, are living in China, lack of the context of target language(Hu Anjiang,2010:11).

Also, the Chinese translators who specialize in two languages and cultures are rare. What is more, the foreign translators familiar with Chinese culture is less. Therefore, according to Xu Jianping and Zhang Rongxi, the most effective way for Chinese-English translation is the cooperation of the original author and foreign translator of target language(2002:38). Howard Goldblatt and MoYan is the best example. And Howard himself also expresses the similar view(2014:201).

Secondly, the translation strategy is also crucial. Chinese literature is the “weak literature”(Yin Lingwei,2020:109), so Xu Jianping thinks that foreignization should not be widely used in Chinese-English translation, because foreign readers’ understanding of China and its language and culture is far less than Chinese readers' understanding of foreign language and culture(2002:38).

However, from the 1870s to the 1970s, for a hundred years, Chinese literary translation was roughly based on domestication; during the two decades of reform and opening up, inspired by Western translation theories, the Chinese translation community rethought foreignization and domestication, and the two methods have gradually become balanced in China. Therefore, Sun Zhili believes that the translation of Chinese literature in the 21st century will be dominated by foreignization(2002:40).

Actually, it is not suitable to regard domestication and foreignization by dichotomy. Combining the two ways, the starting point should be to bring Chinese literary translations closer to Western readers through the domestication translation method, so as to enter the mainstream Western culture. Let Western readers first understand our cultural routines and ways of thinking, and then talk about further transformation and influence on the West Follow-up issues such as literary creation mode(Hu Anjiang,2010: 15).

Finally, the responsibility of publishers and editors is also heavy. When Chinese literature goes out, the most in short supply of talents are intermediary talents, that is, intermediary agencies that can understand Chinese contemporary literary works, and at the same time understand the international market, and have a good background of cooperation with international publishing institutions...(Li Yun,2007)

There is “the third readers” in the world. They usually don't pay much attention to the content when reading, because they are more in love with the readability or text style of the work. Also, they do not compare the translations with the original works, but only compare these translations with original English works or those literary translations translated from other languages into English. Paying more attention to such “fair readers” who pursue pure literary feeling and pure aesthetic experience will be an important guarantee for literary translations to gain the literary market, commercial profits and even the status of translated literary classics(Medougall,2007:23)

===Chapter5 Conclusion===
For any responsible translator, every choice made in the translation process is not random or blind, but has a clear consciousness and clear goals, and they strive to resolve various contradictions encountered in translation to achieve the value of translation(Liu Yunhong, 2014). Through analyzing the application of domestication and foreignization Howard Goldblatt’s translation of Mo Yan’s works, some enlightenment can be concluded. The translators, the translation strategies and the publisher and editor can be taken as the crucial aspects.

Citing the words of Nida, for a truly successful translation, bilingual proficiency in culture is more important than in language, because words have meaning only in the culture in which they function(1993:83). This shows that in the process of translation, translators should not stick to a single domestication or foreignization translation strategy. They should comprehensively consider various factors such as language, culture, and readers’ comprehension, and adopt appropriate strategies to arrive at a degree of integration and adaptation for the highest translation.

The needs of the target language culture have changed with the development of society and the changes of the times, and the target language readers' acceptance and understanding of Chinese culture have also increased with the increase of China's international influence. Many things that tended to be domesticated in the past are now or in the future using foreignized translations that are completely acceptable to the target language readers, and even look forward to them. Translating Chinese literary works with increasingly alienated strategies, allowing the world to read Chinese stories and understand Chinese culture is the only way for Chinese culture to “go out”.

===References===
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--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 07:06, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong

==Domestication and Foreignization in the Course of Translation Under the Direction of Skopos Theory 谭星越 Tan Xingyue==
<center> 谭星越 Tan Xingyue,202020080642.</center>
===Abstract===

Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'' in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more understanable by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.
Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.

===Key Words===
Skopos Theory, domestication, foreignization

===题目===
目的论视角下归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用

===摘要===
归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出来的。归化翻译是一种倾向于译入语文化的翻译方法，使原文文本更加容易被目的语读者所接受。异化翻译则旨在尽可能地传递原文文本的异质性和文化特色。翻译目的论由赖斯和弗米尔于20世纪70年代提出，该理论认为翻译目的决定翻译策略。本文将以目的论作为理论研究的依据，分析归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用和实践。

===关键词===
目的论，归化，异化

===Introduction===
In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge of communication between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choice according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and Foreignization.
In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer as the landmark of functional approaches to translation is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.
The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.

===Chapter 1 Skopos Theory===
According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was accounted as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory has been proposed based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings. In this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.

====1.1 Origination and formulation of Skopos Theory====
The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized. Therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus, it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation.

In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, "Skopos" referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claims that the intended purpose of the translation determins the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.

Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages among different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced "message transmitter" that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation need not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.

In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity and faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.

It can be seen from the above that the landmark theories of the German functionalist approach were: Katharina Reiss’ Text Typology, Hans Josef Vermeer’ Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’ Theory of Translation Action and Nord's Function plus Loyalty.

====1.2 Three rules of the Skopos Theory====
The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There are three ways to understand this word "skopos": the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, "skopos" referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.

===Chapter 2 Domestication and Foreignization===
As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially in the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation in which there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.

====2.1 Domestication====
Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not all people in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.

Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation''. He proposed that domestication was an approach that the translator "leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him" and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, and that openly adopted conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and that catered to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)

Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book ''Dictionary of Translation Studies'' defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth & Cowie, 2004:59)

Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)

Domesticating translation that emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.

In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into that of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.

====2.2 Foreignization====
Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as a standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.

Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and the respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of "literal translation" and "free translation". They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:

"An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] express itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language, because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign."(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)

The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's "Deconstruction" philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “difference” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Difference” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.

On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The "heterogeneity" of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of "translation autonomy" and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of "artistic autonomy" in the translation of literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates the promotion of the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.

===Chapter 3 Translation Method under the Direction of Skopos Theory===

Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its "social identity".(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images of the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable.

====3.1 Target reader-oriented approach — domestication====

If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, or considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.

“煮茶非漫浪,要须其人与茶品相得。故其法每传于高流隐逸、有烟霞泉石磊磈于胸次间者。
The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake. The moral state of the brewer should match well with the quality of the tea. That explains why the techniques of tea brewing are usually handed down only to eremitic wisdoms with lofty characters and peaceful mind."
(Jiang & Jiang，2009:36)

“The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art need no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public's eye in the long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors.

Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word "turret" originates from the Latin word "turris", which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Much more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are "Chinese hamburger" and "Chinese sandwich", because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese "meat burger" or "meat sandwich", and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.

====3.2 The purpose of source culture dissemination—foreignization====
For the sake of spreading the source language culture, translator should adopt foreignization so as to promulgate the culture of the original language to the target readers to the largest degree, stimulate the readers to learn the unknown source culture, help to overcome the obstacles in cross-cultural communication, and finally facilitate cultural integration. Then, I will analyze the practice of foreignizing translation combined with some examples.

“凡采茶,在二月、三月、四月之间。
The second, third, fourth months of the lunar year are a proper time for almost all sorts of tea to get harvested."
(Jiang & Jiang, 2009:48)

During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introducing into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.

Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in ''The Dream of Red Mansions'', as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel. Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.

===Conclusion===
Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criteria of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.

===References===
*Gentzler, Edwin.(1993). ''Contemporary Translation Theories''. London: Routledge.

*Graham, Joseph.(1986). ''Difference in Translation''. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.

*Justa Holz-Manttari.(1984). ''Translatorisches Handeln, Theorie und Methode''. Distributor, Akateeminen Kirjakauppa.

*Nida, Eugene. A. (2003). ''Toward a Science of Translating''. Brill Academic Publishers.

*Nord, Christiane.(2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functional Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

*Reiss, Katharine. &Vermeer, Hans. J. (1984). ''Towards a General Theory of Translational Action: Skopos Theory Explained''. London: Routledge.

*Robinson, Douglass. (1997). ''Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theory Explained''. Manchester: St Jerome.

*Schleiermacher, Friedrich. (2004). ''On the Different Methods of Translating''. In Lawrence Venuti ed. The Translation Studies Reader. London: Routledge.

*Schuttleworth, Mark. & Cowie, Moria. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Manehester: St Jerome.

*Vermeer, Hans. J. (1987). ''What does it Mean to Translate''. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics (2):25-33.

*Venuti, Lawrence.(2001). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: History of Translation''. London and New York: Routledge.

*An Feng安锋.(2004). 霍米·巴巴“后殖民理论研究”.[Homi Bhabha’s Study on Postcolonial Theory]. 北京语言大学 Beijing Language and Culture University.

*Guo Jianzhong郭建中.(1998).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化.[Cultural Factors in Translation:Foreignization and Domestication].上海外国语大学学报 Journal of Shanghai International Studies University (2):3-5.

*Jiang Xin&Jiang Yi（唐）陆羽，姜欣, 姜怡（译）. (2009).大中华文库·茶经．[The Classics of Tea].湖南：湖南人民出版社 Hunan People's Press．

*Xie Yao 谢瑶.(2017).“一带一路”背景下中国茶文学作品的归化翻译与异化翻译.[Domesticating and Foreignizing Translation of Chinese Tea Literature in the Context of Belt and Road].福建茶叶 Fujian Tea(2) :360-361．

*Zhang Jinghua 张景华.(2009). 翻译伦理：韦努蒂翻译思想研究.[Ethics of Translation: A Study of Venuti's Thought on Translation]. 上海交通大学出版社 Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press.

*Zhang Jinlan张锦兰. (2004).目的论与翻译方法.[The Skopos Theory and Translation Method]. 中国科技翻译 Technology Translation in China(1):35-37.

==Study of domestication and foreignization in cross cultural translation 周罗平 Zhou Luoping==
<center> 周罗平 Zhou Luoping,202020080670.</center>

===Abstract===
Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.

===Key words===
Domestication Foreignization Cross-cultural Translation

===题目===
跨文化翻译中归化和异化研究

===摘要===
语言是文化的载体，是文化间传播和交流的媒介。语言和文化之间密不可分。在文化交流日益频繁的今天，用翻译去传递不同文化之间的信息就显得格外重要。翻译不仅仅是将一种语言转化为另一种语言，更要关注不同语言背后所承载的历史背景和文化传统，故在跨文化翻译中，译者应掌握处理文化的两种翻译方法：归化和异化。本文将系统地介绍归化和异化这两种翻译策略，并探究在跨文化翻译中如何选择使用这两种翻译策略。

===关键词===
归化异化跨文化翻译

===Introduction===
Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.

Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought about by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the target language and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.

This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part is the introduction of this paper. The second part is the introduction of domestication and foreignization, as well as a brief introduction of the representatives of domestication and foreignization. The third part is an analysis of the factors that influence the choice of domestication and foreignization. The fourth part introduces the translation methods under domestication and foreignization. The fifth part is the conclusion.

===Chapter 1 Domestication and Foreignization===
The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. These two concepts are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).

====1.1 Introduction of Domestication====
According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus bringing the author back home. Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers (Venuti 2009, 20).

In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it makes the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domestication, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spread of different cultures and hinders readers’ understanding of foreign culture (He 2019, 70).

Eugene Nida is the representative figure advocating domestication. Nida’s functional equivalence theory or dynamic equivalence theory shows that he is a supporter of domesticating translation. His dynamic equivalence theory shows that he pursues the most natural equivalence translation. He once said that “dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language” (Nida & Taber 2004, 24).

In other words, dynamic equivalence means that the reader’s response to the translation is consistent with that of the original. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory fully considers the reader’s language culture and the reader’s ability to appreciate the translation. Therefore, in the course of translating, the translator should take the completely natural and smooth language expression as the goal. In order to make the translation natural and smooth, the translator must make some adjustments to the original text. Some heterogeneous cultures which are not accepted by readers should be eliminated as much as possible. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory takes the reader into full consideration. It aims to eliminate the readers’ strangeness to the original content and let readers better understand the thought and meaning of the original text, which precisely reflects the characteristics of domesticating translation.

====1.2 Introduction of Foreignization====
Foreignization is an ethnodeviant practice, keeping language and cultural differences of the original texts as far as possible and thus sending the reader abroad. In other words, in order to show the cultural characteristics of the source work, translators use foreignising translation to retain the characteristics of the source text and try to keep the writing techniques used by the author of the source language. Hence, for the readers of the target language, the translation is exotic and unfamiliar (Venuti 2009, 20).

Same to the domestication, foreignization also has its advantages and disadvantages. Foreignization, by transplanting the culture of the source language into the culture of the target language, enriches the culture of the target language to a great extent. For example, the Chinese phrase “武装到牙齿” is translated into “armed to the teeth”, which greatly spreads Chinese culture and enriches English and Chinese language culture. Of course, foreignization also has its limitations. Some cultural differences and language differences are difficult to overcome. If foreignization is adopted blindly in the process of translation, there will produce some translations that readers cannot understand and accept, and translation will also lose its function of cultural communication (He 2019, 71).

Schleiermacher and Venuti are strong supporters of foreignization. Schleiermacher’s preferred strategy is to accommodate the reader to the author. He claims that translations need not be same as the original author writes in the source language. The translation doesn’t conform to the general expression habits of the target language. He believes that a translator who knows the target language can help target readers who are not proficient in the foreign language but have a strong understanding of the original text. To achieve this goal, the translator must adopt the foreignization translation, emphasize the value of heterogeneous culture, and ensure the faithfulness to the original text by subordinating the words in the target text to the source language. In this way, the translation can be faithful to the meaning of the original text and can introduce heterogeneous cultures and concepts to readers of target language (Jiang 2016, 147).

In his book The Translator’s Invisibility, Venuti expresses his understanding and support for foreignization translation in detail. He believes that foreignization translation is a kind of translation strategy that preserves and highlights the heterogeneity of the original text in the translation. Firstly, he believes that foreignization is reflected in the selection of translation materials. He mainly aims at the classic translation of literature and culture of the target language instead of scientific translation. In the process of foreignising translation, the translator chooses a foreign text which is different from the mainstream culture of the target language, which can change the cultural composition of the target language (Venuti 2009, 42).

Secondly, foreignization translation is reflected in the language used by the translator. This means that in the process of translation, the closer the language style of the translation is to the language style of the original, the more heterogeneous the readers will feel. Moreover, Venuti advocates that in the process of translation, the translator should use words that are not commonly used and non-standard. Translators should mix slang, neologism or archaic words to achieve heterogeneous effects. In this way, the foreignization style of translation highlights the heterogeneity of foreign texts and challenges and resists the mainstream culture of the target language (Venuti 2009, 35).

Thirdly, foreignization translation is embodied in cultural alienation. By highlighting the cultural differences caused by language differences, foreignization translation promotes the development of cultural diversity, helps to resist the hegemony of European and American culture, and helps to promote the development of culture and language of weak and small nations (Venuti 2009, 21).

Fourthly, foreignising translation highlights and enhances the status of the translator, which changes the phenomenon that the smooth translation makes the translator invisible in the past, thus promoting translation research to gradually move to the academic center. Venuti elaborates that smooth translation has long occupied the mainstream position in the history of western translation, and the fluency of translation has become the standard to judge whether a translation is good or not. Venuti challenges and questions this phenomenon. The smooth translation covers up the translator’s intervention and interpretation of the original text, and covers up the language and cultural differences of the original work (Venuti 2009, 17).

Therefore, he puts forward the concept of resistant translation to expound his translation thoughts. Resistant translation refers to a translation strategy that preserves some heterogeneity in literary translation. The object of resistance is the prevailing translation thought in British and American culture, that is, fluent translation is acceptable translation. Venuti challenges the dominant position of British and American culture and introduces the idea of weak culture by advocating resistant translation (Jiang 2016, 169).

Translation is not only a process of seeking similarities between languages and cultures, but also a process of facing the differences between languages and cultures. Translators cannot completely and thoroughly eliminate these differences. Therefore, a good translation must be the blending and collision of different cultures, from which the readers can better understand and perceive cultural diversity (Jiang 2016, 170).

====1.3 Literal translation, free translation, domestication, and foreignization====
There are a lot of discussions on the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and literal translation and free translation. Many people think that domestication is equal to free translation, while foreignization is equal to literal translation. I don’t think so. In this section, I will make a comparison and distinction between the two groups of translation concepts.

Literal translation refers to the translation that maintains the content and style of the original text while following the norms of the target language. Literal translation starts with word to word translation (Shuttleworth & Moira 2005, 129). However, due to the need to be consistent with the grammar of the target language, the final target text may also present the equivalence of phrase to phrase or clause to clause. Free translation, as opposed to literal translation, refers to the translation that reads naturally, rather than the type of translation that completely retains the wording of the source text. Free translation is usually oriented to the target language (Shuttleworth & Moira 2005, 84).

As mentioned before, domesticating translation covers up the differences between different cultures and weakens the strangeness of the original. The translation produced by domestication is very fluent and natural so that readers are able to read and understand the translation according to their own language expressions. Foreignising translation requires the translation to show the heterogeneity of the original text and convey the foreign cultural characteristics of the original text as far as possible so that the reader will feel a strange feeling when reading the translated text and sometimes they will have some misunderstanding or questions that are caused by exotic culture.

Literal translation and free translation emphasize whether the translation is consistent with the original text in terms of language form and style. Domestication and foreignization not only emphasizes the language level, but also pays attention to whether the values and cultural traditions conform to the expression habits of the target language. Additionally, it is worth mentioning that literal translation and free translation are static opposites. Whether the translation is faithful to the original is mainly seen from the linguistic unit. Domestication and foreignization is a pair of dynamic opposites. With the frequency of cultural exchanges and the passage of time, the original foreignization will become domestication. Therefore, we cannot easily equate literal translation with foreignization, nor can we equate free translation with domestication (Lu 2018, 57).

===Chapter 2 Factors influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization===
In cross-cultural translation, translators are always faced with the choice of domestication and foreignization. Then, how does the translator make a choice? This chapter will explore some factors that influence the choice of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and then discuss when to domesticate and when to foreignize the text.

====2.1 The type of the text====
Different text has its own function. When dealing with different kinds of texts, translators should choose different translation strategies to translate text and to better show the function of the text. Newmark, a famous translator, divides text into three types according to its content and style: expressive function, informational function, and vocative function.

Expressive text mainly has literary value or shows the author’s unique writing style, including some serious literary works, such as some serious imaginative literature, authoritative statements and some literary works like personal letters, autobiography, and essay. Expressive text emphasizes the expressive function of language. This kind of the text takes the authority of the original author into consideration and pays less attention to readers’ responses (Newmark 2001, 39).

Compared with other types of texts, expressive texts use artistic and beautiful language with the purpose of creating artistic images, so that readers can be inspired and moved by the language in the process of reading. The characteristics of expressive texts require translators to translate not only meaning, but also the emotion in the process of translation, so as to reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text to the greatest extent and make readers feel the artistic charm of the source text when reading the translated text. Therefore, the linguistic features and purposes of expressive texts require translators to use foreignization as much as possible to reflect the exotic flavor of the source language and reproduce the artistic features of the source text (Wang 2008, 138).

Informative text is mainly to convey the original information to readers truthfully and smoothly, mainly including technical reports, articles in newspapers or periodical, general teaching materials, product descriptions and other text whose content is more important than form. This kind of text is created without author’s personal emotion and its main function is to lead readers to know and understand information (Newmark 2001, 40).

These characteristics require translators to focus on the content of the text and uses simple or clear expression as far as possible to convey the content so that readers can fully accept the meaning; therefore, it’s better to use domestication as much as possible to reproduce the content of the original text instead of sticking to the language styles.

Vocative text is mainly to call readers to take action, to think, and to make reaction, including notice, instruction, and advertisement. This type of text emphasizes the infective function of the language and it takes readers as center. Vocative text emphasizes the readability of the text and the acceptability of the reader. It is necessary to put the readers of the target language in the first place and take their culture and receptivity into consideration, so that they can clearly get the information (Newmark 2001, 41).

Therefore, when translating such texts, translators should grasp the cultural differences between different languages and put the cultural habits of target readers in the first place. Only in this way can readers truly think, feel, and act. Additionally, in the course of translation, translators should give full play to the linguistic advantages of the target language and should not be limited to the expression of the original text, so as to achieve the same effect as the original language as far as possible (Wang 2008, 139).

According to Newmark, the division of text is not absolute, and most texts have all three functions at the same time with one or two of them dominate (Newmark 2001, 42).

Hence, in the actual translation, domestication and foreignization should be combined. They are not always antithetical; on the contrary, they complement each other. When choosing foreignising translation strategy, translators should pay attention to the smoothness and understandability of the target text. When choosing the domestication translation strategy, translators should also pay attention not to lose the flavor and style of the original text. During translating, to a certain extent, translators have freedom so they should give full play to the advantages of the two translation strategies. Translators can adopt domesticating translation to familiarize language expression and use foreignising translation to keep cultural elements (He 2019, 71).

====2.2 Readers of the target language====
The translator choosing which translation strategy is not only influenced by the type of text, but also by the target readers. Reader is an important factor influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization so translator should take readers’ age, gender and educational level into consideration in the course of translation.

The translation under the domestication strategy is smooth and natural and it’s easier to be accepted by readers. Therefore, if the target readers of the translated text are young children or readers with low education level, the translator can use the domestication strategy more when translating, so that the readers can understand and accept the information of the translated text (Zhang & Wang 2007, 147).

However, the translation under the foreignization strategy aims at revealing the heterogeneity of the source culture, spreading foreign culture, and preserving the unique expression and original flavor of the original text. Such a translation may be awkward and difficult to understand. If the readers of the target text are highly educated, highly receptive, or have a certain understanding and cognition of the culture of the source language, the translator can use the foreignization strategy to show the style of the source text, so that the readers can better understand the foreign culture and broaden their horizon (Zhang & Wang 2007, 147).

Generally speaking, most works have a specific audience for reading. Different groups of readers have their own characteristics and different levels of comprehension; therefore, translators should take the factor of readers into consideration to choose domestication strategy or foreignization strategy in the actual translation.

===Chapter 3 The application of translation methods in domestication and foreignization===
In cross-cultural translation, translating culturally-loaded expressions is difficult. Choosing appropriate ways to translate culturally-loaded expressions will not only keep the original favor, but also make readers of target language better understand, so in this part I will introduce some methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions under the domestication and foreignization strategy.

====3.1 Introduction of culturally-loaded expressions====
Culturally-loaded words refer to words with certain cultural background or profound cultural implication, including proverbs, allusions, special characters’ names and current idioms and idioms that have been deposited in a certain historical stage (Fang 2011, 297).

As culturally-loaded words have their own uniqueness, the following principles should be followed in the translation of culture-loaded words. According to Wang Zhenqi, first, the key implied meaning of the expression in the source text should be converted into non-implied meaning in translation. Second, the representation of the lexical meaning of the source language should be given priority to the representation of the form. Third, the context of the source words should be taken into full consideration in the choice of translation (Wang 2014, 97).

Then, in the translation of such words, the translator takes cultural exchange as the purpose, evaluates the readers’ cultural reception and perceptivity, and adopts flexible and appropriate translation methods, so as to ensure that the translated text not only retains the cultural information and cultural color of the original text, but also has readability. There are different ways of translating culturally-loaded words because of their different forms and cultural meanings.

====3.2 Translation methods under the domestication strategy====
Under the domestication translation strategy, there are three main methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions, namely: free translation, cultural substitution, and simplification.

Free translation is a common way in translating culturally-loaded words. Free translation is to translate the cultural information in the source text as much as possible. If the translator only conveys literal meanings of the words that are rich in cultural information, sometimes they will confuse and even misunderstand readers. In order to better convey the meaning of the original text, the translator adopts free translation method to translate the real connotation of culturally-loaded words for filling the gap in the readers’ culture and letting readers understand the text more naturally and smoothly (Wang 2014, 98).

For example, some color words in Chinese have lots of different symbolic meanings. The color purple in Chinese culture represents the spirit of saints and emperors, which is maybe unfamiliar to readers of other cultures. Hence, when translating the term “紫禁城”，in order to eliminate misunderstanding, the translator tends to adopt free translation to translate it as “the forbidden city”. When translating “紫气” in the phrase “紫气东来”, the translator translate it into “propitious omen”, which shows its cultural meaning (Wang 2014, 98).

In cross-cultural translation, the translator may face such difficulty that there is no corresponding word in the target language equaling to the culturally-loaded word in source language. In this case, cultural substitution is a good choice. Cultural substitution, put forward by Beekman and Callow, is a method of dealing with things that exist in the source language but do not exist in the target language. It is defined as using things in target language to replace the things in source language culture that is unknown to readers of target language. In order to maintain the functional meanings, both things have the same function. There are three points to note. Firstly, do not replace history with didactic words; secondly, choose the one that suits best and not just the one with the most obvious function; thirdly, avoid functional conflicts between source language and target language (Fang 2011,104).

For example, in order to let readers of target language better feel and understand the love of Romeo and Juliet, we will use cultural substitution methods and translate it into the love between Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai, which eliminates the unfamiliarity of the cultural image in source language and is the representation of domestication. Using the cultural images in the target culture, the translator enables the target readers to understand the foreign culture on the basis of their own culture, thus strengthening the understanding between different cultures.

Simplication is also a good way to deal with culturally-loaded expressions translation. According to Wang, simplified translation is to translate the core meaning of culture-loaded words in the source language into a simple and clear target language. In cross-cultural translation, the translator may encounter such a situation when the long-winded concept of the original text can be simply expressed in the target language, such as using idiom, and such a translation is more acceptable to the target language readers. Therefore, it is very effective to use simplified translation which not only preserves the core concept of the original text, but also makes the translation acceptable (Wang 2014, 98).

Free translation, cultural substitution and simplication are all translation methods to eliminate the strangeness caused by culturally-loaded words in the source language text and avoid readers’ confusion or misunderstanding. These domesticated text translation methods facilitate readers’ reading, better ensure that readers correctly understand the content of the source language text and experience the emotion of the source language text.

====3.3 Translation methods under the foreignization strategy====
Under the foreignization translation strategy, there are five main methods to translate culturally-loaded words, namely: literal translation, literal translation plus annotation, transliteration, transliteration plus annotation, and cultural borrowing.

Literal translation is loyal to the meaning and structure of the source text, directly translating the source language into the target language. With the increasingly frequent cultural exchanges, some loaded words and expressions have gradually become familiar to people (Fang 2011, 104).

For example, the proverb “All roads lead to Rome” is directly translated as “条条大路通罗马” . “A near friend is better than a far-dwelling kinsman” is translated as “远亲不如近邻”. These culturally-loaded expressions are directly translated into the target language and Chinese readers can clearly understand the meanings (Fang 2011, 104).

However, when literal translation can’t fully convey the original cultural information and readers have difficulty perceiving the meaning, the translator can add some annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the literal translation. Annotations can be used to supplement background information, cultural traditions and other information for readers to understand (Wang 2014, 98).

For example, the translator translates “工人文化宫” as “the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park” and add annotation in the sentence “Some went to the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park, a recreation center built for the proletariat during the heyday of communism”. By adding the supplementary information, readers will know the meaning of this sentence clearly. Hence, for one thing, the translation preserves the original culture and promotes the communication between different cultures as well; for another, the readers of target language can better understand the cultural connotation and broaden their knowledge (Fang 2011, 104).

Transliteration is a good and common way to translate culturally-loaded expressions. It uses letter symbols to represent letter symbols in another language system. When there is a big difference between the source language and the target language and there is a semantic gap, it is impossible to translate the semantic meaning. In this case, transliteration is the main translation method. The objects of transliteration are the names of people, places and newly generated terms (Fang 2011, 105).

For instance, a city of America “Mount Pleasant” is translated as “芒特普莱森特” in Chinese. The Chinese Taoist thought “阴”and “阳” are translated as “Yin” and “Yang.” Through transliteration, readers of the target language can not only gain some understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language, but also introduce new cultural concepts into the culture of the target language (Wang 2014, 97 ).

Transliteration plus annotation is also often used in the translation of specific cultural words. The translator can add some annotation that can be in-text annotation or extra-text annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the transliteration, so as to achieve the purpose of cultural information transmission (Fang 2011, 105).

For example, the sentence “诸如此类，其实只是一种社交上的客套，和‘顿首’‘百拜’同是仪式的虚伪” is translated as “All these are, in fact, nothing but civilities of social life, as hypocritical as the polite formula dunshou (Kowtow) or Baibai (a hundred greetings) used after the signature in old-fashioned Chinese lettering writing” by Zhang Peiji. The annotation gives a clear explanation of the connotation of culturally-loaded words (Fang 2011, 105).

Cultural borrowing refers to some words in the source language, which can only be transferred into the target language word by word according to the literal meaning because no appropriate corresponding language can be found in the target language. The borrowed words may be unchanged or slightly altered, but their meaning must be clear and unmistakable in the target language text (Fang 2011, 304).

For example, “as timid as a rabbit” can be translated as “胆小如兔”in Chinese. By cultural borrowing, this translation preserves the emotional image and cultural connotation of source language and the readers of target language can figure out the meaning of this expression. Therefore, when using cultural borrowing, the translator should not only keep the cultural image in source text but also let the reader of target language understand the image with exotic connotation.

On the basis of preserving the culture and keeping the flavor of the original text, these five translation methods try their best to make readers understand the culture of the source language so as to make readers perceive the beauty of foreign culture and to introduce new expressions into target language.

===Conclusion===
Translation is an activity of communication between different languages and cultures. Different nations and countries have different ways of language expression because of their different cultures. In cross-cultural translation, translators should not only take on the responsibility of transmitting the source language culture and promoting the communication between different cultures, but also take the responsibility of making the target readers understand the connotation of the text, so as to make the translation readable and acceptable. This requires the translator to master the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization and grasp the balance between them.

Domestication is helpful for the target language readers to understand the original text and avoid the obstacles caused by cultural differences; however, the translation approach to the readers’ language and culture will inevitably lose language features and cultural customs of the original text.

Foreignization translation retains the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it is easy to increase the understanding difficulty of the target language readers, and may even cause misreading of the target language readers. With the frequent cultural exchanges, to some degree, people around the world are relatively familiar with each other’s cultural customs; therefore, on the premise that the target readers have no misunderstanding of the original text, the foreignization translation strategy can be appropriately adopted, which can enrich the target language culture and broaden the horizon of the target readers.

Hence, in cross-cultural translation, translators had to deal with the problems of domestication and foreignization. Translators should consider some factors that influence the choice and choose appropriate translation methods to make domestication and foreignization complement each other, and retain the original flavor of the original text while ensuring the understanding of the target readers.

===References===
*Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011)中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.
*Jiang Tong蒋童.(2016).韦努蒂翻译理论的谱系学研究[Genealogical study on Lawrence Venuti’s translation theory].商务印书馆The Commercial Press.
*Lu Xiaojun 陆晓君. (2018) 归化和异化与直译和意译的比较[A Comparison between domestication and foreignization and literal translation and free translation]. 齐齐哈尔师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qiqihar Junior Teachers’ College](05) 55-57.
*He Limin何丽敏.(2019). 浅析翻译中归化和异化策略的选择 [An analysis of the choice of domestication and foreignization in Translation].辽宁经济 Liaoning Economy (10):70-71.
*Newmark, P. (2011) A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.
*Nida, E.A. & Taber C.R. (2004) The Theory and Practice of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.
*Shuttleworth, M. & Moira, C. (2005) Dictionary of Translation Studies.谭载喜译Translated by Tan Zaixi. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
*Venuti, L. (2009) The Translator’s Invisibility. 张景华译Translated by Zhang Jinghua. 外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
*Wang Chan王婵.(2008). 纽马克翻译理论在不同文本类型中的体现[The Embodiment of Newmark’s translation in different text types].湖北师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Hubei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) (02) 138-140.
*Wang Zhenqi王溱琪.(2014).文化负载词翻译方法浅议[A brief discussion on culturally-loaded word translation method ].长江大学学报(社科版)Journal of Yangtze University (Social Science) (01) 97-98.
*Zhang Siyong &Wang Huimin张思永,王慧敏. (2007). 归化还是异化——谈影响翻译策略选择的若干因素 [Domestication or foreignization-an analysis of factors influencing the choice of translation strategy].广西社会科学 Guangxi Social Science (10):145-148.
--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 09:08, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian==
<center> 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian,202020080601.</center>

===Abstract===
Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is a kind of cross-cultural communication, which spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. The depth study of the connotation and translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this chapter attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, and to explore their translation strategies.

===摘要===
汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，人们耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流活动，深入学习研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。

===Key words===
Chinese Xiehouyu; domestication and foreignization; translation strategy

===关键词===
汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略

===Introduction===
Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotation and has a special structural form. It is vivid and humorous, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, so it is widely spread and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese Xiehouyu is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles. However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to translators.

The strategies of domestication and foreignization play an important role in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating Chinese Xiehouyu will appropriately and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. Therefore, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, analyze the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and explore the translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu with many examples.

===Chapter 1 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu===

====1.1. The Origin of Chinese Xiehouyu====

Chinese Xiehouyu is also called "Qiaopihua", "Qiaoyu", "Jiehouyu", "Xinueyu"(witticism),"Suojiaoyu"(abbreviation),"Yingzhuyu"(quotation) and so on. When it comes to Xiehouyu, Chinese people are familiar with it, because it is a form of expression that Chinese people have learned since childhood. When studying the origin of Chinese Xiehouyu, some linguists and linguistic works also mentioned other related names. For example, Chen Wangdao (1932) included Xiehouyu in the section of "Cutting and Shortening Words" in his ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''.

Guo Shaoyu (1925) pointed out that Xiehouyu originated from "shefu" (a form similar to guessing riddles) in his book ''A Study of Proverbs''; and names, such as "Miyu"(riddle) and "Yanyu"(proverb), were listed in other books. By comparison, most of them reveal some similarities and differences. Let's briefly review the origin of the name "Xiehouyu".

The word "xiehou" was first found in the biography of Zheng fan in Tang Dynasty, and it is mentioned in the book that "the style of Zheng Wu Xiehou" (a kind of poem with the style of "xiehou"). The word "Xiehouyu" has appeared for a long time, but what the ancients said just refers to the ppoetry or a word game about Xiehouyu. The Xiehouyu, which we are talking about today, was called "Qiaoyu", "Fangyu" and "Shiyu" by the ancients and were more commonly known as "Yaoyan". （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 5）

At the beginning of the 20th century, Bai Qiming took Xiehouyu as a kind of folk literature and art after the publication of his article "''Xiehouyu Which Should Be Included in The Collection of Songs'' ". He pointed out that Xiehouyu, also known as "argot", was called " wind typeface " in Tang Dynasty and "Kaner" or "Kanzi" in custom. However, he did not explain why he called it "Xiehouyu" in his article.

In the 1930s, Chen Wangdao pointed out in his book " ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''" that Xiehouyu has two meanings: one is "Xiehouyu" used by the ancients, also known as "cutting and shortening words of Xiehou"; the other is "Xiehouyu" that people use today, also referred as “Pijieyu”, that is, the Xiehouyu composed of interpretation.

In the 1950s, Mao Dun pointed out that in order to distinguish it from the "original or formal xiehouyu", a different name should be given to the Xiehouyu that people use today, but he did not specify what name to use instead. In the 1980s, from the perspective of academic research, Wen Duanzheng thought that the academic name should reflect the essential characteristics of the things it referred to. He agreed with Mao Dun's opinion, and concluded that Xiehouyu did not express the meaning of "xiehou" in Chinese through a large number of examples. Therefore, he suggested that the Xiehouyu should be renamed as "quotations" according to the relationship between the former and latter parts of the Xiehouyu.

However, most scholars believe that the name "Xiehouyu" has been accepted by people and it is difficult to change it. Therefore, they advocate that the name "Xiehouyu" should still be used without any change. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）

====1.2 The Structure of Chinese Xiehouyu====
Chinese Xiehouyu can be literally translated into "rest ending sayings" or "post-pause expressions". According to its structure, it is also translated as "example-explanation-sayings". In 1986, Professor Luo Shenghao, a linguistic professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, translated "Chinese Xiehouyu" into "enigmatic folk similes" in his book ''A Dictionary of Chinese Xiehouyu''.

According to professor Luo, "Similes" refers to the Chinese Xiehouyu which is generally composed of vehicle and tenor. The vehicle are figurative metaphors. The tenor is the explanation of the vehicle to show its essential significance. For example, “粪坑里的石头——又臭又硬” (The stone in the cesspit —— smelly and hard.). "Folk" indicates that the Xiehouyu originates from the folk and is used more frequently in daily spoken language. "Enigmatic" indicates that this kind of expression has the nature and characteristics of riddles which also have two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. Therefore, "enigmatic Folk Similes" basically reflects the special structure and essential characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui 2011, 110)

====1.3 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu====
Xiehouyu has very distinct characteristics, and its external structure is composed of two parts. The former part is the image and descriptive language, which tells a thing, a modality, an object, a scene and so on, while the latter part is a summary and abstract language, which is the explanation of the former part. The combination of the former part and the latter part produces a sense of wit and humor to express meaning. Therefore, the fixed phrase is called Xiehouyu. (Bao Huinan & Bao Ang 2000, 64)

In the dictionary, the explanation of Xiehouyu is that a sentence composed of two parts: the former part is like the riddle, the latter part is like the answer of the riddle, and the original meaning is from the latter part. For example, “泥菩萨过江——自身难保”(like a clay idol fording a river, hardly able to save oneself (let alone anyone else)). Therefore, Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom with relatively fixed structure and oral characteristics, which is composed of two parts with the relationship of citation and annotation. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 5）

''An Unabridged, Comprehensive Dictionary''defines Xiehouyu as follows: Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom, which is humorous and vivid sentences that are familiar to the masses. When used, the latter part can be omitted, and the former part can show the meaning, such as "丢了西瓜捡芝麻" (lose the watermelon and pick up the sesame) can mean "因小失大" (keep the tail from wagging the dog); the former and latter part can also be juxtaposed, such as "芝麻开花—节节高" (A sesame stalk puts forth blossoms notch by notch, higher and higher – rising steadily). (Liu Na 2016, 18)

The definition points out the nature and components of Xiehouyu. In the branches of linguistics, Xiehouyu belongs to the National Cultural Connotation (NCC), which is composed of the former part and the latter part. The former part often explains and describes a kind of life phenomenon, and the latter part makes comments and analysis on this phenomenon. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）

In the section of language and characters in the ''Chinese Encyclopedia'', Xiehouyu refers to the humorous utterance formed by deliberately missing one word or half sentence of a commonly used word when speaking. There are usually two kind of Xiehouyu. The first one is the original meaning of Xiehouyu, referred to the omission of the last word of an idiom, which is also called "abbreviation". （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）

The second one is allegorical saying that has expanded its meaning. The two-part allegorical sayings in Beijing are called "Qiaopihua (witticism)", which means that the last half of a sentence can be omitted. For example, "竹篮打水（Ladling water with a wicker backet）" omits the latter part "一场空（all is empty）". Sometimes homonyms are used. Such as "外甥打灯笼一一照旧（舅）(Things seemed to be the same as before)". In this sentence, “旧” and “舅” are homophones in China. (Yang Peigen & Li Yanlin 2006，93)

In short, Xiehouyu is a special language form created by the Chinese people in their daily life. It is a short, funny and vivid sentence and composed of two parts: the former part plays the role of introduction, like a riddle, and the latter part plays the role of supplement, like the answer of the riddle, which is very natural and appropriate. In a certain language environment, one usually says the former part and omit the latter part, the other can understand and guess its original meaning, so this language form is called Xiehouyu.（Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 7）

====1.4 The Importance of Chinese Xiehouyu Translation====
Xiehouyu is a kind of Chinese idioms, which reflects people's daily life and experience, and is a concise summary and warning of people's experience in life. It has rich ideological connotation and unique cultural characteristics. There are similar forms of Chinese Xiehouyu in English, but so far, there is no official definition corresponding to Chinese Xiehouyu. How to reproduce the language style of Xiehouyu and convey its rich cultural connotation is a subject worthy of discussion and research. At the same time, the translation of Xiehouyu helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. (Xu Yanan & Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)

From the perspective of linguistics, the most difference is that Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. Chinese belongs to the Chinese-Tibet language, while English belongs to the Indo-European language. In Chinese, the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them, for example, 下雨了(the rain fell)；河水泛滥(the river flooded)；房子被冲走了(the house washed away). In English, the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don’t come. (Lian Shuneng 1993，48-49)

Therefore, interlingual conversion occurs in the process of translation, which it is of great value in translation. In the process of translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English, it is necessary to faithfully reproduce the meaning of the source language by integrating language, cognition, culture, communication and other factors. The form and meaning of Chinese idioms are not completely coincident, which is fully reflected in the literal meaning and implied meaning of Xiehouyu. For foreigners, understanding Xiehouyu can strengthen their mastery of Chinese and deepen their understanding of Chinese culture and civilization. (Liu Na 2016, 18)

===Chapter 2 Types of Chinese Xiehouyu===
According to the connection between the two parts of the Chinese Xiehouyu, it can be roughly divided into two types: metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui 2011,110)

====2.1 Metaphorical Xiehouyu====
There are numerous examples of metaphorical Xiehouyu. The former part implies a metaphorical meaning and the latter part original meaning. Their internal connections are very clear and logical.

For example,
（1）那个宝玉是个丈八的灯台——照见人家，照不见自己的，只知嫌人家脏。这是他的房子，由着你们糟蹋。 (As for Baoyu, he is like a ten-foot lamp-stand that sheds light on others but none on it-self. He complains that other people are dirty, yet leaves you to turn his own rooms topsy-turvy.)

It can be seen that in the first example, the vehicle is literally translated, while the tenor is translated with interpretation, explaining the former part. Literal translation with interpretation not only retains the figurative image of the original language, but also effectively conveys its cultural connotation, which is clear to the target readers.(Qi Dehui 2011,110)

====2.2 Paronomasia Xiehouyu====
The paronomasia Xiehouyu has a great proportion in Chinese Xiehouyu. The latter part of the paronomasia Xiehouyu is a pun, which has both the surface meaning of the vehicle and other deep meaning. In other words, the literal meaning is to explain the former part, but its deep meaning expresses a completely different meaning from the whole context. (Jin Huikang 2004, 132)

For example,
(2)一根筷子吃藕——挑眼(Eating lily root with only one chopstick——picking it up by the holes.)
In the second example, “pick holes” means to find one’s faults, while the meaning of its vehicle is to pick the whole in lotus root slices with a chopstick.(Ling Li 2004, 452)

(3)三九天的萝卜——冻了心（动了心）(A mid-winter turnip（in the third period of nine days after the winter solstice）—— the heart is frozen（affected in heart).)
In the third example, the surface meaning of “the heart is frozen” is that the turnip in a mind winter is completely frozen from the root, and the root is a symbol of heart. Moreover, “冻了心”and“动了心”in Chinese are homophones, which becomes a pun.(Qi Dehui 2011,111)

===Chapter 3 Domestication and Foreignization===

====3.1 Definition Of Domestication and Foreignization====
The terms of domestication and foreignization were first put forward by German philosopher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher. He proposed his famous notion of the translation which “leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti, 1995,19-20). Later, this term was introduced into the field of translation by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist. He referred to the first method proposed by Schleiermacher as "domestication", and the second method as "foreignization". In a word, domestication is s term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. （Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie, 2004, 43-44）

Then, foreignization is a term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie, 2004, 59)Eugene A. Nida, the advocate of the theory, put forward in his linguistic theory of functional equivalence that "cultural equivalence can be achieved by excluding linguistic differences."

The terms of domestication and foreignization were first put forward by German philosopher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher. He proposed his famous notion of the translation, which “leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author towards him(这个只是归化的概念吧？）” (Venuti, 1995,19-20). Later, this term was introduced into the field of translation by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist. He referred to the first strategy proposed by Schleiermacher as "domesticationg transaltion", and the second strategy as "foreignizing transaltion".

In a word, domestication is the term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (这个是异化的概念吧，你和下面的异化写成一样的了）(Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie 2004, 43-44) Then, foreignization is a term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie, 2004, 59）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Qian Zhongshu, a famous writer and translator in China, once put forward the theory of "sublimation" in ''The Translation of Linshu'', which means that the translation should not only accord with language expression custom of the target language, but also keep the style of the original work. Substantially, theory of sublimation requires translators to comprehensive the meaning of the original work and to consider the factors of semantic relation, style, cultural differences and information transfer effect etc., and then translators should translate selectively.

Qian Zhongshu, a famous writer and translator in China, once put forward the theory of "sublimation" in ''The Translation of Lin Shu'', which means that the translation should not only accord with the language expression custom of the target language, but also keep the style of the original work. Substantially, the theory of sublimation requires translators to comprehend the meaning of the original work and to consider the factors of semantic relation, style, cultural differences and information transfer effect etc., then the translators should translate selectively. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

On the contrary, "foreignization" requires the translator to approach the author and express the meaning of the original text with the expressions commonly used by people. During the period of the New Culture Movement in China, Lu Xun, the advocator of the theory, once put forward the translation method of "domestication", which brought a western style to the works. (Liu Xiaocen, 2017, 99)

On the contrary, "foreignization" requires the translators to approach the author and express the meaning of the original text with the expressions commonly used by people. During the period of the New Culture Movement in China, Lu Xun, the advocator of the theory, once put forward the translation strategy of "foreignization", which brought a western style to the works. (Liu Xiaocen 2017, 99)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In conclusion, domestication is to localize the source language, take the target language or the target language readers as the destination, and adopt the expression methods that the target language readers are used to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translator to approach the target language readers, and the translator must speak like the native author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the readers, the translated text must become a native language. Domestication translation helps readers understand the translation better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. (Nie Xiaohua, 2002, 3)

In conclusion, domestication is to localize the source language, take the target language readers as the destination, and adopt the expression methods that are familiar to the target language readers to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translators to approach the target language readers, and the translators must speak like the author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the readers, the translated text must become a native language. Domesticating translation helps readers understand the translation better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

On the contrary, Foreignization means that the translator should try his best not to disturb the author and let the readers approach the author. In translation, it is to accommodate the language characteristics of foreign culture, absorb foreign language expression, and require the translator to approach the author and adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the target culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization strategy is to consider the differences of national culture, preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationality and language style, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Nie Xiaohua, 2002, 3)

On the contrary, foreignization means that the translator should try his best not to disturb the author and let the readers approach the author. In translation, it is to accommodate the language characteristics of foreign culture, absorb foreign language expression, and require the translator to approach the author and adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the target culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization strategy is to consider the differences of national culture, preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationality and language style, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.2 Dialectical Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization====
Domestication and foreignization have a great difference which is the former requires that the text is close to the reader, while the latter requires that the text is close to the author. Some scholars believe that domestication and foreignization, no matter which one is adopted, must be applied in the whole translation text, and cannot be confused. However, in the actual practice of translation, we can't really do that. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the thoughts and styles of the author of the original text, which are full of strong foreign style, so it is necessary to adopt the method of foreignization. (Xu Yanan & Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)

Domestication and foreignization have a great difference which is the former requires that the text is close to the reader, while the latter requires that the text is close to the author. Some scholars believe that domestication and foreignization, no matter which one is adopted, must be applied in the whole translation text, and cannot be confused. However, in the actual practice of translation, we can't really do that. (Xu Yanan & Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

However, at the same time, the translation should also take into account the readers' understanding and the fluency of the original text, so it is necessary to adopt the method domestication. It is not advisable to choose one strategy and completely exclude the other. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages, so it cannot achieve the ultimate goal of translation with only one of them. (Xiao Luan & Feng Xuehua, 2011，65)

Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the thoughts and styles of the author of the original text, which are full of strong foreign style, so it is necessary to adopt the method of foreignization. However, at the same time, the translation should also consider the readers' understanding and the fluency of the original text, so it is also necessary to adopt the strategy of domestication. It is not advisable to choose one strategy and completely exclude the other. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages, so it cannot achieve the ultimate goal of translation with only one of them. (Xiao Luan & Feng Xuehua 2011，65)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In translation, we are always faced with the choice of foreignization and domestication, so that the translation can find a middle point between being close to the reader and being close to the author, but the "middle point" is not fixed. Sometimes the translated text is closer to the author and sometimes closer to the reader. However, no matter which side it is close to, it should follow a principle: when being close to the author, the translation should not be too far away from the reader; when being close to the reader, it should not be too far away from the author. (Xiao Luan & Feng Xuehua, 2011，66)

In translation, we are always faced with the choice of foreignization and domestication, so that the translation can find a middle point between being close to the reader and being close to the author, but the "middle point" is not fixed. Sometimes the translated text is closer to the author and sometimes closer to the reader. However, no matter which side it is close to, it should follow a principle: when being close to the author, the translation should not be too far away from the reader; when being close to the reader, it should not be too far away from the author. (Xiao Luan & Feng Xuehua 2011，66)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In other words, foreignization should not hinder the smoothness and understandability of the translated text, and domestication does not lose the style of the original text. At the same time, we should adhere to the domestication strategy for the language form, while foreignization for cultural factors in the original text. In this way, the translated text can combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid their disadvantages, so that they can achieve common development. Therefore, during the actual translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other and the more appropriate translated text can be produced. (Liu Xiaocen，2017，99)

In other words, foreignization should not hinder the smoothness and understandability of the translated text, and domestication does not lose the style of the original text. At the same time, we should adhere to the domestication strategy for the language form, while foreignization for cultural factors in the original text. In this way, the translated text can combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid their disadvantages, so that they can have common development. Therefore, during the practical translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other so that appropriate translated texts can be produced. (Liu Xiaocen 2017，99)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Chapter 4 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu===
There are always contradictions and disputes between foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese xiehouyu. There is a great deal of debate in the field of translation about whether to use foreignization to take the culture of source language as the destination and retain the characteristics of the foreign text, or to use domestication to take the culture of target language as the destination and conform to the characteristics of the target language.（Qi Dehui,2011,110）

There are always contradictions and disputes between foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu. There is a great deal of debate in the field of translation about whether to use foreignization to take the culture of the source language as the destination and retain the characteristics of the foreign text, or to use domestication to take the culture of the target language as the destination and conform to the characteristics of the target language. (Qi Dehui 2011,110)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

For example, “ 三个臭皮匠 —— 顶一个诸葛亮 ”. Some translate it into “Two heads are better than one.” Others translate it into “Three cobblers with their wits combined together equal Zhuge Liang， the master mind.” The first translation is obviously to adopt a domesticated strategy, which conforms to the English expression. It is easy for native English speakers to understand and accept, and it is easy to read. However, the disadvantage is that one (head) in the sentence is not exactly referred as Zhuge Liang in the Chinese Xiehouyu. In Chinese culture, Zhuge Liang was an intelligent man, while one (head) was just an ordinary person. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）

For example, “ 三个臭皮匠 —— 顶一个诸葛亮 ”. Some translate it into “Two heads are better than one.” Others translate it into “Three cobblers with their wits combined together equal Zhuge Liang， the master mind.” The first translation obviously adopts a domesticating translation strategy, which conforms to the English expression. It is easy for native English speakers to understand and accept, and it is easy to read. However, the disadvantage is that one (head) in the sentence is not exactly referred as Zhuge Liang in the Chinese Xiehouyu. In Chinese culture, Zhuge Liang was an intelligent man, while one (head) was just an ordinary person. （Qi Dehui 2011,111）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The second translation version adopts foreignization, which retains the characteristics of Chinese, so that readers from English-speaking countries can understand the connotation of Chinese culture from the translation and promote cultural exchanges. But how do readers in English speaking countries feel when they read such articles? how can cultural exchanges be promoted if it is difficult for readers to understand and lose interest in reading? And when readers see the translation, they can't understand that it is an idiom in Chinese which is humorous, catchy and well-known, and the meaning of the Chinese source language is lost. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）

The second translation version adopts foreignization strategy, which retains the characteristics of Chinese, so that readers from English-speaking countries can understand the connotation of Chinese culture from the translation and promote cultural exchanges. But how do readers in English speaking countries feel when they read such articles? How can cultural exchanges be promoted if it is difficult for readers to understand and lose interest in reading? And when readers see the translation, they can't understand that it is an idiom in Chinese which is humorous, catchy and well-known, and the meaning of the source language is lost. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

For example, （4）那胡正卿心头 “十五个吊桶打水——七上八下” Hu Chengching was very much upset by this and his heart was beating like fifteen buckets being hurriedly lowered into a well for water——eight going down while seven coming up. （5）他这一阵，心头如同十五个吊桶打水——七上八下，老是宁静不下来。His mind was in turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight.

The fourth example uses foreignization to retain the two images of "fifteen buckets" and "seven up and eight down"; the fifth example uses domestication, abandons the image of the original text, and directly translates it into a more native phrase "in turmoil". Should foreignization or domestication be adopted in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu? When do translators use foreignization and when do they use domestication? It depends on the purpose of translation, the characteristics of the translated works and the readers the works are facing with. "If the purpose is to convey culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted" (Huan Yahui, 2004, 118).

For example, （4）那胡正卿心头 “十五个吊桶打水——七上八下” Hu Chengching was very much upset by this and his heart was beating like fifteen buckets being hurriedly lowered into a well for water——eight going down while seven coming up. （5）他这一阵，心头如同十五个吊桶打水——七上八下，老是宁静不下来。His mind was in turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight.

The fourth example uses foreignization to retain the two images of "fifteen buckets" and "seven up and eight down"; the fifth example uses domestication, abandons the image of the original text, and directly translates it into a more native phrase "in turmoil". Should foreignization or domestication be adopted in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu? When do translators use foreignization and when do they use domestication? It depends on the purpose of translation, the characteristics of the translated works and the readers the works are facing with. "If the purpose is to convey culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted" (Huan Yahui 2004, 118). --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

For example, the Chinese English Dictionary of Xiehouyu compiled by Guo Zhuzhang and Luo Shenghao, and 100 Xiehouyu translated by Jia Cen are designed to let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, so they mostly adopt the strategy of foreignization. Foreignization can also be used if the features and images of the source language are retained in translation, which will not affect the communication of information and conform to the language usage of the target language (Huan Yahui, 2004, 119).

For example, the C-E Dictionary of Xiehouyu compiled by Guo Zhuzhang and Luo Shenghao, and 100 Xiehouyu translated by Jia Cen are designed to let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, so they mostly adopt the strategy of foreignization. Foreignization can also be used if the features and images of the source language are retained in translation, which will not affect the communication of information and conform to the language usage of the target language (Huan Yahui 2004, 119).--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

For example, （6）咱们俩的事，一条绳上拴着两只蚂蚱——谁也跑不了！We're like two grasshoppers tied to one cord，neither can get away! （7）去设埋伏我们都没有信心，想必他一定在昨天晚上就早溜了，今天去也是瞎子点灯——白费蜡。We had no confidence in today's ambush because we were sure he had escaped last night. It seemed as useless as a blind man lighting a candle.

In the process of translation, the translator retains the unique language form of the original text, which not only will not affect the communication of information, but also can promote the exchange of culture and thought, giving the target readers a similar aesthetic enjoyment. Because those vivid metaphors in the original text are the products of human common thinking and they can be understood and accepted by readers in other countries. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)

In the process of translation, the translators retain the unique language form of the original text, which not only will not affect the communication of information, but also can promote the exchange of culture and thought, giving the target readers a similar aesthetic enjoyment. Because those vivid metaphors in the original text are the products of common human thinking and they can be understood and accepted by readers in other countries. (Zhou Ningqi 2008, 152)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

However, if a literary work is translated and the readers of the translated text are only for the sake of appreciating the work or even for entertainment, domestication should be adopted. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)

However, if a literary work is translated and the readers of the translated text are only for the sake of appreciating the work or even for entertainment, domestication should be adopted. (Zhou Ningqi 2008，152)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

For example: （8）你别狗咬吕洞宾——不识好人心。我是好心好意劝你，倒粘到我身上来了。Don't snarp and snarl at me when I’m trying to do my best for you. I give you my advice with the best will in the world and you turn round and lay the blame on me.

This example refers to a character in Chinese mythology. If it is translated literally for the purpose of preserving the cultural information of the original text, it is necessary not only to annotate who Lu Dongbin is, but also to explain to foreign readers the allusion that Lu Dongbin is willing to do good deeds. (Yang Hongwei & Li Yadan,2004,84)

This example refers to a character in Chinese mythology. If it is translated literally for the purpose of preserving the cultural information of the original text, it is necessary not only to annotate who Lu Dongbin is, but also to explain to foreign readers the allusion that Lu Dongbin is willing to do good deeds. (Yang Hongwei & Li Yadan 2004,84)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In fact, the origin of the Chinese Xiehouyu is not important here. It is better to discard its cultural background knowledge and translate it directly into "don't snarp and snarl at me", which ensures the effective transmission of key information and makes the translation concise and fluent. Although the cultural reference of "狗咬吕洞宾" is not reflected in the translation of this saying, the translator uses the verbs "snarp" and "snarl" to vividly depict the dog biting and barking, which, to some extent, reproduces the vivid and figurative rhetorical effect achieved by the use of Xiehouyu in the original text. (Yang Hongwei & Li Yadan,2004,84)

In fact, the origin of the Chinese Xiehouyu is not important here. It is better to discard its cultural background knowledge and translate it directly into "don't snarp and snarl at me", which ensures the effective transmission of key information and makes the translation concise and fluent. Although the cultural reference of "狗咬吕洞宾" is not reflected in the translation of this saying, the translator uses the verbs "snarp" and "snarl" to vividly depict the dog biting and barking, which, to some extent, reproduces the vivid and the figurative rhetorical effect achieved by the use of Xiehouyu in the original text. (Yang Hongwei & Li Yadan 2004,84)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

（9）我们有些同志喜欢写文章但是没有什么内容，真是“懒婆娘的裹脚——又长又臭”。 Some comrades love to write long articles，but such articles are exactly like the foot-bandages of a slut（the cloth used for women’s foot in ancient China），Long and smelly（implies the articles are long and dull）.

（9）我们有些同志喜欢写文章但是没有什么内容，真是“懒婆娘的裹脚——又长又臭”。 Some comrades love to write long articles，but such articles are exactly like the foot-bandages of a slut（the cloth used for women’s foot in ancient China），It's long and smelly（implies the articles are long and dull）.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

A translation is full of long, boring words and obscure annotations that can be daunting to the reader. It can be better to translate the sentence into “these articles are dull and overelaborate”. Through a lot of translation practice, the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can be summarized as follows. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 111)

A translation is full of long, boring words and obscure annotations that can be daunting to the reader. It can be better to translate the sentence into “these articles are dull and overelaborate”. Through a lot of translation practice, the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can be summarized as follows. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====4.1 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====

====4.1.1 Literal Translation====
Most Xiehouyu use vivid metaphors, whose metaphorical meaning is referred as general things or common sense. When the metaphorical relationship is clear, literal translation is generally adopted as long as it does not affect the understanding of the target language readers, that is to say, literal translation is adopted without too much extension and explanation, so as to retain both the content and the form of the source language. It is not only faithful to the original text, but also vivid and easy for the target language readers to read and appreciate. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 111)

Most Xiehouyu use vivid metaphors, whose metaphorical meaning is referred to general things or common sense. When the metaphorical relationship is clear, literal translation is generally adopted as long as it does not affect the understanding of the original text, that is to say, literal translation is adopted without too much extension and explanation, so as to retain both the content and the form of the source language. It is not only faithful to the original text, but also vivid and easy for the target language readers to read and appreciate. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

For example,
（10）瘫子掉在井里——捞起也是坐。（Even if a paralytic falls into a well，he can be no worse off than before.）(Yang Xianyi & Dai Naidie,1986)
（11）竹篮打水——一场空。（Drawing water from a bamboo basket——all in vain. ）
（12）哑巴梦见妈——说不出来的苦。（Like a dumb man dreaming of his mother，he could not express his despair! ）

For example,
（10）瘫子掉在井里——捞起也是坐。（If a paralytic falls into a well，he can be no worse off than before.）(Yang Xianyi & Dai Naidie,1986)
（11）竹篮打水——一场空。（Drawing water from a bamboo basket——all in vain. ）
（12）哑巴梦见妈——说不出来的苦。（Like a dumb man dreaming of his mother，he could not express his despair! ）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The above three cases are translated by Yang Xianyi. The translator adopts literal translation to keep the original style of the source language and strive to meet the expectations of the target language readers for heterogeneity. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)

The above three cases are translated by Yang Xianyi. The translator adopts literal translation to keep the original style of the source language and strive to meet the expectations of the target language readers for heterogeneity. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====4.1.2 Literal Translation with Notes====
In Chinese, idioms with a dog are generally derogatory, such as "狼心狗肺、狗腿子、狗仗人势、狗头军师", and so on. However, in English, the words and sentences about dog are often positive, such as "every dog has its day." Western readers may not understand the differences between the two languages and cultures. Therefore, in the translation with foreignization, literal translation with notes should be adopted to fully express the original meaning and metaphorical meaning of Chinese Xiehouyu. For example, "狗戴帽子——装人" is a taunt. It can be translated as " A dog is wearing a cap —— pretending to be a human being （an insult）." In this way, the English reader would not be misunderstood. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，153)

In addition, some Xiehouyu with allusions are often literally translated with notes, so as not to make English readers feel puzzled.

In Chinese, idioms about dog are generally derogatory, such as "狼心狗肺"、"狗腿子"、"狗仗人势"、"狗头军师", and so on. However, in English, the words and sentences about dog are often positive, such as "every dog has its day." Western readers may not understand the differences between the two languages and cultures. Therefore, in the translation with foreignization, literal translation with notes should be adopted to fully express the original meaning and metaphorical meaning of the Chinese Xiehouyu. For example, "狗戴帽子——装人" is a taunt. It can be translated as " A dog is wearing a cap —— pretending to be a human being （an insult）." In this way, the English reader would not misunderstand its meaning. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，153)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In addition, some Xiehouyu with allusions are often literally translated with notes, so as not to make English readers feel puzzled.

For example,
（13）周瑜打黄盖——一个愿打，一个愿挨。
Box on the ear was skillfully given by a Chou Yu and gladly taken by a Huang Kai.（A fourteenth century novel based on events which took place in the third century A.D. Chou Yu of the Kingdom Wu had Huang Kai，another of Wu general，cruelly beaten，and then sent him to the enemy camp in order to deceive the enemy.）

For example,
（13）周瑜打黄盖——一个愿打，一个愿挨。
Box on the ear was skillfully given by Chou Yu and gladly taken by Huang Kai.（A fourteenth century novel based on events which took place in the third century A.D. Chou Yu of the Kingdom Wu had Huang Kai，another of Wu general，cruelly beaten，and then sent him to the enemy camp in order to deceive the enemy.）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====4.2 Domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====

====4.2.1 Free Translation====
Free translation mainly refers to grasping the content and metaphorical meaning in translation, combining with the context, and flexibly conveying the meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 1996, 13)

For example,
（14）我这个人你也知道。说话向来是袖筒里入槌——直出直入。(You know me——I speak frankly and to the point.)

（15）他必审问我，我给他个“徐庶入曹营”——一言不发。(He sure to ask questions but I'll hold my tongue to begin with.)

（16）穷棒子闹翻身，是八仙过海，各显神通。(When we pass from the old society to the new one，each of us shows his true worth.)

（17）我们校队近年来可是“孔夫子搬家——净是（输）书。”(Our school team has kept losing in the recent years.)

Free translation mainly refers to grasping the content and metaphorical meaning when transalating by combining with the context, which flexibly conveys the meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 1996, 13)

For example,
（14）我这个人你也知道。说话向来是袖筒里入槌——直出直入。(You know me——I speak frankly to the point.)

（15）他必审问我，我给他个“徐庶入曹营”——一言不发。(He is sure to ask questions but I'll hold my tongue.)

（16）穷棒子闹翻身，是八仙过海，各显神通。(When we pass from the old society to the new one，each of us shows his true worth.)

（17）我们校队近年来可是“孔夫子搬家——净是（输）书。”(Our school team has kept losing in the recent years.)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====4.2.2 Combination of literal and free translation====
While literal translation is adopted to retain the metaphorical image of the original text, free translation is also used, sometimes with some appropriate supplement, so that the translation can convey the meaning of the original text more clearly. Chinese Xiehouyu often carries a deep historical and cultural implication. It is very difficult to transfer the loaded cultural information in Chinese Xiehouyu into English. (Gao Yun & Yu Jie, 2004, 126)

While the literal translation is adopted to retain the metaphorical image of the original text, free translation is also used, sometimes with some appropriate supplement, so that the translation can convey the meaning of the original text more clearly. The Chinese Xiehouyu often carries a deep historical and cultural implication. It is very difficult to transfer the loaded cultural information in Chinese Xiehouyu into English. (Gao Yun & Yu Jie 2004, 126)

Some Xiehouyu with strong national cultural features lie in the image and style, and the translation should be based on the premise of being faithful to the meaning expressed in the original text. Literal translation should be followed by free translation to show its metaphorical meaning ". The combination of literal translation and free translation is undoubtedly one of the effective means of cultural compensation, which not only keeps the metaphorical image of the source language, but also maintains the integrity of the cultural content. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)

Some Xiehouyu has strong national cultural features in the image and style, and the translation should be based on the premise of being faithful to the meaning expressed in the original text. Literal translation should be followed by a free translation to show its metaphorical meaning. The combination of literal translation and free translation is undoubtedly one of the effective means of cultural compensation, which not only keeps the metaphorical image of the source language, but also maintains the integrity of the cultural content. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

For example,
（18）我说二三百两银子，你就说二三十两，戴着斗笠亲嘴——差着一帽子。 (When I say two or three hundred taels，you say twenty or thirty! It's like kissing in straw helmets——the lips are far apart!)
（19）兔子的尾巴——长不了（Guo Jiangzhong, 1996, 12）(The tail of a rabbit can't be long——won't last long.)

For example,
（18）我说二三百两银子，你就说二三十两，戴着斗笠亲嘴——差着一帽子。 (When I say two or three hundred taels，you say twenty or thirty! It's like kissing with straw helmets——the lips are far apart!)
（19）兔子的尾巴——长不了(The tail of a rabbit can't be long—— something won't last long.) （Guo Jiangzhong, 1996, 12）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====4.2.3 Equivalent Translation====
Some English idioms and some Chinese Xiehouyu use the same or similar metaphors to express the same or similar metaphorical meanings, in this case, may as well borrow English synonym idioms to translate them. That is to change the original image of the vehicle in translation and translate it with a metaphor familiar to English readers. That is to say, the target text and the original text adopt different vehicles to create the same image, convey the same spirit and achieve the same effect. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)

Some English idioms and some Chinese Xiehouyu use the same or similar metaphors to express the same or similar metaphorical meanings. In this case, borrowing English synonym idioms to translate them is proper as well. That is to change the original image of the vehicle in translation and translate it with a metaphor familiar to English readers. That is to say, the target text and the original text adopt different vehicles to create the same image, convey the same spirit and achieve the same effect. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

For example,
（20）冰冻三尺——非一日之寒。 (Rome was not built in a day.)
（21）肉包子打狗——一去不回头。（A dog given a bone that doesn't come back for more.）
（22）脱裤子放屁——多此一举。(To carry coals to Newcastle.)

When using English idioms to translate Chinese Xiehouyu, we should pay attention to the rhetorical features. If the rhetorical feature of two languages is different, we cannot apply it. For example, "老王卖瓜——自卖自夸" must be translated into “No man cries stinky Fish”, because the former has a positive meaning, while the latter does not. （Ling Li,2004,59）

When using English idioms to translate Chinese Xiehouyu, we should pay attention to the rhetorical features. If the rhetorical features of two languages are different, we cannot apply it. For example, "老王卖瓜——自卖自夸" must be translated into “No man cries stinky Fish”, for the former has a positive meaning, while the latter does not. （Ling Li 2004,59）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====4.2.4 Omission====
Omission refers to the deletion of certain words from the original text, not to delete the original text, but to leave out the words that are self-evident in the translation, or to leave out words that are too cumbersome or not suitable for English expression. This method is especially suitable for the translation of some Chinese Xiehouyu. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)

Omission refers to the deletion of certain words from the original text. It is not to delete the original text, but to leave out the words that are self-evident in the translation, or to leave out words that are too cumbersome or not suitable for English expression. This strategy is especially suitable for the translation of some Chinese Xiehouyu. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)

For example,
（23）癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉——痴心妄想。 (You are like a toad trying to swallow a swan.)
（24）赔了夫人又折兵——双重损失。 (You’ve lost the campaign and your wife into the bargain.)

The metaphorical meanings of the above two examples are quite obvious. The target language readers can infer the figurative meaning directly from the image of the vehicle or from the context of Chinese Xiehouyu, so only the metaphorical part can be translated.(Yang & Dai,1986)

The metaphorical meanings of the above two examples are quite obvious. The target language readers can infer the figurative meaning directly from the image of the vehicle or from the context of Chinese Xiehouyu, so only the metaphorical part can be translated.(Yang & Dai 1986)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

To sum up, in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, attention should be paid to the similarity of form and spirit, so that the surface and deep meanings can be expressed accurately, clearly and vividly. Therefore, we should flexibly adopt the methods of straightness and explanation (free translation and annotation) to truly show the stylistic and pragmatic characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. Moreover, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning of as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Xiehouyu. (Liu Na, 2016,19)

To sum up, in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, attention should be paid to the similarity of form and spirit, so that the surface and deep meanings can be expressed accurately, clearly and vividly. Therefore, we should flexibly adopt the strategies of free translation andliteral translation to truly show the stylistic and pragmatic characteristics of the Chinese Xiehouyu. Moreover, the translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to translating Xiehouyu well. (Liu Na 2016,19) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''Conclusion'''===
In the cultural perspective translation is a communicating process, in which the choosing of translation strategies is of vitality. In the communication of western and Chinese culture, we should absorb the quintessence and abolish what is old and establish in its place the new order of things. When we learn from the languages and cultures of different nationalities, we should also be openminded and inclusive.

In the cultural perspective translation is a communicating process, in which the choosing of translation strategies is of vitality. In the communication of western and Chinese culture, we should absorb the quintessence and abolish what is old and establish in its place the new order of things. When we learn about the languages and cultures of different nationalities, we should also be open-minded and inclusive. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In the translation field, literary translation has always occupied an important position, and the research on literary translation is the most active and developed at all times and in all countries. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can lay a theoretical foundation for better learning other languages. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is not only the conversion between two languages, but also the interlingual activity of cultural exchange between the two nations. Starting from the two languages, we should not only learn our own language, but also have a deep and profound understanding of our own culture. Thus, we can be easier to translate Chinese Xiehouyu into English by narrowing cultural gap and eliminate the obstacles of language.

In the translation field, literary translation has always occupied an important position, and the research on literary translation is active at all times and in all countries. The translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu can lay a theoretical foundation for better learning other languages. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is not only the conversion between two languages, but also the interlingual activity of cultural exchange between the two nations. We should not only learn our own language, but also have a deep and profound understanding of our own culture. Thus, we can narrow the cultural gap and eliminate the obstacles of language by translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The translation of Xiehouyu is flexible，which needs surmount double barriers to language and culture and adopt different translation methods according to different situations. In order to convey Chinese culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted. Moreover, those which is vivid and easy to understand should retain their original content and form, and foreignization can also be adopted for literal translation.

The translation of Xiehouyu is flexible, which needs surmount double barriers of language and culture and adopt different translation strategies according to different situations. In order to convey Chinese culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted. Moreover, those which is vivid and easy to understand should retain their original content and form.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; for metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal and free translation can be used with the strategy of foreignization.

However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; for metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal and free translation can be used with the strategy of foreignization.

However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; For metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal translation and free translation can be used.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In a word, as far as the structure of the target language are concerned, the phrases and sentences are all in line with the translation standards. Chinese Xiehouyu not only carries the wisdom of Chinese predecessors, but also reflects the profound culture, history and thinking mode of the Chinese nation from different perspective. In the process of translation, the translator should try to keep the style of the original work, focus on the target language readers, and translate the Chinese Xiehouyu appropriately to avoid wrong translation, overtranslation or undertranslation.

In a word, as far as the structure of the target language are concerned, the phrases and sentences are all in line with the translation standards. Chinese Xiehouyu not only carries the wisdom of Chinese predecessors, but also reflects the profound culture, history and thinking mode of the Chinese nation from a different perspective. In the process of translation, the translator should try to keep the style of the original work, focus on the target language readers, and translate the Chinese Xiehouyu appropriately to avoid wrong translation, overtranslation or undertranslation.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Therefore, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Chinese Xiehouyu.

Therefore, the translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Chinese Xiehouyu.(与上文重复）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''Reference'''===

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8. Bao Huinan & Bao Ang 包惠南，包昂. (2000). 实用文化翻译学[''Studies of Practical Cultural Translation''] . 上海：上海科学普及出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Science Popularization Press] 64-65.

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12.Huang Yahui 黄亚慧.(2006). 论汉语歇后语的汉译英的异化问题.[ Journal of Neijiang Normal University]. 内江师范学院学报[Journal of Neijiang Normal University].118-119.

13. Chen Hongwei & Li Yadan 陈宏微，李亚丹. (2004). 新编汉英翻译教程.[''A New Coursebook On Chinese-English Translation'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].84-86.

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==A Brief Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Idioms Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨 202070080633, MTI英语笔译==

<center> 邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu, No.202070080633.</center>

===Abstract===
The translation of Chinese idioms has something to do with cultural differences of English and Chinese. To appositely adjust cultural differences between English and Chinese, a large number of translators use two translation strategies: domestication and foreignization, when translating Chinese idioms.

Domestication and foreignization are two kinds of translation strategies which are culture-oriented. This paper will make an introduction of domestication and foreignization in the first part, and then will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms. Then, it will discuss the application of these two translation strategies to Chinese idioms by taking some examples so that the author of this paper can make a brief analysis of the relativity of these two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, and learn how to select proper translation strategies to translate Chinese idioms.

The study of the translation of Chinese idioms is conducive to the development of language, which will promote international exchanges and cooperation as well as the innovation of translation methods, thus deepening the organic integration of two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the translation of idioms and promoting the research and development of translation.

===Key Words===
Domestication; Foreignization; Chinese Idioms; Translation

===题目===
浅析汉语习语翻译的归化异化

===摘要===
汉语习语的翻译涉及到英汉文化差异。为了适当地调和英汉文化之间的差异，许多译者采用了归化和异化的翻译策略。

归化和异化是两种以文化为导向的翻译策略，本文第一部分先介绍归化异化两种策略，紧接着在第二部分从含义、文化内涵方面对汉语习语进行了介绍，然后通过举例来探讨这两种翻译策略在汉语习语翻译中的运用，从而分析出这两种翻译策略的相关性以及如何选取合适的翻译策略来翻译汉语习语。

对汉语习语翻译的研究有利于语言的发展，促进国际间的交流与合作，推进翻译方法的革新，加深归化异化两种翻译策略在习语翻译中的有机融合，推动翻译的研究与发展。

===关键词===
归化；异化；汉语习语；翻译

===Chapter1 Domestication and Foreignization===
Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies, they are commonly used in the translation of Chinese idioms. In this chapter, the author will introduce the definition of domestication and foreignization, and then will present the debates on these two translation strategies.

====The Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====
Domestication is a term used by Lawrence Venuti, American translation theorist, to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for readers of target language (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti believes domestication originated from Friedrich Schleiermacher's famous notion of the translation which "leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him" (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74).

From Venuti's perspective, domestication has negative connotations as it's regarded as a policy common in dominant cultures which are "aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign", and which he describes as being "accustomed to fluent translation that invisibly inscribe foreign texts with values of target language and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a culture order" (Venuti 1995, 15).

According to Venuti, domestication is the predominant translation strategy in Anglo-American culture, and he argues that this is consistent with the unbalanced relation between Anglo-American culture and other cultures. He further points out that domestication has widely served domestic affairs, therefore it's necessary to adopt other translation strategies to challenge the domination of domestication (Venuti 1995, 15).

Foreignization is a term used by Lawrence Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the origin text (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti asserts foreignization is derived from the translation type, stated by Schleiermacher, in which "the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him" (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74).

As far as Venuti is concerned, he describes foreignization as an "ethnodeviant pressure" (Venuti 1995, 20), and thus considers it can "register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad" (Venuti 1995, 20). In specific terms foreignization means not only the freedom from the absolute restriction of target language and texts, but the selection of an non-fluent, opaque style in some appropriate situations and the deliberate accumulation of "Realia" of source language or "Archaisms" of target language, which would provide readers of target language with an "alien reading experience" (Venuti 1995, 20).

====The Debates on Domestication and Foreignization====
There has been a long-standing debate about how to deal with cultural differences in translation. There are many scholars, such as John Dryden, Alexander Tytler, Denham, Lefevere, Frere, who approved of domestication. Domestication has been in the dominant position for a long time. To begin with, translation theorists like Cicero, Saint Jeromi and Quintilian raised some ideas about word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Considered from the theories they put forward, they favored free translation (Schulte & Biguenet 1992, 13).

As is well-known, Eugene A. Nida proposed the concept of functional equivalence. From his perspectives, translation is communication, in which what really matters is what people get when they listen, speak and read the translated text. Translation shouldn't be judged by the comparison of the corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical categories and rhetorical devices, but by the extent to which the recipient correctly understands and appreciates the translated text. The purpose of Nida's functional equivalence theory is that the expression of the translated text should be completely natural, so that the readers can better understand the original text through domestication translation, thus avoiding cultural conflicts, eliminating the gap, and finally achieving the purpose of cultural exchange (Nida 1993, 118).

The supporters of domestication hold the view that the translator should take readers into consideration, and if the content of the translation is not within the reader's understanding, the effect of translation and communication will not be achieved, and secondly the translator should try to avoid cultural conflicts, and in the process of translation, the translator should constantly get closer to the target reader, so that the target reader can read the translation with the same effect as the reader of the original text. Thirdly, each language has its own cultural connotation, so if there is a cultural gap between the two languages, foreignization will not only result in a non-fluent translation, but also in the reader's unacceptability of the translation. Last but not least, it cannot be realized to find the completely equivalent word in another language, so to avoid producing opaque translations, it's no doubt that domestication is a better choice (Chan 2004, 171).

Foreignization started later than domestication, and gained much popularity in the 20th century. Many scholars' translations embody this translation strategy, including many of Ezra Pound's translations and Nabokov's famous literal translation of Pushkin's Eugene Onegin (Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie 2004, 59).

Lawrence Venuti firstly defined foreignization and was a representative of foreignization. Venuti described foreignization in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility'' as "a form of resistance, which is against ethnocentrism, racism, cultural narcissism and imperialism, in the interests of democratic geopolitical relations" (Venuti 1995, 20). He proposed a translation theory and practice that opposes translation fluency and aims not to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in translation, but to express such linguistic and cultural differences in translation. This is also one of the basic ideas of deconstructionist translation thought. It's said by Venuti that "the aim of opposing domestication and advocating foreignization is to develop a translation theory and practice that resists the predominance of cultural values of the target language, thus expressing the linguistic and cultural differences of foreign texts" (Venuti 1995, 20). Foreignization is premised on the belief that cultures differ from each other and that communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignization is to recognize and tolerate the differences and to express the cultural differences in the target language.

People who favor of foreignization hold the following reasons. Firstly, the translator should make every effort to be faithful to the original work in the translation, and the content of the original work should be reproduced to the maximum extent. If the translator fails to reach this, then the translation will be considered as faithful. Secondly, adding the expression of source language into target language will enrich the target language. Thirdly, the purpose of readers' reading translations is to learn about foreign cultures, which foreignization can help to realize. Foreignization attempts to keep the characteristics of the source language (孙致礼 2002, 40-44). The debate between domestication and foreignization has still continued until the 21st century.

===Chapter2 The Definition and Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms===
It is of great importance to have an understanding of Chinese idioms before analyzing domestication and foreignization in the translation of Chinese idioms. Chinese idioms are closely related to various Chinese cultures. Domestication and foreignization are commonly used by translators in dealing with cultural factors in translation. Therefore, in this chapter, the author will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms.

====The Definition of Chinese Idioms====
According to ''Modern Chinese Dictionary'', Chinese idioms are "concise and meaningful phrases or short sentences that have been in long public usage" (Dictionary Editorial Office, Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 2002, 248).

In ''The New Oxford Dictionary of English'', idiom is "a group of words established by usage as having a meaning not deducible from those of the individual words; a form of expression natural to a language, a person, or group of people" (Hanks 2001, 908).

As is defined in ''Webster's New World Dictionary of the American'' (1972), idiom means "an accepted phrase, construction, or expression contrary to the usual patterns of the language or having a meaning different from the literal".

These definitions all mention that idioms are formed in the long process that people use languages, and they cannot be understood from their literal words because they are closely related to the culture. Thus, the cultural characteristics must be taken into consideration.

====The Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms====
In this section, the author will divide the cultural connotation of Chinese idioms into four groups: geographical culture, conventional culture, historical culture and religious culture.

For Chinese idioms reflecting geographical culture, they are created in China's particular geographical environment. China has been a big country dominated by agriculture since ancient times, and the agricultural population accounts for a large proportion. Therefore, a large part of Chinese idioms is related to agriculture. They are the crystallization of the extremely rich wisdom accumulated by the working people in the productive labor for generations. For example, those who engage in agriculture will say: "靠山吃山，靠水吃水" (One has to make use of whatever resources available.), "种瓜得瓜，种豆得豆" (What goes around comes around.), "一日之计在于晨" (An hour in the morning is worth two in the evening.) (Qiu Nengsheng, Qiu Xiaoqin 2019, 52).

For Chinese idioms reflecting conventional culture, they derive from Chinese national customs in the social life. Chinese people are made of fifty-six ethnic groups, and each group has its own customs. Just in Han, there are many types of customs such as marriage customs, drinking customs, funeral customs, etc. Among these different aspects of customs, people create abundant Chinese idioms. For an instance, "红运当头" which means one has a good fortune, "开门红" which means to make a good start (Qiu Jixin 2002, 45).

For Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture, they originate from Chinese long-run national history and culture. An important element of Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture is the historical allusions and fables. They are treasures of Chinese national history and culture, with strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, containing rich historical and cultural information, and reflecting the characteristics of historical cultures. Many idioms of this type come from historical allusions and fables. For an instance, "万事俱备，只欠东风" comes from the Battle of the Red Cliff, "八仙过海，各显神通" reflects the content of Chinese traditional myths and legends (Zhang Ning 1999, 24).

For Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture, they mainly come from Buddhism and Taoism. Confucius and Mencius are considered as saints by Chinese people. Many Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture contain "佛" (Buddha), "庙" (temple) and "和尚" (monk or bonze). For example, "临时抱佛脚" (embrace Buddha's feet in one's hour of need) which means seeking help at the last moment, "放下屠刀，立地成佛" (drop one's cleaver and become a Buddha) which means achieving salvation as soon as one give up evil (Wang Fang 2001, 35).

===Chapter3 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms' Translation===
In the translation of Chinese idioms, Foreignization and domestication are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, they can work together to help to produce better translations. In this chapter, the author will present specific examples of the application of these two translation strategies in Chinese idioms’ translation.

====The Application of Domestication in Chinese Idioms Translation====
我要有个[三长两短]，你给玉山捎个话！(杜鹏程《保卫延安》)

Translation: If [anything should happen] to me, let Yushan know!

The meaning of "三长两短" cannot be understood from its literal words. If the idiom is translated into "three long and two short things", the target readers will feel confused. Therefore, it's more appropriate to use domestication in the translation. Though the national feature may not be expressed in the translation, domestication makes the translation more fluent and comprehensive.

她怕[碰一鼻子灰]，话到嘴边，她又把它吞了下去。(茅盾《子夜》)

Translation: She was afraid of [being snubbed], so she swallowed the words that came to her lips.

The image of "碰一鼻子灰" is to have one's nose rubbed in the dirt, which is difficult for the target reader to understand what it means, so it's necessary to abandon the original image and to express its meaning to the target reader.

运涛好久不来信了，一家子[盼了星星盼月亮]。(梁斌《红旗谱》)

Translation: For many months no letter came from Yuntao till his whole family [worried over him day and night].

The translation gives up seeking a consistent form with the original text, instead it chooses to find a functionally similar expression to convey the emotion of the original sentence, giving the target reader the same feeling as the readers of the original text have.

等他们赶来营救时，已是[正月十五贴门神——晚了半月]啦。

Translation: But they were [too late] for a rescue.

Two-part allegorical sayings (xiehouyu) are unique to the Chinese language, and are in the unique structural form with strong national characteristics. Because of the double barriers of language form and culture, translators sometimes have to abandon the unique structural form and national characteristics of two-part allegorical sayings and adopt the translation strategy of domestication, which is to only translate its meaning, and abandon the metaphor and metonymy of it.

一剑剁去随手而倒。霎时觉来，乃[南柯一梦]，口中犹骂，操贼不止。(罗贯中《三国演义》)

Translation: Dong Cheng cried to Cao, chopping at him with his blade. Cao crumbled in the wake of the blow, as Cheng repeated the words "traitor, traitor" until he had awoken from [the empty dream].

This idiom mainly talks about that Chun Yufen had a dream of becoming a sheriff of Nanke County and living a wealthy life. However, when he woke up, he found out that it was just a dream. Later, people use "南柯一梦" to refer to a dream, or a metaphor for a happy air. The target reader who has no knowledge of the background of this idiom will have difficulty acquiring the meaning. Under this circumstance, it's a better choice to adopt domestication.

The translation strategy of domestication is to grasp the important aspect of the content and metaphor of idioms. When using domestication, the translator sometimes has to sacrifice the image and needs to combine the context to convey metaphors flexibly. One of the responsibilities of the translator is to avoid cultural conflicts leading to misunderstanding of the translation. When translating a text into another culture, the translator must carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. If the content and form expressed in the translation are within the knowledge range of the target reader's understanding of the real world, it will be easier for the reader to understand them (许建平 2004, 8).

English and Chinese idioms belong to different languages and are produced under different cultural backgrounds. If the foreignization translation method is overemphasized, it will increase the reader's unfamiliarity with the translation, increase the difficulty of readers' acceptance, and hinder the mutual communication and penetration between different countries and nations. Therefore, according to the national psychology of the target language, if the foreignization cannot be expressed clearly, the domestication translation strategy can be adopted so that the reader can appreciate and grasp the meaning of the original text (Chan 2004, 104).

====The Application of Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====
“他一家子在这，他的房子、地在这儿，他跑？[跑了和尚跑不了庙]。”(周立波《暴风骤雨》)

Translation: "Escape? But his home and property can't escape. [The monk may run away, but the temple can't run with him]".

咳，这一来，[竹篮子打水一场空了]！(梁斌《红旗谱》)

Translation: Ah! We were [drawing water in a baboo basket].

特别是她那时的“密司林佩瑶”，禀受了父亲的名士气质，曾经[架起了多少的空中楼阁]…… (茅盾《子夜》)

Translation: She herself, Miss Lin Pei-yao, endowed with her scholarly father's idealistic temperament, was especially fond of [building castles in the air]...

Because people's feelings, perceptions of objective things and social experiences have many similarities, there are a small number of idioms that are identical or similar in English and Chinese idioms. These idioms have the same or similar figurative meaning, and the same implied meaning, which means that the literal and figurative meanings of these idioms convey the same cultural information and can be translated into each other. The translation of "跑了和尚跑不了庙", "竹篮子打水一场空" and "架起了多少的空中楼阁" convey the same meaning as their Chinese meaning, and the it's not difficult for foreign readers to get the information. Therefore, foreignization which is used in these three translations not only expresses the the meaning, but preserves the national and cultural characteristics of the idioms.

匡超人听了这话，慌忙作揖，磕下头去，说道：“晚生真乃‘[有眼不识泰山]’。”(吴敬梓《儒林外史》)

Translation: When Kuang Chao-jen heard this, he made haste to bow. "Although I have eyes," he exclaimed, "I [have failed to see Mount Tai]!" (Translated by Yang Xianyi)

In this translation, the translator preserves the image and national characteristics, directly expressing the literal meaning of "有眼不识泰山". As China has developed rapidly, Mount Tai has been known by more and more foreigners as a famous scenic spot of China. Foreigners who get the knowledge of the mountain will not misunderstand the idiom. Thus, using foreignization makes the translation both understandable and vivid.

主公仰慕将军，欲求令爱为儿妇，永结[秦晋之好]。(罗贯中《三国演义》)

Translation: My master, long your admirer, seeks your treasured daughter's hand in behalf of his son to [band the two houses in marriage as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times].

For idioms with strong national color or allusive nature, the translator can translate them with foreignization on the basis of context, and some explanations can be added in the translation to express the original meaning more clearly. The Chinese historical idiom "秦晋之好" comes from a historical allusion. When this idiom first appeared in the novel, the translator translated the names of the two vassal states by transliteration, thus retaining the differences of cultures. In order to make readers better understand the idiom, the translator also interpreted the idioms so that the meaning hidden behind the Chinese characters was much clear. Now that the English translation of the sentence is an experiment, the result of deleting "band the two houses in marriage" can be called a faithful translation, but at most it is only the faithfulness of the language form. If the former part is deleted, it will be "as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times". The translation seems to convey the main meaning of the idiom, but at least in form, the extraordinary meaning of the original idiom is gone. It is a pity that "秦晋之好" lost its own meaning. On this basis we should add some annotations.

Foreignization conveys information from one culture and language to another in a way that maintains its original nature, bringing not only a new component to the target language, but also an influx of such a component that will lead to various aggregation and fission reactions within the target language, which will eventually lead to its fundamental transformation. As a result, the integration of nations and peoples are greatly facilitated. The use of heterogeneous translations of idioms is conducive to the mutual exchange and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, and promotes the integration between them. Therefore, the metaphors, images and national and local colors of the original idioms are preserved in the translation as much as possible without violating the linguistic norms of the translation and without causing false associations (Liao Qiyi 2001, 58).

====The Application of the Combination of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====
(张飞) 瞠目大叱曰: “我哥哥是[金枝玉叶]，你是何等人 ……”(罗贯中《三国演义》)

Translation: The moment Zhang Fei heard this, his eyes widened and he shouted, "Our brother is a prince of the blood, [a jade leaf on a golden branch]. Who are you to …"

梁虔等曰: “夏侯驸马乃[金枝玉叶]，倘有疏虞，难逃坐视之罪。”(罗贯中《三国演义》)

Translation: Liang Qian, as well as others argued, "Imperial Son－in－Law Xiahou Mao is [part of the royal family], the slightest negligence will be punished as willful indifference to his fate".

耀骂曰: “曹都督乃[金枝玉叶]，安肯与反贼相见耶! ”(罗贯中《三国演义》)

Translation: Fei Yao taunted him:" Field Marshal Cao [belongs to the royal family]. He would not lower himself to meet a traitor".

The interpretation of "金枝玉叶" in the Chinese dictionary is: The golden jade metaphor the royal family and the noble people. It can be seen from the translation of this idiom in ''The Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' that the translator uses the combination of foreignization and domestication. If you completely use the method of foreignization, readers will think that Chinese people are the same in their thinking mode. If the method of foreignization is completely adopted, the reader will understand each word. But they do not understand the overall meaning, because there is no relationship between the two images of "金枝" and "玉叶". They may speculate on the linguistic expression of these two images, because they are suppressed by the difference in the strange world, and this kind of speculation may hinder the understanding of the whole sentence. On the other hand, the more important the difference in the language culture of the original language is, the more it should be reproduced. In order to highlight the Chinese emphasis on "Gold" and "Jade", the idiom should be completely alienated, which resulted in different translations of the three sentences of this idiom.

蒙曰: “兵有利钝，战无必胜。如猝然遇敌，步骑相促，人尚不暇及水，何能入船乎?”权曰: “[人无远虑，必有近忧]。子明之见深远。”(《论语》)

Translation: Lu Meng responded:" The fortunes of war are never constant; victory is never sure. In an abrupt confrontation, with infantry and cavalry jostling together, our men may not have time to reach the water much less board the boats". Sun Quan commented, "[Improvidence invites danger]. Lu Meng wisely looks ahead".

子邓忠劝曰: “[小不忍则乱大谋]，父亲若与他不睦，必误国家大事。” (《论语》)

Translation: Ai's son, Deng Zhong, urged him to forbear, saying, "[Intolerance for trifles ruins great plans]. Father, if you fall out with him, you will fail the dynasty".

The above two famous idioms are all from the ''Analects of Confucius''. In the different translations versions, the translations of "人无远虑，必有近忧" and "小不忍则乱大谋" are also different. The word-by-word interpretation conveys the literal meaning of the idioms and is used in dialogue. The author's situation is always like this, he cannot express all aspects of the original text, and choosing one side means giving up other aspects. Observing the translations, the number of words is originally quite a lot, and the meaning is also expressed clearly enough, and there is no longer a need for domestication interpretation. To be fair, both translations are consistent with the language style of the translated text. The foreignization and domestication are balanced in the translation.

In translation, even if every word in the original text can be translated with its "equivalence" in the translation, it is not always guaranteed that the translation will have the same or similar effect on the readers of the translated text as the original text, because readers often use their own cultural concepts to understand the content of the translated text. In some idioms, the cultural color of the original language is preserved by foreignization, but it causes linguistic errors and difficulties for readers to understand, and if we adopt domestication, we will lose the cultural color of the original language and cannot let the readers fully understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, we can adopt a combination of domestication and foreignization to translate the literal meaning and then point out the implied meaning, so that the translation can be imaginative and vivid, reflecting the style and flavor of the original language and being fully accepted by the readers (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17).

===Conclusion===
In the translation of idioms, domestication and foreignization are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, these two strategies can work together to make the translation better. If the expressive habits of the target language are taken into account, the cultural connotation in the source language is inevitably affected, and vice versa. From the perspective of cultural differences, excessive domestication or foreignization is not conducive to the transmission of idioms' meaning, and these two translation strategies need to be used interactively according to the actual situation (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 18).

Firstly, the choice of domestication and foreignization is in accordance with the purpose of translation. In order to ease cultural contradictions and to make the translation both fluent and easy to understand, it is recommended to use the domestication strategy. At the same time, there are also many Chinese idioms that introduce English vocabulary through foreignization translation strategy. For example, "lose one's face" comes from "丢面子". Many idioms can be translated using two strategies. The key depends on the translator's attitude and choice, and what needs to be achieved. The translation of Chinese idioms in the famous book ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' such as "巧妇难为无米之炊", which the famous Chinese translator Yang Xianyi translated like this:" Even the cleverest housewife can't cook a meal without rice". And the British sinologist David Hawkes translated it as "Even the cleverest housewife can't make bread without flour". Yang uses a foreignization strategy to introduce eastern culture to the west while Hawkes uses domestication strategy to enhance western readers' comprehension.

Secondly, the choice of using domesticaton and foreignization can be made on the basis of the Chinese idiom's content. Translation is a cultural exchange. Translators need to be culturally conscious, that is, to introduce the language and culture of one nation to another. If you can find the equivalent expression or the similar expression that you can directly apply, choose the foreignization translation. For example, "熟能生巧" can be directly translated as "Practice makes perfect". When the original text and the translation cannot be translated according to cultural differences, it is necessary to replace the "culture of source language" with the "culture of target language", and to transform the meaning to be conveyed in the source language into the cultural image familiar to the target language, such as "吃不了兜着走". Its corresponding expression in English cannot be found, so it has to be translated as "be in serious trouble" according to its original meaning.

Last but not least, the combination of domestication and foreignization is necessary in translating Chinese idioms. It is not enough to use just one translation strategy to retain the cultural characteristics of the idioms, but also to convey the meaning. If the translation also wants to be accepted by readers of the target language, it is not enough to use a certain translation strategy. The translator needs to combine two strategies to do the translation. For example, "三十六计，走为上策". If the translator only uses the foreignization translation strategy to translate it, the translation of this idiom will be like "Of the thirty-six strategies, the best is running away". Although the culture in the original text is retained and the literal meaning is also expressed, its implicit meaning is not reflected. At this time, it is indispensable to supplement the domestication translation like "as you have no better choice". Only in this way can the translation be more complete.

===References===
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*Schleiermacher, Fredrich. (1838/1963). "Ueber die verschiedenen Methoden des Uebersezens", in Hans Joachim Störig (1963) ''Das Problem des Übersetzens'', Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft [Wege der Forschuung Band VIII], 38-70.

*Schleiermacher, Fredrich. (1838/1977). "On the Different Methods of Translating", in André Lefevere (ed. & trans.) (1977) ''Translating Literature: The German Tradition from Luther to Rosenzweig'', Assen & Amsterdam: Van Gorcum, 66-89. [Translation of Schleiermacher 1838/1963].

*Schulte, Rainer & Biguenet, John. (1992). ''Theories of Translation''. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

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*Sun Zhili 孙致礼. (2002). 中国的文学翻译：从归化趋向异化 [Literary Translation in China: From Domestication to Foreignization]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal (01) 40-44.

*Hanks, Patrick.(ed.). (2001). ''The New Oxford Dictionary of English''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

*Dictionary Editorial Office, Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 中国社会科学院语言研究所词典编辑室. (2002). ''现代汉语词典'' [Modern Chinese Dictionary]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.

*Qiu Nengsheng, Qiu Xiaoqin 邱能生, 邱晓琴. (2019). 文化差异背景下英汉习语翻译的异化和归化处理探微 [Foreignization vs. Domestication in Cross-cultural Idiom Translation]. ''上海翻译'' Shanghai Journal of Translators (01) 51-56.

*Qiu Jixin 裘姬新. (2002). 论习语翻译中的异化与归化 [On Foreignization and Domestication in the Translation of Idioms]. ''语言与翻译'' Language and Translation (02) 42-45.

*Zhang Ning 张宁. (1999). 英汉习语的文化差异及翻译 [Cultural differences and Translations between English and Chinese idioms]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal (03) 03-05.

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= '''Title Translation''' =

==A Study on the Translation of Movie Titles 陈惠 Chen Hui==
陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592 专业：英美文学--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 03:52, 15 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui
<center>陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592 专业：英美文学</center>--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 19:00, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

===Abstract===
Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. The title is an important factor in a movie's appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements.

This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the features and functions of film title translation, put forward the criteria and principles of film title translation, and briefly discuss the strategies of film title translation.

===Key words===
Features of film titles. Translation criteria, translation principles, translation strategies.

===摘要===
电影是一门集视觉和听觉为一体的综合性艺术，为文化的跨国传播和融合做出了巨大的贡献。电影标题正是电影吸引大众眼球的重要因素。因此电影标题的翻译就显得至关重要。其译文既需贴合电影内容又要跨越文化差异，并且有严格的字数控制，难以像文学作品翻译那样相对自由，要求极高。本文将分析目前电影名翻译的现状，试图总结电影片名的特点和功能，提出电影片名翻译的标准及原则并浅谈电影标题翻译的策略。

===关键词===
电影片名特点，翻译标准，翻译原则，翻译策略。
===Chapter 1 Introduction===
As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. The translated names of films reflect different ways of dealing with foreign cultures and convey different cultural values. This paper released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area's English movie, for example, from the political system, economic environment and language habits, this paper analyzes the reasons of different film title translation, points out that the different cultural values, dubbing staff of different translation strategies.

As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. On the basis of English movie released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area, this paper analyzes the requirements and criteria of different translation in film title, such as the political system, economic environment and language habits; and strives to trace the source back to the different cultural values, as well as different translation strategies practiced by dubbing staffs.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 03:33, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

And in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences should be important factors should be taken into consideration when the translation practice.
With the increasingly close cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, English films, as an important cultural form, have gradually entered the Stage of Chinese films, which inevitably involves English-Chinese translation. In English-Chinese film translation, film title translation plays a very important role.

And in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences would definitely be a key factor that should be taken into consideration in occasion of the translation practice.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 03:33, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

Han Su said that “A good title translation can not only add to the film, but also help Chinese and Western films to go out and bring in better, and promote cultural exchanges and communication.” (Han,2018,P95).In order to translate high-quality film titles into Chinese, it is necessary to have an accurate understanding of the characteristics, translation principles and translation strategies of film titles.

Han Su said that “Good title translation can not only make the film more attractive, but also help Chinese and Western films to go out and bring in better, and promote cultural exchanges and communication.”--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 03:33, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

===Chapter2 Movie: A kind of Art===

====2.1 The Introduction of Movie====
Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. Yang Shu said that :“Different from other art categories, film is an emerging art form formed with modern technology and has its own ontological characteristics.”(Yang Shu, 2017, P78)).The title of the film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences.

The title of film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. It should not only fit the film content but also be fully aware of cross cultural differences.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 03:49, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the characteristics of film title translation and the principle of film title translation, and to talk about the strategies of film title translation. Film, a continuous image developed by the combination of mobile photography and slide show, is a visual and auditory modern art, but also a complex of modern technology and art that can accommodate drama, photography, painting, music, dance, writing, sculpture, architecture and other arts.

Moreover, one basic principle of film title is strict word count control,which is actually a high requirement and makes it difficult to translate,though with relative freedom.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 03:49, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

Cinema is a visual art that simulates the experience of communicating ideas, stories, perceptions, sensations, beauty, or atmosphere through recorded or programmed moving images and other sensory stimuli. The term cinematography is short for cinematography, usually used to refer to film-making and the film industry, as well as the art form that emerges from it. Films are cultural relics created by a particular culture. They reflect these cultures and influence them. Film is regarded as an important art form, a source of popular entertainment and a powerful medium for educating citizens.

The visual basis of a film gives it universal power of transmission. The film has its own characteristics. In terms of artistic expression, it not only has the characteristics of all kinds of other arts, but also has the means of expression beyond all other arts because it can use the artistic montage of the film grouping skills. With the development of modern society, movies have penetrated into every aspect of human social life and become an indispensable part of People's Daily life. Film is an art whose time and course of growth are known by human beings.

It is a media with rapid development and great influence since the 20th century. It is also a creative industry integrating politics, economy and culture. Since the end of the 19th century, France, the United States and other parts of the film inventors have invented can mimic a person's eyes and ears of photoacoustic records and reduction technology and machine, the film technology, from the birth, were entrepreneurs become film business, by politicians become ideology, by artists become film art, researchers developed into film theory.

The history of a film is also the history of filmmakers exploring the laws of film. Film is a kind of modern art which uses modern scientific and technological achievements as tools and materials, and uses the means of expression to create visual images and the combination of shots. In the space and time of the screen, it shapes the specific images that are moving, sound and painting combined, and lifelike, to reflect social life.

The film can accurately "restore" the real world, "show" the virtual world, giving people a sense of authenticity, a sense of intimacy, just like being on the scene. This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience life in a broader and more real way. Movies can be divided into action movies, fantasy movies, comedy movies, horror movies, science fiction movies and so on.

Film can somehow reflect on the real world, as well as creating a virtual world,giving people a sense of authenticity and intimacy and immersion.This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience different kinds of life in a broader and more effective way. In terms of classification,movie can be divided into action movie, fantasy movie, comedy movie, horror movie, science fiction movie and so on.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 03:49, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.2 Features of English Film Title====
On the one hand, a film title is an art form, reflecting the literary value of a film; on the other hand, it is linked with the box office, reflecting the commercial value of a film. Therefore, a film title directly affects the success of a film. English movie titles have the following characteristics.

(1) The title is easy to understand and arouses the audience's interest. This is contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles. Some Chinese movie names are not introduced by media, which makes it difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as The Promise and Infernal Affairs. Movie titles in English are often simple, but they have a profound effect on the audience's enthusiasm. For example, True Lies, the movie's title tells you that the movie is about a lie, but what kind of a lie is a "True lie"? When the audience sees the name of the movie, they will first have such doubts in their minds, and then watch the movie with doubts and curiosity. There are plenty of similar movies, such as Back to the Future.

(1) The title is easy to understand so that can arouse the audience's interest. But this may be contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles in our commonsense.Some Chinese movie names are not illustrated by the media, which makes them difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as 《承诺》 and 《无间道》.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:07, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

(2) The title contains slang to enhance the appeal of the film.The title of the film incorporates slang, on the one hand, to make the audience feel friendly, on the other hand, to achieve the desired ironic effect of the film. One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest, and at that very moment, the Cuckoo's Nest Flew very slowly. "Slumdog," for example, is a slur for someone who lives in a Slumdog. The other way around is to be sarcastic. The other way around is to be sarcastic.

(3)The title of the film is named after the name, which is clear at a glance.Names of people, places, objects and places often appear in the titles of European and American films, such as Pearl Harbor. As long as you have some historical knowledge, it is not difficult to know the content of the film, which is obviously related to the Pearl Harbor incident during the Second World War. In addition, there are also Casablanca, Roman Holiday, Waterloo Bridge(Waterloo Bridge) and other famous films with place names as film titles.

(3)The title of the film is named after a name, which is clear at a glance.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:07, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

People like Forrest Gump, which is clearly the main story in the film, but also Emma, Jane Eyre, etc. It's about a Perfume genius who's obsessed with Perfume and becomes a psychopath. It's also about The Piano and The Net. In addition, there are one case, is to add in the title of the character (place or items) characteristics. For example, Edward Scissorhands, Schindler's List, The Mask of Zorro, etc.

(4) The title contains numbers to indicate the plot.Numbers appear frequently in English movies, and they are real rather than imaginary. In this kind of naming, the numbers in the title will appear in the play, either directly spoken by the characters, or the numbers-almand-or explained gradually through the plot. This may be related to the fact that westerners pay more attention to objectivity and practicality, and think more straight lines. The famous film with numbers included in the title has Seven Deadly Sins(" Seven Sins ").

According to the title, it can be associated with the Seven Deadly Sins of the Bishop. The mysterious serial murders in the film are one of these Seven Sins, so the title gives a good hint to the audience. Eleven tells the story of Eleven skilled dodgers.Heart completes a breathtaking mission story; Six Days and Seven Nights a man crashes in a plane and lands on a desert island for Six Days and Seven Nights. In addition, there are also Twelve Angry Men, The Six Sense, Eight Legged Freaks and so on.

These are the characteristics of British and American film titles, we can see that they value simplicity. Due to cultural differences, most Chinese film titles have deep meanings and reveal rich cultural heritage, such as Farewell My Concubine, A Thousand Miles Away, Curse of theGolden Flower and so on. Therefore, foreign films should attach importance to the translation of film titles in order to enter the Chinese market. How to arouse the resonance of Chinese audience's aesthetic appreciation requires the translator to pay attention to aesthetic factors in the translation of movie names.(Lin Wen, 2015)
……such as 《霸王别姬》,《千里之行》,《金花咒》and so on.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:07, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====
The British translation theorist Newmark believes that language has six functions: the function of expression, the function of information, the function of demanding, the function of beauty, the function of responding, and the function of meta-language. Among them, the first four are the main ones. The title of a film is a proper noun, which is the product of the screenwriter's careful conception. It can not only highly summarize the theme or content of the film, but also strongly stimulate the reader's desire to watch it. Therefore, it mainly has information function, imperative function and aesthetic function.

In film title translation, BaoHui south thinks "should not only conform to the language specification, but also full of artistic charm, as well as the content of the faithful to the original title, and to reflect the language characteristics of formerly, strive to achieve the art to create", wants be particular about "mass, popularization, colloquial and artistic quality", "to be able to have very good guide depending on and promotion effect". The author believes that the film title has five functions:
1) Suit the content of the original film, reflect the theme of the original film, help the audience better understand the original film, highlight the style of the original film.

2) Concise and comprehensive, easy to remember.

3) Set the emotional tone of the film, and infect the audience with strong lyric, thrilling or dramatic atmosphere.

4) It conforms to the language norms of Chinese and is suitable for the appreciation habits of Chinese audiences.

5) Attract audience and increase box office income.
Therefore, the theoretical support for film title translation is not the traditional translation theory centered on "faithfulness to the original author or the original text", but the unified equivalence with the original title in language, cultural information and functional characteristics.(Newmark,1958).

===Chapter3 Analysis on Movie Title Translation===

====3.1 Current Study of Movie Title Translation====
With the rapid development of China's society and the improvement of the openness of the country at all levels, more and more foreign films have entered China, giving Chinese audiences different visual and spiritual cultural feast. At times, however, the translation of movie titles has left audiences baffled. Due to the vast territory of China, the same English movies are sometimes translated differently under the cultural background of the mainland, Taiwan and the three places, making it difficult for people to judge the same movie from the name of the translated movie.

For example, Gone with the Wind is translated in Mainland China, while Gone with the Wind is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan. For example, in Cantonese, "slam-dunk" is called "Thun", while in Mandarin it is "slam-dunk". Therefore, the movie Space Jam has been translated into "Thun in Space" and "Slam-Dunk in the Air". Due to different pronunciations, the translation of movie names will also be different. For example, the classic film Titanic was translated into the Hong Kong version of "Titanic" and "Titanic", but the latter is better known.

For example,《飘》is translated in Mainland China, while《乱世佳人》is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan.
I think translation of titles in Chinese is no need to be written in English again, we can write in Chinese directly.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

Influence of commercial interests More and more films are driven by commercial investment. In order to win high box office, eye-catching words are often added to the title of the film in translation to make the audience shine. For example, in the film Leon, merchants translate it into Leon in order to pursue a better box office. In fact, it is also possible to translate it into Leon, but it lacks the thriller of the former, so it cannot better attract the audience. There's another movie, The Mask, for example. The Mainland version is The Mask, while The Taiwan version is The Modern Saint.

The former is more convincing and mysterious, and The translation is better.Random translation is quite common in Hong Kong. The so-called random translation refers to the translation of the name without the content of the film, imaginary, unrestrained, full of exaggerations, suspense, with only one purpose, is to attract audiences. For example, "Fair Came" was translated into Chinese by Hong Kong and translated into Chinese as "Fair game". The film tells the story of Kitty, who was originally a lawyer in miami-famous family firm, who woke up and suddenly became a target of Soviet spies, facing death threats all the time. It was hard to see how Kitty could be called a witch from beginning to end.

Hong Kong translations (1995) and mainland Chinese translations of "Shawshank Redemption". The story takes place at the beginning of 1947, banker Andy is wronged and imprisoned. Facing the unfair fate, Andy can show not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personal losses and silently construct his own future. It is not clear where 1995 came from in the Hong Kong translation, and the word "stimulus" does not match the content of the film. From the perspective of translation, translation has made big fear of translation standards, even the most basic of faithful to the original works and "letter" to the cause for the current more than a translation, the chaotic translation for the current situation.

In addition to our regional factors mentioned above, a local translation characteristics, the mass media have unshirkable responsibility. As a mass media, newspapers, magazines, films, radio and television do not pay attention to the use of standardized translation of the name, which leads to the further deterioration of the phenomenon of film translation one translation. In addition, in order to pursue business profits, translator and even from The film content, subjective themselves, exaggerated exaggerated, use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no bridge ", and "candle" two characters.

The tragic fate of The film, The heroine, consider translation of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", such as Hong Kong and Taiwan to Hemingway's masterpiece The Sun Also Rises "The Sun Also Rises" translation "concubine is chaoyang and zhao jun, and formerly known as and simply goes and The original content.(Song Yanlan, 2017)

====3.2 Standarding Movie Title Translation====

=====3.2.1 Ways to Standard=====
=====3.2.1 Ways to be Standard?=====--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:18, 21 December 2020 (UTC)
Facing the current situation of film title translation, how should we regulate the translation of film title? I think there are several ways to look at it. From the perspective of the translator, the translator should accurately grasp the original content, want to reaction and its creation and works reflect the major theme of background, this can help the translator vividly grasp accurately the original content, understand the formerly known as connotation, translation with the original content, to maximize the reappearance of formerly known as information, make the translation really play a guide role.

Such as film, A Walk in the Clouds, title literally "go" in the cloud, which describes A youth couple of vine flowers in the loving touching love story, also the garden it is translated into "to Walk through the Clouds,", reflects both the original meaning, and full of poetic, leave the audience with fragrant vineyard, fascinating intoxicating refreshing romantic breath. The translator should also be in accordance with the original, pay attention to the using a variety of translation method is flexible, should not only respect the formerly known as film, also considering the cultural differences, adopt the appropriate expression, proper free translation of some of the titles, appropriately express the original information, should not only to retain the original western style.

And to consider domestic audience's comprehension and language habits, considering the cultural differences. Some titles can be translated literally, simply and clearly to convey the information of original titles, such as Sindler's List translated into Schindler's List,Back to the Future translated into Back to the Future, etc. Some titles require free translation. For example, the novel Cone Wih the Wind is translated as "Gone with the Wind" with literal translation, but the film's translation of "Gone with the Wind" is more attractive.

"Troubled times" tells the background of the story, "Beautiful Woman" points out the heroine of the film, which -- the translated title vividly shows the heroine Scarlett's rough experience in the war years, which can fully attract the audience's attention. Waterloo Bridge, literal translation is "Waterloo Bridge", see the translation, the audience will first think of the battle of Waterloo, napoleon, but the film describes not smoke of the battlefield, but sad love story, the symbol of the combination of Chinese folk story "the blue Bridge", the translator skillfully as a "blue use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no Bridge", and "candle" two characters, the film highlighted the tragic fate of the heroine.(Yao Dongyu, 2016)

=====3.2.2 The Criteria for Movie Title Translation=====
As for the criteria of translation,Yan Fu, a famous modern translator, put forward the criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance". Letter “is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style, inside” is for the translation, and requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech, but on the elegant ", but there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept.

Faithfulness “is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style and inside.”Expressiveness is for the translation, and requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech. While in terms of elegance, there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept. --[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:22, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

As for the concept of effect, he pointed out that, after clarifying the effect of information on the receiver, it should be emphasized that it should include the full effect of information, namely the thorough understanding and feeling obtained by the receiver. Includes main spirit, concrete fact, artistic conception atmosphere three main elements. In the translation practice of the film title, Jin Ti said that because of different language changes are bound to cause changes in the language effect, so only from the effect of the translation, to determine whether the language is appropriate.

Taking this as the standard, the translated name should try to achieve the equivalence of spirit, fact and artistic conception in sound, shape and meaning, that is, the relationship between the recipient and the translated message should be basically the same as that between the recipient and the original message "(Nida, CF King: 1998).

====3.3 The Principles of Movie Title Translation====
Although the translation of film titles has its particularity, it is not distinct from the translation of other genres, but has something in common. In terms of its translation process and results, the author believes that it should be mainly reflected in the following two principles :1. Principle of Economic Benefit Liu Miqing (1999,P.49) pointed out that since the content contained in the original language is worthy of translation (i.e., it has social benefits), the conversion should be realized by the target language that is acceptable to the society, instead of being restricted by the readability of the original language.

It is also said that social benefits are the yardstick by which the meaning of translation, the quality of translation and the value of translation are tested "(1999,P.48). He puts forward three principles, among which the readability principle of the target language plays a guiding role in title translation. When the readability of the source language is very good, it can convert all the formal meaning and stylistic meaning of the source language into the target language correspondingly...". In Hong Kong, for example, Sound of Music has been translated as "floating in the sky" and in Taiwan as "truth, goodness and beauty", which leaves the audience puzzled.

Since then, the film has been widely accepted as "the sound of music" by Chinese mainland translators. 2. Principles of Cultural Characteristics Translation with cultural characteristics is considered to be one of the most difficult to translate. "As for culture-specific", translation theorist Baker(2000, p.64) said that the words of the target language may express a concept that is completely unknown to the culture of the target language, which may be abstract or concrete and may be related to religious beliefs, social customs or even certain things.

Since then, the film has been widely accepted as 《音乐之声》 by Chinese mainland translators.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:27, 21 December 2020 (UTC)same that if Chinese names can be written in Chinese, it is more appropriate.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:27, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

This shows the difficulty of cultural translation. The film is the director's reflection of the real or virtual life, and the title that reflects the content of the film also naturally contains many cultural factors, making it difficult to translate. There are various ways to embody cultural connotation, such as cultural words and idioms. "First Blood” for example, is an idiom meaning "first to win a battle", but always translated as "the first drop of blood".

===Chapter4 Ways of Movie Title Translation===

====4.1 Literal Translation====
literal translation - simple and clear, to the literal translation is carried out in accordance with the literal meaning to translation, translation is not to add or increase or decrease, achieve unity, so as to convey sincerity buy primitive thoughts, reflects the primitive expression of the style of work, even done very well, otherwise the translation will lose the essence of the original. Nowadays, more and more audiences like original films. Excellent film translations retain their own unique labels while promoting films. Although there is no gorgeous translation of words, they are insipid yet mysterious.

For example, a film about psychology, Beautiful Mind, which the translator translated directly into "A Beautiful Mind", without adding any other elements, makes people have a calm and mysterious feeling towards this film. There is also a film about the Sniper in Iraq war, American Sniper, which the translator directly translated into American Sniper. When people see the title, they can clearly know what subject this film is about. There is no gorgeous language, but it goes straight to the theme without losing the original meaning.(Zhou Baoxue, 2013)

====4.2 Free Translation====
Free translation -- in a similar situation, free translation with cultural characteristics is translated in accordance with the general idea of the original text, instead of word for word translation, which can be applied in the context of huge cultural differences between the original language and the target language. There is a classic work by Nicolas Cage called "Face Off". Some translators have translated it into "Face Off" or "Face Off". Both translations are free translation, not literal translation. The advantage of this is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film.

When English films encounter Chinese culture, they need to be adjusted appropriately, so that the film name can quickly enter people's lives and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme and with local cultural characteristics. Such as a movie starring Tom Hanks was called Catch Me If You Can, translation version did not directly translated into "If You Can Catch Me, but according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features translated into" cat and mouse game "or" free ", the two translation versions are make good use of the four words idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, let the people You'll never forget.(Yang Huhong, 2006)

There is a classic work starring by Nicolas Cage called "Face Off". Some translators have translated it into 《变脸》 or 《夺面双雄》. Both are free translations, not literal ones.The advantage is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film.

so that the film name can quickly enter people's minds and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme with local cultural characteristics.For example,the translation title of a movie starring by Tom Hanks,called Catch Me If You Can,was not directly translated into 《如果你能抓住我，but translated into《猫鼠游戏》or《逍遥法外》，according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features.The two translation versions both make good use of the four words Chinese idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, leaving people never forget.(Yang Huhong, 2006)--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 19:34, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

====4.3 Transliteration====
Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into Milk. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films.(He Ying, 2001)

Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into ''米尔克''. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films.(He Ying, 2001)--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 19:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

====4.4 Amplification and Omission====
Amplification and provincial translation -- to highlight the features of the film and keep close to the theme, amplification or provincial translation refers to adding or reducing the corresponding information on the original basis to achieve the function of better information transmission, so as to make the name of the film more representative and play the role of advertising.

So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. There's also How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into how to tame your dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.(Jin Ti, 1997)
So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. Another movie is named How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into How to Tame Your Dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.(Jin Ti, 1997)--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 19:12, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

====4.5 Naturalization====
Domestication method is adopted in the translation of English film titles to avoid literal translation, which would make the Chinese translation of film titles impossible for Chinese audiences to understand the theme and cultural connotation of the film. This translation strategy aims to make the translated title conform to the cultural psychology and aesthetic standards of Chinese audiences, adapt to the difficulty of public understanding, give the audience an intuitive and preliminary understanding of the film content, and stimulate their interest in watching the film.

Cleopatra Cleopatra was the last queen of the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt, one of the first sovereigns of Alexander the Great after his conquest of Egypt. Legend has it that Cleopatra was beautiful and intelligent. She was close to Caesar and Antony, politically adept, involved in the politics of the end of the Roman Republic, ambitious, and a legendary Egyptian queen. There is no doubt that Cleopatra was a central figure in ancient Egypt, and her anecdotes about Her relationships with Caesar and Antony made her a famous figure in literature and art. This is the story of Cleopatra, the 52-year-old Caesar who came to Egypt as a Roman governor to settle a royal contest between Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic dynasty, and her half brother Ptolemy XIII.

Cleopatra quickly conquered Caesar with her charm of courage and political skill, gaining control not only of the Ptolemies in Egypt, but of Rome as well. The son of Cleopatra and Caesar was made heir, but Antony and Octavian were not satisfied. After Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the REINS of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra. If the title of the English movie is literally translated into Chinese as Cleopatra, Chinese audiences who are not familiar with Egyptian history will lose interest in watching it. Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate Cleopatra to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest, and at the same time, the audience can understand the theme of the film more intuitively, so as to achieve the purpose of promoting the cultural transmission.(Wu Shuang, 2005)

After Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the territory and throne of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra.If the title of the English movie is literally translated into Chinese as《克娄巴特拉》……Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate it as 《埃及艳后》to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 19:41, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

====4.6 Foreignization====
In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the original titles, bring the audience into the English language and culture, let the audience experience an unprecedented exotic amorous feelings, and maximize the dissemination of English language and culture. Zeng Qinyu thought domestication and foreignization can be regarded as the extension of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent to literal translation and free translation.

The Hollywood film Titanic tells the touching love story between rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter, when the luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg and sank. On April 15, 1912,Titanic set sail from Southampton, England, carrying more than 1,000 passengers and more than 800 crew members, bound for New York. But unfortunately it collided with an iceberg and sank. When the wreck was found on the bottom of the sea in 1985, there was a portrait of a teenage girl on the cabin wall, and Rose, who was 102 at the time, claimed to be the girl. The original Rose because her fiance Carl is a snob and do not want to marry him, when ready to throw himself into the sea, was Bohemian poor painter Jack save.

Rose fell in love with jack, a cheerful character. As a witness of love, Jack drew a portrait for Rose. Not long after that, the ship hit an iceberg and began to sink. In the critical moment of life and death, Jack left the chance of life to Rose, he was frozen to death in the cold sea. In the translation of the film title, alienation strategy was adopted, literally translated as Titanic. This translation strategy was consistent with the understanding and acceptance level of Chinese audiences, loyal to the social and cultural life of English-speaking countries, and retained the form and content of the original English title to the greatest extent.(Zeng Qinyu，2020)

In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression traditions and cultural characteristics of the original titles, so as to bring the audience into the English language and culture,and give the audience an unprecedented exotic amorous experience.……Zeng Qinyu thought domestication and foreignization can be regarded as the extension of,but not completely equivalent to literal translation and free translation.
The Hollywood film Titanic tells a touching love story between Rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter happened on the sunk luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 19:50, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

===Chapter5 Conclusion===
Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also have rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills. The title translation is not a simple and mechanical arrangement. It needs to consider the similarities and differences between Eastern and Western cultures and the acceptability of translation according to the content of the film, so that it not only conveys the message of the film, but also is full of beauty.

Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also require rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills. --[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 19:53, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Therefore, translators should not only be familiar with the ways of language expression and conversion, but also have a profound cultural awareness. On the basis of in-depth understanding of the cultural information conveyed by the title, translators should understand the content and style of the film, try to understand the wording and try to accurately grasp the surface meaning and associative meaning of the source language and the target language. "I was a standup, I was at the tenth month of October", I translated the title of the film with a rigorous attitude, and only by carving and chiselling can I achieve a classic translation that enjoys universal popularity.(Yang Shu, 2017)

===References===
[1]Eugene A. Nida. Toward a Science of Translating. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.

[2]Jin Ti. Equivalent Translation Exploration. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1997.

[3]Han Su. Comparison between English and Chinese Version in Film Title Translation. Journal of Chifeng University.2019(03):101-103

[4]He Ying. Theory and method of Film Title Translation. Foreign language Teaching, 2001 ,(01):56-60.

[5]Lin Wen. Cultural Identity and Translation of English Film Titles. Guizhou Normal University,2016.

[6]Liu Miqing. Contemporary Translation Theory. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1999.

[7]Lu Hui. Brief analysis of English Film Title Translation. Huashang. 2008(06):68.

[8]Song Yanlan. Common Chinese Cultural Factors in English Film Title Translation -- Take 50 films for example. Liberal arts navigation. 2017(04):22-24.

[9]Yao Dongyu. Journal of Liao Ning Institute of Science and Technology,2016.

[10]Yang Hu Hong. On several Translation Methods of Film Title Translation. Anhui Literature, 2006.

[11]Yang Shu. Narrative Studies of Mainland Chinese Films Since the New Era. Shandong Normal University. 2017.

[12]Zen Qingyu. A Brief analysis of domestication and Foreignization of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Guide. 2020(05):25-26.

[13]Zhou Baoxue. A Brief Analysis of the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Literature Review. 2013(08):149-150.

== A Study on Movie Titles Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing Student No.202070080601 英语笔译 ==

<center>罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing No.202070080601</center>

==='''Abstract'''===

With the continuous advancement of globalization, more and more foreign films are introduced into China continuously. China's film market is huge and Watching films has become a popular way of entertainment for Chinese. Various kinds of films emerge in endlessly so that film titles are particularly important. The film title is the eye of the film, the highlight and essence of a film. A good film title can successfully attract people's attention, stimulate the desire to watch, and bring them into the cinema, which is the purpose of English film title translation. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this paper will analyze the characteristics and functions of film titles, all kinds of existing translations, and puts forward some translation methods of English film titles, hoping to be helpful to the translation of film title translation.

==='''Key words'''===

English film title translation; Skopos Theory; translation methods

==='''摘要'''===

随着全球化进程的不断推进，越来越多的外国电影源源不断地涌入中国，中国电影市场巨大，看电影已成为一种广受欢迎的娱乐消遣方式，各种电影层出不穷，因此电影片名就显得尤为的重要。电影片名是电影的眼睛，是一部电影的亮点与精华所在。一个好的电影名可以成功吸引人的眼球，激发大众观看欲望，将大众带入电影院。而英语电影片名的翻译目的就在此。本文主要将从目的论的视角出发，分析电影片名的特点与作用，对各种现有译名的进行分析，就此提出一些英文电影片名的翻译方法，希望能对电影片名的翻译工作有所帮助。

==='''关键词'''===

英语电影片名翻译；目的论; 翻译方法

==='''Chapter1 Introduction'''===

A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxed way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. （Ma Yuanyuan，2010,1-5)

With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges because different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. （Ma Yuanyuan，2010,1-5)

Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It is not good enough to accurately summarize the contents of the film to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. （Ma Yuanyuan 2010,1-5）

This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. The Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. （Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）

The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.（Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）

This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis. Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres, features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principles. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.

==='''Chapter2 A General Introduction of English Film Title'''===

====2.1 Film Genres ====

According to He Ying in her article "Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation", films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film, and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses image and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. (He Ying 2001, 57)

Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genre of action and war，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. (Tim Dirks,2003,3.19)

====2.2 Features of English Film Title====

===== 2.2.1 Linguistic Features=====

Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and the translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four-character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.(Tang Su, 2015,(05)128-129)

The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）

=====2.2.2 Aesthetic Features =====

In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. Film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. (Ma Yuanyuan,16-17)

Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline Dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word "fireworks" is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)

=====2.2.3 Commercial Features=====

Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aimed to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. (Ma Yuanyuan,16-17)

For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy Story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public have already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)

====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====

=====2.3.1 Informative Function =====

The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess. It is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless. To enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories. In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. (Newmark 2001, 40)

A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same terminus, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. (Ma Yuanyuan,16)

The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. (Film title and its translation, Douban Movie website)

Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are aware that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle.(Ma Yuanyuan,16)

=====2.3.2 Aesthetic Function=====

Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation. Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience. (Ding Jin,2008,9)

Take ''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》for examle, this film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, and the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw Miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created melancholy atmosphere. (The plot of this movie)

What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound. In addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)

=====2.3.3 Vocative Function =====

A film title can show the audience the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, "the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee" (Newmark 2001, 41).

According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)

Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)

==='''Chapter3 A General Introduction of Skopos Theory'''===

====3.1 The Development of Skopos Theory====

Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. "Skopos" means " purpose "or " goal " in Greek. "The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation ." The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one. The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages. (Munday 2016, 73)

Firstly,in the book “ Possibility and Limitations in Translation Criticism” , Katherine Rice first proposed functional translation theory. She believes that translators should put functional features first rather than information equivalence. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)

Secondly, Hans Vermeer, a student of Reiss, broke away from the equivalence-based theories and set up the theoretical framework for "Functional School": Skopos Theory. situation". In the framework of Vermeer's theory, every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means “ to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” (Vermeer 1987, 29).

Thirdly, on the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed the functional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ”“ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place". Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose.(Nord1991, 12-13).

Fourthly，Christina Nord summed up and perfected the theory of functionalism. She systematically expounds in English the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation and how to formulate translation strategies suitable for translation purposes on the basis of the functions of the original text. Christina Nord sorts out the functionalist theories and proposes that translators should follow the guiding principle of “ Function Plus Loyalty ” , thus perfecting the theory.(Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)

=====3.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory=====

The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “ skopos rule”, what Reiss and Vermeer described as “ the end justifies the means ” (Reiss &Vermeer1984, 101). There are three possible kinds of purposes in the field of translation: (1) the translator's general purpose in the translation process (perhaps to earn a living); (2) the communicative purpose aimed at by the target text in the target situation (perhaps to instruct the reader); (3) the purpose aimed at by a particular translation strategy or procedure (for example, to translate literally in order to show the structural particularities of the source language). (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)

The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function. (Nord 2001, 29)

Another important rule of Skopos Theory is the coherence rule, which means that "a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers situation". Focusing on the target readership and target culture, functionalists regard intra-textual coherence than inter-textual coherence, just as Nord put it, "inter-textual coherence is considered subordinate to intra-textual coherence, and both are subordinated to the skopos rule. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)

The third rule of Skopos Theory is fidelity rule. Fidelity rule means that there should be inter -textual coherence between the original text and the target text. This is equivalent to the so-called faithfulness to the original text in other translation theories, but the degree and form of faithfulness to the original text depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original text. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)

=====3.3 Function Plus Loyalty=====

As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction to the change of source text. (Ding Jin,29）

In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why."(Nord 2001, 125)

Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients. All in all, this theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids soure-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,Skopos Theory)

====Chapter4 The Application of Skopos Theory in Film Title Translation====

=====4.1 Skopos Theory's Guiding Role in English Film Title Translation=====

A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena. Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. （Zheng Yuqi & Wang Xiaodong，2006）

Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation. Of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi & Wang Xiaodong，2006）

For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. （Ding Jin,36）

Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film. If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,翻译目的论)

Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film ''Thelma and Louise'', Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)

Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)

Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)

There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast & Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. (Ding Jin,16)

====4.2 Methods for Film Title Translation====

=====4.2.1Transliteration=====

Transliteration means to seek phonetic correspondence in terms of the translation to describe the English syllables through the corresponding Chinese characters carrying similar sounds. It relates to the conversion of different alphabets in different language system. Transliteration is usually applied this situations, when they are the name of persons and places and historical events. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)

This method is often adopted in the film title translation because it has the obviously features in keeping the phonetic fluency of original film titles which express its strong exoticism, which can arouse the audience's curiosity to see the film. With the development of global communication, people become more and more interested in knowing other country’s culture, this method is becoming increasingly popular. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)

For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)

=====4.2.2 Literal Translation =====

Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text. The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original. The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. （Nord 2004, 36)

In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation. For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. (He Ying,59)

Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》. To make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese.(He Ying,59)

What’s more, sometimes, the article like "a, or, the" will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》. (He Ying,59)

=====4.2.3 Liberal Translation=====

Any translator with common sense of translation will not expect to find equivalent expressions in the target language all the time. Given this, translators may often adopt free translation. Free translation is an alternative approach that is used mainly to convey the meaning and the spirit of the original title without sticking to the form. (Feng qinhua2000, 36-44)

Liberal translation preserve the content of the original title as much as possible at the cost of changing the form of the film title. In the specific operation, translators often use some techniques, such as addition, conversion and extension in particular so as to deeply convey the content of the original film and enhance the appeal of the title.（He Ying 2001, 57）

A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)

A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====4.2.4 Combination of Transliteration and Literal Translation=====
In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)

In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====4.2.5 Combination of Literal Translation and Liberal Translation=====
The combination of literal translation and liberal translation can be faithful to the original text to the greatest extent and attract the audience. Due to various reasons, the original titles of some English films only realize the information function of translated titles. In order to realize the various functions of translation, the translator sometimes retains the reasonable part of the original name, and then combines the need of the audience to complete the relevant information as far as possible. (He Aixiang2020, 103-107)

There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)

There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====4.2.6 Re-creative Translation=====
As mentioned above, re-creative translation is the last resort so far as the translation of English film titles is concerned. Sometimes, some titles are obscure and neither nor fowl after translation while others are very ordinary without attraction and this method aims not only transferring the informative value, but also reproducing the aesthetic and appellative value of the film. (Ma Yuanyuan 2010, 28-29)

The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)

The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''Chapter5 Conclusion'''===
This paper studies the translation of film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory. Firstly, it analyzes the genres of films, the characteristics and functions of film titles translation. Secondly, it mainly introduces the development and rules of Skopos Theory. Finally, it analyzes the translation of film names under the Skopos Theory and puts forward some translation methods of film titles. Skopos Theory holds that the skopos rule is the primary rule, therefore, when translating film titles, translators have more initiative and they can use more diversified methods, which makes the film titles more commercial. However, there are still many shortcomings in this paper. For example, when analyzing the characteristics and functions of film titles, the aspect of cultural exchange is not taken into account. In the final translation method part, the summary is not in place, and the proposed method is not novel enough. I hope that in the further study, I can put forward a more applicable model of film title translation, and the last point is the lack of film data, the main purpose of film title translation is to attract more audience to buy tickets. If I can analyze the data of box office well, I can further evaluate whether the purpose of film title translation has been achieved. This paper is only limited to the author's understanding of the translation, thus some conclusions and analysis are still not profound enough. The author hopes that there will be more research results in the future, which can provide more abundant theories and methods to guide the translation of film titles.

==='''References'''===
He Yuan贺莺. (2001) 电影片名的翻译理论和方法 [Theories and Methods of Film Title Translation].外语教学 Foreign Language Education (01) 56-60.

*Tim, Dirks.(2003) [Main Film Genres]. https://www.filmsite.org/genres.html

*Tang Su（2012）.电影译名的汉语四字格现象探析[An Analysis of Chinese Four Character Case in Film Title Translation].英语广场：学术研究 English Corner(Academic Research)

*Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科金蝉脱壳 https://baike.baidu.com/item/金蝉脱壳/83303?fr=aladdin

*Newmark, Peter. (2001). [A Textbook of Translation]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 41-44.

*Wei Jianhua韦建华. (2008). 英语电影片名翻译原则与方法探讨[On the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation].电影文学 Movie Literature, (03) 121-122.

*Ma Yuanyuan马媛媛. (2010). 翻译目的论视角下的英文电影片名的汉译 [Translation of English Film Titles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. 黑龙江大学 Heilongjiang University ,2-29.

*Ding Jiin 丁进.(2008)英语电影片名的翻译[Translation of English Film Title].山东大学 Shangdong University, 9-50.

*Munday, Jeremy .(2016). [Introducing Translation Studies:Theories and Application]. London and New York: Routledge 73.

*Vermeer, H. J.(1987). [What Does It Mean to Translate?]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 13 (2) 25-33.

*Nord, C. (1991). [Translation as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained] .Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 12-36 & 129.

*Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科翻译目的论https://baike.baidu.com/item/翻译目的论

*Reiss, K. & Hans J. Vermeer, H. (1984). [Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation].Tubingen: Niemeyer 101.

*Zheng Yunqi & WangXiaodong. 郑玉琪,王晓冬. (2006) 小议电影片名的英汉翻译原则[On the English-Chinese Translation of Movie Titles].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal, 27(02) 66-68.

*Feng Qinghua冯庆华. (2000). 实用翻译教程[A Practical Course Book on Translation].上海译文出版社 Shanghai Translation Press.

*He Aixiang何爱香. ( 2020). 中国电影片名的新修辞翻译策略探究[Translation Strategies for Chinese Movie Titles --A Rhetoric Perspective]江南大学学报(人文社会版) Journal of Jiannan University (Humanities&Social Sciences), 19(02) 103-107.

*Douban Movie website 豆瓣电影网 https://movie.douban.com/

==The Study of Brand Name Translation 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie==
<center>谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，202020080641.</center>

===Abstract===
With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention and evoke their desire to buy the products, is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this paper introduces the definition and functions of brand names, states the principles of the brand names translation, offers the available and useful methods for the translation of brand names.

With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention and evoke their desire to buy the products which is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this chapter introduces the definition and functions of brand names, states the principles of their translation, offers the available and useful methods for their translation.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===key words===
Brand name translation; Principle; Methods

===商标翻译研究===

===摘要===
随着经济全球化进程的加快，越来越多的企业活跃在全球市场中。商标翻译在国际贸易中起着举足轻重的作用。一个好的译名是吸引顾客注意，并唤起他们购买商品欲望的直接因素，对商品的销售量有着极其重要的影响。本文结合许多令人信服的例子，介绍商标的定义和功能，阐述商标翻译的原则，提供有用的商标翻译方法。

===关键字===
商标翻译；原则；方法

===1. Introduction===
In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”, A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity, and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)

In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”. A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time, brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application.

The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In this paper, first part is introduction of this paper. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and brand name translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, "Three Principles of Beauty"). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this paper is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research.

First part is the introduction of this chapter. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and its translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles of brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, "Three Principles of Beauty"). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this chapter is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====1.1 Brand and Its Name====
According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “the brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods. (Jing Yang 2018,1)

According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “The brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods.(Jing Yang 2018,1) --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008: 4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty and various branding strategies.” Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)

Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008 4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty and various branding strategies.” Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====1.2 Brand Name Translation====
With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products to enter the Chinese market and got the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market.

With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products enter the Chinese market and
have gotten the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)
To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from Source Language to Target Language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.

To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from source language to target language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===2. The Principles of Brand Name Translation===
The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods. Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language, it should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, In order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. (Fade Wang 2012,3)

The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods. Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language. It should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, in order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. (Fade Wang 2012,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.1 The Principle of Following the Target Customers' Culture====
In China people pursues auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as "金", "美", "福" and "佳 ". In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特). (Liu Haiyan 2013,11)

In China people pursue auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as "金", "美", "福" and "佳 ". In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特). (Liu Haiyan 2013,11)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters "dragon", "phoenix", "magpie", "petrel" and so on, because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, Petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouse terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means "someone who chatters", petrel is the symbol of disaster. (Liu Haiyan 2020,4)

Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters "dragon", "phoenix", "magpie", "petrel" and so on, because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouses terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means "someone who chatters", petrel is the symbol of disaster. (Liu Haiyan 2020,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs, and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)

People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.2 The Principle of Using Concise Words====
As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember. Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. (Feng Wang 2012,3).

As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember. Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. (Feng Wang 2012,3).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders, William Hewlett and David Packard. "Hewlett packard" was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”, but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —"马尔波罗"—"万宝路"、Mercedes-Benz (car) —"默赛德斯·本茨"—"奔驰". The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to. The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese. (Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng 2018,2); (Zhang Lulu 2011,2)

For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders William Hewlett and David Packard. "Hewlett-packard" was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”, but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —"马尔波罗"—"万宝路"、Mercedes-Benz (car) —"默赛德斯·本茨"—"奔驰". The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to. The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese. (Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng 2018,2); (Zhang Lulu 2011,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.3 The Principle of Grasping the Characteristics of Commodities====
Brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed.

A brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

For example: The toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder, William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain; while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia. Brand names implies regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand "维维豆奶" is translated as "Soybean", in which "Bean" refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)

For example: the toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain, while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia. Brand names implie regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand "维维豆奶" is translated as "Soybean", in which "Bean" refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, the two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang 2012,2).

Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang 2012,2).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.4 The Principle of Considering the Target Consumers’ Aesthetic Preference====
Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, "Lu Hua Nong" serves as a sound transcription of "Revlon", On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai "云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓", which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”, Since ancient times, a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and product characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: "桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家", which perfectly implies the good attributes of "home")(Victor Mair 2019);(Ogilvy Ao Mei 2017);(Liu Haiyan 2020,3); (Li Jianzi 2018).

Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, "Lu Hua Nong" serves as a sound transcription of "Revlon". On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai "云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓", which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”. Since ancient times a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and producting characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: "桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家", which perfectly implies the good attributes of "home")(Victor Mair 2019);(Ogilvy Ao Mei 2017);(Liu Haiyan 2020,3); (Li Jianzi 2018).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.5 “Three Principles of Beauty”====
Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the "Three Principles of Beauty" for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form. However, the standard also applies to brand name translation. (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru 2018,1)

Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the "Three Principles of Beauty" for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form. As far as I'm concerned, the standard also applies to brand name translation. (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru 2018,1)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.5.1 The Beauty in Sense=====
Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence. In the process of translation, the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods, so that consumers can understand the goods. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)

Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence. In the process of translation the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods so that consumers can understand the goods. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.5.2 Beauty in Sound=====
The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP"(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into an English brand, it is usually translated directly in pinyin. This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)

The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP"(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into English, it is usually translated directly in pinyin. This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.5.3 Beauty in Form=====
Brand name should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).

Brand names should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===3.The methods of brand name translation===

====3.1 Transliteration====
Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target language to translate the name of the product. Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)

Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target languages to translate the name of the product. Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lack of implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”, which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called "Quick", is translated to "Kuai Ke" in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease. The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only conveys the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), "Puma"(Biao Ma), "Parker"(Pai Ke), "Lincoln"（Lin Ken), "Canon" (Jia Neng). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly. (Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4); )(Jing Yang 2018,4)

Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lacks implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”, which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called "Quick" is translated to "Kuai Ke" in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease. The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only convey the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), "Puma"(Biao Ma), "Parker"(Pai Ke), "Lincoln"（Lin Ken), "Canon" (Jia Neng). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly. (Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4); )(Jing Yang 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means "spell" and yin means "sound". In Chinese pronunciation, transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”. The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. (Fade Wang 2012,3)

It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means "spell" and yin means "sound". In Chinese pronunciation transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”. The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. (Fade Wang 2012,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.2 Literal Translation====
The literal translation means that using the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and the function is equivalent. Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)

The literal translation means using that the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and its function is equivalent. Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand "Dynasty" as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently. The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China, it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness”. Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛”, all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Zhang Shu 2018,4)

A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand "Dynasty" as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently. The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness”. Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛”, all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Zhang Shu 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand is poor. Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation. (Zhang Jin 2019,2); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)

In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand are poor. Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation. (Zhang Jin 2019,2); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.3 Free translation====
When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, it is a best choice to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation”, namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)

When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, the best choice is to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation”, namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Here are some instances such as "Rejoice", its translation is "Piao Rou". Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo. So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect. The translation of many brand names named adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵). (Jing Yang 2018,5); (Jing Yang 2018, 4)

Here are some instances such as "Rejoice", its translation is "Piao Rou". Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo. So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect. The translation of many brand names adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵). (Jing Yang 2018,5); (Jing Yang 2018, 4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

However, owing to the different cultural system, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name.(Fade Wang 2012,4).

However, owing to the different cultural systems, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name.(Fade Wang 2012,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.4 Combinative Translation====
Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name.

Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have a nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

“Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it sure can give you nice flavor and pleasure. The "Goldlion" is translated into "Jin Li Lai", which is a good translation. As we all know, "lion" means "Shi Zi"" in Chinese, but the pronunciation of "Lion" is similar to the Chinese "Shi", and "Shi" means "Lose" in Chinese, then the businessmen will think "lose" unlucky. When it is translated as "Jin Li Lai", it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly. Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on. (Fade Wang 2012,4); (Jing Yang 2018,5)

“Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it surely can give you nice flavor and pleasure. The "Goldlion" is translated into "Jin Li Lai", which is a good translation. As we all know, "lion" means "Shi Zi"" in Chinese, but the pronunciation of "Lion" is similar to the Chinese "Shi", and "Shi" means "Lose" in Chinese, then the businessmen will think "lose" unlucky. When it is translated as "Jin Li Lai", it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly. Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on. (Fade Wang 2012,4); (Jing Yang 2018,5)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.5 Non-translation====
Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand name, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5).

Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand names, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the "999"medicines, "IBM" computers, "TCL" electronic products, "LG" Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on. Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leave the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. (Zhang Jin 2019,2)

On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the "999"medicines, "IBM" computers, "TCL" electronic products, "LG" Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on. Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leaves the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. (Zhang Jin 2019,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===4.Conclusion===
In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages.

In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

From this thesis, the following conclusions can be reached:

First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this paper. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and "Three Principles of Beauty", product sales will increase.

First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this chapter. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and "Three Principles of Beauty", product sales will increase.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Second, brand name translation can use the five methods: transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation.

Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. Brand name translation is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.

Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. It is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of translation cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===
[1]Chen Yang, Wang Xiufeng. Translation of Chinese-English Trademark Names and their Cultural Connotations [J]. Comparative Research on Cultural Innovation, 2012,2(17):68-70.

[2]Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru. Reappearance of "Three Beauty" in Trademark Translation and Analysis of Translation Methods [J]. Innovation and Entrepreneurship Theory Research and Practice, 2012,1(14):110-112.

[3]Fade Wang. An Approach to the Translation of Brand Names[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(9).

[4]Jing Yang. Study on Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Difference[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 International Conference on Arts, Linguistics, Literature and Humanities (ICALLH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.

[5]Liu Haiyan. Analysis of Chinese Translation Skills of English Trademark Names [J]. English Square (Academic Research),2013(09):8-11.

[6]Lu Wenchan. Studies on Chinese-English Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Communication[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 2nd International Conference on Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities (SSAH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.

[7]Wang Hengen. "Three Beauty" theory and Trademark Translation Analysis [J]. Success (Education),2009(03):274-275.

[8]Xuechuan He. The Study of Chinese-English Trademark Translation[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2018,8(5).

[9]Zhang Shu. Study on E-C translation of Brand names from the perspective of Skopos Theory[A]. Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 5th International Conference on Education,Management and Computing Technology(ICEMCT 2018)[C].Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:5.

[10]Zhang Jin. Principles and Methods of Translating Chinese and English Trademark Names [J]. Campus English,2019(10):225-226.

[11]Zhang Wenfei. Further Discussion on Trademark Translation Strategies under Sanmei theory [J]. Campus English,2020(30):249-250.

[12]Li Jianzi (2018.7.11). Chinese translated names are popular! "Make up for Ever" arouses hot discussion. https://www.cbo.cn/article/id/45823.html

[13]Ogilvy Ao Mei (2017.5.2). Why should a good copywriter earn $100,000 a month? Look at these awesome translations. https://m.digitaling.com/articles/36896.html

[14]Victor Mair (2019.10.19). "Revlon" in Chinese. https://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=44732

History of Translation Studies 4

2020-12-20T11:27:07Z

Zhou Luoping: /* Conclusion */

这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第四部分(Part 4)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。

学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。

*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].

=Theories=

==Passive and hypotaxis- Chinese Culture and EC translation 杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616==

<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616 </center>

===Abstract===

Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of translation of English passive voice.
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.

Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of the translation of English passive voice.
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translate English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Key Words===

parataxis, hypotaxis, passive voice

===题目===

被动与形合——以中国文化和英汉翻译为视角

===摘要===

本文在中英语言文化差异的背景和英文形合与中文意合的文化的背景下，讨论如何解决英文被动语态的翻译问题。
本文分为五个部分。第一部分是关于英语和汉语之间主要语言的差异。论文的第二部分关于被动语态。论文的第三部分关于形合与意合。第四部分是英译汉中被动语态的翻译方法。第五部分是结论。在汉语文化的语境中，翻译者可以以功能对等为指导，通过以下翻译方法来解决英语被动语态问题：可以将英语被动语态翻译为汉语被动句、汉语主动句、汉语判断句和汉语无主语句式。

===关键词===

意合，形合，被动语态

===1.Major Language Differences between English and Chinese===

English emphasizes on structure, while Chinese emphasizes on semantics. The famous Chinese linguist Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang li, 1984) For example:

SL Text 1: This will be particularly true since energy pinch will make it difficult to continue agriculture in the high-energy American fashion that makes it possible to combine few farmers with high yields.

TL Text 1: 这种困境将是确定无疑的，因为能源的匮乏，高能量消耗这种美国耕种方式将很难在农业中继续下去，而这种耕种方式使投入少数农民就可获得高产成为可能。

SL Text 1: The main structure of the sentence “This will be particularly true... since” leads the adverbial clause of reason. In this clause, an attributive clause guided by the relative pronoun that is embedded to modify "the high-energy American fashion". In the attributive clause, “that” is the subject, “makes” is the predicate, and “it” is the formal object. The infinitive phrase "to combine few farmers with high yields" is the real object.

SL Text 2: These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details were it not for the fact that theoretical understanding has reached the stage at which it is becoming possible to indicate the kind of measurements required for reliable weather forecasting.

TL Text 2: 理论上的认识已达到了这样一个阶段，即现在已能指出需要哪种测量方式才能可靠地预报天气。如果做不到这一点，那么上述这些新的观察能力只不过提供了一大堆细节而已。

The frame of the sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”.

The frame of this sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences.Since English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar, as long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence; Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa.(Cheng Hongzhen, 2003)

English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences. English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar. As long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence, while Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses clauses.English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. (Duan Manfu, 2006)

English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses short sentences. English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese.English not only has personal pronouns such as we, you, he, they, but also relative pronouns such as that and which. In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear semantics, and to avoid repetition in expression, English Many pronouns are often used. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. (Xu Jianping, 2003)

Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese. English not only has personal pronouns, such as "we", "you", "he", "they", but also relative pronouns, such as "that" and "which". In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear, and to avoid repetition in expression, many pronouns are often used in English. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in technical English. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. (Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong, 2004)

English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in scientific texts. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words.When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions. (Wang Jiayi, 2011)

English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words. When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts.The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into Chinese clauses. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, layer the meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. (Xu Shihong, 2006)

English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts. The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into short sentences in Chinese. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, the deep meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===2.Passive Sentences===

====2.1.The Usage and Reasons of Passive Sentences in English and Chinese====

The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)

The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and a non-subject-predicate subject ellipsis .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)

There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and an ellipsis of non-finite subject .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. In cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion, the passive voice expression method is generally used.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)

English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. The passive voice is generally used in the cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has a lot less subjective color than the active voice; Second, The passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, In many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)

The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has less subjective color than the active voice; Second, the passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, in many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or undesirable things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)

Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or negative things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Therefore, The number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)

Therefore, the number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.2.Various Forms of Passive Meaning in English====

(1)Passive voice
The passive voice is the most common form of expressing the passive meaning of English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)

(1)Passive voice
It usually uses the passive voice to express the passive meaning in English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice expression method is generally used in situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)

Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice is generally used in the situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Then, Passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)

Then, passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Second, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)

Secondly, the passive voice composed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Third, The passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to indicate the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)

Thirdly, the passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to express the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Fourth, The passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)

Fourthly, the passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Fifth, The active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)

Fifthly, the active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning
Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences".(Tang Guoping, Li Fei, 2003)

(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning
Some verbs in English are active in form, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.3.Comparison of Passive meaning in English and Chinese====

(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)

(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the sentence without subject in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)

(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equal to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)

(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically they are equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.4.The Passive Implicit of English Lexical Means====

The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, the use of verb morphological changes to express the passive voice (passivity) is a syntactic means. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way of expression. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb.(Liu Miqing, 2006)

The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, it is a syntactic means to express the passive voice (passivity) by means of verb morphological changes. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way to express. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so they have a conversion relationship. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added.(Liu Miqing, 2006)

The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so there is a conversion relationship between them. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. The use of passive sentences in modern Chinese has increased, and some positive colors have also appeared. But the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. (Liu Miqing, 2006)

However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. More and more passive sentences are used in modern Chinese, and some positive colors have also appeared. Unfortunately, the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.5.Pragmatic Analysis of English Passive Voice====

As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and is the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)

As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and it is also the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, and constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, sometimes the passive voice must be used to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)

The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, which constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, it is necessary to use the passive voice to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also subject to this criterion. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)

The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also restricted by this standard. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)

The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easy to be accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)

The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===3.Parataxis and Hypotaxis===

====3.1.English and Chinese Sentence Characteristics====

English uses form to drive its meaning and English takes form first. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, people categorize English sentence patterns into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. (Li Jingmin, 2012)

As it takes form first, English uses form to drive its meaning. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, English sentence patterns are divided into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences, compound sentences, compound sentences, and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. (Li Jingmin, 2012)

In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, in various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers are not very constrained on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. (Li Jingmin, 2012)

This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, which have various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers have less constraints on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities is not necessarily determined by their grammatical function, but can be determined by people.(Li Jingmin, 2012)

Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities does not necessarily depend on their grammatical functions, but can be determined by people. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group, but their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression.(Li Jingmin, 2012)

In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group. However, their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification. The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is the organically unified information transmission mode of English configuration conventions and communication methods, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. (Li Jingmin, 2012)

Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is a mode of information transmission in which English construction conventions and communication methods are organically unified, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

While Chinese puts meaning first, and is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. (Li Jingmin, 2012)

Chinese, on the other hand, focuses on meaning, which is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.2.Definition and Connotation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====

Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " (Xu Jun, 2006)

Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, many other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

According to our understanding, the same communication content, using different language expressions, there must be differences in the form of expression. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. (Xu Jun, 2006)

According to our understanding, there must be differences in the form of expression when using different language expressions to express the same communication content. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.3.Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====

From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also a manifestation of the differences between Chinese and English cultures. Therefore, in the comparative analysis of Chinese and English parataxis, it will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. (Li Jingmin, 2012)

From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also the embodiment of cultural differences between China and English. Therefore, the comparative analysis of parataxis between Chinese and English will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. (Li Jingmin, 2012)

The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp them with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and subtle meaning, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. (Li Jingmin, 2012)

Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and implication, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===4.EC Translation Methods of Passive Voice===

When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally and can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence.Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)

When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally, but can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence. Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

(1)Translate into Chinese Passive Sentences

In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or to keep the subject of the clause before and after it is consistent, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences . In addition to using the word bei(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as zao(遭), ai(挨), gei(给), shou(受) and wei...suo (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:

In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or in order to maintain the consistency of the subject clause, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences. In addition to using the word bei(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as zao(遭), ai(挨), gei(给), shou(受) and wei...suo (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

SL Text 1: I was touched by warmhearted stories during the pandemic.

TL Text 1: 我为疫情期间发生的感人故事所感动。

(2)Translate into Chinese Active Sentences

Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences can be translated into Chinese active sentences. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:

Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences in English can be translated into active sentences in Chinese. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

SL Text 2: In all, at least 600 people have been declared dead and another 650 missing.

TL Text 2: 总计至少六百人已证实死亡，另有六百五十人失踪。

(3)Translate into Chinese Judgment Sentences

Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences, which are expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:

Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences and expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

SL Text 3: Beauty cannot be measured by any absolute standard.

TL Text 3: 美是不可能用任何绝对标准来衡量的。

(4)Translate into Chinese Sentences without Subjects

Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, there must be a subject in any English sentence pattern, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:

Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, any English sentence pattern must have a subject,, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

SL Text 4: The cost can not be met unless the region has ample food resources.

TL Text 4: 除非该地区具有丰富的食物资源，否则无法满足这种消耗。

In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use by to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)

In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use "by" to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===5.Conclusion===

As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.

As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive sentences, Chinese active sentences, Chinese judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===6.Reference===
Hu Julan 胡菊兰. (2004). 论中英思维模式与英汉语不同的句式特点 [Discuss the Chinese and English Thinking Mode and Different Sentence Patterns between English and Chinese]. 河南大学学报(社会科学版) Journal of Henan University (Social Science Edition). (06) 73-76.

Xu Jun徐珺. (2006). 汉英语篇意合与形合的文化阐释 [Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis in Chinese and English Text]. 外语与外语教学 Foreign Languages and Their Teaching. (12) 26-29.

Li Jingmin 李靖民. (2012). 英汉语形合和意合研究中的几个问题 [Several Issues in the Study of Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese]. 外语研究 Foreign Languages Research. (02) 45-50+112.

Liu Mingdong刘明东. (2001). 英语被动语态的语用分析及其翻译 [Pragmatic Analysis and Translation of English Passive Voice]. 中国科技翻译Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (01) 1-4.

Kui Xueyan, Wang lei 隗雪燕,王雷. (2012). 英语与汉语的被动含义 [Passive Meaning in English and Chinese]. 外语教学 Foreign Language Education. (05) 18-23.

Tang Fenfen汤芬芬. (2012). 英汉被动含义句式的对比及翻译 [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Sentences with Passive Meaning]. 海外英语 Overseas English. (21) 139-141.

Tang Guoping, Li Fei 唐国平,李斐. (2003). 主动形式表被动含义的探讨 [Discussion on the Passive Meaning of Active Form]. 攀枝花学院学报 journal of pzhzhihua university. (03) 51-55.

Xiao Zhonghua, Dai Guangrong 肖忠华,戴光荣. (2010). 语料库在语言教学中的运用——中国英语学习者被动句式习得个案研究 [The Use of Corpus in Language Teaching: A Case Study of Chinese English Learners' Acquisition of Passive Sentences]. 浙江大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Zhejiang University(Humanities and Social Sciences). (04) 189-200.

Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译 [The Differences Between English and Chinese and the Chinese Translation of English Long Sentences]. 中国科技翻译 Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (04) 21-22.

Duan Manfu 段满福. (2006). 从英汉语句子结构的差异看英语定语从句的翻译 [On the Translation of English Attributive Clauses from the Differences in the Substructure of English and Chinese Sentences ]. 大学英语(学术版) College English( Academic Edition). (01) 267-270.

Xu Jianping许建平. (2003). 英语人称代词的翻译问题 [On the Translation of English Personal Pronouns]. 清华大学教育研究 Research On Education Tsinghua University. (S1) 106-110.

Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong 倪巍,邵志洪. (2004). 英汉被动句认知对比研究 [A Cognitive Comparative Study of English and Chinese Passive Sentences]. 四川外语学院学报 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. (05) 128-133.

Wang Jiayi 王家义. (2011). 英语同义词辨析的多视角透视 [A Multi-Perspective Perspective on the Differentiation and Analysis of English Synonyms]. 外国语文 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. 27(05) 79-83.

Xu Shihong 徐世红. (2006). 论英语习得中英语思维的培养和建立 [On the Cultivation and Establishment of English Thinking in English Acquisition]. 盐城师范学院学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Yancheng Teachers University(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition). (02) 67-70.

Wang Li 王力. (1984). ''中国语法理论'' Chinese Grammar Theory. 山东教育出版社 Shandong Education Press.

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==On Metaphors - 游雨婷 You Yuting, 202070080619==
<center>游雨婷 You Yuting </center>
===Abstract===
Metaphor is not only a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also closely related to human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the psychological causes of metaphor and its hidden cultural information, and adopt corresponding translation strategies in order to accurately and vividly convey the basic information of the original language. If we ignore metaphor in English-Chinese translation, it will not only fail to achieve the translation effect, but also make readers confused or even misunderstood, resulting in an immeasurable consequence.

This thesis aims to discuss the development and issues of metaphor translation. Then, in comparison of the differences between Chinese and English in various aspects, the author aims to seek the most appropriate and effective metaphor translation strategies and skills, and lastly through the comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor help translators to overcome translation obstacles resulted from metaphors. By truly integrating the language into the specific cultural context, one can help promote the quality of translation.

===Key words===
Metaphor cultural differences translation strategies different perspectives

===题目===
论隐喻

===摘要===
隐喻不只是一种简单的语言现象，它与人类的思维方式、文化传统紧密相连。在英汉隐喻翻译中，译者应分析隐喻产生的心理原因及其隐藏的文化信息，采取相应的翻译策略，以求准确而生动地传达原语言的基本信息。如果忽略英汉中的隐喻翻译问题，不仅达不到翻译效果，还会令读者费解甚至误解，造成无法估量的后果。

本文旨在从隐喻切入，讨论英汉隐喻翻译的发展及问题。其次通过从多个方面比较中英文的差异，从而寻求最合适有效的隐喻翻译策略和技巧，最后从结构隐喻和本体隐喻两个视角对《白杨礼赞》英译本的隐喻翻译进行比较分析，帮助翻译工作者克服由于隐喻带来的翻译障碍。真正将语言融入特定的文化语境，促进翻译质量的提高。

===关键词===
隐喻文化差异翻译策略不同视角

===1. Introduction===
Given the prospect of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in great need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on analysing the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).

Given the background of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on pointing out the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies and skills to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).

There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===2. The Overview of Metaphor===
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is the psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).

A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is a kind of a psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)
===2.1 Definition of Metaphor===
In different periods of history, people have different definitions for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11).

In different periods of history, people have different ideas for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In the early period of China, there was no specific concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but fundamentally a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).

In the early period of China, there was no concrete concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many forms. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2).
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2)--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation skills. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate, complete and expressive.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84).

Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation strategies. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate and complete.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===2.2 The Development of Metaphor Translation===
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been an important topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.

For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been a topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.

Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with multiple meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor can stand alone,which means we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).

Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with many meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor meaning we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to guide metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).

Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to solve problems in metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

However, Maalej points out that there are two main criticisms of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).

However, Maalej points out that there are two main drawbacks of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).

Compared with Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).

As for Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as a kind of independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).

The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as an independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===2.3 Reflections on Metaphor Translation Studies===
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made remarkable achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from multiple perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from many perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The first one is the center or the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, great efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).

The first one is the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of space has been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).

In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of efforts have been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. In this context, domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).

The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. Domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the criteria or standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified and specific understanding, and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).

The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified criteria and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Overall, in research on metaphor translation, we see progress as well as shortcomings which are waiting to be coped with along the way we explore a wider space for metaphor translation.(Wang Bo 2016,116).

===3. Reasons for Metaphor Translation===
Metaphor is not just a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).

Metaphor is not just a linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should find out the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===3.1 Geographical and Environment Factors===
It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions and is the representative of a region. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region with uniqueness and stability for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).

It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Regional culture exerts great influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).

Regional culture exerts influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” goes the opposite way, recalling a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).

For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” implies a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China has been a major agricultural country since ancient times. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).

Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China is a major agricultural country. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Therefore, the famous proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).

Therefore, the proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===3.2 Religious Belief Factors===
Westerners have a deeply rooted Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).

Westerners have followed Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Religious belief can be regarded as the universal cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some things connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).
Religious belief can be regarded as the cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

For example, "as patient as Job", "as poor as Lazarus", "as rich as Croesus". The characters as “Job”, “Lazarus”, and “Croesus” in these idioms used as metaphors originate from the Bible. However, some Chinese idioms derive from Buddhism such as "not enough to go round"(粥少僧多). (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).

Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still have a profound influence on the Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).

Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still influenced Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played an immeasurable role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).

And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played a role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are many cultures in both Chinese and English that share the same meaning though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).

Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are cultural common ground in both Chinese and English though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are identical. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).

Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are similar. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid forcing foreign religious culture and belief to combine with others, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).

In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid imposing foreign religious culture and belief on other cultures, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===3.3 Cultural Background Factors===
From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to constitute strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33).

From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to deliver strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should not only be familiar with the culture of the source language, but also with the culture of the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）.
Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should be familiar with the culture of the source language and the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

People tend to use idioms and simple words serving as metaphorical expressions to deliver imaginary effect in literary works. There are also cultural differences between Chinese idioms and English idioms that contain figurative rhetoric. The difference of cultural background between Chinese and Western countries determines the difference of metaphor in English and Chinese. For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be spelled as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）.
For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be translated as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）.

Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used.(Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used. While in English, they replace “death” with “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）.

While in English, they describe “death” by using expressions as “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）.--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).
Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a somewhat positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The word “old” gradually becomes some positive idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).
The word “old” gradually becomes idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who is independent, unconstraint and act on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).

Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who acts on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to overcome and solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one may realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).

It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one can realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms yet ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. Translators must respect the readers’ aesthetic psychology. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).

To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms while ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===4. Translation Strategies for English-Chinese Metaphor Translation===
Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are feasible ways to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation known as translation strategies.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).

===4.1 Literal Translation===
Literal translation is the first stage of translation in which we simply transfer words from one language to another. It is also called “word-for-word” translation. Strictly speaking, it strives "to keep the sentiments and style of the original". We usually resort to this kind of translation when we want the reader in the target language to understand the overall meaning of the text in the source language. This is different from the higher levels of translation in which the interpretation of the source text varies from one person to another person as the style, linguistic expressions and undertones differ.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).

Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are translation strategies to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. For translation, the most common and simplest method is literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).

Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphor is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).

For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphorical meaning is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between them, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65)

To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between two languages, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===4.2 Free Translation===
Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully examine the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).

Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details and grammatical structure. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully observe the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).

For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such metaphorical meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we integrate literal translation with free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1).

Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we adopt free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).

Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning, a piece of melody.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Therefore, free translation can fill in the blanks where literal translation doesn’t fit in. When translators do metaphor translation, free translation can help deliver the metaphorical meaning more vividly.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).

===4.3 Metonymy Translation===
Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are almost the same, although they are actually different. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1).

Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are different yet similar. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

At this time, according to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).

According to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers.(Li Chunying 2020,1).

In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers for their better understanding.(Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===5. Metaphor Translation in English Versions of Tribute to White Poplar As An Example===
Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking, which can guide people's actions. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).

Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===5.1 Theoretical Framework===
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became an important symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became a symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification can be said to cover almost all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).
Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification cover all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. Structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).

Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. While structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===5.2 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Structural Metaphor===
Structural metaphors play the most important role because they allow us to go beyond orientation and referring and give us the possibility to structure one concept according to another. Here are some examples.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).

E.g.1

SL text:白杨树实在是不平凡的，我赞美白杨树。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).

TL text 1: The white poplar is no ordinary tree. Let me sing its praises.(Zhang Peiji 2007)

TL text 2: The white poplar tree is by no means a common tree. I praise it!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)

E.g.2

SL text:让那些看不起民众、贱视民众、顽固的倒退的人们去赞美那贵族化的楠木(那也是直挺秀颀的)，去鄙视这极常见、极易生长的白杨树罢，我要高声赞美白杨树!(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).

TL text 1: The reactionary diehards, who despise and snub the common people, can do whatever they like to eulogize the elite nanmu (which is also tall, straight and good-looking) and look down upon the common, fast-growing white poplar. I, for my part, will be loud in my praise of the latter!(Zhang Peiji 2007)

TL text 2: Let those who look down upon the masses, disrelish them and are stubborn to retrograde the duke nanmu, which is also a straight and graceful tree. They may go on despising this white poplar tree, which is frequently seen and grows so very easily. But as for me, I’ll continue to praise the white poplar tree!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)

A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words to describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).

A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words that describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).

Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===5.3 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Ontological Metaphor===
Ontological metaphor, also called entity metaphor, also plays an important role.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).

E.g.3

SL text:当汽车在望不到边际的高原上奔驰，扑入你的视野的，是黄绿错综的一条大毡子。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).

TL text 1: When you travel by car through Northwest China’s boundless plateau, all you see before you is something like a huge yellow-and-green felt blanket.(Zhang Peiji 2007)

TL text 2: When your car is speeding along a boundless highway, what meets your eyes is a huge blanket of yellows and greens mingled together.(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)

When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more convenient. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).

When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more smooth. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).

--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

E.g.4

SL text:然而同时你的眼睛也许有点倦怠, 你对当前的 “ 雄壮 ” 或 “ 伟大 ” 闭了眼，而另一种味儿在你心头潜滋暗长了———“单调”！可不是？单调，有一点儿吧？(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).

TL text 1: Meanwhile, however, your eyes may become weary of watching the same panorama, so much so that you are oblivious of its being spectacular or grand. And you may feel monotony coming on. Yes, it is somewhat monotonous, isn’t it?(Zhang Peiji 2007).

TL text 2: However, at the same time, your eyes may feel somewhat tired and close before the “magnificent” and the “great” that lie in front of you. And another sensation rises in your heart monotonous! Isn’t it monotonous, maybe a bit?(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999).

The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind and make for interesting reading. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).

The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).

Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen retain the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).

Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen keep the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===6. Conclusion===
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving multiple factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no exactly identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117).

To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving many factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. Conversion Strategies like literal translation, free translation and metonymy translation are applicable. And the analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117).

As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. The analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a better understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).

At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a clear understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===7. References===
*Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian. Cognitive-Pragmatic Strategies for English Translation of Colloquial Metaphors in Political Discourse.[J]. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and Translation. 2020, 6(3)-12.

*Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al. Chinese metaphor sentiment computing via considering culture.[J]. Science Direct. 2019, 352:33-41.

*Li Chunying. Translation of Metaphor from the Perspective of Cognitive Linguistics.[J]. Education, Society and Human Studies. 2020, 1(1)-11.

*ZHANG Jie. Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor Theory: Based on the Analysis of Imagery“Hong Sushou”in Song Ci. [J]. Studies in Literature and Language. 2020, 21(1):84-87.

*Guo Huiqing. 郭卉青.(2013). 浅议影响隐喻翻译的主要因素.[A Brief Discussion on the Main Factors Affecting Metaphor Translation].[J]. 晋中学院学报[Journal of Jinzhong College], 30(05):122-124.

*Hu Zhuanglin. 胡壮麟.(2004). 认知隐喻学.[Cognitive Metaphor].[M]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].

*Li Yanhong. 李艳红.(2015).概念隐喻视角下《白杨礼赞》两个英译本比较研究.[A Comparative Study of Two English Translations of Tribute to White Poplar from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor].[J].考试周刊[The Exam Week],(65):19-20.

*Lan Chun. 蓝纯.(1999).从认知角度看汉语的空间隐喻.[Spatial Metaphor in Chinese from a cognitive perspective][J].外语教学与研究[Foreign Language Teaching and Research],(04) :5-10.

*Shu Dingfang. 束定芳. (2000). 隐喻学研究.[Studies in Metaphor].[M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].

*Wang Bo. 王勃. (2016). 概念语法隐喻视角下的英汉翻译探讨.[A Study on English-Chinese Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Grammatical Metaphor].[J]. 黑龙江教育学院学报[Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education],35(07):115-117.

*Xu Aihua. 徐爱华. (2019). 中西方差异视角下英汉隐喻翻译策略研究.[A Study on Metaphor Translation Strategies in English and Chinese from the Perspective of Chinese and Western differences].[J]. 海外英语[Overseas English],(20):64-65.

*Zhang Mengjing,Du Yaowen. 张梦井,杜耀文.(1999).中国名家散文精译.[Chinese Famous Prose Translation][M].青岛出版社[Qingdao Press].

*Zhang Peiji. 张培基.(2007). 英译中国现代散文选.[A Selection of Chinese Modern Prose][M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].

==A Comparative Study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s Translation Views 王源 Wang Yuan==
===Abstract===
Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun are productive writers and translators. They hold different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming “rather be faithful than smooth”. He translation views are highly consistent with his political views, that is changing people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu takes the readers as the first priority and emphasizes the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which means a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translations. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.

Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun were productive writers and translators. They held different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming that “tranlsation should rather be faithful than smooth”. His translation views were highly consistent with his political views, that has changed people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu took readers as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which means a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translation. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 04:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===keywords===
mean spirit; new humanism; Lu Xun; Liang Shiqiu

===摘要===
鲁迅和梁实秋中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同阶段采用直译和硬译进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。

鲁迅和梁实秋是中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同的时期分别采用直译和硬译的方法进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”的翻译原则。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想的影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”。本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 04:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===关键词===
中庸、新人文主义、鲁迅、梁实秋

===1. Background===
1.1 The formation of Liang Shiqiu's translation views

1.1 The Formation of Liang Shiqiu's Translation Views--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Liang Shiqiu's view of translation is homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn is closely related to his philosophy of life. Liang’s philosophy of life can be concluded into “mean”, and is the mixture of Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)

Liang Shiqiu's view of translation was homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn was closely related to his philosophy of life. The essence of Liang’s philosophy of life was "moderation", which was derived from Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Confucianism has deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of going abroad for further study helped him accepted Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30)

Confucianism has been deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of further study aboard helped him accept Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30) --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

First, “mean” is the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “mean” has existed in different aspects, such as in education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, Confucius said “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which is to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury” also tell us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also put “mean” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believes that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity shows his view of “mean”. In his opinion, life has three states, which are natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocates indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “mean”. Liang Shiqiu knew the “mean” spirit had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the “mean” spirit. In his opinion, literature should have certain independence and also educational function. (Yan Xiao Jiang, 2008,32)

First, “moderation” was the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “moderation” had great influences on different fields, such as education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, as Confucius' saying goes: “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which was to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. The saying, “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury”, also told us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also regarded “moderation” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believed that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity showed his view of “moderation”. In his opinion, life had three states, which were natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocated indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “moderation”. Liang Shiqiu knew the spirit of “moderation” had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the spirit of “moderation”. In his opinion, literature should have certain independence and also educational function. (Yan Xiao Jiang, 2008,32)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Second, humanism is the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but these ideas can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism is about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism can destroy this balance. He believes that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it is the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that causes the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation of Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which is somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focuses on people, looks at people dialectically, and is concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and respecting tradition.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)

Second, humanism was the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism was about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism could destroy this balance. He believed that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it was the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that caused the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation for Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which was somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focused on people, lookd at people dialectically, and was concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and the tradition of respect.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

1.2 The formation of Lu Xun's translation views

1.2 The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Views--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

1.2.1 The first period (1903-1906)

After the defeat of the Opium War, people began to introduce and learn the advanced ideas and technologies of the West in order to find a way to save their lives. Inspired by the slogan “ Traditional Chinese values aided with modern management and technology”, Westernization Group have translated a large number of works, mainly on military and scientific works. After that, Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao initiated the Reform Movement of 1898, attempting to save China by changing state institution. The focus of translation also shifted from technology to politics, laws and academic research. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)

Around the time of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators of foreign thought and culture emerged in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time as Yan Fu, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. His translations were mainly Italian, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)

During the period of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators appeared in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. He mainly translated Italian into Chinese, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for each translation work of Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of others and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, Lin Shu adopted domestication as his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also apply domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)

Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for and read every translation work from Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of other people, understanding them and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, domestication was his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also applied domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

1.2.2 The second period (1907-1927)

With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people is the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we have to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)

With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people was the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we had to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style, but also had done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)

In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style of the original, but also has done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39) --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

From the perspective of culture, the New Culture Movement, which advocated democracy, science and vernacular Chinese, was prosperous at that time. As one of the leaders of the movement, Lu Xun realized the importance of introducing advanced culture and abandoned the dross of traditional Chinese culture. The reason why Lu Xun chose literal translation was that he wanted to popularize vernacular Chinese and push the development of Chinese. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)

1.2.3 The third period (1928-1937)

In this period, with the deepening of national crisis and the spread of Marxism, it was urgent to establish Chinese proletariat class, Lu Xun’s translation strategy was developing accordingly. After revolution, a general “political anxiety” emerged among people. This kind of anxiety should be released according to some channels, and translating advanced foreign works could erase the anxiety to some extent. (Wang Yanling. 2009, 39)

In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. Therefore, the adopting of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but political purpose.

In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. Therefore, the adoption of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but political purpose.--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===2.Translation views===

===2.Translation Views===--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

2.1 Liang Shiqiu's translation views

2.1 Liang Shiqiu's Translation Views

2.1.1 Be a translator caring both readers and original works

Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should start from the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation is to faithfully express a work in another language for those who do not understand the original. The translator's duty is to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “better to be faithful than be smooth” nor Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations include the following. First, it does not match the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu 1933)

Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should prioritize the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation was to faithfully express the meaning of a work in another language for those who do not understand the original language. The translator's duty was to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “tranlation is better to be faithful than be smooth” or Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “translation is better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations could be reflected in the following aspects. First, it does not accord with the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu 1933)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Liang Shiqiu takes the reader as the first priority and emphasizes the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is okay using in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua 1900,22)

Liang Shiqiu took the reader as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not be read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is acceptable to be used in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua 1900,22)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Liu Bingshan once commented on Liang Shiqiu's translation: "Liang's translation is not based on the beauty of the language, but on the purpose of preserving the truth, sticking closely to the original work, not easily changing the original text, not avoiding all kinds of difficulties, and doing his best to convey the original meaning of Shakespeare. His translations are meticulous, euphemistic and clear, and can maintain the original characteristics of Shakespeare's plays. (Liu Bingshan, 1992)

Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticizes Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that are not found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu, 2002)

Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticized Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that can not be found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu, 2002)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

2.1.2 Be a translator advocating liberalism literature

Liang Shiqiu is one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature is derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as an enlightenment and a political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature is literature, and the core of literature is to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought is reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity. In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation is to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles.

Liang Shiqiu was one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature was derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as an enlightenment and political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature was literature, and the core of literature was to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought was reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity". In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation was to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

2.1.3 Be a scholarly translator

Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude is reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translator, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take great pains to look them up and annotate them so that the reader can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu 1967) This shows that translation is not only a simple act of translation but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflects on translating the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays.

Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude was reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translate, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take great pains to look them up and annotate them so that the reader can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu 1967) This showed that translation was not only a simple act of translating but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflected on his translating process of the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In the process of translating Shakespeare’s plays, Liang realized that translation works sometimes should do some research at the same time. “ Translation should properly combine with research, and without researching, one may not know how to translate precisely.” (Liang Shiqiu, 1967) Therefore, he managed to collect different editions of Shakespeare, as well as various sources related to him. Day by day, his collection was more complete than any universities in China. In the end he chose the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare. Regarding the obscene words and jokes in this version of Shakespeare's play, Liang Shiqiu believed that the gags in the play originally had their own significance in the context of the times. Even though obscene words were involved, they were harmless and could sometimes be considered to have a psychological health implication. In addition to translating the contents of the works, Liang Shiqiu also conducted a large number of studies. In each part of The Complete Works of Shakespeare, there was a preface detailing the history of the edition, the dating of the writings, the sources of the stories, the history of the stage, and the study of the text. The contents of the works or linguistic techniques such as puns and colloquialisms were extensively annotated, a method that some experts called "scholarly translation". Research showed that Liang Shiqiu was "the first expert scholar to introduce the British and American Western traditions of Shakespearean studies, opening the way for the study of Oriental Shakespeare in Taiwan, China." (Chen Shufen 2002)

2.2 Lu Xun

Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “I would rather be faithful than smooth. The importation of new content and new forms of expression advocated by Lu Xun is precisely what makes his translations innovative. He advocates that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", not "a few bites can be swallowed". This process of chewing is precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the reader. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation requires translators to express the original text faithfully, and remains the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, thinking that the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text.

Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “I would rather be faithful than smooth". The importation of new content and new forms of expression advocated by Lu Xun were precisely what made his translations innovative. He advocated that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", rather "a few bites and then swallowed". This process of chewing was precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the reader. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation required translators to express the original text faithfully, and remained the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, thinking that the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserves the characteristics of the original text, but also respects the author and facilitates the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the content of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang, 2000,295)

In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserved the characteristics of the original text, but also respectd the author and facilitates the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the content of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang, 2000,295)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Lu Xun had once mentioned in his translation work, “From the translation, Lunakarsky's thesis is clear enough. However, due to incapability of the translator and the original shortcomings of Chinese, there are many obscure points after the translation. If the short sentences in the long sentences are dismantled, the concise and sharp tone of the original is lost. Therefore, there is nothing I can do but to do hard translation.” (Chen Fukang,2000,291)

In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there is a difference between a "hard translation" and a "word-by-word translation", and it is not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) has its own target audience that needs it. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" is not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu 2000,292-293)

In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there was a difference between "hard translation" and "word-by-word translation", and it was not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) had its own target audience. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" was not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu 2000,292-293)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===3.Examples===
3.1 Liang Shiqiu
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works is based on the strategy of foreignization, which mainly contains two levels of connotation: the first refers to the linguistic form, and the second refers to the cultural content. On the level of linguistic form, Liang Shiqiu focuses on introducing new expressions and strives to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture. On the level of cultural content, Liang mainly introduces the original text without any deletion, allowing readers to appreciate the original and exotic culture as much as possible.

Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works takes its artistry, and the strategy of foreignization helps to allow readers to confront the differences of foreign cultures and thus expand their horizons. On the form of names, Liang Shiqiu did not advocate shortening the translation of names in Shakespeare's works to the Chinese style. He said humorously, "Foreigners often have such long, wordy and eccentric names, so why should we bother to give them names and surnames?" In the process of translation, he usually adopted transliteration. For example, he translated “Julius Caesar” into “朱利阿斯西撒”，but not “凯撒大帝”. Likewise, he did not translate Antony and Cleopatra into a title which is charming like movie title, but chose transliterating into “安东尼与克利奥佩特拉”.

Another two examples can show Liang Shiqiu’s loyalty faithfulness to original text.

梁实秋译文：
卡先生，适才发生了这样不幸的事故，我们没有时间劝导我们的女儿：您知道，她对她的表兄提拔特是甚微友爱的，我也是很喜欢那孩子：唉，我们有生即有死。现在很晚了，她今晚不会下楼了：说实话，若非您在这里，我一个小时前就早已经上床了。
巴在这悲伤的时候也不便求婚。夫人，晚安：请代我向小姐致意。

朱生豪译：
凯欧莱特夫人伯爵，舍间因为遭逢变故，我们还没有时间去开导小女；您知道她和她那个表兄提博尔特是友爱很笃的，我也非常喜欢他；唉！人生不免一死，也不必再去说他了。现在时间已经很晚，他今夜不会再下来了；不瞒您说，倘不是您大驾光临，我也早在一个小时以前上床啦。
帕里斯我在你们正在伤心的时候来此求婚，实在是太冒昧了。晚安，伯母；请您替我向令媛致意。
This is a conversation between Madame Capulet, Juliet's mother, and Paris, a young nobleman. Since both speakers are persons of status, both Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translation use formal style. Zhu Shenghao, following the Chinese tradition of "demeaning oneself and respecting others," uses the terms "伯爵"， "小女" ，"伯母"，"令媛” ， with a flavor of the old Chinese literati. Liang Shiqiu uses the terms "先生" ，"女儿"，"夫人" ，"小姐"，which can be used both in the west and east, with polite and respectful overtones, showing that there is a certain distance in the relationship between people.

PORTIA If I live to be as old as Sibylla, I will die as chaste as Diana, unless I be obtained by the manner of my father’s will. I am glad this parcel of wooers are so reasonable, for there is no one among them but I dote on his very absence, and I prey God grant them a fair departure.

梁实秋译：波如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照我父亲遗嘱的方法出嫁。我很高兴这群求婚的人如此知趣，因为这些人当中没有一个不是我深愿他快快离开的，我求上帝准他们平安归去吧。
朱生豪译：鲍西娅要是没有人按照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不字。我很高兴这一群求婚者都是这么懂事，因为他们中间没有一个人不是我唯望其速去的；求上帝赐给他们一帆风顺吧！
This scene is the response of Portia, a rich girl, to Nerissa, a maidservant. In this case, Zhu Shenghao translated “Sibylla” into “living to one thousand years”, which may be easier to be accepted by readers yet the domestication strategy has erased the exotism of original language. Liang Shiqiu translated “Sibylla” literally and added some notes to explain the allusion, which has efficiently expressed the “foreignness” and also helped Chinese readers to learn the allusion. “Diana” is the god of the moon, which has the implication of “chastity”. Zhu Shenghao translated it into “终身不字”，meaning “never get married the whole life, the semantic meaning of which is close to “as chaste as Diana”,yet the important information “chastity” has not been translated, while Liang Shiqiu’s transliteration did not miss the information.

3.2 Lu Xun

Lu Xun's translations can be roughly divided into three stages. The first stage is Lu Xun's early translations, which were mainly adaptation and compilation. In the second stage, literal translations were used. He said in his article ：“ All translations must take into account both sides. On the one hand, it must be easy for readers to read, and on the other hand, it must be faithful to the original work and preserve the foreigness. The third stage is to adopt hard translation. He believed that Chinese was an imprecise language with inherent flaws. And in order to make the translation not lose its precision, new expressions and syntax should be introduced. Lu Xun tried to improve the imprecision of the Chinese language through hard translations, so as to change the national thinking habits and transform the national character. Next, this paper will give two examples to reflect Lu Xun's ideas of literal translation and hard translation.

Er ging durch die gute Stube，wo alles sauber und ordentlich dastand wie immer-die hohen Lehnstühle unter ihren weien berzügen wie Leichen in ihren Totenhemden． An dem einen Fenster hing ein Drahtkfig － aber leer， mit weit geffneter Türe．

“Nastaszia! ”schrie Pater Ignatius， und grob hallte seine Stimme durch die stillen Ｒume，die verlegen schienen，da er gleich nach der Tochter Beerdigung so schreien konnte．

“Nastaszia，”rief er leiser，“wo ist der Kanarienvogel?”

Die Kchin，so verweint da ihr die Nase rot wie eine Ｒübe im Gesichte glnzte，erwiderte grob: “Wo soll er sein? -weggeflogen ist er．”

“Weshalb habt ihr ihn hinausgelassen?” Pater Ignatius zog die Brauen drohend zusammen．
Nastaszia brach in Trnen aus，und die Augen mit den Zipfeln ihres Kopftuches wischend，stammelte sie:

“Fruleinchens Seele hat ．．． ihn ．．． gerufen ．．．，wie durften ．．． wir ．．． ihn denn ．．． halten?”

鲁迅译：伊革那支入客室，见全室整洁，弗殊平时，几衣纯白，卓立如死人临敛。呼其婢曰，“那思泰娑，”则自觉声在虚室中，至复犷厉。窗外悬鸟笼，阑槛已启，其中虚矣。因复微呼曰: “那思泰娑，鸟安在?”婢哀毁，鼻已如芦萉，嗫嚅对曰， “自……自然去矣! ”伊革那支蹙额曰， “胡为纵之?”婢复泣失声，掣韨角拭其目，咽泪曰，“此性命，……此女士性命， ……何可留耶! ”

Although the translation adopted Classical Chinese, yet readers have a basic knowledge of Classical Chinese can feel the fluency and elegance of the translation. Lu Xun abandoned the practice of arbitrary additions or deletions and rewrites in the translation field at that time, and faithfully preserved the spirit of the original work. However, this kind of “faithfulness” is neither word-to-word translation, nor stiffly borrow syntax structure of the original text. For example, he combined seven paragraphs into one. Putting a single sentence as a paragraph is normal in modern Chinese While it is quite wired in Classical Chinese. Therefore, Lun Xun adopting domestication was to cater to the reading habits of Chinese readers. Besides, Lu Xun also made adjustment in some detailed descriptions. For example, the original meaning of "erwiderte Grob" in German,
"replied rudely", but it was translated into “嗫嚅”, meaning “ replied haltingly”. The chef’s attitude changed from impatience into hesitation and fear. Lu Xun probably had fully considered the culture of target language and the receptive ability of readers. Lu Xun’s translation strategies were flexible and was totally different from “hard translation” claimed in his later translation period. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 52)
In another example, Lu Xun’s “hard translation” had fully in practice.

Maksimowa，hier fragt jemand nach Ihrem Zimmer，” erklrte der Angekommene，ein langer hagerer Student． Er ging als erster durch den Korridor，in dem die Luft sauer und dampferfüllt war， wie in dem schmutzigen Vorraum einer Badeanstalt． Er hrte nicht weiter auf das， was die Greisin sprach，schob sich durch den Korridor，an Koffern und Vorhngen， hinter denen sich irgend etwas rührte，vorbei und verschwand in seinem Zimmer． Erst als er seine Sachen abgelegt hatte und in roter Bauernbluse mit offenem Kragen ohne Gürtel dastand，fiel ihm der neue Mieter wieder ein und er fragte die Alte， die ihm einen siedenden Samowar brachte…

“玛克希摩跋( Maksimova), 这里有人问你的房子呢。”上来的人告诉说，是一个瘦而且长的大学生。他先向那空气又酸又湿，仿佛浴场的腌臜的前房一般的廊下的那边走。他也不再听老女人说什么，一径走过了堆着行李和挂着帐幔，那后面有什么正在蠢动的廊下，躲进他自己的屋子里去了。他放下物件，穿着畅开领口没有带子的红色的农家衣的时候，才又想到新来的客人，便问那老女人，恰恰捧着煮沸的撒摩跋尔进来的……

Both texts are detailed descriptions of dwelling environments, characters and language, but here the translation is stiff, full of Europeanized syntax, and in some places even obscure. The original (German) language is similar to English in that several adjectives can be placed before nouns and a long sentence can contain several finite clauses. These syntactic features are very different from the Chinese syntax, so in the process of translating into Chinese, the translator has to disassemble the text and replace them with multiple phrase structures or phrases. The juxtaposed adjectives should also be either combined or split into phrases as needed. Lu Xun’s translation strictly obeyed the syntax structure of German yet was too “faithful” to read. Besides, Lu Xun also kept heterogeneous information on purpose. For example, the word “Samowar” is a kind of metal teapot in Russia, which has no counterpart in Chinese. A translator can adopt domestication, using a word that Chinese readers are more familiar with, or use the word “teapot”. However, Lu Xun transliterated it into “撒摩跋尔” so that readers may find it hard to know the meaning of it. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 56)
It can be seen that if the collection of foreign stories adopted literal translation, the labourer Suihuilov should be a hard translation. Excerpt above is clear and easy to understand, even if a mediocre translator can also easily and smoothly translate this paragraph of text, while Lu Xun's translation is quite rigid and stiff. This translation has showed Lu Xun’s typical translation -- hard translation, which has fully reflected his determination to reform Chinese and to change the thinking pattern of Chinese people. (Xie Hai, 2020, 57)

===4.The practical significance of translation views===

===4.The Practical Significance of Translation Views===--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

4.1 Liang Shiqiu

First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, and the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thought, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helps the local culture to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,285)

First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, while the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thought, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helped the local people to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,285)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, and the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism is that it is more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandons its own tradition and copies western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang, 2008, 286)

Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, while the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism was that it was more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandoned its own tradition and copied western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang, 2008, 286)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s “mean” spirit, and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation sets an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism is that it exaggerates the conflict of culture and ignores the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, recognizing differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang, 2008, 287)

Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s spirit of "moderation", and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation set an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism was that it exaggerated the conflict of culture and ignored the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, the recognization of differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang, 2008, 287)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In a word, Liang Shiqiu's “mean” spirit in translation not only formed his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008, 287)

In a word, Liang Shiqiu's spirit of "moderation" in translation not only helped to form his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008, 287)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

4.2 Lu Xun

In the comparison between Chinese and foreign languages, Lu Xun realized the imprecision of Chinese grammar and thus associated it with the "imprecision of Chinese thinking". He tried to introduce the expressions of foreign languages into Chinese through literal translation, and to promote the modernization of the Chinese language. Although there were many difficulties at the time, Lu Xun's efforts did, to a certain extent, contribute to the development of vernacular Chinese and the "Europeanization" of Chinese, and he also succeeded in absorbing the expressions and vocabulary of foreign languages. Even though the foreign grammar that Lu Xun borrowed from his direct translations at that time is not fully used today, and many of the expressions have been completely abandoned today, it is because Lu Xun pioneered the introduction of foreign expressions and persevered with them that modern Chinese today has rich and flexible syntax that can be extended and contracted, and sentences that are long but not chaotic and well-organized. This fully proves Lu Xun's foresight and wisdom. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 38)

Lu Xun’s translation views still have some practical significance in modern society. We can get some inspirations after reviewing Lu Xun’s translation views. On the one hand, western translation theories should be introduced. On the other hand, Chinese translation studies should be systematic, scientific and unique through constantly concluding, digging, refining and sublimating. We should treat translation theories Dialectically and developmentally and only in this way can translation theory studies have some breakthrough and creation. With the accelerated process of globalization, China is ushering in a new round of translation climax, and good academic ethos and translation ethics are the guarantee of translation quality. ( Wang Yanling, 2009, 38)

===Conclusion===

From the analysis of several texts above, we can see clearly that Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu have shared some similarities and differences in their translations practice.
From the perspective of translation views, both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun adopted literal translation. Liang Shiqiu emphasized the consistence of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, claiming that translations should be faithful to the original work and also be readable. With the influence of Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, he has formed “mean” translation view, which means that his translation were not extreme but appropriate and moderate. Lu Xun’s translation works mainly adopted literal translation and even “hard translation”. Compared with Liang Shiqiu, he claimed that translation works should “rather be faithful than smooth". In his opinion, Chinese is not precise enough, thus new syntax and expressions should be introduced to improve and enrich Chinese. The so called “ hard translation” appeared in Lu Xun’s later translations, which were unreadable and unacceptable. However, the political function was more important than its literary purpose.

From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined humanism advocator, denying the class nature of literature and opposing using literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations have political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thinking.

From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based on humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined advocator of humanism, denying the class nature of literature and opposing regarding literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations had political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

From the purpose of doing translations, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure, that is, to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations were to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in a era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to defeat corruption, ignorance and conservatism.

From the purpose of translating activities, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure,which was to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations was to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in an era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to fight with corruption, ignorance and conservatism.--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Rrferences===
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). "译学词典". [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.

*Yan Xiaojiang. 严晓江. (2008). "梁实秋中庸翻译观研究". [On Liang Shiqiu's View of "mean" in Translation]. 上海译文出版社 [Shanghai Translation Publishing House] 32-52.

*Wang Yanling. 王燕玲. (2009). "鲁迅翻译观的形成及其现实意义". [The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Theory and its Practical Significance]. 时代教育 [TIME EDUCATION] 39-40.

*Wei Sichao. 魏思超. (2011). "直视鲁迅“硬译”观". [A Direct View of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation"]. 文学教育 [Literature Translation]. 24-25.

*Jin Boya. 金博雅. (2011). "鲁迅和梁实秋的文学翻译对比研究". [A Comparative Study of Literary Translation Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 北方文学 [Northern Literature] 118-119.

*Liu Fang. 刘芳. (2014). "论鲁迅直译观的形成及其历史意义". [On the Formation and Historical Significance of Lu Xun's Literal Translation]. 名作赏析 [Masterpieces Review] 123-125.

*Xie Haiyan. 谢海燕. (2020). "协商直译: 重论鲁迅的直译与《域外小说集》". [Negotiating Literal Translation: Ｒeinterpreting Lu Xun’s Literal Translation and Collection of Foreign Short Stories].绍兴文理学院学报 [JOUＲNAL OF SHAOXING UNIVEＲSITY] 51-60.

*Zheng Chun. 郑春. (2017). "再谈鲁迅的翻译以及“硬译”". [The Second Discussion on Lun Xun's Translation and Literal Translation]. 广西师范学院学报 [Journal of Guangxi Teachers Education University] 6-11.

*Chen Fu. 陈芙. (2017). "鲁迅的“硬译”与译者惯习解析". [Analysis on Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" and His Habitus]. 浙江理工大学学报 [Journal of Zhejiang Sci-Tech University] 505-510.

*Song Liulin. 宋柳霖. (2019). "“信”与“顺”的交锋——鲁迅和梁实秋翻译论战的分歧探析". [The Confrontation Between "Faithfulness" and "Smoothness"——On the Differences in the Translation Debate Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 校园英语 [Campus English] 241-242.

*Lv Xuemei. 吕雪梅. (2020). "鲁迅翻译思想三大“异”及其价值". [Three Differences in Lu Xun's Translation Thoughts and Their Values]. 江苏外语教学研究 [Research on Foreign Language Teaching in Jiangsu Province] 81-83.

*Yang Xiaohua. 杨小花. (2020). "鲁迅“硬译”思想发展脉络分析". [An Analysis of the Development of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" Thought]. 文学教育 [Literature Education] 27-29.

==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia==
<center>徐佳 Xu Jia 202070080613 </center>
===Abstract===
Deconstruction, founded in a critique of structuralism, emphasizes the uncertainty of textual meaning and denies the supreme authority of the original author. As a representative figure of deconstruction, Derrida's theories have had a great impact on the Western traditional theories. Under the influence of deconstruction, Venuti proposed the translation strategy of foreignization, criticizing the "invisibility" of translators and arguing that the purpose of translation is to protect and reproduce cultural differences, which contributes a lot to translation studies.

===Key words===
Deconstruction; Domestication; Foreignization

===题目===
解构主义及韦努蒂的异化翻译策略刍议

===摘要===
解构主义是在对结构主义的批判中建立起来的，强调文本意义的不确定性，否认原作者至高无上的权威性。德里达作为解构主义的代表人物，其理论观点对西方理论传统产生了巨大冲击。在其思想影响下，韦努蒂提出异化翻译策略，批判译者“隐身”，认为翻译的目的是要保护再现文化差异，其理论具有一定的进步意义。

===关键词===
解构主义；归化；异化

===Introduction===
Translation has a long history and translation studies have gone through a long journey. In the 20th century, along with the changes in the fields of philosophy and literature, linguistic and cultural shifts emerged in translation studies, and new translation schools have sprung up one after another. Among them, the most controversial one is Deconstruction and its translation views. Deconstructionism is established in the criticism of structuralism, with decomposition as its main feature, systematically deconstructs the concepts of "structure" and "meaning". It focuses on overturning the traditional concept of translation fidelity so as to highlight the central position of the translator, thus opening up new horizons for contemporary translation studies.

===1.The Emergence of Deconstruction and Derrida’s Theories===
Deconstruction is an all-open critical theory that emerged from France in the late 1960s, which questions rationality and subverts tradition. It takes interpretive philosophy as its philosophical foundation, advocates pluralism, and aims to break the closedness of structure, eliminate logos-centrism, and overturn the western philosophical tradition of binary oppositions.

Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" and read it to the public at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, which marked the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）

Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" , which was publicly read at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, thus marking the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has a structural pattern, which determines the essence of things, and the study of the essence of things lies in the study of their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）

Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has its structure, which determines the essence of things, and to study the essence of things needs to study their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

Its subversion over structralism focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively cited the fact that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)

Its attack against structralism mainly focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively gave examples that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words, but cannot be telled in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing fall apart. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)

Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and it is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words but cannot be told in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing collapse. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

Thus, it can be seen that though based on the criticisim of structuralism, the ideas of deconstruction point directly at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)

Thus, we can see that deconstruction, though based on the criticisim of structuralism, actually points at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

Deconstruction has always been regarded as a process of merely breaking without establishing. But as Derrida said, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through rejecting the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)

Deconstruction has always been regarded as a thoery of merely breaking without establishing. According to Derrida, however, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through denying the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

Generally speaking, any ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and deconstruction clearly has these characteristics. Compared to structuralism, it is still infantile. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.

Generally speaking, every ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and so is deconstruction. Compared to structuralism, it is still unmature. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism, and he launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism so as to emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts," such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186)

The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism. He launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism and instead emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts" such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) --[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which is composed of many layers, but has no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely negates the author's creativity and crushes any attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)

Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which has many layers but no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely denies the author's creativity and crushes all attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

Indeed, apart from literary criticism which is necessarily the critic's subjective view and evaluation of the work, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)

Indeed, apart from literary criticism which necessarily analyses and evaluates the work from the critic's subjective view, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably influenced by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as an unchanging standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that every text is produced in a specific historical environment, so there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)

Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably impacted by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as a supreme standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that since every text is born in a specific historical environment, there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text, not a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no fixed meaning of translation, and even an accurate retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)

Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text rather than a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no accurate and fixed meaning of translation, and even a detailed retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

Before the advent of deconstruction, Walter Benyamin, a German translation theorist, put forward ideas related to deconstruction in his book "The Task of the Translator" in 1923, and thus he has been widely regarded as the founder of deconstructionist translation theory. Benyamin uses the term "pure language" to explain the differences between languages, which refers to the universal language shared by all human beings before they built the Tower of Babel. According to Benjamin, a pure language is complete and abstract, and the many languages used today derive from it. Only when these languages complement each other can it be possible to reproduce the whole picture of a pure language. The essence of language can be grasped only in the differences of specific languages. Therefore, translation should try to reflect these differences. The languages we use today is fragments of pure language, and so are the original text and its translation. Since they are fragments, their main characteristics are fragmentation and mutilation, and the task of the translator is to find and reflect the formal characteristics of the fragments. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 316)

===2.Venuti’s Translation Theory of Deconstruction ===
In the late 20th century, under the influence of deconstructionism, many translation theorists put forward some new views, including Edwin Gentzler, Ander Lefevere, Susan Bassnett, Theo Hermans, Gideon Toury, Lawrence Venuti, etc. Putting translation in the overall social and cultural context, they reconsidered many factors affecting translation, and tried to build new translation theories. Among them, Venuti's theory has been recognized as a representative one.

In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he raised many neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of translation theory of foreignization that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)

In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he mentioned several neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of foreignizing translation theory that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to lead translators and readers to reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, thus having an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)

The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to have translators and readers reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, and thus they can have an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

====2.1 Objections to Domesticating Translation====
Venuti build his translation theory on the basis of deconstruction, and his definition of translation is as follows: "Translation is a process that the translator replaces the chain of signifier in the source text with that in the target language." (Venuti 1998, 22) Since meaning is produced by relations and differences in a potentially infinite chain, there will always be differences and delays and will never be the whole of an original text. Both the foreign text and the translation are derivative and are made up of different linguistic and cultural materials. Therefore, neither the foreign author nor the translator is the original author, and the meaning of the work is so unstable that it can transcend the intent of the work. This is very different from the traditional concept of translation.

Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text which expresses his own feelings, and he has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they are reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)

Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text where he expresses his own feelings and has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they were reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

Venuti have different ideas. Under the influence of deconstructionist thinking, Venuti points out in the preface of his book Rethinking Translation that "a translation can never be faithful to the original text, and is always more or less free. It is never definite, and always has an addition to or subtraction from the original. It can never be a transparent representation, but only an interpretive transformation, revealing the multiple meanings and ambiguities of the foreign text and translate them into other multiple and divergent meanings." (Venuti 1992, 67) He began his book, The Invisibility of the Translator, by quoting Norman Shapiro: "I think translation should be transparent and not look like a translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass, you will not notice it without tiny imperfections such as scratches and bubbles. Ideally, of course, there should be no flaws at all. It should not draw attention on itself." (Venuti 1995, 81)

"Invisibility" is a term used by Venuti to describe the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's main pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also concealed.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)

"Invisibility" describes the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's major pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also tucked away.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and this fix is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, rather than an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）

According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and it is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, and it is by no means an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

Among contemporary translation schools, Nida's translation theory is a typical one of domestication. Naida argues that the translation of dynamic equivalence is to pursue the complete naturalness of the words, (Nida 2004, 159) the essence of which is to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in inter-linguistic communication. Venuti, however, pointed out that the so-called communication, which originates from the culture of the target language and is at the same time controlled by it, is in fact a selfish interpretation. Thus, this kind of communication is an appropriation of foreign texts for one's own profit rather than information exchange." Nida's translation theory that takes communication as a starting point does not adequately take into account the ethnocentric distort that is inherent in the translation process. Naida's advocacy to produce the same response in the readers of the target language and in the readers of the source language is a kind of cultural violence that denies the differences between languages and cultures.（Wen Hong 2010,186）

====2.2 Advocacy for Foreignizing Translation====
The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He proposed two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text, so that readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.

The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He put forth two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text so that the readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

Moreover, foreignizing translation cannot be simply equated with paraphrase. While the latter involves only the linguistic operations of translation, foreignizing translation, as defined by Venuti, involves two links. The first is the selection of materials, which means what to translate, and the second is the language conversion strategy, which means how to translate. As long as one of the two links involves foreignization, the translation strategy can be defined as foreignizing translation. The debate between foreignization and domestication focuses on whether to close to the culture of the source language or to the culture of the target language. According to Venuti, the prerequisite of foreignizing translation is that there are cultural differences and communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignizing translation acknowledges and tolerate differences and create cultural differences in the target language.（Ren Shukun 2004,57）

A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures emerge and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences while placing the readers in foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）

A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search which is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures coexist and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences by placing the readers in a foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

Specifically, in the use of translation methods, it reflects a difficult and obscure translation style, and even uses ancient words of the target language to provide readers with a new reading experience. Ezra Pound's translation of Cathay and Nabokov's translation of Pushkin's poetic novel Eugene Onegin both use the foreignizing methods. In the history of English literature, the debate between Arnold and Newman is actually a debate about domestication and foreignization. Newman was dissatisfied with the translation style of Homer's works in Victorian England. He thought this kind of translations were too slender and elegant that were favored by the so-called elite, or "great tradition" culture of England. Instead, He chose the "small tradition," that is, the foreignizing method, translating Homer's works into popular lyrical songs, in which a mixture of ancient words, ballads and awkward sentences replaced the serious and straightforward expressions. (Liu Junping 2019, 416)

====2.3 Preference for Minority-oriented Translation====
According to Venuti，the use of any language can mark power relations, and at any historical moment it is the control of the dominant linguistic form over minute variables. (Venuti 2004, 75) These tiny variables are the so-called "residue", which is opposed to the dominant forms of language, including dialects, archaic languages, colloquialisms, technical terms, and so on. Residues are proposed and applied to prevent the rigidity of language use and kept it alive and fresh.

With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are tied to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted it development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)

With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are closely related to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted its development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented translation, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) In today's world, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)

Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented one, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) Today, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

Minority translation never to acquire more, never to establish new standards and rules, but to promotes cultural innovation and understanding of cultural differences through the production of more linguistic variables. In resistant translation, "residual" means going beyond transparency in the use of language, even undermining it with varying degrees of violence. Such new ideas reflect the awareness of unequal relations in translation. In Venuti's view, translation cannot be a simple and egalitarian activity. It is racially superior in nature, either out of reverence for a foreign culture or out of pride in one's own culture. (Ren Shukun 2004, 57)

The positive significance of foreignization is that it can introduce and absorb foreign cultural nutrients, bring new elements to local culture and language, and thus promoting communication and penetration among different cultures and languages. At the same time, foreignization strategy makes translation alienate from the target language culture, frees the readers from the cultural spell that has confined their reading and writing, which in essence is a counteraction against the ethnocentrism in the target language culture.

===3.Application of Foreignization and Domestication===
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of cross-cultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）

When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of intercultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a process of cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to note that due to the different levels of readers, it is impossible for the translator to make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）

The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to emphasize that due to the different levels of readers, the translator can not make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

Since translation services the target readers, the translator should, no matter which translation strategy is adopted, try to think of them and build a bridge across the cultural gap between the original text and the target readers. So how to find a balance between these two strategies? On the technical level, we should stick to one principle when handling the issue of domestication and foreignization, namely a dialectical view of their relationship. With their respective advantages, the two strategies play different roles and satisfy different needs. They are not incompatible just because they have distinctive orientations.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)

In fact, no translation is completely based on a single approach of domestication or foreignization. As Lu Xun once commented, “there is no such thing as a thoroughly domesticated translation in the world. Those who claim to be so are fuzzy things that, under close examination, should not be considered as translation in proper.” A good translation is always a mix of both domestication and foreignization. Besides, we should avoid any tendency towards extremes in this matter. Only by striking a balance between those two poles can we produce a work with both original flavor and good acceptance.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)

===4.Conclusion===
Vernuti's deconstructionist view of translation shows the incoherence between the original text and the translation and that how the translator is involved in cultural production. He analyzes the power relations behind the text and gives us a new perspective on translation studies.

However, the resistant strategy that he put forward is marginalized in the translation community. The reasons are as follows. First, the word "resistant" implys the passive defensive status of this strategy and its weakness to counteract the mainstream. Second, in order to release the residues, the translator usually chooses a marginal text to resist the influence of the mainstream. Third, once the text is selected, the translation would depart from the mainstream and to create something new in terms of language, text, rhythm, narrative mode, etc. Such a translation that defies the translation tradition is hardly accepted by a large number of readers in the short term. Thus, the marginal position of Venuti's foreignizing translation strategy is inevitable.

Translation is never going in an unaffected way. Both foreignization and domestication are in fact the products of influenced translation activities. On theoretical level, it is difficult to say which is better, because translation practice shows that each of them plays an irreplaceable role in the target language and culture and fulfills its own mission.

From the perspective of development, cultural exchanges are becoming more and more frequent, and translation, as one of the forms of it, is actually a process of cultural integration. Culture itself is an open system with an inestimable capacity for tolerance, so It is easy for the target readers to accept new things from the source culture through foreignization. The translator should choose translation strategies with comprehensive considerations and find a balance between cultural equivalence and acceptability, and thus achieving the best effect of cultural exchange and literary appreciation.

There is no specific, prescriptive mode for deconstruction in Derrida’s and Venuti’s theories. The importance lies in their unrestricted thinking and revolutionary spirit, which reminds people to rethink traditions and to consider more complex factors that determine the relationship between languages. However, the deconstructionist view of translation is by no means perfect. Its deliberately pursuit of differences and disregard for unity will inevitably lead to confusion. Therefore, it is undoubtedly beneficial to translation research if we objectively see the advantages and disadvantages of the deconstructionist view of translation.

===Reference===
Fan Zhongying 范仲英. (1997).''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Course Book on Translation].北京：外语教学与研究出版社.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press

Ren Shukun任淑坤. (2004).解构主义翻译观刍议——兼论韦努蒂的翻译思想和策略 [Humble Opinions on Deconstructive Translation and Venuti's Translation Thoughts and Strategies]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Language and Their Teaching (188) 55-58.

Lin Qiuyun 林秋云. (1998).德里达的解构主义理论[Derrida’s Theories of Deconstruction].''外国文学评论''.Foreign Literature Review

Lawrence Venuti. (2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility''.上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Lawrence Venuti. (1992). ''Rethinking Translation：discourse, subjectivity, ideology''. London; New York: Routledge.

Andre Lefevere. (1992). ''Translating Literature''. New York: Modern Language Association Of America.

Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000).''翻译的理论构建与文化透视''[Theoretical Construction and Cultural Perspective of Translation].上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Eugene Nida. (2004). ''Toward A Science of Translating''.上海：上海外语教育出版社. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Liu Junping 刘军平. (2019).''西方翻译理论通史''[A General History of Western Translation Theory].湖北：武汉大学出版社. Huibei: Wuhan University Press.

Lawrence Venuti. (1998). ''The Scandals of Translation''. London; New York: Routledge.

When Hong 温弘. (2010).解构主义翻译理论及韦努蒂的翻译策略 [Deconstructive Translation Theory and Venuti's Translation Strategies]. ''甘肃科技'' Gansu Science and Technology 26(15):185-187.

Zhao Shang 赵尚. (2007).解构主义与韦努蒂的异化翻译策略 [Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization]. ''常州工学院学报(社科版)'' Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology( Social Science Edition) 25(6):75-77

Bai Xiaohong 白晓红. (2012). 论解构主义翻译观的进步性与局限性[On the Progressiveness and Limitations of the Deconstructionist View of Translation]. ''长春教育学院学报''Journal of Changchun Education Institute 28(6):20-21.

Huang Zhending 黄振定. (2005). 解构主义的翻译创造性和主体性[The creativity and subjectivity of translation in deconstructionism]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 26(1):19-22.

Feng Yihan 封一函. (2006). 论劳伦斯•韦努蒂的解构主义翻译策略[Venuti's Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''文艺研究'' Studies in Literature and Art (3):39-44.

Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略[Venuti and his Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal(1):49-52.

=Translation Aesthetics=
==Aesthetic Representation of Two Versions of Wang Wei's "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics - 凌子瑾 Ling Zijin, 202020080618==
<center>凌子瑾 Ling Zijin </center>
===Abstract===
Wang Wei is a master of landscape poetry, and his poems have important aesthetic value. "Niao Ming Jian" is a representative work of his landscape poetry, which has a relatively high aesthetic significance. Aesthetic reproduction is an important factor to judge the success of a translation. Based on Liu Miqing's theory of translation aesthetics, this paper makes a comparative analysis of the two English translation versions of "Niao Ming Jian" to explore how these two translators make the aesthetic elements in the source text reproduced in the target text.

===Key words===
Translation Aesthetics; Aesthetic Representation; Poetry Translation; Comparative Study

===题目===
翻译美学视角下译本的审美再现——以王维《鸟鸣涧》两译本为例

===摘要===
王维是山水诗的集大成者，其诗歌具有重要的美学价值，《鸟鸣涧》是王维山水诗中的代表作品，具有较高的美学研究意义。审美再现是评判译文是否成功的重要因素。本文从刘宓庆的翻译美学理论出发，对《鸟鸣涧》的两个英文译本进行对比分析，探究不同的译者是如何使得原文中的美学要素在译文中得到再现的。

===关键词===
翻译美学；审美再现；诗歌翻译；对比赏析

===1. Introduction===
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. Translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)

With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. And translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics''. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Inheriting from Tao Yuanming and Xie Lingyun and laying a foundation for the landscape poetry in Song Dynasty and Yuan Dynasty, Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem of Wang Wei, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)

Inheriting from Tao Yuanming and Xie Lingyun and laying a foundation for the landscape poetry in Song and Yuan Dynasty, Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Both Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong have made a lot of contributions to translation studies. They are recognized for their translation skills(both of them were awarded Lifetime Achievement in Translation), but they have different views on literary translation, which can be seen from the comparative study in chapter 4. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper takes "Niao Ming Jian" and its two English versions as research objects to explore how the two translators realize the aesthetic representation of the Chinese version in their English translation.(Yan Haifeng 2017)

===2. Translation Aesthetics===
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. At that time, someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)

In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. When someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style, using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages. Translation is an artistic experience of perceiving, understanding, transforming and reproducing the aesthetic information of the translation object (source language).（Yang Yanni 2010,3）

Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages.（Yang Yanni 2010,3）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics, Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）

The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Translation aesthetics holds that translation contains the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object. The aesthetic subject refers to the reader and translator of the text, while the aesthetic object refers to the target language text and the source language text. By subjectively transforming the source text, the aesthetic subject maximizes the aesthetic value of the source text into the target text in the process of transforming one language text to another, so as to ensure that the aesthetic elements in the source text can be reproduced in the target text.(Wang Wenjing 2020,7) In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing divides aesthetic object into formal system and non-formal system, that is, aesthetic appreciation of the linguistic form of the original text and the emotion expressed in the text.(Liu Miqing 2005)

The beauty in the linguistic form (including pronunciation) of the original text is aesthetically called the beauty in the form of material existence, which is usually "intuitive and sensible" and generally appeals to people's vision and hearing. In the aesthetic composition of the original text, what opposed to the representational elements is the non-representational elements. The non-formal beauty of the original language has no direct relationship with the language form, and it is usually non-intuitive. Because it is not directly reflected in the structure and form of words, sentences and sentence groups, it is usually "uncounted", which is called "non-quantitative factor".(Liu Miqing 2005)

The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language can not. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language is called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)

The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language cannot. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language are called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The "representation" of aesthetic representation is to transform the source language into the target language, and the aesthetic representation is to transform the beauty of source language into the beauty of the target language. The essence of the representation in the art of translation is to transform the introspective understanding of the source language text into an explicit and intuitive form, that is, to find the best artistic expression form for the source language.（Li Qijiu 2009,4）

===3. Appreciation of "Niao Ming Jian"===
The original text of "Niao Ming Jian"

人闲桂花落，

夜静春山空。

月出惊山鸟，

时鸣春涧中。(''Collected Tang Poem'' 1705)

The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who was perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Periond of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. This poem is the first of five poems written by Wang Wei in yunxi Villa where his friend Huangfuyue lived. It is the work about the poet’s life in Wuyunxi (namely Ruoyexi), southeast of Shaoxing County. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)

The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who were perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Period of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And we readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)

"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others can not feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader and has the similar effect with the "蝉噪林逾静，鸟鸣山更幽" of Wang Ji(a poet of Liang Dynasty). The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.

When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others cannot feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader. The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" as feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.

Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" but feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===4. Appreciation of Two English Versions of "Niao Ming Jian"===
(1) The Gully of Twittering Birds

translated by Yang Xianyi

Idly I watch the cassia petals fall;

Silent the night and empty the spring hills;

The rising moon startles the mountain bird

Which twitter fitfully in the spring gully.(Wang Dan 2014)

(2) The Dale of Singing Birds

translated by Xu Yuanchong

I hear osmanthus blooms fall unenjoyed;

When night comes, hills dissolve into the void.

The rising moon arouses birds to sing;

Their fitful twitter fills the dale with spring.(Huang Jing 2010)

====4.1 Formal System====

The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, both the 2 translators Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.(Sun Banggen 2007）

The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, the 2 translators，Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong, translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.(Sun Banggen 2007）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====4.1.1 Beauty of Rhyme=====
Zhu Guangqian thinks that "poetry is a pure literary form with melody". In literary works, especially in poetry, sound is the most basic unit of delivering aesthetic value. Although the translator cannot find the phonetic rules corresponding to Chinese poetry in English language, he can reproduce the "phonetic beauty" of the original poem by using English language rules. The beauty of rhyme in poetry mainly includes the beauty of rhythm and rhyme. First of all, in terms of rhythm, the original poem basically conforms to the basic meter of rhythmic poetry. In Yang Xianyi's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 1), the rhythm of the poem is roughly as follows: (Zhu Guangqian 1998)

/--/--/-/-/（11） /--/--/--/-（11）

-/-//--/-/（10） -/-/--/-//-（11）

In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:

In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

-/-/-/-/-/（10） -/-/-/-/-/（10）

-/-/-/-/-（9） -/-/-/-/-/（10）

The translator adopts iambic pentameter to translate the poem, which has a strong sense of rhythm and can be called as a standard English metrical poem. In terms of the representation of rhythm, both translation 1 and translation 2 are well done, while the rhythm of translation 2 is more in line with the characteristics of the original poem, so translation 2 is better.

The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of Lüshi (poetry). The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create a echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line. The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)

The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of “Lü Shi”. The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create an echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line. The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

As for the translation 2, we can find the end rhyme of the translation 2: /d/ in the first and second line; /ing/ in the third and fourth line. And the rhyme scheme of this translation is aabb. This scheme type can convey the rhythmic beauty of Chinese traditional poetry for its end rhyme is complete. In addition, the first two lines of poetry end with a phone /d/, giving us a feeling of an abrupt stop. The last two lines end with/ing/, leaving a sense of melody for the reader, which is in line with the /ong/ rhyme in the original poem. It can be said that in terms of conveying the rhythmic beauty of the original poem, translation 2 not only represents the original poem, but also makes the target text sounds better than the original one. Therefore, compared with translation 2, translation 1 is slightly inferior in representing the rhythmic beauty of original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)

=====4.1.2 Beauty of form=====
Liu Miqing (2005) believes that the beauty of symmetry and antithesis in Chinese classical literature can be called "The elegance of Beauty", which is unique to Chinese.(Liu Miqing 2005) Externally, the four lines of the original poem, with five words in each line, form regular rectangles. From the inside, we can see that the first line and the second line form a parallel structure: “人闲” and “夜静”; “桂花” to “春山”; “落” to “空”. (Tao Yingnian 2017,8) Antithesis constitutes the important factor of the beauty at the level of the form.(Liu Miqing 2005)

The beauty of the translated poem at the level of form is that its words and sentences are in accord with the length and symmetry of the original poem in antithesis and meter.In the translation 1, the number of words in each line is 7, 8, 7,and 7. In translation 2, the number of words in each line is 6, 8, 7 and 8. Both versions conform to the formal characteristics of the poem. From the appearance of the two translations, both of them have achieved the demand to translate poetry by poetry ,representing the formal characteristics of the original poem.

In terms of syllables, the number of syllables in each line of translation 1 is 11, 11, 10 and 11. The number of syllables in each line of translation 2 is 10, 10, 9 and 10. Both of the form of the two translations are in compact structure, thus achieving the representation of beauty of the original poem. In addition, the third and fourth lines of translation 2 adopt parallel structure, which to some extent represents the antithesis beauty of the original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)

====4.2 Non-formal System====
The non-formal system of poetry is mainly embodied in the artistic conception of poetry. Artistic conception is an important category in Chinese poetics. Artistic conception consists of two aspects: meaning and context. Meaning refers to subjective thoughts and feelings, while context refers to objective life and scenery. In artistic works, meaning and context blend together to form artistic conception. The conveying of artistic conception is directly related to the intuitive and sensible overall linguistic image, but the essence of its beauty is not intuitive and sensible. It usually comes from the feeling, ambition, intention of the artist and the overall artistic beauty of the work, which can easily remind us of the so-called "不著一字，尽得风流".（Li Qijiu 2009）

In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem. In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of a word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.（Wu Tong 2018,16）

In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem. In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of one word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.（Wu Tong 2018,16）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====4.2.1 Beauty of artistic conception=====
Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times, saying that "the translation must be very faithful to the original one". He doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)

Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times and he doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.

Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.(Quotation missing)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The title of the original poem is "鸟鸣涧", which is a modifier-head structure. In this structure, "鸟鸣" modifies "涧". This structure emphasizes the static state of the noun "涧". Translation 1 and 2 respectively translate the title as two noun phrases "The Gully of Twittering Birds" and "The Dale of Singing Birds" , which are similar to the modifier-head structure of the original poem. The head nouns "The Gully" and "The Dale" are modified by "of Twittering Birds" and "of Singing Birds", highlighting the quiet state of the mountain, which conforms to the artistic conception of the original poem. Two title is identical structurally, but differ in the words used.(Tao Yingnian 2017)

The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Nortern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.

The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Northern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

It can be said that translation 1 adopts literal translation while translation 2 adopts free translation. Although both of them can reflect the activity of bird, translation 2 compares it to singing, on the basis of being faithful to the original text, adds a more poetic aesthetic feeling from the aesthetic point of view, and the images described are more easily accepted by readers.

Next comes the translation of the poem's first line. First of all, in terms of the treatment of "人", both translation 1 and translation 2 add the subject "I" to translate "人" into the poet himself, because Chinese sentences do not necessarily have the subject while English must indicate the subject. Although it is difficult to achieve complete equivalence, it is also a relatively reasonable translation method. On the translation of "闲", translation 1 cut to the chase, using the word "idly" indicates that the state of the viewer, it is in line with the original text in the idle state of mind; Translation 2, which puts "unenjoyed" at the end of the line, meets the need of rhyme but adds translator's creative content. But there is not unenjoyed feeling in the original poem, so translation 1 is better here. Next, on the translation of "桂花", two translation appear difference. In translation 1, "桂花" is translated into "cassia petals". The author looked it up in the dictionary and discovered that its meaning is the petal of cinnamon tree; in translation 2 it is translated into "osmanthus blooms" , which is almost synonymous to the translation 1. Both translation 1 and translation 2 take the same way to translate it, that is, using the proper noun.

As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan An Lying in the Snow has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the way the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010）

As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan ''An Lying in the Snow'' has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the way the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the transltion of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.

Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the translation of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not respresented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)

In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not represented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The last is the translation of the fourth line. The two translations are basically the same in terms of words and translation methods, except the difference in sentence pattern. The translation 1 uses a non-restrictive attributive clause to combine the third line and the fourth line together, which means that the translator deal with the "月出" and "鸟鸣" as two simultaneous events, that is to say, there is no sequence between the moonrise and bird's singing, which is inconsistent with the original poem. The translation 2 deals these two lines with two sentences, perfectly embodying the relationship between the rise of the moon and the song of birds, which fits well with Wang Wei's state of "painting in poetry".(Zhao Dongli 2009)

===5. Conclusion===
By analyzing the two translations above, the author finds that in poetry translation Yang Xianyi attaches importance to form and Xu Yuanchong to meaning. Yang Xianyi prefers literal translation while Xu Yuanchong prefers free translation. In terms of formal system translation, Yang Xianyi's grasp of the beauty of rhyme is a little bit inferior to that of Xu Yuanchong, but in terms of the grasp of antithesis in poetry, both translators have demonstrated exquisite translation skills, each with its own advantages. Therefore, it can be seen that the mastery of source language and target language is very important in translation. In terms of the translation of non-formal systems, namely artistic conception, both translators represent the image beauty of the original poem to a large extent, but Xu Yuanchong's translation is better because Yang Xianyi uses more literal translation, which is slightly rigid. Xu's translation is more cohesive and readable, giving people a dynamic and harmonious aesthetic feeling.

Although there are differences between Chinese and Western cultures, a good translation can still represent the appearance, scenery and feelings of the original poem. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the combination of literal translation and free translation is necessary in order to realize the aesthetic representation of poetry in translation. In terms of translation, both formal system and non-formal system should be taken into account to represent the beauty of poetry in sound, form and meaning. This also gives the corresponding aesthetic requirements for the translator, the translator must constantly improve their language skills and appreciation ability, in order to achieve continuous breakthroughs in aesthetic representation.（Wang Jie 2009,4）

===References===
*Chen Jie. 陈洁. (2015). 王维山水诗的意境美. [The Beauty of Wang Wei's Landscape Poetry]. ''宁波教育学院学报''[Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education] 52-54.

*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). ''译学词典''. [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.

*Huang Jing, Li Shijun. 黄婧，李仕俊. (2010). 从翻译美学角度对比《鸟鸣涧》四种译文. [Comparison of Four Translations of "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语'' [Foreign Language] 130.

*Lao Qinyao, Luo Zhenting. 劳琴姚，罗正婷. (2017). 翻译美学视角下审美效果的再现——以《醉翁亭记》两译本为例. [ Aesthetic Representation of Two English Versions of "Zui Wen Ting Ji" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics] ''安徽文学'' [Anhui Literature] 49-51.

*Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation].

*Tao Yingnian. 陶迎年. (2017). 从音、形、意三美对比《鸟鸣涧》五种英译本.[Comparison of Five English Translations of “Niao Ming Jian” from Beauty in Sense, Sound and Style]. ''语言应用研究'' [Language Application Research] 143-145.

*Wang Li. 王力. (2000). ''诗词格律''. [The Rhythm of Poetry]. 北京：中华书局[Beijing: Zhonghua Press] 133.

*Wu Tong, Li Shuhua. 吴桐，李淑华. (2018). 从翻译美学角度看中国古诗翻译. [Study of the Translation of Ancient Chinese Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English] 151.

*Wang Jie. 王洁. (2020). 杨宪益文学翻译思想探析.[The Study of Yang Xianyi's Thought on Literary Translation]. ''西安文理学院学报'' [Journal of Xi'an College of Literature and Science] 111.

*Xie Wenli. 谢文利. (1989). ''诗歌美学''. [Aesthetics of Poetry]. 北京: 中国青年出版社[Beijing: China Youth Press].

*Yu Shucheng. 余恕诚. (1983).''唐诗鉴赏辞典''. [A dictionary for Appreciating Tang Poetry]. 上海辞书出版社[Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House] 183-185.

*Zhu Guangqian. 朱光潜. (1998).''诗论''. [Poetry Theory].北京：生活读书新知三联书店[Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company].

==An Chinese Aesthetic Study on Ezra Pound's Four Poems of Departure in ''Cathay'' - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" 石迪文 Shi Diwen==

===Abstract===

At the dawn of the 21st century, Ezra Pound, intrigued by Chinese classical poetry, gave fresh impetus to the American New Poetry Movement. One of his works in this period, ''Cathay'', involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn P eriod (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reached its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. The study is focused on its four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai (李白), including "Separation on the River Kiang", "Taking Leave of a Friend", "Leave-taking near Shoku" and "The City of Choan". Its main contents involve interpretation and further exploration of the Chinese classic aesthetic values in Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" principle, by which it will prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses some Chinese classical aesthetic concepts.

===Key Words===

Ezra Pound, ''Cathay'', Chinese classical aestheticism, Beauty in Sense Principle

===题目===

从许渊冲意美原则来看庞德《华夏集》中离别诗四首的中国美学研究

===摘要===

二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗，横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)到李白诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，这段时期中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰, 孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于四首诗人挑选成章的离别诗，均来自李白诗歌，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》。论文主要内容是从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和进一步发现庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值。通过这种方式，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中仍具有中国古典美学观念。

二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗。这19首中国古典诗横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)跨越到了李白创作诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，在这一段历史时期，中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰。孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于李白的四首离别诗，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》，从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和探索庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值，基于这一研究，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中具有的中国古典美学观念。--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 12:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)
===关键词===

伊兹拉 · 庞德，《华夏集》，中国古典美学，意美原则

===Introduction===

Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation about his Cathay, a creative translation of nineteen Chinese poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated.

The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.

(格式调整段首应顶格)Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation since the first appearance of his ''Cathay''（书名格式更改）, a collection of nineteen poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. ''Cathay'' （书名格式更改）was published in 1915 when the Western countries suffered an alarming death toll in the First World War. During that time, litterateurs were so drown in the darkness of terror and suspicion that they felt lost and trapped in despair.（这一句拆分为两句是否更好） While in this period Pound found his Muse in Chinese classic poetry. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected(定语前置) and （be动词丢失）translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated.（最后一句太长，建议拆分为两句）--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 12:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

(格式调整段首应顶格)The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its （Its指代不明，是指该篇论文吗）main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:05, 14 December 2020 (UTC)
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)
===The Introduction of Xu Yuanchong’s “Beauty in Sense” Principle===

Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”
In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “object observed by object (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》),” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉，2004: 1) Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.

(格式调整段首应顶格)Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:17, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

(格式调整段首应顶格)In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “observing things from every aspects (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》)” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉2004: 1) Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:17, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

===The Sense Beauty in Four Poems of Departure===

Four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai and concerned with the theme of parting from Pound’s views of point, are " Separation on the River Kiang "(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) , " Taking Leave of a Friend " (《送友人》), " Leave-taking near Shoku " (《送友人入蜀》) and " The City of Choan " (《登金陵凤凰台》) respectively. Li Bai, a famous poet in the Tang Dynasty at its most prosperous time, always had the ambition for political achievement under the influence of Confucianism but with most of his talent in poetry he failed and exiled to the south-west. In his life, he never settled down, and the restless energy of his life found its counterpart both in the speed with which he set down his compositions and in their propulsive sweep while the vigour and flamboyance of much of Li Bai’s poetry hides a deep core of loneliness. (Vikram Seth, 1992: 19) Impacted by Taoism, His emotion always seems to be related with the Nature and even the speaker in poem seemingly becomes superseded by the natural things while the emotion exists, flowing in a harmonious natural space of poetry. What’s more, the four poems following the tradition of Confucian philosophy in poetry turn an emotional surge into trickles of feelings.

====The Sense Beauty in "Separation on the River Kiang"====

"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are:

黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵
（唐）李白
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。

Separation on the River Kiang
By Ezra Pound
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.
His lone sail blots the far sky.
And now I see only the river,
The long Kiang, reaching heaven.

In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.
From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature.

Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.

(格式调整段首应顶格)"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are:（格式调整，段落之间空格）

黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵

（唐）李白

故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。

孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。

Separation on the River Kiang

By Ezra Pound

KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,

The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.

His lone sail blots the far sky.

And now I see only the river,

The long Kiang, reaching heaven.
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:22, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

(格式调整段首应顶格)In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

(格式调整段首应顶格)From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

(格式调整首段应顶格)Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

====The Sense Beauty in “Taking Leave of a Friend”====

"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:

送友人
（唐）李白
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。
浮云游子意，落日故人情。
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。

Taking Leave of a Friend
By Ezra Pound
Blue mountains to the north of the walls,
White river winding about them;
Here we must make separation
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass.
Mind like a floating wide cloud.
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.
Our horses neigh to each other
as we are departing.

The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective:

Our horses neigh to each other
as we are departing.

The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way.
Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness.
Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.

"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:

送友人

（唐）李白

青山横北郭，白水绕东城。（格式调整，段落之间空格） --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。

浮云游子意，落日故人情。

挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。

Taking Leave of a Friend（格式调整，段落之间空格）

By Ezra Pound

Blue mountains to the north of the walls,

White river winding about them;

Here we must make separation

And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass.

Mind like a floating wide cloud.

Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances

Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.

Our horses neigh to each other as we are departing.
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective:

Our horses neigh to each other as we are departing.

(格式调整段首应顶格)The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

(格式调整段首应顶格)Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

(格式调整段首应顶格)Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

====The Sense Beauty in “Leave-taking near Shoku”====

"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:

送友人入蜀
（唐）李白
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。
山从人面起，云傍马头生。
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。
升沉应已定，不必问君平。

Leaving-taking near Shoku
By Ezra Pound
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,
Sheer as the mountains.
The walls rise in a man’s face,
Clouds grow out of the hill
at his horse’s bridle.
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin,
Their trunks burst through the paving,
And freshets are bursting their ice
in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.

Men’s fates are already set,
There is no need of asking diviners.

In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.
However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.
By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.

(格式调整段首应顶格)"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:

送友人入蜀

（唐）李白

见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。

山从人面起，云傍马头生。

芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。

升沉应已定，不必问君平。

Leaving-taking near Shoku

By Ezra Pound

THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,Sheer as the mountains.

The walls rise in a man’s face,Clouds grow out of the hill at his horse’s bridle.

Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin, Their trunks burst through the paving, And freshets are bursting their ice in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.

Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

(格式调整段首应顶格)In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

(格式调整段首应顶格)However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

(格式调整段首应顶格)By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

====The Sense Beauty in “The City of Choan”====

The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original.

登金陵凤凰台
(唐)李白
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。

The City of Choan
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.
The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.
Flowers and grass
Cover over the dark path
Where lay the dynastic house of the Go.
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin
Are now the base of old hills.

The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,
The isle of White Heron
splits the two streams apart.
Now the high clouds cover the sun
And I can not see Choan afar
And I am sad.

In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.
In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty
Both metaphor and emotional expression is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.
When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said :

Heaven and Earth are not kind.
They regard all things as offerings.
The sage is not kind.
He regards people as offerings.
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?
It is empty, but lacks nothing.
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.
A multitude of words is tiresome,
Unlike remaining centered.

[ Translated by Stenudd, Stefan. “天地不仁，以万物为刍狗；圣人不仁，以百姓为刍狗。天地之间，其犹橐龠乎？虚而不屈，动而俞出。多闻数穷，不若守于中”(《道德经》第五章) ]

(格式调整段首应顶格)The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

登金陵凤凰台

(唐)李白

凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。

吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。

三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。

总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。

The City of Choan

THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.

Flowers and grass cover over the dark path where lay the dynastic house of the Go.

The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin are now the base of old hills.

The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart.

Now the high clouds cover the sun and I can not see Choan afar.

And I am sad.

(格式调整段首应顶格)In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

(格式调整段首应顶格)In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty-both metaphor and emotional expression—is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

(格式调整段首应顶格)When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said :

Heaven and Earth are not kind.

They regard all things as offerings.

The sage is not kind.

He regards people as offerings.

Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?

It is empty, but lacks nothing.

The more it moves, the more comes out of it.

A multitude of words is tiresome,

Unlike remaining centered.

[ Translated by Stenudd, Stefan. “天地不仁，以万物为刍狗；圣人不仁，以百姓为刍狗。天地之间，其犹橐龠乎？虚而不屈，动而俞出。多闻数穷，不若守于中”(《道德经》第五章) ]--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

===Conclusion===

All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension; “Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original.
In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.

(格式调整段首应顶格)All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension; “Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

(格式调整段首应顶格)In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

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[2] Ieong, Sao Leng Sylvia. The Sources of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay'': Fenollosa’s Notebooks and the Original Chinese Texts[J]. Comparative Literature: East &West, 2001, 2(1): 142-153.
[3] Lin，Yutang．“Chuangtse，Mystic and Humorist” in The Wisdom of China[M]. London: Michael Joseph，1949．（没有标明页码）
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[6] Seth, Vikram. ''Three Chinese Poets: Translations of poems by Wang Wei, Li Bai, and Du Fu''[M]. New York: HarperPerennial, 1992（没有标明页码）--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)
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==A Study on the Four Levels of Translation Based on Newmark’s Theory 张玲 Zhang Ling, 202070080623==

Zhang Ling, Student no. 202070080623

===Abstract===

Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. British translation theorist Newmark once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.

Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. Peter Newmark, a British translation theorist once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Key Words===

textual level; referential level; cohesive level; level of naturalness

===题目===

从纽马克的翻译理论看翻译的四个层次

===摘要===

传统的翻译标准一直将“信”摆在首位，即“忠实”，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。

传统的翻译标准一直将“信”即“忠实”摆在首位，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===关键词===

文本层次所指层次粘着层次自然层次

===Textual Level===

Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, this is the first level that translators should pay attention to, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)

Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, it is the first level that translators should concern, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 11:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)

To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word which has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

E.g.1

SL text: It is quite another story now.

TL text：现在情况完全不同了。

E.g.2

SL text: The white-haired girl's story is one of the saddest.

TL text: 白毛女的遭遇可算是最悲惨的。

E.g.3

SL text: A young man came to police station with a story.

TL text: 一个年轻人来到警察局报案。

Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word “story”, but its meaning is different like black and white when it is translated. In the first sentence, “story” means “situation” or “case”, and the sentence means that things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means “experience”, and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, “story” means “law case”, and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.

Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word "story", but its meaning is different like "black and white" when it is translated. In the first sentence, "story" means "situation" or "case", and the sentence means things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means "experience", and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, "story" means "law case", and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may produce some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong.

Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may make some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

E.g.4

SL text:Tom was upsetting the other children, so I show him the door.

TL text 1: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他带到门那去。

TL text 2: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他撵出去了。

E.g.5

SL text: His irritation could not withstand the silent beauty of the night.

TL text 1: 他的烦恼不能承受夜晚宁静的美丽。

TL text 2: 面对着宁静的良宵美景，他的烦恼烟消云散了。

It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not simple literal correspondence. It should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.

It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not just simple literal correspondence. Instead, it should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Referential Level===

The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text. This is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)

The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text, which is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In order to deliver the exact referential meaning, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original text. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)

In order to deliver the exact referential meanings, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

E.g. 6

SL text: Knowledge is a comfortable and necessary retreat and shelter for us in an advanced age; and if we don’t plant it while young, it will give us no shade when we grow old. (Philip Chesterfield)

TL text 1：知识是我们老年时舒适而又必需的精神归宿。如果我们年轻时不种它，它就不会在我们年老时给我们提供树荫。

TL text 2：知识是人生老年期舒适而又必需的精神归宿。如果年轻时不种下知识之树，老年时就得不到树荫的遮蔽。

From the two translations, it is not difficult to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor “it” refers to “knowledge”, and the first translation omits this metaphor, which makes readers don’t what it is talking about.

From the two translations, it is obvious to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor "it" refers to "knowledge", and the first translation omits this metaphor, which may makes readers don’t what it is talking about.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

E.g. 7

SL text: Mr. and Mrs. Brown were talking about their neighbors, Mr. and Mrs. Smith, and their new house.

“He must be making a good income to be able to live in a house like that,” said he, “to say nothing of the car they have. It’s a Rolls.”

“Oh,I don’t think he makes much money,” she replied, “but I fancy she has a private income.”

“I wonder whether they paid for it themselves or whether her parents gave it to her,” he said．

She answered, “Yes, they bought it after a lucky week with the football pools. But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.”

“I know which of the two I would sooner have,” was his comment．

TL text：布朗先生和布朗夫人在谈论他们的新邻居———史密斯先生和史密斯夫人，以及他们的新房子。

“他能够住那么好的房子一定收入颇丰，”布朗先生说，“更不必说他们开的车了，是辆劳斯莱斯。”

“哦，我不认为他能赚很多钱，”布朗太太答道， “但我猜史密斯夫人有私人收入。”

“我怀疑这房子是他们自己买的还是史密斯夫人的父母给她的。”布朗先生说。

布朗夫人回答说: “是啊，他们在赢了一次足球六合彩之后买了这房子。但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是史密斯夫人的而不是史密斯先生的。”

“我知道我宁可拥有这二者中哪一个。”布朗先生评论说。

In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into “布朗先生” and “布朗夫人”, and “史密斯先生” and “史密斯夫人” in this translation version, rather than “他” or “她”. If the sentence “But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” is translated into “但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的”，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.

In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into "布朗先生" and "布朗夫人", and "史密斯先生" and "史密斯夫人" in Chinese translation version, rather than "他" or "她". If the sentence "But as for the car, I can't speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his." is translated into "但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的"，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Cohesive Level===

Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators can not completely copy the way of connection of the original text in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)

Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators may not completely copy the way of connection of the original in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sentences are sometimes very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)

There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sometimes are very long sentences and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Some SL texts seem to be correct in every sentence, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)

Some SL texts seem to be correct, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. Sometimes English sentences may be very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)

In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. When translated English into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

E.g. 8

ST text: At the opening banquet, Nixon seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position by saying, “there are of course some who believe that the mere act of saying a statement of principles or a diplomatic conference will bring lasted peace. This is naïve.”

TL text: 尼克松在欢迎宴会上说：“当然，有些人认为只要发表一项声明或举行一次外交会议就能带来持久和平。这是天真的想法。” 他这番话似乎是在阐述东道国的立场。

Here in this sentence, the structure of the source language text has been rearranged and the word order has been changed in order to ensure the fluency of target language, In Chinese, the subject usually comes first and summative words are usually put at the end. Therefore, in the TL text “Nixon” is put at the first and the position of “seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position” is put at the end. (Zhuang Yichuan, 2002, 224)

E.g. 9

ST text: Well, you can imagine how it was with a young fellow who had never been taken notice of before, and now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere; couldn’t sit abroad without constantly overhearing the remark flying from lip to lip, “ There he goes; that’s him!” couldn’t take his breakfast without a crowd to look on; couldn’t appear in an opera-box without concentrating there the fire of a thousand lorgnettes. Why, I just swam in glory all day long -- that is the amount of it.

TL text: 你可以想象得到那是什么滋味：一个年轻小伙子，从来没有被人注意过，现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去；随便到哪走动一下，总不免听见人家一个个辗转相告：“那儿走着的就是他，就是他！”吃早餐的时候，也老是有一大堆人围着看；一到歌剧院的包厢。就会使得无数观众的望远镜的火力都集中到自己身上。哎，我简直就是一天到晚在荣耀中过日子——十足是那个味道。

The source language text is a long sentence, so it is necessary to take sentence segmentation into consideration. Otherwise, it may make the translation cumbersome and unintelligible. It's widely believed that the most important difference between English and Chinese is hypotaxis and parataxis and English belongs to hypotaxis language. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes “you can imagine how it was” a sentence alone, and “now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere” is rearranged as four short sentences as “现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去”. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)

English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and Chinese sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes "you can imagine how it was" a sentence alone, and "now all of a sudden couldn't say a thing that wasn't taken up and repeated everywhere" is rearranged as four short sentences as "现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去". (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''Level of Naturalness'''===

The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. “In all ‘communicative translation’, whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential” (Newmark, 2001, 26).

The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. "In all 'communicative translation', whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential" (Newmark, 2001, 26). --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure “(a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation.” (Newmark, 2001, 24)

In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure the following principles: (a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation. (Newmark, 2001, 24) --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language, and in literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, “the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language” is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)

It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language. In literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, "the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language" is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator may as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)

There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator could as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation work and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

E.g. 10

SL text: Then Lieutenant Grub launched into the old recruiting routine, “See, save and serve! Hannigan, free tour to all the ports in the world. A fine ship for a home. Three meals a day without charge... You mustn’t let such a golden opportunity slip by.”

TL text: 于是，格拉布上尉开始说起招兵的老一套了：“见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力！汉尼根，免费周游世界上所有的港口。一艘上好的船为家，一天三餐不要钱。......你千万不要错过这样大好的机会呀！”

English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. Here in the ST text, the sentence “See, save and serve!” only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”. Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs “see”, “save”, and “ serve” that refers to “see the world”, “save some money” and “do something for the country” are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”

English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. In the above ST text, the sentence "See, save and serve!" only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs "see",
"save", and "serve" that refers to "see the world", "save some money" and "do something for the country" are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

E.g. 11

SL text: The English arrived in North America with hopes of duplicating the exploits of the Spanish in South America, where explores had discovered immense fortunes in gold and silver. Although Spain and England shared a pronounced lust for wealth, differences between the two countries were profound.

TL text 1: 英国人抱着和西班牙人开拓南美洲一样的动机来到北美洲，西班牙的探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。虽然西班牙和英国都同样明显地贪图财富，但是两国的文化却存在着很大的差异。

TL text 2: 当年西班牙探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。英国人来到北美洲的动机也如出一辙。尽管两国对财富的贪欲同样强烈，但是两国在文化上却存在着巨大的差异。

Here in this sentence, the original text contains a attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.

Here in this sentence, the original text contains an attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

E.g. 12

SL text: Her ascent of the crooked staircase was a slower process, and her face, as it rose into the light above the last stair, encountered the gaze of all the party assembled in the bedroom．

TL text: 她脚步缓慢地攀登着弯弯曲曲的楼梯，当她登上最后一级楼梯、脸膛从暗处进入亮处的时候，意外地发现聚集在室内的人们把目光全都转向了她。

In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain several verbs. Here in this TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.

In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain many verbs. In the above TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''Conclusion'''===

Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, thus maintaining the integrity of the text.

Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, maintaining the integrity of the text. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structure should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)

In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structures should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's job is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)

In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's responsibility is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)

As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation work as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The level of naturalness is the basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)

The level of naturalness is a basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his or her translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation under the guidance of theory is much more mature than blind translation.

However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation works under the guidance of theory are much more mature than blind translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theory, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his translation theory and skills.

Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theories, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his or her translation theories and skills.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''References'''===

[1]. Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.

[2]. Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.

[3]. Luo Jinde, Chen Anding 罗进德，陈定安. (1998). 英汉比较与翻译 [Comparison and Translation Between English and Chinese]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation].

[4]. Qian Gechuan 钱歌川. (2011). 翻译的技巧[The Technique of Translation].世界图书出版社[World Book Press].

[5] Xu Ling, Lin Jian, Zhang Ying 许玲, 林健, 张莹. (2005). 浅析翻译的层次[Simple Analysis on Translation Levels]. 天津：天津职业大学[Tianjin: Tianjin Professional College].

[6]. Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2009). 英汉翻译教程[A Course in English-Chinese Translation]. 上海：上海外国语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].

[7]. Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. (2002). 英汉翻译简明教程[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社[Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].

==A Study on Translatability and Untranslatability of English and Chinese Puns and Corresponding Strategies of Translation 曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan 202070080579 英语笔译==

===Abstract===
Pun is a widely used rhetorical device. It is greatly favored by people because of its humor and rich connotation. But pun translation is very difficult due to its particularity and complexity. This paper analyzes the translatability and untranslatability of pun respectively, and explores the relevant translation strategies.

===摘要===

双关语是一种使用广泛的修辞手法。因其幽默诙谐，内涵丰富的语言效果深受人们喜爱，但中英互译时，由于双关语的特殊性和复杂性，双关语翻译显得十分困难。本文分别对双关语翻译中的可译性与不可译性进行了探析，并对其相关翻译策略进行有关探索。

===Key Words===
Key words: puns, translatability, untranslatability, corresponding translation strategies

===关键词===

关键词：双关语可译性不可译性相应翻译策略

=== Introduction ===

Rhetoric is an important part of language and a significant means to improve the effect of language expression, and it is a language form with rich connotation. As one of the rhetorical devices, pun can increase the sense of humor and irony, so it is widely used in poetry, novels, advertisements and riddles. However, due to the particularity of pun, pun translation is often a difficulty. Translation researchers have been arguing about whether puns are translatable for a long time.

This paper firstly introduces the definition of pun—pun is a rhetorical way to make certain words or sentences convey double meanings that is, one meaning on the surface, but another meaning in fact. Secondly, it introduces the three main categories of puns - phonetic, semantic and grammatical puns, and analyzes the three classifications and the three main translation strategies—literal translation, free translation and annotation through examples. Through the analysis of examples, it analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of the three kinds of pun translation strategies, and points out that the translator should not only accurately convey semantic information, but also recreate rhetoric in the translation, providing the same feeling to readers that they have in reading the original text and translation.

=== 1. Definition of pun ===

The word “pun” was originated from a Latin word “paranomasia”, which refers to “similar in look and semantic meaning”. According to Cihai, “pun” is a rhetorical device that intentionally uses homophone or phonogram and polysemy words which can generate equivocality in order to punningly express what the speaker is really trying to say. （Cong Laiting，Xu Luya，2007）So the pun word makes the sentence contain double meaning: the superficial meaning, and deep meaning, because of which pun also can make the language humorous, concise, powerful and meaningful, leaving a deep impression to the audience. It is used widely in our life, such as films and television, advertisements, news, literary works and daily dialogues.

American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, what the customer actually want to express is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days make one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.

=== 2. Three Main Types of Puns ===

“Pun has many types, including homophonic pun同音双关, paranomasia 近音双关, antalaclasis同词异义双关语,sylleptic pun一词多义双关,asteismus歧解双关语, irony反语,innuendo暗讽,satire讥讽, rhetorical question 修辞问句and allegory讽喻.”（Cong Laiting, Xu Luya, 2007）But we can mainly divided them into three types: phonetic puns, semantic puns, and grammatical puns.

The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun is created by using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive.

Take the following dialogues as examples:

Homophonic pun

Eg. 1. -What is the most contradictory sign in a library?
-To speak aloud is not allowed. (Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 51)
In this dialogue, “aloud” has the same pronunciation with “allowed”, which may sounds like“ To speak aloud is not aloud”, making the dialogue more contradictory, so as to answer the question.

Eg. 2. -King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son—how is it that the clouds still hang on you?
-Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196)
In the dialogue, “son” pronounces the same as “sun”, and Hamlet’s reply seemingly is to directly answer the King, but the true meaning of his words is that “I don’t want to be your son anymore”, expressing his aversion to the king.

Paranomasia

Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001,161)
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should have done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.

Antalaclasis

Eg.4. -Teacher: George, can you give Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address?
-George: No, but I can give you his original address—the White House in Washington D.C.
What makes the conversation so funny is that the student misunderstood “address”, which teacher meant to give a speech, but the student thought it stands for the home address. Another possibility is that the student interpreted deliberately the “address” to the wrong meaning, so that he could avoid reciting the speech.

Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leave strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.

Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leaves strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.

The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really want to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and are also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples.

Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007, 193)
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grown, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.

Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?
-Prison for life.
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which add interest.

Eg.8. Women have a wonderful sense of right and wrong, but have little sense of right and left. The “rights” have two meanings in the sentence, the first of which refers to “correct”, being the opposite of wrong, and the second one means a direction. Adding puns here makes language be heavy with sarcasm.

The third type is grammatical puns, in which the structure of the sentence is changed so that the meaning of the sentence is also changed. Here’s an example.

Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196）
The word “flies” functions as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. With the change of grammatical puns, the meaning has also been changed.

=== 3. Translatability of Puns ===

Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because that it convey different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translator may fail to translate both meanings while keeping the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences was real, which was called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965，93 )

The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, but human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily life. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. (Li Hanji, 2013,135)

Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things have accompanied with many new words, which enriches languages of different countries, and makes it easier to understand other languages. (An Wenjing, 2010,71)

Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Please look at some examples that show translatability of puns.

Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.

Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。Although both versions are correct, they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.

Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny it’s a successful translation of puns.

Eg.11. 人曾为僧，人弗可以成佛
女卑是婢，女又何妨称奴

A famous Chinese translator Qian Gechuan thought the two sentences couldn’t be translated, but another excellent translator Xu Yuanchong gave his translation as follows:
A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha,
A maiden may be made a house maid.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）

The original text is a pair of couplets, which originated from such a story.
One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapprove. She wrote the former part of couplet and asked a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willing to admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.

Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master.
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.

The examples above show that some puns can be translated by changing the pronunciation and form of the words. We can also find that puns that are currently considered translatable have similar cultural backgrounds in target language and original language, so that translators can find the most appropriate words to translate.

=== 4. Untranslatability of Puns ===

Although translators have made unremitting efforts to turn “untranslatable” puns into “translatable”, there are still many people who think that puns are untranslatable. This chapter will discuss the untranslatability of puns.
A Chinese Scholar Liu Miqing put forward the concept of "translatability limit" in Contemporary Translation Theories, in which he proposed that humor and puns in a language are almost untranslatable. Humor often results from the cleverness and skills of using words. Such words and intentions often disappear in translation of puns .(Liu Miqing, 1998:92)
Those who support the view that puns are untranslatable hold that the historical and cultural backgrounds, psychological thinking habits, regional cultures and religious beliefs of different ethnic groups are reflected in their own languages, so that the languages of various nationalities and countries have their own unique personalities. Therefore, it is impossible to find a word in target language which can completely keep the rhetorical devices, styles, and characteristics of original language. Here are some examples.

Eg. 12. What does the lawyer do after he dies?
He lies still.
(1). 那个律师死后干什么？
静静地躺着。
The word “lies” has two meanings, the first of which is to lie down, the second one is to make up a story, and “still” also conveys double meanings, one of which is motionless, another is as usual. However, the translation can only deliver the first meaning of the two words, so that readers can’t feel it interesting.

Eg.13.A professor tapped on his desk and shouted “ Gentlemen—order!”
The entire class yelled: “Beer!”
一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”
In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, means quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.
All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words maybe untranslatable, but try to find the best way to translate them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.

In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, meaning quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.
All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words may be untranslatable, but we should try to find the best way to translate them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:25, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing

=== 5. Corresponding Translation Strategies ===

No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. For the translator, he should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, he can not understand the originality of the author. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understand the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.
In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.
1. Literal translation, the simplest and the most direct translation method, which is to translate source languages directly into the target language according to the literal meaning, while maintaining the same semantics as the original pun. However, it is difficult to express the sense of humor in the original text for some puns translation, and the rhetorical devices of polysemy of the original pun may also be lost. Take translation of examples 2 and 6 as examples,

No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. For the translator, he should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, he can not understand the originality of the author. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understands the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.
In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing

Eg.(2)国王：我的侄儿，哈姆雷特，我的儿。为什么你满目愁云呢？
哈姆雷特：不，陛下。我在太阳下待得太久了。(Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196)
Although the literal translation does not directly show the relationship between "sun" and "son", the word “太” implies the meaning of complaint in Chinese. Combining with the context, the word "sun" also represents the king in ancient China, so readers can also feel the deep meaning in the literal translation.

Eg. (5) “我们必须抱成一团，否则我们将会被单独绞死。” (Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196) Through literal translation, this sentence is indeed easy to understand. Readers can figure out the content of the sentence at a glance, but it does not form a pun, and lacks a sense of humor.

2. Free translation is more frequently used in pun translation, which mainly emphasizes on the target language, keeping fluency of the target language and retaining a sense of humor to a great extent. Here are the free translation of the 7th, 13rd and 15th examples.
Eg.(6) 树上不能生钱，但我们“枝”行能啊。(This translation is translated by myself.)
Although it is not the best version, it is also an attempt to translate a pun. We may as well analyze its advantages and disadvantages. In this translation, "枝" is used to represent the word branches, corresponding to the “tree” in first half of the sentence. “枝”and “支” are homonymous, and “支行” refers to branch bank. Marking “枝” with quotation marks, which can easily remind readers of the word "branch" and form a homonymous pun with a light tone. The disadvantage is that the word “枝行” does not exist in Chinese, which may lead to incomprehension to some people and the expression is quite colloquial, being informal if the translation is used in formal occasion.

Eg.(12)那个律师死后还能干什么？
躺着说鬼话。（马红军，2000:34）
The beauty of this translation is that the word “鬼话” in Chinese has both meaning of "ghost’s (dead) words" and "untrue words", which not only retains the form of pun in the target language, but also achieves the effect of humor.

Eg.(14)What’s the flower that everyone have? Tulips.
人人都有什么花？泪花(Ma Hongjun, 2009,16)
The translation maybe a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keep the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” is consist of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator keep the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.

The translation maybe a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keeps the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” consists of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator kept the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing

3. Annotation is often used when literal translation or free translation can not fully express the meaning of the source text. Its advantage is that it can make the reader fully understand the double meaning of the pun in source text, but the disadvantage is that it will greatly lose the sense of humor of the pun. Therefore, adding annotation is often the last choice in pun translation. Take examples 5 and 14 for example.

Eg.(4) 老师：乔治，你能给我们做林肯的葛底斯堡演讲吗？
乔治：不能，但我能给你林肯住址—他以前住在华盛顿白宫。（address在英文中既有演讲也有住址的意思，乔治还以为老师问他要林肯住址呢）
There is no word in Chinese that have both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.

There is no word in Chinese that has both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing

13. 一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”（order既表安静也有点单之义，学生故意曲解教授意思，让教授哭笑不得）

Readers can easily understand the meaning of this translation, but some underlying punchlines are totally imperceptible.

As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and could also gave a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation. In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns. They can take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.

As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and could also give a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation. In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns. They can take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing

=== 6. Conclusion ===

This paper mainly discusses whether pun is translatable or not. By giving examples of some classic puns, this paper elaborates the classification of puns, and analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of three main strategies in pun translation: literal translation, free translation and annotation.

From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopts some methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words.
Secondly, the author thinks that free translation is the most appropriate strategy in the three strategies of pun translation, because it is more important for readers to have the same feeling when reading the pun in the translation and in the original text, and to realize the humor and deep meaning. Then is literal translation. However, it seems that the best translated puns in literal translation are those with similar cultural backgrounds in both languages. For example, the word "sun" in example 2 has the meaning of emperor or supreme authority in both the original context and the target language. Therefore, readers can also realize that the translation means something other than what it’s saying. The final choice is annotation, which can express the content of the original text directly, but the sense of humor and the form of pun are lost to a great extent. Of course, there are still many deficiencies in this paper, for example, the examples is not representative enough; the language is not refined; the classification of puns is not explained in detail, and the translatability and untranslatability of puns are not analyzed according to the text type. The paper can be improved through several aspects below: firstly, by analyzing a large number of classic texts, puns in what kind of text type are translatable, and untranslatable can be summarized. Secondly, deepening the depth of this paper by guiding under a specific theory.

From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopt some methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:33, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing

=== 7. References ===

Catford, JC.卡特福德 (1965).翻译的语言学理论 [A Linguistic Theory of Translation]牛津大学出版社 Oxford University Press.93

Cong Laiting, Xu Luya丛莱庭，徐鲁亚. (2007).西方修辞学[Wester Rhetoric].上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press

Yao Jinhong姚金红. (2001).英语双关的修辞特点[ The Rhetorical Features of English Puns] 唐都学刊 Tangdu Journal (17) 161

Tong Kaiwen 佟凯文. (2017) 双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Rhetoric of Pun and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square.(11) 021-022

Zhao Yuqing赵雨晴. (2019) 浅析英语双关语及其翻译[Brief Analysis on English Puns and Their Translation].青年文学家Youth Literator (30) 196.

Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin张欢,龚晓斌. (2008) 双关语的可译性限度及其翻译补偿策略初探[The Translatability Limit of Pun and Its Translation Compensation Strategies]牡丹江大学学报 Journal of Mudanjiang University (07) 99-101.

Tong Kaiwen, Li Xianjin佟凯文,李先进. (2017)双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Pun Rhetoric and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square (11):51-52.

Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping曹顺发,黄健平.(2001) 浅谈“双关语”的可译性[ On the Translatability of Puns] 重庆交通学院学报(社会科学版) Journal of Chongqing Jiaotong University ( Social Science) (01):31-32.

Xu Min徐敏. (2007)论双关语的可译性及不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun]外语教育Foreign Language Education (00):193-197.

Lu Jie吕杰. (2008)浅论双关的不可译性[ On the Untranslatability of Pun] 科技信息Science and Technology Information (31):145+168.

Wei Lingmin魏玲敏. (2009)浅议双关语的可译性[On the Translatability of Pun]科技信息Science and Technology Information (19):98+93.

An Wenjing安文婧. (2010)双关翻译中的可译性和不可译性以及双关翻译方法[Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun and Its Translation Methods] 中国科教创新导刊 China Education Innovation Heral (05):71-72.

Li Hanji李晗佶. (2013) 双关语的可译性探索[Explorations of Translatability of Pun] 青年文学家 Youth Literator (32):135.

==The Untranslatability of Chinese Classic Poems and its Translation Strategies姚诚 Yao Cheng ==

<center> 姚诚 Yaocheng 202020080661</center>

===Abstract===
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our study. Though poems translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poems from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.

It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our studying. Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poetry from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 02:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Key words===
poetry translation, untranslatability, translatability, translation strategies
===摘要===
通常认为，诗歌翻译是所有文本类型翻译中难度最大，要求最高，甚至可能是最有研究价值的类型。虽然人们一直在进行翻译实践，关于诗歌翻译的理论数量也远远多于散文或者诗歌翻译的理论，但是对于诗歌可译与否甚至是可译性的定义都有很大的争议。此文将首先讨论不可译性的本质，然后分别从诗歌的意象，意境，典故使用，声音和形式这几个方面讨论诗歌的可译性，然后提出一些相应的翻译策略以指导我们的翻译实践。

===关键词===
诗歌翻译，不可译性，可译性，翻译策略
===Introduction===
Poetry is some sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poems powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poems though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)

Poetry is a sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poetry powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poetry though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinion about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different language(Rao Weimin 2012,14).

Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinions about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different languages(Rao Weimin 2012,14).--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated from sense, sound and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these three aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our actual translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)

However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated from sense, sound and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these three aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===The untranslatability of poetry===
====The nature of untranslatability====
Though there are numerous scholars in home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and cultural are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)

Though there are numerous scholars at home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and cultural are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods.
Some scholar simply maintained that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14).

But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods.
Some scholars simply maintain that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14).--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 05:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

For example
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation:
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)

For example
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation:
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 05:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, they concluded that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)

Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, some scholars conclude that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)

However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Thus, Xu Yuanchong concluded there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gives the following example:
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)

Thus, Xu Yuanchong concludes there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gives the following example:
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)
--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

(1)“Flowing waters and faded flowers are gone forever
As far apart as heaven is form earth” (Tr. Chu Dagao)

(2)“The river flows –
The blossoms fall –
Spring going – gone
in Heaven as on earth ”(Tr. Lin Tongji)

(3)“One’s spring and youth has passed
never to return
One’s destiny is not of heaven’s
Concern.” (Tr. Xu Zhongjie)

(4)“Without flowers fallen on the waves
Spring’s gone away
So is the paradise of yesterday.” (Tr. X.Y.Z) (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)
--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the author within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)

Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the translator within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability to fall into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)

When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability falls into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least in this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)

Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least to this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====The untranslatability of imagery====
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. This illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)

Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. It illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery:
At first, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)

When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery:
First, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Chinse imagerys boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.

Chinse imageries boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

On the basis of its appealing to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. (Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)

On the basis of its appeal to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. (Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。”
At dawn I left the walled city of White King,
Towering among the many-colored clouds;
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling.
The screams of monkeys on either bank
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear
When my skiff had left behind it
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)

For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。”
At dawn I left the walled city of White King,
Towering among the many-colored clouds;
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling.
The screams of monkeys on either bank
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear
When my skiff had left behind it
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of dynamic is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)

“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of the dynamic imagery is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)

Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in Chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====The untranslatability of “yijing”====
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the sprit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets us concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)

The artistic kingdom has been sung high of it throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the sprit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets use concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元)
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”
River Snow
A hundred mountains and no bird,
A thousand paths without a footprint;
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)

For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元)
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”
River Snow
A hundred mountains and no bird,
A thousand paths without a footprint;
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. In actuality, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)

At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. Actually, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）
“枯藤老树昏鸦，
小桥流水人家，
古道西风瘦马。
夕阳西下，
断肠人在天涯。”
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leave us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)

The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）
“枯藤老树昏鸦，
小桥流水人家，
古道西风瘦马。
夕阳西下，
断肠人在天涯。”
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leaves us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====The untranslatability of allusion====
As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feeling, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38).

As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feelings, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

If these allusions are translated completely translated by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38).

If these allusions are translated completely by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

For example:
古别离
孟郊
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.
Your late returning does not anger me,
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38).
For example:
古别离
孟郊
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.
Your late returning does not anger me,
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” was translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38).

Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” is translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly express in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38).

Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly expressed in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings?
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs:
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly;
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize!
Such feeling cannot be recalled again:
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）

The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings?
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs:
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly;
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize!
Such feeling cannot be recalled again:
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” in used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）

Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” are used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====The untranslatability of sound====
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).

Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely be reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

For example,
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,
浮云长长长长长长长消。
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, but the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)

For example,
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,
浮云长长长长长长长消。
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Here is the other example；
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）
“Seek, seek, search, search,”
Cold, cold, bare, bare,
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,
Now warm, then like an autumn
Cold again
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)

Here is anther example；
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）
“Seek, seek, search, search,”
Cold, cold, bare, bare,
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,
Now warm, then like an autumn
Cold again
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

There are seven couple of reduplication words bring the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)

There are seven couples of reduplication words bringing the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====The untranslatability of from====
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: at first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)

Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special form in adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)

Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special forms are adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。

This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;
None but admires her talents and her skill,
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)

This phoenix in a bad time came,
All praised her great ability.
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)

凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。

This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;
None but admires her talents and her skill,
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)

This phoenix in a bad time came,
All praised her great ability.
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The original poem was use by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)

The original poem was used by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

It is still worser of the second translation, target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)

It is still worser of the second translation that the target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Translation strategies of Chinese classical poetry===
====Addition of word====
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much so that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)

Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

“十年生死两茫茫”
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.”
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)

“十年生死两茫茫”
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.”
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strength readers’ feeling the span of time and echo the grief.
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)

In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strength readers’ feeling of the span of time and echo the grief.
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

For example,
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart．
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，An allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)

For example,
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart．
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，an allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====Deletion of word====
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such word can be sometime deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)

Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such words can be sometimes deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====Conversion of word class====
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguist form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）
“How long will the full moon appear?
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)
“How rare the moon，so round and clear!
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)

English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguistic form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）
“How long will the full moon appear?
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)
“How rare the moon，so round and clear!
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)

If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and the use of annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)

There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Conclusion===
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinion was still hold of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.

In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinions were still held of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===
He Jun何峻.从译者的再创造看诗歌由不可译性向可译性转化[On the Transformation from Untranslatability to Translatability of Poetry by Recreation]. Journal of Chengdu University成都大学学报(社会科学版),2008(04):124-127.

Li Haiyan李海燕.Beauty in Sense, Sound and Form in Poetry Translation —— Translation of Tang Poems From Chinese to English. Journal of Inner Mongolia Educational Institute 内蒙古教育学院学报,2000(04):155-158.

Li Xinhong李新红.试论中国诗歌之“不可译”[On the untranslatability of Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Lanzhou Education Institute 兰州教育学院学报,2010,26(06):294-296.

Ma QinJun马庆军.中国古典诗歌的不可译因素[On Untranslatable factors of Chinse Classic Poetry ]. Journal of Tianjia Occupational Institute 天津职业院校联合学报,2015,17(01):83-87.

Rao Weimin饶卫民.论诗歌翻译的可译性与不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Poetry]. Journal of Anshun Institute安顺学院学报,2012,14(06):27-29.

Sui Yirong隋荣谊.诗歌翻译[Poetry Translation]. Knowledge of English英语知识,2011(10):35-38.
Sun Huali孙华丽.中国古诗词翻译技巧研究[Translation Methods of Chinese Classical Poetry].Journal of Sanxi University三峡大学学报(人文社会科学版),2020,42(04):113-116.

Wang Jianguo王剑果.论诗歌翻译中形似的重要性[On the Importance of the Similarity of Form in Poetry Translation ]. Journal of Henan Normal University河南师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2012,39(05):149-150.

Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.

Yang Qun & Liuyi杨群,刘益.中国古典诗歌翻译中的不可译性[On the Untranslatability of Classic Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Nan Hua University南华大学学报(社会科学版),2005(06):93-95+106.

Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto赵旦,陈养桃.戴着镣铐起舞——诗歌翻译为何难的几点分析[On Difficulties of Poetry Translation]. Literature in Anhui Province安徽文学(下半月),2015(12):5-6+34.

==The Untranslatability of Xiehouyu 彭育志 Peng Yuzhi==

<center>彭育志 Peng Yuzhi 202020080635</center>

===Abstract===

Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguish 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.

Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguishing 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===摘要===

歇后语是典型的中国民间俗语，它由两部分构成，前半部分是描述性的，后半部分则是对前一部分的解释，传达出说话者真正的意图。歇后语形象生动，又富含中国历史文化之意蕴，而且时常语带双关，这使其具备了不可译性。本文旨在区分歇后语翻译中关键的四要素，来考察何种或哪几种要素在翻译时注定会失去，从而证明歇后语在某种程度上是不可译的。但不可译并不代表就放弃翻译它了，本文探究其不可译性的最终目的还是想要找到合适的翻译策略来尽量弥补这一不可译性。

===Key words===
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; translation method

Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; Translation Method--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:50, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

===关键词===

歇后语；不可译性；翻译策略

===1.Introduction===

====1.1 Xiehouyu====

The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is the typical product of unique Chinese Culture.
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)

The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is a typical product of unique Chinese Culture.
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, with the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

====1.2 untranslatability====

As Catford distinguishes, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL.
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)

According to Catford, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL.
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

examples.
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)

Considering this thesis mainly deals with the translation of Xiehouyu into English, the untranslatability of Xiehouyu will be further discussed by using English and Chinese as
examples.
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

The second to be discussed is the cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)

Then we come to cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

After discussing the untranslatable elements in Chinese and English, when we come back to the translation of Xiehouyu, it is obvious that all the elements the Xiehouyu has them all, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)

It is obvious that Xiehouyu features all these untranslatable elements, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

So there is no absolute translation, the problem of translation is a matter of degree. And therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)

So there is no such thing as absolute translation, and the untranslatability is a matter of degree. Therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===2.1 The structure of Xiehouyu===

The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker. In some cases, this is because the descriptive part is vivid enough, both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)

The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker because the descriptive part is so vivid that both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He waits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)

Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He awaits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

If we examine the 2 parts more closely, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)

When we take a closer look at these 2 parts, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

In actual use, we can find the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)

It can be easily found in actual use that the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It is deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, which is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)

However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It, deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===2.2 The classification of Xiehouyu===

As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu is descriptive which is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)

As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu, which is descriptive is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

So based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate the 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:

张飞穿针—粗中有细

Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways

This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)

Based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate these 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:

张飞穿针—粗中有细

Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways

This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:

王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的

Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.

In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. So the Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)

Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:

王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的

Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.

In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. This Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:

连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！

Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!

In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”are homophonic, both pronounced as “miao”. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)

Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:

连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！

Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!

In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”, both pronounced as “miao” are homophonic. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

After analyzing the structure and classification of the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them?
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)

After analyzing the structure and catagorizing the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when a Xiehouyu translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them?
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===3. The possible loss of 4 key elements===

===3.1 The loss of cultural connotation===

The cultural connotation in the Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:

正月十五贴门神—晚了半月

Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)

The cultural connotation in a Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:

正月十五贴门神—晚了半月

Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation, however the translator failed.
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)

The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation. however the translator failed.
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield, who once guarded the door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)

They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield and guardian of door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

The second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example shows:

韩信点兵—多多益善

The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)

he second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example below shows:

韩信点兵—多多益善

The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

In the Xiehouyu above, a famous Chinese name in Chinese, Han Xin(韩信), was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)

In the Xiehouyu above, Han Xin(韩信), a famous Chinese name in Chinese, was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translation deletes it all, like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:

八仙过海—各显神通

Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)

The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translator deletes them all like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:

八仙过海—各显神通

Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. A note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. Considering the cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)

In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. Considering its cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu. Thus a note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===3.2 The loss of image===

The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:

千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席

Even the longest feast must break up at last.

“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in the Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)

The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:

千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席

Even the longest feast must break up at last.

“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in this Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

擀面杖吹火—一窍不通

To know nothing about something

The translation give up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)

擀面杖吹火—一窍不通

To know nothing about something

The translation gives up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

But it should be admitted that not all image will lose, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:

因风吹火，用力不多。

Let the wind fan the flames
And take the easiest course.

As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)

But it should be admitted that not all image will be lost, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:

因风吹火，用力不多。

Let the wind fan the flames
And take the easiest course.

As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===3.3 The loss of sound===

The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when translating the ones with a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word help convey the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)

The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when the Xiehouyu has a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word helps conveying the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound. Which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:

外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）

Things will be back as they were before.

It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)

As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound, which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:

外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）

Things will be back as they were before.

It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)

隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了

If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)

The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot achieve to convey the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)

隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了

If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)

The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===3.4 The matter of meaning===

Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation, the loss of image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)

Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation and image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===4 Translation methods to compensate===

===4.1 Method for the loss of cultural connotation===

If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed to complement the connotation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:

张飞穿针—粗中有细

Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways

Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.

The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.

If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed for compensation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:

张飞穿针—粗中有细

Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways

Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.

The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===4.2 Methods for loss of image===

===4.2.1 Borrowing===

To use the method of borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu is to use the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:

猫哭耗子—假慈悲

To shed crocodile tears

Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)

Borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu means using the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:

猫哭耗子—假慈悲

To shed crocodile tears

Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

4.2.2 Literal-liberal translation
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:

瞎子点灯—白费蜡

Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain

The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target read understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)

In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:

瞎子点灯—白费蜡

Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain

The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target reader understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===4.3 Method for loss of sound===

===4.3.1 imitation plus annotation===

Due to linguistic differences, the loss of sound elements is difficult to reproduce in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:

云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）

The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)

Due to linguistic differences, It is difficult to reproduce the sound elements in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:

云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）

The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人

If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.

The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translator strives to reproduce the sound in the source language by creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)

卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人

If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.

The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translators strived to reproduce the sound in the source language through creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===Conclusion===

The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from the difficulty to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.

The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from difficulties to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.

To keep the image element, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.

In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.

To keep the image, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

As for the loss of sound element, which is hard to compensate, because of the linguistic difference between Chinese and English, the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.

The sound element, with linguistic differences between Chinese and English, is the hardest to compensate. But the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing is to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability.

What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing means to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability. --[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===

*Egerton, Clement. The golden lotus [T]. London: Routledge & Kcgan Paul, 1939.

*Susan, Bassnett. Translation Studies[M]. London: Routledge, 2002.

*Yang Hsien-yi & Gladys Yang. A dream of Red Mansions [M]: Foreign Language Press, 2003.

*Cao Xueqin & Gao 'E,曹雪芹,高鹗. 红楼梦[A dream of Red Mansions ]［M］．北京；中国戏剧出版社，2002．

*Feng Cuihua,冯翠华.英语修辞大全[English Figures of Speech][M]. 外语教学与研究出版社, 1995.

*Lanlingxiaoxiaosheng,兰陵笑笑生．金瓶梅词话[Chin P'ing Mei]［M］．北京：人民文学出版社，1992．

*Li Gongxue,李宫雪. 芮译本《金瓶梅》歇后语翻译研究[D][A Study of Xiehouyu Translation in the English Version of ''Chin P'ing Mei'' by David Tod Roy] .天津财经大学,2014.

*li Qinhua,李庆华.变译视域下汉语歇后语的英译[J][The Translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of Transfered Translation].现代交际,2018(04):93-94.

*Tang Rongshan,谭荣珊. 从关联理论看《红楼梦》中汉语歇后语的英译[D][On the Translation of Chinese Folk Wisecracks from the Perspective of Relevance Theory].华中师范大学,2013.

*Xu Yuanchong,许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.

*Zhao Xiaoyan,赵晓燕. 从文化语境的角度看歇后语的英译 [The translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of cultural context][J].淮北师范大学学报,2015(06):102-106.

==Study on Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 朱旭 Zhu Xu 202070080631==

<center> 朱旭 Zhu Xu, 202070080631. </center>

===Abstract===
As her later representative work, ''shengshengman'' written by Li Qingzhao, praised by later generations as“the Eternal Farewell”, describes autumn scenery, expresses her feeling which has great aesthetic value. It is necessarily of high significance to analyze English versions of ''shengshengman'', which is full of aesthetic features. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes Xu Yuanchong’s English version of ''shengshengman'' from four aspects: beauty in image, beauty in sound, beauty in lexis, beauty in form in order to study the application of Translation Aesthetics in literary translation.

As Li Qingzhao's later representative work, ''shengshengman'', praised by later generations as "the Eternal Farewell", describes autumn scenery, expresses her feeling which has great aesthetic value. It is necessarily of high significance to analyze English versions of ''shengshengman'', which is full of aesthetic features. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes Xu Yuanchong's English version of ''shengshengman'' from four aspects: beauty in image, beauty in sound, beauty in lexis, and beauty in form in order to study the application of Translation Aesthetics in literary translation.--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Key words===
Translation Aesthetics; Sheng sheng man; Xu Yuanchong; Literary Translation

===题目===
翻译美学视角下《声声慢》许渊冲英译本的研究

===摘要===
声声慢是李清照后期代表作，被后人誉为“千古绝唱”。在这首词中，作者描写秋景抒发哀情，全词感情浓烈，文学造诣极高。本文从翻译美学角度入手，从意象美、音韵美、用词美、形式美、四个方面对宋词《声声慢》许渊冲的英译本进行分析，分析研究翻译美学理论在文学翻译中的运用。

===关键词===
翻译美学；许渊冲；声声慢；文学翻译

===1 Introduction===
Literary translation refers to the process of translating a literary work of source language into target language. There is an interactive relationship between literary translation and literary recipients, the influence of literary receiver on literary translation is more obvious. Due to the great differences between Chinese and Western poetry in terms of language and culture, translator wants to make a perfect translation is impractical, that is to say, in literary translation, it is difficult for the translator to completely transform the source language into the target language. This paper, from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics, studies on Xu Yuanchong’s translation version of ''shengshengman'' from the aspects of image, sound, lexis and form, and probes into the application of Translation Aesthetics in the translation of Chinese poetry(''ci''), it further demonstrates the importance of Translation Aesthetics to literary translation.

Literary translation refers to the process of translating a literary work of source language into target language. There is an interactive relationship between literary translation and literary recipients, the influence of literary receiver on literary translation is more obvious. Due to the great differences between Chinese and Western poetry in terms of language and culture, it is impractical that a translator wants to make a perfect translation, that is to say, in literary translation, it is difficult for the translator to completely transform the source language into the target language. This paper, from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics, studies on Xu Yuanchong’s translation version of ''shengshengman'' from the aspects of image, sound, lexis and form, and probes into the application of Translation Aesthetics in the translation of Chinese poetry(''ci''), it further demonstrates the importance of Translation Aesthetics to literary translation.--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===2 An overview of Translation Aesthetics===

Translation is the activity of expressing the information carried by one language in another language, each language has its own characteristics, and its connotation and extension are influenced by different living environment and cultural background.Translation Aesthetics play an important role in translation studies. Translation Aesthetics have long been in connected for a long time, which the basis of Chinese Traditional translation theory includes aesthetics. Translation Aesthetics is an aesthetics origin revealing translation, to study translation from the perspective of aesthetics, which brings a new theoretical basis for the study of contemporary translation theory. (Li Lei, 2011, 83)

Translation is an activity of expressing the information carried by one language into another language. Each language has its own characteristics, connotation and extension that are influenced by different living environment and cultural background. Translation Aesthetics play an important role in translation studies. Translation Aesthetics have long been in connected for a long time, which the basis of Chinese Traditional translation theory includes aesthetics. Translation Aesthetics is an aesthetics origin revealing translation, to study translation from the perspective of aesthetics, which brings a new theoretical basis for the study of contemporary translation theory. (Li Lei, 2011, 83)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in China====

The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Miqing, 1994, 56) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, Chinese translation and aesthetics have a natural connection. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Xi Yongji, and ''The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics'' is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. (Li Jie, 140)

The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Miqing, 1994, 56) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, there is a natural connection between Chinese translation and aesthetics. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Xi Yongji, and ''The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics'' is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. (Li Jie, 140)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in The Chinese translation circle, new theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers, Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thinks calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.(Yang Xiaoru, 2013, 25);(Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)

Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in the Chinese translation circle. New theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers. Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thought calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.(Yang Xiaoru, 2013, 25);(Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Second, Mr. Liu Miqing's book ''Introduction to Translation Aesthetics'' published in Taiwan. This work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book ''Translation Aesthetics'' came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article.(Yang, 2013, 25)

Second, the development of 1995, Mr. Liu Miqing's book ''Introduction to Translation Aesthetics'' published in Taiwan this work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book ''Translation Aesthetics'' came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article.(Yang, 2013, 25)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking, sometimes people can't help but let people understand the study of translation theory at the same time really feel the language beauty. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.(Mao Guirong, 2005, 98);(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 56)

As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.(Mao Guirong, 2005, 98);(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 56)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs to be further developed and perfected, and needs to be reconsidered and studied.(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)

Three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs a further development and perfection, and needs to be reconsidered and studied.(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on, the perspective is relatively narrow, has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)

At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, or comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on. The perspective is relatively narrow, which has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in the West====
As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years.

As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years. --[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)

The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp “spirit” and “tone” of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002, 61)

From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp "spirit" and "tone" of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002, 61) --[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: “Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum.” (Pound, 1929, 30).

Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: "Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum." (Pound, 1929, 30).

One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (2003, 128) that “translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” Here, “meaning” is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995, 58) put it: “In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years.”(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)

One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (2003, 128) that "translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style." Here, "meaning" is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995, 58) put it: "In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years."(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)

During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition and appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. As compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay much attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. (Li, 2020, 80)

Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition, appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. Compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay more attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. (Li, 2020, 80)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism. While through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. (Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)

Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism, while through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. (Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.(Li, 2020, 80)

Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.(Li, 2020, 80)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===3 Previous studies on Li Qingzhao’s Ci-poetry in China===

In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one introducing Li Qingzhao and her works to the English -speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis ''An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an'' in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. (Tang Lin, 2012，54)

In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one who introduced Li Qingzhao and her works to the English-speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis ''An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an'' in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. (Tang Lin, 2012，54)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his ''Chinese Lyrics''by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, he published another book ''101 Chinese Lyrics'' by New World Express, with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.(Tang Lin, 2012，56)

Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his ''Chinese Lyrics''by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, his another book ''101 Chinese Lyrics'' was published by New World Express, with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.(Tang Lin, 2012，56)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book ''The Importance of Understanding Translations from the Chinese'' , with Li Qingzhao's Ci-poem ''shengshengman'' and ''Comments on Ci-poetry'' in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book ''An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems'' appeared for the readers at home and abroad. (Tang, 2012, 57)

In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book ''The Importance of Understanding Translations from the Chinese'' , with Li Qingzhao's Ci-poem ''shengshengman'' and ''Comments on Ci-poetry'' in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book ''An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems'' appeared for the readers at home and abroad. (Tang, 2012, 57)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus ''Literature and Translation'' in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph ''Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade'' with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. (Tang, 2012, 58)

Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus ''Literature and Translation'' in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph ''Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade'' with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. (Tang, 2012, 58)
--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)
Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis ''On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao'' is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period.In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works ''Song Lyrics'' (《宋词》).Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions include Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 2001), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003).(Tang, 2012, 58)

Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis ''On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao'' is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period. In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works ''Song Lyrics'' (《宋词》).Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions are including Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 2001), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003).(Tang, 2012, 58)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In 2005, Li Qing finished her dissertation ''A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao'', which published as a monograph in early 2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed there search on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro.(Li Qing, 2005, 32)

In 2005, Li Qing finished her dissertation ''A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao'', which published as a monograph in early 2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed their research on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro.(Li Qing, 2005, 32)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===4 A case study of ''Shengshengman'' from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics===

Literary translation plays an imperative role in translation studies, and it’s an intricate process that needs many skills. For one thing, the aesthetic style and aesthetic feeling are very important for the author to compose his work. Therefore, the translator should choose the literary words to transform the aesthetic sense of the source text in the process of translation. For the other thing, literary translation is the representations of all-round artistic quality which can make the target reader get the similar appreciation of the original beauty of the target language context. (Dang Zhengsheng, 2010, 97)

Literary translation plays an imperative role in translation studies, and it’s an intricate process that needs many skills. For one thing, the aesthetic style and aesthetic feeling are very important for the author to compose his work. Therefore, the translator should choose literary words to transform the aesthetic sense of the source text in the process of translation. For the other thing, literary translation is the representations of all-round artistic quality which can make the target reader get similar appreciation of the original beauty of the target language context. (Dang Zhengsheng, 2010, 97)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

声声慢 Tune: ”Slow, Slow Tune”

寻寻觅觅

冷冷清清

凄凄惨惨戚戚

I look for what I miss

I know not what it is

I feel so sad, so drear,

So lonely, without cheer

乍暖还寒时候

最难将息

How hard is it

To keep me fit

In this lightering cold!

三杯两盏淡酒

怎敌他晚来风急

Hardly warmed up

By cup on cup

Of wine so dry

Oh, how could I

Endure at dusk thedrift

Of wind so swift?

雁过也

正伤心

却是旧时相识

It breaks my heart,alas!

To see the wild gees pass

For they are my acquaintances of old.

满地黄花堆积

憔悴损

而今有谁堪摘

The ground is coveredwith yellow flowers

Faded and fallen in showers

Who will pick them upnow?

守着窗儿

独自怎生得黑

Sitting alone at thewindow

How could I butquicken

The pace of darknesswhich won’t thicken?

梧桐更兼细雨

到黄昏点点滴滴

这次第

怎一个愁字了得

On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles

At twilight grizzles

Oh! what can I do with a grief

Beyond belief?

====4.1 Beauty in image====

In this part, what is discussed is the Translation Aesthetics in Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' , and the first sentence of this poem is the typical one reaching coexistence of fiction and reality, the translations of the first sentence are analyzed in this part of the thesis.

This part is discussed the Translation Aesthetics in Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' , and the first sentence of this poem is the typical one reaching coexistence of fiction and reality. The translations of the first sentence are analyzed in this part of the thesis.--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

''Shengshengman'' is a representative work of Li Qingzhao, and the seven pairs of reduplicative characters at the beginning are also regarded as a poetic masterpiece. It has also attracted many translators trying to translate it. According to the statistics by Li Qing, Li Qingzhao started her writing as “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”, The sentence and the repeated words are used to make full use of the advantages of Chinese, and strive to create an abstract and only contemplated artistic conception.(Qi jiajia, 2014, 44)

''Shengshengman'' is a representative work of Li Qingzhao, and the seven pairs of reduplicative characters at the beginning are also regarded as a poetic masterpiece. It has also attracted many translators taking the challenge to translate it. According to the statistics by Li Qing, Li Qingzhao started her writing as “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”, The sentence and the repeated words are used to make full use of the advantages of Chinese, and strive to create an abstract and only contemplated artistic conception.(Qi jiajia, 2014, 44)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In the sentence, “寻寻觅觅”is the dynamic state of feeling as if bereft of something,“冷冷清清”is the static state of feeling as if bereft of something,“凄凄惨惨”is the feeling on the surface of inner heart, and“戚戚”is the feeling in the deep inner heart . This sentence seems to describe the inner feeling, but it aims to describe the real situation at that time in fact. (Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin, 2003, 10)

In the sentence, “寻寻觅觅” is the dynamic state of feeling as if bereft of something, “冷冷清清” is the static state of feeling as if bereft of something, “凄凄惨惨” is the feeling on the surface of inner heart, and "戚戚" is the feeling in the deep inner heart. This sentence seems to describe the inner feeling, but it aims to describe the real situation at that time in fact. (Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin, 2003, 10)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In his translation, Xu translated“寻寻觅觅”into‘I look for what I miss ', attempting to indirectly convey the meaning of“寻寻觅觅”through the description of environment. that of Lin does not meet the first and fourth requirements. The second four characters,“冷冷清清”, is the description of surround environment (cold and quiet) and the static state of poetess' inner condition as well. Xu translated it into ‘I know not what it is ', which is not in accordance with the original text semantically, but his translation conveys the psychological condition of the poetess because of her suffering. (Qi, 2014, 44)

In his translation, Xu translated “寻寻觅觅” into 'I look for what I miss', attempting to indirectly convey the meaning of "寻寻觅觅" through the description of environment that of Lin does not meet the first and fourth requirements. The second four characters,"冷冷清清", is the description of surround environment (cold and quiet) and the static state of poetess' inner condition as well. Xu translated it into 'I know not what it is', which is not in accordance with the original text semantically, but his translation conveys the psychological condition of the poetess because of her suffering. (Qi, 2014, 44)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Hence, for the translation of these four characters, according to the five requirements of Liu Miqing, Xu’s versions of them are completely in conformity with the original poem. The last part of this sentence consists of three pairs of characters,“凄凄惨惨戚戚”,describing the poetess’ inner grief and sorrow. Xu Yuanchong translated these six characters into‘I feel so sad, so drear, So lonely, without cheer ', using alliteration to transfer the stylistic format and stylistic factors of original poem, reproducing the lonely situation of poetess. Xu Yuanchong has a deep understanding of this reduplicative characters. Therefore, he translated this part of the article in “so+adj” structure to explain the feelings of the Li Qingzhao's sadness and reconstruct the character image, which is very in line with the habit of English writing.(Qi, 2014, 44)

Hence, for the translation of these four characters, according to the five requirements of Liu Miqing, Xu’s versions of them are completely in conformity with the original poem. The last part of this sentence consists of three pairs of characters,“凄凄惨惨戚戚”,describing the poetess’ inner grief and sorrow. Xu Yuanchong translated these six characters into 'I feel so sad, so drear, So lonely, without cheer ', using alliteration to transfer the stylistic format and stylistic factors of original poem, reproducing the lonely situation of poetess. Xu Yuanchong has a deep understanding of this reduplicative characters. Therefore, he translated this part of the article in "so+adj" structure to explain the feelings of the Li Qingzhao's sadness and reconstruct the character image, which is very in line with the habit of English writing.(Qi, 2014, 44)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====4.2 Beauty in sound====

Poetry should not only pay attention to the beautiful image, but also the harmony, naturalness and smoothness of phonology. Li Qingzhao attaches great importance to rhythm in her ''ci'', and the musical lyrical language used in ''Shengshengman'' is very distinctive. Xu Yuanchong is also very particular about the beauty of phonology when translating poems. In order to achieve the same effect on the phonology of the translated poems and the original words, he adopted the typical translation techniques of ending rhymes, alliterations, and double tones in the translated poems to make the translated poems read It is full of music, and it fully conveys the sadness of the original word.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 130)

Poetry should not only pay attention to the beautiful images, but also the harmony, naturalness and smoothness of phonology. Li Qingzhao attaches great importance to rhythm in her ''ci'', and the musical lyrical language used in ''Shengshengman'' is very distinctive. Xu Yuanchong is also very particular about the beauty of phonology when translating poems. In order to achieve the same effect on the phonology of the translated poems and the original words, he adopted the typical translation techniques of ending rhymes, alliterations, and double tones in the translated poems to make the translated poems read It is full of music, and it fully conveys the sadness of the original word.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 130)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The vowels /iə/、/ai/、/au/ in the English translation of the poem are all diphthongs, and the sound is made by sliding one vowel to another. They are pronounced like a few sighs. Xu Yuanchong used these vowel sounds to imitate the sigh of a female poet. On the whole, the final rhyme of the entire English translation of the poem are very musical, and the sounds themselves give a sense of desolation, urgency, and anxiety, and accurately express the author's feelings.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 131)

The vowels /iə/、/ai/、/au/ in the English translation of the poem are all diphthongs, and the sound is made by sliding one vowel to another. They are pronounced like a few sighs. Xu Yuanchong used these vowel sounds to imitate the sigh of a female poet. On the whole, the final rhyme of the entire English translation of the poem are very musical, and the sounds themselves give a sense of desolation, urgency, and anxiety, and accurately express the author's feelings.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 131)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Xu choose “swift” to express “晚来风急” , so that the reader can see the image of the poet like withered leaves floating in the wind, at the same time choose the short sound/i/similar to “urgent” , skillfully reproduce the beauty of sound and the beauty of meaning. The rhymes “Alas” and “pass” in Xu’s translation are similar to the words “时” and “识” .The two words “faded” and “fallen” not only have similar meanings, but also rhyme /f/ alliteration. (Pan Jiayun, 2003, 54)

Xu chooses “swift” to express “晚来风急” , so that the reader can see the image of the poet like withered leaves floating in the wind. At the same time he uses the short sound/i/similar to “urgent” , skillfully reproduce the beauty of sound and the beauty of meaning. The rhymes “Alas” and “pass” in Xu’s translation are similar to the words “时” and “识” .The two words “faded” and “fallen” not only have similar meanings, but also rhyme /f/ alliteration. (Pan Jiayun, 2003, 54)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In the original poem, the word “gaunt” is the same side of the heart, and the meaning is similar. The translator also skillfully rhymed the now and how in the next sentence, “生得黑” being translated as “quicken the pace of darkness”, with the word “thicken” in the next sentence, adding to the sense of rhyme in the poem. (Dong Hui, 2003, 21)

In the original poem, the word “gaunt” is the same side of the heart, and the meaning is similar. The translator also skillfully rhymed the now and how in the next sentence, “生得黑” being translated as “quicken the pace of darkness”, with the word “thicken” in the next sentence, adding to the sense of rhyme in the poem. (Dong Hui, 2003, 21)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The word “drizzles” and “grizzles” correspond to the reduplicated words “点点滴滴” in the translation. The short sound /i/ in the choice of words is similar to the sound of “点点滴滴”, here is another long Sound/i:/ to show the continuous sound of a little rain, further enhanced the feeling. The last sentence is a kind of spoken expression. The rhyming of “ief” with the words “grief” and “belief” not only reflects the beauty of the sound of the translated poem, but also pushes the feelings of the whole poem to a climax.(Nie Yanmin, 2014 , 103)

The word “drizzles” and “grizzles” correspond to the reduplicated words “点点滴滴” in the translation. The short sound /i/ in the choice of words is similar to the sound of “点点滴滴”, Here is another long Sound/i:/ to show the continuous sound of a little rain, further enhanced the feeling. The last sentence is a kind of spoken expression. The rhyming of “ief” with the words “grief” and “belief” not only reflects the beauty of the sound of the translated poem, but also pushes the feelings of the whole poem to a climax.(Nie Yanmin, 2014 , 103)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====4.3 Beauty in lexis====

The author thinks that the sentence “In this lingering cold “is totally express the content in the original image of “乍暖还寒时候” , the keyword “Linger” personifies the inconstancy of the weather at the end of autumn as an image that seems to be going but lingers. In addition, Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “最难将息”，the four abstract Chinese characters, “hard is it to keep me fit” , has added a few extra elements, which makes a female image that frail, sad and vulnerable, unable to adapt to the cold and uncertain weather.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 82)

The author thinks that the sentence “In this lingering cold “is totally express the content in the original image of “乍暖还寒时候” , the keyword “Linger” personifies the inconstancy of the weather at the end of autumn as an image that seems to be going but lingering. In addition, Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “最难将息”，the four abstract Chinese characters, “hard is it to keep me fit” , has added a few extra elements, which makes a female image who is frail, sad, vulnerable, and unable to adapt to the cold and uncertain weather.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 82)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In the sentence “三杯两盏淡酒”, “三” and “两” here means the approximate number, but the corresponding English “three” , “two” cannot mean this meaning. To translate this meaning, Xu Yuanchong used “By Cup on Cup”， which means “cup after cup”. It paints a picture that a female wants to drive away the chill in the air with the contents of the cup. The helpless mood incisively and vividly expressed.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)

In the sentence “三杯两盏淡酒”, “三” and “两” here means the approximate number, but the corresponding English “three” , “two” don't have such meaning. To convey this meaning, Xu Yuanchong used “By Cup on Cup”， which means “cup after cup”. It paints a picture that a female wants to drive away the chill in the air with the contents of the cup. The helpless mood incisively and vividly expressed.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In sentence “雁过也正伤心确是旧时相识”, “正伤心”is the role part. To Express this almost desperate sadness, the translator use the word ”alas” to show author’s sorrows. Alas used to express unhappiness, pity, or concern. It’s a sad, disappointed, painful word that conveys the author’s feelings in an appropriate way.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)

In the sentence “雁过也正伤心确是旧时相识”, “正伤心” is the main part. To Express this very desperate sadness, the translator use the word ”alas” to show author’s sorrows. Alas used to express unhappiness, pity, or concern. It’s a sad, disappointed, painful word that can convey the author’s feelings in an appropriate way.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

For the sentence " 满地黄花堆积憔悴损 "，Xu translated it into “faded and fallen in showers”. He turned the static physical description into a dynamic process of flowers withering, giving people the enjoyment of beauty. In order to show this dynamic beauty, Xu Yuanchong just uses a “showers” to sublimate the silent gesture of falling flowers into a sound water flow, so that the readers can get the sense of hearing in the visual sense.The meaning of the image of “黄花” may be lost on the target language readers, but human beings feel the same about the rise and fall of all things in the natural world So,Xu use the word "faded" and "fallen" to convey it.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 83,86)

For the sentence " 满地黄花堆积憔悴损 "，Xu translated it into “faded and fallen in showers”. He turned the static physical description into a dynamic process of flowers withering, giving people the enjoyment of beauty. In order to show this dynamic beauty, Xu Yuanchong just uses a “showers” to sublimate the silent gesture of falling flowers into a sound water flow, so that the readers can get the sense of hearing in the visual sense. The meaning of the image of “黄花” may be lost on the target language readers, but people feel the same about the up and down of all things in the natural world. So, Xu use the word "faded" and "fallen" to express it.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 83,86)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====4.4 Beauty in form====

The most striking feature of poetry is its unique external form. The number of lines of poetry and the number of words in each line are fixed. As an extension and development of poetry, the form of words breaks through the constant limit of the number of words in poetry. One word, two words, many words, long sentences and short sentences intersect and correspond, and they are scattered and beautiful. In short, because Chinese and English languages belong to different language families, the phonology is very different, and the way of expression is also very different. (Li Lei, 2011, 92)

The most striking feature of poetry is its unique external form. The number of lines of poetry and the number of words in each line are fixed. As an extension and development of poetry, the form of words breaks through the constant limit of the number of words in poetry. One word, two words, many words, long sentences and short sentences intersect and correspond, and they are scattered but beautiful. In short, for Chinese and English languages belong to different language families, their phonology is very differentas well as the way of expression. (Li Lei, 2011, 92)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Therefore, the English translation of Chinese poems (''ci'') is a very difficult task. It is not easy to reflect the artistic conception of the original text, and it is even more troublesome to retranslate the beauty of form and rhyme of the original text.The different numbers of characters are in an orderly manner, and there is no lack of strong cohesion and centripetal force among the various characters. There is also a unique beauty.(Dai Caihong, 2006, 77)

Therefore, to translate Chinese poems(''ci'') into English is a very difficult task. It is not easy to reflect the artistic conception of the original text, and it is even more troublesome to retranslate the beauty of form and rhyme of the original text. The different numbers of characters are in an orderly manner, and there is no lack of strong cohesion and centripetal force among the various characters. There is also a unique beauty.(Dai Caihong, 2006, 77)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

As far as the ci ''shengshengman'' is concerned, the number of lines in the front and back is roughly symmetrical, with nine sentences in the front and eight sentences in the back. The length of each sentence is staggered, with nine characters long and three characters short. Sometimes short, the first, third, fifth, seventh, and ninth sentences of the first film and the first, second, fourth, sixth, and eight sentences of the second film are all rhymed, and the first, second, third sentence and the second sentence of the first film, the six sentences creatively use the phonetic rhetoric of repetition.(Dong Hui, 2003, 22)

As far as the ci ''shengshengman'' is concerned, the number of lines in the front and back is roughly symmetrical, with nine sentences in the front and eight sentences in the back. The length of each sentence is staggered, with nine characters long and three characters short. Sometimes, the first, third, fifth, seventh, and ninth sentences of the first film and the first, second, fourth, sixth, and eight sentences of the second film are all rhymed, and the first, second, third sentence and the second sentence of the first film, the six sentences creatively use the phonetic rhetoric of repetition.(Dong Hui, 2003, 22)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Xu Yuanchong is also superior in showing the beauty of form. On the whole, the long and short sentences of the original poem are intertwined, and the appearance has a unique beauty of ci. The translation also uses a variety of long and short sentences, which are simple and refreshing. Xu Yuanchong is also unique in the arrangement of words. The supplementary use of the three subjects at the beginning, from the vertical view, the arrangement is neat and uniform, like a slim tree. Later, with the number of words in the original poem, the single-line arrangement gradually shortened or lengthened; the total number of words in each line of the original poem's 下阙(the last part of ''ci'') is slightly more than that of the 上阙(the first part of ''ci''), so the 下阙 in the translation also uses longer sentences.(Nie Yanmin, 2014, 103)

Xu Yuanchong is also excelled at showing the beauty of form. On the whole, the long and short sentences of the original poem are intertwined, and the appearance has a unique beauty of ci. The translation also uses a variety of long and short sentences, which are simple and refreshing. Xu Yuanchong is also unique in the arrangement of words. The supplementary use of the three subjects at the beginning, from the vertical view, the arrangement is neat and uniform, like a slim tree. Later, with the number of words in the original poem, the single-line arrangement gradually shortened or lengthened; the total number of words in each line of the original poem's 下阙(the last part of ''ci'') is slightly more than that of the 上阙(the first part of ''ci''), so the 下阙 in the translation also uses longer sentences.(Nie Yanmin, 2014, 103)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

According to Xu Yuanchong’s translation, the whole word is translated into 26 sentences, of which 21 sentences are broken from the middle of the long sentence to form a rhyme, which not only corresponds to the original two-character three-word sentence, but also shows the beauty of the original word. So that each sentence shares a similar or identical ending, neatly, orderly and neatly reflecting the beauty of the shape of the end of the sentence, and at the same time achieves the effect of rhyming. On the whole, the translation is long and short, uneven and natural. The similar or same syllables at the beginning or end of the sentence between the lines give the original word a kind of architectural beauty, and the beauty of the original word is better preserved and conveyed.(Nie , 2014, 103)

According to Xu Yuanchong’s translation, the whole words are translated into 26 sentences, of which 21 sentences are broken from the middle of the long sentence to form a rhyme, which not only corresponds to the original two-character three-word sentence, but also shows the beauty of the original word. So that each sentence shares a similar or identical ending, neatly, orderly and neatly reflecting the beauty of shaping the end of the sentence, and at the same time achieves the effect of rhyming. On the whole, the translation is long and short, uneven and natural. The similar or the same syllables at the beginning or end of the sentence between the lines give the original word a kind of architectural beauty, and the beauty of the original word is better preserved and conveyed.(Nie , 2014, 103)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Conclusion===
''Ci'' is a high-level artistic aesthetic activity. The beauty of poetry is abstract and hazy. To effectively convey this beauty, it is obviously useless to copy and imitate the original text. Poetry translation aims to achieve the reproduction of the original aesthetic effect in the translation. Of course, the so-called aesthetic effect includes many elements, the representational elements such as phonetics, lexis and sentence patterns, and the non-representational elements such as image, ideorealm, artistic conception and so on. The translator, as the aesthetic subject of translation, shoulders the important task of achieving aesthetic expressions. The best way of expression is to actively promote the conversion of the source language to the target language, thus completing the translation of aesthetic literature.In translation practice, translator should fully experience the beauty of the source language and its expressive characteristics, and seek the best of the target language in terms of sound, form, image, and lexis.

''Ci'' is a high-level artistic aesthetic activity. The beauty of poetry is abstract and hazy. To effectively convey its beauty, it is obviously useless to translate the original text literally. Poetry translation aims to achieve the reproduction of the original aesthetic effect in the translation. Of course, the so-called aesthetic effect includes many elements, the representational elements such as phonetics, lexis and sentence patterns, and the non-representational elements such as image, ideorealm, artistic conception and so on. The translator, as the aesthetic subject of translation, shoulders the important task of achieving aesthetic expressions. The best way of expression is to actively promote the conversion of the source language to the target language, thus completing the translation of aesthetic literature.In translation practice, translator should fully experience the beauty of the source language and its expressive characteristics, and seek the best of the target language in terms of sound, form, image, and lexis.--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

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==Study on translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair'' from the perspective of poetics 许鹏飞Xu Pengfei==

<center>许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei 202020080659</center>

===Abstract:===

This thesis aims to discuss loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in translations of inverted sentences from the perspective of poetics. In literary translation, translators may not strictly follow forms and structures corresponding to original texts due to various reasons, which can help translators convey emotions and content of original texts but also do damage to some functions of originals unconsciously. This thesis chooses some excerpts from two versions translated by Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang respectively. About their translations, Yang Bi tends to choose free translation while Peng Changjiang pays attention to retain forms of original texts. Under the guidance of poetics theory, this part will discuss their different translations of inverted sentences and compare them to the original texts. And the author will analyze loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in the specific examples from two versions of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation.

This paper aims to explore the loss of poetic function and the reappearance of poetic effect in the translation of inverted sentences from the perspective of poetics. In literary translations, translators may not strictly follow forms and structures of the original texts due to various reasons, which can help translators convey emotions and content of original texts but also do damage to some functions of originals unconsciously. This thesis chooses some excerpts from two versions translated by Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang respectively. About their translations, Yang Bi tends to choose free translation while Peng Changjiang pays attention to retain forms of original texts. Under the guidance of poetics theory, this part will discuss their different translations of inverted sentences and compare them to the original texts. Then the author will analyze the loss of poetic function and the reappearance of poetic effect in the two versions of vanity fair.--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 06:55, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

===摘要：===

本文旨在从诗学角度探讨倒装句翻译中诗学功能的损失和诗学效果的再现。在文学翻译中，译者时常不会严格遵从原文的形式与结构，这有利于译者对原文情感内容的传达，但也在无形之中损害了原文的某些功能。本文节选了杨必和彭长江二人译本中的部分文段，关于二者对《名利场》的翻译，杨必倾向于意译的方式而彭长江的译本则注意保留原文的形式。在诗学理论指导下，通过分析二者对于倒装句不同的翻译方式以及与原文进行对比研究。然后作者会分析两个《名利场》译本中具体例子的诗学功能损失以及诗学效果的再现。

===Key words:===

Literary translation;''Vanity Fair'';poetics theory;inverted sentence;poetic effect

===关键词：===

文学翻译；名利场；诗学理论；倒装句；诗学效果

===Chapter 1 Introduction===

When it comes to literary translation, it cannot escape from controversy and difficulty. It is considered that literary translation is quite hard because the sense of beauty and emotions may be lost in the process of translation before they reach target receptors. And one or more translators seek to give a good translation of the same original, hence re-translation often occurs. ''Vanity Fair'' is a novel written by English writer William Makepeace Thackeray in 1847 which depicts English society in the early nineteenth century.

About a hundred years later, Yang Bi translated it into Chinese in 1957. Her translation is free from the shackles of the original language structure, showing charm and original style of Vanity Fair. After Yang Bi’s translation, multiple translations of this book appeared. Among them, Peng Changjiang’s work is an impressive one. His translation, published in 1996, follows the original structure which is quite different from Yang Bi’s version in style, wording, and many other aspects. Both of them give their unique translations to Chinese readers and their translations own their characteristics and merits. Nevertheless, it is inevitable that something in source text may be lost in target text.

Their different translating strategies of inverted sentences are worthy of discussion. In literary works, an inverted sentence bears its task to achieve some special purposes. To explore these, this thesis will discuss some examples excerpted from the two versions compared with the original text under the guidance of poetics theory. According to comparisons and study, it will analyze poetic effects and poetic function in source text and translations from the perspective of poetics. Based on these, this thesis will focus on loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects about translations of inverted sentences. And how literariness in original texts is retained or damaged in their translations will also be involved.(Yin Boan 2000, 79)

The reasons for the selection of the two books can be briefly explained--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 06:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

===Chapter 2 An Overview of Relevant Theories===

Before discussing the comparison between translations of Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang, this part will briefly introduce the theoretical basis of this chapter. In this section, the author will first give an introduction to relevant parts of poetics theory and then expounds on functions of language proposed by the Roman Jakobson, especially poetic function. And then this part will give an illustration of internal connections between poetics theory and poetic function. After these, it will briefly discuss inversion and its poetic function.

====2.1 Poetics theory====

Poetics originated in ancient Greece. Poetics in tradition is a study on poetry based on Aristotle’s Poetics, while Jakobson enlarges its fields. Roman Jakobson proposed that poetics can be applied in research on literature because its object of study is the art of language. According to Jakobson, the main question that poetics studies are what transforms verbal messages into arts. Poetics theory proposes that literariness in literature distinguishes it from other text types and gives it poetic effects. And it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. (Roman Jakobson 1987,63,69)

Poetics originated in ancient Greece. Poetics in tradition is a study on poetry based on Aristotle’s Poetics, while Jakobson enlarges its fields. Roman Jakobson proposed that poetics can be applied in research on literature because its object of study is the art of language. According to Jakobson, the main question that poetics studies are what transforms verbal messages into arts. Poetics theory proposes that literariness in literature distinguishes it from other text types and gives it poetic effects. And it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. (Roman Jakobson 1987, 63,69) （There is no space after the comma）--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 07:26, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

Correspondingly, literariness is the object of literature research. As a result, a vitally important issue in literary translation that needs to figure out is how to retain literariness in original works. This is closely connected with functions of language, especially poetic function, which is dominant and crucial for literature. Besides, cognitive poetics theory considers that the more efforts a reader makes to understand a work, the stronger poetic effects it will produce. (Jakobson 1973, 62; Pilkington 2000, 161 -169)

The unfamiliar expression is a technique of creating art and grabbing readers’ attention from the poetic perspective. And poetic language is a kind of self-focused message, different expressions can build different informational capacity of messages. Therefore, choices of word order and sentence structure in literary works cannot be ignored and should be seriously concerned in literary translation. That’s why this thesis pays attention to inverted sentences.(Shklovsky 1998, 16; Jakobson 1987, 67, 85)

====2.2 Functions of language====

At first, the Prague Circle proposed that there are three functions of languages, that are expressive, conative, and referential function. Then, linguists of the Prague Circle also proposed a fourth function—aesthetic function. This function indicates that language can serve art. In 1960, Jakobson raised another three functions: phatic, metalingual, and poetic function. Based on functions, he distinguished six elements in his model of functions that are necessary for communication to occur: context, addresser(sender), addressee(receiver), contact, common code, and message(as cited in Feng Zongxin). Poetic function originated from literariness is the main function of literature and it focuses on the message. (Roman Jakobson 1987,69; Feng Zongxin 2006, 19-34)

How to use various linguistic devices to achieve the desired purpose is a focus of scholars who study various kinds of linguistic communication. In other words, different communicative purposes determine that linguistic devices should perform different tasks and fulfill different functions. As poetic function pays attention to a message itself and its expressive device is a kind of self-focused message, carriers of information should be focused on. Therefore, forms of original works should be taken into consideration. Combined with poetics, forms of original works can influence literariness, which cannot be ignored in translation.(Roman Jakobson 1981, 19; 1987, 85)

How to use various linguistic devices to achieve the desired purpose is a focus of scholars who study various kinds of linguistic communication. In other words, different communicative purposes determine that linguistic devices should perform different tasks and fulfill different functions. As poetic function pays attention to a message itself and its expressive device is a kind of self-focused message, carriers of information should be focused on. Therefore, forms of original works should be taken into consideration. Combined with poetics, forms of original works can influence literariness, which cannot be ignored in translation.(Roman Jakobson 1981, 19) (Roman Jakobson 1987, 85)--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 07:26, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

====2.3 Poetics theory and poetic function====

In view of formalism, no matter what the art, it needs to be expressed through certain forms. The medium used in literature is language, and studyinge th art of literature is actually studying a language itself. Jakobson argues that poetics is an integral part of linguistics. Thus, the main research method of poetics is studying language through linguistics. As mentioned in 2.1, it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. And literariness is produced by certain permutation and combination of language. And Jakobson argues that, whereas most language is concerned with the transmission of ideas, the poetic function of language focuses on the ‘message’ for its own sake.(Roman Jakobson 1958, 63)

Formalist scholars led by Jakobson believe that the intentional violation of conventions results in the variation of forms, and thus forms defamiliarization. The process by which readers gain understanding from reading and decoding these novel and inexplicable forms of language will produce poetic effects and aesthetic feelings. In a short, analyzing poetic function of language in literary works is an indispensable method to appreciate literature from the perspective of poetics.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 8; Shklovsky 1998, 16)

Formalist scholars led by Jakobson believe that the intentional violation of conventions results in the variation of forms, and thus forms defamiliarization. The process by which readers gain understanding from reading and decoding these novel and inexplicable forms of language will produce poetic effects and aesthetic feelings. In a short, analyzing poetic function of language in literary works is an indispensable method to appreciate literature from the perspective of poetics.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 8) (Shklovsky 1998, 16)--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 07:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

====2.4 Inverted sentences====

For some reason, people need to put part or all of the predicate verb before the subject in writing, which produces inverted sentences. There are two types of inversion. One is obligatory and the other is optional(Zhang Keding 2001, 19). The former is decided by grammar and the latter is mainly chosen by writers. This thesis will choose examples of optional inversion to study. The rhetorical functions of optionally inverted sentences can be divided into five categories, that are emphasizing, balancing sentence structure, connecting the preceding and the following, vivid description, and expressing emotions.(Lu Yang 2008, 126)

(Direct quotes should be enclosed in quotation marks around the sentence，Sources that are not directly cited are placed at the end of the paragraph)--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 07:26, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

Emphasizing, vivid description, and expressing emotions are of vital importance for shaping characters and construction of plots. Therefore, an inverted sentence is a form closely connected with poetic function and poetic effect. In literary works, an inverted sentence is a way of defamiliarization. It uses inversion to achieve literariness by emphasizing some information or emotions to promote the development or shape characters.

For instance, “Where is your daughter?” “On the table stands she.” Here, it can be observed this inverted sentence is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is a marked and emotional sequence. Daughter is a message questioner has provided in the question. And the respondent gives the answer in an inverted sentence. In this situation, the respondent aims to emphasize the information about the location of the daughter.(Feng Zongxin, 2006: 30)

For instance, “Where is your daughter?” “On the table stands she.” Here, it can be observed this inverted sentence is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is a marked and emotional sequence. Daughter is a message questioner has provided in the question. And the respondent gives the answer in an inverted sentence. In this situation, the respondent aims to emphasize the information about the location of the daughter.(Feng Zongxin, 2006, 30) --[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 07:26, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

This kind of sentence form is a writing skill that an author uses to carry specific messages. Readers need to take efforts to understand an inverted sentence itself and the specific meaning and message implicated by an author. And the poetic function of inverted sentences is of great significance to the realization of poetic effects of a text. It will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.

===Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair''===

In the history of translation, the phenomenon of suppressing forms has existed for a long time in both east and west. And in terms of translation methods, free translation prevails while literal translation is suppressed. Yang Bi’s translation is full of humor and smoothness. Her natural and expressive translation avoids translationese and removes the trace of interpretation and stiffness, which becomes a classic version of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation in China.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 6)

However, her inclination to free translation also causes some issues when studying her translation from the perspective of poetics. This point is also prominent in the translation of inverted sentences. After reading her translation, the researcher found that she cares less about sentence forms and usually changes sentence structures. In contrast to Yang Bi, Peng Changjiang adopts a different method to tackle inverted sentences. Actually, their translating styles and strategies are distinct. In the following sections, the author will discuss comparisons between their translation with examples in detail.

====3.1 Analysis====

In the following part, it will mainly analyze the two versions’ arrangements of word order and sentence structure in translations of inverted sentences. And it will discuss the influences of their translations on poetic effects and poetic function through analyzing examples of inverted sentences. The researcher chooses five examples from Vanity Fair as followed.

Example 1 Many a dun had she talked to, and turned away from her father’s door; many a tradesman had she coaxed and wheedled into good-humour, and into the granting of one meal more.(Thackeray 1994, 17)

Yang Bi’s translation: 她常常和逼债的人打交道，想法子打发他们回去。她有本领甜言蜜语的哄得那些做买卖的回心转意，再让她赊一顿饭吃。(1957, 11)

Yang Bi’s translation: 她常常和逼债的人打交道，想法子打发他们回去。她有本领甜言蜜语的哄得那些做买卖的回心转意，再让她赊一顿饭吃。(Yang Bi 1957, 11)
--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:49, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

Peng Changjiang’s translation: 有不少逼债人上门，她跟他们周旋，把他们从家里劝走；有不少买卖人，她连哄带骗把他们哄得高兴，让她再赊一顿饭。(2005, 11)

Peng Changjiang’s translation: 有不少逼债人上门，她跟他们周旋，把他们从家里劝走；有不少买卖人，她连哄带骗把他们哄得高兴，让她再赊一顿饭。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 11)--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:49, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

This text is excerpted from a paragraph that introduces Rebecca Sharp. The author’s language here is very subtle. Thackeray skillfully designs this text. He writes this sentence with Rebecca as the subject in the active voice, and he designs sentences as inverted ones, bringing objects of Rebecca's action to the beginning of sentences. It emphasizes the information about what she had dealt with. This form is a realization of defamiliarization. Readers need to make efforts to understand the complete meaning of this text under this form. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)

This text shows us Sharp’s childhood. She had to deal with troubles and make a living when she was still a kid. Exercised by her hard life, she could tackle these. But it does not mean that she deserves this hard life. Therefore, Thackeray puts “many a dun” and “many a tradesman” forward to express Sharp’s passivity in her early life. She had no choice so she was active in actions and passive in acceptance. She seems to be at ease, but it is the life that makes her have no choice. Through this carefully designed sentence structure, the inverted sentence implicitly shows that Sharp lives in a poor and bad environment, while the active voice clearly states that she is smart and mature.

These sentences realize their poetic effects and poetic function through this special form. It is necessary to pay attention to this form in order to retain the literariness of the source text. But in Yang Bi’s translation, she generally translates this text in a way that converts sentences to active voice and put the subject in front of the sentence. This omits some true meanings and important information about Sharp, which damages literariness. In contrast, Peng Changjiang uses amplification to retain the information of activity and passivity between character and environment.

In addition, he adds “上门” to show the passivity that Sharp has to face duns as a kid. And he also keeps the order of characters in this sentence, preserving poetic function of language and achieving poetic effects contained in the source text. There is a topic of Vanity Fair that we should notice. Thackeray writes this work with no fame to critically scrutinize the capitalist system and expose the darkness of the society at that time. Defamiliarization here has its underlying intention and message which should be focused on when translating.

(I think we should introduce the content and ideas of the original in the previous part)--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:49, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

Example 2 So imprisoned and tortured was this gentle little heart, when in the month of March, Anno Domini 1815, Napoleon landed at Cannes, and Louis XVIII fled, and all Europe was in alarm, and the funds fell, and old John Sedley was ruined.(Thackeray 1994, 177)

Yang Bi’s translation: 这温柔的小女孩子感觉到烦恼和苦闷。那时正是公元一千八百十五年的三月里，拿破仑在加恩登陆，路易十八仓促逃难，整个欧洲人心惶惶，公债跌了价，约翰·赛特笠老头儿从此倾家荡产。(1957, 175)

Yang Bi’s translation: 这温柔的小女孩子感觉到烦恼和苦闷。那时正是公元一千八百十五年的三月里，拿破仑在加恩登陆，路易十八仓促逃难，整个欧洲人心惶惶，公债跌了价，约翰·赛特笠老头儿从此倾家荡产。(Yang Bi 1957, 175)--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:49, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这颗小小的温柔的心就是这样被禁锢，受煎熬。当时是公元一八一五年三月，拿破仑在戛纳登陆，路易十八逃亡，全欧洲惊恐不安，公债下跌，老约翰·塞德利破产。(2005, 190)

Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这颗小小的温柔的心就是这样被禁锢，受煎熬。当时是公元一八一五年三月，拿破仑在戛纳登陆，路易十八逃亡，全欧洲惊恐不安，公债下跌，老约翰·塞德利破产。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 190)--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:49, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

This sentence describes the situation when Amelia Sedley’s family is broke and she hasn’t get any response from her lover for a long time. Amelia was depressed, worried and distraught under the circumstances. Thackeray uses an inverted sentence here, putting her feelings at the beginning of the whole sentence to emphasize her anxiety and worry. In such a long sentence, the author put her experiences behind her feelings as a subordinate clause. This is a deliberate form that could highlight Amelia’s sufferings in soul and body because of these upheavals.

When translating, the two adjectives imprisoned and tortured should be focused on in order to express Sedley’s situation and feelings(Zhang Keding 2001, 22). In translations of the two versions, they realize the importance of the order of clauses and translate it in a similar form to the source text. However, when dealing with this inverted sentence, both of their translations change it to a theme-transition-rheme structure. The original one is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and carries poetic function.

(Direct quotation should be enclosed in quotation marks)--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:49, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

Changing the sequence of components impairs its poetic function and poetic effects. The emotions in Chinese and English expressions are not equivalent. Besides, the lexicon of Sedley’s feelings used in Peng’s translation is closer to the source text than Yang Bi’s translation. Yang Bi uses a freer way of choosing words to show these feelings. Although they do not follow the original form, it can be forgivable. Because if they followed the structure, it would be translated like “太折磨了，太煎熬了，这颗幼小的心。”. This translation does not conform to Chinese grammatical norms, which breaks the cohesion of this sentence. In this case, translators need to find other methods to make up for the damage of poetic effects in process of changing structure.

(There is no indication which page is quoted)--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:49, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

Example 3 What humiliation and fury:what pangs of sickening rage,balked ambition and love;what wounds of outraged vanity, tenderness even, had this old worldling now to suffer under!(Thackeray 1994, 238)

Yang Bi’s translation: 老头儿是个名利心极重的俗物，想到儿子这样的丢他的脸，气得发昏，只觉得一阵阵的怒气冒上来，彻骨的难过。他的野心和他对儿子的骨肉至情受了个大挫折。他的虚荣心，还有他的一点儿痴心，也遭到意想不到的打击。(1957, 234)

Yang Bi’s translation: 老头儿是个名利心极重的俗物，想到儿子这样的丢他的脸，气得发昏，只觉得一阵阵的怒气冒上来，彻骨的难过。他的野心和他对儿子的骨肉至情受了个大挫折。他的虚荣心，还有他的一点儿痴心，也遭到意想不到的打击。(Yang Bi 1957, 234)--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:49, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

Peng Changjiang’s translation:这年老的世俗之徒，现在羞怒交加；野心受挫，爱心无着落，气得他发昏；虚荣心，甚至还有点温情，受到了粗暴的伤害，更使他心如刀绞。(2005, 254)

Peng Changjiang’s translation:这年老的世俗之徒，现在羞怒交加；野心受挫，爱心无着落，气得他发昏；虚荣心，甚至还有点温情，受到了粗暴的伤害，更使他心如刀绞。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 254)--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:49, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

This sentence is excerpted from chapter 24, which describes that old Osborne knows that his son wants to marry Sedley from Dobbin. The original sentence uses a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and emotive. Besides, when it comes to word order, normal word order is typical and unmarked while an inverted sentence is atypical and marked. From the perspective of poetics, an atypical and marked expression is defamiliarized contributing to foregrounding while typical and unmarked expression is contributing to backgrounding. Here, Thackeray uses defamiliarization to achieve poetic effects. Thackeray puts the old man's anger, pain, sufferings forward to emphasize his feelings. Character’s emotions are highlighted intuitively in this form of expression. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)

Regrettably, it is rare to see such a long inverted sentence in Chinese. So, Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both change this sentence into a theme-transition-rheme structure, which does damage to poetic function of the original. However, they adopt diverse translation strategies that produce different results. Yang Bi splits this sentence into three sentences that is different from Peng Changjiang’s translation. Although her translation may be more in line with Chinese reading habits, the defamiliarization of the original sentence has disappeared. Her splitting of the whole sentence also weakens the continuity and progression of emotion which largely impairs the poetic function of the original sentence. Nor does Peng Changjiang retain this rheme-transition-rheme structure.

It is a pity that differences between Chinese and English makes it difficult to put long clauses before a subject which will cause a logical problem. In Peng Changjiang’s version, his word order is almost the same as the source text, preserving the flavor and poetic effect of the original to the greatest extent. In addition to slightly changing the inverted sentence, Peng Changjiang still follows the original form, using short clauses to retain the continuity of emotion. Thus, the situation in the source text is vividly reproduced.

Example 4 Here, too, in this humble tenement, live care, and distrust, and dismay.(Thackeray 2003, 507)

Yang Bi’s translation: 这家子的生活是够清苦的，他们也有他们的烦恼和心事，也免不了互相猜忌。(1957, 498)

Yang Bi’s translation: 这家子的生活是够清苦的，他们也有他们的烦恼和心事，也免不了互相猜忌。(Yang Bi 1957, 498)--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:49, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这儿，在这卑贱的屋子里，也有忧虑、猜疑和恐慌。(2005, 538)

Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这儿，在这卑贱的屋子里，也有忧虑、猜疑和恐慌。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 538)--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:49, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

This sentence is excerpted from chapter 50, in which Amelia’s family sank into poverty and her life got stuck in trouble. At the beginning of this chapter, it tells the impoverished status of her family and lays the background for Amelia having to send her son away. This example is the first sentence of laying background which sets the tone of this chapter. There is no character in this sentence. which is narrated from the perspective of an objective bystander. And inversion here puts the family’s poverty in front and human feelings behind, which corresponds to the content of this chapter.(Zhang Keding 2001, 21)

This arrangement implies to readers that care, distrust and dismay may be caused by the family’s humble status. Besides, the word “humble” is a quite agreeable and inoffensive depiction of their situation while this inverted sentence highlights their humble situation. Correspondingly, Amelia’s family is in deep poverty but still trying to maintain the vanity. As mentioned above, this inverted sentence means a lot for producing poetic effects. The writer uses this form to attract readers' attention to this chapter and create literariness combined with the content of this plot.

Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both retained the original sequence, with the situation in the first place and emotions in the last. Yang Bi uses “这一家子”, “他们” and “他们的” to connect the whole sentence while Peng Changjiang uses “这儿” and “这”. Comparing the two translations, the latter is closer to the original sentence because it retains the design of no character. What’s more, there are progression and transition of background introduction in this sentence. “这儿” and “这” correspond with “here” and “this”, which retains progression and transition and poetic effects.

====3.2 Conclusions====

William Thackeray’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a classic satirical novel, and sarcasm can be seen everywhere in this work. Inversion is a significant form to build this satirical tone. So, translators should make efforts to retain the poetic function and poetic effects of this satirical tone in inverted sentences. Through the discussion of examples in 3.1, it can be found that Peng Changjiang's translations of inverted sentences are more consistent with the form of the original text. Many of the emotions and writing skills contained in this inverted form are fully preserved in his translation.(Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 2015, 90)

An inverted sentence is a typical example that shows literariness and usually carries an important message. In Vanity Fair, Thackeray uses a lot of inverted sentences to show characters’ personalities, situations and experiences, which is an impressive writing skill. This form has a significant influence on the story, which needs more attention to translate. Whereas, Yang Bi lived in a time when people criticized and suppressed formalism, that’s why her translation seems freer. Because of this, she lays emphasis on stories and diction while omits the power of form so that she does not translate inverted sentences with retaining main structures.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 7)

In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng, 2010, 11)

In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 11)--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 09:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

In translation, the basic reason for a change of form is the difficulty of translation, that is, it is possible or necessary to change the form of the original text only when a translation with corresponding smoothness cannot be obtained without changing the form. Arbitrarily changing the form of the original text will destroy its poetic effect and author’s purposes. In this novel, William Thackeray vividly shapes many characters through his careful diction. His expression on the development of plots and delicate feelings of characters cannot be separated from forms.(Wang Dongfeng 2007, 48)

Inversion is a sentence that changes the order and structure to emphasize a certain sentence component. Its distribution of information is designed by the author to promote the development of the plot. Therefore, a translator should conserve this inverted form as far as possible as long as it does not affect the readability of texts. When an inverted sentence form cannot be retained, we should also pay attention to keep the order of sentence components and structure of rheme and theme as much as possible. And how to deal with inversion properly and retain its poetic effects remains to be further studied.

===Chapter 4 Summary===

It is often said in Chinese literature that one has to grasp the content and forget the form. However, This is not always applicable to translation because forgetting forms may result in losing meanings. This thesis makes a comparative analysis of translations of Vanity Fair. Through discussion, it can be seen that forms deliberately chose by the author bear specific functions in this story of vanity. An inverted sentence designed with purposes is an important form that needs attention in translating, especially optional ones. They usually own a task to achieve poetic function.(Lu Yang 2008, 128)

Sometimes, translators change the original form in order to take care of readers’ language habits. Maybe it is not necessary. This kind of change may produce a good work but will also sacrifice literariness that an author designed on purpose. This does not mean that translators must follow exactly the same form without considering whether it conforms to the grammatical norms of the target language or not. Instead, it means translation should consider the influence of form on poetic function and poetic effect. What’s more, maybe literary writers don’t aim to make every reader understand the whole text. They may write to express feelings and thoughts to let readers explore and feel.

Translators try to give an equivalent text without damage to forms, which can give readers opportunities to think about what contains in forms by themselves. When changing forms, translators may also ruin writers' emotions on characters or stories contained in forms, which will destroy literariness unconsciously. Literary translations should be more cautiously treated. Every detail may have a specific intention. Without literariness, literary works will lose their souls, and poetic effects on readers will also disappear. Nowadays, with converting attention on forms again, when translators try efforts to make a great translation, they maybe could think about paying some attention to formal correspondence to retain literariness.(Wang Dongfeng 2010,9)

===Chapter 5 References===

[1] Jakobson,R. (1987). ''Language in Literature''[M],Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.

[2] Jakobson,R. (1973). Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov[A].In.E.J.Brown(ed.).''Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism''. Oxford University Press.

[3] Pilkington,A. (2000). ''Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective'' . Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.

[4] Shklovsky, V.(1998). Art as technique[A]. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). ''Literary Theory: An Anthology ''(2nd ed) [M].Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.

[5] Feng Zongxin 封宗信.(2006). ''《现代语言学流派概论》'' [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]，北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].

[6] Zhang Keding 张克定.(2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective] [J].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)''[Journal of Foreign Languages],(05):18-24.

[7] Lu Yang 卢杨.(2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion] [J].''合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ],22(06):126-128.

[8] Jakobson, Roman. Linguistics and Poetics[A]. in ''Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry''[C]. Hague Mouton, 1958/198la.

[9] Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective] [J].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal],31(01):6-8,11.

[10] Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙.(2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair''[J].''广东外语外贸大学学报'',26(02):90-93.

[11] Yin Boan 尹伯安.(2000). 重译贵在创新——《名利场》两种译本的评析Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair''[J].''山东师大外国语学院学报'',(04):79-83.

[12] Thackeray,William.(2003). ''Vanity Fair''.[M] Wordsworth Editions Ltd.

[13] Yang Bi 杨必.(1957). ''《名利场》'' ''Vanity Fair''[M].北京:人民文学出版社.

[14] Peng Changjiang 彭长江.(2005). ''《名利场》'' ''Vanity Fair''[M].北京:中国戏剧出版社.

[15] Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary,[M].Oxford University Press,2009.

[16]Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective[J].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)'',(04):48.

(There are some problems with the format and order of the references. The English names of some newspapers have not been written.)

Jakobson,R. (1987). Language in Literature. Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.

Jakobson,R. (1973). Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov. In.E.J.Brown(ed.). Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism. Oxford University Press.

Jakobson, Roman. (1958/1981a). Linguistics and Poetics. in Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry. Hague Mouton.

Pilkington,A. (2000). Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.

Shklovsky,V. (1998). Art as technique. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). Literary Theory: An Anthology (2nd ed). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.

Thackeray, William. (2003). Vanity Fair. Wordsworth Editions Ltd.

Feng Zongxin 封宗信. (2006). 现代语言学流派概论 [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].

Lu Yang 卢杨. (2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion]. 合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ]22(06):126-128.

Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary. (2019). Oxford University Press.

Peng Changjiang 彭长江. (2005). 名利场[Vanity Fair]. 北京:中国戏剧出版社.

Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析[Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective]. 外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Language](04):48.

Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective].中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal]31(01):6-8,11.

Yang Bi 杨必. (1957). 名利场[Vanity Fair]. 北京:人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House].

Yin Boan 尹伯安. (2000). 重译贵在创新——名利场两种译本的评析[Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair'']. 山东师大外国语学院学报[Journal of Basic English Education](04):79-83.

Zhang Keding 张克定. (2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective]. 外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages](05):18-24.

Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙. (2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本[The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair'']. 广东外语外贸大学学报[Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies]26(02):90-93.
--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan==

==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics-Based on the English version of Cong Cong==

===Abstract===
There are great differences between Chinese and English languages. Especially the language of Chinese prose and its form, which have distinctive features, contains rich Chinese cultural characteristics, increasing the difficulties when translate Chinese prose into English. The paper mainly introduces the origins and development of translation aesthetics both in China and abroad, and some translation methods of Chinese prose. The author chooses the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as the representative work to study its translation methods and the way of aesthetics representation with the theory proposed by Liu Miqing, to draw a conclusion that the language features of Chinese prose could be manifested by means of translation aesthetics in the process of translation. By presenting the application of the translation aesthetics in prose translation, this paper is expected to help language learners have a deeper understanding of the translation methods in Chinese and English literature.

===摘要===
中英语言存在较大差异。尤其是汉语散文的语言和形式特色鲜明，蕴含丰富的中国文化特色，使得汉语散文的英译难度加大。本文主要介绍了中外翻译美学的起源和发展以及一些汉语散文的翻译方法，并以张培基教授翻译的《匆匆》英译本为范本，运用刘宓庆教授提出的翻译美学理论，研究其中运用的翻译方法及审美再现的方式，由此得出结论在翻译的过程中借助翻译美学理论可以使汉语散文的语言特色得以体现。通过展示翻译美学在散文翻译中的应用，本文期望帮助语言学习者更深入地了解汉语及英语文学作品翻译的方法。

===Key words===
Chinese prose translation; translation aesthetics; ''Cong Cong''

===关键词===
中国散文翻译；翻译美学；《匆匆》

===Introduction===
Literature is an artistic way to express language. The Chinese prose, as one of the important literary genres, with its features that scrambled in appearance but united in spirit, is widely favored by many readers. ''Cong Cong'', as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, was written in 1922 when the May Fourth Movement was coming to an end. At that time, Zhu Ziqing taking the responsibility of literator, with beautiful language and refined structure, delicately described his resignation and plaint for time elapsing, and implied the reality that the young people felt confused about the future of the country. In the prose, Mr. Zhu’s reflection on time not only touched the youth at that time, but also alerted today’s readers.

The “beauty” of the Chinese prose is the most important as well as the most difficult problem to solve in translation. As the integration of aesthetics and translation, translation aesthetics’ basic principles are used to analyze and explore aesthetic difficulties during the process of interlingual transfer, including the aesthetic constituents of aesthetic object (original text, translation text), the dynamic role of aesthetic subject (translators and readers), the connection of aesthetic subject and object, the types and means of aesthetic reproduction in translation and the standard of translation aesthetics, etc.

The aesthetical process of Chinese prose translation is to coordinate the conflicts and incoherence which exist in different cultures when translating. People have accumulated much experience in national prose study in the past thousand years, but the study for Chinese prose translation still lagged behind, let alone the study by systematic theories or from the aesthetic orientation.

Exploring the Chinese prose translation with aesthetic theories, whichever from the view of theory or practice, both of them could be used for reference. Throughout the history of national translation theory development, it is not difficult to find that since ancient times, the traditional Chinese translation theory have reflected abundant aesthetic ideas. According to that, this paper takes the translation aesthetic theory proposed by Liu Miqing as the primary theoretical framework, to study and analyze the English version of ''Cong Cong'' translated by Zhang Peiji. Professor Zhang has devoted to the translation of Chinese modern prose for a long time, making significant contribution to the theory of the Chinese modern prose translation, especially to the translation practice.

The paper mainly includes twelve parts. The first is the introduction which defines the study subject of the paper, proposing the study purpose and significance through summarizing predecessors’ studies; from the second to the fourth parts mainly introduce theoretical framework of the paper which was proposed by Mr. Liu Miqing, explaining the origins of Chinese translation aesthetics and some involved concepts in the paper such as aesthetic subjects and objects, regular and standard; and the following three parts simply focus on some methods in the process of Chinese prose translation, which mainly involve four methods: Literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization.

By comparing these methods this paper could make people realize the differences of translation methods and choose the proper way when translating; the eighth and the following three parts are based on the previous parts, according to the theories of translation aesthetics and methods, to analyze the translation beauty in ''Cong Cong'', its language, image and style beauty; the final part is the conclusion, through a large number of analysis getting a conclusion, to make it clear that the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be manifested during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation, and that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, therefore translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.

===An Overview of Translation Aesthetics===
Historically, the development of translation theory both at home and abroad has closely connected with aesthetics, for example, in the west, the famous “three principles of translation” proposed by Alexander Fraser Tytler; and Paul Valery, a great French translator, advocated that the technique of translation mostly depended on the translator’s aesthetic perception for the literature’s truth value; in China, when people translated the ancient Buddhist Scriptures, someone had proposed that, faithful translated texts lacked beauty, whereas beautiful translated texts lacked faithfulness. Yan Fu also put forward “faithfulness”, “expressiveness” and “elegance” these points in 1896 when translating ''Theory of Natural Selection''. [6](Yan Fu, 2010, 6)

Although the translation and aesthetics both have a long history of development, they were linked into one conception—Aesthetic-poetic translation for the first time in 1954 by an eminent American scholar, Joseph B. Casagrande. And Wang Zuoliang, a great Chinese scholar and translator, has proposed in Chinese Translation Standard that the translator should put aesthetics at the first place when translating, and leave translation standard behind, which also connected translation with aesthetics. [7](Wang Zuoliang, 1991, 113) And up until now, the connection existing between translation and aesthetics has been widely accepted in the field of translation, and the “translation aesthetics” has become a basic conception.

===The relationship between translation and aesthetics===
There are various definitions of translation. Oxford English Dictionary explains translation as—to turn from one language into another;[1] (Hornby, 1988, 2149) and the New Webster International Dictionary defines it as—to turn into one’s own or another language. [2](Gove, 1961, 1956) In Chinese dictionary Han Yu Da Ci Dian, “translation” is defined as—to express the meaning of one language by another language. [8](Luo Zhufeng, 1986, 2374) And Eugene A. Nida, the famous American translator has said, “translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style”.[2] (Nida & Taber, 1969, 12-24)

From these definitions, a conclusion can be made that translation is essentially a process of transforming language and words, so translation can be divided into interpreting and translating; with the development of science and technology, there are human translation and machine translation.[9] (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296) What is more, the translation of written language is also divided into two parts, non-literary translation and literary translation. Comparing with the translated texts of non-literary translation, that of literary translation embodies more uncertainty and diversity. Facing with so many options, how the translator makes a judgment and selects one text as the final version requires the translator has a standard for reference. The author believes that aesthetic analysis can be a feasible way in literary translation.

Although in China and the west, aesthetics has developed for a long time, it was not given the name until 1750 by a German philosopher Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten. The definitions of aesthetics vary from scholars to scholars, especially in the west. The author selects one of them as the study foundation of this paper. The Basic Principles of Aesthetics written by Liu Shucheng has a relatively clear definition for aesthetics, which says that aesthetics is a branch of learning that deals with the general law of beauty and with the creation or appreciation of beauty; in detail, aesthetics studies the nature of beauty and its law, and the aesthetic connection of subject and object, art and reality, and the aesthetics experience. [10](Liu Shucheng, 2006, 9-20) Aesthetics can be divided into different parts according to its study objects, such as natural beauty, artistic beauty, linguistic beauty and social beauty.

Based on the previous part, translation is a process of transforming language and words and the aesthetics studies objects including language beauty, so ultimately, it is language that connects translation and aesthetics. As combining translation with aesthetics or taking the aesthetic theory into the translation and practice, a new subject is formed—translation aesthetics. Strictly speaking, translation aesthetics studies the nature and the law of translation beauty and the aesthetic relation between the translator and the original and translated text, and the aesthetic relation of translated text and the original text.

It is the translator’s aesthetic experience. The process of translating is also the aesthetic activity; the translator could refer to the classification of aesthetic forms to analyze the aesthetic factors in the original text and translated text. Meanwhile, the translating process itself belongs to one of the aesthetic study objects, which includes the translator’s aesthetic experience, process, and judgment. Translating is a dynamic aesthetic and creative process which closely connects with the original text and translated text. The beginning of translation is the original text and the ending of translation is the translated text, while what the author is talking about is aesthetic translation or literary translation, that is to say, both the original and translated text contain many aesthetic factors, which demands more from translators.[11] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 46-51)

The aesthetic thinking throughout the whole process of literary translation, plays an important role in faithfully expressing the idea of the original text, retaining the vivid language of the translated text and reproducing the style of the original text. So the translator needs to transfer the aesthetic factors in the original text into the translated text, whatever the presentational elements or non-presentational elements, which was proposed by Liu Miqing in the passage Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics published on the Chinese Translators Journal. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) The next part would be the illustration of Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics.

===Liu Miqing’s thought in translation aesthetics===
Professor Liu’s aesthetic theory mainly includes the translation aesthetics’ category and tasks, its aesthetic subject and object, and the general law of translation aesthetics. In the paper, the writer will give a brief introduction to the translation aesthetic subject and object and its general law.

In the Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics, Professor Liu Miqing puts forward that the aesthetic subject is the translator.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) He thinks that if the translator wants to represent the beauty of the original text, the aesthetic constituents of the original text must connect with the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject, i.e. the translator. And the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject includes three aspects, literary ability, aesthetic sense and aesthetic experience. Literary ability as the most basic requirement enlightens people’s aesthetic sense. A translator with higher literary ability will have better sense and reproducibility for the beauty of the original text.

And aesthetic sense means the ability to sense beauty and the sensibility for beauty, which usually stem from the intuition. If a translator has high literary ability that could deepen his aesthetic sense, in such way, he could possess the relatively high level of aesthetics and could put this ability into the translating practice, to optimize the aesthetic sense. Aesthetic experience is the aesthetic perception and cognition produced by repeating aesthetic activities. Practice makes perfect, abundant aesthetic experience could bring out the best of the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject. A translator without enough aesthetic experience, even if he has high literary ability, facing with a beautiful original text, he could not optimize his aesthetic ability. The aesthetic subject must possess three abilities at the same time, so that he could manifest the beauty of the original text in the greatest extend.

It is self-evident that the aesthetic object of translation is the original text. Professor Liu proposes that judging the beauty of the original text involves the aesthetic values, and the basis of judging the aesthetic values of the original text is its aesthetic constituents, in other words is the aesthetic elements which compose the features of the original text. Meanwhile, Liu Miqing puts forward two types of aesthetic elements, one is the “aesthetic presentation” elements and the other is the “non-presentational elements”.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20)

The aesthetic presentation element in the original text is the beauty in its language form, including the phonetic beauty, which is called the formal beauty of the matter in aesthetics. It normally could be felt directly and be reflected through human’s vision and hearing. For example, a beautiful prose could give people the feeling of beauty through its language, rhythm or phonology. The non-presentational elements, contrasting with the presentational elements, have not direct connection with the language form of the original text. It is usually not intuitionistic and “uncountable” as it often cannot be expressed by words, sentences or texts.

The aesthetic constituents of the language form usually can be counted, for instance, the number of parallel sentences, rhetorical devices or alliterations all are numerable; while not the non-presentational elements. It is impossible to quantify the features of an article, such as its artistic conception, charm, and linguistic modality. However, these elements are crucial for the aesthetic values of an article. Although they are not given specific language form or material form, they could be sensed. With this point, Professor Liu describes that as “nonquantitative obscure collection” in translation aesthetics. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) Its core is the obscurity, and through the following Professor Zhang’s translated text people could sense the obscurity clearly.

Liu Miqing points out that the translation aesthetic experience often goes through the following steps: the cognition for the aesthetic constituents of the aesthetic objects; the conversion of aesthetic cognition; the modifying for the result of conversion; the representation of the result of modifying. In summary, cognition, conversion, modifying and representation these four steps are included.

===The Translation Methods of Chinese Prose===
Prose is a lively and dexterous literary form, whose structure is flexible and language form is free from the constraint of rhythm. A beautiful prose requests refined language, thoughtful thinking and clear theme, which could give people a beautiful sense. While the prose translation, no matter from English to Chinese or from Chinese to English, is difficult works for all translators. Prose translation is an aesthetic practice, not only requiring the translator to convey the form beauty in the original text, but also to convey the content and style beauty, to achieve the harmony between the original text and the translated text.

Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.

Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===Literal translation and free translation===
It has a long debate on literal and free translation, which mainly argues about the definition of literal and free translation, or which one should be used in the process of translating; these debates put the literal translation and free translation on an opposite position. [14](Ye Zinan, 2001, 5-8) Some people advocating the literal translation think that the literal translation should not add or reduce any words, by doing so, the meaning and information of the original text could be maintained accurately, while the free translation is on the contrary.

Others supporting free translation maintain that many translated texts translated literally, are not only text rigid, but also difficult to read and understand. The author thinks that there are two reasons leading to this circumstance. One is that there is great difference between Chinese and English. Facing with this situation, the translator often confronts with two options: a sentence can be translated both literally and freely, at this point, different people have different attitudes toward these two methods, so the disputes appear; and the other is different people have different definitions for literal translation and free translation.

China has a long history of translation development, and during the process, many great translation masters have appeared, such as Xuan Zang in Tang Dynasty and Yan Fu in modern time, whose achievements all have exerted great influence on the development of translation methods in China. The debates between literal and free translation started from the process of translating Buddhist scriptures when, Dao An, a famous monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, who advocated the literal translation, worried that free translation would destroy the information in the original text; while at the same period, Kumārajīva, a monk and translator who came from the Kingdom of Kucha, can not only be able to speak Sanskrit but also to understand Chinese language, thinking that it is necessary to add or dele some contents in order to convey the meaning of the original text better.

This debate went down to the period of Xuan Zang, who did not clearly state whether he supported literal or free translation. Generally, people titled his methods as “new translation”, in other words, using these two methods at the same time in a proper way. When dealing with different contexts, he applied adding, reducing and some other methods to reserve the meaning and spirit of the original text, which made a perfect combination between literal and free translation. Although until today there are still some disputes about literal and free translation, people have come to a consensus that both of them as the basic translation methods, aiming at conveying the information of the original text to the target language in a loyal way.

It is wrong to say which one of them is good or bad. And with the development of China’s translation theories, the definitions of literal and free translation have been improved a lot. Generally speaking, literal translation means that the language form of the original text should be maintained as much as possible as well as its words, sentence structure or rhetorical device, meanwhile the translated text is required to be fluent and easy to understand and must be loyal to the original text; and the free translation starts from the meaning of the original text, not only requiring about clearly expressing the literal meaning of the original text, but its implication conveyed to the reader and loyal to the original text. quotation missing--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===Domestication and foreignization===
The origin of two terms can be traced back to the speech On the Different Methods of Translation delivered by a German ideologist Schleiermacher, who thought that translation had two methods, one was that the translator “leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him” ; and the other is that “the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him”, but he did not give the two methods a specific name. [4](Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004, 43-60)

And the Dictionary of Translation Studies published in 1997, edited by Mark Shuttleworth and Moira Cowie, thought that Venuti was the first person who concluded these two methods in 1995 with two terms “domestication and foreignization”. As the extending of literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization break up the constraint of language factors. The literal and free translation mainly focus on the language level, while the domestication and foreignization mainly refer to the cultural level. The literal and free translations are translation methods while the domestication and foreignization are translation strategies. Although they have something in common, the distinct differences still exist.

Eugene A. Nida, as the representative of domestication, he proposed “functional equivalence” in his book The Theory and Practice of Translation. In this book, he wrote that “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the messages in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language”, which indirectly expressed the key points of the domestication, that is focusing on the target language, making readers have the same feeling or responding to the original text readers. [3](Nida & Taber, 1969, 24)

However, Venuti who advocated foreignization, thought the term domestication has some negative connotations, for it lost the features of the original language during the process of translation, which restricted the development of cultural diversity. [5](Venuti, 2004, 16-17) Contrary to the domestication, foreignization advocates to focus on the source language, maintain the exotic features and style of the original language. Just like literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization are contrary as well as complementary.

So, choosing a proper way in translation people should consider some factors, for example the author’s intention, the translating purpose and the level and demands of readers. And in the process of translating, a translated text is not completely confined within domestication or foreignization, but the translator always takes two or more methods unconsciously. Considering the translating purpose of the literature, the two translation methods are often used in the same text at the same time. It is not difficult to find that all great translated texts use these two methods together under the precondition that the content of the original text could be expressed accurately rather than just simply choose one of them and use it singly in the whole text.

===The Translation Aesthetics in ''Cong Cong''===
Translation aesthetics is an important branch in translation system, which is widely used to translate poems, prose and fictions. Cong Cong, as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, is always appreciated for its beautiful language, vivid image and profound thinking. Chinese prose and English prose are quite different, which makes the translation of Chinese prose difficult. Professor Zhang Peiji has worked a long time on the translation of Chinese prose. His translation methods and theories provide good references. This part the author mainly takes the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as an example, using Professor Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods and aesthetic representation in ''Cong Cong.''

''Cong Cong'' was a masterpiece written by Zhu Ziqing, a famous Chinese prose master, on March 28, 1922 and was published on April 11 in the same year. It is a prose about sighing for the elapsing time and warning people to value the time, and is the representative work in the period of May Fourth Movement.The first special point of the prose lies in that Zhu simultaneously used three different personal pronouns: you, I and he. [15](Xue Gongping, 2008, 229) “You” in this prose, is the person whom the author is talking with; is the interlocutor communicating with “me”; people can also call “you” as a fictitious friend.

At the first paragraph of the prose, the author expressed his feeling of treasuring time and nostalgia for the passing time through rhetorical questions like “I” asking “you” why the time goes by never to return.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 55-60) And in the middle of the prose, the author called the time as “he”, to describe the elapsing of time, expressing “my” abashed and anxious feeling about the passing time. Through using the three personal pronouns the prose described the time and sighed for its elapsing, making readers have a feeling of familiarity as well as vitalize the time and the years.

The most artistic feature in the prose is the sensual description for the elapsing of time. In order to emphasize the hasty sense of “the time” as an alive object, the author applied both personification and parallelism, to give the time human’s emotion, character and temperament. In the first sentence of the prose, Zhu used parallelism to attract readers’ attention, leading them immerse in the beautiful poetry; and next put forward four questions without answers. In this way, people can clearly realize that the time is invisible and irreversible, which make them feel lost.

===Aesthetics representation in ''Cong Cong''===
The author is very fond of the English version of modern Chinese prose translated by Zhang Peiji, always willing to study the beauty of his translated text. Cong Cong also is one of the author’s favorite Chinese proses, whose language style attracts the author a lot. These translation methods used by Professor Zhang in Cong Cong completely reflect the application of translation aesthetics in prose translation.

So in order to learn more about the technique of Chinese prose translation, the idea that using translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods applied by Zhang Peiji was produced. According to the previous parts, the aesthetic subject is the translator, i.e. Professor Zhang Peiji, who is proficient enough in the field of prose translation, and possesses high level of literary ability and abundant aesthetic experience. Therefore it is unnecessary to pay much attention to the aesthetic subject. In this chapter, the author mainly focuses on the aesthetic object, i.e. the prose, to analyze the beauty of the translated text.

===Beauty in language===
The language beauty firstly is reflected by rhyme beauty. Rhyme is one of the basic aesthetic units, and is the important element to make the language beautiful. In the original text, there are many rhymes, and Professor Zhang’s approach toward the rhyme beauty is worth learning.
Example sentence: 那是谁？又藏在何处呢？
Translated text: But who could it be and where could he hide them? [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)

Through the rhetorical question, the author expressed his anxiety about the elapsing of time. Professor Zhang applied the alliteration to convey the emotion of the author, which makes reader feel neatly and read fluently, reaching the translating goal.

And secondly the language beauty is shown by the words beauty. In translation, choosing proper words is crucial for the quality of the translated text, because the English language and the Chinese language have some differences. Paying attention to the cultural differences is also a process to pursue the correspondence in aesthetics. However, it is difficult to choose the proper words sometimes, especially in literature translation. That is to say, in the prose translation, people must select the words with aesthetic values, to reach the standard of “elegance”. Professor Zhang chose the words exquisitely in the translated text, which showed the beauty of the words. Here are some examples:

①“我不知道他们给了我多少日子”
Translated text: I don’t know how many days I am entitled to altogether.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)
“给了” was translated into “entitled to”. “Entitled” is a quite formal word, which means to give someone the official right to do or have something. By using this word, Professor Zhang fully expressed the passive and resigned feeling of the author, achieving the aesthetic effect of the original text.

②“但我的手确乎是渐渐空虚了”
Translated text: But my quota of them is undoubtedly wearing away. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)
In this sentence Professor Zhang used the free translation. “Quota of them” means a certain amount of days or my allotted span, which conveys the anxious and uneasy feeling of the author in a vivid and delicate way, and also can be easily understood by the readers of the target language. And in this sentence, the translator chose the free translation. For the difference between English and Chinese, it is not suitable to translate directly. And from the aesthetic perspective to analyze, it is the process of pursuing corresponding and rebuilding the beauty of the original text. If the translator chose imitation to translate the sentence, not only the meaning but the beauty would lose and may cause misunderstanding as well.

Thirdly, language beauty especially can be reflected by the rhetoric beauty. In this prose, parallelism was the most used device, second was the metaphor and personification. For all these rhetorical devices, Professor Zhang resorted to all of them in the translated text. That is to say, for rhetorical devices of the original text, Zhang used the literal translation in the translated text, in other words, Professor Zhang retained the rhetoric beauty of the original text. For example:
Example sentence: 燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候.
Translated text: If swallows go away, they will come back again. If willows wither, they will turn green again. If peaches shed their blossoms, they will flower again. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)

The original text had three parallel sentences, with bright and neat rhyme, arousing readers’ interests and helping them to catch the theme of the prose quickly. The translated text, which retained the sentence pattern of the original text, also adopted parallelism, making the translated text as fluent as the running water and conveying to the readers the same feeling as the original text. It also can be called “corresponding”, which could retain the formal beauty of the original text and avoid the loss of aesthetic values. What is more, another highlight in the translated text was “if” at the beginning of every sentence, which reminded readers of the famous verse written by Shelley—If Winter comes, can Spring be far away. That is the translator’s masterly design, taking these cultural differences into account and guaranteeing the readability of the translated text.

===Beauty in image===
Image is the indispensable elements in Chinese literature, using which in an ingenious way can make readers resonate with the author. In Cong Cong, the author applied rich images to express his feelings, of course, these images, without exception, were carefully translated in the translated text. For example, “swallows”, “willows” and “peaches” represented the changing seasons and the elapsing time; “a drop of water falling off a needle point”, “the sun edging away”, “the wisps of smoke and the thin mists” all these specific images were retained in the translated text to express the abstract philosophy, making the same influence on the target language readers’ emotion as the original text on the source language readers, and representing the aesthetic values of the original text. Professor Zhang still used the literal translation to translate these images, through imitation, or accurately speaking, through the corresponding, representing them to achieve the “functional equivalence”.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60)

===Beauty in style===
The style of the prose Cong Cong is very distinct. Firstly, it had sophisticated structure and distinct systems; secondly, its words were pretty and meaningful, with plain and concise features; thirdly, the emotion of the author was blended into the scene in this prose. And the most prominent feature of the prose was its language style. Throughout the whole prose, the author adopted the colloquial language such as tell “me”, “you”, “he”, “wash hands”, “rice bowl”, “have meal”, “lost in reverie” to describe vividly the elapsing of time and the helpless feeling of the author, which made the prose close to life and easy to understand and accept.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60) Professor Zhang Peiji adopting literal translation and free translation together and focusing on the domestication, by imitating and rebuilding, properly reproduced the style of the prose in translated text, which is absolutely a good example to learn Chinese prose translation.

===Conclusion===
Literature as a cultural symbol of a country plays an important role in cultural communication, and literature translation as an important branch of translatology, especially prose translation, should be paid more attention. Prose translation as an art, involving form and content these two aspects, and for most translators, it is a challenging task. The translator must pay attention to both aspects, which not only requires the high literary ability, but also the sensitive aesthetic ability. Only by choosing the proper translation methods, can the author create the aesthetic values of the prose translation. What is more, the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be represented during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation. Meanwhile, now that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.

===References===

[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.
[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.
[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.
[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.
[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.
[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.
[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.
[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.
[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.
[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.
[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.
[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.
[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.
[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.
[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.
[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.

--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:25, 9 December 2020 (UTC)

[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.

[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.

[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.

[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.

[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.

[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.

[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.

[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.

[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.

[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.

[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.

[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.

[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.

[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.

[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.

[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==A Study on the translations of Cosmetic Trademarks from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 张琪 Zhang Qi==
===Abstract===
With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter the Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumer’s psychology. This essay intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.

With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumers’ psychology. This paper intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Key Words===
translation aesthetics；trademark translation；cosmetics

===题目===
翻译美学视角下化妆品商标的翻译

===摘要===
随着经济全球化的浪潮，国外的化妆品品牌踊跃开始登陆中国市场。象征品牌门楣的商标是叩响顾客心灵之门的第一块砖。化妆品商标翻译质量的好坏会直接作用于顾客的消费心理。本文拟从翻译美学的视角探讨化妆品商标翻译所遵循的美学原则及翻译技巧，旨在为更好的规范化妆品商标的翻译提供参考以及让化妆品商标与美学携手体现人们对美的追求和人文理念。

===关键词===
翻译美学；商标翻译；化妆品

===Introduction===
The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products of other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's beautiful yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure.(Li 2000, 58)

The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products from other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure(Li 2000, 58).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development. It is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies cannot be included（Liu 1986，51）

Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development and it is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies don't include（Liu 1986，51）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this essay will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. And it will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples. So as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.

Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this paper will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks together to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. It will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples, so as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Chapter 1 Trademark and Trademark Translation===
====1.1 Definition、Features and Functions of Trademark====
For the definition of trademark, different scholars have had different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meaning, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16.)

For the definition of trademark, different scholars have different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in the form of words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Additionally, Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meanings, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can find that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)

Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can conclude that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification functions, quality assurance functions and advertising functions. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish between multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising----when so many products are placed on supermarket shelves and other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).

For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification function, quality assurance function and advertising function. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish it from multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising. When so many products are placed on supermarket shelves or other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

According to the discuss about the definition、features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product.

According to the discussion about the definition, features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====1.2 Features of Cosmetics Trademarks====
The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention in the first time and have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, the author summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics: People’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder). Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept(Shang 2011,97)

The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention at the first time and to have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the most essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, some scholars summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics: people’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder) and so on. Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept(Shang 2011,97)--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept. Such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission. Such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on(Shang 2011,98).

(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept, such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission, such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on(Shang 2011,98).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumers psychological harmony and comfort, and make them be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which shows alliteration and full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm(Shang 2011,98).

The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumers psychological harmony and comfort, and make them be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which shows alliteration. It is full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm(Shang 2011,98).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====1.3 Trademark Translation====
Regarding trademark translation, American advertising master E.S. Lewis put forward the famous AIDA principle in 1898, that is--successful advertising should have: Attention （attracts attention）, Interest (generates interest), Desire (triggers desire), and Action (stimulates action). In other words, as long as the trademark translation can play the above-mentioned role, the translation can perfectly convey the message of the beauty of the original trademark, attract the attention of consumers and trigger a strong desire to buy, this is a successful translation. The trademark translation is not a simple conversion between language symbols, but to reflect the "short and brilliant" characteristics of the trademark itself. The translation must take into account the differences in language and culture, conform to the aesthetic psychology of customers, and realize the established brand function (Wang 2011, 236).

Regarding trademark translation, American advertising master E.S. Lewis put forward the famous AIDA principle in 1898, that is successful advertising should have four concerns: Attention （attracts attention）, Interest (generates interest), Desire (triggers desire), and Action (stimulates action). In other words, as long as the trademark translation can play the above-mentioned role, the translation can perfectly convey the message of the beauty of the original trademark, attract the attention of consumers and trigger a strong desire to buy;this is a successful translation. The trademark translation is not a simple conversion between language symbols, but to reflect the "short and brilliant" characteristics of the trademark itself. The translation must take into account the differences in language and culture, conform to the aesthetic psychology of customers, and realize the established brand function (Wang 2011, 236).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

From the perspective of language form, the structure of a trademark is simple and easy to understand. Compared with other forms of inter-language conversion, the translation process is not affected by the deeper language levels such as sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, so it seems simple, which results in the translation of trademarks. Don't take people seriously. However, Professor Qian Guanlian believes: “People have two levels of requirements for the creation of any tool: practical and aesthetic(Qian 1993, 13).”

From the perspective of language form, the structure of a trademark is simple and easy to understand. Compared with other forms of inter-language conversion, the translation process is not affected by the deeper language levels such as sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, so it seems simple, which results in the translation of trademarks. Don't take people seriously. However, Professor Qian Guanlian believes: “People have two levels of requirements for the creation of any tool: practical and aesthetic”(Qian 1993, 13).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Therefore, the trademark translation should achieve the perfect unity of sound and meaning. At the same time it is necessary to overcome the cultural barriers of the translated language and conform to people's aesthetic taste and consumer psychology. In a word, it is not easy to do a good job in the translation of trademarks. It also needs the guidance of translation theory and also needs to master certain translation skills.

Therefore, the trademark translation should achieve the perfect unity of sound and meaning. At the same time, it is necessary to overcome the cultural barriers of the translated language and conform to people's aesthetic taste and consumer psychology. In a word, it is not easy to do a good job in the translation of trademarks. It needs the guidance of translation theory and also needs to master certain translation skills.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

=== Chapter 2 Translation Aesthetics===
====2.1 Aesthetic Origins of Translation Studies====
For the Chinese view of language, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty, Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.

For the Chinese language view, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty. Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It is obvious that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of Taoist aesthetics giving way to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）.

Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It can be seen that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of the transfer of Taoist aesthetics to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.2 Aesthetic Subject and Aesthetic Object Translation====
The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information. The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes（Jiao 2010，104).

The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language, and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information（Jiao 2010，104). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality." In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity(Jiao 2010,104).

The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes.One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality". In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity(Jiao 2010,104).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotions of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to both insight and insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn(Jiao 2010,105).

The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotion of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn(Jiao 2010,105). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars are in different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. On the other hand, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty and fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis ("Translation and Aesthetics")(Liu 2005,130).

The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars have different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. Additionally, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty , fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis(Liu 2005,130). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are organically combined, translation can have an aesthetic effect as an aesthetic reproduction process and the translation can be beautiful(Huang 1988,180)

In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are combined organically can translation, as an aesthetic reproduction process, produce aesthetic effect and translation is beautiful.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.3 Aesthetic Interpretation of the Translation of Cosmetic Trademarks====
Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion.Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity(Encyclopedia of China 2009, 283).

Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion.Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity(Encyclopedia of China 2009, 283).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress, men would not regret seeing a beautiful girl hit a tree, humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty(Mao 2015,29).

What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress and men would not regret seeing a beautiful girlat the cost of hitting a tree. Humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty(Mao 2015,29).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of "suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light" through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation The aesthetic reproduction and so on(Mao 2015,29).

The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation, the aesthetic reproduction and so on(Mao 2015,29).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey this beauty(Encyclopedia of China 2011, 553).

Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey beauty(Encyclopedia of China 2011, 553).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

===Chapter 3 Translations of Cosmetic Trademarks Guided by Translation Aesthetics===
====3.1 Aesthetic principles of cosmetics trademark translation====
=====3.1.1Rhythmic Beauty=====
Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example:

Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example:--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, separate the singular word "Ling Li", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic(Zeng 2010,183).

Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, translators separate the singular word "Ling Li", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic(Zeng 2010,183).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam(Zeng 2010,184).

For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam(Zeng 2010,184).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

=====3.1.2 Image Beauty=====
On the one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, and their preferences for certain characters are also very different.

On one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, so their preferences for certain characters are also very different.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "Shufujia", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when using the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards(Ye 2010,112).

For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "舒肤佳", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when consumers use the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards(Ye 2010,112).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have "clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, easy to remember" as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty(Ye 2010,113).

On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, and be easy to remember as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty(Ye 2010,113).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "Beauty" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "lotus" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated, and the sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.

Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "Beauty" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "lotus" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated.The sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

=====3.1.3 Conceptual Beauty=====
The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).

The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning for and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of Biouquan, one of the three major European skin care brands, is "碧欧泉". The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115).

In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of Biouquan is one of the three major European skin care brands. The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France. It has special effects on the human body, especially the skin, and BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).

Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France, which has special effects on the human body, especially on the skin. BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.2 Translation Techniques under the Guidance of Translation Aesthetics====
=====3.2.1 Free Translation=====
Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark words. The brand name translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).

Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark. The brand name translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

The cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb In Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful, as Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366).

For instance, the cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb In Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful. As Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers---- you can get soft, beautiful and young skin with this product. Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product(Zhu 2008,367).

Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers that you can get soft, beautiful and young skin by using this product(Zhu 2008,367). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

The translation of Clinique--“倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩”, means beautiful ;“碧”, means turquoise, light and clear color; By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).

Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product.The translation of “倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩” means beautiful and“碧”means turquoise, light and clear color. By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, and who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

=====3.2.2 Transliteration=====
Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is the meaningless of the original trademark , and the translated name can be obtained by using the text symbols of the target language and the target language to express the pronunciation of the original trademark. "Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).

Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is meaningless of the original trademark. The pronunciation of the original trademark is expressed in the target language and the text symbols of the target language.Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation” . Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation, "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.

The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation. Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation of "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

=====3.2.3 Literal translation=====
Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand Cover Girl literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).

Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand "Cover Girl" is literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. Literally translated, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark—to make skin and body become more beautiful and moving.

Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. With Literal translation, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark and make skin and body become more beautiful.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

In addition, the literal translation of "小护士" as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of little nurses are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieved promotional purposes.

In addition, the literal translation of "little nurses"("小护士") as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of "little nurses" are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieves promotional purpose.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

=====3.2.4 Creative Translation=====
If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning and adopting a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).

If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning, and adopt a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of "creating natural effects". When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and cleansing the skin, and it was known as the "precious soap from Belgium". "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.

For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of creating natural effects. When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and had good function on cleansing the skin. It was known as the precious soap from Belgium. "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

===Conclusion===
From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this essay analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires that we should be based on the specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words, and from the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.

From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires us to take specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words into consideration. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, and make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).

When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, ortherwise;it will make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

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==A Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu 202070080630 英语笔译==

===Abstract===

Oscar Wilde, as a leading figure in the Aesthetic Movement, was famous for his ornate words and sharp wit. His fairy tales embodies and exhibits his aesthetic ideal. Until now, his two collections of fairy tales The Happy Prince and Other Tales as well as A House of Pomegranates still receive popularity around the world. And one of the most favored translation editions of Wilde’s fairy tales in China was written by Ba Jin. This thesis is aimed to analyze from the perspective of translation aesthetics what Ba Jin did to make the representation of beauty possible. This thesis includes three chapters. In Chapter One, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics, and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics to provide theoretical support for the rest part of the thesis. In Chapter Two, the author explores from the aspect of translation aesthetic subject what aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed to let him reproduce the beauty in the original work. In Chapter Three, the author analyzes Ba Jin's translation from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to see what translation skills he used and what translation theories he held to make it possible to reproduce the beauty in the original work.

Through analysis, the author finds that a literary translation of high quality should not only deliver the logic information but also reproduce similar aesthetic feelings.

===Key words===
Ba Jin; Oscar Wilde; Fairy tales; Translation aesthetics

===摘要===

作为美学运动的代表人物，奥斯卡·王尔德的语言优美华丽，风趣机智，而他创作的童话作品则被认为是其美学思想的最佳载体。直到今天，他的两部童话集《快乐王子》和《石榴之家》依然在世界范围内广受欢迎，而巴金先生的王尔德童话译本则是国内最为推崇的译本之一。本篇论文旨在从翻译美学的角度分析巴金是如何在其译文中再现了原作中的美。本篇论文包括三个章节：第一章介绍了翻译美学的定义、其发展历史以及刘宓庆的翻译美学理论，旨在为后文的论述提供理论铺垫。第二章从翻译审美主体的角度探索了巴金重现原作美所具备的审美条件。第三章作者从音乐美、词汇美、意境美和风格美四个角度，举例对比分析了原文和巴金译文，总结了巴金再现原文美的翻译技巧和翻译思想。

通过对巴金的王尔德童话译本的分析，作者发现，一篇高质量的文学作品译文不仅要传达原文的基本逻辑信息，还要能为译文读者重现与原文作品相似的美的感受。

===关键词===
巴金奥斯卡·王尔德童话翻译美学

===Introduction===

The fairy tales by Oscar Wilde, like his other works, exhibited his great talent for language. The Happy Prince and Other Stories published in 1888 and A House of Pomegranates in 1891 collected nine fairy tales. All of them were of musical tone and ornate words, creating indescribable beauty of tragedy. The stories sparkling with poetic beauty and wisdom received favor all over the world.

The fairy tales by Oscar Wilde, like his other works, exhibited his great talent for language. The Happy Prince and Other Stories published in 1888 and A House of Pomegranates in 1891 collected nine fairy tales. All of them were of musical tone and ornate words, creating indescribable beauty of tragedy. The stories sparkling with poetic beauty and wisdom received favor all over the world. --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

In China, Wilde’s fairy tales were first translated in 1909. Zhou Zuoren and Lu Xun translated The Happy Prince to classical Chinese and published it in a book named Other Land (《域外小说集》).Although the book didn’t sell well, it introduced Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to China. In 1920s, more translations of the fairy tales were seen in various books and magazines. Mu Mutian in 1922 translated five stories. In the year of 1933, You Baolong translated seven stories of Wilde’s fairy tales. In 1946, Mu Mutian made a complete translation of Wilde’s nine stories. Among all of the Chinese translations, one of the most influential editions was translated by Ba Jin. His translation was firstly published in 1947 and revised and reprinted twice respectively in 1957 and 1980.

In China, Wilde’s fairy tales were first translated in 1909. Zhou Zuoren and Lu Xun translated The Happy Prince to classical Chinese and published it in a book named Other Land (《域外小说集》).Although the book didn’t sell well, it introduced Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to China. In 1920s, more translations of the fairy tales were seen in various books and magazines. Mu Mutian in 1922 translated five stories. In the year of 1933, You Baolong translated seven stories of Wilde’s fairy tales. In 1946, Mu Mutian made a complete translation of Wilde’s nine stories. Among all of the Chinese translations, one of the most influential editions was translated by Ba Jin. His translation was firstly published in 1947 and revised and reprinted twice respectively in 1957 and 1980.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

In CNKI, 157 essays conduct research on Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. And the study object of twenty essays is the translation of Oscar Wilde’s stories. Among them seventeen essays covered Ba Jin's translation. Scholars often conduct their research on the following angles: the influence of translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales in China; translator’s subjectivity; reception aesthetics; translation of children’s literature; translation aesthetics. There are three theses adopting an aesthetic view to study Ba Jin's translation of Wilde’s fairy tales. Lin Lin (2007) compared the aesthetic features of the original work and Ba Jin's translation from an aesthetic perspective. Liu Xiaoyin (2012) used Mao Ronggui's theory of translation aesthetics to analyze the aesthetic elements in Ba Jin's translation. Yang Liqiu (2016: Ⅴ) in 2016 built a Excel database to make a textual analysis of the 1981 version of Kuai Le Wang Zi Ji in a systematic manner from lexical, syntactical and discourse levels. Their study on Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s works provide guidance for this thesis and the future studies.

In CNKI, 157 essays conduct research on Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. And the study object of twenty essays is the translation of Oscar Wilde’s stories. Among them seventeen essays covered Ba Jin's translation. Scholars often conduct their research on the following angles: the influence of translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales in China; translator’s subjectivity; reception aesthetics; translation of children’s literature; translation aesthetics. There are three theses adopting an aesthetic view to study Ba Jin's translation of Wilde’s fairy tales. Lin Lin (2007) compared the aesthetic features of the original work and Ba Jin's translation from an aesthetic perspective. Liu Xiaoyin (2012) used Mao Ronggui's theory of translation aesthetics to analyze the aesthetic elements in Ba Jin's translation. Yang Liqiu (2016: Ⅴ) in 2016 built a Excel database to make a textual analysis of the 1981 version of Kuai Le Wang Zi Ji in a systematic manner from lexical, syntactical and discourse levels. Their study on Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s works provide guidance for this thesis and the future studies.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

It is indisputable that Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales read like poetry. Since Ba Jin's translation is one of the most favored translation editions in China, it must have rendered similar aesthetic beauty to its Chinese readers. Therefore, a question arises: how did he convey the same aesthetic effect in his translation? Translation aesthetics provides an appropriate angle for studying this issue.

It is indisputable that Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales read like poetry. Since Ba Jin's translation is one of the most favored translation editions in China, it must have rendered similar aesthetic beauty to its Chinese readers. Therefore, a question arises: how did he convey the same aesthetic effect in his translation? Translation aesthetics provides an appropriate angle for studying this issue.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

In this thesis there are three chapters. Chapter One introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics. Because Liu Miqing systematically expounded a series of issues of translation aesthetics and raised translation aesthetics to a new height, Chapter One also introduces his theory about translation aesthetics so as to provide theoretical support for the discussion in this thesis. Meanwhile, the author also wishes that the introduction of translation aesthetics could interest more people in the study of this field. In Chapter Two, the author discussed from the translator himself what aesthetic conditions he had to transfer the beauty of the original text. In Chapter Three, the author analyzed from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to appreciate Ba Jin's transfer of beauty in Wilde Oscar’s fairy tales.

===Chapter 1 Translation Aesthetics===

In order to better analyze Ba Jin's translation work from the perspective of translation aesthetics, in the following part, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics.

====The Definition of Translation Aesthetics====

In A Dictionary of Translation Studies, Fang Mengzhi's defines translation aesthetics as follows: to discuss the special influence of aesthetics on translation; to explore translation’s aesthetic origin; to apply an aesthetic view to learn about the scientific and artistic attributes of translation; applying basic principles of aesthetics to set up different aesthetical criteria for different text styles in translation, and to analyze, interpret and solve the problems concerning aesthetics in the process of transferring language. (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296)

====The Development of Translation Aesthetics====

Translation aesthetics is fundamentally related to traditional Chinese translation theories. Meanwhile it makes efforts to turn them into modern translation theories by absorption of western translation studies and application of theories of aesthetics. After tens of years of contribution made by the scholars, it has become one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, with interdisciplinary features and distinctive Chinese characteristics.

Translation aesthetics is fundamentally related to traditional Chinese translation theories. Meanwhile it makes efforts to turn them into modern translation theories by absorption of western translation studies and application of theories of aesthetics. After tens of years of contribution made by the scholars, it has become one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, with interdisciplinary features and distinctive Chinese characteristics.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

Nearly all of the traditional Chinese translation theories are rooted in philosophy-aesthetics. Zhi Qian, the ancient famous Buddhist scripture translator, held that rhetoric was not needed, which was influenced by Lao Zi's aesthetic idea “Truthful word may not be beautiful, while beautiful words may not be truthful.”(信言不美，美言不信) “Truthful words” and “beautiful words” are actually corresponding to “zhi”(质) and “wen”(文) respectively, the oldest and longest-lasting aesthetic proposition in China. Although in Zhi Qian’s time, “zhi” defeated “wen” as the winner, “zhi” and “wen” were coordinated in the later history. Most of the scholars came to agreement that an excellent prose or poem shouldn’t ignore neither content or diction. Influenced by traditional aesthetics, keeping balance between “wen” and “zhi” became the mainstream of Chinese traditional translation theory. When the modern times began, other important translation theories emerged. Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. Fu Lei’ set forth “being alike in spirit”. Qian Zhongshu came up with “sublimation”.

Nearly all of the traditional Chinese translation theories are rooted in philosophy-aesthetics. Zhi Qian, the ancient famous Buddhist scripture translator, held that rhetoric was not needed, which was influenced by Lao Zi's aesthetic idea “Truthful word may not be beautiful, while beautiful words may not be truthful.”(信言不美，美言不信) “Truthful words” and “beautiful words” are actually corresponding to “zhi”(质) and “wen”(文) respectively, the oldest and longest-lasting aesthetic proposition in China. Although in Zhi Qian’s time, “zhi” defeated “wen” as the winner, “zhi” and “wen” were coordinated in the later history. Most of the scholars came to agreement that an excellent prose or poem shouldn’t ignore neither content or diction. Influenced by traditional aesthetics, keeping balance between “wen” and “zhi” became the mainstream of Chinese traditional translation theory. When the modern times began, other important translation theories emerged. Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. Fu Lei’ set forth “being alike in spirit”. Qian Zhongshu came up with “sublimation”. --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

In 1960s and 1970s, however, the progress of traditional Chinese translation theories went to a grinding halt. In 1980s, Chinese translation studies began to learn from western translation theories, such as skopos theory, deconstructive translation theory, feminist translation theory and so on and so forth. Some of them contributed directly to translation practice and others attempted to interpret the hidden factors influencing or manipulating the translation activities. As the focus of Chinese translation studies is mostly on the western translation theories, some scholars stressed that Chinese translation studies might lose our own voice in the field of international translation studies. They advocated turning back to traditional translation theories and put forward a new translation theory with distinctive Chinese characteristics.

In 1960s and 1970s, however, the progress of traditional Chinese translation theories went to a grinding halt. In 1980s, Chinese translation studies began to learn from western translation theories, such as skopos theory, deconstructive translation theory, feminist translation theory and so on and so forth. Some of them contributed directly to translation practice and others attempted to interpret the hidden factors influencing or manipulating the translation activities. As the focus of Chinese translation studies is mostly on the western translation theories, some scholars stressed that Chinese translation studies might lose our own voice in the field of international translation studies. They advocated turning back to traditional translation theories and put forward a new translation theory with distinctive Chinese characteristics. --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

In this context, an increasingly number of scholars bend their mind to translation aesthetics.

Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.

Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language.
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.

Jiang Qiuxia's Aesthetics Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization in 2002 is an important theoretical achievement. Jiang in her book explored the influence and aesthetic effect of Gestalt image had on literary translation from an aesthetic perspective.

Mao Ronggui's Translation Aesthetics in 2005 is the first book that directly uses “translation aesthetics” as its title. The book made an aesthetic comparison of sounds, forms, meanings, sentences and words, and put forward different methods in translation practice. An aesthetic view permeated his discussion.

Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.
Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language.
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.
Jiang Qiuxia's Aesthetics Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization in 2002 is an important theoretical achievement. Jiang in her book explored the influence and aesthetic effect of Gestalt image had on literary translation from an aesthetic perspective.
Mao Ronggui's Translation Aesthetics in 2005 is the first book that directly uses “translation aesthetics” as its title. The book made an aesthetic comparison of sounds, forms, meanings, sentences and words, and put forward different methods in translation practice. An aesthetic view permeated his discussion.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

====Liu Miqing's Theory about Translation Aesthetics====

Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics stands as a milestone in the development of translation aesthetics. Because of his dedication to this field, translation aesthetics becomes one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, making China’s translation theory distinctive from the model of western translation theory. (Mao Ronggui, 2005, 9) The following part will introduce his main ideas on translation aesthetics.

In his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics published in 2005, his views on translation aesthetics are elaborated systematically.
It explores the aesthetic origin of translation. The writer introduces the history of western and Chinese translation theory. It could be concluded from his book that firstly both of the Chinese and western translation studies are linked to aesthetics from their very beginning; secondly, aesthetics has played a much more active role in the history of Chinese translation theories than it has done in western translation theories.
Two notions in aesthetic translations are put forward. One is translation aesthetic object (TAO) and the other is translation aesthetic subject (TAS). TAO is the original text. Its beauty depends on its aesthetic value. The aesthetic value is analyzed from aesthetic constituents. Liu Miqing divides aesthetic constituents into two systems. The sound beauty, character beauty, word beauty and sentence beauty are included in the formal system. The mood and tone of the original text and the images and symbols in it are incorporated in the informal system. The latter system is also called the fuzzy sets. Correspondingly, TAS refers to the translator. Two basic attributes of TAS are the original text’s objective conditioning on it and more importantly its own subjective dynamics. TAS is constrained by the translatability of the original text’s formal and informal beauty, the cultural differences of two languages and the time-space difference of art appreciation. The subjective dynamics of TAS includes the translator’s capability, aesthetic feeling, knowledge, and tenacity.

Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics stands as a milestone in the development of translation aesthetics. Because of his dedication to this field, translation aesthetics becomes one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, making China’s translation theory distinctive from the model of western translation theory. (Mao Ronggui, 2005, 9) The following part will introduce his main ideas on translation aesthetics.In his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics published in 2005, his views on translation aesthetics are elaborated systematically. It explores the aesthetic origin of translation. The writer introduces the history of western and Chinese translation theory. It could be concluded from his book that firstly both of the Chinese and western translation studies are linked to aesthetics from their very beginning; secondly, aesthetics has played a much more active role in the history of Chinese translation theories than it has done in western translation theories.
Two notions in aesthetic translations are put forward. One is translation aesthetic object (TAO) and the other is translation aesthetic subject (TAS). TAO is the original text. Its beauty depends on its aesthetic value. The aesthetic value is analyzed from aesthetic constituents. Liu Miqing divides aesthetic constituents into two systems. The sound beauty, character beauty, word beauty and sentence beauty are included in the formal system. The mood and tone of the original text and the images and symbols in it are incorporated in the informal system. The latter system is also called the fuzzy sets. Correspondingly, TAS refers to the translator. Two basic attributes of TAS are the original text’s objective conditioning on it and more importantly its own subjective dynamics. TAS is constrained by the translatability of the original text’s formal and informal beauty, the cultural differences of two languages and the time-space difference of art appreciation. The subjective dynamics of TAS includes the translator’s capability, aesthetic feeling, knowledge, and tenacity. --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

The writer also explores the system of aesthetic consciousness in translation. The cognitive schema of aesthetic translation is put forward. It includes four levels, which are perception, imagination, understanding and representation. And the general rule of representation is followed as comprehension, transformation, improvement and representation. “Imagination” and “empathy” are regarded to be important for the representation.

The writer also explores the system of aesthetic consciousness in translation. The cognitive schema of aesthetic translation is put forward. It includes four levels, which are perception, imagination, understanding and representation. And the general rule of representation is followed as comprehension, transformation, improvement and representation. “Imagination” and “empathy” are regarded to be important for the representation.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

===Chapter 2 Ba Jin as Translation Aesthetic Subject of Oscar Wide’s Fairy Tales===

As it has been discussed in the Chapter One, translation aesthetic subject is the translator. According to Liu Miqing, a beautiful translation depends on two factors, which are the aesthetic constituents of the TAO and the aesthetic conditions of the TAS. Only when the two factors interact with each other, can the translation work fully reproduce the beauty of the original work. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) Hence, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS are of great importance. Without it, the aesthetic representation would become impossible.

In translation aesthetics, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS incorporated the translator’s cultural literacy as well as his/her aesthetic consciousness and experience. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to discuss from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. The discussion will include two parts: (1) the translator’s cultural literacy and (2) his aesthetic consciousness and experience.

====Ba Jin's Cultural Literacy====

According to Liu Miqing, TAS’ cultural literacy serves as the most basic condition in aesthetic translation activity. It lays foundation for aesthetic consciousness and without it, a translator would become color-blind even though he is in a colorful world of translation. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) For translators, cultural literacy is like an indispensable pair of spectacles to survey the beauty of a text. As for Ba Jin, he did possess a pair of very sophisticated glasses.

He was undoubtedly a literary master of the twentieth century, although he often said that “I was no litterateur”. (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) In 1904, he was born in a large gentry family. From his grandfather to his father, they were all government officials. With a well-educated family background, his language learning started early. At the age of five, he was already learning Essence of Classical Chinese (《古文观止》). This childhood experience equipped him with solid language capability of Chinese. From 1920 to 1922, he was a student in Chengdu Foreign Language Specialist School, where he exposed himself to as much western literature and sociological works as possible. It was in this school that Ba Jin learned English and completed his first translation work, the English edition of The Signal. In 1929, he came back from France to China. More excellent work of his came out, such as “Torrents Trilogy” (namely Family, Spring and Autumn) and “Love Trilogy” (namely Fog, Rain and Electricity).

He was undoubtedly a literary master of the twentieth century, although he often said that “I was no litterateur”. (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) In 1904, he was born in a large gentry family. From his grandfather to his father, they were all government officials. With a well-educated family background, his language learning started early. At the age of five, he was already learning Essence of Classical Chinese (《古文观止》). This childhood experience equipped him with solid language capability of Chinese. From 1920 to 1922, he was a student in Chengdu Foreign Language Specialist School, where he exposed himself to as much western literature and sociological works as possible. It was in this school that Ba Jin learned English and completed his first translation work, the English edition of The Signal. In 1929, he came back from France to China. More excellent work of his came out, such as “Torrents Trilogy” (namely Family, Spring and Autumn) and “Love Trilogy” (namely Fog, Rain and Electricity). --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

Although his student life came to an end when he returned to China, he didn’t stop learning. Learning was something that accompanied all his life. He learned from books and learned from life. School and book were not the only source of one’s cultural literacy. Going out of campus and being in that chaotic age, he witnessed people’s suffering and he himself went through ups and downs. His understanding of life was deepened and his sympathy for the masses was aroused. The pursuit of truth, goodness and humanitarianism became life of his works.

In conclusion, knowledge acquired from books and life experience together constituted Ba Jin's cultural literacy. A good command of Chinese and English and his rich life experience enabled him to have abundant cultural literacy, which played a fundamental role in his comprehension and reproduction of the beauty in Oscar Wilde’s works.

====Ba Jin's Aesthetic Consciousness and Experience====

Before Ba Jin's aesthetic consciousness and experience are discussed, it is of necessity to clarify the definition of aesthetic consciousness and experience. In translation aesthetics, aesthetic consciousness refers to the translator’s sensitivity to beauty in the original text. It is usually got from intuition, but for a translator with a high level of cultural literacy, this sensitivity can be deepened. As for aesthetic experience, it refers to accumulated aesthetic sensation acquired from repetitive aesthetic activities. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21)

Ba Jin's translation thoughts were scattered in the postscript, prologue or epilogue to his translation work. In this Chapter, his aesthetic consciousness and experience will be discussed based on the above sources.

Among Ba Jin's translation works, the most favored are his Russian translation works and his translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. Why did these translation works possess high quality and receive widespread popularity? In the author’s opinion, it has something to do with Ba Jin's choice of works to translate. In his epilogue to Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works he said, “I only introduce the work I like.” In fact, one common theme of his translation of Russian works and Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales was that they both accused the capitalists of oppressing the proletariat, which was exactly what Ba Jin would like to criticize. Most people are sensitive to words, pictures, or music that could resonate with them. In this aspect, Ba Jin was no exception. He showed great sensitivity to the words that had deep sympathy for ordinary people. “In my first novel Perishing （《灭亡》）, I quoted conversations from Signal. Thirty years later, I translated it with the same excitement. I love it more than I love my own works. In it, I find my own thoughts and feelings.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 445) For Ba Jin, he was sensitive to the words in the original work as he was to his own works. Hence, he had the aesthetic consciousness he needed to translate others’ works. He was ready for them.

Most people know Ba Jin as a marvelous writer. What is less well-known is that he is also an outstanding translator. Cao Ying, a famous translator of Russian literary works, commented, “Ba Jin's translation was vivid and loyal to the original text. No one can top him in translation of Gorky’s short stories.” Gao Mang also said that Ba Jin’s language was beautiful and conveyed the lingering charm of the original text. (Wang Zhanbin, 2007, 20) In fact, the quality of Ba Jin's translation works was no inferior to his original works and the characters of the foreign works he translated amounted to over three million characters. He translated novels, fairy tales, prose writings and etc. Through a lot of translation practices, Ba Jin accumulated rich aesthetic experience, which could be found in his epilogues or prologues. One piece of aesthetic experience of his could be concluded as comprehension. “When I like an article, I always try to have a deeper understanding of it. I read it over and over again and constantly think about it. After I understand it, I want to use my words to express the writer’s ideas.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:32, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

Most people know Ba Jin as a marvelous writer. What is less well-known is that he is also an outstanding translator. Cao Ying, a famous translator of Russian literary works, commented, “Ba Jin's translation was vivid and loyal to the original text. No one can top him in translation of Gorky’s short stories.” Gao Mang also said that Ba Jin’s language was beautiful and conveyed the lingering charm of the original text. (Wang Zhanbin, 2007, 20) In fact, the quality of Ba Jin's translation works was no inferior to his original works and the characters of the foreign works he translated amounted to over three million characters. He translated novels, fairy tales, prose writings and etc. Through a lot of translation practices, Ba Jin accumulated rich aesthetic experience, which could be found in his epilogues or prologues. One piece of aesthetic experience of his could be concluded as comprehension. “When I like an article, I always try to have a deeper understanding of it. I read it over and over again and constantly think about it. After I understand it, I want to use my words to express the writer’s ideas.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) One characteristic of Ba Jin's translation was his loyalty to the original work, which must benefit a lot from his effort to fully comprehend the original work. It is worth mentioning here that Ba Jin's comprehension was more than the understanding the aesthetic constituents of the TAO, he endeavored to empathize. When he translated Chekhov’s works, he said “The difficulty is to properly show the truly benevolent heart of the writer. If the translator couldn’t understand that heart and fails to show it to the reader, what’s the point of the translation?” (Ba Jin, 1991, 3) When faced with the issue of literal translation or free translation, Ba Jin held that a good translator shouldn’t be constrained by the question of choosing only one method of the two, but to consider which one could better help himself/herself to reproduce the artistic conception. Artistic conception was highly valued be Ba Jin. In his postscript to Stories on the Prairie (《草原集》), he (Ba Jin, 2003, 248) mentioned twice that “I fear that I would ruin the whole artistic conception.” From above, it could be concluded that in Ba Jin's aesthetic experience, faithfulness and artistic conception were worth much attention. The latter is exactly corresponding to the fuzzy sets of TAO in translation aesthetics.

===Chapter 3 Aesthetic Features in Ba Jin's Translation===

Chapter Two has talked about from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. It made an analysis of the aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed. Thus, in this chapter, the author is going to look at the result of Ba Jin's translation to appreciate his transfer of beauty from Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales.

In Chapter One, it has been mentioned that whether an original text is beautiful depends on its aesthetic value. And the aesthetic value of an article was analyzed from its aesthetic constituents which covered goodness in the levels of sound, diction and tone of the text and the images and symbols in it. In this chapter, we will appreciate the beauty of Ba Jin's translation by comparing it from four aspects with Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales, which are sound, diction, imagery, and style. The beauty of sound and diction can be classified into the formal system. The beauty of imagery and style belongs to the informal system, i.e. the fuzzy sets.

====Beauty in Sound====

Oscar Wilde has a bond with music. Anyone who has read his The Happy and Prince and Other Stories would be touched by its sad and beautiful stories, which could be partly attributed to the melodious words in the book. The forceful rhythm in Wilde’s fairy tales could easily lead his readers into a pure and melancholy world created by him. After the reader finishes reading, the moving plots together with the bright beats echo in their mind.

Eg1- “Swallow, Swallow, little Swallow,” said the Prince, “far away across the city I see a young man in a garret. He is leaning over a desk covered with papers, and in a tumbler by his side there is a bunch of withered violets. His hair is brown and crisp, and his lips are red as a pomegranate, and he has large and dreamy eyes. He is trying to finish a play for the Director of the Theatre, but he is too cold to write anymore. There is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 6)

Here in the Wilde’s language, we can clearly feel what Ba Jin called “his musical tone”. In the beginning of the conversation, Wilde wrote three “swallow” as the Prince’s salutation to the swallow. The repetition slows down the speed of the language and also the thoughts of the readers. During this deceleration, he/she will put their attention to the following part. Besides, the repetition shows the gentleness of the Prince and his sincerity of request. Parallel structure was also used in this paragraph. For example, “his hair is” and “his lips are”; “he is trying to” and “but he is too cold to”. The use of parallelism adds a bright beat to the language. When Wilde was describing the appearance of the young man, he also used short paratactic sentences, which leaves the whole sentence well-proportioned and rhythmic to read. In the last sentence of this paragraph, assonance was used, for example “grate” and “faint”, which perfectly ends the conversation, depicting the plight which the young man is in.

Eg1- “燕子，燕子,小燕子，”王子说，“远远的，在城的那一边，我看见一个年轻人住在顶楼里面。他埋着头在一张堆满稿纸的书桌上写字，手边一个大玻璃杯里放着一束枯萎的紫罗兰。他的头发是棕色的，乱蓬蓬的，他的嘴唇象石榴一样地红，他还有一对朦胧的大眼睛。他在写一个戏，预备写给戏院经理送去，可是他太冷了，不能够再写一个字。炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”（Ba Jin, 1981, 11）

The above paragraph was Ba Jin's version. From his translation, we can see his endeavor to imitate the beauty of sound in the original work. As for the three “swallow”, he didn’t change the repetition and just translated them directly. The same was with the short sentences and parallel structure. He didn’t change the stop of the sentence and began the description of the young man in every short sentence with a “他”. Here, you may think imitation is easy and without too much brain work. But it isn’t true. Vivid imitation requires creation, which is especially seen in somewhere seems to be untranslatable. The translation of “there is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” to “炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”is an excellent example. Ba Jin managed to maintain the beauty of sound to the largest extent. “火” , “昏” , “花” all begins with the initial consonant of the Chinese syllable “h”, which contains the same meaning of the original text and at the same time created similar musical beauty.

Here is another excerpt of musical beauty in Wilde’s fairy tales:

Eg2-Bitter, bitter was the pain, and wilder and wilder grew her song, for she sang of the Love that is perfected by Death, of the Love that dies not in the tomb. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)

This sentence is taken from The Nightingale and the Rose. It depicted the melancholy and moving scene when the nightingale pressed her heart against the thorn as she was singing. Wilde here used repetition and parallelism to strengthen the musical tone of the language, which made the sentence itself sound like a song. The moving effect of the nightingale’s sacrifice was strengthened be the melody of repetition and parallelism, helping the reader feel a kind of emotional advance when reading it. Let’s look at how Ba Jin transferred the musical tone:

Eg2-她痛得越厉害，越厉害，她的歌声也唱得越激昂，越激昂，因为她唱到了由死来完成的爱，在坟墓里永远不朽的爱。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）
Wilde’s repetition in the translation was rendered as “越…越…” and the parallel structure was kept as “…的爱；…的爱”. When one is reading the translation, he/she could feel the same emotional up and down which climbs up to the summit when one reads the last “激昂” and then goes down as “因为” begins the next sentence.

From the above example, it can be seen that Ba Jin adopted the approach of imitation to convey the beauty of sound in the original text. But imitation is not easy, it requires a clever mind to create similar aesthetic effects.

====Beauty in Diction====

The language in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tale was not only delightful to the ear, but also pleasant to the eye. One will first be enchanted in his melodious rhythm and then be amazed by his choice of words. Every word is like a pearl woven in a net. No one can replace it with another word, for it will then despoil its beauty of integrality. Here is an excerpt from The Happy Prince.

Eg3-Then the snow came, and after the snow came the frost. The streets looked as if they were made of silver, they were so bright and glistening; long icicles like crystal daggers hung down from the eaves of the houses, everybody went about in furs, and the little boys wore scarlet caps and skated on the ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)

This paragraph depicted the street scene after the little swallow gave away all the fine gold off the Prince. The snow and frost fell down. Everything became crystal. Men, women and little boys were all wrapped in warm clothes and went out to enjoy the beautiful snow scene. The sparkling natural scenery and people’s joyful activities constituted a harmonious picture of a snowy day. When describing the tranquil view, Wilde used simile to make the scenery more visually sensible, such as “looked as if” and “long icicles like crystal daggers”. The metaphorical objects he chose added vividness to the snowy view. Apart from the figure of speech he used, the adjectives in the article were also accurate and appropriate. “Bright”, “glistening” and “crystal” were very proper words to portray the sparkling snowy scene.
This picture also impressed Ba Jin and he vividly rendered it in his translation:

Eg3-“随后雪来了，严寒也到了。街道好像是银子筑成的，它们是那么亮，那么光辉；长长的冰柱象水晶的短剑似的悬挂在檐前，每个行人都穿着皮衣，小孩子们也戴上红帽子溜冰取乐。”（Ba Jin，1981, 16）

good--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

Faithfulness is one obvious characteristic in the translation of this paragraph. Ba Jin kept loyal to the figures of speech in Wilde’s stories. The forms of personification and simile didn’t take any change to maintain the original beauty to the largest extent. For example, the translation of “came” to “到了” and “来了”, and “as if” and “like” respectively to “好像是” and “ 像……似的”. Only two places were slightly different from the original work, which were the translation of preposition “in” to the verb “穿” and addition of “取乐” to modify “skating”. The first change he made was necessary, because in Chinese one would not use the collocation of a preposition plus a noun of a certain clothes to describe one’s dressing. The second change was made to emphasize the boys’ happiness hidden between lines of the original text, making it easier for young readers to perceive the contrast the writer used in the story.

One distinctive language feature of the fairy tale is that it is full of personifications. In the third example, we will see how the translation successfully transferred the vividness of the personifications in the original text.

First, we will look at the original text:

Eg4-The Snow covered up the grass with her great white cloak, and the Frost painted all the trees silver. Then they invited the North Wind to stay with them, and he came. He was wrapped in furs, and he roared all day about the garden, and blew the chimney-pots down. “This is a delightful spot,” he said, “we must ask the Hail on a visit.” So the Hail came. Every day for three hours he rattled on the roof of the castle till he broke most of the slates, and then he ran round and round the garden as fast as he could go. He was dressed in grey, and his breath was like ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)

The following is Ba Jin's translation:

Eg4-雪用她的白色大氅盖着草，霜把所有的树枝涂成了银色。她们还请北风来同住，他果然来了。他身上裹着皮衣，整天在园子里四处叫吼，把烟囱管帽也吹倒了。他说：“这是一个适意的地方，我们一定要请雹来玩一趟。”于是雹来了。他每天总要在这府邸屋顶上闹三个钟头，把瓦片弄坏了大半才停止。然后他又在花园里绕着圈子用力跑。他穿一身的灰色衣服，他的气息就像冰一样。（Ba Jin，1981, 22）

In the original text we can see that in Wilde’s description, “Snow”, “Frost”, “North Wind” and “Hail” were all personified by endowing them with the speaking ability like human’s and several lively verb phrases, such as “roared about”, “blew down”, “rattled on”, “broke” and “ran around and around”. These verbs vividly shaped the four naughty and mischievous winter weather characters. If a translation aims to transfer the same aesthetic effect, the translator must render these verbs as lively as they were in the original text. Ba Jin did this. When one is reading his translation, he/she cannot help being amused by these winter weather characters. As for “roared about”, “blew down” and “broke”, Ba Jin directly translated their corresponding Chinese meaning to “四处叫吼”, “吹到了” and “弄坏了”, keeping the figure of speech of personification. When dealing with “rattled on” and “ran around and around …as fast as he could go”, he made some changes. “Rattled on” was translated to “闹”. “Rattle” in the original text was a description of the noises that “Hail” made. The translation of it to “闹” kept the sound of rattling and meanwhile highlight the mischief of the “Hail”. If “rattled on” is directly translated to “咔嗒咔嗒响了”, the effect of the personification will definitely weakened. Therefore, the single character of “闹” was vivid and concise. As for translation of the running of the Hail, Ba Jin changed the description of running speed in the original text to the portraying of the Hail’s running manner, which was appropriate given that it conveyed effect of the personification.

From the above analysis, the author finds that at the level of diction, Ba Jin attached importance to faithfulness, the idiomaticity of the target language and the conveyance of the same aesthetic effect.

====Beauty in Imagery====

Before we conduct analysis of the beauty in imagery in the original work and the translation, it is necessary to clarify what “imagery” is involved in this thesis. In Oxford English Dictionary, the word “imagery” has two meanings: a. language that produces pictures in minds of people reading or listening; b. pictures, photographs, etc. In this thesis, the imagery refers to the first meaning.

The tragic beauty of The Nightingale and the Rose often brings its readers to tears. Oscar Wilde, using his musical language and pearl-like words, evoked mental pictures of ethereal beauty in this fairy tale. Here is an excerpt from it.

Eg5- She sang first of the birth of love in the heart of a boy and a girl. And on the top-most spray of the Rose-tree there blossomed a marvelous rose, petal following petal, as song followed song. Pale was it, at first, as the mist that hangs over the river- pale as the feet of morning, and silver as the wings of the dawn. As the shadow of a rose in a mirror of silver, as the shadow of a rose in a water-pool, so was the rose that blossomed on the topmost spray of the Tree. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 15)

The above excerpt was Wilde’s delicate description of the rose’s blooming with the nightingale’s song. In his description, there was direct portraying, such as “petal following petal”, which added dynamic beauty to the whole imagery. In addition, he adopted association to describe color of the rose. He associated paleness of the flower with “mist that hangs over the river” and “the feet of morning”, and its silver with “the wings of the dawn”. The mist and light of the dawn were pale-white, just as the budding rose. At the end of this paragraph, Wilde used the same technique of speech to describe the delicacy and tenderness of the blossom bathed in the moonlight. This association not only described the color and appearance of the rose, but also enlarged the version and cloaked the whole scene with a kind of ethereal beauty.

The following excerpt shows how Ba Jin reproduced the beautiful imagery:

Eg5- 她起初唱着一对小儿女心里的爱情。在蔷薇树的最高枝上开出了一朵奇异的蔷薇，歌一首一首地唱下去，花瓣也跟着一片一片地开放了。花起初是浅白的，就像罩在河上的雾，浅白色像晨光的脚，银白色像黎明的翅膀。最高枝上开花的那朵蔷薇，就像一朵在银镜中映出的蔷薇花影，就像一朵在水池中映出的蔷薇花影。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）

“Rose”, “petal”, “mist”, “shadow”, “mirror of silver” and “water pool” were all visualized in his mind. The images appeared one by one before his eyes when he was reading the original work, and mixed together as a whole in his mind. After fully comprehended beauty of the imagery, he used his own words to reproduce the imagery. He used reduplicative words “一首一首” and “一片一片” to depict the continuous melodious singing and the slow blooming of the rose. Through the context and visualization, he knew that morning cannot be simply translated to “早晨”, since the adoption of association was to depict the color of the petal. “晨光” would be an appropriate choice, because only “光(light)” could have a specific color. But “黎明” is different from “早晨” given that the word itself emphasizes the light of daybreak when the sun rises above the horizon. Therefore, he didn’t make any change to it. As for other images that could be directly translated without confusing the reader, Ba Jin translate them according to the original text.

From the above analysis, the author finds that the image conveyed by Ba Jin was a harmonious whole. The beauty of image in the original text was reproduced vividly in Ba Jin's words. It could be speculated that when rendering the image of beauty in translation, Ba Jin used visualization to revive the image in the original text. And at the same time, he tried to comprehend the emotions in the original text. The combination of pictures and emotions aroused his aesthetic feeling and then he transferred it with his own words in the translation. This kind of empathy is very important in translation aesthetics when a translator attempted to reproduce the beauty of image. In fact, the speculation of Ba Jin's psychological activities when he was doing translation could be partly verified though the epilogue to his 1947 edition fairy tales. “Here I woke up very early in the morning, and I would take a walk along the road. I would go to the foot of the mountain near the field to listen to the singing of the birds. After the walk, I came back to the room in the hotel. The sunlight was so bright so I didn’t want to let it go and do nothing. I sat before the window and translated one of Wilde’s fairy tales entitled The Selfish Giant.” Ba Jin realized the importance of empathy, and his vivid translation of The Selfish Giant also proved the magic of empathy in aesthetic representation. In order to reproduce the beauty of the original text, Ba Jin would put himself in a similar situation with the scene in the original text. Though it is not always feasible or necessary to put oneself in a situation that is physically identical with the scene in a text, Ba Jin's endeavor and his successful translation told us the importance of empathy in transferring the beauty of imagery in an original text.

====Beauty in Style====

Oscar Wilde, as one of the leading figures of the Aesthetic Movement, held that “Art for art’s sake”. In his fairy tales, every word and sentence exhibited his pursuit of aestheticism. His words were ornate and of musical tone. His narration was rather quiet and objective. But for some reason, readers would feel a dull pain in the heart when reading these stories.

Oscar Wilde, as one of the leading figures of the Aesthetic Movement, held that “Art for art’s sake”. In his fairy tales, every word and sentence exhibited his pursuit of aestheticism. His words were ornate and of musical tone. His narration was rather quiet and objective. But for some reason, readers would feel a dull pain in the heart when reading these stories. --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

Here are three excerpts from Oscar’s fairy tales, which depicted the good-hearted characters’ scene of death.

Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)

Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)

Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)

Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

Eg8- “…and there poor little Hans was drowned. His body was found the next day by some goatherds, floating in a great pool of water…” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 34)

The four dead characters in the above excerpts were all very good-hearted ones who sacrificed their life for love. But when Wilde’s was depicting their death, his words were very simple and objective, without mixing his own feelings. This unemotional narration was very common in his fairy tales. But the more indifferent his tone was, the more shock and sadness he brought to people. How did Ba Jin transfer this style of narration to the readers? Let’s have a look of his translation.

Eg6- “真是一件古怪的事，”铸造厂的监工说。“这块破裂的铅心在炉里熔化不了。我们一定得把它扔掉。”他们便把它扔在一个垃圾堆上，那只死燕子也躺在那里。（Ba Jin, 2010, 17）

Eg7- “看啊，看啊！”树叫起来，“现在蔷薇完成了。”可是夜莺并不回答，因为她已经死在长得高高的青草丛中了，心上还带着那根蔷薇刺。（Ba Jin, 2010, 26）

Eg8- “……可怜的小汉斯就淹死在这儿了。第二天他的尸首被几个牧羊人找到了，正浮在一个大池塘的水面上……”（Ba Jin,2010, 48）

From the above translation it can be found that Ba Jin didn’t add his own feelings in the translation just because he felt sympathetic for these characters or because he sensed the writer’s implied sorrow and therefore presumptuously thought that this sorrow should be explicitly expressed in the text. He fully comprehended the original text, from the word, rhythm to the writer’s feelings. His conveyance of beauty of the style in the original text was established on his understanding of the whole text. Thus, his translation was accurate, natural and smooth, reproducing the same style without trace of translation. When one is reading his translation, he/she could enjoy the same aesthetic beauty of the original text. The following is an example of his transfer of Oscar Wilde’s irony in The devoted friend.

Eg9- “‘There is no good in my going to see little Hans as long as the snow lasts’, the Miller used to say to his wife, ‘for when people are in trouble they should be left alone, and not be bothered by visitors. That at least is my idea about friendship, and I am sure I am right. So I shall wait till the spring comes, and then I shall pay him a visit, and he will be able to give me a large basket of primroses and that will make him so happy.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 25)

Eg9- “磨面师常常对他妻子说：‘雪花没有化的时候，我去看看小汉斯，是没有好处的，因为人在困难的时候，应该让他安静，不应当有客人去打扰他。这至少是我对于友谊的看法，我相信我是对的。所以我要等到春天来，才去探望他，那时他便可以送我一大篮樱草，这会使他非常高兴。’”（Ba Jin, 2010, 38）

The Miller in The Devoted Friend was a greedy, selfish and shameless figure. He always asked poor little Hans for a favor as a return for his generous present, a broken wheelbarrow, which he didn’t give to Hans even when Hans was dead. Even though he was rich, he always tried to extort some benefit from Hans. He was one of those who only ask but never give. The above excerpt was Wilde’s satirical description of the Miller’s noble idea of friendship. The words and sentences “should be”, “at least”, and “I am sure I am right” in the original text vividly showed the Miller’s arrogant tone. In Ba Jin's translation, they were translated as “应该”, “至少”, and “我相信我是对的”, which was in accordance with the original text. In the original text, the Miller seemed to be a very considerate friend since whatever he would do, he always put others before himself. He didn’t visit Hans in a snowy day because one should be left alone when he was in trouble, not because he himself feared the biting cold on the way to visit. His extortion of “a large basket of primroses” was because it would make Hans happy, not because he himself coveted the beautiful flowers. This kind of satire in Wilde’s writing was fully reproduced in Ba Jin's translation. The words “他便可以” told the readers what a privilege little Hans would have when the Miller visited him in spring. He would save the trouble of going all the way to the Miller’s home and how happy he would be when he gave the present to the Miller.

The Miller in The Devoted Friend was a greedy, selfish and shameless figure. He always asked poor little Hans for a favor as a return for his generous present, a broken wheelbarrow, which he didn’t give to Hans even when Hans was dead. Even though he was rich, he always tried to extort some benefit from Hans. He was one of those who only ask but never give. The above excerpt was Wilde’s satirical description of the Miller’s noble idea of friendship. The words and sentences “should be”, “at least”, and “I am sure I am right” in the original text vividly showed the Miller’s arrogant tone. In Ba Jin's translation, they were translated as “应该”, “至少”, and “我相信我是对的”, --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

It can be seen from the above analysis that Ba Jin highly respected the original writer’s writing style. In fact, when it comes to translation of style, he said, “Translation should firstly be loyal to the original work. The style of translation should be based upon that of the original work. The tone and lingering charm should be remained as much as possible so as to reproduce the original style.” It is his translation attitude of faithfulness, fully comprehension of the whole text and his own natural and smooth expression that lead the readers back to Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to appreciate the beauty of style in the original work.

===Conclusion===

Oscar Wilde had an erudite way with words and is often quoted to this day. His collection of short stories is imbued with a timeless quality. The tales possess such romantic charm and moral charge that they read like traditional fables crafted and refined by generations of storytellers over one hundred of years.

It was Ba Jin who brought those wonderful stories to Chinese readers at large. In his translation, readers could feel the same aesthetic effect. As a literary giant in China, Ba Jin created dozens of marvelous novels and translation works. Learning and practice helped him accumulate rich aesthetic experience and deepened his aesthetic consciousness. The sufficient aesthetic conditions laid solid foundation for his transfer of beauty in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales.

On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text.On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work.

On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text.

On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text.

On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work.

Therefore, Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales is natural, smooth and beautiful, leading the readers back to the wonderful world Wilde created. One obvious feature of Ba Jin's translation is that he put an emphasis on faithfulness. But his faithfulness transcended only being faithful to the logical information in the original text, being loyal to the aesthetic information was also incorporated in his faithfulness to the original text. This provides us with much enlightenment on translating a literary work. Thanks to Oscar Wilde, it was him who presented us with such beautiful fairy tales. And thanks to Ba Jin, it was him that reproduced the beauty of the original work.

Oscar Wilde had an erudite way with words and is often quoted to this day. His collection of short stories is imbued with a timeless quality. The tales possess such romantic charm and moral charge that they read like traditional fables crafted and refined by generations of storytellers over one hundred of years.

It was Ba Jin who brought those wonderful stories to Chinese readers at large. In his translation, readers could feel the same aesthetic effect. As a literary giant in China, Ba Jin created dozens of marvelous novels and translation works. Learning and practice helped him accumulate rich aesthetic experience and deepened his aesthetic consciousness. The sufficient aesthetic conditions laid solid foundation for his transfer of beauty in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text. On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work. Therefore, Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales is natural, smooth and beautiful, leading the readers back to the wonderful world Wilde created. One obvious feature of Ba Jin's translation is that he put an emphasis on faithfulness. But his faithfulness transcended only being faithful to the logical information in the original text, being loyal to the aesthetic information was also incorporated in his faithfulness to the original text. This provides us with much enlightenment on translating a literary work. Thanks to Oscar Wilde, it was him who presented us with such beautiful fairy tales. And thanks to Ba Jin, it was him that reproduced the beauty of the original work.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

===References===

[1] Bloom, H edit. (2011). Bloom’s Modern Critical Views: Oscar Wilde—New Edition. New York: Infobase Publishing.

[2] Jiang, Q X. (2002). Aesthetic Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization. Beijing: The Commercial Press.

[3] Wilde, O. (2015). The Happy Prince and Other Stories. London: HaperCollinsPublishers.

in Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). 翻译基础 [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.

[4] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (1981). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai上海：Juvenile & Children's Publishing House 少年儿童出版社

[5] Ba Jin 巴金. (2003). 巴金译文选集 [Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works]. Beijing 北京: SDX Joint Publishing Company 生活·读书·新知三联书店

[6] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (2010). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Translation Publishing House上海译文出版社

[7] Fang Mengzhi 方梦之. (2004). 译学辞典 [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Foreing Languages Education Press上海外语教育出版社

[8] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986).翻译美学概述 [A Survey of Translation Aesthetics].外国语(上海外国语学报) Journal of Foreign Languages, (02):48-53.

[9] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986). 翻译美学基本理论构想 [A Basic Theoretical Supposition of Translation Aesthetics].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal, (04):19-24.

[10] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). 翻译美学导论 [An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics]. Bei Jing 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司China Translation & Publishing Corporation

[11] Lin Lin 林琳. (2007). 从美学视角看巴金译《快乐王子及其他故事》[An Aesthetic Perspective of Ba Jin's Translation of The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.

[12] Liu Xiaoyin 刘孝银. (2012). 从翻译美学析巴金译王尔德童话 [Translation Aesthetics Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales]. Shanxi Normal University 山西师范大学.

[13] Mao Ronggui毛荣贵. (2005). 翻译美学 [Translation Aesthetics]. Shanghai上海: Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press上海交通大学出版社

[14] Wang Zhanbin 王占斌. (2007).巴金翻译思想探析 [An Exploration and Analysis of Ba Jin's Translation Theories].English Studies英语研究, 5(03):19-22.

[15] Wu Jinhua 吴金华. (1999). 试析奥斯卡·王尔德作品的语言特色 [An Analysis of Linguistic Features of Oscar Wilde's works].Journal of Ningxia University(Philosophy and Social Sciences)宁夏大学学报(哲学社会科学版), (02):107-109+128.

[16] Xiang Hongquan 向洪全. (2016). 翻译家巴金研究 [An Research on the Translator Ba Jin]. Shanghai 上海：Fudan University Press 复旦大学出版社.

[17] Yang Liqiu 杨立秋. (2016). 巴金翻译美学特征探析 [On Ba Jin's Aesthetic Features in Translation: A Case Study of The Fairy Tales of Oscar Wilde].Beijing Foreign Studies University 北京外国语大学.

==The Comparison between Lexical Gap in Linguistics and It in Translatology From the Perspective of Skopos Theory 孟莹 Meng Ying==

===Abstract===

Because of globalization, the cross-cultural communication becomes more and more important. The lexical gap causes difficulty in mutual understanding between two cultures. Even though the lexical gap is borrowed from semantics to translatology, they are different. The paper compares the definition, the classification in lexical gap in linguistics and in translatology and find that the lexical gap in linguistics mainly concerns the unlexicalized concept within one language, while the lexical gap in Translatology mainly focus on the culture-specific words and denotation and connotation divergence between equivalents in two languages. Besides, the paper also analyzes the causes of lexical gap from cognitive perspective. The experiential and perceptual causes are the main causes of lexical gap. Besides, to solve the lexical gap in linguistics and in translatology respectively, the paper provides different translation strategies for the two kinds based on Skopos theory.

===Keywords===

Lexical Gap, Culrure-loaded Words, Skopos Theory

===摘要===

由于全球化的发展，跨文化交际变得越来越重要。词汇的差异导致两种文化之间难以相互理解。虽然词空缺是从语义学借用到翻译学，但两者互不相同。本文从定义,分类比较了词汇空缺在语言学和翻译学中的不同，发现语言学的词汇空缺主要关注在同一语言中没有被词汇化的概念，而翻译学的词汇空缺主要指文化造成的概念空缺和两个语言中对应词汇在外延和内涵上的不同。此外，本文还从认知角度分析了造成词汇空缺的原因。经验缺失和认知差异是造成词汇空缺的主要原因。此外，为了解决语言学和翻译学上的词汇空缺，本文基于目的论为这两种词汇空缺提出了不同的翻译策略。

===关键词===

词汇空缺；文化负载词；目的论

===Introduction===

Word is a basic unit of language. “The vocabulary of a particular language is not just a random list of words. As a matter of fact, the vocabulary is organized in terms of lexical fields.” (Wang Quanzhi, 2017, 748) In a lexical field, if a concept exists, but the word that represents the concept is absent, so the lexical gap within a language will occur, which is the meaning of lexical gap in linguistics.

The term of "lexical gap" is originated from a French word "lacuna". (Qian Jing, 2013:11-12) . The “lacuna” means vacancy, therefore, the lexical gap means word vacancy. Researchers in linguistic and researchers in translatology defines lexical gap differently. In translatology, the lexical gap is defined across two languages. The lexical gap in translatology is mainly caused by culture and society difference. However, no researchers until now tries to compare the difference between lexical gap in linguistics and in translatology. Therefore, the paper will try to compare them form definition, classification, translation strategy. (Wang Quanzhi, 2017, 748)

Besides, some reseachers equates the lexical gap with the culture-loaded words, but the paper does not agree. Therefore, the paper tries to compare them. (Tian & Yang, 2005: 55)

Nowadays, the cross-cultural communication become more and more important because of the globalization. To break the language barrier, the translation become very significant. However, the lexical gap confuses the translator in a large scale. Therefore, to know it clearly and to grasp its translation strategy is urgent for the successful communication and culture spreading. The skopos theory provides us a new way to see translation. With different purposes, different translation strategies should be applied. translation for successful communication and translation for culture spreading should apply different strategies. (Qian Jing, 2013:11-12)

The structure of the thesis is given below. Section 1 introduces the three rules of skopos theory. Section 2 introduces the difference between definitions, classifications of lexical gap in linguistics and in translatology and also discusses the causes of lexical gap. Section 3 put forward different translation strategies for the two kinds of lexical gap based on the skopos theory. Section 5 concludes the whole paper.

===Introduction of Skopos Theory===
====Development of Skopos Theory====
The origin of Skopos theory can be dated back to Katharina Reiss’s book Possibilities and Limitations in Translation Criticism in 1971. In Skopos theory, translation is considered as a human behaviors with certain purposes rather than translating processes. The judgement of a successful translation is whether the translation accords with the intended purpose. (Zhao Xiuxing, 2015, 14)

The development of Skopos Theory can be divided into three phases. In 1971, Katherina Reiss firstly proposed the base form of functionalist approach to translation. On one hand, Reiss suggested that the perfect translation should be translation “in which the aim in the TL is equivalence as regards the conceptual content, linguistic form and communicative function of a SL text”. Reiss defines this kind of translation as “integral communicative performance”; On the other hand, she admits that the absolute equivalence is impossible, besides, in some situations, is not required. The translation should have its own translation brief. In some cases, the different function of the original text is different with the target one, so Reiss proposes that the translator is supposed to pay attention to the function not the equivalence. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004, 35-36)

Hans Vermeer puts forward Skopos theory based on the ideas of his teacher Katherina Reiss. Vermeer believes that translation is a kind of transformation, that is, the transfer of communicative linguistic signs and non-linguistic signs from one language to another. Translation is also a kind of human action. According to the action theory, Vermeer considers translation as the intentional and purposeful behavior under specific circumstances. Translator should translate the original text selectively based on the intentions of translation and the requirements of target readers. Vermeer also emphasizes that translation is not a one-to-one language transformation activity because the human behaviors take place in culturals context and different cultures have different customs and values. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004, 35-36)

Based on action theory, Justa Holz Manttari (1984) develops the ideas of Vermeer Manttari believes that translation designed to satisfy a particular intention with the coverage of all forms of intercultural transfer, including textural material, pictures, sounds, body movements and so on. Therefore, he emphasizes translating process, the roles of the participants and the situation in which the activities occur. (Zhao Xiuxing, 2015, 14-15)

====Principles of Skopos Theory====

There are three rules in Skopos Theory including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Actually, the skopos rule is the primary rule among the three rules.

The Skopos theory means that the translational purposes of the target text determine the translation process. The skopos rule can be explained as translate or express the original text in a way that admits your translation to satisfy the function the target readers or you clients want. The rule indicates that the translator may use the free or faithful translation or combination of the two extremes depending on the purposes that the target text requires. That is to say, there is no better way between free translation and faithful translation. The point is how to use them properly. ( Nord, Christiane, 2001, 29)

By Coherence rule, the standard of “intratextual coherence” should be conformed in the target language (Reiss and Vermeer 1984: 109). That is to say, that the target text that a translator translates should be understood by the receivers. Besides, the words and expressions in the target text should be meaningful and understandable in the culture and communicative situation where target language is used, which means that the target reader can easily comprehend the purposes of the target text quickly. (Tian Xiaoqin, 2006, 23)

Therefore, the translators have to grasp the the social and cultural knowledge of the target receivers and the original text. based on the absolute understanding of the two culture, the translator can comprehend the inherent meaning of the original text, select the useful message that should be translated in the source text and find or create proper expressions in the target language for the better understanding of target text to make sure the successful cross-culture communication. (Zhao Xiuxing, 2015, 16-17)

Fidelity rule, also called intertextual coherence between source text and target text. As we have discussed above, the purposes that the target text want to satisfy is the most important in the translation, which means the translator may subordinate the faithfulness to the source text to the satisfaction of the purposes. However, it does not mean that the faithfulness is not required. The translators should try their best to be faithful and achieve the purposes at the same time. The degree of the fidelity actually relies on the purpose the translator’s understanding of the source text. (Zhao Xiuxing, 2015, 16-17)

As mentioned above, it is doubtless that skopos rule is the core of Skopos theory. The coherence rule is more important than fidelity rule. If the skopos changes, the degree of inter-textual coherence between source text and target text will change. If the skopos does not require intratextual coherence, the coherence rule is not needed (Nord, Christiane, 2001, 33).

===Introduction of Lexical Gap and Culture-loaded Words===

====The Definition of Lexical Gap in Linguistics and Translatology====

By reading different papers, the paper finds that the different definitions of lexical gap in Linguistics and Translatology. Therefore, the paper discusses the difference between the two definitions and the problems caused by the biased understanding of the lexical gap in Translatology.

In 1957, Lado R (cf Tan Zaixi, 1982: 6-10) first proposed the concept of "Lexical gaps" in Linguistics across Cultures. In Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics, the definition of the lexical gap is “the absence of a word in a particular place in a lexical field of a language.” (Richards et al, 2002: 305). Besides, the lexical gap is also defined “a lexical item which has the potential to be lexicalized, but is not actually lexicalized, in the vocabulary according to the rules governing the phonological system, the morpheme combination and the sememe combination of the language in question.” (Wang Qianzhi, 2017, 749-750)

Though the lexical gap is firstly appeared in the field of the linguistics, the term is also used in the study of translation. The basic idea “the absence of a word” in the definition of lexical gap is used to describe the phenomenon that “the absence in the target language of a word, an expression that exists in the target language.” (Delisle, Jean et al, 1988,77)

Therefore, in Translatology, the concept of lexical gap is always infused with the concept of culture, especially in China.
The concept of lexical gap is firstly applied by Tan Zaixi (1982). (Qian Jing, 2013, 11-12). As the researcher proposes, the unique characteristics of a culture will be embodied in the language. When the culture uniqueness is reflected in vocabulary, the lexical gap will arise between two languages. (Tan Zaixi, 1982, 6)

Guo Aixian( 1998) sums up three definitions of lexical gap according to the previous researches, firstly, it refers to unique words of each culture. Secondly, they are the words of the source language that are easily misunderstood in the target language. Thirdly, they are culture-loaded words and expressions. (Guo Aixian, 1998: 42)

In Sum up, the Lexical gap in linguistics is discussed with a language and the component of culture is not considered, while the lexical gap in Translatology is studied from the perspective of interlanguage and is infused with culture.

====The Classification of Lexical Gap in Linguistics and Translatology====
=====The Classification of Lexical Gap in Linguistics=====

Wenxu (2003) believes that the lexical gap is caused mainly by the hyponymy, antonymy, synonymy and part-whole relation. He puts forward to use the three lexical semantic relations that are proposed by Cruse (1986) to classify the lexical gap, which includes proportional series, hierarchies and opposites. (Wen Xu, 2003, 81)

Wen also illustrate the three classification of the lexical gap.

For the proportional series, he gives an example like human—corpse, animal—carcass, plant—?. In this example, human and corpse as well as animal and carcass constitute an intact minimal unit, while the vacancy in the place that express the concept of “dead plant” is a lexical gap in English. (ibid)
By hierarchies, Wen suggests that the hyponymy is a kind of hierarchies. His example is that no hypernym in the category of verbs that express moving in the ground, but there are “swim”, “fly” to express moving in the water and sky, so a lexical gap occurs. By the opposites, Wen proposes that there may exist lexical gap in antonymy. For example, blind, deaf, dumb have no lexicalized antonyms. (ibid)

From the three classification of the lexical gap in linguistics, it is found that the lexical gap in linguistics mainly occur in the lexical sematic relations within a language. (ibid)

=====The Classification of Lexical Gap in Translatology=====

However, when the “gap” is used to refer to the difference between two languages.

Therefore, Han (2009) classifies the lexical gap in translatology into two categories and four subcatergories. The two categories are lexical gap including concept vacancy and expression vacancy as well as semi-lexical gap including denotation divergence and connotation divergence. (Han Luan, 2009, 4-6)

A. Lexical Gap Proper—No Equivalent

Lexical gap proper means that there exists no equivalent of the words or expressions of the source language in the target language. Lexical gap proper is manifested by two kinds: concept vacancy and expression vacancy. (Huan Luan, 2009, 6-12)

a. Concept vacancy

Concept vacancy is a kind of lexical gap that is related to the difference of culture because of the culture difference. The present concept in source language may be absent in the target language. For example, the concept of “土地庙” does not exist in English, and the concept of “Lazy Susan” cannot find equivalent in Chinese. Those words are created based on the unique characteristics of the culture. That is to say, the culture uniqueness causes the absence of concepts in a language. (Huan Luan, 2009, 6-12)

b. Expression Vacancy

Expression Vacancy refers to the non-lexicalized concept in the target language, which means that a concept may be represented by a lexicon but by a free combination of words in the target one. For example, Chinese people may use “笔” to refer to the general name of a category, while there exists no such a general name in English. There is no doubt that the English speakers know what is “笔”. They just have no such a word for reference. (Huan Luan, 2009, 6-12)

B. Semi-lexical Gap—Partial Equivalent

Actually, semi-lexical gap means partial equivalence. That is to say, even though words and expressions in source language can find equivalents in target language, but they are not totally same. The divergence may occur in the denotation and connotation of the concept. (Huan Luan, 2009, 6-12)

a. Denotation Divergence and Connotation Divergence

Here the paper gives examples to illustrate the kind of lexical gap. For example, the “龙” in Chinese and “dragon” in English. They are always translated as each other, but they have difference in denotation and connotation. The “龙” in China represents power and goodness, while the “dragon” in English represents evil and badness.

The color “red” in Chinese and English may have same denotation, but they are difference in connotation. The “neighbor” and “邻居” also different in denotation. The range of “neighbor” is much greater than that of “邻居”.
To compare the lexical gap in linguistics and in translatology, we can find that the denotation of lexical gap in translatology is richer than that in linguistics. In linguistics, the lexical gap only refers to the absence lexicon or expression that is admitted to exist according to the structure of a language. That is to say, the concept has existed in the language but not be lexicalized. However, in translatology, the lexical gap can not only refer to the lexical gap in linguistics, but also refers to any kinds of lexical vacancy between two languages. The vacancy may be caused by concept absence based on culture difference or caused by semantic difference in the corresponding concept. (Huan Luan, 2009, 6-12)

====The Relation and Difference between Lexical Gap and Culture-loaded Word====

It can be found that the definition of lexical gap in Translatology adds the components of culture. Actually, some researchers including Xu Guozhang even equate the lexical gap with culture loaded words. (Tian Xianzhi & Yang Jinxue, 2005, 55). However, the paper believes that the lexical gap is not equivalent to the culture-loaded words.

=====The Overlap Between Lexical Gap and Culture-loaded Words=====

Tang (2006) defines culture-loaded words as “the words or expressions that carry the meaning of a cultural trait to a certain socio-cultural community, and their referent also exists in other communities, but doesn’t overlap the one in other community completely in semantic category, and therefore that just has, to some extent, a corresponding equivalent when used in cross-cultural communication.” (Tang Xiuqiong, 2006: 126-127)

Li & Guo & Yuan (2008) defines the culture-loaded words as words and expressions that carries culture connotation in a specific culture of a nation or a region. The culture connotation of a culture-loaded word is culture-specific and conventional abstract and concrete concept. (Li Yingyu & Guo Jirong & Yuan Liling, 2008, 64)

From the definition of culture-loaded words, we can find that the culture-loaded words has some similarities with lexical gap in the category of semi-lexical gap. The concept exists in the source language and target language, while the denotation and connotation of the concept in the two languages are not same. Based on the definition of Tang (2006), the concept vacancy does not belong to the category of culture-loaded words. However， the definition of Li & Guo & Yuan (2008) admits that the concept vacancy is a kind of culture-loaded words.

Therefore, the part of denotation of culture-loaded words overlaps with part of denotation of lexical gap, but their connotations are totally different.

=====The difference between Lexical Gap and Culture-loaded Words=====

Even though there are some similarities between the denotation of lexical gap and that of culture-loaded words, but some difference can also easily found. For example, in China, we use “出轨“ to refer to ”have an affair“ in English, while we also use “戴绿帽子” to represent the same concept. However, the “戴绿帽子” cannot be considered as lexical gap according to the definition of lexical gap, because the concept of “戴绿帽子” has an equivalent expression in English, which means the concept has been filled in English, but Chinese creates another expression to represent the concept based on its culture. Therefore, the “戴绿帽子” is a culture-loaded words but not lexical gap.

In sum up, there exists some conventionalized expressions that carries culture traits in a language to represents the lexicalized concept. Because the concept has been lexicalized, so there is no lexical gap that need to fill. That is to say, the conventionalized expressions as “戴绿帽子” is just a culture-loaded words but not a lexical gap.

====The Causes of Lexical Gap====

=====Experiential Causes=====

There is no such experience in a culture. Therefore, corresponding concept does not exist in the language. For example, most English speaker never know what the “醪糟” is，while most Chinese never know what the Macaroni and Cheese is. (Han Luan, 2009, 39-40)

=====Psychological Causes and Perceptual Causes=====

The death of an animal may evoke emotions of human, while the death of a plant may not, which may be caused by construal of human. Human always pays their attention to the animate and movable entity as figure firstly, while the unmovable entities are considered as ground. That is why the plant is ignored. (Han Luan, 2009, 39-40)

In conclusion, the psychological causes is always combined with the perceptual causes because human’s perception is subjective, which causes the conscious and unconscious absence of an expression. (Han Luan, 2009, 39-40)

===Translation of Lexical Gap===

====Translatability and Untranslatability====

Translatability and untranslatability are a famous and still unsolved paradox. “Translatability is mostly understood as the capacity for some kind of meaning to be transferred from one language to another without undergoing radical change” (Baker, 1998/2004: 273). Wilss (1982/2001: 49) put forwards that translatability of a text can “be measured in terms of the degree to which it can be recontextualized in the TL, taking into account all linguistic factors”. Untranslatability is defined as “impossible to build functionally relevant features of the situation into the contextual meaning.” (Catford, 1965, 94) “Translatability is more like a continuum than a well-defined dichotomy. The text or unit of the primitive is more or less translatable, not absolutely untranslatable. (ibid, 93)”.

From the definition of the translatability and untranslatability, it can be concluded that untranslatable phenomenon definitely exists in language if we see translatability as a continuum. Because of the difference in culture and lexicalization in different languages, the lexical gap in linguistics may not be translated but can be borrowed. However, lexical gap in translatology can be translated in various ways.

====The Translation Strategy of Lexical Gap Between English and Chinese Based on the Skopos Theory====

Because lexical gap in linguistics is caused by the concept vacancy and non-lexicalization of concepts. Based on the Skopos theory, the purpose of translation determines what kinds of strategies are selected in translation. In translation of Lexical gap, different translation strategies should be applied while facing different purpose.

If the purpose is successful communication , we may choose not to translation the lexical gap if it will not influence the success of the communication. However, if the purpose is to introduce the culture of source language to the target one, the translation is necessary. Of course, there are lots of purposes of translation and the purpose depends on the genre of source text. If the translation of lexical gap is necessary, several strategies are provided below.

=====Translation Strategy of Lexical Gap in Linguistics=====

The translation strategies of lexical gap in linguistic includes mainly borrowing. As we have discussed above, the lexical gap in linguistics can be divided into three categories including proportional gap, hierarchies and opposites.

For the translation of the three kinds, borrowing is the main methods. English borrows lots of words from French to fill the lexical gap years ago. For example, beef for the meat of cow, loot for war trophies from India. These concepts exist in the mind of English people, but these concepts are not lexicalized, so English loans words from other languages.

=====Translation Strategy of Lexical Gap in Translatology=====

As we have given Above, the lexical gap in translatology is separated into four kinds: concept vacancy, expression vacancy, denotation divergence and connotation divergence.

a. Concept Vacancy

For concept vacancy, the first purpose of translation is to introduce the concept to the target readers and let them understand what the concepts are. Therefore, there exists four strategies to translate it.

For concept vacancy, transliteration are easily used.

For example, “豆腐”, “饺子”, “混沌”, “叉烧”, “炒面” are translated into “tofu”, “jiaozi” “won ton”, “char shiu” and “chow mein”. (Shun Kaixi, 2013, 30-31). In E-C translation, AIDS is translated into “爱滋病”, “gene” into “基因”, “Internet” into “因特网”, “clone” as “克隆”. This kind of strategy pays attention to the formal fidelity because the concept is absent in the target language. So introducing concept is main purpose in the strategy. (Zhang Lei, 2008, 35-36)

The literal translation is also applied in translating concept vacancy. For example, we translate “孩奴” as “child slave”, “四书” as “Four Books”. In E-C translation, Ten Commandments is translated into “十诫”, “fast food” into “快餐”，hot dog into“热狗”, “bubble economy” into “泡沫经济”, “e-mail” into “电子邮件”, “honeymoon” into “蜜月”. (Wu Leya, 2019, 45)

The free translation also can be used. In the process of using literal translation, misunderstandings sometimes occur due to the cultural gap. For example, a famous Sichuan dish “夫妻肺片” is literally translated as "Husband and wife's lung slice". Then foreigners would never dare to taste it. Therefore, it is translated as “sliced beef and ox tongue in chili sauce”. (Wu Leya, 2019, 62)

In addition, westerners' love of cheese has led to the development of many expressions using cheese, for example, “get the cheese”, “the big cheese”. If these expressions are translated literally as “得到奶酪”, “大奶酪”，nobody will understand what the expressions mean. Therefore, they are translated as “碰钉子”, “重要事物”. (Wu Leya, 2019, 62) In fact, the free translation is for easy understanding. If the easy understanding is the purpose of the translation, the fidelity of meaning prevails.

Besides, by using notes, we can explain the concept vacancy in translating. Sometimes, due to the limitations of transliteration and literal translation, the target language readers may misunderstand the transliteration and literal translation and fail to understand its loaded cultural connotation. However, we still want to keep some original things to introduce cultures. Therefore, we can improve the transliteration by adding explanatory notes. “风水” is translated into Fengshui (a traditional Chinese practice of determining the location of a house, tomb, etc.). “阴阳” is translated into Yin and yang (the two opposite principles/forces existing in nature and the human world). (ibid)

Sme literal translation is hard to understand for target language reader, so somenotes should be added to explain it. For example, “Big Apple” is translated as “大苹果”（纽约的别称）; “裹足” is translated as “bound feet: a vile feudal practice which crippled women both physically and spiritually.” (ibid)
From these examples, it can concluded that strategies like transliteration, literal translation, free translation and using notes.

b. Expression Vacancy

For expression vacancy, the main strategy is using general or specific words to replace the lexical gap. For example ,“笔” is usually translated into “pen”. In fact, “笔” is the general name of the category including things like “pen”, “pencil” that function as tools for writing. However, “pen” is just a kind of “笔”. Here, the translator uses a more specific word to translate. In many occasion, the translation does not influence the understanding of the readers according to the theory of Skopos, which emphasis purpose than faithfulness.

In English, pineapple is used to refer to the two kinds of Chinese fruits “凤梨 (fengli)” and “菠萝 (boluo)”. However, in translation, the pineapple is just translated as “凤梨” or “菠萝”.

c. Denotation Divergence and Connotation Divergence

For semi-lexical gap, finding its equivalent expression is a good way for purpose of easy understanding. For example, from “邻居” to “neighbor”, from “龙” to “dragon”, from “red” to “红色”. In fact the denotational meaning and connotational meaning between lexical pair is different. The relation of Chinese “邻居” is closer than English “neighbor” and the range of the “邻居” is narrower than “neighbor”. The image of “龙” and that of “dragon” is different in a large scale. Besides, the Chinese “龙” is kind and good, while the English “dragon” is evil. The “红色” in Chinese is a symbol for happiness and enthusiasm, while the “red” in English means violence and damage. These words can be translated into each other because of the existence of context.

If the context is absent and the purpose is to introduce the source culture more definitely, the transliteration with notes can be used to translate these words.

===Conclusion===

The paper compares the meaning, the classification, the translation strategy of lexical gap in linguistic and translatology.

It is found that the definition of lexical gap in linguistics is reflected within one language. it refers to the unlexicalized concepts in a language. That is to say, the word should have existed in the language. However, the definition of lexical gap in translatology is based on the difference between two languages. The lexical gap in translatology is much broader than that in linguistics. the lexical gap in translatology can refer to lexical difference totally because of the difference of culture and some word equivalents that has not only similarities but also divergence in denotation and connotation.

Based on the definition, the classification of the two kinds of lexical gap is discussed. Because of the lexical gap in linguistics is defined within a language, the classification of this kind includes proportional gap, hierarchies and opposites because the lexical gap can occur in the three sematic relations. However, the lexical gap in translatology is classified based on the reason why the lexical gap exists. The category of the lexical gap in translatology includes concept vacancy, expression vacancy, denotation divergence and connotation divergence.

Based on the classification of the two kinds of lexical gap, the translation strategies of the two kinds are different. The translation strategy of the lexical gap in linguistics is mainly borrowing. However, the translation strategies of lexical gap in translatology includes transliteration, literal translation, free translation, adding notes and using general and specific words.

Besides, the overlap and difference between lexical gap and culture-loaded words is discussed. The culture-loaded words include kinds of words that can find definite equivalents in target language, while the lexical gap does not include.

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